ICHIGAN TE NNERSITY LIBRARIES Illflllllljlfllflg MAM 1| m Mia-,7 fligzfigfate K University , This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A STUDY OF STUDENT AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF THE ROLE AND FUNCTION OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR presented by William Henry Ostwald has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degreein Educational Amen. Vés/fi ajor/péfessor Dank /fl/ /f// MS U i: an Affirmative Action/ Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 PLACE IN RETURN BOX to romave this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before duo due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE SZWLW, #Ji __ * 4* ‘ f—J r“? A MSU ls An Afflrmdivo Adlai/EM Opportumy Intuition «WW: A STUDY OF STUDENT AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF THE ROLE AND FUNCTION OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR BY William Henry Ostwald A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1988 ) / /"‘ I . . ’- ' tr / ABSTRACT A STUDY OF STUDENT AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF THE ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR BY William Henry Ostwald Purpose of the Study. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of congruence between student and teacher perceptions of the role and function of guidance counselors at a selected school site as determined by the use of a needs assessment survey questionnaire. Comparisons were made between the perceptions of students and teachers, the perceptions of students at different grade levels, and the perceptions of teachers with different years of teaching experience. Procedures. A needs assessment questionnaire was given to a sample of current students and teachers. The question- naire contained twelve items related to counselor job func- tions in three categories: (1) Counseling, (2) educational and Occupational Planning, and (3) Placement. Data was compared by use of a two-sample t-test, a one-way ANOVA, and the Tukey procedure for post-hoc analysis. Conclusions. Within the limitations of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: (1) There was no William Henry Ostwald significant difference between student and teacher percep- tions regarding the role of the high school counselors; (2) there was a significant difference between student and teacher perceptions of how well counseling functions are currently being met; (3) student perceptions at various grade levels differed significantly on the importance of various counselor functions; (4) the perceptions of male and female students at the junior and senior levels differed signifi- cantly on the importance of some counselor functions; (5) and the perceptions of teachers with various years of experience differed significantly regarding the importance of counselor functions. Guidance and counseling in the public schools has changed drastically since its inception, and today there is still no clear consensus regarding the role of the school counselor. The role of the school counselor is often not consistent with the role expectations held by students, teachers, parents, administrators, and counselors. The potential of this study is to encourage a better understand- ing of the school counselor's role. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank Dr. Louis Romano, my chairman, for his guidance, support, and friendship. Appreciation is extended to the members of my guidance committee: Dr. Charles Blackman, Dr. Howard Hickey, and Dr. Keith Groty. 'Their suggestions were most helpful. Without the support of my family, this project would not have been possible. I am particularly indebted to my wife, Tina, for her love and support and for the many hours she spent keyboarding and editing this paper. I thank my children Shayna, Scotti, and Adam for their patience and understanding. ii CHAPTER I CHAPTER II CHAPTER III TABLE OF CONTENTS BACKGROUND Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . Rationale of the Study . . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . Procedures . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . Summary and Overview . . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A Historical Review of Secondary School Guidance Programs . . . . . A Review of Role Conflict and Ambiguity A Literature Review of Perceptions and Attitudes Towards the Role of Secondary School Counselors . . . . . ASCA (American School Counselors Asso— ciation) Role Statement . . . . . . . Standards for Guidance Services — North Central Association . . . . . . . . . A Review of the Needs Assessment Process & Needs Assessment Instruments . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DESIGN OF THE STUDY Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Population of Interest . . . . . . . . . Selection of the Sample . . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . Design of the Instrument . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Page ooqoxmmbNi—J 10 20 24 32 33 35 44 46 47 47 49 51 52 53 CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Int Hypothesis I . . Hypothesis II . Hypothesis III . Hypothesis IV . Hypothesis V . . . . Ethnographic Presenta I Background . . Former Teachers Former Students S roduction . . . . ion ntroduction . . . o o o o o (1’ o o o o o ummary . . . . CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND REC Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . Dis Rec APPENDICES A. B. C. BIBLIOGRAPHY . GENERAL REFERENCES OMMENDATIONS cussion and Implications . . . . ommendations for Further Study . O O O O O NEEDS ASSESSMENT SURVEY FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . LETTERS TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS . . ETHNOGRAPHIC PARTICIPANTS' CONSENT FORM 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 iv Page 102 104 109 113 116 118 120 127 TABLE 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Students Ranking of Importance of Each Item . Students Ranking of Importance by Category . Teachers Ranking of Importance of Each Item . Teacher Ranking of Importance by Category . . Comparison of Student and Teacher Perceptions of Importance of Each Item . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Student and Teacher Perceptions of Importance by Category . . . . . . . . . . Student Ranking of How Well Each Item is Currently Being Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . Student Ranking of How Well Each Category is Currently Being Met . . . . . . . Teacher Ranking of How Well Each Item is Currently Being Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teacher Ranking of How Well Each Category is Currently Being Met . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Student and Teacher Perceptions of How Well Each Item is Currently Being Met Comparison of Student and Teacher Perceptions of How Well Each Category is Currently Being Net 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Comparison of Student Perceptions, by Grade Level, on the Importance of Each Item . . . . V PAGE 58 59 6O 61 62 63 65 66 68 69 7O 71 73 TABLE 14. 15. 16. l7. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Comparison of Student Perceptions, by Grade Levels, on the Importance of Each Category . . . Comparison of Student Perceptions, by Grade Levels, on How Well Each Item is Currently Being Met . . . . . . . . . Comparison of 9th Grade Male and Female Responses Regarding the Importance of Counselor Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of 10th Grade Male and Female Responses Regarding the Importance of Counselor Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of 11th Grade Male and Female Responses Regarding the Importance of Counselor Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of 12th Grade Male and Female Responses Regarding the Importance of Counselor Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Male and Female Responses by Category for Grades Nine through Twelve Regarding the Importance of Counselor Functions . . . . . . Comparison of Teacher Responses to Individual Items by Years of Experience . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Teacher Responses to Categories By Years of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi PAGE 75 8O 81 83 84 86 88 9O CHAPTER I BACKGROUND Introduction With today's tight economy and the resulting call for school tax reform, there is an increased demand for account- ability within the educational system. This demand for accountability is especially true of guidance programs. School districts are being forced to make cutbacks causing school administrators to take a hard look at guidance programs. In Horace's Compromise (Sizer, 1984) and in The Paideia Proposal (Adler, 1982) readers are told the need for counselors will be eliminated due to small class sizes, teacher-counselors, and school administrators who will pick up guidance responsibilities. Others view these reform proposals as lacking comprehensiveness and believe guidance and counseling has been largely ignored because the authors focus primarily on what they view as the essentials of schooling: teaching, curriculum, and students (Aubrey, 1985). School guidance departments have been forced to evaluate their program effectiveness and set priorities. Counselors have been called on to perform a wide variety of 1 roles including those of an administrative and or clerical nature, as well as the traditional counseling tasks (Hutch- inson, Barrick, and Groves, 1986). As a result, the role and function of the secondary school counselor has become unclear to students, teachers, and counselors alike (Aubrey, 1982; Schmidt, 1984). Furthermore, relationships among counselors, teachers, and administrators in schools tend to be strained and often complicated by misperceptions (Murray, Levitov, Castenell, Joubert, 1987). Statement of the Problem Guidance departments which are unable to answer adequately why they spend their time as they do and/or are unable to determine their effectiveness will continue to be subject to possible cutbacks. Few guidance departments have the staff to focus on all areas of need equally. To combat this problem, counselors need to establish priorities and to determine their effectiveness in terms of meeting student needs. Thus, it becomes imperative that counselors know the needs of the students they serve and that program objectives be developed accordingly (Leviton, 1977; Wiggins and Moody, 1987). Furthermore, grade level differences must be assessed and considered. Senior students may have different needs than freshmen students. If these differences are not determined prior to developing program objectives, overall program effectiveness may be jeopardized. Counselors also need to know the attitude of the teachers towards the counselor's role (Valin, Higgins, and Hatcher, 1982). Teacher expectations of counselors and teacher knowledge of counselor performance can have great impact upon guidance program success. It is vital that teachers are counselor and guidance department advocates rather than holding negative perceptions of their impact in the school setting. Once the perceptions of both students and teachers are identified, counselors can develop objectives to meet student needs and generate strategies dealing with any lack of congruence between the two groups. A shared common perception of the school counselor's role by the school community is vital in a successful guidance program (Helms and Ibrahim, 1985). Developing a comprehensive program, which considers student and teacher priorities, lends itself to the establishing of objectives and an evaluation process. Effectiveness can then be measured, which in turn may result in greater teacher support. Counselors cannot restrict themselves to traditional roles as described by ASCA (American School Counselors Association). A broader approach that considers students' and teachers' perceptions of counselor functions can assist counselors in being an integral, effective part of the educational system. Rationale of the Study The literature points out that high school counselors help students explore, clarify, and decide for themselves how to face their future. The counselor's role is unique in that there is no right way to do the job. Counselors need to take the students' concerns and feelings into account if they are to be effective. When counselors have allowed their role to be defined in ways that describe counselors as giving advice and guidance that is available from other school personnel, they are in danger of making themselves dispensable. Peer (1985) claims the guidance program is not the counselors' program but the school community's program, and this attitude is the only way to prevent the counselors from becoming unnecessary in the eyes of the community. Further- more, annual written plans of goals, objectives, and priorities are the only way to convince others of the guidance program's impact. Drury (1984) adds that counselor survival requires the ability to be clear, firm, and persistent in presenting the counseling role to those who are influential, and counselors should be able to say no when administrators offer them responsibilities that are not a part of the counseling role. Herr (1986) in his article on "The Relevant Counselor" concludes that counselors need to sharpen counselor roles and to plan interaction with parents, teachers, and others as well as setting priorities in how counselor time and skills will be used. Schmidt (1984), in discussing school counseling direc- tions for the future, stresses that counselors need a system of collecting data that demonstrates counselor effective- ness. The future growth of school counseling programs will depend upon how well counselors can document their effec- tiveness. In planning future services, Schmidt claims a needs assessment of student, parent, and teacher needs will help identify the kind of services appropriate for future counseling programs. One way these needs can be assessed is by the use of surveys and questionnaires with student and teacher groups. Schmidt feels the survival of the counsel- ing profession depends on three necessary ingredients: First, professional consensus about counselors' role and function; second, a common understanding by the consumers of counselor services of what to expect; and thirdly, demon- stration of effectiveness. Aubrey (1985) would agree with Schmidt as he views counselors as not having a prescribed set of roles and expectations to fulfill. Aubrey feels counselors need to be aware of the needs of their students and the expectations of parents and the community while recognizing their own strengths and limitations as they respond to their con- sumers. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to determine whether there is congruence between student and teacher perceptions of the role and function of guidance counselors at Marquette Senior High School as determined by the use of a needs assessment survey questionnaire. Additionally, this study will determine whether there is congruence between student perceptions at different grade levels of the role and function of guidance counselors at Marquette Senior High School. Limitations of the Study The factors that may affect this study are: 1. The reliability of student and teacher responses to the survey questionnaire. 2. The effectiveness of the survey instrument itself. 3. The applicability of the results to other secon- dary schools due to intervening variables such as socio-economic status and community-school standards. Procedures The sample in this study was taken from the Marquette Senior High School student population, approximately 1500, and teaching staff, approximately 70. A random sample of 60 students from each grade level was chosen as well as a random sample of 25 from the teaching staff. Each participant was asked to complete a needs assess- ment survey (Appendix A) in order to assess their percep- tions of the role and function of the guidance counselor. Survey items are from the Connecticut Needs Assessment Survey and based upon the ASCA (American School Counselor Association) list of desirable functions. Items utilized were taken from three categories: Counseling, Placement, and Educational and Occupational Planning. A number of former students and school officials of Marquette Senior High School participated in an ethnographic component of the study. These participants were interviewed to determine their perceptions of the role and functions of the guidance counselors while they attended or were employed at Marquette Senior High School. These interviews were analyzed and compiled into a written ethnographic format.‘ Definition of Terms Needs Assessment. In this study needs assessment refers to a process of utilizing student and teacher responses concerning need for counseling services, which allows for a prioritizing of these responses. Student and Teacher Priorities. Student and teacher priorities will be determined numerically by weighing each possible response, "Very Important," "Important," or "Unimportant" as well as "Need being met," "Need being partially met," or "Need not being met" for each item in the questionnaire. Guidance Department/Counseling, Department. Much has been written lately attempting to clearly define the dif- ference between these two terms and in what context they should be used. This study uses the terms interchangeably. Counselor. Although the term counselor may cover a wide range of positions, in this paper it will refer to a person with a master's degree in guidance and counseling who is assigned responsibilities in a counseling department within a secondary (9—12) public school setting. Teacher. A full-time certified teacher, teaching at Marquette Senior High School. Student. A student enrolled in either grades 9, 10, 11 or 12 at Marquette Senior High School. Summary and Overview In Chapter I the researcher has cited several articles and studies indicating the need for this study. Representa- tive samples from current educational literature view assessing consumer needs and clarifying counselor roles as vital to the future of secondary school counseling. In Chapter I the background of the problem, statement of the problem, rationale of the study, purpose of the study, limitations, procedures, definition of terms, chapter summary and overview are given. Chapter II contains a review of literature which is relevant to this study: a) a historical review of secondary school guidance programs, b) a review of role conflict and ambiguity, c) a literature review of perceptions and attitudes towards the role of secondary school counselors, d) ASCA (American School Counselors Association) role statement regarding secondary school guidance counselors, e) standards for guidance services as listed by the North Central Association, and f) a review of the needs assessment process and various needs assessment instruments. Chapter III includes a description of the methods and procedures used in this study and contains a description of the survey instrument. Chapter IV contains a review of the findings from the survey of students and teachers and a description of responses from the interviews. In Chapter V the study is summarized; conclusions, implications, and recommendations are given. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A Historical Review of Secondary School Guidance Programs Secondary school guidance and counseling programs have their roots in the vocational counseling movement, as do all guidance and counseling programs. Brewer (1942) and Miller (1961) credit Jessie Davis and Frank Parsons with starting the vocational guidance movement. Davis was a school administrator in Michigan who had the foresight to see the need for introducing students to the vocational and social problems they may face upon the completion of their school- ing. Parsons, often referred to as the "Father of Gui- dance," did not work in educational settings but with youth who were out of school and under the care of various service agencies. As a result of their work and others like them, educators began to recognize the need for vocational guidance and established the National Vocational Guidance Association, Inc., in 1913 at Grand Rapids, Michigan. The depression of the thirties highlighted the job placement activities of vocational guidance while at the same time psychometrics began to be accepted as part of school 10 11 guidance functions (Super, 1955). Psychometrics gave the guidance movement some scientific respectability and its first firm foothold in education. Thus, testing and its relationship to job placement was emphasized by guidance staffs during the depression decade. However, this narrow approach was challenged by John Brewer, who called for guidance to incorporate more than just testing and job function. He included giving students knowledge in the areas of citizenship, health, ethical character, vocations, and worthy use of leisure time (Aubrey, 1979). Aubrey (1977) sees Brewer's thrust as accomplishing two ends. First, it made the earlier vocational perspective of guidance just part of a whole more encompassing model and second, it laid the foundation for guidance to become directly linked to the educational process. In 1942 Carl Rogers' Counselinggand Psychotherapy was published. The result of Rogers' work was that therapy or the therapeutic counseling relationship in secondary guidance programs gained great momentum, eventually replac- ing the emphasis on psychometrics (Super, 1955). Counseling now became the key function of guidance programs, and counselors were able to embrace a theory. Rogers is probably best known for his client-centered therapy. This theory had a great impact upon the field and is still felt 12 in today's counselor education programs. During the late forties and the fifties, Rogers' approach prospered, eventually challenging the original vocational guidance premise as the basic function of counselors (Aubrey, 1977). In July 1952 the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) was formed. Closely following in 1953 the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) was created as an independent branch organization. The decade of the fifties became a boom time for the school guidance and counseling field. The number of counselors increased as more schools added guidance departments and support from the public and government flourished. Many factors were responsible for this growth. Along with the development of professional organizations (APGA, ASCA), theory and research were greatly expanded; and the Sputnik scare began. The result was that schools were pressured to train and identify more students in the science fields. Guidance departments were increased to help meet these needs. In 1958 the National Defense Education Act was created. This legis- lation resulted in over 14,000 secondary school teachers and counselors being trained between 1959 and 1963. Full-time counselors in public secondary schools grew from 12,000 in 1958 to 29,545 by 1963 (Shertzer & Stone, 1971). 13 During the sixties the number of counselor education programs multiplied. Greater concern developed over counselors' experience and educational background. Coun- selors themselves began to see their role as more encom- passing. Gilbert Wrenn (1962) summed up a growing trend of counselor thoughts during this period, stating: "The primary emphasis in counseling students should be placed on the developmental needs and decision points in the lives of the total range of students rather than upon the remedial needs and the crisis points in the lives of a few students. Soon secondary school counselors became even more united as the ASCA published a "statement of Policy for Secondary School Counselors and Guidelines for Implementation." School counselors' roles became clearer within secondary school settings. Thus, a movement which started as vocae tional guidance with a singular emphasis on job placement in the twenties merged with the parallel development of psychometrics during the thirties, and together they synthesized and assimilated a psychotherapeutic approach in the late forties culminating as the basic foundation of recent school guidance and counseling programs. Despite the progressive movement of the sixties, the seventies did not fare as well. This period was marked by confusion over the proper tasks and roles of school coun— selors. Counselors were bogged down by increased clerical 14 work and quasi-administrative functions. Such areas as testing, maintaining student files, scheduling, attendance, etc., often fell under the domain of the school counselor (Shaw, 1977). As a result, school counselors during the seventies often experienced frustration while trying to meet with their students for vocational or personal counseling. Ratios hovered around the 450 to 1 requirements of the North Central Association (North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, 1978), but very few schools achieved a more favorable ratio. Seldom were counselors able to see all of their assigned students (Odell, 1973). Practicing school counselors were faced with the working realities of new programs and techniques constantly being developed. Counseling strategies and techniques, group work methods, psychological and humanistic education, the career education movement, drug and sex education programs, and counselor involvement in curriculum concerns are all areas in which counselors are being asked to become involved. In relation to curriculum involvement, Aubrey (1979) viewed three issues of top importance: first, the role the school counselor plays in the development, implementation, and evaluation of the school curriculum; secondly, how 15 guidance and counseling services fit in curriculum, extra curricular, or noncurricular functions of a school; thirdly, how guidance and counseling should be organized (as a set of unique services to students or as a systematic program within the curriculum model). Others (Sprinthall, 1973; Cottingham, 1976) View curri- culum designed for the deliberate psychological education of secondary students as a regular part of a high school curri- culum with counselors representing a major resource for its implementation. The innovative counselor is seen as one who can become a specialist in curriculum materials and resour- ces in psychological education. In a study of counseling literature from 1970 through 1974 (Gerber, 1976) much of the data provided encouragement to school counselors to broaden their services and to work more with large groups, institutions, and communities rather than primarily with individuals and small groups. The call for definitions and classification of the counselor's role has come from within as well as outside the profession. Bradley (1978) perceives the improvement of counseling falling into various categories. First, those who call for defining and modifying the counselor's role. Second, those who suggest that school counseling be decen- tralized. (This would encompass the teacher-advisor type of 16 plans.) Third, the call for counselors to improve communi- cation between themselves and others outside of the direct counseling relationship such as parents and community