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dissertation entitled

STAFF DEVELOPMENT NEEDS AND
PRACTICES IN SELECTED ISOLATED
AMERICAN-SPONSORED OVERSEAS SCHOOLS

presented by

William F. Russell

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STAFF DEVELOPMENT NEEDS AND
PRACTICES IN SELECTED ISOLATED

AMERICAN-SPONSORED OVERSEAS SCHOOLS

BY

William F. Russell

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

1989

“/Vjfi'C’wa\L

ABSTRACT
STAFF DEVELOPMENT NEEDS AND

PRACTICES IN SELECTED ISOLATED
AMERICAN-SPONSORED OVERSEAS SCHOOLS

The purpose of the research was to describe the meanings
attached to the concept of staff development when considered
in the setting of the isolated K-8(9) American-sponsored
Overseas Schools (A/OS) and to determine which individuals
and what factors effected its conduct and direction. The
Heads of the nine isolated A/OS responded to a request by the
Office of Overseas Schools (0/08) to produce a long range
plan for staff development. The Heads were the chief
participants in this study.

Interviews and informal exchanges with the Heads of the
schools and others associated with support agencies provided
qualitative data which was supplimented by the examination of
budgets, policy statements, and long range plans. From an
analysis of this qualitative data, a survey was constructed
through which a quantitative assessment was made of the
relative importance, attached by the Heads to a number of
elements of staff development.

Data indicated that while teachers, members of the
governing boards and the Regional Education Officer of the
0/08 had the potential to influence staff development in the
schools, the Heads of the schools were dominant in this
process. With a single administrator, the schools were
reliant on the Heads of the school to lead in the

conceptualization, design and implementation staff

development plans. The Heads did not, in all cases, exhibit
the characteristics of ability, training and/or experience
necessary to fulfill this role.

Staff development in the schools was found to be strongly
associated with two elements. First, the high turnover of
staff members (including Heads and board members) increased
the importance of the recruitment and orientation of new
staff members. Second, the isolated nature of many of the
schools heightened the importance of professional conference
attendance. These conferences served differing needs of
professional and non—professional staff members of the

schools.

In appreciation
for support and encouragement from loved ones,
Blanche, Jeanne, and Aaron, .
and friends
Mr. Paul Stout and Dr. Bill Hampton.
*
I would like to thank the members of my committee,
Dr. B. Bohnhorst, Dr. L. Romano, and Dr. M. Grandstaff with a
special note of appreciation for my committee Chairperson and

friend, Dr. Lois Bader.

I would also like to thank
Dr. Carlton Bentz
and his colleagues at the

Department of State, Office of Overseas Schools

*

Table of Contents

Table of Tables

Chapter I

A Rationale for the Study
Background

Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
Importance of the Study
Limitations of the Study
Delimitations
Methodology

Definitions

Organizations of the Dissertation

Chapter II

Introduction

The American-sponsored overseas Schools (A/OS)
The Office of Overseas Schools
Commonalities in A/OS schools

The Expatriate Community

The A/OS School Board

The Changing A/OS

The Isolated Community

Staff Turnover

Orientation

Staff Development - A General View
The Role of the Administrator

Staff Development in the A/OS schools

Summary

vi

viii

10
10
ll
12
15
16
17
20

22
24
28
31
38
4O
45
50
66
74
80
90
100
105

Chapter III

Introduction

Methodology

Human Subjects

Data Collection

Site Entry

Chronology of the Study - The Consultancy Phase
The Fall 1984 meeting of Heads
Request for Support

Phase I Data

The Spring 1985 meeting of Heads
Phase II Data

The Fall 1985 meeting of Heads
Survey

Spring Heads meeting

Closure Interview

Chapter IV
Introduction

The Data

Demographic Data
Narrative Data Summary

Survey Data

Chapter‘v

Summary and Conclusions

Reflections of the Researcher
Recommendations and Further Research

Bibliography

Appendix A Request for Assistance
Appendix B Phase I Data

Appendix C Phase II Data
Appendix D Survey

vii

109
110
113
114
117
123
124
125
126
127
128
128
129
130
131

133
133
138
147
162

168
190
192

194

199
202
204
208

Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12

Table of Tables

Changes in the Numbers of A/OS Schools,
by Region

Enrollment in A/OS Schools

Percent Distribution of Highest Earned
Degree of C.A.O.'s of A/OS Schools by
Student Population Grouping

Attendence at ECIS Fall Conferences
School Size and Student Nationality

Staff Nationality and Recruitment

Staff Turnover

Professional Experience Of Teaching Staff
Staff Training

Head of School Data

Relative Importance Attached to Four
Orientations to Staff Development

Relative Importance Attached to
Seven Elements of Staff Development

viii

26

45

96

104

139

140

142

144

145

146

163

164

Chapter I

A.Rationale for the Study

In 1984-85, over 4,500 U.S. teachers and school
administrators lived and worked in independent American style
schools outside of the United States. In cooperation with
nearly an equal number of teachers, administrators, and
members of school boards from other countries, these
educators were charged with the responsibility for the
education of over 91,700 American, host national and third
national children. They worked in schools in at least 97
countries of the world, under the auspices of a variety of
sponsoring organizations. (American-sponsored Overseas
Schools (A/OS), 1984-85)

These schools included those which had become well
established and those which had come into existence as the
result of recent shifts in the economic and political
situation in some parts of the world. They included schools
which had very large enrollments, such as in the
International School of Manila with 2,048 students, and those
of a few children of diplomatic families stationed at a
remote mission such as Shanghai, China with 11 students.
(A/OS, 1984—85)

These schools existed in addition to and independent of
schools which belonged to highly organized systems such as

those managed by the 0.8. Department of Defense, those

2

operated by major international corporations and those under
the auspices of missionary organizations. Though they
received limited assistance from the U.S. government through
the Department of State's Office of Overseas Schools (O/OS),
they generally existed as individual entities, sponsored by a
local association of parents who banded together in answer to
a shared need for an American styled school for their
children. It was a subset of this group, referred to as
American-sponsored Overseas Schools (A/OS or occasionally
ASOS), which constituted the population for this study.
Regardless of the size, location, and composition of
these schools, they shared the essential feature of schools
everywhere: a community charged a group of professionals with
the task of "educating" its young. Communities, whether
expatriate or in the parent's home country, have always
provided sets of expectations within which the schools were
to function. Unlike the communities of parents in their home
country, the expectations of the generally small expatriate
community located in isolated areas have been complicated by
a variety of conditions which have placed special demands on
the personnel of the schools. These demands have included:
1. The parents desire that their children be able to
re-enter the educational system of the country from which the
parent originated and that they be prepared for university
entrance. The school was expected to maintain "comparable"
standards to that found "at home" regardless of physical,

geographical, cultural and/or linguistic isolation; (King,

1968; Bale, 1984)

2. The communities charge that educators maintain and
promote what were then currently deemed to be the best
educational standards and practices. This implied that the
staff of the school found it necessary to keep abreast of
educational change in terms of methods and materials as well
as educational policies of many of the major countries
represented in the school community. Further, it was
necessary that they be prepared to explain and justify the
predominately American methods and materials used in the
school to those parents who were unfamiliar with them. (King,
1968; Droppert, 1984)

It was not uncommon for a school to have counted more
than 30 nationalities in its student body, in varying
proportions but not uncommonly with more than 50% host
national and third country national students. This suggests
that a variety of expectations existed and that disparate
factions may have existed within a "community". (A/OS
1984-85)

The communities were in a constant state of flux, having
a rapidly changing student body, staff, parent body and
therefore, board of directors. This had substantive
implications for continuity of program and quality of
instruction as well as for intra-staff and school/community
interaction and relations. (Bentz, 1972; Mannino, 1970) A
high percentage of the school's parent body (both mothers and

fathers) were college graduates and had attained relatively

4

successful levels in their chosen professions. This
suggested that the schools to which comparison were made
represent among the best in the parent's home countries. It
was not unusual therefore to find that the community members
set exaggerated educational goals for their children.
(Harvey, 1976)

One might assume that these varied expectations posed
formidable tasks for those who worked in and managed these

diverse international schools.

The Teachers
At any given time, the educators who made up the professional
staff of a given international school may have been teachers
from the following groups:

1. first-time expatriate teachers - qualified and
certified teachers recruited in the U.S. or elsewhere who
were working abroad for the first time;

2. career international teachers - qualified and
certified teachers trained in the U.S. or elsewhere who have
made a career abroad, often moving from one international
school to another:

3. dependent spouses - wives (and occasionally husbands)
of individuals who have been stationed in the foreign
country, having varied educational training, qualifications
and certification;

4. host country nationals - teachers trained in the host

country or abroad; in some cases, without training or

5

qualifications comparable to that in the U.S. or England;

5. untrained teachers - individuals who had varied
educational backgrounds and skills, usually possessing some
form of university degree, deemed suitable to fill an
existing need.

The complexities of maintaining a school program
including combinations of the teachers with these
characteristics, working in varied settings and conditions,
and accountable to the melange of parent expectations
previously described, has been a task of considerable
proportion. (Bentz, 1972; Droppert, 1984)

The large international schools, having the drawing
power of location and/or employment benefits had little
difficulty attracting highly qualified teachers. This was in
contrast to the smaller, isolated school which may have
lacked the location and/or resources associated with a large
enrollment with which to be attractive to prospective
teachers and administrators. (Domidion, 1964)

King (1968) stressed the need for a well trained and
remunerated staff in the improvement of the quality of the
A/OS. The budgets of the schools under consideration have
been, to a large extent, tuition based and the schools were
typically not part of a larger unit or "district". As such,
the accountability of the staff of the school was directly to
the tuition paying parent body, separated by a relatively
thin layer of bureaucracy. This bureaucracy typically

consisted of a single or at most several administrators and a

6

board of directors. It was been the responsibility of the
administrator(s) of each school to recruit and develop a
staff which would accept the significant challenges of these

schools and were able to fulfill the needs of the community.

The Administrators

As with the teaching staff of the small, isolated
school, location and resources have affected the level of
training and experience which the schools could demand in the
recruitment of administrators. (Mannino, 1970) Further, the
small school typically had a single administrator who was
required to address all areas of administration. In this
situation, he/she could not benefit from the shared efforts
of several experienced and trained members of an

administrative team. (Kelly, 1974)

The Boards of Governance

A/OS schools have typically been governed by boards
composed of elected parents of students of the school and/or
appointed representatives of governments and agencies having
large numbers of employees with children in the school.
These board members typically worked and socialized with the
general parent body of the school. As has been the case with
other members of the international community, board members
may have been on relatively short tours of duty. This
resulted in the rapid turnover of board members in the A/OS

schools. (Bentz, 1972)

7
Staff Development in the a/os School

A number of obstacles have existed to the development
and maintenance of a quality program in the A/OS school.
(Mannino, 1970) Had one accepted the simple and easily
forgotten statement of King (1968) that, "The key to the
school's success lies in the staff itself." (p. 5), a logical
conclusion might have been that few elements of school's
administration were of greater importance than the
development of the staff. Thus, it might have seemed
imperative that staff development be given a significant role
in the culture of SChOOlS and that schools would have
developed plans for this activity.

It has been the responsibility of the administrator(s)
and frequently the boards of directors of the schools to
overcome the many obstacles in recruiting, developing and
maintaining staffs which could cope with the difficulties
associated with life in isolated conditions and which were
able to satisfy the expressed needs of the varied and complex
student and parent populations.

Within this context, staff development may have taken on
a considerably different meaning from that familiar to an
administrator who may have gained his training in the U.S.

and lacked international experience.

Background
In the Fall of 1983, it was suggested that the

researcher attend a meeting of the chief administrative

8

officers (CAO's or Heads) of the nine American style
international schools located in Eastern Europe. The schools
were located in Prague, Warsaw, Moscow, Budapest, Bucharest,
Sofia, Belgrade, Zagreb, and Istanbul. (Istanbul, though not
in Eastern Europe, belongs to this group.) These schools
received support from 0/08 and the Heads met with the 0/08
Regional Education Officer (R.E.O.) several times per year.

Casual discussions had taken place within the group
concerning the possibility of creating a Regional Staff
Support Center outside of Eastern Europe with Vienna, Austria
having been considered as a logical location. At that time,
the researcher held the position of Computer Coordinator of
the American International School of Vienna and since there
had been discussion of a need for assistance with the
development of educational computing programs in these
schools, the researcher was included in the meeting. During
the course of this meeting, four distinct areas of common
concern were identified. These included computing, text book
preview, orientation of new staff, and a joint effort in
teacher in-service.

By the Spring of 1984, further meetings of the school
Heads had resulted in an agenda for the following year which
included limited funding for an in-service weekend, a
"boardsmanship" workshop, and support for a "fact finding"
trip by the researcher relating to the computing programs of
the schools.

In that the tour of the nine schools was to be funded by

9

O/OS, the researcher participated in discussions with the
R.E.O. for Europe to clarify the nature of the mission.
Quite apart from the discussion relating to the educational
computing needs of the schools, the researcher was informed
that the Head and one board member from each of the schools
would be asked to participate in a one day seminar, the
declared purpose of which was to introduce a document, Long
E El . 'll E l . 5! EE E J | by
Featherstone and Hickey (unpublish manual). The Heads would
then be asked to complete the long range planning (LRP)
process prior to a subsequent meeting to be held in Vienna in
March of 1985. These staff development plans would serve as
a basis for proposals and decisions requisite to the
formation of the Regional Staff Support Center.

It was felt that the opportunity to observe conditions
in these far flung, isolated schools and to follow the
processes by which staff development plans were adopted might
serve as an ideal source for data involving the general topic
of staff development and those aspects specifically

associated with its implementation in the isolated setting.

Statement of the Problem
It has been documented that there have been a number of
ramifications of the isolated condition of many of the A/OS
schools which may have had a negative impact on the
functioning of the staffs of these schools. (Bentz, 1972;

Droppert, 1984; King, 1968; Mannino, 1970) There has been no

10

documented study of the Specific conditions which impact
staff development in these schools nor on the staff

development practices employed by these schools.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to describe the conditions
impacting staff development; to determine which individuals
influence the course of staff development; and to describe
the accompanying staff development practices in the K-8(9),
isolated A/OS school setting. In doing so, a detailed
description of staff development problems and practices found
in a select group of extremely isolated schools was
formulated. No hypotheses were made. No assessments or

judgments of then existing practices were made or reported.

Research Questions

Questions which were explored in the course of the study

included the following:

1. What similarities and differences existed regarding
the demographics and conditions under which the
participating schools operated?

2. What were the significant conditions and factors
which impacted staff development activities in
isolated schools?

3. What similarities and differences existed in the
participating schools regarding staff development

needs?

11

4. What similarities and differences existed in the
participating schools regarding staff development
practices?

5. Who were the significant individuals and what were
their roles in determining the course of staff
development in these schools?

6. What was the meaning of staff development in the
context of isolated American-sponsored Overseas

Schools?

Importance of the Study

As an international school teacher and administrator for
20 years, having worked for six different Heads of schools‘
and a greater number of principals, department Chairpersons,
etc., the researcher had observed that during few of those
years, in few of the schools and with few of the
administrators had there been a coherent sense of planning
for the development of the school's staff. From this
starting point and with little existing literature or
research which directly reflected on the subject, it was felt
that an examination of one aspect of the topic would be of
service to the profession.

A second factor in the design of this study concerned
the fact that the researcher was presented with a rare
opportunity to examine a specific population which had

previously not been studied. The opportunity to examine at

12

first hand the conditions in the A/OS schools of Eastern
Europe had not previously existed. The perceived oppressive
environment in the countries of Eastern Europe suggested that
the topic of staff development may have taken on a heightened
importance in these schools and thus potentially added to the
significance of the study.

It was the hope that this examination of existing
conditions and practices in these isolated international
schools would:

1. provide an identification and understanding of many
of the factors involved in staff development planning in the
isolated international setting;

2. provide a resource for those currently working in
these schools and those who may take positions of leadership
in these schools in the coming years;

3. draw attention to the importance of staff development
planning in international schools;

4. provide an independent reflection on some aspects of
0/08 program assistance which in turn may provide insights
for future program development;

5. provide a basis for further research concerning the

value of varied approaches to staff development issues.

Limitations of the study
The schools included in this study were chosen because
they constituted the entire membership of a group of A/OS

schools referred to as the Eastern European Association of

13

American Schools and were to be included as a group in the
development of an LRP. The researcher was provided with one
opportunity of visiting each school. As they were located
thousands of miles apart, the high cost of travel precluded
follow-up visits to each site.

The Heads of these schools met formally once or twice
per year. Thus the researcher was assured of four occasions
on which he would be able to observe the Heads as a group and
interview each Head and was generally limited to written
and/or taped correspondence for the remaining data
collection. The researcher was therefore at the mercy of the
Heads and the international postal agencies for the prompt
and complete return of interviews and other data which were
requested.

The taped interview format provided two distinct
benefits to the design of the research. First, it allowed
for several stages of development in the formation of precise
data; ie., Phase I - open ended questions, Phase II -
generally focused questions, a Survey - which provided
specific quantitative data, and the Final Interview - for
clean-up and checking for change from initial views.
Secondly, the taped interview allowed for a relaxed, intimate
atmosphere of "dialogue" with the respondent in which he/she
could share his/her ideas at a leisurely pace.

While providing the above benefits, the methodology
contained limitations of two types. Since the respondent was

in total control of the "interview" in Phases I and II,

 

l4

he/she could choose to give as much or as little time and
effort to the answers as he/she desired. Further, the
researcher relinquished control of the time-line for data
collection and was required to make follow-up requests and
adjust the schedule of the research. A more significant
limitation was associated with the fact that respondents
could choose which of the questions to respond to and were
free to interpret questions in ways which had not been
intended. To compensate for the latter failing, follow-up
questions were integrated into subsequent tapes and important
points were reviewed during the final personal interview.

At the outset, participation by a minimum of five
schools had been set. Thus with the ultimate participation
of all nine, despite limitations in some elements, a greater
than expected amount of data was obtained.

The schools included in the sample for this study exist
in extreme conditions. Of the hundreds of international,
American curriculum schools located outside the U.S.A., a
wide range of local factors existed which may have resulted
in some or all of the problems and practices which were
explored in this study. Isolation was but one of these
factors. The concept of isolation was commonly associated
with physical separation. In this study, however, separation
was not considered only in relation to physical distance, but
also involved the cultural separation of contiguous
populations. This combined-form isolation affected the

availability of materials and both the physical and

15

psychological comfort of those working and living in these
conditions. The reader is cautioned not to assume that the
conditions found in this research were indicative of all
physically or culturally isolated schools nor that schools
free from physical or cultural isolation were free from the
associated problems. Rather, it is suggested that physical
and cultural isolation may have increased the potential for

certain problems to develop.

Delimitations

The subject of this dissertation related to the effects
of isolation on staff development practices. The researcher
chose to limit his research to the K-8(9) schools comprising
the A/OS Eastern European schools group, although numerous
other schools existed in similarly isolated conditions.
These schools were chosen because they had defined themselves
as a unit through joint activities and it appeared that the
researcher might be able to establish an intimate dialogue
with a number of the Heads of the schools.

The reader is cautioned against inferring that the
results of this study reflect factors associated with the
operation of expatriate schools in countries which have
communist governments. While eight of the schools were
linked in this manner the researcher chose to include the
Community School of Istanbul since its geographic location
had resulted in the choice of its governing board of joining

with the other schools in previous joint school activities.

16

Methodology
This descriptive research utilized a combination of
qualitative and quantitative data collected in a longitudinal
manner over a period of 16 months. The study progressed
through the following stages:
1. The researcher visited each of the schools as part of a
consultancy sponsored by the 0/08. While completing his
assigned task, he
- attempted to establish a rapport with the staff and Head
of the school necessary for cooperation in the study;
- took notes relative to the significant physical aspects
of the school and community;
- became familiar with the interpersonal relations within
the staff of the school;
- assessed the potential for completion of the remainder
of the study.
2. Interviews (by tape or in person) were made with each Head
on at least three occasions over a 16 month period. These
included:
- an initial, taped, open ended set of questions,
- a detailed clarifying personal interview,
- a follow-up interview clarifying and bringing closure to
the process,
3. A survey relating to staff development concepts and
activities suggested in the literature and by individual

participants was administered.

17

4. Documents reflecting policies and practices relating to
staff development were requested and collected;
5. The researcher observed the Heads in action within their
respective schools and at four meetings over the 16 month
period;
6. Transcriptions of interviews were made. These interview
transcriptions plus notes taken of observations in the
schools and meetings of the Heads and documents submitted by
the schools formed the data for the study.
The researcher followed the activities of the Heads of the
schools for an extended period of time. As research
progressed, it was expected that additional opportunities
would occur during which supplemental interviews with Heads
and others associated with the schools would be made. A
range of other sources of relevant data and perceptions
relating to the research were expected to surface. Full
advantage was made of these opportunities. Potential existed
for unanticipated aspects of the research topic to emerge.
The researcher followed these "leads" receptive to
unanticipated data.

Definitions
figlgg4nggglgpmgn; - The global term used to describe those
activities through which a school was able to build its
professional and regularized lay staffing team.
13:33:21gg - The term used for those activities through
which the school provided time and/or resources to enable the

instructional staff of a school to improve their professional

18
competence.
fighggl_2.;ggnn.1 - The term used to describe those members
of the professional and support staffs and those members of
the lay staff who serve on a regularized basis to realize the

goals of the school.

zzgggggign.1_figgfifi - The term used to describe those

members of the staff for whom university training is a
prerequisite for employment, including teachers,
administrators, librarians, nurses, etc.

figpngzg_figggg - The term used to describe members of the
staff for whom no university training is required including
secretaries, kitchen staff, custodians, etc.

3.34 - The term used to describe the chief administrative
officer of the school. Locally called Headmaster, Principal,
or Director.

figgnlgzizgd_figy_fitgfifi - The term used to describe members

of the community who chose to commit a specified and extended
period of time of service to the school yet were not
necessarily professional edudators and received no salary for
their services. For the purposes of this study, the members
of the boards of governance were the only individuals
included as regularized lay staff.
We (A/OS) — The term

used to describe those schools qualifying for financial
and/or logistical support by the U.S. Department of State.
Though there are many A/OS schools which extend through grade

12, the term will be used in this dissertation to denote

19

schools which end in grades eight or nine.
Wheels (0/08) - The office

within the Department of State through which approximately
180 selected schools receive financial, logistical and other
forms of support. World-wide activities are divided into six
regions including Europe, South America, Central America,
Africa, Southern Europe/Mediterranean, and Asia.

WWW (R.E.O.) - The

individual charged with the responsibility for coordinating

 

activities of 0/08 with approximately 30 schools of his*
region. (*To date these positions have been held by men.)
fighggl;§g;fighggl_£;gg;gm - A program supported by 0/08
through which American Schodls Overseas have formed links
with schools in the United States. Active partnerships have
resulted in benefits for student and teacher exchange, staff
development and logistical assistance for the overseas
school.

lizgg_gnlgnzg - Useem's (1966) term used to describe the
culture of the host country.

figsgnd_§nltnzg - Useem's term for the culture of the home
country of the expatriate individual.

Thi;§_:nltn:g - Useem's term for, "the cultural pattern
created, learned and shared by the members of different
societies who are personally involved in relating their
societies or sections thereof, to each other." (P.131)

Winn“ - The term used to describe a

citizen of a country other than the U.S. or the host country.

20
Angni. - Nash's (1969) term for anxiety associated with the

destructured frame of reference of the stranger to a new

environment.

Organization of the Dissertation
In Chapter I of this dissertation, an introductory
overview has been presented. An explanation of the purpose
of the study has been given and the population, limits, and
terms to be used have been described. The remainder of the
work will be organized into four chapters with the following

contents:

Chapter II will include a review of relevant
literature. Through this review, it is hoped that the reader

will gain an understanding of:

a. the history of A/OS schools;

b. the role of the Office of Overseas Schools;

c. the A/OS communities;

d. the international professional educator;

e. the conditions impacting A/OS schools;

f. the history of staff development practices in the
U.S.;

g. and the history of staff development practices in

the A/OS schools.

21

Chapter III will describe and offer a rationale for
the methodology used in the collection of data for the study.
A description of the research activities and the nature of

the data collected will be offered.

Chapter IV will present an analysis of both
qualitative and quantitative data collected during the study.
Quantitative data will be presented in summary form dealing
with a number of major areas of interest to the study.

Qualitative data will be presented in tabular form.

Chapter V will present conclusions which may be drawn
from the analysis of data of Chapter IV. It will also
present observations of the researcher and suggest further
research which may be considered beneficial to an
understanding of the factors impacting staff development in

the isolated school setting.

Chapter II

Introduction

In the following chapter, a review of the literature
which has been deemed relevant to an understanding of the
study will be presented. The chapter begins with a brief
history of the group of schools from which the population of
the study has been drawn. Since the schools of this group
were linked by a common relationship with the U.S. Department
of State, a history of the development of this relationship
and an explanation of the distinctions between these schools
and other overseas, American-type schools has been presented.

Though the literature suggested that limited differences
related to the daily classroom routine in the schools
existed, it appeared that the setting of the expatriate
communities has often had meaningful effects on staffing,
staff performance, and staff development. Therefore,
considerable attention has been given to the development of
an understanding of the dynamics in the expatriate community.

As the board of governance of the local school appeared
to reflect the dynamics and values of that community and
constituted the policy and decision-making body of the
school, it was felt that this structural unit warranted close
examination. The nature of the boards, their membership,
structure and operating policies and procedures have been

described. The review of the literature revealed that

22

23

individual board members may have served roles of major and
varied significance in the schools. It was decided to
consider these individuals as members of the global "staff"
of the school and the literature pointed to the need for
elements of "staff development" for individuals in these
positions.

Isolation constituted a major construct in this research
and thus its many and varied effects on individuals, the
communities, and the schools has been summarized. This has
then been related to role of the teacher in the expatriate
community.

Since the "problem" of this research was stated as
concerning "staff development in the isolated school
setting", it was deemed important to develop for the reader a
general understanding of the topic of staff development in
the American schools. A brief history of the topic has
therefore been presented.

The administration of the school served to implement the
will of the community and was charged with carrying out the
policies and procedures designated by the board of
governance. As staff members themselves, and as designers of
staff development programs, they were seen as important to an
understanding of the overall concept of staff development in
the schools. Thus a presentation of the role of
administration in the schools and the characteristics of
individuals in administrative positions has been made.

The chapter concludes with a joining of the two major

24

elements of the research with an examination of the history

of staff development in the expatriate schools.

The American-sponsored Overseas Schools (A/OS)
A/OS schools can be found in nearly every country in the
world. In 1986, one hundred eighty such schools received
assistance from the U.S. government through the Department of
State's Office of Overseas Schools (O/OS). Initially
established to serve the needs of expatriate Americans, they
have come to serve a wide ranging international community. A
number of researchers have noted that American expatriates,
as differing from their British counterparts, chose whenever
possible to keep their children with them when on foreign
assignment of an extended nature. (Bale, 1984; Cleveland,
1960; Droppert, 1984; King, 1968) Bale noted that since
Americans constituted the largest group of citizens working
outside their home country, expatriate international schools
were most frequently American—sponsored and developed
American curricular programs.