agencies. Fourth, there are those who call for the abandon- ment of personal, therapeutic counseling to concentrate on organizational and systems diagnostic skills. Fifth, to enable counselors to be more effective, some feel they must concentrate on more self-knowledge and more self-understand- ing. Sixth, the call for counselors to involve themselves in research and to obtain the skills to conduct good empirical studies. Seventh, those who subscribe to coun- selors acting as change agents, persons who identify and plan programs to deal with problems. The emphasis of all of these is to see counselors as more of activists who need to understand forces in society and institutions if they are to have an effect upon students. A concurrent development of the seventies that school counselors were faced with was the increased call for accountability and evaluation. Much of this pressure has come as a result of shrinking school budgets and the increased demand for counselor services. Counselors were asked to justify their functions or face budget cuts (Crabbs and Crabbs, 1977; Herr, 1976). Counselors have had diffi- culty in meeting these demands often due to lack of time to l7 carry the accountability activities out. They exhibit confusion over how and where to start and resent forced inadequate evaluation procedures (Atkinson, Furlong, and Janoff, 1979). Some see the school guidance and counseling program survival itself linked to the abilities of coun- selors to conduct a thorough and quality evaluation of their programs (Bardo, Cody, and Bryson, 1978). Many secondary guidance programs were set up in a haphazard manner, reacting mainly to immediate problems and administrative demands (Celotta, 1979). A counselor's day may be a series of reactions to crises, clerical duties, and administrative concerns. Little time was left for reflec- tion on student needs and the effect, if any, of counselors' current functions. Counselors are hard pressed to describe their priority objectives. Few secondary guidance and counseling departments had a planned program which considers student, faculty, and community input while providing a means for meeting and evaluating student needs (Shaw, 1977). Proliferation of school counseling approaches and role confusion continues without abatement for school guidance during the eighties (Aubrey, 1982; Schmidt, 1984). Secon- dary school counselors are bogged down in nonprofessional activities. There is concern regarding counselor role abuse, program design and administration, lack of state 18 guidelines, and the lack of delivery of established guidance practices in such areas as career guidance, group guidance, and group counseling (Peer, 1985). Scheduling, testing, record keeping, and non-counseling activities are requiring more counselor time and attention than counselors believe are warranted (Hutchinson, Barrick, Groves, 1986). Rela- tionships among counselors, teachers, and administrators in schools tend to be strained and often complicated by misperceptions (Murray, Leviton, Castenell, Joubert, 1987). Many people are questioning whether counseling services are necessary due to their perception that counseling programs are ancillary to instructional programs (Monson and Brown, 1985). Counselors and their programs are sometimes per- ceived as failing to serve all segments of the school population (Herr, 1986). Counseling programs are being challenged to be more accountable for the services they provide, yet counselors are indicating a lack of familiarity with methods for obtaining accountability information (Fairchild and Zins, 1986). There is little mention of guidance and counseling in the proliferation of educational reform proposals which are surfacing in the eighties. In Horace's Compromise (Sizer, 1984) and in The Paideia Proposal (Adler, 1982) readers are told the need for counselors will be eliminated with small 19 class sizes, teacher-counselors, and school administrators who will pick up guidance responsibilities. Others view these reform proposals as lacking comprehensiveness and believe guidance and counseling has been largely ignored because the authors focus primarily on what they view as the essentials of schooling: teaching, curriculum, and students (Aubrey, 1985). Aubrey believes areas of neglect which deserve attention include issues of personal identity; vocational and career concerns; skills in working, living and relating; social, sexual, cultural and social class discrimination; personal exploration and character develop- ment. Ernie Boyer (1983) in his book High School considers counselors to be extremely important. He recommends a high school ratio of one counselor for every 100 students. Overall, however, the educational reform proposals view guidance and counseling as on the periphery and outside the mainstream of schooling. The eighties continue to be a time of great confusion regarding the actual role and function of school counselors. Numerous studies have ascertained that various groups (students, teachers, school administrators, and counselors) perceive the role of school counselors differently (Helms and Ibrahim, 1985). This role conflict and ambiguity continues to cause an identity crisis for school counselors. The public and school system themselves are still not clear about the role and function of the secondary school coun- selor. A Review of Role Conflict and Ambiguity The term "role" can be defined as a set of expectations applied to the incumbent of a particular position by the incumbent and by others within and beyond an organization's boundaries (Banton, 1965). Utilizing this definition, the high school counselor's role then is defined by the coun- selors themselves. Their consumers are students, parents, teachers, and administrators. When any of these parties hold differing expectations about the activities that are most appropriate for counselors, role conflict may result. Compliance with one set of expectations or pressures may prevent or make more difficult compliance with a different set of expectations. Role conflict can lead to such dysfunctional work-related behavior as tension, job dis- satisfaction, and lowered commitment (Kahn, 1964; Bedeian and Armenakis, 1981). A high school counselor who is attempting to play multiple and/or conflicting roles often has diverse, potentially conflicting expectations placed upon himself. Kahn (1964) identified several types of role conflict. They are: 21 a. Intra—sender role conflict: incompatible expectations from a single role sender. b. Inter-sender role conflict: expectations from one role sender which are incompatible with those from another role sender. 0. Person role conflict: incompatibility between expectation held by the role incum- bent and expectations otherwise associated with his/her position. d. Inter-role conflict: role pressures stemming from one position incompatible with the role pressures arising from a different position. e. Role overload: expecting the role incumbent to engage in several role behaviors in too short a time period. Each type of role conflict may pressure the role holder, such as high school counselors, to conform to the senders' (school administrators, teachers, students, or parents) expectations. Generally the more extreme the pressure the more extensive the conflict. VanSell et a1. (1981) define role ambiguity as the degree to which clear information is lacking regarding a) the expectations associated with the role, b) methods for fulfilling known role expectations, and/or c) the conse- quences of role performance. In other words a counselor who lacks sufficient information to perform the activities associated with his or her role may experience role ambi- guity. 22 Despite the ASCA (American School Counselors Associa- tion, 1974, 1977, 1981) statements on counselor role and function, the role and function of the counselor is still unclear to students, parents, administrators, and counselors themselves. Wells and Ritter (1979) conclude that coun- selors perform clerical and record keeping functions, and student perceptions of the counselors, despite the ASCA role statement to the contrary, are related to these realities. Hutchinson, Barrick, and Groves (1986) conducted a study and found non-counseling activities required more counselor time and attention than counselors believed was warranted. They concluded that a consistent and clear definition of coun- selor functions is important and that universities training counselors need to ensure that counselor functions, both ideal and actual, are congruent with the philosophy of the profession. Kahn suggests that role holders must have basic types of information to prevent role ambiguity. Role holders must know the expectations of others and the activities that an individual should perform. Role holders need to know the consequences of performing or not performing their activi- ties in certain ways and what kind of behavior or attitudes will be rewarded or punished. 23 According to Olson and Dilly (1988) substantial evidence exists to support counselor assertions that they cannot meet all the demands placed on them and that coun- selor confusion over which area to concentrate on affects the stress level of counselors. The consequences of these two types of role stress on high school counselors have important cost implications for school systems. Counselor turnover and substandard perfor- mance are obvious, whereas the cost of attitudinal variables is just beginning to be understood. After reviewing the literature on role conflict and ambiguity, VanSell (et a1, 1981) suggest the following conclusions appear warranted: 1. Role conflict and ambiguity appear to cause lower productivity, tension, dissatisfaction, and psychological withdrawal from the work group. 2. Individual differences in perceptions of and adap- tability to the work environment as well as the need for clarity are likely moderators of the relationships between role sender-focal person relationships. 3. It appears that role conflict and ambiguity are partially a function of a complex interaction of job content, leader behavior, and organizational structure. Bedeian and Armenakis (1981) confirm the importance of role perceptions in understanding job related activities. In their study of the consequences of role conflict and ambiguity, both factors were associated with high levels of 24 job-induced tension. Additionally, both role conflict and ambiguity appeared to negatively affect job attitudes. Based on their results, Bedeian and Armenakis draw two conclusions. First, an organization can reduce the negative consequences of a job role by providing necessary informa- tion to perform the job adequately and by assuring that the expectations received by the occupant of a job role does not require incompatible behavior. Secondly, there is a need for future study on the impact of additional factors on role perceptions. A Literature Review of Perceptions and Attitudes Towards the Role of Secondary School Counselors "As guidance and counseling move through the eighties, the diversity and contradiction within the profession is seriously endangering any sense of mission" (Aubrey, 1982). The lack of accountability efforts by practitioners is threatening the survival of school counseling (Fairchild and Zinns, 1986). "The relationship between a counseling staff and administration and teachers is often characterized by mutual misperception and mistrust, which may vary in amount and intensity from school to school" (Shertzer and Stone, 1981). Ibrahim, Helms, and Thomson (1983) conducted a study in which counselors, administrators, parents, and members of 25 the business community rated the importance of 37 counselor functions. Significant differences were found between rating groups on 21 of the 37 functions studied. Ibrahim and Helms conducted a follow up study (1985) which compared counselor perceptions to that of parents perceptions with respect to the role and function of a secondary school counselor. The survey was comprised of six major categories including: Counseling Education and Occupational Planning Referral Placement Parent Help . Public Relations amputee-3 O The results indicated significant differences between parents and counselors on public relations and education and occupational counseling. Teachers have a great deal of influence on students and it is important that they be involved and supportive of school guidance programs. Therefore, it becomes vital that teachers and counselors hold similar views regarding the role of the counselor. Many studies were conducted during the sixties regarding teachers' attitudes towards career guidance (Stewart, 1961; Gibson, 1965; & Smith, 1974). More recently, Valine, Higgins, & Hatcher (1982) conducted a study of teacher attitudes towards the role of the coun- selor. Counselor role expectation as registered by teachers 26 in 1972 and again in 1980 were compared. Teachers supported the need for counselors in the schools, yet 35 percent of both samples were "undecided" when it came to understanding the role of the counselor. Additionally, a significant number of teachers viewed the counselor as ineffective. The 1980 sample indicated 26 percent held this view with another 32 percent "undecided" whether or not counselors are effective. Thus, 58 percent of these teachers question the effectiveness of counseling. This may well relate to not understanding the role of the counselor in the school. "If the teacher does not know what the role of the counselor should be, it would be most difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of that role" (Valine, Higgins, Hatcher, 1982). Pershing & Demetropoulos (1981) conducted a study about the attitudes of teachers towards the function of career guidance in the schools. The study involved 1,982 secondary vocational teachers in Indiana. Teachers were asked to indicate the degree of importance they place in specific guidance activities. The results indicated that these teachers have an unfavorable disposition towards the adequacy with which secondary school guidance systems deliver career guidance. The teachers ranked all of the career guidance items as very important or important while 27 ranking the adequacy with which the guidance department performed these needs as uncertain or inadequate. Teachers tend to view counselors who don't "rock the boat" as preferable to those who are more activist (Atkin- son, Froman, Romo & Mayton, 1977). The teachers in this study tend not to support the notion of the counselor as a student advocate in the school. Few studies have been done regarding how students View school counseling and the role of school counselors. Student perceptions are valuable, for as primary consumers of counseling services, it is crucial that services offered meet their needs. In a study of student attitudes towards guidance services (Wells and Ritter, 1979) 550 students were randomly surveyed. More than 80 percent of these students indicated they would go to a counselor to change a class or check on graduation requirements. Fifty-one percent claimed they would see a counselor regarding planning their school program and 40 percent regarding a conflict with a teacher. However, only a small percentage of students see counselors as useful when they have a problem with a friend, have a question about personal problems or when they are in serious trouble. Major differences were seen between students needs and student perceptions of the counselor's role. Student perceptions of the counselor's role tended to shift, by 28 grade level, in the direction of what they saw counselors doing. These results are similar to results found by Leviton (1977) in his study of 550 randomly selected high school students. Students were asked to rank 12 guidance functions in terms of their importance in meeting student needs. Rated as least important by these students were peer relations, help with student discipline, and student supervision. The most important function, as perceived by the students, was high school program planning. Second in importance was post high school planning; third, was academic problems; and fourth, was career education. Thus, students gave the most important rating to those items having to do with academic adjustment and planning for education after school. Another method of focusing on student perceptions of the counseling program is to relate these evaluations to the reported time-task emphasis of counselors. This method was used in a study by Wiggins and Moody (1987). They found that in schools rated as highly effective by students, counselors reported spending the majority of their time in individual and group counseling activities, directly providing services to students. Schools in which students rated counseling services as below average reported spending a good part of their time on clerical tasks. There seemed to be a direct correlation between students' rating of various programs and the time-task emphasis of counselors. "Counselors who spent the most time in direct delivery of services through individual and group counseling were rated as the most effective" (Wiggins and Moody, 1987). Despite the lack of extensive research regarding student perceptions of school counselors roles' and func- tions, the research that has been done indicates a correla- tion between student perceptions and effectiveness. Herr (1986) concludes: "as the roles of school counselors have been stretched and stretched, the essential purposes to be served by school counselors have become increasingly diffuse and vague." Herr further recommends "a sharpening of counselor roles, and planned interactions between school counselors and parents, teachers and others, as well as setting priorities in how counselor time and skills will be used in a particular school and with particular groups of students." Farah Ibrahim has been involved in a number of studies in an attempt to ascertain how various groups perceive the role of the school counselor (Helms & Ibrahim 1983, Ibrahim, Helms & Thomson 1983, Ibrahim, Helms & Thompson 1984, Ibrahim & Helms, 1985). Ibrahim concludes that these groups 30 have different perceptions of the counselor's role. She has included counselor, parents, school administrators, and members of the business community as groups in her various studies. Ibrahim developed the Connecticut Needs Assessment Survey of the Role and Function of the Secondary School Counselor (Ibrahim, 1981) to measure the perceptions of her various groups. Ibrahim used the American School Counselors Association list of counselor functions to determine her items, with the intent to develop an exemplary secondary school counselor education curriculum. Ibrahim did not study the perceptions of students or teachers. However, she concludes (Helms & Ibrahim, 1983) "The needs of secondary school students for counselor services should be assessed and considered to reinstate counselor services as an integral part of the educational system in secondary schools." Furthermore, (Helms & Ibrahim, 1985) she recom- mends ". . . that school counselors engage in an annual needs assessment of their consumers and that they use this information to educate the public both on counselor role and function issue and program priorities." Currently there is still no clear consensus regarding the role of the school counselor. This lack of role definition is viewed as a major problem of what is wrong with school counseling programs (Hargens, 1987). Consumers 31 of counselor services hold different role perceptions for counselors than do the counselors themselves. Counselors cannot be expected "to meet all the demands placed on them" (Olson & Dilley, 1988). Financial hardships or cutbacks to public schools has exacerbated this confusion over the role and function of the school counselor. School counseling services are not being viewed as an integral part of the schools delivery system and thus school counselors are often first to be considered for staff reductions. Counselors have continued to rely on their own judgments and role definitions. Very little systematic attempt to solicit views of students, teachers, parents, and school administra- tors has been used to develop relevant comprehensive guidance programs. Meeting the needs of these groups has been of a haphazard nature. Consequently, school counselors have had a difficult time with accountability. "Administra- tors need solid data that counselors are making positive, meaningful differences in the lives of students if they are to support counselors and counseling programs" (Wiggins, 1985). School counseling has support (Herr, 1986), but counselors need to deal with the issue of role conflict and role definition as it relates to their counseling functions in schools. 32 Specifically defining the counselor's role and develop- ing written counseling program objectives allows for accountability. Support for school counselors and counsel- ing programs from students, teachers, parents, and school administrators has to be preceded by a clarification of counselor role definition. ASCA (American School Counselors Association) Role Statement The first ASCA role statement on the role of the secondary school counselor first appeared in May of 1974 and was revised by the ASCA Governing Board in March of 1977. In January of 1981 the ASCA Governing Board incorporated role statements from four areas, elementary school coun- selors, middle/junior high school counselors, secondary school counselors, and post-secondary counseling into one role statement. This statement was printed in the 1981 September issue of School Counselor. The statement includes items common to all four levels including a professional rationale, the nature of the helping process, the professional commitment of school counselors, and the counselor's responsibility to the profession. However, the statement recognizes that coun- selors serving different school populations function differently, due primarily to the variations in the develop- 33 mental stages of the students and the organization of the school. Functions specific to secondary counselors include: a. Organize and implement through inter- ested teachers guidance curricula interventions that focus upon important developmental concerns of adolescents (identity, career choice and planning, social relationships, and so forth. b. Organize and make available comprehen- sive information systems (print, computer-based, audio—visual) necessary for educational-vocational planning and decision making. c. Assist students with assessment of personal characteristics (e.g. competen- cies, interests, aptitudes, needs, career maturity) for personal use in such areas as course selection, post- high school planning, and career choices. d. Provide remedial interventions or alternative programs for those students showing in-school adjustment problems, vocational immaturity, or general negative attitudes toward personal growth. Standards for Guidance Services North Central Association Secondary school guidance and counseling departments have recommended standards established for them by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. The following is a description of those standards. 1. The school shall provide guidance services to aid all students in the 34 solution of various types of educa- tional, vocational, social, civic, and personal problems. 2. The guidance services shall provide counseling, appraisal, staff consulting, referral, educational and occupational planning, and follow-up activities. 3. The school shall provide the necessary facilities, clerical help, and materials for effective guidance and counseling services. The space provided for guidance services shall ensure privacy for effective counseling. 4. The school shall provide qualified guidance counselors at a ratio of 1 for each 450 students, with not less than a half-time counselor. The North Central Association provides directions or objectives for those schools who exceed the minimum stan- dards and achieve exemplary criteria. These criteria include: 1. The school provides qualified guidance counselors at a ratio of one counselor to every 300 students. 2. In districts too small to maintain student personnel services from district funds, efforts are made to provide the services through the use of shared resources, intermediate administrative units, or other cooperative approaches. 3. The school provides an inservice program for teachers to assist in the designing, administering, and interpreting of tests. 4. Testing programs are coordinated on a district-wide basis. 35 A Review of the Needs Assessment Process and Various Needs Assessment Instruments Needs assessment is a process that helps identify and examine both values and information. It provides direction for making decisions about programs and resources (Gold— stein, 1986). Needs assessment can help educators deal with shrinking revenues, the changing needs of students, what priorities should be assigned to different goals and what programs to out, if necessary. Needs assessment techniques can serve as the eyes and ears of a school that is reevaluating its services and planning new programs. A secondary counseling program can conduct a needs assessment at minimum expense by making maximum use of all free or inexpensive resources available (MacDevitt & MacDevitt, 1987). In their book Conducting; Educational Needs Assessment Stufflebeam et. al. state: The concept of needs assessment evolved in the 19605 as a result of the numerous social action legislation. An assessment of need was required as a basis for program goals and the level of funding requested. The use of needs assessments has expanded and is used in the 1980s to deal with a multitude of educational concerns. Needs assessments are used to identify and rank the importance of problems and to examine the effectiveness of programs. Needs assessments, as opposed to evaluation instruments, address future goals. There is a growing conviction in the educational community that we must begin to identify what is important to achieve before we rush ahead incorporating innovative 36 programs within the schools (Monson and Brown, 1985). During the past ten years an abundance of models have become available to assess educational needs. Most needs assess- ment instruments are designed to clarify and/or verify goals. Sarthory (1977) views needs assessments as basically a mind set which asks three questions. 1. Where are we? 2. Where do we want to go? 3. How do we get from here to there? This prioritizing process can be used by a classroom teacher with a group of students, by a counselor to develop an inservice program, by a business manager to develop a budget, or by a superintendent to establish district priorities. Many models available have grown from the work of Kaufman (1972) who believes there are four steps to ade- quately assess educational needs. These are: 1. Generate goals and rank them for importance. 2. Determine the present status of each goal. 3. Identify and analyze discrepancies between the goals and the present status. 4. Assign priorities to the discrepancies. 