Beans (1968) wrote of the "American tradition" of the
neighborhood school and its close relationship with the
community. He emphasized the importance placed on the
communities' role in "determining what that education will
be.“ (p. 27) Stoddard (1980) wrote of these characteristics
and of an increased need for highly qualified expatriate
American executives which led the U.S. Department of State

and major American-based international companies to aid in

25

the foundation of schools and to continue to provide annual
support to these schools. This characteristic was related as
having two results: the direct action of the overseas
American parent in supporting the school and an awareness on
the part of government, private business and international
agencies that "it [was] to their advantage to have attractive
schools and effective school programs overseas." (Bean,
1968, p. 27)

Cleveland (1960) was among the first to note the
importance which the quality of the "local" school had for
the expatriate family. In their study of the adjustment of
expatriate families to life in India, Useem and Useem (1967)
drew attention to the importance of the community in
"fulfilling the needs of men and their dependents", (90% of
the sample were married men), "needs which were
non-work-related but if not satisfactorily resolved [had]
negative repercussions on the work role performance." (p.
135) Mannino (1970) expressed a similar point of view in
stating that highly talented administrators and technicians
were "not easily recruited for assignment to areas overseas
in which schools [were] known to be grossly inadequate. Nor
[was] that person's job performance likely to remain
unaffected if he [was] concerned continually about the
quality of educational services for his children." (p. 11)
Orr (cited in Droppert, 1984) indicated that "an inadequacy
of schooling was identified as the most significant cause for

distress for employees and their spouses." (p. 64)

26

The Development of AIDS

Orr (1964), Bentz (1972), Stoddard (1980), and others
have related the varied factors which led to the formation of
American curriculum schools abroad. These included
expatriate dissatisfaction with local schools, problems
encountered when children moved from one country to another,
objections to secular education and non-co-educational
schools, a fear of the loss of the children's "American"
identity, and concerns regarding local teaching methods and
techniques.

As can be seen in Table 1, a small number of A/OS
schools existed prior to World War II (WWII),. Most of these
were in Latin America. Following the war, the expansion of
U.S. government activities and the accompanying growth of
American business into international ventures led to
establishing numerous schools to serve the needs of the
children of expatriate families which were employed by these

agencies and companies.
Table 1
Changes in the Number of AIDS Schools, by Region

Number Date of establishment

of Pre- 1900- 1920- 1940- 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980-
lmmdan thmflkt .lflul 1312 1322 1312 1332 1332 1312 1335
Amer. Rep. 52 l l 8 13 18 6 O 5
Europe 37 1 l - 5 9 19 6 -4
Africa 41 - - - 1 3 14 10 13
NE/SE l7 - 2 - - 9 5 9 -8
East Asia 22 - 1 '2 1 7 4 1 6
All Regions 169 2 5 10 20 46 48 26 12

(Extrapolated from Luebke (1976) with
1979-80 and 1984-85 A/OS Data)

27

In many cases local community action resulted in the
formation of the needed schools. Many of these schools began
as "kitchen table ... garage or bungalow" schools. (Bentz,
1972, p. 27) Winfield (1962) indicated that in countries
where foreign schools were prohibited from existing, parents
sidestepped such laws by calling them "children's centers."
(p. 169)

As the numbers of dependent children grew, the schools
began to take on more formal structures and a cooperative
management. This in turn led to the employment of teachers
and administrators, the formation of school boards, and the
formalization of school charters. In his study of 23 schools
of Latin America, Bentz traced the development of what he
termed the "first generation" of American schools overseas.
These schools were among the earliest, having developed prior
to WWII.

In other cases, the U.S. Department of State, at times in
association with corresponding agencies of other English
speaking governments, formed or assisted in the formation of
schools carrying names such as the American or Anglo-American
School of the ... (respective city). Many of the
characteristics which later distinguished the schools could
be related to the formal structure and the resulting charter
within which the school emerged. Since the end of WWII, 152
of the 169 schools which received support through 0/03 in

1984-85 had come into existence. (A/OS, 1984-85)

28

U.S. Government Involvement in International Schools
The U.S. government formally became involved in support for
the education of overseas expatriate children in 1943 by
contracting the "Inter-American Council on Education to aid
in the establishing and maintaining of a handful of privately
run American schools in the Western Hemisphere". (Bentz,
1972, p. 3) These schools became the roots of the Department
of Defense dependent schools (DODDS) and have developed into
the worlds largest school system, complete with an extensive
bureaucracy. Contrasting sharply with this group of schools
was the A/OS group which had generally existed as discrete
self-governing entities.

Beans (1968), Mannino (1970), and McGugan (1970) traced
the stages and authority through which the U.S. government
provided financial support for A/OS schools from 1943 to
1966. Winfield (1962), writing of the then 92
"parent-sponsored" schools, reported that the receipt of
government assistance related "primarily to the usefulness of
the schools as demonstrations of American education and
secondarily as a means of assisting in the education of the

children of government personnel assigned overseas." (p.129)

The Office of Overseas Schools
Of significance to the type of schools involved in this
study was the formation in 1964 of the Office of Overseas
Schools (O/OS) within the Department of Defense. This agency

was charged with coordinating assistance to a number of

29

existing independent schools and the formation of new schools
where they were needed. Having consolidated the activities
of several other funding agencies and authorities, O/OS gave
assistance to 121 schools in 75 countries during its first
year in existence. (Engleman & Luebke, 1966, p.7) For a
discussion of the origin of 0/08 and a detailed analysis of
the congressional genesis, see ( Engleman & Luebke,1966),
Mannino (1970) and McGugan (1970)

King (1968) noted that "nearly half of the funds
expended in fiscal year 1966 were for the purpose of staff
development." (p. 47) This included salaries or salary
supplements, recruitment expenses, conferences, workshops,
and other in-service activities. Bale (1984) related a note
of significance to the underStanding of the role of 0/08 in
stating that the office "aided but did not control" (p. 6)
the A/OS schools.

A number of researchers have commented on the quality of
the A/OS schools. Mannino (1970) stated that many of the
schools were "underdeveloped and in need of support." (p. 2)
Their services often did not meet the standards of the better
schools in the U.S. Inadequacies existed in the areas of
materials, curriculum and the teaching staff. While writing
of the A/OS schools in India, Useem (1966) stated that "none
offers an educational experience comparable to that found in
the average suburban Stateside public school." (p. 145)

Harvey (1976) summarized the views of Bentz (1972),

McGugan (1970), Orr (1964), and others in relating the goals

30

of the A/OS schools. In addition to the prime functions
related to the education of expatriate and local children, he
drew attention to Orr‘s statement which included secondary
objectives of interest to the U.S. Government as
justification for support of the schools. Orr (cited in
Harvey, 1976) indicated that the schools:

1. served as a demonstration of U.S. education
abroad;

2. served as living example of American community
democracy;

3. had an affect on the recruitment programs for
personnel to serve in overseas positions for U.S.
government, international agencies, business and
industrial concerns, and cultural, religious, and
research organizations.

Mannino (1970) wrote of national pride linked to the
quality of the A/OS since the schools were "in the vanguard
of American institutions" in many countries. He stated,
"when they are inadequate, as many are, they mislead the host
national with respect to the nature and importance of
education in United States society and culture." (p. 11)

While a large number of American program international
schools came into existence as the result of community or
governmental actions, a smaller number of schools were
developed as the result of private enterprise. These were of
three types: secular schools established by a variety of

religious organizations, proprietary schools which run as

31

"for-profit" businesses, and corporate schools which were
established and managed by a company or group of companies
providing education exclusively for children of their

employees.

Commonalities in A/OS schools

Differing from these, the A/OS schools generally shared
two distinct features which had an impact on many aspects of
the schools' development. These involved the funding and the
governance of the schools.

A/OS schools have generally been highly reliant on
student tuition, have rarely been endowed and generally have
not received substantial support from the host country.
(Mannino, 1970) Existing as independent, single school
entities it has been necessary to build and maintain
substantial reserves to sustain the school through
unforeseeable events. Beans (1968) cited the Conference
Report on International Schools (1961) as commenting on the
difficulties for tuition based schools to offer "even a
minimally adequate program." (p. 12) Stress has been placed
on the importance of adequate funding if the A/OS schools
were to attain greater quality. (Domidion, 1964; Mannino,
1970) As a supplement to local funding, qualifying A/OS
schools have had the possibility of receiving small amounts
of financial aid from the 0/08. In 1984-85, 176 schools
received direct assistance from an O/OS budget totalling

nearly $6,000,000.

32

Requests for financial aid from 0/08 were filed each
year by qualifying schools. Grant requests were generally
made for specific projects proposed by the school and were
not usually considered valid to supplement the general
operating budget. Among favored request areas have been
those which support the staff development plans of the
school.

Mannino (1970) reminded us of a basic tenant of the
American culture concerning equality of educational
opportunity and freedom of choice in education. These
principles were seen as having no value if suitable schools
were not available and affordable to the expatriate American
family. One of the basic objectives he set for those
institutions assisting with the financing of A/OS schools
concerned the "renewing of the educational capacity of the
overseas school." (p. 24) This in turn implied the funding
of staff development programs and the acquisitions of
suitable equipment to support the school's program.

A second category of grant request having staff
development ramifications has involved funding in support of
School-to-School partnerships. This program, designed to
encourage A/OS schools to form affiliations with schools in
the U.S. for the principle purpose of lending assistance to
A/OS schools, began in 1965 with 25 overseas schools paired
with selected school systems in the U.S. (Luebke, 1976) The
value of a School-to-School partner was pointed out by King

(1968) in connection with his statement, "Smaller schools

 

33

encounter more difficulty and most sometimes settle for less,
simply because of lack of funds, time or know-how." (p. 53)
He indicated that the affiliation with a larger school in the
U.S. might ameliorate these problems. The potential for
School-to-School partnerships to provide continuity to the
A/OS school through administrators and staff members serving
in partner schools abroad without loss of tenure and through
the exchange of materials was described by Kelly (1974).

Beans (1968) reported a rapid development and an
extensive flow of curriculum materials to the overseas
schools in the first year of the school-to-school program
when more than 60 administrators, curriculum specialists and
teachers travelled from the U.S. to these schools. During.
this same period, thirty educators from overseas made
parallel visits to school districts in the U.S. These
extended visits and sabbaticals included 14 local hire
teachers. By 1970, the program had expanded to the extent
that 61 A/OS schools had formed affiliations with 57 public
schools'in the U.S. (Luebke, 1976)

Michigan State University pioneered a
University-to-School program of in-service training in the
A/OS schools. This was the forerunner of 12 programs of
Universities which had provided aid to 50 A/OS schools by
1970. According to Mannino, individual teacher and
administrator competence had been markedly improved in many
schools as a result of University-to-School activities. Orr

(1968) reported on the Columbia Project of the University of

34

Alabama through which 144 student teachers were placed in 8
A/OS schools in Latin America. Another valuable activity of
this university concerned the stimulation of graduate work by
a number of administrators from the A/OS schools of the
regions with the goal of up-grading their skills as change

agents for the schools.

Indirect Support of 0/08

In examining the results of individual school
improvement projects and attempts to interact in joint
efforts, Mannino (1970) cited John Ivey's statement,
"Autonomous institutions tend to cooperate most, and most
effectively on peripheral matters. To be effective, regional
programs must have funds not otherwise available to member
institutions and those funds must be directed toward
supporting the regional cooperative programs rather than
individual institutional endeavors." (p. 157) To overcome
isolation and to effect change in the schools, he supported
his proposals by drawing on Loomis' work with social systems
which called for, "establishing a viable structure of
relationships among schools through an existing or invented
common element that has high value potential for the
schools." (p. 176) Much of Mannino's work went on to develop
a case for the use of institutional funding to draw the
independent schools together in the cause of joint program
improvement. It was considered noteworthy that the Director

of 0/08 at the time of this study was Dr. Mannino who had

35

held the post since its creation in 1964.

Regional Associations

One program which has exemplified the value of joint
school activities involves the staff development activities
of Regional Associations. Though principally funded by the
membership fees of schools, these associations can trace
their origin to 0/08 efforts and have received limited annual
grants to support staff development activities. Since the
formation of the first of such associations, the Association
of American-sponsored Schools in the Republic of Mexico, nine
such associations had been formed by 1970. Mannino (1970)
indicated that these associations have not been uniformly
active and/or successful. One, the Eastern European
Association of American Schools, was of particular interest
to this study. During the course of data collection and the
research of the literature, Mannino's work was the only
indication of its existence.‘ A further inquiry revealed that
this association did not develop into full function during
the initial effort.

Other associations have been extremely active and
beneficial to the schools of their regions. The European
Council of Independent Schools, for example, has provided
varied and extensive services including teacher in-service
and other staff development activities. This regional
association has in turn stimulated and assisted in the

formation of local associations such as LISA (London

36

International Schools Association) and others.

Regional Centers
Still another activity of the 0/08 has involved the formation
and support of Regional Staff Support Centers. Mannino
(1970) lists five examples of regional centers including one
with particular significance for his study: "Vienna, Austria.
Services six schools behind the 'Iron Curtain.‘ Provides
general professional consultation and shares educational
materials and program information." (p.152-3) The genesis of
this dissertation concerned what was understood to be the
early stages of the formation of such a center to be cited
in Vienna. A search of the literature revealed no other
reference to this center. When asked as part of this study,
no individual involved in the administration of the schools
of the region could recall such an association. A discussion
with a longtime R.E.O. for the 0/08 revealed that the first
effort at establishing a center for Eastern Europe did not
progress into a meaningful entity because of a lack of
interest on the part of the R.E.O. at the time. It was
expressed that this lack of interest as well as the repeat of
the five year long range planning effort were illustrative of
a major feature of the work of the 0/08, i.e., the acceptance
of apparent "failure" in short term developmental efforts but
a gradual upgrading in the schools through a long range

involvement of the organization.

go uoraeurqmoo e on psgetsz sq ueo qorqm sotgsrzsgoegeqo

sargoutqsrp psdotsasp suorfisg gusasggrp go stooqos ueotzsmv
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°Kepog go spxeoq

Iooqos Kgrunmmoo go zsuunzsxog sun as pgeoq Iooqos umog 2 go

ausmqstrqsass sit ur 3991 go sousurpao Iooqos sagsanosssew

sun psgro (9L6I) Ksazsu 'porgsd Isruotoo sun on psoezg

sq ueo stooqos ueorzsmv go Iozguoo uszraro “stoouos go

Iozguos uszrgts teoot u; panmt sznqeu ueotzsmv Ktsnrgourgsrp

sq; on uorgusqae asap (SLGI) stggoq ’uorsssgogd burqoesq

sun go ausmdoIsAsp sun on psanqrzauoo sneq qorum saoaoeg

an: :0 Stsfiteue Stu HI (0861 'pleppons {P961 'zzo ’9L6I

'Ksazsu) °onguoo {2301 go sangesg sarqoutqsrp sq: szeus

qug ’sIooqss so/v go sprsoq butuzsaob sun go buruorgoung

pus 'uotgrsodmoo 'uorqosrss sq: u: sistxs souerzen

queasptsuoo qbnoq; 'sIooqos sun go soueuzsnob sun on

ssgetsx stooqos Kuedmoo so nggsrzdozd ’IQIHDBS pus stooqos
so/v sun ussmasq uotaourasrp gueorgrubrs puooss sq;

eouauseaoa teooq

'SIooqos Isuorneugsgur

go gsqmnu sbget a go sausbe gusmgrngos: sq: pus peogqe
butxxon u: psnsszsaut szsqoesg ussmgsq assauoo Jog snusA
sun spraozd sgsguso sssqL 'sstsusbe asqao pus suorseroosse
Ieuotbsz sun Kq pIsq’szsgusQ gusmatnzosa suasouoo

sIooqos SO/V usarb souegstsse gosgrpur go mgog quaouv

seorases Durggeqs

LE

38

lfactors, including local economics, demographic distribution,
and the historic role that the school has played within the
community. These same factors, on an international level,
have resulted in features which distinguish many A/OS schools
from the U.S. schools which their students have come from and
have given each of the A/OS schools its own distinctive
"personality". Since the circumstances under which A/OS
schools originated and developed varied so greatly, it has
been "impossible to identify current objectives common to
all." (McGugan, 1970, p. 38) As the feature of local control
of the American school has been extended into the expatriate
setting, each individual school strongly came to reflect the
composition of its local community and has been susceptible

to any changes which have occurred therein.

The Expatriate Community

As pointed out by Luebke (1976), expatriate communities
initially emerged in association with government agencies,
international business, and the activities of religious and
other civic organizations. Though other constituencies such
as host national families and non-American English speaking
nationals have influenced individual schools, these three and
particularly the business and government agencies have been
dominant elements in the schools. The ratio of students from
these groups and the distinctions between characteristics of
these communities have represented a major determining factor

in the development of the schools.

39

A feature shared by the expatriate business and
government agency communities alike has concerned the
relatively rapid rate of turnover of their members. This
characteristic has been one of the most significant problems
for the A/OS schools, for it involved the majority of the
community: the students, parents, teachers, administrators,
and members of the school board. (King, 1968; Mannino, 1970)
Community turnover had resulted in a student population which
has moved frequently, often lacked a sense of having a home
country, yet had been provided with advantages of a middle
class income supplemented by overseas benefits. Parents in
the A/OS community were largely found to be "college
graduates, aggressive by nature", and saw "college as the
singularly most important goal for their children." (Harvey,
1976, p. 9)

Useem and Useem (1963) stated that Americans overseas
generally enjoy "higher prestige and status than they do at
home." (p. 3) Gonzalez (1967) wrote that the expatriate took
on the characteristic of a "big frog in a little pond", but
nonetheless a "big frog", enjoying a higher status and
standard of living as long as they stayed abroad. Regardless
of the "good life" view of overseas living, he noted that
expatriates became concerned about life as an expatriate when
it came to the secondary education of their children and

preparation for university.

40

A/OS School Board

In addition to the communities from which the school
board was drawn, a second important determinant in the
development of the school has been the board's composition
and the by-laws under which it was formed and operated. The
success of the school and the quality of its programs have
been largely a function of the quality of its governing board
and the chief administrator they employed. (Harvey, 1976)
Three basic school structures were found within A/OS:

a. school boards comprised totally or predominantly of

members elected by parental school associations,

b. school boards comprised totally or predominantly of

appointed government and/or company representatives;

c. self-perpetuating boards which fill vacancies at their

own discretion.

In his description of the board members of A/OS schools,
Harvey (1976) found "the average board member to be a highly
educated person with an above-average income, a professional
or business related occupation, a college-oriented value
system, and high academic expectations for his children." (p.
166) Bentz (1972) found them, "highly educated ... highly
mobile... and ... modern oriented, with limited knowledge of
past events of the school." (p. 116-117) He pointed out that
’ this has led to institutions without memories and ones in
which disagreements within the board and between the board
and the Head were not uncommon. Bale described the typical

expatriate as being from "middle or upper management

41

upwardly mobile both in his professional and socio-economic
class" (p. 32) and desiring a high educational level for
his/her children.

Kelly (1974) drew attention to the problems related to
length of service on A/OS school boards. He stated that,
"short tenure often engenders only a short term urgency for
board members to see their particular proposals implemented
while they are still in office rather than addressing long
term needs." (p. 85) The high mobility of board members
was seen by King (1968) as detrimental since they try to
effect change "too rapidly without careful preplanning." (p.
46) High turnover in school boards was credited by Beans
(1968) and Stoddard (1980) as a major problem for many of
these schools, causing difficulty in planning, erratic
operational patterns, and shifting of goals and purpose.
Droppert (1984) found that while many administrators reported
good relations with the board, "this relationship was subject
to change due to the turnover of board members." (p. 162)

A considerably greater percent of host national board
members served longer terms on A/OS school boards than their
U.S. and third country national colleagues. However, board
members from the U.S. were more likely to have been on a
school board previously. (Harvey, 1976) He suggested another
problem within boards in stating that "the host national
board members view the purposes and goals of the American
Sponsored (sic) Overseas Schools differently than the U.S.

and third country citizens." (p. 117)

42

Though rapid turnover of board members has been commonly
recognized as a problem of significance for the school, Bentz
(1972) and others have also commented on problems associated
with entrenched board members and boards on which a number of
the members no longer have children in the school and do not
relate to the current needs of the school.

Bentz outlined still another problem when he reported
that 15 of 23 Heads of schools felt that new board members
assumed their role with no knowledge about the intricacies of
school administration. Harvey (1976) expressed the view that
"many of these persons have assumed their positions without a
true understanding of the duties and responsibilities which
they are expected to perform" (p. 51) While 60% of board
members surveyed in his study had some form of orientation,
42.9% of host national board members expressed the lowest
level of orientation. He further suggested that they were
all too often "left to learn about their duties and
responsibilities with little or no guidance." (p. 100)

King (1968) indicated that there was a "need to
delineate the functions of the board members in order to
avoid problems of board members taking over administrative
functions". (p. 71) Of equal concern was the potential for
administrators to unwittingly take over board functions. He
warned that only a novice would let the school become a
"one-man show". Though recognizing the importance of board
orientation, King lamented its time consuming nature. In

drawing attention to the importance of proper orientation for

43

new board members, Harvey concluded that "a greater effort
should be made to provide more training and orientation for
host nationals who are the largest stabilizing element on the
governing boards." (p. 47) Both King and Harvey called for
the development of board policy manuals and handbooks and a
systematic means of orientation for all board members.

In discussing the general effects of turnover in the
A/OS schools, Kelly (1974) wrote, "It becomes essential that
a basic common philosophy of education is agreed upon and
that all employees subscribe totally to that philosophy. If,
every two years, the program changes according to the beliefs
of the changing personnel, nothing but chaos will result."
This concept would seem equally applicable to the school's-
boards of directors. A school without a clearly established
board policies manual and operating procedures might be
susceptable to frequent shifts in direction with the not
unheard of annual loss of a large portion of the school
board. Bentz (1972) echoed concern regarding board
documentation as he reported that there was a lack of policy
manuals in 20 of 23 schools which he studied. He suggested
that the functional dynamics, operating methodology, and
levels of involvement of boards in the schools varied greatly
and were subject to change within a given board as turnover
occurred.

Board functions in A/OS have been found to vary greatly.
Harvey (citing Orr, 1976) found that good administrators were

given too much responsibility for policy and administration

44

or alternately found that the board became too involved in
the day-to-day management of the schools. He attributed this
to a number of factors, including:

1. the selection of board members who had no interest in
the board; or who had special educational, political,
social or vindictive interests;

2. poor board orientation of well intending individuals;

3. the high turnover of board members;

4. the high turnover of chief administrators coupled with
high incidence of untrained and inexperienced junior
administrators resulted in boards assuming control;

5. the closeness of the A/OS community and resulting
support for employment of unqualified local
individuals;

6. underdeveloped direction and policy and the employment
of a Head who may not have been in harmony with the
board.

Another problem associated with A/OS governing boards
concerned the closeness of the board member to the community
and the resulting intervention by individual board members
into student or personal problems. Harvey (1976) emphasized,
"The powers and duties of the board must be exercised by the
board as a whole. Its members come and go, but the board
remains the administrative control center for the school."
(p. 37)

Given the problems including board member tenure, lack of

experienced members, lack of board documentation, and the

 

45

close knit nature of the community, it seemed clear that
there was a need for a comprehensive board-member training
and development scheme in the schools. (Harvey, 1976).
The Changing American-sponsored Overseas School
With the exception of those A/OS schools which have
controlled their enrollments, there has been a significant
change in the student and community composition during the
past 10 years. Table 2 shows a continued decrease in the
number of American students during a time in which the
overall enrollment of the schools increased. This resulted
in an even greater drop in the percentage of American
students in the schools. During this time, most schools,
through intent or necessity, experienced an increase in the

number of students from other countries.

Table 2

Enrollment in A/OS Schools 1974-86

(A/OS Fact Sheets 1974-86)

0.8. Citizens Other
Total 0.5. Bus.‘ Other Total Host Third
lea: Sshla Gen. mm... 11.5.. ILL. 1 Clntrx 1 Claim 1 Intel
74-75 140 11,235 14,743 8,720 34,699 47.1 24,205 32.9 14,731 20.0 73,664
78-79 157 6,773 12,439 8,970 28,182 33.3 32,228 38.1 24,094 28.5 84,504
80-81 154 7,020 10,687 8,377 26,084 31.1 32,690 40.0 25,087 29.9 83,861
81-82 165 6,515 12,347 9,033 27,895 31.5 32,764 37.0 27,819 31.4 88,478
82-83 163 6,603 11,542 8,235 26,380 29.9 34,077 38.6 27,848 31.5 88,305
83-84 167 6,745 11,670 7,908 26,323 29.5 33,782 37.9 29,046 32.6 89,151
84-85 169 6,704 11,164 8,820 26,688 29.1 34,398 37.5 30,646 33.4 91,732
85-86 175 6,481 9,862 9,780 26,123 28.7 33,775 37.1 31,024 33.6 90,922

46

There have been varied reasons for the increase of host
national students in the A/OS schools. Among considerations
which have motivated host country parents have been
instability in the local schools, a belief that the American
curriculum and teaching methods were superior, the status
symbolized by a private and/or English language education, a
recognition of the value of learning English as an entry in
the business sector of the host country, a desire that the
children attend university in the U.S., and the sense of
inclusion in decision making inherent in the American system
of education. (Bale, 1984; Domidion, 1964; Orr, 1964;
Stoddard, 1980) It was noted that in some countries local
children have been prohibited from attending "foreign"
schools and in others foreign schools were not allowed to
freely operate. (Winfield, 1962)

In addition to an increase in the number of host
national students in the American schools, there has been a
steady and considerable increase in the numbers of third
national students. This increase has paralleled the shifting
economic and political fortunes of the various regions of the
world. With the increasing economic might of Middle Eastern
and Asian countries, increasing numbers of students from
these countries have entered the A/OS schools in many
countries.

Though generally increasing, the number of students from
a given country have radically dropped as well. The rise and

fall of political regimes and associated regional wars have

47

changed the political acceptability and allegiance implied in
the attendance of one's children in an American school. As
the economy of some third countries have fallen, the A/OS
schools have become too expensive resulting in a withdrawal
of students. Particular schools have had to contend with the
transfer of large blocks of students associated with major
corporations, embassies and U.S. governmental installations.

The shift in populations have varied from school to
school; however, the overall result has been a steady
decrease in the percent of American students in attendance in
the A/Os schools as a group. These changes in enrollment
have substantially changed the character of many of the A/OS
schools. Bentz (1972) stated that the resulting
multi-cultural community of users of the international
schools inherently generated a "highly complex set of social
cultural variables ...[which] ... directly impinge on the
educational and administrative processes in a school." This
“sometimes facilitates but often restricts the institution
building process." (p. 6) Stoddard (1980) related
impediments to the school realizing its goals, including the
level of receptivity of the host national population and the
ethnic and cultural mix within the school.