37 These discrepancies then become the high priority need areas and are used for program change or planning. Stufflebeam (1977) views the needs assessment process from four general perspectives or views. First is the discrepancy view where a need is seen as a discrepancy between perceptions of desired performance and observed or actual performance. The democratic view defines a need as a change desired by a majority. This approach is often used in public relations. The analytical view describes a need as the direction in which improvement can be predicted, given information about current status. The fourth view, diagnostic, defines a need as something whose absence or deficiency proves harmful or whose presence is beneficial. Witkin (1977) has produced a list of various publishers of instruments and has described five kits suitable for school building or district-wide use. The kits are: 1. Elementary School Evaluation Kit (CSE): Needs Assessment. This kit was developed by the University of California at Los Angeles. It has four stages to the process: a. Rate goals for importance. b. Select tests to measure student performance on the most highly rated goals. 38 c. Interpret the school's test scores in relation to those of other schools with similar character- istics. d. Use a decision model to derive critical need areas. There is a new CSE kit available which is modular and suitable for any grade level. 2. Alameda County Needs Assessment Model (ACNAM). This kit was developed by the Alameda County Schools Office. ACNAM enables users to assess some forty areas. They were mainly developed for use by elementary schools applying for multiple source funding, especially under ESEA title I. ACNAM is in its third edition (check), having undergone two years of field testing. 3. Phi Delta Kappa Model. This model was developed at the Northern California Program Development Center of the Professional Educational Organization. It is distributed nationally by the Phi Delta Kappa. The model has three phases: a. Rating goals for importance and perceived degree of attainment, b. Setting objectives based on the high priority ranking, and developing performance objectives and plans for implementation and, 39 c. Analyzing current resource allocation and identify- ing instructional and management design. The emphasis of this model is on assigning priorities to goals and on involving the community. 4. Quality Education Program Study (QEPS). These instruments were designed by the Bucks County Intermediate School District in Pennsylvania. It is in the form of twenty paperback booklets. The booklets contain a general needs assessment and ten specific instruments to measure each of the ten goals listed for quality education in Pennsylvania. The distinctive features of this model are: a. It's statement of goal areas and behavior derived from empirical study, b. The ten goal areas are clearly maintained as a structure for the general and specific instruments, c. Pupils do a self-assessment, and d. Appropriate tests are listed for each goal. 5. Pupil Perceived Needs Assessment (PPNA). This instrument gives educators instructions on how to develop need indicators and to conduct an assessment of needs as perceived by pupils. It was developed by Research For Better Schools, Inc., a regional educational laboratory in Philadelphia. The uniqueness of this kit is that it gives 40 step by step instructions for local educators to develop their own indicators of pupil needs. Other kits and models which may be of interest to schools are: 1. Atlanta Assessment Project. This project was developed by the Atlanta Public Schools in an attempt to determine the needs of students in 1985 (Sweigart, 1973). 2. Project Redesign. Developed by the Palo Alto Unified School District in California, this program attempts to assess society and public education needs in 1985 to enable planners to incorporate these needs in their school planning. 3. Project Simu~School. This project was developed by the American Institute of Architects committee for educa- tion. The projects emphasis is on utilizing computers for handling data and predicting effects of decisions made and alternatives available. A network of components was designed to improve school planning by utilizing tools developed by government and industry. 4. Project SWEP (Skyline Wide Educational Plan). Produced by the Dallas School District, this program uses procedures to conceptualize what the needs of the secondary school might be in Dallas in the years 1980 to 2000. 41 According to Stufflebeam, McCormick, Brinkerhoff, and Nelson, (1985), needs assessments can serve two primary functions. First, it can assist in determining what needs exist and how these needs should be addressed. Second, it can provide criteria against which a program's merits can be evaluated. Needs assessment is viewed as a process that includes gathering and using information for making deci- sions about the direction or worth of a program. Questions address performance, current or potential activities and decisions. Need assessment is an ongoing integral part of the process of program development and evaluation. Need assessment helps to guide decisions about aspects of a program that should be changed and the directions those changes should take. Data may be collected for needs assessments by a number of methods. Included would be observation, interviews, group discussion, tests, work samples, and questionnaires (Steadham, 1980). In detailing the interview and question- naire technique, Steadham states: Interviews can be formal or casual, structured or unstructured, or somewhere in between. They may be used with a sample of a particular group or conducted with everyone concerned. The interviews can be conducted in person, by phone, at the work site or away from it. This method is adept at revealing feelings, causes of and possible solutions to problems which the client is facing. It provides maximum opportunity for the partici- pant to represent themselves, especially when the 42 interview is conducted in a open-ended, non- directive manner. Interviewing, however, can be time consuming, difficult to analyze and quantify results. The interviewer needs to be sensitive to the participants self-consciousness and skilled in generating appropriate data. Questionnaires may be in the form of surveys or polls of a random or stratified sample of respondents or an enumeration of an entire population. A variety of question formats may be used including open ended, projective, forced choice, priority ranking. Questionnaires may be self-administered (by mail) under controlled, or uncontrolled conditions, or may require the presence of an interpreter or assistant. The advantages of the questionnaire method include reaching a large number of people in a short time, relatively inexpensive, give the opportunity of expression without fear of embarrassment, and yield data that is easily summarized and reported. Questionnaires disadvantages include the following concerns: little provision for free expression of unanticipated responses, time for development of effective instruments, limited utility in getting at causes of problems or possible solutions and unintended and/or inappropriate respondents. Needs assessment instruments can be designed or selected to fit the unique concerns or interests of an interested party such as a school board, school administra- tor or teacher. "Frequently, the particular instruments required for a given need assessment cannot be found among available instruments and it will be necessary to develop them." (Brinkerhoff et. al., 1985) A First step in the preparation process is identifying and defining the various people involved in the process: the client, persons (zonducting the study, the audience, persons affected in some 43 way by the study and the target population, people about whom information is to be collected and analyzed. The focus of the study may be one or more target groups. Questions can be designed to elicit information the assessors hope to obtain from the assessment. The questions need to relate to what are the pertinent variables of interest such as goals, procedures, facilities, or percep— tion. Careful consideration of content is needed to insure that items are responsive to the question they are intended to address. Drafts of proposed instruments should be reviewed and revised as many times as necessary prior to their use. The first step in determining the effectiveness of a secondary guidance and counseling program should be to establish priorities. Some authors suggest surveying the community to obtain priorities (Celotta, 1979); others propose to survey students (Leviton, 1977); while still other suggest a combination of parents, students, and school staff be surveyed (Clay, 1978). Whatever group or combina- tion of groups is decided upon, some type of needs assess- ment survey will be needed. "School counselors rarely conduct needs assessments" (Carroll, 1985). However, Rimmer and Burt (1980) state: Needs assessment techniques are an integral part of educational planning and evaluation that 44 can be used by school counselors to plan effective guidance programs and to evaluate on—going activities. Needs assessment methods can involve students, teachers, administrators, and parents in setting priorities in the counseling program, consequently, giving guidance "consumers" a direct role in program planning and development. Summary Guidance and counseling in the public schools has changed drastically since its inception, and today there is still no clear consensus regarding the role of the school counselor. The role of the school counselor is not consis- tent with the role expectations held by students, teachers, parents, administrators, and counselors. To understand the complexity of this situation, one needs to consider the history of the secondary school guidance program, the effects of role conflict and ambiguity, the perceptions of various groups about the role and function of the school counselor, and current professional guidance standards. These factors are closely intertwined. Role statements from the ASCA tend to be idealistic while school boards attempt to cope with never ending budget constraints and financial problems. Recent studies have indicated that the lack of clear, consistent counselor role definitions within the school could lead to the eventual demise of the profession. Much of the literature stresses that counselors must consider the expectations of the 45 various groups they serves when defining their role and establishing priorities. Future counselors will need to continually demonstrate that their services are beneficial and make a difference in the school and community (DiSil- vesto, 1980). Based on assessing the needs of their school community, counselors should be able to determine what types of programs are desirable to structure their efforts accordingly and thus increase their effectiveness. Improve- ment in counselor effectiveness will positively affect the students and help gain support for the guidance program. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Methodology The methodology used in conducting the study is delineated in this chapter. The population and the sample are identified. The procedures for data collection are outlined, and the research instruments utilized in the investigation are described. Lastly, statistical treatment of the data and methods of reporting the results are explained. Population of Interest Marquette Senior High School is located in the city of Marquette, which is situated on the southern shore of Lake Superior in the State of Michigan. The population of the city in 1980 (latest United States Consensus Data) was 23,288. The chief industries of the city and surrounding area are mining, health care, tourism, manufacturing, fishing, lumbering, and shipping. 46 47 Selection of the Sample The sample in this study was taken from the Marquette Senior High School student population of approximately 1500 students and from a teaching staff of approximately 70. A random sample of 60 students from each grade level was chosen as well as a random sample of 25 from the teaching staff. A small number of participants were requested to participate in an ethnographic component of this study. These participants were past school officials and students of Marquette Senior High School. Data Collection Those selected for the sample were given a letter of introduction (Appendix B) explaining the nature of the study and assuring the confidentiality of their responses. Those who agreed to participate were then asked to complete a needs assessment questionnaire (Appendix A) which listed a group of typical high school counselor job functions. Participants were asked to rate each item as to whether the item was an "Unimportant," an "Important," or a "Very Important" task for high school counselors. Participants were then asked how well they perceive each item is cur- rently being met by indicating one of three choices, "Need being Met," "Need Being Partially Met," or "Need Not Being 48 Met." For data analysis purposes, each response alternative was assigned a numerical score which provided a range of scores for each item to determine its priority rating. This study assessed two different groups, high school teachers and students, to examine their perceptions of the role and function of secondary school guidance counselors. Of the 240 possible student responses, a total of 189 were received. Of the 25 possible teacher responses, a total of 23 were received. Teachers were encouraged to respond by the inclusion of a coupon which was redeemable for a selection of their choice at a local ice cream parlor. The participants in the ethnographic component of the study were given a letter of introduction and consent form to sign if they agreed to be part of the study (Appendix C). The consent form guaranteed their comments would be held in strict confidence and all notes taken would remain unidenti- fied. The researcher interviewed these participants individually regarding their perceptions of the role and function of secondary school guidance counselors while they attended or were employed at Marquette Senior High School. Twelve persons were interviewed, four former teachers and eight graduates of the high school. 