Useem and Downie (1976) related an additional factor to
those suggested by Bentz. In her description of "third
culture kids" (TCKs), she expressed the belief that the
expatriate international community developed a culture

distinct from the "first culture", that of the host country

48

and different from the "second culture", that of the
expatriate. The "third culture" resulted from the
interaction of the varied elements of the host and expatriate
cultures.

Though schools have experienced changes in focus with
changes in financial need or shifts in population, there has
often been no accompanying change in goals and policies.

Thus over time some schools have drifted from their initial
mission and stated objectives. Harvey (1976) analyzing the
work of Bentz,(1972); McGugan, (1970) and others was led to
the conclusion that many A/OS schools did not have clearly
functioning philosophies and missions. Citing Orr, he
commented that the "stated objectives are historically
irrelevant to the schools themselves and possibly irrelevant
in the culture in which the schools operate." (p. 33)

The curricular changes which have accompanied the many
other aspects of change in the A/OS school have often been
re-active rather than pro-active in nature. The most dynamic
curricular change for the schools has been associated with
the increase in the numbers of non-English speaking students
which has required a major restructuring of the curriculum to
cope with their needs. An entirely new specialty has
developed for educators knowledgeable in teaching English as
a Second Language (ESL) (Other acronyms such as TESOL, ESOL,
EFL, Bi-Lingual Ed, etc. suggest varied philosophical
distinctions). While the schools have taken actions to

accommodate the increasing number of ESL students, concerns

49

have been expressed for the development of English language
skills of the native speaking students. As early as 1962,
writers such as Winfield warned of the "danger to American
students in schools where curriculum is geared for ESL
students." (p. 119)

A second curricular change caused by the shifting
population has involved the development and increased
acceptance of an international curriculum known as the
International Baccalaureate (I.B.). Droppert (1984)
indicated that the demands of the multinational community
have led American schools to offer courses leading to
completion of the I.B. Conceived in the early 1970‘s, the
I.B. has been accepted for university admission in many
countries and given advanced standing by an increasing number
of universities in the U.S. Paralleling the rise in
popularity of the I.B. has been a questioning of the
relevance of the advanced level courses of national systems
such as the U.S. Advance Placement and British A-levels
programs.

In the face of the changes thus far outlined, school
administrators and boards of directors have had to make
decisions relating to difficult issues involving the
development of the schools. Where numbers of non-U.S.
parents having a common nationality, employer, or other link
have enrolled large numbers of students in a given school,
potential has existed for substantive conflict within the

school community. Issues involving numbers of students

50

requiring ESL classes, board composition and elections, staff
composition and training and others have served as focal
points for community conflict.

Names such as the "American School" or "American
International School" have been changed, becoming, “The
International School" or "International Community School of

." In extreme cases, these conflicts have resulted in

split communities and the formation of new schools.

The Isolated Community

Of the international expatriate communities previously
described, a large number shared the feature of existing in
isolated settings. This feature of isolation did not only
relate to communities experiencing the physical separation of
a small remote community but also to the isolation of a
community which, though embedded in a cosmopolitan setting,
was culturally, linguistically and/or psychologically cut off
from the greater community of local residents. Lambert
(1966) noted, "if a residential enclave is available, as in
say Dehli, and supplies can be bought from the commissary or
PX, isolation can be almost complete, but even without it, a
kind of psychological isolation can take place in which all
relationships with members of the host country are as brief
as possible and highly formalized." (p.164) Isolation was
found by Droppert (1984, citing Orr) to be the second most
significant cause for stress in expatriates and their

spouses. (second to inadequacy of schooling)

51

In relating the conditions associated with the garrison
mentality of a military community in Turkey, Wolf (1969)
indicated that "most of the Americans going abroad had been
neither educated for nor interested in the development of
broad and deep contact and sympathies with host nationals and
their culture" (p. 256) He likened the community to that of
a "company town" but "more closed and isolated from the
mainstream of life about it." (p. 65)

The fact that most expatriate Americans could not speak
the host language was cited by Doppert (1984) as adding to
what she referred to as the "cocoon effect" which was
"manifested in segregation and rejection of host national
culture." (p. 60) Aggravating the natural linguistic barrier
was a knowledge barrier which existed according to Useem, et
a1. (1963) who described the failings in the "pool of
knowledge" from which both expatriate and host nationals
drew, which "may be permeated with cultural fiction about
other segments of the host country." (p.19)

Within this setting, the expatriate communities have
formed and within each community groupings of members have
developed associations, alliances, and friendships. Relating
their work within the American communities in India, Useem,
et a1. (1963) reported that the American community had "no
single integrated social structure and each group within it
evolved its own set of relations with a selective
constellation of nationals." (p. 13) In their 1967 work, the

Useems found that initial groupings of expatriates most

52

commonly formed on the basis of "locality linkage" or
"functional group linkage." "A locality linked group
consisted of any enduring association of Americans who are
connected together in their place of residence." (p. 133)
Functional group linkage related to linkage between those who
share a common profession or at least place of work. Of the
two groupings, the Useems found that functional group
relationships "develop at a faster rate and proceed more
smoothly than most other types of social contacts." The
reasons cited for this involved an ease in understanding
others in the group and a less personalized contact with
"fewer obstacles in the host-guest relationship" and "less
involvement of 'total self or spouse'". This in turn removed
differences which might otherwise have existed. (p. 133)
Contrasting with the functionally linked groupings, the
locality-bound groups tended to talk less of work,
intermingle more with the host national and third nationals,
be more social with seasonal gatherings and a consciousness
of social debt orientation. They described four
relationships of individuals to "the group." (p. 14) These

included those described as

integrated - regarded by self and group as "in the
9rOUP";
fringe - having intermittent involvement with the
group;
deviant - who must be included because of job or

work place but who are alienated from the

53

group's predominant social behavior;
isolate - having no social group available.
They found that nine out of ten expatriate Americans were
integrated, fringe, or deviant to a functional or locality
linked group, with half integrated into both. (p. 134)

For those overwhelmed by the foreign environment,
compound living may have been good, as it removed the need to
interact with a hostile environment and enabled them to be
productive within the limits of their job. (Torre, 1957)
While the expatriate community was found to be of great
assistance to the newly arrived member, it was also found to
be constrictive. Winfield (1962) indicated that a person's
faults were more noticed in the expatriate community and that
"more than one American overseas has had written into his
evaluation file a complaint about his out-of-office conduct
(or even the conduct of his wife or teenage children)."
Droppert's research (1984) pointed to stress associated with
the closeness of the expatriate community and a "fish-bowl"
effect. Individuals expressed resentment when "not able to
have a private life and were never off duty." (p. 248) Useem
and Useem (1966) commented on the representative role of
family and the loss of privacy in self and family matters as
well as the potential of sanctions from many reference
groups: Americans, government circle, host nationals etc. In
commenting on the smallness and heterogeneous nature of the
American community Useem, et a1. (1963) wrote that there "was

a greater self and superimposed pressure to find a common

54

basis for doing things together. Under these conditions,
interpersonal conflicts sometimes flare into rather intense
factionalism and intra-group feuds." (p. 9) Though one might
think that members of an isolated community would join
forces, this has not always been the case as indicated in the
work of the Schecters (1975). In their account of the
expatriate community of Moscow, they stated that the
"Americans in Moscow with few exceptions were a competitive,
save-yourself-first non-community." (p. 148)

The problem was perhaps best summarized by Useem, et al.
(1963). "The tightness of the American community and the
bi-national community may be too constrictive. Groups of
Americans may reside within a compound, an apartment house or
neighborhood - and also work in the same organizational
structure. The ecological concentration magnifies even the
trivial acts, causes an acute sense of relative deprivation,
transforms marginal items into ones of great symbolic value.
Who did get invited to a conference? a cocktail party?" (p.
18) "Small differences in style of life, work habits, and
personality can precipitate intense hostilities, with
flare-ups that splash over into the whole group and into the
work organization."

The Schecters (1975) quoted one embassy wife as saying,
"One thing you will never have in Moscow is a friend. I don't
mean Russian. I mean not even an American friend." She
described a "mystique of secrecy" indicating a suspicion "not

just of Russians, but of each other." "We all knew we were

55

being watched and listened to ... phones were tapped...
outgoing calls monitored ..."; there existed a "vicious
circle." Since individuals "could not prove the existence of
bugs, we imposed a restraint on ourselves ... lived in fear
of a careless word that might harm someone else, get you
thrown out, ruin your friend's career..." (p. 146)

As previously indicated, many expatriate communities
formed with members of particular companies or governmental
agencies as the prime employers. In this relationship, the
sponsoring agencies had a greater influence in the lives of
the members of the communities than might be the case in the
U.S. With fewer community resources available in the
underdeveloped host country, many of which were not available
to the expatriate, there was a greater reliance on those
provided by the sponsoring agency. Useem, et a1. (1963)

Wolf (1969) wrote of the dominance of the military
institution in the lives of expatriates of the community in
his study. Military rank became the "chief classifier" of
persons and determined the niche of fathers in the less
pluralistic community. Domidion (1964) wrote of the marked
influence of the U.S. ambassador on the dynamics of the
community.

A number of researchers have found that the school often
becomes a central focus of the expatriate community.
(Domidion, 1964; Droppert, 1984; King, 1968) During four
years of living in an Eastern European expatriate community,

Droppert found that the school provided a "common bond" for

56

the community, mentioning a variety of events including film
evenings, dinners, card parties, cocktail parties, etc. which
regularly took place at the school. While the school may
often have become a unifying element in the community, Hager
(1978) indicated that expatriate teachers seldom became truly
part of the community. "They never totally accept the values
of the community and are therefore less effective." Barriers
which he cited to their integration into the community
included:

1. standard of living - Teachers were well paid

vis-a-vis teachers in the U.S. but not when compared

to the community of business or government employees.

They could not reciprocate invitations.

2. age and marital status - The teachers were often

younger and single with those not single having teaching

wives who could not take part in the activities of women
in the community.

3. differing values - (Citing Coles) who indicated that

be "detected ambivalence of the financially well off

toward teachers" who were not servants but also not

equals. (p.170)

In the U.S., teachers belonged individually to
communities outside of school. Once overseas, as
expatriates, these teachers did not fit into the third
culture community. Having made limited inroads into the host
community, they turned to each other for acceptance. They

then "fractured and split into a number of cliques" which may

57

have been based on age group, marriage, religious
orientation, newcomer/old etc. (Hager, 1978, p. 174-175)

King (1968) found a similar pattern of non-integration
linked to income and privilege, and described an added
feature associated with the fact that the working teacher had
little time or energy to overcome the culture barrier to the
host community and thus" ... tended to make their social life
with others on the staff." (p. 63)

For individuals who have entered new jobs, there has
always been much to learn and significant adjustment required
if they were to be successful. When that job has taken them
into a society in which they did not readily "fit" and one
embedded in a radically different cultural setting, the
required adjustment has been enormous. Much has been written
about varying aspects of adjustment to environmental stress.
One aspect of this reaction to a new culture has been termed
"Culture Shock" and was "widely thought to be endemic in
overseas travel." (Lundstedt, 1963, p. 3) Wire (1973) cited
Young's definition of the term as "the inability to adjust to
new surroundings and people as a result of which the
individual manifests symptoms of anxiety, stress, and
apathy." (p. 19) He went on to relate this to the absence of
friends and cultural origins. In schools, he indicated that
it was recognizable through symptoms such as excessive
absence, inadequate teaching preparation, apathy in teaching,
departure from classes during the day, and physical illness.

Nash (1970) wrote of "strangerhood" and "anomie"

58

associated with the adjustment of American expatriates to
life in a Spanish town. He developed the hypothesis that
those in a foreign scene, unable to "extract meaning" or a
way to "extract compatibility" would feel anxiety until they
reorganized their subjective world to feel "at home" in the
city. Their problem, therefore, was to identify "confirming
circles in the foreign scene or reorganize their frames of
reference to obtain confirmation." (p. 125)

He wrote:
"Regardless of the foreign country to which a
person migrates, we surmise that he is likely to
experience, first, the condition of normlessness or
meaninglessness (acute anomie) and later, the
condition of value contradiction or conflict
(simple anomie). Depending on his sensitivity and
his ability to tolerate such conditions, he will
tend to experience stranger anxiety. This anxiety
will then become a more or less significant
motivating factor in his overseas life. It will
persist until he finds or works out an acceptable
role which eliminates anomie and enables him to
feel at home in the foreign setting." "Such anxiety
tends to interfere with effective functioning, it
would, in the case of the stranger, work against

his adaptation." (p.188)

Useem and Useem (1966) developed a similar description
in their discussion of a condition they termed "insidious
stress." (p. 4) They indicated that "those conditions which
engender stress in American families working and living
overseas are largely ones connected with the basic needs of

human existence - shelter, health, home maintenance, and

59

[the] socialization and education of the young." (p. 145) In
a paper entitled, Ihe_JQh1_SLIESSBS_and_RESQDICBS_Q£
Americans_at_Hcrk_in_the_Third_Culture, (1963, p. 4), they
indicated that the condition was more common and extreme in:

1. first-time-outers;

2. those organizations which do not prepare their people

and do not subsidize housing, education etc.;

3. those with large families;

4. those with positions of low influence.

Brislin (1981) suggested that culture shock could have
positive ramifications as a motivating force causing the
individuals to learn about the new culture as well as their
own. For this to happen, he suggested that the sojourners
could prepare themselves to minimize the negative effects and
stressed the importance of finding a "supportive niche" in
the new setting. Nash (1970) had written of the importance
of finding a circle of friends in providing relief and aiding
in successful adaptation. He wrote of the value of familiar
artifacts such as modern conveniences and appliances which
provided "points of reference" for the sojourner.

A number of social scientists have attempted to describe
the stages of culture shock as "J", reverse "J", "U", and "W"
shaped curves. Regardless of detail, they seem to agree that
sojourners could be expected to pass through a series of
stages. Brislin (1981) used the following list of
descriptive terms for his analysis of the stages in a "W"

curve of adjustment. "... honeymoon ... hostility ... humor

60

at home ... reverse Culture Shock." (p. 280)
In reference to expatriates new to their communities,
Nash indicated that "a substantial minority never would get
out of the stage of extreme strangerhood." (p. 126) This may
correlate with Brislin's "hostility" stage in which the
individuals developed strong negative feelings toward the

host culture. Lambert (1966) related:
"One reaction to the gap between an American's
self-esteem: and. the somewhat lower status he
perceives as being given to his nation by his host
is to choose to emphasize negatively valued aspects
of his hosts' culture. If he makes this choice, he
is beginning to slide well down into the 'J' curve.
For denigration of the host country, he can quickly
avail himself 'of a ready stock of hostile
statements which. are jpreserved, nurtured, and
regularly served.Lu> at social gatherings by the
more alienated of the permanent cadre in the

American enclave." (p. 165)

Much of what has been found in the literature has
related culture shock and adjustment in general terms to the
subject of this dissertation. Wire (1973) however, drew a
closer link. In expressing his concern for the effect of a
teacher undergoing problems of adjustment to the good of the
students, he wrote, "Teachers who have not themselves bridged
the cultural gap cannot be effective in bringing about
cultural understanding for their students. Attempts must be
made, therefore, to select not only superior teachers but
those who will be open to acceptance of cultural

differences." (p. 4) King (1968) expressed a similar feeling

61

in writing that "a child who comes from a home which is in a
state of culture shock needs to be with a teacher who can
lend stability and security.“ (p. 54)

Brislin's (1981) work included a comment of particular
significance for this study. "Any one sojourner will likely
experience an easier adjustment to a pluralistic, rather than
monistic society. There is more likely to be a match between
what a sojourner brings and what some segment of the society
values and more tolerance for any set of strategies and
styles which she/he chooses to use." (p. 289) This may
suggest that adjustment difficulties in communities isolated
in non-pluralistic societies, such as those of Eastern
Europe, were exacerbated by a "monistic" lack of tolerance
for deviation which existed in those countries.

Useem and Useem (1966) has described three "generations"
within the third culture. They described them as: (p. 8-9)

Einst_timers - Individuals who were new to the host

country and with no previous experience. These individuals

were seen as, "... zealously dedicated to programmatic aims
.", were "plungers" into host culture, "... enthusiastic
about possibilities of effecting change ... willing to

subordinate personal concerns to programmatic goals".

Experienced - Individuals who had already made the
adjustment to third culture living through a "first timer's"
experience in another culture. These individuals were seen
as, "... more cautious in investing their 'self' in the

program ..." They were no less committed but may have

62

sought, "... other routes than the official one to accomplish
the desired ends. They tended to express "less urgency" and
less willingness to sacrifice personal pleasures.
Qld_£greign_Hands - These were seen as individuals who
had adjusted to life in the community to the extent that they
were no longer aware that the modern 'third culture' was
different from that of the new arrival and may not have

understood the resulting shock to the new arrival.

Modifiers of Cultural Adjustment

A number of writers have commented on the value of
knowledge of the local language as significant in the
adjustment and success of the expatriate in the new setting.
(King, 1968; Nash, 1970; Winfield, 1962; Wire, 1973) Nash
noted that the "strangeness" of the new culture was reduced
when the expatriate possessed a facility with the host
language. In addition to its functional value, it had
secondary importance in demonstrating a willingness of the
"stranger" to try to bridge the cultural gap with the host
society. David (1972) extended the importance of language
facility in describing the relationship between language and
social contact which he and others expressed as important to
adjustment. Brislin (1981) commented on the new arrival's
perception of "rebuff" on the part of the host as causing
adjustment problems. David pointed out that language
facility opens access to reinforcers and results in praise

from members of the host culture. He stated that, "poor

63

intercultural adjustment may result from ... removal of
reinforcers and presentation of adverse stimuli." (p. 43)
Through social contact with Vhosts", the expatriate received
immediate reinforcement and received information about and
access to other reinforcers. This also provided information
related to the avoidance of negative reinforcers. He
contented that greater satisfaction or adjustment correlated
with greater social contact. Brislin stated that "the basic
point that cross-cultural adjustment is dependent upon
support and acceptance by others is well established."
Citing Taft, he wrote of the "value of group support in
preventing tension from building up to 'debilitating' level."
(p. 112) Useem and Useem (1963) stated the situation .
succinctly with the comment, "Man is a social being and the
isolated man is sick." (p. 8)

In analyzing the various factors contributing to the
ease or difficulty of adjustment for expatriates in their
move to a overseas post, a number of researchers have
commented on the role played by marital status. Two distinct
problems have been related. The first concerned the
difficulties experienced by single expatriates which could
become particularly significant in small communities and
those located in countries where access to social contact was
precluded by local customs or by ideological, religious, or
racial barriers. (Cleveland, 1960; David, 1972; Frith, 1981;
Nash, 1970; Torre, 1967; Winfield, 1962)

Nash (1970) speculated that "the 'liberated' single

64

woman might experience even greater anomie than her married
colleague as a result of exposure to a culture in which the
principal conception of the 'liberated' single woman
continues to be fixed in the image of a whore." (p. 155) He
indicated that the single woman would find very few
acceptable men who would date or court her in the American
style. He related that women, more than men, reported a
decline in feelings of well being during their adjustment to
the Latin culture of the country in which his study was set.

Cleveland commented in 1960 on the strains of moving
across cultures. He indicated that these were less for men
since they could rely on immersion into a challenging and
potentially familiar work schedule upon arrival. They tended
to give more attention to work and less to the family. This
left the women to face the new culture "head on". With no
work and lots of time she was left to cope with establishing
contacts with the members of the local community which one
counted on for services and the needs of daily life.

Winfield (1962) expressed the belief that culture shock and
loneliness were not innately greater in men or women but less
likely in men due to the ease with which they were able to
move around in most countries.

The second problem relating to marital status and
adjustment to expatriate life concerned pressure which the
adjustment placed on married couples. On this subject, Torre
(1967) stated, "Married couples who have not solved their

marital difficulties are a common problem. In an overseas

65

mission, they must face up to their own interpersonal
relations and cannot lead separate lives." (p. 85) Problems
within marriages were not seen only as those associated with
couples who had experienced difficulties prior to the
relocation but were also of potential concern for normally
happy couples, as indicated by Brislin (1981). He described
the need for each member of even a successful marriage to
maintain a friendship outside the partnership without which
potential existed for the normal catharsis to be "unloaded"
or vented with each other. Previous comments regarding the
nature of the expatriate community might suggest that
marriage partners may not individually or collectively find
the friendships that would provide for a safe "outside"
venting of stress and thus might experience more conflict
than previously. Regardless of the marital status of the
potential expatriate, Masland (1957) indicated that the wrong
kind of motivation for pursuit of an overseas position,
whether related to job dissatisfaction or failure or to
unhappiness with one's personal life, could lead to failure
abroad.

Several writers have indicated that administrators of
international agencies have the potential to contribute to
the success of those joining their staffs by acting to
counteract the causes and alleviate the symptoms of culture
shock and community adjustment. Winfield (1962) stated, "The
bosses for their part are derelict in their duty if they do

not see that young men and women on their staffs have help in

66

getting households organized and that they have access to
transportation where it is needed, especially at night." "An
administrator should make every effort to give the lowest
paid American on his staff a chance to study the local
language." (p. 202) King (1968) commented on the need for
administrators to recognize symptoms of culture shock and do
all they can to alleviate it. "Proper orientation and other
preventative measures are more desirable than attempts at
treatment after shock has set in." (p. 215) Attention to the
issue of orientation and its development in the A/OS schools
will be given in a subsequent section of this chapter.

Wire (1973) implied that those responsible for the
transition of teachers into international schools were wise
to give attention to this area of adjustment. He indicated
that while there was a "lack of research" and "little direct
evidence in the literature to establish a relationship
between cultural adjustment and [teacher] effectiveness,"

(p. 27) it was seen to hold an important role in the
preparation for Peace Corps trainees, many of whom were
teachers and therefore may well have had significance for the

adjustment of teachers in general.

Staff Turnover
As has been indicated in the introductory material
concerned with the development of the A/OS schools, a high
rate of turnover of both staff and administrators has been

repeatedly cited as a significant problem. Phillips (1974)

67

put it succinctly, "Any good schoolmaster anywhere will agree
that the quality of education offered in any school is
definitely effected by the degree of permanence or length of
tenure of the teaching and administrative staff. A good
educational program is far more than good pupils, good
teachers, plus good books and equipment. It is all that plus
a sound and growing philosophy and a teamwork that grows out
of a well led school staff working effectively for years"

(p. 9).

Droppert (1984) wrote of the difficulty in maintaining
programs due to the constant turnover of faculty and
students. During the two years previous to his 1968 study,
King found that over 50% of schools reported the departure of
at least one teacher prior to the conclusion of the contract.
The problem was found to be greatest in Africa where turnover
reached 58.3% annually. (p. 204)

To account for this situation King expressed the opinion
that, "careless selection, inadequate orientation and culture
shock of teachers or members of their families undoubtedly
played an important part" (p. 207). He expressed theconcern
that "high teacher and administrator turnover coupled with a
lack of published guides and courses of study indicate that a
general lack of continuity is likely in overseas schools"

(p. 207). McGugan (1970) stated that the "selection,
employment and retention of competent professional personnel
is one of the most persistent problems facing the overseas

schools" (p. 92). Turnover of staff was apparently still

68

seen as a problem by 1984 when Droppert found that
administrators, teachers and parents of 35 A/OS schools
listed Staff and Student Turnover as either first or second
out of the 15 variables identified as constraints on the
international school administrator.

The causes for the high rate of turnover in the A/OS
schools have been many and varied. King told of the affect
of the tax laws of many countries essentially insuring high
turnover of teachers and administrators. Brislin (1981)
commented on the general relationship between low rewards of
organizations and the turnover of staff.

A partial answer to the problem of turnover of staff in
the expatriate schools has been to turn to the "local hirei
teacher. This group of teachers has been made up of
individuals who were "permanently" located in the community.
They include those trained in U.S. or British colleges and
universities who were married to host nationals or others as
well as host nationals who may have received training locally
or abroad. For the purpose of this study, the term "local
hire" was not meant to include another group of teachers also
referred by this term in other sources. These individuals
were the spouses (generally wives) of short term expatriates
who were hired on the local salary schedule. The term
"dependent spouses" has been used in reference to these
individuals.

The feelings of practitioners regarding the value of the

"local hire" have not been uniform. Kelly (1974) expressed

69

that "when an administrator can hire locally, he is most
fortunate. Permanence provides the stability evolving
programmes must have" (p. 84). While recognizing the
potential for building continuity and the cost savings which
result from their employment, King (1968) commented on
problems of hiring local hire and dependent spouses due to
their divided responsibilities and "the other roles they must
play as wife, mother, hostess etc" (p. 50). Domidion (1964)
wrote of situations in which the school was forced by local
government to hire 50% locals and it was "difficult to find
enough qualified individuals" (p. 10). Chudler (1974)
cautioned about hiring host national teachers, pointing out
that while there may have been improved public relations with
an internationalization of the staff, it might also lead to a
"loss of quality" (p. 121).

As one considered the effects of permanence verses rapid
turnover in the staff of a school there were differing
problems associated with each. The transient teacher had
many aspects of adjustment to overcome before the
concentration necessary for excellence with the student could
be given. These adjustments may have been associated with
the necessities of daily living in a new and potentially
hostile environment. While addressing these aspects of the
new culture, the recently arrived teacher was also called
upon to adjust to the particulars of the school, its
community, and students, all of which may have been entirely

different from the conditions of the teacher's home

70

community. The new teacher generally lacked the knowledge of
the available community resources and may have been severely
hampered through the absence of simple items which had

previously been readily available. (Kelly, 1974)

International Staff Recruitment

Since difficulties in obtaining staff work permits were
frequent and there was a need for considerable time to
adequately prepare for travel abroad, international staff
recruitment, out of necessity, has occurred far earlier than
that in schools in the U.S. School Heads in the A/OS schools
have been forced to make preliminary staffing decisions in
January to permit attendance at recruitment centers in
February. Final staffing decisions were generally made by
the end of March. As the recruitment activities were
designed to satisfy staffing needs of the following September
and given the uncertainties of student enrollment in the
interim period, the small school administrator was forced to
recruit staff members with flexibility and a range of skills.
In commenting on the need for early administrative action
related to staffing and materials for an unknown Fall
enrollment, Kelly (1974) cautioned, "if guesses are wrong,
plenty of the wrong teachers and supplies will be on hand
with no money to pay for either." (p. 87)

In his investigation of the recruitment, selection and
retention of teachers for the A/OS schools, King (1968)

indicated that there was little prior research on which to

71

draw. His exploration of the recruitment practices in A/OS
schools led to his finding that 40% of the Heads of schools
surveyed felt that low pay adversely affected the recruitment
of fully qualified teachers. Domidion (1964) pointed out the
difficulty which A/OS schools had in competing with stateside
school in benefits and a particular difficulty in recruiting
male teachers.

The importance of the recruitment of individuals who
were likely to succeed in the overseas setting and remain for
more than a year or two was stressed by Frith (1981), Torre
(1967), and Wire (1973). Quebeck (1970) sought to identify
characteristics of successful overseas teachers. In his
survey of 12 administrators, little agreement could be found.

Listed as agreed characteristics were:

recognition of the opportunity for continuous growth;
- no fear of evaluation;

- a strong sense of justice;

sensitivity to the importance of communication and a
willingness to learn the language of the host country.
Given the cost of recruitment and relocation and the
disruption of the program associated with rapid turnover, it

was inferred that significance should be attached to the
recruitment of individuals with the "ability to cope with
local conditions ... ability to live in a small, intimate
American community ... ability to get along and work with the
indigenous people" (Wire, 1973, p. 83). Frith (1981)

commented on the importance of "recruiting the right man the

72

first time." (p. 12)

A key ingredient in the question of staff turnover has
been the concept of what characteristics would make a good
teacher for the A/OS schools. Frith's (1981) simple
statement, "The best individual for the job may not do the
best job." (p. 12), implied that the administrator needed to
examine a range of variables besides classroom competence in
deciding which candidate to hire. Cleveland (1960) wrote of
the value of experienced and tested individuals. Winfield
(1962) indicated the importance of examining the individual's
goals in seeking overseas employment. He and others have
expressed concern over those who appear to have been escaping
from an undesired life style in their home community. King
(1968) concluded that schools are apparently willing to
accept marginal teachers and stated that "an overseas school
is no place for persons with marital difficulties or other
personal problems." (p. 208)

King (1968) stated that the methods of recruiting and
selection of teachers for the A/OS schools are "similar to
those used domestically." (p. 49) He described the process
of examination of the local market, seeking prospective
candidates through agencies, and conducting interviews. An
interesting feature which was not often found in schools in
the U.S. was that in some cases, the Head was authorized to
offer contracts on the spot, to candidates deemed to meet the
needs of the school. This was done to eliminate the problems

associated with delays in correspondence.

73

Cleveland (1960) stated that "when it comes to
recruiting for overseas service, nothing is likely to replace
an interview - except a longer interview or multiple
interviews by different interviewers." (p. 172) Thomas
(1974) stressed the need for administrators to gather more
information on candidates than that which they submitted
directly or through their placement agencies. He implied
that the benefit from telephone calls to current and previous
employers was worth the expense. King (1968) expressed
numerous concerns related to the recruitment/orientation
phase of teacher employment. He wrote of a time when the
Head who could not interview personally had to rely on others
and correspondence. He found that 10% of administrators
surveyed felt that they should always interview candidates,
with another 67% indicating that they should, if at all
possible. He made no comment about the remaining 23% and in
examining actual recruitment practices he found that 67% of
schools with fewer than 200 students did not send
administrators to the U.S. to interview. Having examined the
topic at depth, King implied considerable significance in the
issue and recommended that the "Heads of even small schools
be sent to the U.S. for recruitment." (p. 208)

Other areas of concern which King expressed, involved
the lack of suitable materials to mail to prospective
teachers, little assistance in obtaining visas etc., a lack
of attention to the needs of new teachers on the part of

Heads and boards, situations in which teachers arrived only

74

hours before school was to start and no ongoing orientation
program (p. 211). Thomas (1974) cautioned administrators
about the use of "some agents of overseas talent ... running
educational employment ‘body shops'" with "no knowledge of
the needs and desired skills of employees" (p. 141).

Concern has been expressed by Windfield (1962) regarding
the temptation of "over sell" in the recruitment of teachers
and school Heads. Eddison (1967) cautioned that it was
"better to have a candidate decline the job offer than to
have a new Head arrive, take one short look, and decide that
his family can't live under those conditions or he can't work
under other conditions" (p. 22). The error of exaggerating
the beauty and features of the host country in recruiting

teachers was commented on by King (1968).

Orientation
Those who have conducted research involving the variables in
the successful adjustment to living and working abroad have
commented at length regarding the importance of the
orientation as one step in the success or failure of
individuals in their new setting. (Brislin, 1982; Chudler,
1974; Frith, 1981; Hager, 1978; Useem et al. 1963) Hager
expressed the concern that not only were teachers required to
adjust to a new country and culture but they were new to the
school and administrator and thus had no fixed "institutional
policies to fall back on when things get rough" (p. 153). He

concluded that it was the obligation of the school to prepare

75

them to function in the new culture and new organization.

Useem et. al. (1963) wrote of the need of easing the
transition of men from one society to another. "Recognition
of the need to learn quickly has led to the establishment of
a number of orientation programs, particularly for Americans"
(p.7). Frith (1981) indicated that the transition of the
recruit should begin prior to departure from the U.S. He
wrote of the importance of the family learning as much as
possible before departure, suggesting that they be put in
contact with others who had lived in the particular country
and had returned to the U.S. Brislin (1981) commented on the
importance of a "transitional stage" (p. 144) in the
beginning of a sojourn and the benefit of a pre-sojourn
orientation program. He suggested that "administrative
understanding of stress relating to intercultural contact may
allow him/her to intervene to minimize aggressive reactions
to stress and maximize non-aggressive reactions" (p.4). He
described the existence of extensive programs of
cross-cultural awareness utilized by government agencies and
large companies in the preparation of their employees for
overseas living.

Frith (1981) suggested that employers supply the
following "Orientation Checklist" (p. 20-21) and implied that
they should offer guidance on relevant items, "satisfaction
of which should ensure that the employee is suitably prepared
for adjustments necessary to be a successful expatriate."

"1.Nature of job, its responsibilities and objectives

76

:2.Compensation - salary, allowances, benefits and taxes
3. Letter of agreement - terms and conditions

4. Personnel policies applicable to overseas assignment:

Medical requirements

Language training

Home sale/lease protection

Automobile sale protection
Shipping/storage of household effects
Travel arrangements

Work schedules, holidays, vacations
Overseas housing

Schooling and further education

Tax counseling

Emergencies

OOOOOOOOOOOO

Repatriation
5 . Documentation
c> Passports, Visa, Work Permits, Medical Records
c> Birth and Marriage Certificates, Insurance
policies, Tax Records
it Orientation and briefing on living conditions, climate

and culture."

It appeared unlikely that the importance of this aspect of
the school's staffing had been generally recognized by 1968,
when King commented on the orientation of new staff members
as, "one of the most neglected functions of overseas school
administrators" (p. 205). He indicated that "there appears
to be a great reliance upon informal, loosely structured
contact between employees." He found that 25% of schools had

no orientation program and that programs were formalized in

77

only 37.8% of the smaller schools. "Overseas school
personnel often forget their first experiences and leave the
new teacher and his family to fend for themselves upon
arrival" (p. 59).

Domidion (1964) found a similar condition in that 13 of
28 schools involved in her study had no planned induction or
orientation program. Other areas of which King expressed
concern included the absence of materials to be sent to
prospective and newly hired teachers, the limited assistance
given in obtaining visas etc., a lack of attention to the
needs of new teachers, and situations in which teachers
arrived only hours before school was to start.

One indication of a cognizance of the need for proper
orientation was found in the existence of Overseas
Orientation Workshops held from 1972 on by the Inter-Regional
Center for Curriculum and Materials Development. As
indicated in the program report of 1976, (Anonymous) new
recruits from up to 17 schools from Central and South America
participated in a joint orientation program held in Miami
during the August prior to departure for their new schools.
The program, then in its fifth year, was reported as of
significant value to participants, however, a variety of
logistical problems resulted in the fact that a substantial
number of schools and individuals were unable to participate.

Though not common in the A/OS schools, Hager (1978)
cited one example of a comprehensive approach to the problem

as existing at the American School of the Hague. He offered

78

the following quoting from the school's board policy manual:

“Recognizing that new teachers must make a
satisfactory personal adjustment to living in The
Netherlands in order to perform effectively as
teachers, the superintendent shall arrange a
program of orientation for new teachers prior to
the beginning of the instructional calendar. In
particular, the superintendent shall arrange for
new teachers to be met upon arrival in Holland and
will provide assistance in locating suitable
housing if necessary. He shall also hold such
meetings as are necessary to acquaint the staff
with the host country in general and with the
school system in particular. Arrangements shall be
made for a reception for all new teachers and their
spouses. The Executive Committee views the
orientation program as essential and shall annually
make provisions to cover all costs in the budget."
(American School of the Hague, Policy 4115.1)

A goal of orientation as expressed by Brislin (1981)
should be "to encourage consideration of situational
variables as judgments are being made rather than making
negative judgments on the basis of preconceived ideas and
prejudices about the other culture" (p. 163)..

In the preparation for a new staff member, it was seen
to be desirable that the housing be ready and complete with
sheets on the bed and food in the refrigerator. The initial
reaction to where and how the family will live often sets the
tone for the first several weeks. Housing should be

comparable to that provided by foreign organizations for

79

their professional personnel. It was considered important
that the new arrival met all relevant members of the
community and had a host country orientation. There was a
need for someone to be available and meet with the new
arrival more frequently than might be normal. (Eddison, 1967)
Though Eddison's writing concerned the proper preparation for
the arrival of a new Head of school, it would seem that these
guidelines would have been equally valid for the arrival of a
teacher.

Useem et al. (1963) wrote of the value of linkage during
the entrance to a new community. They indicated that
"functionally linked" affiliations tend to minimize the
obstacles to rapport in three ways: they ease understanding
between members, they result in fewer obstacles in the
host-guest relationship, and they allow for a less personal
interaction to occur (p. 13). Brislin (1981) wrote that
"cultural adjustment is dependent upon establishing group
ties and successfully completing one's task-related goals"
(p. 283). Assuming that this observation was correct, the
administrator could assist in the adjustment of the new
arrival by providing them with ample time for socialization
and by causing them to become professionally involved.

A second aspect of functionally linked group orientation
was expressed by Domidion (1964) in stressing the value of
current staff members in orienting new staff and in drawing
new staff members into the functional group. Brislin (1981)

wrote of the "model value of the 'old hand' for new

80

arrival...they made it through and can show the newcomer how"
(p. 147).

While many of the comments of writers have led to a
concern for the inequities of the small isolated school,
Brislin (1981) drew attention to one specific benefit. He
pointed out that in under-manned situations new arrivals
experience greater satisfaction since each has a more
important role in the goals of the organization. Domidion
(1964) saw a double value in drawing the new arrivals into
the staff. Not only was it seen as good for the new arrival
but they often represented a resource for tenured staff
members concerning current educational materials and thinking
in the U.S. This knowledge of current information, resource,
and trends had the potential to assist the new arrival in
finding their special niche.

As seen in the writings of the many of the researchers
cited thus far, new arrivals had a complete interpersonal
world to replace. They needed involvement, acceptance,
opportunities to socialize and assistance in grappling with
the dynamics of the new cultural setting. They may also have
had a need for Winfield's (1962) "family member", someone to
advise them to "look, listen, and withhold judgment."

(p. 124)

Staff Development -.A General View
Staff development has been an emerging concept in the

American philosophy of education for essentially the past 60

81

years. In tracing educators‘ increasing awareness and
concern for this facet of the profession, Howey and Vaughan
(1983) commented on the changing role of the school, and
therefore the teacher, which began in the thirties and has
accelerated throughout the intervening years. The changes in
the structure of the family and the great ideological debates
brought on by the depression and World War II, the political
issues and technological "revolution" stimulated by the war
effort and rekindled with the flight of Sputnik, the social
upheaval of the sixties and the deep questioning of the
nation's basic values which accompanied the Vietnam War and
Watergate scandal resulted in an expansion of the mission of
the school and of the role of the teacher.

Prior to the depression of the 30's, staff development
was primarily concerned with the "knowledge base" of the
teacher, with little attention given to pedagogical
practices. Both pre-service and in-service teacher
activities were involved more with "dispensing information
about" the new educational "theories rather than using them
as a mode for teacher education or modelling their
application" (Howey & Vaughan, 1983, p. 93)

As demands on the schools increased, satisfaction with
schools has decreased. The "failures" of American education
were headline news following the launch of Sputnik. Teachers
as the key element in schools became a focal point for
criticism with staff develpoment taking on a teacher

centered, "deficit" view of the in-service function. The

82

teacher in this case was seen as a "reservoir of techniques
and in-service education as an additive process." (Houston &
Pankratz, 1980, p. 41)

Dorras (1968) wrote of the conditions which had created
the need for in-service as

aa.employment of inadequately trained persons;

IL raising standards and preparation during the career

lives of teachers;

Ch varying conditions, philosophies, and procedures in

different school systems;

<i.rapid growth of knowledge in almost all fields in

which schools offer instruction;

43.new knowledge of learning process;

fl new instructional materials and devices;

(g.changing economic, technological, political, and

social conditions" (p. 31).

As a solution to the perceived problem, school districts
and many states legislated continuing education requirements
for their teachers. These were individual and teacher
centered activities. That in most cases there was no
requirement on the type of course to be taken suggested that
courses of convenience and potentially lower quality might
have been taken to complete requirements. This and the
potential lack of motivation in taking courses for salary
scale credit may have resulted in less than maximum benefit.
(Dorras, 1968) By 1985, Schlechty and Whitford concluded

that there was little evidence that continuing education has

83

produced much change in schools.

The "teacher centered" model of staff develpoment was
consistent with Lortie's (1975) view that the very structure
of the American approach to education has developed the role
of the teacher as a solitary profession in which a
"‘cellular‘ pattern" grew with the school, "composed of
multiple self-contained classrooms and with chronically high
turnover in teaching ranks." Classes were "self-contained".
Teachers were added when an additional "unit" of students
entered the school. When teachers were replaced, the job was
seen in terms of subject matter or grade level rather than in
terms of "a fit" into a teaching team. He indicated that "it
took over a hundred years ... for serious opposition to arise
to the ‘egg crate school‘" (p. 14).

Concern for staff develpoment based on a teacher
centered model was summarized by Goodlad (1983) in commenting
on the isolated nature of schools in which workshops,
seminars, and graduate study require that teachers leave the
school and when they return they continue in an isolated
manner as before.

In an allegorical article in which Sharma (1982)
compared teacher in-service to the "servicing" of Flossie,

Grandpop‘s "old Jersey Heifer", he wrote,
"The teaching staff was herded into a meeting,
penned by contract language that said the principal
could hold monthly in-service meetings and teachers
must attend. A visiting expert appeared, producing
a projector and transparencies from the trunk of his

84

car. He checked to see if we were ready by stating,
‘Everyone wants to know about ...“ “Then he
proceeded to insert an hour and a half of details
into us, and in the end, like poor old Flossie, we
didn't get to join in the act and we didn‘t have

much fun. It just happened" (p. 40).

Having made his point regarding the top down,
paternalistic practices which had existed, Sharma declared
the need for the teacher to be involved in setting the
priorities in in-service planning and development.

The frustration with the then current state of staff
develpoment planning was summarized by Houston and Pankratz
(1980) in the statement, "Most of what we currently refer to
as in-service is characterized by sterility and lack of
personalization." (p. 38) They set the tone for what they
would like to have seen by defining staff develpoment as,
"all those programs designed to improve the competency of
school personnel at all levels with the expressed intent of
improving the quality of learning for students." (p. 129)
They indicated that a "comprehensive staff development
program operated on two levels": the first level being one of
Orientation and the second aimed at In-depth and Long-term
development. Within these "levels", three areas of concern
were delineated as foci: curriculum-related,
organization-related, and personal development (p. 128)

Though still teacher centered in that the concern was

for the "competency of school personnel", a shift in focus

85

could be noted toward concern for the group and the
organization as a whole. This characteristic began to be
seen in the writings relating to Organization Development and
Personnel Management. Houston and Pankratz (1980) wrote,
"The very essence of teacher in-service education is viewed
here as a team or small group of teachers who work together
on a continuing basis, who have developed a sense of mutual
trust and respect and who are able daily to provide one
another with accurate, precise, and humane feedback about
their behavior in the classroom. In-service education should
be a natural, on-going process which, in an atmosphere of
respect, administration, and yes, even love, fosters
cooperative problem-solving, curriculum development and
exploration with the art and science of teaching." (p. 38)

"Teacher involvement" had long been seen as an important
ingredient of staff develpoment literature. (Dorras, 1968)
This trend was not confined to and did not originate with
educators. Peters and Waterman drew attention to the
motivational value of "worker involvement in their 1982 book
WW
Companies, stating, "We observed time and again,
extraordinary energy exerted above and beyond the call of
duty when the worker...is given even a modicum of control
over his destiny."

Howey and Vaughan (1983) summarized what they saw as
reasons for the failings of earlier staff develpoment efforts

as:

86

1. infrequent involvement with practical, classroom
oriented activities - program content was too general
and theoretical;

2. having little continuity and coordination between the
varied staff develpoment activities of the school;

13.having little feedback - teachers need to see the
effect of changes whether on them or on the
performance of their students - effects must be
measurable or notable;

4. programs too frequently seeming deficit rather than
growth oriented;

£5.too much focus on the teacher rather than the
institution and other factors.

Goodlad (1983) wrote of the school as a "work place" and
that if educators made the assumption that the culture and
ethos of the school was important and could be changed,
school could be a satisfying place to work. For this to
happen it was seen as necessary for the total faculty of the
school to be involved and the school to be seen as the basic
unit for staff develpoment activities. As elements of a
rationale for this view, he listed four areas of potential
benefit for the school. He expressed the opinion that a
foCus on the school as the unit for attention:

1” engenders community support;

2. reduces the danger of overemphasis on one part of the

school;

87

3. increases the chance of improving the school as a work

place;

4. "enhances the potential for personal satisfaction and

also for making schools increasingly satisfactory and

effective educational settings." (p. 42)

Paralleling the rise in attention being given to the

"group" and "whole
been the assertion
"readiness" of the

and of the concept

school" approach to school improvement has
that staff developers must be aware of the
recipient of staff develpoment activities

of "adult development." Howey and Vaughan

(1983) commented on the importance of a change agent being

knowledgeable of the status of the school in question and the

needs and readiness of the participants.

Readiness, as

used by Houston and Pankratz (1980),

related to the state of knowledge and acceptance of the

innovation and its

intended recipient

value brought to the process by the

of the staff develpoment activity. Levels

described as "Orientation, Preparation, Mechanical Use,

Routine Uses, Refinement, and Integration" were used to

suggest that the innovation process should not be thought of

as a short term activity. They expressed criticism that

in-service activities, in spite of the knowledge regarding

the reduced energy level of older teachers and the generally

tired condition of

the staff, continue to be scheduled after

school and apart from the teaching job "rather than as an

activity integrated and embedded in the job." (p. 34)

Klopf warned of this in 1973 when he suggested that all

88

plans for in-service activities should be made in terms of
the needs of participants and that planners should pay
attention to the time and place and not schedule important
discussions related to innovation at the end of the day.

Schlechty and Whitford (1983) pointed out that the
schools needed to recognize that goals associated with adult
growth were important to the success of schools. Essentially
all justification for what has been done in schools has been
linked to child growth as the prime legitimizer of schools.
As some adult growth activities such as workshops,
conferences, travel, and joint planning time would interfere
with child growth activities, there was a need to consider
the relative values and plan accordingly.

Thus it would seem that the then current thinking
regarding staff develpoment in education in 1985 suggested a
model which included concern to; the individual rather than

concern about the individual and the concept that the group

or institution was seen as being made—nmLindilidnalfi

rather than individuals seen as parts_of_tho_orono_or
institution. Clearly, there was been a shift in the meaning

of the term "staff development" from one of the development
of individual members of a staff to one of the development of
a staff unit from individuals whose abilities were developed
and whose needs were considered.

Though not universally acceptable when speaking to or
about members of "professions", the field of personnel

management may have offered a useful framework within which

89

to consider a larger context for the term staff develpoment.
Flippo (1984) commented on his 1961 edition of Bensonnei
Management, that he had set forth a basic framework which had
"proved sufficiently flexible and comprehensive" to have
accommodated the many changes in the subsequent twenty years.
This framework included the following "sequence of

functions": (p. xiii)

- Procurement of personnel;
- Development through training and education;
- Compensation to insure equity;
- Integration to align interests of employees,
management, and the union;
- Maintenance to insure continuity of this able and
willing work force;
- Separation to return personnel to society when no
longer required
If applied to U.S. education, it might have seemed
appropriate to delegate the "Development through training and
education" function to Colleges and University as being
outside the sphere of the local school districts. The other
five functions could easily have been aligned with existing
functions in school personnel management and thus applicable
to staff develpoment in its global sense.
With the consolidation of U.S. schools into larger units
these five remaining functions became somewhat parcelled out.

The building principal of the large school, out of necessity,

90

may not have been intimately involved in the selection of
teachers or the negotiation of compensation packages. He/she
may have delegated in-service planning and the maintenance
functions of assessment and career counseling to
subordinates. The re-emergence of the buildingprincipal as
a focal point of attention in the staff develpoment process
may have resulted in and necessitated that the principal
become more intimately involved with staff develpoment

issues.

The Role of the Administrator

Much has been written of the importance of the building
principal in the improvement of schools. If one accepts the
school as the appropriate unit for attention, as Goodlad
(1983) has urged, then the role of the principal as enabler
within the unit would place the individual in that job at the
focal point of the staff develpoment process. He wrote that
"we will have good schools when we have good principalS" and
called for a decentralized authority in which those involved
develop and update three to five plans and a reward structure
which is shifted from an individual base (salary schedule,
etc.) to a site based attack on school problems, quality of
work place etc.

The importance of the principal has been recognized for
sometime. Dorras (1968) cited studies which showed a
relationship between working climate in the school and

competence of the administrator. Perhaps what was missing

91

was a recognition of the importance of the working climate in
the school. Klopf (1973) commented on the importance of
building principals in involving persons and resources to
support staff develpoment He stated, “Staff growth and
change is a process, the heart of which is the enabling role
of one individual with another. Central to this process are
the principals. They need to gain the competencies to enact
certain functions of the enabler role. ... it does not just
happen. It takes a competent principal who can initiate,
facilitate, energize, and make things happen." (p. 8) Klopf
saw the following elements of the principal‘s role among
others as relating to staff develpoment: (p. 8-9)

1” Adding to the staff‘s understanding of the
educational and social role of the school in the
rapidly changing American society;

2. Analyzing the climate for change in the school setting

~and outlining strategies for change to teachers and
other school personnel;

13.Accurately identifying the characteristics of the
community;

‘4.Developing team relationships among staff members by -
a.functioning effectively as a staff team leader;
b.functioning effectively as a member of the staff

team;
cu delegating staff develpoment leadership

responsibility to members of a staff team;

92

. Encouraging collegiality between the paraprofessional

and professional;

. Implementing and facilitating individual teacher

self-evaluation.

Kane (1985) indicated a number of ways in which the

administrator could influence the development of the staff

member.

These included such things as:
the importance of helping beginning teachers in
combatting the sink-or-swim initiation into teaching
by giving master teachers time off to coach new
teachers individually;
facilitating participation in out of school, local,
and national workshops and conferences which offer
"opportunities to stay abreast of educational change";
encouraging inter-class visitation within the school
or day visits with colleagues in another school;
the economic use of staff meetings cutting down on
announcements and maintenance activities;
and a system centered on teacher improvement rather
than on teacher assessment - growth rather than

rating.

The Administrator in the.A/OS School

The importance of the administrator in the international

school has been well recognized and has been perhaps greater

than that of his U.S. counterpart. Domidion, (1964) stated

that "the administrator is the major variable having

93

influence upon the entire school program and the community
involved" (p. xiv). She cited the comment of Edward Meade,
Jr. on the subject, "a bad overseas school is likely to be
very bad indeed; a good one is often phenomenally effective.
And it is usually the principal who makes the difference"
(p. 8). In his discussion of the work of overseas
executives, Torre (1967) indicated that the success of a
mission and its overall tone is affected by the Chief of
Mission. This was "more significant than other factors on
the morale of the mission. The attitude of the staff toward
black-marketing illegal money and other ‘shady' practices is
closely related to the attitude of the Chief of Mission"

(p. 88). While not writing specifically about schools, the
concepts were, perhaps, equally pertinent.

A significant reason for the heightened importance of
the administrator in the international school setting relates
to the size and isolation of many of the schools; for in most
cases, the administrator has been alone in his school. Kelly
(1974) indicated that the "absence of other administrators to
share with is a strange and unanticipated loss that is
difficult to adjust to" (p. 7). Frith (1981) stressed a
need for self-reliance in the overseas administrator since
he/she "will have no one to turn to in times of crises"

(p. 13) .

In his study of Chief Administrative Officers of

bi-national schools of Central America, Bentz (1972) related

the complex role of international school administrators to

94

their interactions with four quite disparate and diverse
constituencies:

1” a bi-national community of varying size and
composition having a very mobile element and differing
beliefs as to the nature of a good school;

2. a board of governance of varying size and composition,
differing in tenure and expectation as to the
appropriate relationship between the roles of the
board, its members and the administrator of the
school;

13.a professional staff which must be recruited and
welded from individuals of several cultures, each of
whom brings a set of perceptions relating to student
conduct, teaching and learning;

4. a highly mobile and diverse student body from a range
of different cultures and educational systems.

Adding to the pressure on the international school
administrator has been his role as the interface with a range
of influential institutions and individuals from the
community which the school serves. These range from
relatively "high influence" institutions such as host
government, U.S. embassy and international agencies to
individuals of great wealth, governmental position, or
international fame. Bale (1984) commented that the nature of
clientele of the schools typically included the elite of host
nationals and the diplomatic corps, who had high expectations

and desires for quality. With this as a prominent factor,

95

there has been a need for the "best available administrators"
(p. 32).

Overseas administrators have generally had no local
peers. It was imperative that they have had good relations
with a range of individuals including board members and other
significant individuals in the community. This required
considerable political skill and survival instinct. They
have usually had to contend with rumors about their
effectiveness and the direction and intent of their
initiatives. (Cleveland, 1960)

Bentz (1972, citing Orr) concluded that working within
and between the multi-dimensional communities of the
international schools was "infinitely more complex and
apparently more demanding and difficult than it is in urban
schools in the U.S. or elsewhere." (p. 9) Problems of
organization, administration, finances, and staffing were
seen as more extensive than in the average school in the
United States. Given the range of roles and skills requ.:ed
of the administrator of the small and often develOping
international school, he must often perform tasks of an
"institution-building" nature.

Domidion (1964) indicated that, "the job of the overseas
principal involves many demands different from those
encountered in local systems in the States“ (p. viii). She
also felt that there was a heightened importance of the
administrator‘s role as a representative of the school in the

American community, and as one of the principal

96

representatives of the American community to the expatriate

and host communities.

.Administrative Training and Experience.

One might consider that the international school
administrator's job would have been a substantial task, but
well within the capacity of an experienced administrator.
Frequently, however, the school which had the greatest need
of a seasoned, veteran administrator was the very school
which given its size could least afford to offer a benefit
package necessary to recruit such a person. (Domidion, 1964;
Mannino, 1970) Further, Droppert (1984) felt that
recruitment may have been more difficult due to the location

of the schools and local living conditions.

Table 3
Percent Distribution of Highest Earned Degrees
of C.A.O's of A/OS schools,
by Student Population Grouping

50 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
under to to to to to to and Average

53 32 132 233 333 532 333 ahme. .i

Bachelor's 43 33 18 18 - 5 7 12 16
Master's 50 47 64 65 39 60 67 33 53
Doctorate - 13 9 12 54 35 20 54 26
Other 7 7 9 6 8 - 7 - 5
Number of

Schools 14 15 22 17 13 20 15 24

(Luebke, 1976, p. 26)

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From Table 3, it could be seen that for schools with
fewer than 600 students, a direct relationship existed
between the size of the schools and the percent of school
Heads holding graduate degrees.

Domidion (1964) found that 40% of administrators in her
survey were in their first overseas experience. Seventy five
percent of administrators in King's study (1968) had held
their post for no more than 2 years with 25% in their first
administrative post of any type. Bentz (1972) reported that
14 of the 23 CAO‘s of his study had no overseas experience
prior to taking up their posts. He indicated that in the
large schools a "more stable organizational condition was
observed" (p. 15). Administrators tended to remain in their
post for a longer time. He credited the tenured
administrator with giving the school an institutional
stability, a "past, present, and future" (p. 56-57).

Stoddard (1980) summarized a number of author‘s concerns
about the quality of administration of the A/OS schools. She
cited a frequent lack of administrative experience, a failure
to consider relevant local conditions as differing from those
in the U.S., and a lack of preparedness in dealing with the
host country power structure as suggestive of questionable
quality in administrators. Domidion, (1964) indicated that
the "unprepared administrator may not be ready for the local
concept of time, manners, and protocol" (p. 51). Domidion

(1964) lamented at the level of training and/or preparation

98

of administrators who were taking over overseas schools.
"Many are teachers stepping out of the classroom for the
first time" (p. vii). The head of school who was new to the
international schools generally lacked knowledge specific to
operation of a school in the given setting. There was a
necessity for the new administrator to learn such elements as
how to apply for financial assistance, how to obtain

curriculum planning help, and a host of local government

regulations.

Administrative Turnover

Considerable concern has been expressed over the
frequent change in direction with the turnoVer of the Heads
of schools. (McGugan, 1970) In his examination of the tenure
of Heads of schools, King (1968) found that 75% had been in
their post for less than three years. In reference to the
two-year contracts signed by most Heads, Kelly (1974)
indiCated that "this allows hardly enough time to do much
more than to prepare for a few innovative improvements.
Usually, it will take most of the first year to develop
rapport, identify needs, and begin to impliment needed
change. During the second year, as programming sucessfully
develops, the tour of duty ends and the Head leaves" (p. 85).

The concern for administrative turnover did not,
however, seem to be uniformly felt. King, (1968) found that
25% of the administrators in his survey favored one year

contracts with 56% favoring two year contracts (p. 194).

99

Similarly, the importance placed on prior experience varied
significantly in the view of different members of the school
community. Droppert (1984) found that whereas administrators
ranked "Lack of Administrative Experience" as 12th of 15
items as to" Constraints on the International Administrator",
teachers in the same schools ranked the item as 6th in

significance (p. 133-134).

Professional Growth for Administrators

In his analysis of the career paths of international
school administrators, Bale (1984), pointed to the value of
networking and friends in attaining overseas posts and to
enhancing overseas careers. He found an absence of career
paths with only a vestige of the mentoring normally found in
the growth and development of the careers of administrators
in the U.S. Where mentoring was found, it was of an informal
nature and for a relatively short duration. He indicated
that to a large extent administrators learn by "trial an
error ... [and]... may take a long time to stumble onto an
appropriate way of handling a problem" (p. 25). He expressed
concern that in this setting, failure often lessens the self
esteem and confidence of the new head of school. The new
administrator could ill afford this learning process since,
as Chudler (1974) indicated, the teachers and community
expected the new administrator to immediately take charge of
the school and exhibit strong leadership. It was necessary

that this be done with "little or no orientation" (p. 118).

100

In examining the growth of administrators after assuming
their post at the time of his study, Bale (1984) found that
of 56 administrators, 55% indicated that they had received no
help from overseas school boards with respect to further
training. In response to the question concerning areas of
need, more formal training related to Financial and Business
Affairs, Public Relations, the Local Language, and Counseling
were most frequently listed with only 4 of 56 expressing a
need for training in Personnel Management and 5 included
Personnel Evaluation as a concern.

Although Mannino (1970) related that the administrators
of A/OS schools as a group were better prepared than their
faculties, he stated, "too many schools are not attracting or
recruiting accomplished ‘change agents' among their key
administrative and teaching staffs. Relatively inexperienced
and frequently inept school directors are employed.

Moreover, the turnover among qualified administrators and
teachers approaches 50% annually. No systematic program of
institutional reform or instructional innovation can be built

upon that soft a personnel base" (p.114).

Staff Development in the A/OS Schools
As has been presented previously, the focus of staff
develpoment in recent years has turned to the school unit,
the enabling of the teacher, and the role of team
builder/enabler of the administrator. International

educators have commented on three distinct levels regarding

101

the development of the functioning staff of a school. At the
risk of criticism for connecting quotes out of context, an
interesting statement results from connecting King‘s (1968)
simple comment, "The key to the school‘s success lies in the
staff itself," (p. 5) to that of Cleveland (1960), "The first
condition of effective institution-building is to build from
within," (p. 158) and follow with that of Droppert (1984),
"The personality of the administrator was seen as important
in maintaining a cohesive and productive working unit in the
schools" (p. 11). Together these seemed to reflect much of
the spirit of the work of staff developers in the past few
years.

In many regards the situation regarding staff
develpoment in the international schools should have been
better than that in the U.S. If, as inferred, much of the
problem in large U.S. school districts was related to the
cumbersome and distant aspect of central administrative
management verses local control, the international schools
should have had an edge. Chudler (1974) has pointed out that
the international school administrator has a high degree of
freedom in planning the school‘s program. He indicated that
this has not accompanied significant staff develpoment
activity through his statement, "Developmental and in-service
educational opportunities in most foreign countries are
practically non-existent." (p. 118)

The literature suggests that at least part of the reason

for the absence of significant staff develpoment activity in

102

the schools seems to have been in the nature of the
administrative role in the school and a question of
priorities. Bahner (1974) stated that, "Administrators
especially tend to be career-oriented overseas and are less
likely than their stateside counterparts to be able to
provide the leadership needed in promoting innovations."

(p. 165) Suggesting that this may be passing, he commented
on a recent trend of administrators toward taking a year off
for graduate study.

Droppert (1984) presented the administrators, teachers
and members of communities of expatriate schools with a list
of 20 variables identified with the Role of an Administrator
in the local school. The groups of administrators and
teachers ranked Staff Development as 6th in importance.
Listed as more important (though not in the same order) were
the administrator‘s role as Instructional Leader, Policy
Maker, Decision Maker, Information Coordinator, and
Experienced Teacher. Parents ranked Staff Development as 9th
in importance, placing Decision Maker as lower and adding
Business Manager, Maintains US/UK Orientation, and Academic
Specialist in higher positions. A

As previously indicated, the international school
administrator has been quite often alone in his role in the
school community. He has frequently been inexperienced in
general and has not tended to remain in his post for a long
time. Given these factors and the plethora of role

expectations, it may not have been surprising that activities

103

such as staff develpoment had not received much attention.

Staff Development and the A/OS Teacher

Among the few comments on the subject in the literature,
Bahner's (1974) were not very promising. He suggested that
there was a tendency for overseas teachers not to attend
"refresher courses in U.S. universities during the summer
since they either prefer to travel or spend the time visiting
with friends and relations if they return to the United
States" (p. 165). He commented on the high cost of
professional literature overseas, few graduate courses and
conferences to which teachers could be sent, and the little
chance for interaction with colleagues other than those in
the same school. He stated that "teachers who make their
career overseas tend to lack exposure to professional
literature and current trends" (p. 165).

As has been reported in discussing the work of the 0/08,
considerable effort has been made in the development of
regionally based associations through which the deficiencies
reported by Bahner may have been ameliorated. He reported
involvement in a regional (League) concept termed,
Individually Guided Education (IGE) through the Institute for
the Development of Educational Activities. This O/OS
project, which commenced in 1971 with centers in Sao Paulo
and Singapore and expanded, adding centers in Madrid and
Bogota in 1972, was not seen as a permanent activity but

rather one of seeding. More permanent were the Regional

104

Associations. As previously indicated, these have had
varying success. The European Council of Independent School
(ECIS) reported considerable and steady growth in the

attendance of teachers to its annual conference.

Table 4
Attendance at ECIS Fall conferences

Year Attendance

1978 1000

1979 1000 +
1983 1500 +
1984 1600 +
1985 1700 +
1986 2200 +

(Correspondence with the Secretariat of ECIS)

Having started with an administrative conference only,

ECIS activities expanded substantially since its formation in
1964. In addition to annual conferences, ECIS has encouraged
subject based, school-level based (elementary and middle
school), and local-region based subgroups to form and has
assisted with the financing of staff develpoment activities.
By 1982, 13 subject based committees had formed, each
potentially sponsoring workshops and assisting with the
identification of presenters for the major annual conference.
(Correspondence with the ECIS Secretariat)

A In responding to the needs of elementary, middle school

and high school administrators, job alike groups have been

105

added to the existing Heads group. Independent sessions as
part of the two annual conferences and additional seminars
have been sponsored addressing the needs of these groups.
Most recently (Summer 1986), ECIS had joined the Harvard
Graduate School of Education in sponsoring a week long
Principal‘s Center in London. Activities similar to those of
ECIS have been conducted by associations in each of the six
major A/OS regions.

If one assumes the accuracy of Bahner‘s (1974) views and
in consideration of the state of the literature relating to
staff develpoment practices in the international schools,
three conclusions might be reached:

1” the literature relating to the international American
program schools does not appear to contain a coherent
definition or summation of the relevant elements of
staff develpoment;

2. the focus of attention for staff develpoment practices
in the A/OS schools may have been quite different from
that associated with a U.S.-based perspective.

13.there seemed to be a recent awakening to the staff
develpoment needs of the teachers in A/OS schools and
considerable activity in addressing them;

What was unclear was whether this awakening had reached
the isolated international school and whether individuals
charged with responsibility in these schools had the
insights, abilities and/or resources to act on this

awakening.

106

Summary

Chapter II has contained a review of literature
pertinent to an understanding of the state of staff
develpoment in the isolated A/OS schools. The history and
development of this group of schools and their relationship
to the Office of Overseas schools has been described. Though
not dependent on nor controlled by this office, the schools
received considerable assistance, both financial and
logistical from this agency. Of perhaps greater importance
than the direct assistance of the 0/08, has been the
persistent efforts to create vehicles through which A/OS and
other independent schools serving Americans abroad could
benefit. Pre-eminent in these activities has been support
for programs which were aimed at the improvement in the
quality of staffing in each of the schools.

A close relationship has existed between American
schools and their local community and this phenomenon has
been transferred into the expatriate American setting. The
affect of the nature of the community through a
representative board of governance on the development of the
school and its staff have been analyzed.

Isolation appears to have had a number of affects on
expatriate communities and their schools. Isolation has been
meant to include both that associated with physical
separation and that associated with cultural/psychological

separation. Accompanying this has been an analysis of a

107

variety of factors associated with the adjustment necessary
for developing and maintaining a productive life in an
expatriate community. A key factor in the development of the
schools has been the constant departure and arrival of
families and staff members. Having the greatest bearing on
the A/OS school in this regard has been the turnover of
teachers, administrators, and board members.

It was deemed important to present a brief summary of the
history of staff develpoment activities in the U.S. The role
of the teacher and thus the thrust of staff develpoment
activities has change greatly during the past 20 years. A
shift has been noted from viewing the teacher as a discrete
unit and a "deficiency" model of staff develpoment aimed as
individual improvement to one in which the term "staff" has
being seen more as a collective term. In this model,
teachers and administrators were seen as members of a team
with joint participation in the development of the school.
Thus team building activities were seen as an integral part
of staff develpoment.

The administrator of the A/OS appears to have been a key
figure in all aspects of the development of the school.
Comment has been made to the recent attention given to the
importance of building administrators in U.S. schools. The
review of the literature relating to the administrators of
the A/OS schools suggested that they were charged with a
range of tasks far in excess of those assigned to individuals

with commensurate experience and training in the U.S. Those

108

in the smaller, less desirable schools appear to have had
less experience and did not remain in their positions for
more than a few years. In many cases, isolation has
necessitated that these individuals face crises without the
benefit of an administrative council which would exist in a
larger school. These factors have resulted in significant
problems in the schools.

Attention was once again turned to the expatriate
communities and their schools for an examination of staff
develpoment activities reported to be in practice. It was
found that with the exception of considerable information
relating to the recruitment and orientation of staff members,
very little has been written on the subject.

In closing the chapter, several tentative conclusions
were reached. First, it was felt that the concept of staff
development may have been poorly defined in the minds of
practitioners and may have received little attention in the
daily operation of the schools. Second, it was felt that
though ill-defined, staff development may be present but in a
substantially different form than found in schools in the
U.S.; and finally, it appeared that greater concern and

attention has been given to the topic in recent years.

Chapter III

Introduction

The purpose of this research project was to describe the
term staff development as applied to isolated
American-sponsored Overseas Schools (A/OS) and to determine
the major factors which impacted this process. In this
chapter, a presentation of the methodology used in the
research project will be offered in two distinct sections.
First, the choice of descriptive research will be explained.
In doing so, the nature of descriptive research and a
rationale for the methods of field research will be
presented. Second, a detailed chronology of the events of
the research process will be described.

At the outset of the project, the researcher was
troubled by a near absence in the literature of substantive
and meaningful examples of staff development in the
American-curriculum international schools. During the design
stage of a then undefined dissertation study, he had been
presented with an opportunity to visit a group of highly
isolated schools in Eastern Europe and was to become involved
in working with the schools in one particular curricular
area, educational computing. At the time, this area of
curriculum in the American schools was receiving considerable
attention. Small schools, generally without curriculum

specialists, were in need of assistance. These conditions

109

110

suggested that a degree of staff in-service might be called
for in this particular curricular area. This in turn led the
writer to query the nature of effective staff development
programs under the circumstances of isolation. Having found
limited information in the existing literature, it was felt
that there was insufficient information on which to base
hypothesis or to design a controlled experimental situation.
Thus the decision was made to conduct basic research in the
form of a descriptive study associated with the question,
"What is the meaning of staff development in the isolated
school setting?" with the hope that this might serve the
schools, their staff members, and the profession in general.
Schatzman and Strauss (1973) set forth a logical

progression for field research. They indicated that:

"Once the researcher has his focus of interest, he
must locate a site that contains people and
activity bearing upon that interest; then, he must
enter the site, establish an identity and relations
with the host, watch the people and their activity,
listen to the symbolic sounds that will make
meaningful much of what goes on there, record his
experiences, convert these experiences into data,
analyze them, and validate his new tactics"

(p. 18) .

Methodology
As the name implies, descriptive research has as its
purpose the description of situations or groups for which
insufficient description exists on which to construct the

hypotheses necessary for other types of research. During the

111

descriptive process, every attempt must be made to avoid
interference with that which is being described, thus no
experimental manipulation is assumed. Rather, the existence,
extent, and distribution as well as the relationships between
elements making up the field of interest are observed and
described.

In their description of the importance of site selection,
Schatzman and Strauss (1973) emphasized the need for a clear
definition of the field of research. They suggested that
prior to committing to a particular site, the researcher
should ‘case the joint.‘ (p.19) During this time, three
objectives should be satisfied. The researcher should:

- determine whether the site is suitable;

- determine whether the study is feasible in light of
the physical conditions associated with the site;

- lay the groundwork for site entry by becoming familiar
with the significant individuals, structures, and
physical aspects of the site such that the appropriate
individuals can be approached and a realistic research
plan can be prepared.

Though details relating to staff development planning
and practice in American-sponsored Overseas Schools (A/OS)
were scarce in the literature, it seemed likely that the
information necessary for an understanding of the conditions
in the participant schools would lie in an understanding of
the views and actions of their administrators. These

individuals were seen as key to the success of the research.

112

It appeared that the structure of small A/OS schools were
such that the very existence of staff development plans as
well as their design and implementation were dependent on the
views and actions of the administrators. Secondly, it was
known that the Heads of schools making up the Eastern
European group would be asked by the Office of Overseas
Schools (0/05) to prepare an LRP for Staff Development. The
timing of this request suggested that these individuals would
devote considerable attention to staff development concerns
during the following months. A 16 month plan of group
observations and individual interviews would allow one year
to pass after the submission of the initial LRP, during
which, evidence of any change in attitude, policy, and/or
activity which might result from the process could be
recorded.

In planning a research project, a strategy must be
prepared through which the nature of the area of interest can
be brought into focus, explored, defined, described, and
analyzed. It has been suggested that differing from
laboratory research, field research does not presume that the
researcher can contain and control the field in which the
research takes place. The researcher may in fact know little
about the internal dynamics within the field before entry.
Problem statements are not considered a requisite and where
existent, may require adjustment and refinement as the
research progresses. (Schatzman & Strauss, 1973)

Descriptive research typically includes both qualitative

113

and quantitative examination of the subject. Though there
was strong evidence to indicate which "behaviors" and
"characteristics" were important to staff development in the
setting of the schools involved in the study, the nature of
the situation was not static and it appeared that meaningful
results could not be guaranteed without initial exploration
for unknown factors. Thus it was deemed necessary to clarify
the field to be explored and develop a focus for the study
prior to proceeding. Nearly one year was spent in the
collection of qualitative data through interviewing and
observing individuals involved with the schools. From this
data a summative survey was constructed. The results of this

survey represented the quantitative data of the study.

Human Subjects

In accordance with the University policies associated
with research which utilizes human subjects, the research
proposal was submitted to the University Committee on
Research on Human Subjects for approval. It was explained
that data would be obtained from adults who would be
knowledgeable of the nature of the study and who would have
the opportunity to deny assistance to the researcher. A goal
of participation by five of the nine possible schools had
been set, allowing for the possible refusal by some to offer
assistance. It was explained that anonymity would be assured
for all participants and that no direct reference would be

made to those who might not agree to participate in the

114

project. Approval was granted to proceed with the research.

Data Collection

It was anticipated that certain elements of data would
be supplied directly by the Heads, while other items would be
indirectly supplied through the interpretation of interviews
and informal exchanges which would occur. Still other
elements of data would be observable during the meetings of
the school Heads.

The principle means of data recording was the use of a
micro tape recorder which was carried at all times when data
might be forthcoming. This was supplemented by field notes
made at times when the conditions under which the recording
was being made might obscure clarity. Once the request for
assistance with the research project had been made, the tape
recorder was used openly and with the knowledge of all
concerned. At individual interviews, a request was made for
its use. During social occasions and prior to the request
for assistance for support for the study, field notes were
kept and summative tape recordings were made. The researcher
found it necessary to excuse himself occasionally, to find a
location where notes could be rapidly recorded, that they not
be forgotten. On other occasions, the recording was made
immediately upon leaving the group or individual from whom
the relevant information had been received.

A field journal was maintained throughout the project.

Since recordings were made of most notes, the function of the

115

journal was to maintain order in the tapes and resulting
transcripts of the data and to aid in recalling the exact
order of events during the writing of the dissertation.
Taped interviews and copies of documents were requested
from the Heads of the schools on two occasions and a summary
survey was completed by each school Head. The collection of
formal data was finalized with an personal interview with
each Head. The varied methods of obtaining elements of data

were seen as meaningful since, as indicated by Schatzman and

Strauss (1973):
"Interview or questionnaire procedures constitute
situations in their own right; therefore, what
persons report in either case often better reflects
those situations than the referential ones which
the techniques were designed to ascertain.
Referential situations are too quickly and readily
converted by any given respondent into relatively
idealized models when he is talking with

researchers outside the ‘real‘ situation" (p. 6).

It was felt that by comparing and contrasting the formal
data, informal data and written staff development plans, that
a relatively accurate representation of staff development
practices in the schools could be ascertained.

As indicated by proponents of field methodology, "the
researcher must develop procedures as he goes." (Schatzman &
Strauss, 1973, p. vii) Thus it was expected that initially
unknown sources of data would emerge during the course of the
research. Two such sources were discovered after the start
of the study. These were used to supplement data supplied by

the Heads or observed during their meetings. One source was

116
the Regional Education Officers (R.E.O.s) of the 0/08.

Interviews with five of the six (R.E.O.s) were conducted.

A second potentially valuable group of individuals,
which had originally not been anticipated, were a number of
professors at Michigan State University who had worked with
the O/OS and specifically the two professors who had written
the LRP manual to be used by the Heads group. These
individuals were interviewed and added to the writer's
understanding of the history of 0/08 and its efforts in staff

development.

The Data Collection Plan

The data collection plan for the project was as follows:

Consultancy - Individual school visitation and
Fall/Winter 1984

establishment of a personal contact
with the school Heads;
Heads Meeting - Data collection and initial
Fall 1985 ‘
observation of group interaction and

dynamics ;

Formal Site Entry - Request for support for study.
Winter 1984

W
Phase I - an open-ended taped interview and
request for existing written
doCuments;
Heads Meeting - observation of second group meeting

Spring 1985
and the collection of LRP from

117
participant schools;

Phase II -' structured taped interview based on
information collected from Phase I

and Heads‘ meeting;

Heads Meeting - observation of third group meeting;
Fall 1985
Summary Survey - the collection of demographic data
Fall 1985

and data related to attitudes of
Heads relative to staff development;

Heads meeting - final observation of Heads' group;
Spring 1986 '

Closure Interview
Spring 1986

bringing closure to study

InformaLDataJolls-ictimz.

As previously explained, the field researcher does not
know from the outset the exact nature nor location of all
potential data sources. As inquiry progressed, sources of
data were discovered and explored. In addition to the formal
data associated with the interviews and observations of the
Heads, supplemental data of various types were obtained

during the course of the study.

Site Entry
Site entry was given considerable prominence on the
literature of field research. Johnson (1978) described the
two reasons for this importance. In addition to the obvious,
"No entry - No research," (p. 50) he discussed a more subtle

aspect of the issue. He suggested that the quality of the

118

data to be obtained during the research was directly effected
by the relationship which existed between the researcher and
the members of the setting emphasizing the need for "trust
between an observer and the members of the setting" (p. 51).

In field research, the focus of the study may not be
clear prior to entry into the field. Johnson described a
paradox which may result from this fact. The researcher must
present a research proposal of sufficient detail to satisfy
those who are empowered to grant entry to the site of study,
"yet the foci of the investigation emerge only after some
portion of the research has been accomplished." In the case
of this study, it was initially assumed that "the site" of
concern would be found within the schools involved in the
study. However, during the initial stages, exploration
revealed that a focus of potentially greater importance was
associated with the attitudes of the Head regarding staff
development and the role taken within the meetings which
would potentially lead to group and individual staff
development activities associated with the development of a
Regional Center.

Having been an observer at the Fall 1983 and 1984
meetings of Heads, and with the implication that he would be
serving the schools as consultant, it appeared that the
researcher had established himself in a non-threatening role
within the group. The assurance of "participant observer"
status at three bi-annual meetings to follow during the next

16 month period, provided a good basis from which to request

119

individual support for the study from the Heads. It was
assumed that a number of the Heads would agree to participate
in a series of individual interviews to occur during the
course of the study and to supply relevant documents.

Schatzman and Strauss (1973) stressed the importance of
establishing a positive relationship with those individuals
who control entry and facilitate examination of the site.
They advised that site entry is a continuous process as
further site entry may be required with individuals at lower
levels in the institution. They referred to this as "working
the hierarchy" (p. 20). Johnson (1978) pointed out that not
only is the researcher often involved in multiple entry but
may use a staged approach through which "gradual requests for
more open access to the insider understanding" may occur
(p. 64). These principles were applied in establishing a
relationship with significant individuals of this study.

As assistance with schools‘ computing programs had been
of concern, the researcher had been included in the 1983 and
1984 meetings and was subsequently offered a consultancy
associated with the establishment of computing programs in
the nine schools. The consultancy would involve a one time
survey of the programs of the schools with preparation of a
summary report for 0/08 and individual reports for each of
the schools. Following this, he would assist the schools
with the purchase of equipment and software and be available
to advise on any problems encountered by the schools.

During the Summer prior to the consultancy, the

120

researcher had discussions with the R.E.O. for Europe. In
addition to discussing the details of the project, this
provided the researcher with an opportunity to discuss the
possibility of utilizing this group of schools as a research
site. It was agreed that while this might be possible and
would be potentially a valuable site, a request for
cooperation from the schools should await completion of the
formal consultancy and reporting phases of his involvement.
Certain sensitivities of the respective Heads was pointed out
and the importance of establishing a relationship with them
was discussed. The cooperation of these individuals would be
necessary to gain entry to the individual schools for any‘
meaningful study. As previously noted, once underway, the
focus of the study shifted from the dynamics within the
schools to those associated with the Heads‘ views, decisions,
and actions of potential impact on staff development
activities in the schools.

A second concern at this stage related to the fact that
little was known regarding the relationship between the Heads
and the R.E.O. and regarding the individual receptivity of
the Heads of the schools to the consultancy to be performed.
Therefore, to facilitate successful site entry, the
researcher postponed an approach to the school Heads for
their support of the project until after the recommendations
concerning the computer programs of the schools had been
made.

In line with the need to establish a positive

121

relationship with the Heads, each was assured that only
he/she would receive a detailed report regarding the
particular school and that the report to be submitted to the
Heads as a group and to the 0/08 would be summative, relating
a composite overview of the programs.

Though the decision had been made to postpone the
request for assistance from the Heads, it was clearly the
intent of the researcher to record general perceptions of
conditions in the schools and any observable elements,
attitudes and activities relating to staff development. The
receptivity and utilization of the researcher in his role as
"consultant" was seen as a potential indicator of attitudes
toward staff development in the schools. Since this form of
preliminary data would be collected, research ethics required
that each Head be informed that a request for support from
0/08 for a study was being made and that assistance of the
Head may be requested at a later date. This was done at the
earliest opportunity following the establishment of a relaxed
relationship with the Head. It was later to prove beneficial
that considerable good will and trust was developed during
the consultancy.

Although the possibility of school visits by the
researcher, in his role as consultant, had been discussed at
the 1983 meeting and the visits to the schools had been
announced by telex from the R.E.O in September 1984, the
researcher was surprised to find considerable insecurity and

hesitancy upon arrival at several schools.

122

In most cases the Head welcomed an assessment of the
school‘s computing program. In several, a concern for a
"hidden agenda" was expressed. In some schools the staff
member charged with responsibility for the program was
defensive and resistant to the researcher‘s examination of
the school's program. In only one case did the Head express
a defensive attitude. In this case, the school did not have
a computing teacher and the Head had made a commitment to an
extensive purchase of equipment and software from the U.S.,
which may account for his initially defensive manner. As the
relationship continued, this Head became quite co-operative
with the researcher and appeared to welcome interviews as
opportunities to discuss his school‘s problems and
developments.

During the visit to each school, the researcher was
careful to reassure all Heads that, as far as 0/05 was
concerned, his mission was exclusively to assist in assessing
the computing programs of the schools and that a detailed
report would be given to them only with a general cumulative
summary given to 0/08 and the other Heads. The intent to
request assistance with a research project was discussed and
received mixed reactions at this stage of the relationships.
Although of some concern at the time, it appears that this
open dialogue was a significant contributing factor in

ultimately gaining the cooperation of all members of the

group.

123

W

The Consultancy Phase

During the Fall of 1984, the researcher made two trips
which included visits to each of the nine schools. A total
of 24 days were spent in visiting the schools in which site
visits varied from two to five days in duration. Generally
more time was allotted to the larger schools. The first trip
included visits in Prague, Warsaw, Moscow, and Budapest. The
second trip included stops in Bucharest, Sofia, Istanbul,
Belgrade, and Zagreb. During the month which occurred
between the two trips, the Fall conference of teachers
belonging to the European Council of International Schools
(ECIS) was held. 'It was during this conference that the
Heads of the schools were presented with the request by the
0/08 for the development of a LRP for staff development

During the visits to the schools, the researcher was
able to spend considerable time with the Head of each school
and with those individuals involved with the use of computers
in the schools. Utilization of the consultant‘s time ranged
from a total lack of preparedness to a comprehensive
scheduling of group and individual sessions. These and other
interactions and observations were summarized with the use of
a micro tape recorder which was carried and used during
moments of privacy. Note was made of a number of factors
which facilitated the success of the consultancy as a staff
development activity. These included the coordination of the

0/08, the role of the school's Head during the visit, and the

124

degree to which the researcher‘s time was meaningfully

utilized.

The 1984 Fall ECIS Conference

As had been indicated to the researcher by the R.E.O.
for Europe, the Heads of the nine schools and at least one
board member from each school were brought together in
Frankfurt for a full day of meetings associated with staff
development planning. Since the planning process was seen as
a precursor to the formation of a Regional Center in Vienna,
individuals from the American International School (AIS) of
Vienna, including the researcher, were included in the
meeting. A facilitator was employed who approached the task
assuming the role of instructor and guide to the LRP process.
The manual , WWW
Qeyeioomenn (no publication date) was used as a model.
During the course of the full day meeting, the entire LRP
process was described and discussed. At the end of the day,
the R.E.O. outlined his desire for the development of a
complete plan to be shared at a follow-up meeting to be held
in Vienna in the Spring of 1985. During the course of the
day, detailed notes* were taken which became a record of the
first of several meetings of this group. (* It was feared
that the use of a tape recorder might be seen as
inappropriate at this stage in the project.)

Not associated with the day of meetings thus far

described, a second special day was set aside prior to the

125

conference billed as a "Boardsmanship Workshop". This will

be described in Chapter IV.

Request for Support

In January of 1985, having submitted reports to the
individual schools regarding their computer programs and
having submitted a summary report for the Office of Overseas
Schools, the researcher‘s role as consultant to the schools
was complete except for a discussion of the report to be
included in the March meeting of the Heads of the schools in
Vienna. Thus, in January, a formal request for support with
the research project was made to the Head of each school.
(Appendix A) As part of the request, a number of important
points were explained. These included:

- that the study was a private matter, not associated
with the researcher's role as consultant, the Vienna
center project or other involvements of O/OS;

- the nature, extent and time requirements of the study;

- the importance placed on confidentiality;

- the value of the collective craft-knowledge which the
Heads of the schools possessed;

- the potential importance of the study to the
individuals, their schools and to the profession.

The stages of the study and the level of commitment

which would be required were explained to the Heads as
follows:

- interviews by tape or in person would be made with

126

each Head on three occasions over a 16 month period;

- an initial, taped, open ended set of questions;

- a detailed, clarifying taped interview;

- a follow-up personal interview clarifying and
bringing closure to the process;

- completion of a summary survey would be requested;

- documents reflecting policies and practices related to
staff development in the schools would be sought;

- the researcher would observe the group in action at
various meetings over the following 16 months.

The appeal went on to explain the timeline for

completion of the study. The need for candid responses was

stressed and again confidentiality was assured.

Phase I Data

The Phase I questionnaire was included with the request
for assistance. (Appendix B) The questions were supplied in
a written form and an accompanying tape recording with an
explanation of the intent of each question was included. As
indicated by Schatzman and Strauss (1973), the researcher
should choose the tactics with which he/she feels most
comfortable. It was felt that the choice of a taped
interview would result in obtaining the most comprehensive
answers with a minimum of time and effort on the part of the
respondent. It was indicated that the respondent might
provide a written response if desired.

Responses were requested by Feb. 15, allowing time for

127

analysis prior to the March meeting of the Heads in Vienna.
Thus ensued the first of what became a series of adjustments
to the schedule and design of the study. As described by
Schatzman and Strauss (1973), "the research process consists
of dealing with a flow of substantive discoveries and with
field contingencies that variously modify the research

The field researcher is depicted as a strategist; for without
linear-specific design - for the most part precluded by the
nature of properties in the field - the researcher must
develop procedures as he goes.".

The realities of human nature and the postal system,
which in some cases included the dispatch of mail to
Washington, D. C. for inclusion in diplomatic pouch mail into
the country in question, resulted in slippage in the timeline
throughout the duration of the study. Thus, not all
responses to Phase I data had been received prior to the
March meeting. Several individuals delivered their Phase I
data at the meeting and others promised to do so promptly
upon return to their schools. In one case, no information
had been received and no occasion presented itself during the
weekend of the meeting in which to ask for a clarification of
the intent of the particular Head. A follow-up request was
sent and questions regarding lost data were incorporated into

subsequent interviews.

Spring 1985 Meeting of Heads

In late March, 1985, the Heads of the Eastern European

128

schools met in Vienna with the R.E.O. for Europe, and
representatives of the administration and board from the AIS
Vienna. The purpose of the meeting was for the Heads to
deliver their LRP for Staff Development. The researcher was
allowed to participate as an observer in this meeting. A
tape recording and written notes were taken.

During the course of the weekend, individual
conversations were held with as many of the Heads as
possible. These were informal and ranged in length from a
few minutes to over an hour. Notes were made as soon as

possible after each encounter.

Phase II Data

Approximately one month following the Spring meeting of
the Heads, a second taped interview was requested. (Appendix
C) The questions included in this interview were of two
types: those asked of all participants and those related to
previously expressed views of the individual participant.
Through these questions, the views of the Heads on five major
elements of staff development were sought. These elements
had been identified through the analysis of the data from
Phase I and the group meetings. In addition, clarification

of the individual‘s views from previous comments was sought.

Fall 1985 Meeting of Heads
Again, the researcher was able to observe and record a

meeting of the Heads during which a range of issues

129

associated with the operation of The Regional Center were
discussed. Opportunities occurred for informal discussions

with individual Heads.

Survey

Individuals were asked to complete a survey relating to
two aspects of the study. (Appendix D) The first section
requested demographic information. The second section was
designed to quantify the importance associated with each of a
variety of staff development approaches and activities which
had been isolated from comments made by the Heads in previous
interviews and group meetings. Of eleven identified items,
two groups were formed.

Group I - From the Phase I and Phase II data, four
general orientations to staff development were identified as
relating to the individual staff member.

Group II - Also isolated from the data of Phases I and
II were seven activities or vehicles through which
development of the staff might be accomplished.

The survey contained two groups of terms. All
combinations of terms within each group were presented in
such a way as to cause respondents to indirectly rank each
group internally. Several across-group pairings were used in
an attempt to determine the relative importance placed on the
two groups of constructs.

It was of note that Phase I was an open-ended inventory

in which few clues were given as to possible responses. In

130

Phase II, however, the potentially meaningful elements of S.
D., suggested individually by the Heads, were fed back to the
group for reactions and development. The survey was seen as
accomplishing a distinctly different task. It was feared
that during the recording of Phase I data, individual Heads
might not think of certain activities which contributed to
staff development which were present in their schools.
Further, given the lack of definition of staff development in
the literature, it was feared that individuals might not
recognise and/or classify the same activities as relating

to staff development Therefore, by compiling a list, taken
from the responses of the entire group, the survey was seen
as a means of providing an evaluation of the relative merits
of a list of items of a more complete nature than that

indicated by any one individual.

Spring 1986 Heads‘ Meeting
By the time of this meeting, the researcher had left AIS
Vienna but returned to conduct Closure Interviews. The Heads
conducted general business in open session and then retired
to closed session to consider a joint response to
developments associated with a change in personnel at the
0/05 and resulting effects on the Center. The researcher was

not allowed to observe this meeting.

131

Closure Interview

An extended personal interview was conducted with each
of the Heads of schools. This interview was conductedin
coordination with the 1986 Spring meeting in Vienna. Key
questions were asked of each participant. Questions designed
to clarify views expressed on previous occasions were asked.
Other questions from the initial interview were repeated to
check for any potential shift in individual views during the

course of the study.

Summary

In this chapter, the methodology of this study has been
explained. The study was intended to provide a descriptidn
of staff development practices in the isolated school
setting. A valuable source of data was seen to be the Heads
of the respective schools. These individuals were charged
with the development and implementation of all programs in
their schools and the 0/08 had indicated to the researcher
that during the following year, the Heads of the schools
would be asked to prepare a Long Range Plan for Staff
Development. As there was a reasonable assurance that the
Heads would be observed during four important meetings and
that the development of personal relationships were likely
with a number of these individuals it was assumed that
sufficient data could be generated for the purposes of the
study. A combination of taped interview, personal interview,

survey, and group observation was designed and supplemented

132

with informal data which surfaced during the study. Data
were analyzed as the research progressed resulting in
questions to be used in subsequent instruments.
The data collection was concluded with an extended personal
interview in which questions were asked to clarify previous
comments and check for any shift in basic feelings regarding
staff development in the schools.

In Chapter IV, a presentation of the data will be made,
and analysis of the data and conclusions reached will be made

in Chapter V.

Chapter Iv

Introduction

The purpose of this research was to determine the
meanings attached to the general concept of staff development
when considered in the context of isolated American-sponsored
Overseas Schools (A/OS). To answer questions associated with
this definition, it was necessary to determine the staff
development needs of individuals working in the schools
involved in the study and to determine what factors and which
individuals impacted the staff development processes in the
schools. In this chapter, the data necessary to answer these

questions have been presented.

The Data

The data which have been collected in the course of this
research project have been designated as belonging to one of
five categories.

Formal Data - Data which have resulted from the direct
comment or observed actions of the Heads of schools. These
data took the form of comments of the Heads of schools in
reaction to questions asked during taped and personal
interviews and in the form of written information supplied to
the researcher or from the long range plan (LRP) prepared by

each Head of school.

133

134

The Formal Data collected included 41 of the 45 responses for
taped and personal interviews:

8 Phase I responses (Note 1)

9 Phase II responses

7 Long Range Plans (Note 2)

9 Final Surveys

8 Final Interviews (Note 3)
Note 1 - One Phase I survey was not received. The Head
indicated that the original tape had been mailed and perhaps
lost. Questions designed to recover this lost data were
incorprated into subsequent interviews and discussions. A
second Phase I response was received out of sequence i.e.
after Phase II was distributed and was subsequently returned
with Phase II.
Note 2 - The long range plans were presented at the Spring
meeting of 1985. One individual gave reasons for not
preparing a plan. A second individual was involved in an
accident and did not attend the meeting. Upon a later
personal request for a copy of his plan, he indicated that he
had not completed one since he was leaving his post and felt
that it would serve no meaningful purpose.
Note 3 - One individual did not attend the Spring 1986
meeting of Heads as he was leaving his post and did not
return a taped version of the Closure Interview which was

sent to him.

135

Informal Data - Data in the form of notes which
resulted from informal discussions with Heads of schools.
Numerous occasions occurred during the study in which social
circumstances provided opportunities to "visit" with
individual Heads and others knowledgeable of the schools
involved in the research project. Written and tape recorded
records were made of substantive comments and attitudes

expressed during these occasions.

Secondary Data - Data obtained from interviews with
Regional Education Officers (R.E.O.s) and others intimately
familiar with conditions in the schools located in isolated
conditions. Five of the six R.E.O.s who are responsible for
the operation of the 0/08 system were interviewed. As each
worked with approximately 30 A/08 schools, among which were
many in similarly isolated conditions, their perspectives
were considered valuable in understanding the greater problem
of staff development in schools of the type being
investigated in the study. During the course of the study,
opportunities presented themselves to interview teachers and
board members from the schools. These provided a further
understanding of the workings of the particular schools and

the needs of their staff members.

Documentary Data - Data derived from documents
provided by the Heads of the schools and those published by

0/08. A number of documents which provided data relative to

136

the philosophies and/or practices relating to staff
development in the schools were requested. These included
copies of staffing policies and budgets, salary schedules,
handbooks, orientation materials, and any other materials

which the respondent felt might aid in the study.

Survey Data - Data resulting from a summative survey of
the Heads of the schools. In this survey, administered near
the close of the investigation, a number of elements and
staff development concepts were contrasted in such a way as
to cause the respondent to make a quantitative statement
relating to the importance attached to each of the elements.
Each item was paired with each other item of the same group.
The respondent was instructed to assign a relative importance
of each item of the pair by assigning each a decimal value,
the total of which was three. Thus ratings of 1.5 - 1.5
would indicate equal status for the items while .5 - 2.5 or
2 - 1, etc would indicate that one item was considered to
have greater importance. Several cross-group pairs were
included in an attempt to ascertain whether the reactions of

individuals were general or specific in nature.

The data of the study has been presented in three parts.
The first section of data relates to a variety of demographic
characteristics of the schools, their staff members, and
administrators. The second section of data provids brief

summaries of the voluminous narrative data collected through

137

interviews, observations and documents. The final section of
data presents the results of the survey and has been

presented in tabular form.

Processing of the Data
Phase_l

The data of Phase I was received and processed in the
following manner:

- 6 responses were returned in the form of tape

recordings of the responses to the included questions;

- 1 response was returned in a written form within the

schedule;

- 1 response returned after Phase II data had been

received;

As each of the responses from Phase I were received,
they were transcribed. Following the return of six of the
Phase I responses, the transcripts were analyzed in an effort
to identify the broad lines of philosophical and practical
categories of staff development. Additional elements of
staff development which entered the discussion in the Spring
1985 meeting of the Heads were included as a basis for the

construction of the Phase II instrument.

Ehflfi£_ll

- 6 responses were returned in the form of taped
interviews;

- 2 response was returned in a written form;

138

- 1 response was received in the form of a personal

interview.

All responses were received prior to the next phase of
the project. Again, these were transcribed and analyzed and
from these, together with the transcripts of Phase I data, a
list of 11 activities and concepts was formed. These
appeared to summarize a collective framework for staff

development within the schools.

W
The 11 items isolated from the Phase I and Phase II data

were divided into two groups. One group included terms which
suggested general approaches to staff development as related
to the individual staff member. The second group related
more to activities associated with staff development of the
staff as a whole.

The survey was mailed to each Head in the Fall of 1985.‘

- 9 responses were returned from the survey.

Demographic Data
The following tables provide several forms of demographic
data through which the reader may gain insight regarding the
community and staff of each of the schools which participated

in the study.

139
Table 5

School Size and Student Nationality

(1985-86 Data)

Total U.S. Host Other
School .Students until i. Natll i Natil i

1 166 27 16% 3 2% 136 82%
2 114 19 17% 6 5% 89 78%
3 84 20 24% 3 4% 61 73%
4 213 57 27% 0 0% 156 73%
5 274 88 32% 0 0% 186 68%
6 86 11 13% 0 0% 75 87%
7 59 23 37% 0 0% 36 59%
8 177 40 22% 14 8% 123 69%
9 25 9 36% 0 0% 16 64%
Ave 132 32 25% 4 3% 95 72%
Min. 25 - 13% - 0% - 59%
Max. 274 - 37% - 16% - 87%

Two features of the student population (and by inference that

of the parental and school communities) were noted in

Table 5:

aa.The composition of the school communities were made up

of approximately 25% U.S. citizens, while 73% were
from third countries and only 3% were host nationals.
Narrative data revealed that the relatively large
percentage of 3rd national children related to the
fact that in most of the cities where the schools were
located, the A/OS school was the only English language

"foreign" school and in five cases was co-sponsored by

140

the British and/or Canadian governments.

. Only one school had a substantial number of host

national students. Five schools had no students of
the host country. The Heads reported that in five out
of the eight countries where the schools are located,
the students of the host country were not allowed to
attend the A/OS school and that many of the other
students listed as "Host Nationals" carried dual
passports. In only one school, Warsaw, were they able

to attend the A/OS school freely and without special

consideration.
Table 6
Staff Nationality and Recruitment
(1985-86)
Total U.S. Married Depend. Total Host 3rd

Smumu.:haff Emmi inunmm; Emume 1L3. 1 Sat. 1 NHL. 3

 

1 24 7 3 ‘ o 10 41% 5 23% 9 36%
2 13 5 o 3 a 62% 4 31% 1 8%
3 16 3 0 4 7 47% 3 20% 6 40%
4 23 9 4 5 10 64% 3 11% 7 29%
5 30 11 0 10 21 70% 0 0% 9 30%
6 15 a 1 4 13 67% 1 7% 1 27%
7 7 3 o o 3 43% 1 14% 3 43%
e 22 10 1 4 15 68% 1 5% 6 27%
9 3 1 2 0 3 100% o 0% o 0%
Total 150 57 11 30 9a 61% 10 11% 42 29%
Min. 3 1 2 _0 - 41% - 0% - 0%
Max. 30 11 4 10 - 100% - 21% - 43%

141

several features concerning the nationalities of the

staff members and recruitment were noted in Table 6. These

include:

a.

U.S. national teachers accounted for 61% of the

instructional staff of the schools;

. Recruited U.S. teachers accounted for 37% of the

teachers of the schools;

. Local hire, U.S. dependent spouse teachers accounted

for 19% of the teachers of the schools. Narrative
data indicated that in several schools, availability
of housing and reduced costs associated with their
hire resulted in recruitment of local hire teachers
who were nevertheless not considered to be as
professionally desirable as teachers who might be

brought in from abroad;

. School 5 relied on the availability of locally hired

dependent spouses for 33% of its teaching staff;

. Five of the schools had 0 or 1 staff member from the

host country whereas four schools had 20% or more
teachers who were from the host country or married to
host nationals and in only one school were host
national teachers systematically excluded from the

teaching staff;

. Third country nationals accounted for 26% of the

instructional staff. From other sources of data, it
was found that many of these teachers were from the

0.x. or Canada.

142

YL Narrative data revealed that several schools relied on
a higher percentage of teaching couples and/or local
hire teachers because of the resulting cost saving
and/or limited availability of housing in the city
where the school operated.

i. Narrative data revealed that the Heads of all of the
schools were U.S. citizens and that U.S. citizenship
of the Head was a preferred criterion for schools

receiving grant—in—aid from the 0/08.

Table 7
Staff Turnover

New Staff Members Ave. % of
School Total 84-85 % 85-86 % Change
1 24 2 8% 7 29% 19%
2 13 2 15% 2 15% 15%
3 l6 6 38% 4 25% 31%
4 28 4 14% 5 33% 16%
5 30 8 27% 15 50% 38%
6 15 2 13% 2 13% 13%
7 7 2 29% O 0% 15%
8 22 7 32% 4 18% 25%
9 3 1 33% 1 33% 33%
Total 158 34 22% 40 25% 21%

From Table 7 it was noted that staff turnover varied
greatly in the schools.
aa.The maximum one year turnover in a school was 50%.
The Head of this school reported a need for the

constant rebuilding of the staff. This involved the

143

recruitment of highly qualified and experienced
international teachers to support less well trained
though qualified locally hired dependent spouse
teachers. The turnover also involved financial support
for individually targeted summer programs for teachers
needed to fill key posts;

. Seven the schools had turnovers of 29% or more in at
least one of the two years of the study;

. Three schools had turnover rates in excess of 30% for
two successive years;

. Narrative data revealed that the causes for high
turnover in the second school related to problems of
board/Head interaction, dynamics and decision making.
As reported by the Head, two board members, and the
R.E.O. for the region, the then current problem
resulted from the failure of the school board to have
conducted the termination of a Head and recruitment of
a successor in what was considered an appropriate
manner and to a lack of institutional maturity
associated with policy and procedure development.

The Head in school five reported that though
staff turnover was high, the status at that time was
the result of a conscious effort to extend tenure and
turnover had been reduced during the previous five

years.

Table 8

144

Professional Experience of Teaching Staff

Years of
Experience
as Teacher

11

NONWON
HbUbNm
NWQOO"

n/a n/a n/a
0 0 8
1 0 1‘

\DCDQO‘U‘IOUNH E
E

Total 10 22 48
% 7% 15% 32%

3:5 5:10 nmre

n/a

14

71
47%

(1985-86)

International Schools

, 0:2 3:5 5:10 nmre

NOU‘CDNU‘

25
16%

Years of

Experience in

03.151an

10

n/a

35
23%

11

000wa

33
22%

13
17
10
n/a

10

58
39%

Years of

Employment
in current School

0:2 3:5 5:10 nmre

5 7 11 l
6 3 1 3
12 4 0 0
10 6 3 9
23 7 0 0
2 12 0 1
2 4 1 0
9 5 5 3
1 1 1 0

70 49 22 17
44% 31% 14% 11%

From the data of Table 8 the following features were noted:

a. 79% of the teachers of the schools had a total of six

or more years of teaching experience with 7% having

less than three years of previous experience. (Nest

of the schools of the group would not accept

applications from teachers having fewer than two years

of experience);

b. 84% of the teachers had three or more years of

experience in international schools;

c. 44 % of teachers had taught at their current schools

for two years or less, with 77% having five years or

less tenure;

145

d” Five of the schools had fewer than two teachers with
tenure of 6 years or more. The Heads of these five
schools had an average tenure of 1.2 years;

e. 77% of the teachers of school 5 were in their first or
second year at the school. The Head of this school

was in his second year at the school.

Table 9
Staff Training
(1985-86)

Highest Degree Earned

SQhQQl SB1A11 B1A11 .M1A1 Eh10
1 0 16 6 2
2 0 6 0
3 5 5 5 1
4 6 12 9 1
5 0 13 15 2
6 1 l3 1 0
7 2 1 0
8 0 13** 0
9 1 0 0

Total 15 81 56
% 9% 51% 35% 4%

* This included an unspecified number of British and French
teaching credentials which were awarded after three years of
university study.

** Enrollment in a graduate program was a prerequisite to

contract renewal in this school.

146

From Table 9 the following observations were made:
a. 60% of the instructional staff held a B.A.or less (or
equivalent) while 39% held graduate degrees.
b. Two schools had only one teacher each holding a
graduate degree;

c. 33% of the staff of School 7 held less than a B.A.

Table 10
Head of School Data
(1985-86)
Years Years Y'rs at Years Years No. of
Highest in in Current as a in Schools
School Degree Educ. Int. Sch. School Head Admin. as Head
1. Ph.D. 36 1 1 33 33 2
2 M.A. 16 13 3* 3 10 1
3 8.8. 9 5 3* 2 2 1
4 B.A. 32 24 ‘ 22 23 23 2
5 M.A. 18 3 3* 11 11 2
6 Ed Sp. 19 17 3 5 6 2
7 M.A. 33 11 2 2 11 2
8 M.A. 24 20 7 21 21 .6
9 M.Ed. 17 5 3 3 3 l

* Left this position at the end of the 1985-86 school year.
From Table 10 the following were noted:
a” In three cases the Head was in his/her first Headship.
In two cases, this represented the individual's first
administrative post;
tL One individual had served as Head of school in 6
schools with average tenure of 2.8 years in previous
posts;

c. Five of the schools had a change of Headmaster during

147

the year prior to the start of the study with two
others changing during the study;

d. Seven of the Heads were in their third year or less at
their respective schools during the second year of the
study with two Heads having relatively extended tenure
(more than five years);

e. For two individuals the position at the time of the
study represented their only experience in

international schools.

Narrative Data Summary
During the course of the research the notes of numerous
interviews and group meetings constituted a volume of
qualitative data. A summary of these data has been compiled
into brief narrative statements related to major elements of
the study from which conclusions relative to the research

questions might be reached

The Settings of the Schools

Seven of the schools were located in large, capital
cities of Eastern European countries. One of the remaining
schools was located in a smaller industrial city in one of
these countries and the other was located in the large,
capital city of a non-communist neighboring country.
Physical access to Western Europe was difficult in three
countries. Variation existed in the degree to which local

conditions affected the stress experienced by staff members

a

148
in pursuance of their daily lives.

a. In five countries staff members of the schools
reported stress associated with attitudes, regulations and
actual and assumed activities of the national government.
Staff members described the assumed existence of listening
devices in their homes and various other local government
intrusions. In two of these schools, the host population was
seen as hostile and the host government was seen as
oppressive and obstructionist. Problems existed associated
with obtaining materials needed for daily life, and easy
access to Western Europe did not exist. For these two
schools, conference attendance was seen as the most
significant staff development activity and expressed as an
opportunity to "get out."

It was perhaps noteworthy that in two other schools
located in similar isolation from other schools and from
Western Europe, and existing in countries with similarly
repressive governments, the staff did not express the level
of stress as did the staff members of the aforementioned
schools. One difference in the two pairs related to the fact
that the first two schools served appreciably smaller
expatriate communities. Secondly, in the second pair of
countries, the level of repression of the host citizen did
not appear totally to preclude person to person human
dialogue and/or socialization with "foreign" visitors.

b. In two countries staff members of the schools felt

stress associated with what was perceived as a hostile

149

attitude of the host national citizens. Though staff members
in one other school shared this form of local social
isolation, its location allowed frequent travel out of
Eastern Europe and access to material needs. This was
attributed by the Head as resulting in a lack of stress;

c. In two countries staff members of the schools felt
stress associated with the difficulty of obtaining supplies
and other aspects of daily life, heating, water, etc.

d. In all countries expression was made of the need of
staff members to be cognizant of local customs, which were
seen as conservative by many expatriate staff members.

e. In all countries expression of a need to leave
periodically was common. The reasons given for this need
differed considerably and will be discussed under Conference

Participation.

Staff Development - Internal Practices

Internal staff development practices and activities
which were reported and observed in the schools included the
use of:

1. staff orientation programs;

2. staff members as in-service leaders;

3. guest workshop presenters;

4. activities aimed at development of staff unity;

5. intrinsic and extrinsic rewards to promote staff

retention;

150

6.activities to promote host nation awareness and

appreciation.

1. New Teacher Orientation
New teacher orientation was reported as being of
considerable importance by four of the nine Heads of schools
and of moderate importance by three others. Seven of the
schools described specific activities associated with new
teacher orientation which included a mixture of the

following:
Airport pick-up
Preparation of apartment
School indoctrination
Local sight-seeing
Community introductions
Language classes
Staff retreats

Incidental comments of interest associated with
attitudes and activities toward orientation programs for new
staff members included the following:

a. The extensive orientation program described by one
school was found not to have reflected actual practice on two
occasions;

b. One Head, having related the value of ample
orientation, expressed a reluctance at returning from his
summer vacation any sooner than necessary to make this
possible;

c. The smallness of the staff and limited number of new

staff members of some schools was given as a reason for

151

limited orientation activities conducted in an informal
nature. The well described orientation program of one school
was not followed since only one new couple was joining the

staff.

2. Staff members as In-service Leaders

The use of staff members as in-service leaders was
reported in several schools. It was stated that those who
attended workshops and conferences were expected to report
back in detail or provide in-service to other members of the
staff. There was no indication, however, that this practice

constituted a substantive and meaningful activity.

3. Guest Presenters

The use of guest presenters was indicated as occurring
on a regular basis in only one school. Several examples were
reported of reducing the cost of presenters by
"piggy-backing" their use following other conferences in
Europe. Some use had been made of School—to-School partners
for this purpose. Other Heads reported the use of
individuals who were "passing through town" for this type of
activity. During the course of the computer consultancy, the
researcher felt that six of the schools made good use of his

availability for staff development.

152
4. Team.Building and Staff Unity

The importance of inner staff unity and team building
was expressed by the Heads of seven schools. Though similar
in expression, it appeared that team building occurred in
response to considerably different needs.

a. In two schools the concept of inner-group support in
a tough environment seemed to dominate.

b. In two schools the Head was clearly seeking
acceptance and/or companionship from the staff;

c. In three schools growth of the staff into a working
unit seemed to be the goal with considerable involvement of
staff in program decision making;

d. In several schools the staff as a whole or subgroups
in bigger schools formed social units expressing that they

did not relate well with the parent community;

5. Retention of Staff

In only one school had a goal of extending the tenure of
staff members been articulated. Activities had been
undertaken to accomplish the goal. A second school which had
a problem with staff turnover had effected a variety of
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards aimed at extending the tenure
of teachers, but at no time did the Head indicate that this
was the goal nor was it articulated in the policies of the
school. The activities of these two schools included:

a. improved salary and benefits;

b. funding for conference attendance;

153

c. funding for graduate study;

d. re-enlistment bonus;

e. the use of job growth;

f. host culture awareness program;

9. quality of life improvements, social and material;

h. support for individually designed professional growth

development programs.

6. Host Country Awareness and.Appreciation

Four of the Heads expressed the opinion that host
country awareness and appreciation were valuable in
determining the quality of the work of the teaching staff as
well as contributing to the potential for the individual to
remain at the school. These included host country
information packets, travel, language training, and in some
cases social functions including local members of the

community.

Staff Development - External Practices

External staff development practices and activities
which were reported or observed in the schools during the
study included:

1. Staff recruitment

2. Conference attendance and Workshops

3. Summer and graduate study

4. Use of a School-to-School partners

5. Board and Head Development

154
1. Staff Recruitment

Staff recruitment was expressed as considerably
important as a staff development tool by five of the Heads of
the schools.

a. For eight of the schools, recruitment involved
extended travel by the Head to attend recruitment centers in
the U.S. and U.K.

b. Two schools reported staff recruitment assistance
from their School-to-School partners.

c. One Head relied frequently on a network of collegial
contacts built up over a number of years to identify
individuals with whom he was familiar.

d. Most Heads expressed the importance of accurately
presenting the difficulties of existence in the school's
setting to the prospective candidate.

e. In one case the Head specifically felt that single
applicants were preferred to couples. In four cases married
couples were preferred either because of social limitations
or availability of local housing.

f. In one school which was jointly sponsored by three
embassies, attention was required to maintaining a
representation of the three national groups of teachers in
the school.

9. Housing limitations and the higher cost of recruited
teachers resulted in reliance on the recruitment of dependent

spouse and/or host national teachers in all of the schools.

155

2. Conference Attendance and Wbrkshops

Conference attendance was cited most frequently as an
important element of the staff development in the schools.
All schools subsidized attendance at professional conferences
by staff members (most quite heavily). Four schools
scheduled a vacation day in their calendar coinciding with
the ECIS conference each November to permit all teachers to
attend. Administrative conference attendance was budgeted
separately in all cases. Conferences and workshops for
teachers included:

a. an annual Eastern European teachers conference;

b. the ECIS Fall teacher conference, generally reserved
for teachers who had been at the school at least one
year;

c. a workshop sponsored by the Regional Center in Vienna;

d1 other subject-specific workshops.

Several distinct reason were offered for the importance

attached to conference attendance. These included:

a. Conference attendance was viewed as providing a break
from the disagreeable surroundings of the host country in
three schools. This break included aspects of entertainment,
shopping, freedom from observation and the opportunity for
open, friendly collegial communication. Two other schools
expressed this value in terms of "refreshment and
revitalization."

b. The Eastern European conference (generally attended

by the new teachers of the schools) provided an opportunity

156

for the hosting school to offer in-service to its entire
staff and for new teachers to meet others and begin
developing a network of acquaintances. It also provided them
with an opportunity to exchange "war stories" which was seen
as easing adjustment to life in Eastern Europe. This also
provided opportunities for teachers from the Eastern European
countries (who may not have been able to travel to Western
Europe) to attend a professional conference.

c. Network building and comradeship with other teachers
was seen as important by three school Heads in which the
smallness of the staff limited professional discussion and
exchange.

d. The major conferences and workshops were seen by most
of the schools as opportunities to identify materials needed
by the school.

Two Heads of schools expressed the belief that
conferences added substantially to the skills or knowledge of
the teachers who attended. One Head questioned the value of
the conferences from a cost effective point of view, although

members of the staff of the school attended the conferences.

3. Summer and Graduate Study

Continued university work was considered an important
part of the staff development programs of five schools and
substantive financial support was offered. Two others
expressed neutral feelings while one Head of school

questioned the cost effectiveness of giving financial support

157

since teachers receiving assistance would move on once
finished with the degree. The remaining Head favored
advanced study but no policy existed through which financial
support could have been offered.

a. One school required all teachers to hold or be
working toward an M.A. As related by the Head, "We are
willing to pay for it; anyone who can't complete it in five
years doesn't belong in this school!"

b. One school included in its policies the possibility
for staff members to receive support for an individually
designed professional growth program which could include

released time for subject related work, a sabbatical, travel,

etc.

4. School-to-School Partnerships

Four of the schools hadformed active relationships with
school-to-school partners in the U.S. Through these
relationships, host country teachers had been able to
experience the conditions, methods, and activities of U.S.
schools. Other benefits concerned assistance with normal and
emergency teacher recruitment and assistance from curriculum

specialists of the U.S. larger schools.

5. Board and Head Development
Board development and orientation was not generally
mentioned by the Heads as associated with staff development

of the schools, however, it was expressed as an important

158

function of the Head of the school. Several incidents in
which board members had effected staffing decisions, staff
development activities, and policies effecting the staff
development within the schools were observed. Board members
from all schools participated in several of the meetings of
the Heads during the study. In some cases, this was the
result of urging and in all cases with the funding of the
Office of Overseas Schools (0/08).

a. In addition to sessions for Heads, there have been
special one day "Boardsmanship" workshops during which case
studies relating to the roles of the Board and Head of the
school and their relationship to each other have been
explored. The goal of board development involved training
for the Heads and board members in the use of 0/08 supplied
video recordings which presented staged school-board meetings
in which a number of "errors" in role and/or process were
dealt with. It was suggested that if these types of prOblems
were presented at orientation sessions at the outset of the
school year, similar real life incidents might be avoided.

b. During the process of data collection, five of the
Heads included comments relating to the need for their
professional development.

c. Three Heads were involved in Masters' programs.

d. The needs of the Heads as well as the Development of
the Board were identified by the 0/08 and ECIS as important
needs of the schools. To accomplish these tasks, numerousv

workshops were offered at the ECIS Fall conference and

159

throughout the school year. The full day workshop associated
with long range planning, which was the genesis of this
study, was one of these workshops. A separate ECIS
conference is held annually for administrators.

e. A one week Principal's Institute was sponsored in
London by ECIS in cooperation with the Harvard Principals'

Center in 1985.

Long Range Planning for Staff Development

Discussion with the R.E.O. for Europe revealed that the
LRP process which was requested by the 0/08 was considered a
tool through which its goal of stimulating growth of the
schools' maturity could be achieved. The following
represents a summary of the results of the process.

a. 1980 LRPs were found to be in existence in three
schools and to have been functional in the staff development
programs in 1985 in two;

b. plans were produced in seven of the schools of which
perhaps five could be said to have contained greater
substance than the others;

c. Two Heads did not produce plans;

d. Six Heads expressed cynical views related to the
request for an LRP;

e. Three schools produced substantive plans;

f. One Head expressed professional growth as an
administrator through the process;

9. Tangible results were reported by four schools.

160

School Budgets and Staff Development
Funds were identified in the budgets of seven schools as
relating to staff development.

a. Conference attendance was specifically included in
the line item budget relating to staff development for six of
the schools and accounted for a high percentage in this area.

b. One school listed staff development as a line item
and one had no specific designation.

c. One school renamed the line item "Conference
Attendance" to "Staff Development" in the final year of the
study.

d. Professional literature was included as a line item

in three of the schools' budgets.

School Policy and Staff Development
Limited reference to items relating to staff development were
found in the policy manuals of the schools. Benefits were
generally spelled out and in several cases included items
which might increase the potential for a prospective
candidate to choose the school. These included items not
normally found in the contracts of schools in western Europe
such as medical evacuation, annual home leave, conference
attendance and assistance with graduate study. Other
extraordinary benefits, not specified in policy, which were
reported included commissary privilege, housing, use of a

school owned car, and APO privileges.

161
Additional Observations

During the course of the study, the Heads and others
made numerous comments related to the role played by the
R.E.O. in the schools. Many of these comments containted
implications for staff development. It was indicated that he
served as the executor for 0/08 funding given to the schools
with specific amounts designated for staff development
projects. This role was of particular importance to the
Heads of smaller schools in which grants constituted a
greater percentage of the schools' budgets.

Several Heads related that the R.E.O. had served as an
advisor and mentor to them when they were new to their
sChools and that he had provided an interface with U.S.
institutions. In many cases, it was indicated that the
R.E.O. was in a position to affect the relationship between
the Head of the school and the U.S. embassy personnel of the
school's community.

Interviews with five of the six R.E.O.s indicated that
they generally remained in their posts for long periods of
time which allowed them to provide a degree of continuity to
the schools where the turnover of Heads was a problem. Clear
differences could be noted in the style of these individuals.
Of potentially greater importance was a perceived difference
in philosophical grounding associated with the value attached
to various staff development vehicles and aspects of staff
development in the schools.

During the last six months of the study, a change of

162

R.E.O.s occured for the European region. The personalities,
educational philosophies and approaches toward staff
development of the two individuals were quite different and a
shift in the course of staff development activities was
noted. The new R.E.O. indicated a strong interest in the
graduate program of one U.S. university and questioned a
number of aspects of the Regional Center and other joint
activities. In general the Heads expressed frustration with

a number of the proposed changes.

Survey Data
Among the final elements of data collection was the
administration of the survey described in Chapter Three.
From the analysis of the Phase I and Phase II data, 11 items
cited by more than one Head were identified as representing
potential elements of staff development. These were divided
into two groups. Group I included four items which were seen
as representing general orientations toward staff development
related to the individual staff member. Group II included
seven items which were seen as elements relating to the staff
as a group and/or more specific activities of a staff

development program.

WWI-mm

(Group I)
4 Recruitment
3 Retention of recruited teachers
3 Up-dating of long term staff
4 The evaluation process

163

(Group II)
5 Developing the staff as a working unit
3 Involvement of staff in school/program
decision-making
2 On-site staff development activities
4 Staff conference attendance
3 Orientation of new staff members
4 Summer study and graduate work
4 Developing staff appreciation for host culture,

language, etc.
The following data resulted from the survey.
Table 11

The Relative Importance Attached to
Four Orientations to Staff Development

WWWWW
1 5.0 3.5 5.5 4.0
2 2.0 5.0 5.0 6.0
3 3.0 5.4 4.8 4.8
4 4.0 4.0 5.5 4.5
5 1.0 5.5 6.0 5.5
6 3.5 3.0 5.5 6.0“
7 5.0 0.5 8.5 4.0
8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
9 6.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Ave. 3.8 3.9 5.5 4.8
Max. 6.0 5.5 8.5 6.0
Min. 1.0 0.5 4.0 4.0

(Note: An average rating of 4.5 would indicate neutrality
concerning the particular orientation toward staff
development. A maximum score of 9.0 could have been
attained.)
From the data in Table 11, the following were noted:

a. "Up-dating of long term staff" was given the lowest

average rating. Two individuals attached slight importance

164

(5.0) and one suggested moderate importance (6.0). The Heads
of three schools gave low ratings to this orientation with
ratings of 1.0 to 3.0.

b. "The evaluation process" was given a generally
neutral rating with the exception of one Head who gave it the
lowest rating of any orientation (0.5).

c. "Recruitment" received the highest average and
individual ratings of those offered for consideration (5.5
and 8.5). One individual rated it slightly below neutral
(4.0) in relative importance of the orientations offered with
five individuals attaching moderate to high importance (5.5
to 8.5).

d. "Retention of recruited teachers" was given a
generally neutral rating with two individual Heads indicating

a moderate level of importance (6.0).

Table 12
Relative Importance Attached to Seven Elements
of Staff Development

Host Cult. General Staff Summer Confer. On-site» Involve.

School Apprec . Orient . Unit Study Attend. In-serv. of Staff
1 6.5 9.0 11.0 9.5 10.0 10.0 7.0
2 3.5 12.0 10.5 5.0 11.5 10.5 10.0
3 6.3 9.3 10.5 9.3 10.7 7.2 9.7
4 8.5 11.0 8.5 9.5 8.5 8.0 9.0
5 7.5 12.5 12.5 5.5 4.5 10.0 10.5
6 4.0 7.5 14.0 10.5 3.5 11.5 12.0
7 1.5 13.5 14.5 7.0 15.0 5.0 5.5
8 7.5 7.5 9.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0
9 7.0 6.0 10.5 9.5 10.0 9.0 11.0
Ave. 5 8 9.8 11.2 8 4 9.3 9 0 9 3
Max. 8.5 13.5 14.5 10.5 15.0 11.5 12 0
Min. 1.5 6.0 8.5 5.0 3.5 5.0 5 S

165

(Note: A rating of 9 would indicate neutrality concerning the
importance of the element of staff development A maximum

score of 18 could have been attained)

From the data of Table 12, the following observations were
noted:

a. The "development of staff appreciation for [the]
host culture" was considered of less relative importance to
the staff development process than other elements by all
respondents. This ranged from slightly less important (8.5)
to considerably less important (1.5);

b. Opinion was split concerning the relative importance
of "orientation of new staff members", ranging from
moderately important (13.5) to moderately unimportant (6.0);

c. The "development of the staff as a working unit" was
generally considered moderately important receiving the
highest average rating of 11.2. Only one respondent assigned
values which resulted in a below neutral rating of 8.5. This
element was rated as quite important to two respondents (14.0
and 14.5).

d. The importance attached to "summer study" was mixed
with two Heads rating it relatively low (5.0 and 5.5) and six
Heads rating it as slightly above neutral (9.3 to 10.5.)

e. The greatest difference of opinion concerning the
importance of the elements of staff development surveyed
concerned "conference attendance" with one Head rating it as

very important (15) and two others rating it a quite

166
unimportant (3.5 and 4.5). Five others rated it slightly

important.

f. "Involvement of the staff in the school/program
decision making" was seen as relatively unimportant by one
Head with all others neutral or considering it of slight
importance.

9. Four of the Heads (2,5,6,7) expressed stronger views
regarding the relative importance of these elements than did
the other Heads. The range in the ratings for these
individuals were 7, 8.5, 10, and 13.5. The Head of school 7
expressed the strongest opinions (highest range of 13.5) and
also gave the lowest rating (5.5) to the element concerning

staff involvement in decision making.

Summary

Chapter IV has represented a summary of the data from
which some understandings of the meaning of staff development
in the schools of the study might be reached. It has also
provided evidence regarding the important factors and
individuals who influence the conduct of staff deve10pment in
these schools.

By no means have all of the data been included. The
many comments and incidents which gave indications of
attitudes and suggested minor elements of the topic were too
numerous to include.

In Chapter V, the major elements of the topic of staff

development in the isolated schools will be addressed. The

167

commonalities and differences in the schools, their staffs,
and communities will be outlined and the needs of their staff
members and the staff development practices of the schools
will be described. From this, the meanings of staff

development relative to isolated schools will be formulated.

Chapter V

Summary, Conclusions and
Recommendations for Further Research

The purpose of this research project was to describe the
meanings attached to the general concept of staff development
when considered in the setting of the isolated K-8(9) school
and to determine which individuals and what factors effected
its conduct and direction. The Heads of the nine members of
the Eastern European Association of International Schools
responded to a request by the Office of Overseas Schools
(O/OS) to produce a long range plan (LRP) for staff
development. This plan was requested in preparation for the
formation of a regional O/OS sponsored staff support center.
These Heads were the chief participants in the study.

During the course of a 16 month period (Winter 1984 to
Spring 1986), the Head of each school was interviewed on
three occasions and four meetings of the Heads were observed
and recorded. Exchanges with the Heads and others associated
with support agencies provided qualitative data relating to
conditions associated with the physical setting of the
schools, the knowledge and attitudes of Heads relative to
staff development, and the staff development needs and
activities practiced in the schools. Additionally, numerous
individuals were interviewed who have worked with and

assisted these schools with their staff development programs

168

169

over the years. Examination of budgets, policy statements,
and LRPs produced by the Heads added to an understanding of
the topic. From an analysis of the comments of the Heads
provided during the early part of the study, a survey was
constructed through which a quantitative assessment was made
of the relative importance, attached by the Heads to a number
of elements of staff development Through these processes,
tentative answers to the following research questions were

formulated.

Research Question 1
What similarities and differences existed regarding the
demographics and conditions under which the participating

schools operate?

Demographics

1.1 From the data presented in Table 5, it could be
seen that the profile of the schools' communities by
nationality were considerably different from that presented
in the A/OS schools around the world (Table 2). The students
of third country nationality.(72%) constituted more than
twice the percentage of student enrollment in the schools
participating in the study as compared with world averages.
The percentage of the student body made up by the children of
U.S. citizens was somewhat smaller (25% vs 29%) and the
portion made up of host national students was greatly reduced

(3% vs 37% with five of the schools at 0%). Narrative data

1'70

revealed that in only one of the countries could children of
host nationals be enrolled in the A/OS school freely and with
no special circumstances or conditions.

1.2 From the data presented in Table 6 it could be seen
that U.S. citizens represented the largest nationality group
on the staffs of all of the schools. As a result of
institutional policies, the Heads of all schools and
Chairpersons of most school boards were U.S. citizens. Thus,
the range of U.S. educational philosophies, methods, and
expectations might be infered to have been dominant in the
schools. It was noted that difficulties in staff development
were reported as associated with the mix of nationalities of
staff members. This was exacerbated in some cases by what
was expressed as a short term mentality. Nationality
sub-groupings were noted within the staffs of several
schools.

A large portion of the third national teachers of the
schools were of U.K. or Canadian origin. This was
associated, in some cases, with the joint sponsorship of the
school by several embassies. The requirement of retaining a
nationality mix was indicated by several Heads as placing
additional restraints in their efforts to build their staffs
through recruitment.

Host national teachers were included on the staffs of
most schools, though in substantial numbers in only four.
They were seen as valuable to the staffs in dealing with

local bureaucracies and regulations and in easing the

171

adjustment of recruited teachers.

In several of the schools staff development, through the
recruitment of needed staff members, was hampered by
considerations associated with the availability of local
housing and costs incurred in bringing teachers from abroad.
The Heads in these schools were forced to rely on a higher
than desired percentage of married couples and/or local hire
teachers with the elimination of teachers who, based on other
considerations, might have been better qualified.

1.3 From the data presented in Tables 7 and 8 it could be
suggested that staff turnover was of potential concern for
seven of the schools involved in the study. Seemingly high
single year turnover rates of 38% and 50% in two of the
schools and a two year turnover which resulted in 75% or more
of the teachers having been at the schools for less than
three years may have produced a potential for problems
associated with program continuity in these schools and may
have had inferences for various elements of staff development
During this same period, the Heads of these schools each
remained in their posts for three years before departing.
This had the potential to create further difficulties for
continuity of program and ramifications for staff development
on many levels.

1.4 The data presented in Table 8 demonstrated that the
previous experience of the staff members of the schools
varied greatly. In all schools the majority of staff members

had six or more years of teaching experience and a high

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Research Question 2
What were the significant conditions and factors which

impacted staff development activities in isolated schools?

Setting and local conditions

Luebke's 1976 statement, "Perhaps the most accurate
generalization regarding the American-sponsored overseas
schools is that it is not possible to generalize about them,"
(p. 28) made reference to the then 140 schools which had
received grants through the O/OS. With schools included from
every continent, this might seem to have been a
straightforward and easily comprehensible statement. One
might have assumed that greater commonality would exist
within a smaller and outwardly culturally similar region.
However, with three exceptions, the data compiled indicated
that the differences between the conditions associated with
the nine schools were sufficient to defy generalizations or
the forming of sub-groups with substantive similarities as
related to staff development in the schools. These
exceptions concerned:
2.1 the physical separation of the schools from other
schools, service agencies, and/or Anglo-American culture.
Though the effect of separation expressed itself in differing
ways, it was repeatedly implicated as a problem related to
successful staff development in the schools;
2.2 the importance of proper recruitment to the schools.

Though the tabular data suggests that turnover was relatively

174

low in some of the schools, the Heads of all schools were
uniform in their assessment of the importance of the
identification of "suitable" replacements for departing
teachers;
2.3 combinations of three distinct conditions which may have
effected morale and the rates of turnover of expatriate
teachers living and working in the countries in which the
schools operated. These factors included the perceived level
of hostility of the host population, the availability of
material goods and services needed for daily living, and
activities of the host government such as eavesdropping,
difficulties with exit papers, etc.

Further study designed to define the existence of
relationships between these conditions and the morale and

tenure of staff members in the schools may be warranted.

Research Question 3
What similarities and differences existed in the

participating schools regarding staff development needs?

3.1 The need most commonly expressed by the Heads and
staff members of the participant schools related to a need
for contact with individuals other than those of their local
communities and the host country. This need, though common
to all of the schools, was not related to any particular
common cause of stress but rather was related to a number of

elements of the professional and social lives of the staff

175

members of the schools.

In several cases this need related to the oppressive
nature of the host government, the perceived hostility of the
local citizens, and the difficulty of maintaining a life
style similar to that to which the staff members had been
previously accustomed.

In other schools the need for contact related to the
size of the school which, although in a comfortable
surrounding, was such that professional dialogue was limited.
This was found to be acutely true in the case of the Heads of
the schools, who, in many respects and on many issues, had no
one with whom to share their thoughts. In several cases, it
was expressed that the spouses, who in most cases worked at
the school, provided a needed "sounding board" which in turn
had ramifications for their roles relative to other staff
members.

Yet another expression of the need for contact related
to the fact that a number of long term, local hire teachers
sought the stimulation of professional seminars and advanced
study which were not available locally. 1

In still other instances, this need for contact related
to what was referred to as "networking", which included the
formation of and rekindling of friendships within the
international community of teachers and to obtaining
information relating to potential job openings in schools of

interest.

176

3.2 A second staff development need, shared by all schools
in varying degrees, concerned the turnover in staff from year
to year. The problem resulted in three separate needs of the
schools which included:

a. the identification and recruitment of suitable
replacements. Though "suitable" was defined
differently by each Head, they were unanimous in
expressing that careful selection was necessary and
that not every teacher could succeed in the settings
of their schools;

b. the individual orientation and integration of these
new staff members;

c. the collective needs associated with the maintenance
of a complete, balanced and functional staff. This
included concern for the maintenance of a sense of
unity and common purpose and for the fostering of
mutual support among members of the staffs of the

schools.

Research Question 4
What similarities and differences existed in the

participating schools regarding staff development practices?

The most noteworthy similarity in the staff development
practices within the group of nine schools involved in the
study concerned the careful attention given to the

recruitment of new staff members. It was commonly indicated

177

by the Heads in the narrative data that they shared a concern
for the possible hiring of individuals who might not have
been able to cope with the special conditions associated with
the locations of the schools. These concerns were associated
with the ability to cope with the nature of the community,
its composition and size, with limitations imposed by the
relatively small sizes of the schools and staffs, and with
the physical, cultural, and psychological separation of life
in the country in which the schools existed. With two
exceptions, Heads favored married couples with international
experience. The two exceptions shared the features of
existing in countries in which housing was available,
"foreigners" were well treated, and socialization with the
local population was not officially frowned upon.

Closely linked to "proper" recruitment was the degree of
attention given to the orientation and integration of new
staff members. Orientation activities were recognized as
important by eight of the Heads, however, the observation of
activities and comments made by the Heads and others during
the course of the study revealed that follow through on a
comprehensive plan on an annual basis could be noted in only
three schools. These included elements of school, expatriate
community, and host country orientation. What might be
termed moderate activities were practiced in four other
schools. These were limited to school and expatriate
community orientation and tended to be brief in duration.

Though conceptually cognizant of the value of orientation,

178

the Head of the remaining school indicated that the press of
opening school had precluded preparation for the orientation
of new staff members.

The survey data demonstrated that considerable
importance was given to the "development of the staff as a
working unit." In practice, approaches to accomplish this
goal varied greatly. In several schools, Heads stated that
they purposely attempted to involve their teachers in
decision-making to a high degree. Others related this to the
recruitment of individuals who would "fit in."

An extreme difference was noted in the value placed on
host country awareness and appreciation as related to staff
development between the schools. This ranged from two Heads
who exuded hostility for the culture and country in which
they were working to three others who felt that a key to the
happiness and success of their staff members required that
they get to know the host country, if not its people. Within
the staffs of the former group of schools, the researcher
observed this same negativism.

All schools participated in both the Eastern European
and the ECIS conferences to some degree. Though answering
differing needs as outlined in Research Question 3, six of
the Heads placed great value in conference attendance for
members of their staffs. All Heads placed value in
conference attendance for themselves with most expressing
positive views associated with attendance by members of their

school boards.

179

The utilization of enhanced benefits to influence staff
development through a reduction in turnover was noted in
three schools. Three other schools expressed varied concerns

regarding difficulties with entrenched teachers.

Research Question 5

Who were the significant individuals and what were their
roles in determining the course of staff development in these
schools?

From the narrative data obtained during successive
meetings of the Heads and from individual interviews over the
duration of the study it can be concluded that three groups
of individuals were potentially instrumental in determining
the course of staff development activities in the schools.
They included the Heads of the schools, the R.E.O.s, and the
board members of the schools with particular significance for
the board Chairperson. With the exception of one school,
little evidence was found to infer that teachers individually
or collectively were given substantive input into staff

development planning.

The Head

In all cases, the Head of the school appeared to have had far
reaching effects on staff development in the schools. These
effects related to the knowledge, attitudes, and skills of
the individual Head. Strong differences were noted in these

three characteristics as related to the various elements of

180

staff development. These ranged from individuals who were
interested and active in many realms of staff development to
those who were somewhat one-dimensional in their approach to
the topic. Differences were noted in the approach taken to
the O/OS request for a LRP for staff development. No Head
indicated that the process was of substantive benefit to
their schools or to improvements in their personal knowledge
or skills, however, several appeared to use the process as a
tool for achieving objectives which they had already set.
The exercise of political acumen seemed important within
the schools and within the context of discussions within the
Heads group. Not only were there differences in the depth
and scope of design of LRPs noted but there appeared to be
differences in the success with which long range plans were
articulated in a manner which brought improvements to the
staffing needs of the schools. It appeared that Heads
generally had a high degree of freedom in the disposition of
staff development budgets and were generally free to hire
staff members with only a cursory review by members of their
boards.
In summation, it appeared that a combination of factors
resulted in staff development programs within the schools
which were strongly dependent on the Head of the school for

conceptualization, planning, preparation, and execution.

181

The O/OS Regional Education Officer

Data have shown that the R.E.O.s had considerable and
varied effects on staff development in the schools during the
course of the study and had the potential for long range
effects which may have added a level of continuity to the
schools. Their assessment of grant requests determined the
level of financial support which the schools received. They
were in a position to assist with the adjustment of new Heads
to their posts and to interface with the local embassy and
other institutions on the behalf of the schools. Their work
with regional organizations, such as ECIS, provided an
additional level of staff development support.

The fact that the R.E.O.s retained their assignment to a
given region and when transferred often shared offices with
the individual who had previously held the post, resulted in
a tenure which often transcended that of school boards and
Heads of schools. Thus, the R.E.O. was seen to be an
individual who could have a substantive effect on the staff

development in individual and regional schools.

Board.Members and Board Chairpersons

Data have shown that board members and particularly
Board Chairpersons have had considerable effect on the staff
development within the schools. Board Chairpersons have been
noted, in two instances during the course of the study, to
have acted in roles not normally accepted for them. The

actions of one board, stimulated by a particularly strong

182

board member, was credited with decisions which resulted in
two years of difficulty for the school including the loss of
the entire staff with the exception of one host country
teacher.

In eight of the nine schools, the Chairperson was the
appointed representative of the U.S. Embassy and also the
individual controlling the O/OS grant process for the school;
thus he/she held a position from which to provide maximum
assistance to the A/OS school or not.

Heads reported that the degree of interest and effort
exerted by individual board members and particularly
Chairpersons varied greatly. This variation existed both in
terms of the stage of the individual's tour of duty (usually
two years) and between individuals who differed in having
children in the school or not.

Board development was expressed as of great importance
by most Heads and by several R.E.O.s. An indication of the
degree of importance of this could be inferred by noting that
the O/OS offered grants to cover the cost of board member
attendance at major regional conferences and all of the Heads
meetings during the study and has sponsored numerous board
seminars and two video cassette recordings aimed a board

development.

Research Question 6
What was the meaning of staff development in the context

of isolated K-8(9) international schools?

 

183

Meanings and activities associated with staff
development varied greatly within the group of nine schools
which made up the population of this study. The most common
elements included an importance placed by all schools on
providing staff members with contact with Western culture and
material goods (including opportunities for contact with
other U.S. educators), and to a somewhat lesser degree with
recruitment and the stimulation of team building and staff
unity.

If viewed from the context of Flippo's (1984) model of
personnel development, staff development in the isolated A/OS
school might have been seen as principally concerned with
Procurement, Integration, and Maintenance. The elements
of Compensation and Development, though less obvious, were
also viewed as having played important roles in the overall
staff development in the schools. Separation appeared to
have played a much less prominent role in the staff
development thinking of the heads of the schools other than
in terms of staff turnover, which has been identified as
being among the most troubling problems for many of the
schools.

Procurement (Recruitment) and Integration (Orientation
and Team Building) were indicated by the Heads of the schools
as having considerable importance to all of the schools which

participated in this study.

184

Procurement

The survey results presented in Tables 11 and 12
quantified and reinforced the verbal statements and observed
actions of the Heads and others recorded during the course of
the study. Recruitment of New Staff was rated, by a
considerable margin, as relatively more important than
Retention of Recruited Teachers, the Evaluation Process and
Up-dating of Long Term Staff. Given that staff turnover had
been identified as a major problem in a number of the
schools, one might have thought that retention would have
been seen as of greater importance. It was specifically
expressed as very important by two Heads, however, in both.
cases, they rated recruitment as of greater importance. One
explanation for this might relate to the concrete nature of
the recruitment process as compared to a more nebulous
concept of a program designed to retain staff members.
Another possible explanation may relate to an observed.
defeatist attitude on the part of some Heads associated with
the fact that essentially all recruited teachers departed
within two to three years and that while some might be
retained for an additional year, they were inevitably lost,
making recruitment the more important element of their staff
development programs. Further, regardless of whether the
school had a low or high turnover rate, the Heads were
uniform in placing considerable importance on the selection
of staff members who could cope with the conditions existing

in the schools.

185

Integration

The data presented in Table 12 indicated that the
Development of the Staff as a Working Unit and the
Orientation of New Staff Members rated first and second of
the elements of staff development which were presented.
Though approached in differing ways and with differing
degrees of formality, it was strongly expressed that team
building and staff unity were important elements in the
successful development of a staff in isolated conditions.

Other elements of Flippo's model were seen as present in
some schools but not necessarily identified by the Heads as

relating to staff development

Compensation

The element of "Compensation" was recognized by the
Heads of three of the nine schools who indicated that they
and/or their boards hoped to improve the staff by using
enhanced benefits and conditions to encourage the extension
of staff tenure. In only one school, however, was this

desire formally set in policy.

Maintenance

The function of "Maintenance" was most commonly served
by the existence of regional conferences and workshops and to
a secondary degree through summer programs. These were seen

as of considerable importance in six of the nine schools, but

186

aimed at the satisfaction of quite differing needs. (In the
other three schools they were mentioned as important in the
narrative data but not rated highly in the survey.)

The three schools which had long term staff members
utilized conferences and workshops to stimulate and enlighten
their teachers much as might be done with in-service in the
U.S. Other elements of conference and workshop attendance
were expressed as of greater importance for other schools.
For some, conferences and workshops provided an escape from
the harsh conditions of the country in which the school
operated and for contact with Western culture and material
goods. For still others, conferences provided contact with a
larger number of fellow professionals and a chance to "talk
shop" and share experiences related to the staff members
grade level or subject specialization. For still others,
conferences provided for the maintenance of long lasting
friendships and for the formation of new professional
contacts.

Regardless of the need which was being satisfied,
conference attendance was spontaneously mentioned most
frequently in the PhaSe I data collection associated with
staff development programs and accounted for nearly 100% of
staff development budgets in some schools. Though
spontaneously rated as most important, conference attendance
tied for third in importance on the survey, after two items
which related to staff development functions within the

schools.

187

Development

The function of "Development", in the sense of basic,
normally pre-service training of teachers, played an
important role in the thinking of the Heads of five of the
schools. This included three schools in which individuals
with less than a B.A. were employed as potentially long term
teachers and one school in which the decision had been
reached that all staff members must hold a M.A. or be
enrolled in a suitable program. In two of these schools,
enhancement of the skills of potentially long term staff
members with specialist training was seen as important. The
Heads of two schools related that the rebuilding of the staff
was an annual concern which required financial support for
summer programs and specialist workshops.

Another potentially important example of the
"Development" function of personnel management in the A/OS
schools involved the subtle and persistent activities of the
O/OS through which 68% (Luebke, 1976) of the limited funds
available to the agency have been used to stimulate staff
development in the schools. Interviews with the R.E.O.s who
administered the funds during the period of the study
indicated that the agency had taken a long range view with a
goal of the gradual improvement of the professional (and
non—professional) qualifications of the teachers,
administrators and board members of the schools. Whereas one

individual Head expressed a reticence to invest school funds

188

in teachers who would "move on", the R.E.O. (and others
involved in the particular meeting) expressed a wider vision,
one which held that teachers, administrators, and board
members went on to serve other international schools with
reciprocal benefits for all international schools. One
effort of A/OS in this regard was specifically and pointedly
targeted at the development of the Heads and board members of
the schools. Several R.E.O.s expressed concerns relating to
the lack of training and experience of many Heads as they
assumed their first post. They also commented on the need to
assist Heads and their boards in the development of a working
relationship in which each had clearly defined functions and
were cognizant of the needs of the other.

Among the tools used by the R.E.O.s to "nudge" the
schools toward "maturity" was assistance with funding
associated with the Long Range Planning Process, the
Accreditation Process, the formation of Regional Centers and
Associations, the School-to-school Program and the

stimulation of board policy development.

Separation

As previously indicated, the function of "Separation",
played an important role in the staff development thinking of
the Heads of the schools; however, this was principally
related to staff turnover. Comments relating to staff
assessment, career counseling, retirement and dismissal were

noted in discussions with five Heads of schools. In two

 

189

instances, these appeared to constitute major elements in the
staff development thinking of the individual Heads. In one
instance, this carried a negative connotation relating to the
dismissal of a staff member who had refused to pursue a
graduate degree and in two other instances it carried the
positive concepts associated with phased retirement and
enrichment and career planning.

In summation, it was noted that comprehensive
definitions of Staff Development were difficult for the Heads
of the schools to formulate. In spite of the fact that a
full day seminar had been devoted to the process by which
Long Range Planning might be carried out, and a request for a
LRP for Staff Development had been requested, initial answers
to the question, "What is the meaning of staff development
within the context of your school?" did not bring forth
clear, well phrased and comprehensive answers in most cases.
One got the distinct impression that in many cases, decisions
relative to staff development were not made as part of an
overall plan. Specifically, two of the eight respondents to
the Phase I interview gave comprehensive answers. When the
LRPs produced by these individuals were examined, it became
clear that the individuals had truly set forth comprehensive
plans which served them at the operational level.

Only through continued probing were the composite views
of the other Heads formulated. Many individually admirable
actions were observed and views were expressed and it was

assumed that, though not necessarily part of a basic plan,

 

190

these would result in positive effects for the staffs of the
schools. It was feared, however, that a combination of lack
of training, experience, and/or skills combined with rapid
turnover in a job which might best be described as an
administrative "one man band" might result in a
catch-as-catch-can approach to staff development with
inherent missed opportunities and with peaks and troughs in

the development of the programs of the schools.

Reflections of the Investigator

Research in which the principle method of data
collection is through the role of the researcher as
participant observer requires that he/she takes particular
care to recognize his/her views relative to the subject of
the research and not allow them to bias the observations
which are made. At the outset of this study, the researcher
noted his perceptions of the meaning of staff development in
general and assumptions regarding life in the isolated
setting in which the schools of the study were located.. kis
Throughout the study notes were taken related to new inégges
which arose.

At the outset of the study, the researcher viewed staff
development from a somewhat narrow framework. The literature
indicated that considerable importance might be placed on the
elements of staff turnover, recruitment and orientation.

Preconceived bias told him that life in the communist

governed countries of Eastern Europe would be generally

191

harsh. Through the research it was found that this was not
the case. While the governments of several countries, in
particular Bulgaria and Romania, were quite repressive
resulting in stress on expatriates living there, the life
style which expatriates could maintain in other countries
(Poland, Hungary, and Yugoslavia) was considered in many ways
"a plus", resulting in schools where teachers remained for
many years.

As a result of the study, the researcher has broadened
his views and come to define staff development as the
combination of many activities which result in the formation
of a complete and functional staff unit. The term "staff"
must include professional, non-professional and regularized
staff members. Life in the isolated setting appeared to
increase the dependence of staff members on one another. The
generally small sizes of the staffs of the schools caused an
increased interaction between staff members and thus further
taxed and increased the importance of staff unity.

In drawing attention to the importance of a "functional"
staff unit, it is intended to imply that the administrator is
wise to be sensitive to the physical and psycho/social needs
of staff members and the staff as a unit, such that he/she
may avoid or create situations which may enhance the
functioning of the group. It is the researcher's belief that
staff members function better when they are comfortable with
their surroundings and fellow staff members and that this

creates a better atmosphere for child growth. Though one can

192

not guarantee that all staff members will become close
friends, it is felt that a positive working atmosphere of
trust and mutual respect can-be created in most situations.

A high degree of participation by members of the staff in the
decision making of the school is perceived as beneficial to

the development of the "staff unit."

Recommendations and Further Research

The data of the study suggest that the concept of staff
development in the isolated K-8(9) A/OS schools was not
highly developed nor consistent among schools. Several
possibilities exist which might improve the situation.
Clearly, the Heads of the schools were key to the development
and implimentation of meaningful staff development programs
which were but one of the many areas of administration for
which the Heads were responsible. It is suggested that
boards of governance examine the importance of the position
and recruit individuals who have proven their knowledge and
skills in international schools or in schools in which a wide
diversity of clientele exists. Compensation packages should
be designed which allow the schools to recruit the best
administrators available and to encourage the Heads to remain
at their posts for five year periods. The O/OS has worked
with school boards to this end and should be encouraged to
continue these efforts as well as other efforts to orient
board members for their positions.

In a similar vein, teacher compensation packages should be

193

designed to encourage teachers to remain with schools for not
less than three year periods. Examples of sucessful efforts
by schools to reduce the high turnover of teachers were seen
during this study and demonstrate that the problem was not
unsolvable.

Further research may be called for and result in a
greater understanding of relationships which, if documented,
might lead boards of governance and Heads of schools to act
in the directions suggested above. The existence of a
relationship between compensation packages and turnover in
isolated schools might warrant exploration.

In addition to compensation, other factors affecting the
moral of staff members may well have had a determining effect
of the length of time teachers remained at their schools.
Among other topics worthy of exploration might be the
following:

1. the relationships between host country
awareness/acceptance, turnover and teacher
performance;

2. the effect of extensive, long range
orientation/adaptation programs on turnover and
teacher performance.

Since this study drew primarily on data supplied by
administrators, it is suggested that subsequent studies might

benefit by the inclusion of teachers.

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194
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Appendicies

199

APPENDIX A

Mr.
Director Jan. 20, 1985

International School of

Dear

As you may recall from a conversation which we had during my
visit to your school in the fall, I indicated, then, that I
would be seeking your assistance in conducting the research
for my Ph. D. dissertation. It was a fortunate coincidence
by which the area of study which I had designated for my
research (staff development in the international school
setting) happened to be closely related to the thrust which
was made by the A/OS. Since I was to travel to the East
Block schools in my role as computer consultant and may be
working with your school for the next few years, it seemed a
natural source of data for my research. I have waited until
now to approach you as not to mix my role in computing and
that of researcher. As you consider my request for
asistance, there are several important points which I hope
that you will keep in mind. First, my request is a private
one, i.e., it is being made in no connection to the A/OS or
as might regard the center which is under consideration or
any role which I may play in this center. SeCond, the final
document to be produces will deal with general issues and
conditions involved in formulating and conducting staff
development programs in an isolated setting. Due caution
will be taken to insure anonymity of persons and schools
involved in the study. Finally, it is my belief that you,
collectively, possess a breath of knowledge and experience in
a unique realm of international school education which if
shared, can be of value to you, other administrators in
isolated settings and to the long range interests of your

schools.

200

With your assistance, it is my intention to collect data in

the following ways and phases.

1. Phase one (included) is designed as an open ended
exploration into basic aspects and issues related to the
general topic of staff development under conditions
existing within the isolated international school. It
will explore the concept of long range planning as
related to this type of school and inquire into aspects
of policy and budget associated with staff development.

2. Phase two will include an interview during your visit to
Vienna in March. At this time I would like to explore
the concepts developed in phase one and verify various
facts about your school.

:3.Phase three will be conducted by mail and in person during
various times when we meet during the next year. At these
times I will inquire as to the status of staff development
as indicated in the long range plan which is presently
under development.

4. The final phase of this study will involve an interview to
be conducted in the spring of 1986. The purpose will be to
determine to what degree long range plans are becoming
reality, to determine if your veiws related to staff
development have changed, and to determine what long .
range policies, budget items, and program changes have been
established in your school.

The data to be utilized for this study will consist of the
taped and personal interviews, relevant board policies and
budgetary line items, and other factual information
concerning the schools, their staffs, and communities. Data
collection will be completed in the spring of 1986. The
dissertation will be completed that summer. At this time,
summaries and comparisons will be made which will be shared
with the participant schools. These might include
comparisons of elements of staff development programs,
personnel policies, budgets, etc.

Several of the directors of the participant schools will be
leaving their posts before the study is completed. This is
considered an integral part of the study. Given that the

201

transient nature of our schools is one of the particular
characteristics which give staff development a different
meaning, it is of interest to follow the staff development
process through this change of administration. It could be
the case that you might feel that your plans to leave your
school should preclude your school from participating in the
study. To the contrary, your participation is very important
to a complete analysis of the problem.

I recognize that supporting this request will represent an
imposition on your time and I would like to express in
advance my appreciation for the assistance which you will be
giving. You will find enclosed a copy of the Phase 1
questionair. Also included is a cassette tape. On this tape
is a further summary of the nature of my study and a more
complete presentation of the questions of Phase 1. It is my
hope that you will use the tape to reply to these questions
as it will allow you to give more complete and meaningful
answers in far less time. If you would rather respond in a
written form, that is of course fine. In either case, I
would hope that your responses will be frank and completely
represent your views on the topic. I assure you that no one
will see or hear your replies other than myself and that
summaries which may be given to the schools or appear in my
dissertation will be general in nature. I would greatly
appreciate that you send your response by Feb. 15 as to allow
time for analysis and comparison in preparation for the March

meeting.

Sincerely,

William F. Russell

202

APPENDIX 8

Phase One Data

Please respond to the following as completely and frankly as

possible.

I.

a.

II.

As regards staff development:

"Staff development" has a number of standard connotations
which may not coincide with those in use within the context
of the isolated international school. From your point of
view, what is the meaning of staff development? In what
way(s) is it the same as it might be in the U.S.? What
special meaning does the term take on within the setting of
your school?

. What is the current status of staff development in your

school? What activities have been carried out over the
past year(s) in the realm of staff development? What are
the most important staff needs toward which staff
development has been aimed?

. To what degree and in what manner has your board recognized

and/or shown an interest in this issue? Has their
interest/responsiveness been satisfactory? Please describe
any differences between different groups within your

staff? (locals VS overseas, long term VS new recruits,

U.S. trained VS others)

As regards the Long Range Plan which has been requested

by the A/OS:

a.

b.

What is your view of the relevance of the type of planning
within your setting?

If you have completed your plan, how have you gone about
it? To what degree were others involved in the process?
(teachers, board, community)

203

<:.To what degree has the work book which we received in
Frankfurt been helpful in your efforts?
CL Were any other resources/references available including a

previous plan or plans from other schools?

III. Documents:

The following documents would be of great value in the
overall analysis and comparison of staff development within
the schools participating in the study. It is thought that
comparisons of these will be both valuable to the study and
to the schools involved. These comparisons will be furnished
in the fall, if requested.

a” The school's Mission Statement*

. A "Needs" Assessment

. Your current Long Range Plan for Staff Development*

. Previous Staff Development plans*

(bang

. A copy of your school's personnel policy and any board
policies relating to staff development or personnel.

it A copy of your current line item budget or extracts there

from which support staff development activities.

9. The schools salary schedule.

* if presently in written form

Should any of the above be deamed confidential, I would
appreciate what ever extracts are possible.

Again I would like to recognize that completing this
"shopping list" will infringe on your time. Hopefully you
will see value in the outcome and can find time to assist.

204

APPENDIX C
(sample of letter sent to the Head of each school,
personalized for the school in question)

STAFF DEVELOPMENT IN ISOLATION
PHASE 2 DAIA

RECRUITMENT:

A.

Please describe your schools recruitment process. What are
the important factors in successful recruitment? Please
include comments on:

Your time line

Services used - How good are they for school?

Role of sister school, if any?

. What are the qualities of the "ideal" teacher? (for your

setting)

. Yours is one of the few schools with a stable staff. How

stable is good? If positions held by locals were to be
vacated, would it be desirable to fill them with contract
teachers? Is there a desirable balance between permanent
and contract staff members?

. It is my understanding that contract teachers seldom stay

more than two years. If so, what accounts for this? Is it
desirable? Have efforts been made to alter this tendency?

. One of the items on your teachers association's list of

desires concerned a "guarantee" that contract teachers
would attend at least one conference during their two year
stay. What happened to this? Is it a good use of S.D. funds
to send short term people to conferences or courses?

205

Eh Having been in Eastern Europe for a while, you are aware of
the problems faced by a number of schools concerning the
length of tenure of their staff. If you were to go to one
of these schools, what would you look at in an effort to
eliminate or compensate for this problem?

The Transfer Process:

Given that all of the schools in Eastern Europe have a number
of short term teachers, it would seem to indicate the need
for mechanisms through which the smooth transition of program

from one individual to another might occur.

1L What exists in your school to facilitate this transfer? Is

there a need for other mechanisms to develop?

EL What exists in this regard for the incoming director? What
help did you receive? Does the 0.0.8. offer any

assistance?

Integration:

A“ In your phase one response, you identified the development
of an "esprit de corp" as an important element of staff
development. What are some of the mechanisms by which you
hope to accomplish this?... with returning teachers?...
with new teachers? 9

EL What has been the program for integrating the new teachers
into living and working in an international school and a
very foreign land? If any written materials are routinely
sent or given to new teachers, please send a copy.

Staff Development and the Budget:
A” I note a drop in S.D. funds from $14,500 in 83/84 to
$10,500 for 84/85. What accounts for this drop?

206

EL Under item 18 of the budget, I note that S 4000 were spent
for administrative and board attendance at conferences. Am
I correct that all forms of teacher staff development

account for the remaining. $6,500?

CL Are there line items in the budget in which de facto staff
development is charged? Does part of the school-to-school
funds also go for staff development?

EL How valuable has your school-to-school partner been in

staff development? ... in other ways?

EL Are there any "new" elements of S.D. allowed for the next
years budget? (Please sent a copy of the 85/86 budget if it
has been finalized)

Eh What is the process by which teachers take advantage of the
study assistance which you describe in your first tape?
How many teachers will participate this summer? Do all who
request assistance receive it? How is the amount of aid
for each teacher determined?

The 0.0.S., Grants, and the Regional Officer:

11.Considerable funds have been spent in the effort to cause
the Long Range Plans for Staff Development to come into
existence. In your first tape, you expressed a bit of
irritation at the "push" from Wash. For the benefit of the
neophyte: How important to a director and his/her school
is it to actively support or play along with the 0.0.8. in
its initiatives and urgings? What pressures are applied
from Washington?

Do you have any interference from the 0.0.8., either
directly or through the local embassy Admin. Officer?

207

13.Several of the directors came to the Vienna meeting with
considerable S.D. plans with indications that they would be
coming to the Regional Officer for help. Are they apt to
get "new" money or is it more of a re-shuffling of

existing grants with a constant total?

CL Had you made the meeting,.would you have had a document to
share with the others? (If so, please include a copy) If
not, what would you have said when it came your turn?
(Note: Each director had something... some were obviously

just to fill the requirement)

I).What is your view that the role of 0.0.8. is and/or should
play in your school? ... in the group of schools?

Odds and Ends:
With the goal of describing the conditions and factors

impacting on staff development in isolation as a target, have
you any suggestions of important avenues which I have as yet
not introduced? Are there other forces and factors which have

not yet worked there way into the "discussion" which we have
had?

208
APPENDIX D

STAFF DATA

While I have been able to determine some of the following
from our discussions, my information is incomplete or not up
to date in most cases. Perhaps you can ask your secretary to
complete the following items. Please use data for the
school year 1985-86

Nationality No. Students No. Staff

U.S.
Host Country

Third Country

Experience/training of staff
Bmfessienalfitaff
1. How many of the professional staff other than

administration were/are:

recruited U.S. 'third country national
host national other

U.S. married to

host national

209

II. How many of the professional staff other than
administration have been employed for the following numbers

of years? (including current year)
Numbers/years 0-2 3-5 6-10 more

as a teacher?
in International
Schools?

in current school?

III. Highest degree earned

less than
U.S. B.A. B.A.

Ph.D.

E3
is

certified

uncertified

IV. Administration

Highest degree earned

Number of years in current post
Total years as head of school
Total years in administration
Number of schools as head
Number of years in education

Number of years overseas
V. Number of new staff (turn-over) in the following years-

1984/85 1985/86 1986/87
(anticipated)

210

Modes of Staff Development

From your taped interviews and other discussions which we
have had, you have collectively identified a number of
constructs which fall within the overall realm of "staff
development". In the section which follows, I would ask you
to assign relative values to each pair of items resulting a
total of 3 points split between the two. Distributions such
as 3-0, 2-1, 1.5-1.5, 1-2 and 0-3 might be used. In each
case, indicate the relative importance of the two items to
the overall goal of staff development in your school.

developing of staff as a working unit
staff conferences attendance

Involvement of staff in school/program decision making
staff conferences attendance

developing of staff as a working unit
on site in-service

orientation of new staff members
Involvement of staff in school/program decision making

developing of staff as a working unit
developing staff appreciation for host culture,
language etc.

on site in—service
orientation of new staff members

staff conferences attendance
orientation of new staff members

developing of staff as a working unit
summer study and graduate work

Involvement of staff in school/program decision making
developing staff appreciation for host culture,
language etc.

Involvement of staff in school/program decision making
summer study and graduate work

on site in-service
developing staff appreciation for host culture,
language etc.

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staff conferences attendance
summer study and graduate work

on site in-service
staff conferences attendance

orientation of new staff members
developing of staff as a working unit

staff conferences attendance
developing staff appreciation for host culture,
language etc.

on site in—service
summer study and graduate work

orientation of new staff members
summer study and graduate work

orientation of new staff members
developing staff appreciation for host culture,
language etc.

summer study and graduate work
developing staff appreciation for host culture,
language etc.

recruitment of teachers
retention of recruited teachers

up-dating of long term staff members
the evaluation process

recruitment of teachers
up-dating of long term staff members

recruitment of teachers
the evaluation process

retention of recruited teachers
up-dating of long term staff members

developing of staff as a working unit
Involvement of staff in school/program decision making

Involvement of staff in school/program decision making
on site in-service

retention of recruited teachers
the evaluation process

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