49 Design of the Instrument Survey items were taken from the Connecticut Needs Assessment Survey of the Role and Function of the Secondary School Counselor. These items were based upon the ASCA (American School Counselor Association) list of desirable functions. The original survey was used in 1981 by the Connecticut State Department of Education to develop a model secondary school counselor education curriculum. The perceptions of parents, counselors, administrators, and the business community regarding the role and function of secondary school counselors were assessed. A total of 37 questions were used in the categories of Program Develop- ment, Counseling, Pupil Appraisal, Educational and Occupa- tional Planning, Referral, Placement, Parent Help, Staff Consulting, Research, and Public Relations. This study utilized 12 questions or items concerning the categories of Counseling, Educational and Occupational Planning, and Placement to assess the perceptions of teachers and students. The categories with their respective items are as follows: Counseling - Provide individual counseling services for personal problems and concerns. 50 Provide group counseling services for personal problems and concerns. Provide individual counseling services for educa- tional problems and concerns. Provide group counseling services for educational problems and concerns. Educational and Occupational Placement Placement Provide information to students about the content of school courses and to aid them in course selection. Provide students with information about careers. Provide students with information about educa- tional opportunities after high school. Conduct guidance activities in the classroom, such as career development, self-awareness, decision- making, along with the classroom teacher. Provide testing to help students make career choices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resume writing, completing job applications, job 51 interviewing skills, and job application follow-up strategies. - Assist students to make educational plans for the future, such as selecting a college, career training program, etc. Items from the other categories of Research, Public Relations, and Staff Consulting, Pupil Appraisal and Referral were not chosen because counselors at the sample site spend little or no time in these areas due to the limited number of counselors. Thus, students and teachers may not be directly aware of counselor efforts in these areas. As opposed to the Connecticut Survey which examined the perceptions of parents, counselors, administrators, and the business community, the interest of this study was to assess student and teacher perceptions of the importance of the functions and activities in which counselors are currently involved. Hypotheses This study examined five hypotheses. Stated in the null form, they include: Hypgthesis I There will be no significant difference between stu- dents' and teachers' perceptions regarding the role of the high school counselor. 52 Hypothesis II There will be no significant difference between stu- dents' and teachers' perceptions of how well counseling functions are currently being met. Hypothesis III There will be no significant difference between students' perceptions at different grade levels, nine through twelve, regarding the role of the high school counselor. Hypothesis IV There will be no significant difference between female and male students' perceptions at each grade level regarding the role of the high school counselor. Hypothesis V There will be no significant difference between the perceptions of teachers with different years of experience regarding the role of the high school counselor. Data Analysis The data were analyzed on a computer utilizing "Mini- Tab" software. A two sample t test was used to determine whether the difference between the mean scores of the teachers and students were significant for any item on the 53 questionnaire (hypotheses I and II) and for determining any significant difference between student female and male responses at each grade level (hypothesis IV). A one-way ANOVA was used to determine whether the difference between the mean scores of the students by grade level (Freshmen, Sophomore, Junior, or Senior) was signifi- cant for any item on the questionnaire (hypothesis III) and to determine whether there was significant difference between teacher responses based upon teachers' years of experience (hypothesis V). The Tukey procedure was used to conduct post hoc analysis. Responses from the interviews for the ethnographic component of the study were pooled and generalized by the researcher in an attempt to determine perceptions of student and teachers who attended or worked at the high school during the sixties and seventies. The field research was then compared to the results from the quantitative component of this study. Summary This chapter presented an overview of the research design and a description of the population was given. Additional sections included a description of the data collection procedures, an explanation of the instrument used, a presentation of the hypotheses formulated for the 54 study and a description of the data analysis procedures used. Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction The main objective of this study was to determine the extent of congruence between students' and teachers' percep- tions regarding the role and function of the secondary school guidance counselor. Further objectives of the study were: - To determine whether there was congruence between students' perceptions at various grade levels regarding the role and function of the high school guidance counselor, - To determine whether there was congruence between male and female students' perceptions at each grade level regarding the role of the secondary school guidance coun- selor, - To determine whether there was congruence between the perceptions of teachers with different years of experi- ence regarding the role and function of the high school guidance counselor, and 55 UT 0‘ - To determine whether there was congruence between students' and teachers' perceptions of how well guidance functions are currently being met. An ethnographic component of the study sought to determine when and how the guidance department originated at the sample site, what the original role was of the guidance counselor, how counselors were perceived by students and teachers during the sixties and the seventies, and whether that role is different from the perceptions of students and teachers currently in the school. In the quantitative component of the study, respondents were asked to rate each item on a needs assessment question- naire as either "Unimportant," "Important," or "Very Important" and then to indicate how well they perceive each item is currently being met by selecting one of these choices: "Need Being Met," "Need Being Partially Met," or "Need Not Being Met." Each response alternative was assigned a numerical score for data analysis purposes. Summary statistics were computed to describe the distribution of responses of the participants. Significance at the .05 level was selected for each item. Items were placed into one of three categories: Counseling, Educa- tional and Occupational Planning, or Placement. Summary Statistics were then computed on each of these three 57 categories with the significance level set at .05. Each of the hypotheses and all of the tables are accompanied by a narrative highlighting the items of greatest and least discrepancy. The Mini-Tab Statistical Package was used to compute the statistical analysis of the data. Hypothesis I There will be no significant difference between students' and teachers' perceptions regarding the role of the high school counselor. Students and teachers were asked to rate each item listed on the questionnaire as to whether they believed it was "Very Important," "Important," or "Unimportant" in terms of job tasks in which counselors are typically involved. Each response was given the following numerical weight: Very Important = 5, Important = 3, Unimportant = 1. Thus, the higher the mean score on each item for each group, the greater the perceived importance of that item. Table 1 describes the student responses as survey items are listed in descending order commencing with those items scoring the highest in terms of perceived importance. The students ranked group counseling services for personal problems and concerns last (2.97) and individual counseling services for educational problems and concerns first (4.40). Of the four items in the Counseling category, the students ranked one of 513 table 1 Students Ranting oi iuportance of Bach Iten Iten 11 8.0. X 3. Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 109 1.03 4.40 0. Provide students vith infornation about careers. 100 .99 4.39 12. hssist students to note educational plans for the future; such as, selecting a college, career training progran, etc. 109 1.02 4.31 1. Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. 109 1.01 4.34 5. Provide loiornatlon to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. 100 1.01 4.34 1. Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. 101 1.10 4.05 11. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vritiug, conpleting job applications, lob intervieving stills, and job application ioilov—up strategies. 101 1.30 3.05 0. Conduct guidance activities in the classroon; such as career developnent, seif-avareness, decision noting; along vith the classroon teacher. 100 1.31 3.40 9. Provide testing to help students nahe career choices. 100 1.35 3.35 10. hsslst graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. 102 1.54 3.12 4. Provide group counseling services for educational prohieus and concerns. 101 1.31 3.00 2. Provide group counseling services for personal prohiens and concerns. 109 1.33 1.91 59 the items (No. 3) as the most important and two of the items (No. 2 and 4) as the least importance. When individual items were placed in their categories and mean scores determined, the students ranked the Educa- tional and Occupational Planning category as having the most importance to them (Table 2) followed by the Placement category and finally the Counseling category. Table 2 Students Ranking of Importance by Category Category N S.D. Mean Educational and Occupational Planning 186 .78 3.96 Placement 180 .95 3.76 Counseling 185 .79 3.61 The teachers ranked individual counseling services for educational problems and concerns as the most important (4.65) item (Table 3). The teachers' two lowest ranked items were No. 8 (Conduct guidance activities in the classroom, such as career development, self-awareness, decision-making, along with the classroom teacher) and No. 10 (Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting (50 table 3 teachers hunting of Inportance of Each iten iten l 0.0. bean 3. Provide individual counseling services for educational prohiens and concerns. 23 .90 4.55 12. Issist students to nate educational plans [or the future; such as, selecting a college, career training progran, etc. 21 .10 4.55 1.mMnmmHmummmnmummm opportunities after high school. 23 .15 4.55 5.Pufluiuununtouuuuahutucuuu - of school courses and to aid then in course selection. 23 .04 4.55 5. Provide students vith iuiornation about careers. 23 .94 4.39 1. Provide individual counseling services for personal prohiens and concerns. 23 1.15 4.30 9. Provide testing to help students nate career choices. 23 1.11 3.10 11. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpletlng job applications, job intervieving stills, and job application iollov-up strategies. 23 1.54 3.51 4. Provide group counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 23 1.24 3.52 2. Provide group counseling services for personal prohiens and concerns. 23 1.51 3.25 it Bflugnuuuguunuaudmwushguuniwm 23 L" L“ 0. Conduct guidance activities in the classroon; such as career developuent, self-avareness, decision nahlng; along vith the classroon teacher. 23 1.31 2.03 61 jobs). When the items are grouped into categories, the mean responses determined that the teachers also ranked the Educational and Occupational Planning category as having the most importance (Table 4). However, the teachers ranked the Counseling category second and Placement category last. Both teachers and students ranked Item No. 3 (Provide individual counseling services for educational problems and concerns) as the most important job function of counselors. Table 4 Teacher Ranking of Importance by Category Category N S.D. Mean Educational and Occupational Planning 23 1.05 3.75 Counseling 23 1.00 3.93 Placement 23 1.05 3.75 The null hypothesis that there will be no significant difference between students and teachers perceptions regarding the counselor's role was tested on each item by utilizing a two-sample t-test. The test was conducted at the .05 significance level. These results are reported in Table 5. None of the items attained significance; thus, the (52 table 5 Conparison of Student and teacher Perceptions of inportance of Bach Iten Question teachers 2341 students t0 10. 11. 12. Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. Provide group counselin services for educationa problens and concerns. . Provide infornatlon to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. Provide students vith lnfornatlon about careers. Provide students vith iniornation about educational opportunities after high school. . Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developnent, self- avareness decision nating; along viti the classroon eacher. Provide testing to hel students nate career c oices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications ob intervieving stills, a ob application foilov-up strategies. hssist students to late educational plans for the future; such as selecting a college, career irainlng progran, e c. 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 4.30 3.25 4.55 3.52 4.55 4.39 4.55 2.03 3.20 3.00 3.51 4.55 1.15 1.51 .90 1.24 .04 .94 .25 1.32 1.12 1.40 1.54 .20 103 109 109 102 100 100 109 109 100 102 102 103 4.05 2.92 4.40 3.00 4.34 4.39 3.40 3.35 3.22 3.55 4.32 1.10 1.33 1.03 1.31 1.01 .99 1.01 1.32 1.35 1.54 1.30 1.02 1.05 .90 1.13 1.01 1.03 .01 1.42 1.02 1.42 .55 .15 1.30 4 Significant at the .05 level. 63 null hypothesis is retained for each item at the .05 significance level. However, two of the items, Item No. 4 and Item No. 8 had a medium amount of variance in the mean responses of students and teachers. The teachers rated Item No. 4 (Provide group counseling services for educational problems and concerns) as having more importance than did the students, and the students ranked Item No. 8 (Conduct guidance activities in the classroom, such as career development, self-awareness, decision making, along with the classroom teacher) much higher than did the teachers. When grouping the individual items into the three categories of Counseling, Educational and Occupational Planning, and Placement (Table 6), the counseling category Table 6 Comparison of Student and Teacher Perceptions of Importance by Category Teachers Students Category N Mean N Mean t* P Counseling 23 3.93 185 3.61 1.80 .07 Educational & Occupational Planning 23 4.04 186 3.96 .45 .65 Placement 23 3.75 180 3.76 .06 .95 * Significant at the .05 level. 64 had a medium amount of variance between the student mean responses and the teacher mean responses. The teachers' mean response for the importance of the Counseling items was 3.93 compared to the students' mean response of 3.61. There was no significant difference found between the mean responses of the students and teachers for this hypothesis; thus, the null hypothesis at the .05 signifi- cance level is retained. Hypothesis II There will be no significant difference between students' and teachers' perceptions of how well counseling functions are currently being met. Students and teachers were asked to rank how well counseling functions are currently being met. The responses were rated "Need Being Met" = 5, "Need Being Partially Met" = 3, and "Need Not Met" = 1. Thus, the higher the mean score for each group the greater the group's perception that the need of that item is being met. Table 7 shows the student ranking of how well they perceive individual items are being met. Item No. 5 (Provide information to students about the content of school courses and to aid them in course selection) and Item No. 3 (Provide individual counseling services for educational problems and concerns) 655 table 2 student Ranting oi lov tell Bach iten is Currently being let iten l 8.0. dean 5. Provide infornatlou to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. 100 1.30 4.03 3. Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 105 1.35 3.90 1. provide individual counseling services for personal probiens and concerns. 105 1.32 3.53 1. Provide students vith infornatlou about educational opportunities after high school. 100 1.20 3.49 5. Provide students vith infornatiou about careers. 100 1.34 3.41 12. hssist students to note educational plans for the future, such as selecting a college, career training prograns, etc. 101 1.41 3.33 9. Provide testing to help students note career choices. 105 1.51 3.05 4. Provide group counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 102 1.42 2.59 0. Conduct guidance activities in the classroon, such as career developnent, seif-avareness, decision-natiug, along vith the classroon teacher. 109 1.43 2.53 10. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. 111 1.35 2.35 2. Provide group counseling services for personal problenn and concerns. 103 1.33 2.34 11. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting Job applications, lob intervieving stills, and job application follov-up strategies. 105 1.34 2.25 66 were ranked first and second by the students while Item No. 11 (Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resume writing, completing job applications, job interview- ing skills, and job application follow-up strategies) was ranked lowest by the students in terms of its need being met when compared to the other items. When the individual items were grouped into one of the three categories (Counseling, Educational and Occupational Planning, and Placement), the students mean score for Educational and Occupational Planning category was highest in terms of these needs being met and the Placement category lowest (Table 8). Two of the three items making up the Table 8 Student Ranking of How Well Each Category is Currently Being Met Category N S.D. Mean Educational and Occupational Planning 183 .88 3.33 Counseling 179 .92 3.13 Placement 169 .95 2.63 Placement category (Items No. 10 and No. 11) were ranked as the lowest and third lowest by the students in terms of 67 these needs being met. Thus, students perceived that the needs for the Placement items were not being met as well as the needs for items in the Counseling or Educational and Occupational Planning categories. The teachers ranked items No. 3 (Provide individual counseling services for educational problems and concerns) and No. 5 (Provide information to students about the content of school courses and to aid them in course selection) as the top two in terms of the need for that item being met and item No. 11 as the item whose need was perceived as least being met (Table 9). When examining the teachers' response by category (Table 10), the Placement category was ranked lowest. Thus, the students and teachers both ranked the Placement item needs as being the least met by the counselors and both teachers and students concurred that the needs for Items No. 3 (Provide individual counseling services for educa- tional problems and concerns) and No. 5 (Provide information to students about the content of school courses and to aid them in course selection) were being best met by the counselors. The null hypothesis II that there will be no difference between students' and teachers' perceptions of how well counseling functions are currently being met was tested for (58 table 9 teacher Ranting of Iov leli tach iten is Currently Being let Iten l 0.0. dean 3. Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 23 1.01 4.13 5. Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. 23 1.02 4.04 1. provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. 23 1.02 3.95 1. Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. 23 .94 3.51 9. Provide testing to help students nate career choices. 23 1.21 3.51 5. Provide students vith infornation about careers. 23 .90 3.52 12. hssist students to nate educational plans for the future, such as selecting a college, career training prograns, etc. 23 1.15 3.35 4. Provide group counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 23 1.19 2.03 2. Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. 23 1.33 2.54 10. assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. 23 1.43 2.30 0. Conduct guidance activities in the classroon, such as career developneut, self-avureness, decision-noting, along vith the classroon teacher. 23 1.33 1.95 11. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications, lob intervieving . stills, and job application follov-up strategies. 23 1.45 1.95 69 Table 10 Teacher Ranking of How Well Each Category Is Currently Being Met Category N S.D. Mean Counseling 23 .88 3.36 Educational and Occupational Planning 23 .56 3.35 Placement 23 .79 2.54 each item by utilizing a two-sample t-test at the .05 significance level (Table 11). Item No. 8 (Conduct guidance activities in the class- room, such as career development, self-awareness, decision- making, along with the classroom teacher) was found to have a significant difference in the mean score of the teachers compared to the mean scores of the students. The students felt the need for the item was being met to a greater degree than did the teachers. Item No. 9 (Provide testing to help students make career choices) also showed a variance (although not significant) between teachers and students mean response. Teachers perceived that the need for the item was being met (3.61) to a greater degree than did the students (3.05). When the items were grouped into categories (Counseling, 7() table 1 1 Conparison of Student and teacher Perceptions of lov tell Bach iten 1s Currently being let Question teachers can students can t! 10. 11. 12. Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. ‘Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. . Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. Provide students vith lnfornation about careers. . Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developpept, self- avareness decision natin along vith the classroon iiacher. Provide testing to help students nate career c oices. hssist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications ob intervieving stills, an ob application foilov-up strategies. tssist students to nate educational plans for the future; such as selecting a college, career raining progran, e c. 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 3.95 2.54 4.13 3.52 3.51 1.95 2.30 1.95 3.35 1.02 1.33 1.01 1.19 1.02 .90 .94 1.33 1.21 1.43 1.45 1.15 102 109 109 101 100 100 109 109 100 102 102 109 4.05 2.92 4.40 3.00 4.34 4.39 3.40 3.35 3.22 3.55 4.31 1.32 1.33 1.35 1.42 1.30 1.34 1.20 1.43 1.51 1.35 1.34 1.41 1.50 .91 .52 .43 .04 .19 .43 2.144 1.59 .13 .91 .05 * Significant at the .05 level. 71 Educational and Occupational Planning, and Placement), the t-test shows no significant variance between the student and teacher responses (Table 12). Table 12 Comparison of Student and Teacher Perceptions of How Well Each Category is Currently Being Met Teachers Students Category N Mean N Mean t* P Counseling 22 3.36 179 3.13 1.11 .27 Educational & Occupational Planning 23 3.34 183 3.33 .07 .94 Placement 23 2.53 169 2.63 .47 .64 * Significant at the .05 level. Students' and teachers' perceptions differed on how well the needs for some items are currently being met; thus, the null hypothesis is rejected at the .05 significance level. Hypothesis III There will be no significant difference between students' perceptions at different grade levels, nine through twelve, regarding the role of the high school counselor. 72 The students were asked to rate each counselor function as to how important it was to them. The higher the rating the greater the importance of the item. The mean scores of the students were computed by grade level, nine through twelfth grades. A one-way analysis of variance was used to compare student mean responses by grade level on each item. Significance was placed at the .05 level. There was significant difference between student grade level responses on three items (Table 13). Item No. 6 (Provide students with information about careers) had the most variance between student responses at different grade levels. The freshmen mean score was 4.07, the sophomores was 4.29, the seniors was 4.43, and the juniors was 4.74. At the .05 level, the null hypothesis for Item No. 6 is rejected. Using the Tukey procedure at .05 for post hoc analysis, pairwise significant differences were found between the Juniors and the Seniors, the Juniors and the Sophomores, and the Juniors and the Freshmen students. Thus, students at different grade levels do view the importance of this item differently. Item No. 9 (Provide testing to help students make career choices) also showed a significant variance between grade levels (Table 13). The freshmen mean score was 3.00; the sophomores, 3.42; the juniors, 3.78; and the seniors, 7Z3 table 13 Couparison of student Perceptions, by Grade Level, on the Inportance of Each Iten 9th Grade ldth Grade 11th Grade 12th Grade Question I lean I Mean I lean I lean f4 . Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. 41 4.02 41 3.90 45 4.04 53 4.13 .11 . Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. 41 3.34 40 2.15 41 3.13 53 2.13 2.32 . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 41 4.11 40 4.41 41 4.49 53 4.41 .00 . Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. 41 3.00 40 2.15 45 3.22 53 3.03 1.03 . Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. 40 4.25 40 4.42 41 4.49 53 4.21 .04 . Provide students vith iniornation about careers. 41 4.01 40 4.29 45 4.14 53 4.43 3.55* . Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. 41 4.02 40 4.29 41 4.53 53 4.41 2.30 Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developnent, self- avureness decision noting; along viii the classroon eacher. 41 3.29 40 3.32 41 3.50 53 3.30 .01 . Provide testing to hel students nate career cioices. 41 3.00 40 3.42 45 3.10 53 3.19 2.014 . Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. 41 3.00 42 3.33 41 3.30 52 3.23 .39 . Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriti conpleting job applications 10b intervieving stills, a ob application follov-up strategies. 39 3.11 40 3.45 41 3.11 53 3.54 .51 . Assist students to note educational plans for the future; such as selecting a college, c. career iraining progran, e 41 3.90 40 4.42 41 4.53 53 4.41 2.12* * Significant at the .05 level. 74 3.19. Using the Tukey procedure for post hoc analysis, a significant difference in student mean responses exists between the freshmen and the juniors, between the seniors and the juniors, and between the sophomores and the fresh- men. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected for Item No. 9; students at these grade levels View the importance of Item No. 9 differently. Item No. 12 (Assist students to make educational plans for the future, such as selecting a college, career training program, etc.) also showed a significant difference by the students at different grade levels (Table 13). The juniors attached the most importance (4.53) to the items followed by the seniors (4.47), the sophomores (4.42), and the freshmen (3.98). Again, using the Tukey procedure at .05 for post hoc analysis, pairwise significant differences were found between the freshmen and the sophomores, between the freshmen and the juniors, and between the freshmen and the seniors. The null hypothesis for Item No. 12 is rejected; students at these grade levels View the importance of this item differently. In each of the items that showed a significant differ- ence between student responses at different grade levels, the juniors had the highest mean score for that item. Although not significant, a mild variance exists in the mean 75 scores of students at different grade levels on Item No. 2 (Provide group counseling services for personal problems and concerns) and Item No. 7 (Provide students with information about educational opportunities after high school). Item No. 1 (Provide individual counseling services for personal problems and concerns) and Item No. 10 (Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs) showed the least amount of variance between students scores at different grade levels. When the individual items are grouped into their appropriate categories (Counseling, Educational and Occupa- tional Planning, or Placement), a significant difference was found between students at the various grade levels in the Educational and Occupational Planning category (Table 14). Table 14 Comparison of Student Perceptions, by Grade Levels, On the Importance of Each Category _2__19___1_1__1_2__ Category N Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean F* Counseling 41 3.63 47 3.49 44 3.74 53 3.60 .77 Ed. & Occ. Planning 40 3.71 48 3.95 45 4.27 53 3.92 3.99* Placement 39 3.62 42 3.78 47 3.86 52 3.78 .50 * Significant at the .05 level. 76 Junior students had the highest mean score for the Educational and Occupational Planning category (4.27) while the freshmen had the lowest mean score at 3.71; the seniors score was 3.92. Using the Tukey procedure at .05 for post hoc analysis, a significant difference is found between the juniors (4.27) and the freshmen (3.71). The null hypothesis is rejected; freshmen and juniors view the importance of this item differently. Educational and Occupational Planning items were ranked higher by the juniors than the students at other grade levels. The juniors had the highest mean score on all of the questions which showed a significant difference from student responses at other grade levels and three of these four questions were in the category of Educational and Occupational Planning. When examining student responses to how well the needs of each item was being met (Table 15), significant differ- ences between students at various grade levels were found on three items. Item No. 11 (Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resume writing, completing job applications, job interviewing skills, and job application follow-up strategies) showed the greatest variance in student mean scores; the seniors mean score was 1.80 and the freshmen was 2.74. The seniors when compared to the other classes had 7'7 table 15 Conparison of student Perceptions, by Grade Levels, on lov hell Bach iten is Currently Being net Question 9th Grade I lean 10th Grade 11th Grade I liean 12th Grade 10. 11. 12. . Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. . Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. . Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. . Provide students vith iniornation about careers. . Provide students vith infornatlon about educational opportunities after high school. . Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developnent, self- avureness decision no ting; along viti the classroon eacher. Provide testing to hel students nate career c oices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications Job intervieving stills, an oh application foilov-up strategies. Assist students to uate educational plans for the future; such as selecting a college, career raining progran, e c. 39 30 41 39 40 41 41 41 40 35 39 39 3.22 2.53 4.21 4.20 3.39 3.39 2.25 2.50 2.24 3.25 40 40 40 40 40 42 41 39 40 3.52 2.50 4.12 2.29 2.03 2.03 2.25 3.45 42 42 45 44 42 42 42 42 45 45 45 42 3.21 2.11 3.55 2.20 4.32 3.22 3.22 2.52 3.52 2.30 2.35 3.43 50 51 49 53 52 53 53 52 51 53 53 2.12 3.05 2.51 3.54 3.31 3.51 2.52 ’ 3.04 2.45 1.00 3.19 2.13 1.99 .40 2.55* .05 1.19 .55 2.22’ 1.00 4.029 .42 * Significant at the .05 level. 78 the lowest mean score when determining whether the need for this item was being met. The use of the Tukey procedure for post hoc analysis found significant differences between the seniors and the freshmen mean response and between the seniors and the juniors as to how well the need for group guidance in resume writing, completing job applications, job interviewing skills, and job application follow-up strate- gies was being met by the counselors. Item No. 9 (Provide testing to help students make career choices) also showed a significant variance between student grade level responses. The freshmen mean response was 2.75, the sophomores 2.83, the seniors 3.04, and the juniors 3.57. The freshmen had the lowest mean response about the need for Item No. 9 not being met when compared to other grade level responses. The Tukey procedure found pairwise significant differences between the Freshmen and juniors, between the juniors and the sophomores, and between the juniors and the seniors. A significant difference was also found in Item No. 5 (Provide information to students about the content of school courses and to aid them in course selection) with the seniors having the lowest mean score of 3.64 and the juniors the highest mean score of 4.32. The Tukey procedure found 79 pairwise significant differences between the freshmen and the seniors at the .05 level. The results of testing this hypothesis indicate there are significant differences between the mean responses of students at different grade levels regarding their percep— tion of how important each counselor function listed is and how well each of these items are currently being met. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis IV There will be no significant difference between female and male students' perceptions at each grade level regarding the role of the high school counselor. A t-test was used to determine whether there was any difference between female and male responses with respect to perceived importance of the items. Responses of male and female students were compared at each grade level and significance was placed at the .05 level. When examining the student responses to individual questions by sex and grade, none of the questions for the freshmen (Table 16) exhibited a significant difference between the female and male responses. The sophomore male and female students (Table 17) showed a mild variance in their mean responses (although not significant) for Items No. 3 (Provide individual counseling services for education Couparison of 9th Grade hale and Penale Pes uses Regarding the Inportance oi Counselor Punc ions 84) table 15 Question Pennies ean Hales ean t0 10. 11. 12. . Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. . Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. Provide infornatiou to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. . Provide students vith inforuation about careers. . Provide students vith infornatiou about educational opportunities after high school. Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developnent, self- avareness decision nating; along viti the classroon eacher. . Provide testing to hel students nate career cioices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications ioh intervieving stills, an ob application follov-up strategies. Assist students to late educational plans for the future; such as selecting a colle e, career raining progran, e c. 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 21 22 4.10 3.35 4.22 2.91 4.09 4.09 4.10 2.02 2.91 3.25 4.09 19 19 19 19 10 19 19 19 19 19 10 19 3.04 3.32 4.05 3.11 4.33 4.05 3.95 3.04 3.21 3.11 3.20 3.04 .91 .11 .55 .42 .44 .11 .41 .91 .99 .32 .04 * Significant at the .05 level. Couparison of 10th Grade hale and Penale tes onses BIL table 11 Regarding the Inportance of Counselor Punct ous Question Pennies ean hales ean 10. 11. 12. . Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. . Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. . Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. . Provide students vith infornation about careers. Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developpent, self- avareness decision uatrng; along viti the classroon eacher. . Provide testing to hel students nate career c5oices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications ob intervieving stills, an ob application foilov-up strategies. Assist students to uate educational plans for the future; such as selecting a colle e, career raining progran, e c. 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 4.20 4.32 4.02 4.50 4.41 32 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 22 33 33 2.20 4.50 2.20 4.45 4.15 2.55 3.59 3.40 4.39 .95 .42 1.02 .51 .42 1.00 1.30 1.53 1.50 .19 .25 0 Significant at the .05 level. 82 problems and concerns), No. 8 (Conduct guidance activities in the classroom, such as career development, self-aware- ness, decision-making, along with the classroom teacher), and No. 10 (Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs). At the junior level (Table 18) Item No. 3 (Provide individual counseling services for educational problems and concerns) showed a significant difference in student responses by sex. The junior females gave the item a mean score of 4.71 while the male mean score was 4.16. Table 19 examines the responses of the male and female senior students. Three items displayed a significant difference in the male and female student ranking. Item No. 2 (Provide group counseling services for personal problems and concerns) indicated the females showed a mean response to the item's importance at 3.18 while the male mean response was significantly lower at 2.42. Item No. 7 (Provide students with information about educational and occupational opportunities after high school) also had the females showing a significantly higher mean response of 4.82 when compared to the male mean response of 4.23. Item No. 8 (Conduct guidance activities in the classroom, such as career development, self-awareness, decision-making, along with the classroom teacher) demonstrated the same pattern as the female mean score was 3.82 to the male mean response of Conparison of 11th Grade hale and Ronnie Res onses 813 table 10 Regarding the Inportance of Counselor Punct ons Question Peuales can I lean Hales t0 10. 11. 12. . Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. . Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. . Provide students vith infornation about careers. . Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developnent, seif- avareness decision uatiug; along viti the classroon eacher. Provide testing to help students uate career c oices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting iobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications oh intervieving stills, an ob application foilov-up strategies. Assist students to note educational plans for the future; such as selecting a college, career raining progran, e c. 20 20 20 25 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 3.14 4.21 3.45 4.50 4.05 4.54 3.11 3.43 3.54 10 19 19 19 19 10 19 19 10 19 19 19 4.42 4.55 4.32 3.09 3.11 3.95 4.32 .25 .10 2.219 1.39 .10 1.00 1.15 0“ .59 .04 .91 4 Significant at the .05 level. £34 table 19 Conparison of 12th Grade dale and Peuale Res onses Regarding the Inportance of Counselor Punct ous Question Penales ean bales ean 10. 11. 12. . Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. Provide group counseling services for personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. . Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. . Provide students vith infornation about careers. . Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. . Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developnent, self- avareness decision noting; along vith the classroon eacher. Provide testing to help students nate career c oices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications 10b intervieving stills, an ob application foilov-up strategies. Assist students to note educational plans for the future; such as selecting a college, career [raining progran, e c. 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 21 22 22 4.45 3.10 4.23 4.54 4.23 1.3.2 3.02 3.21 3.19 ‘0.“ 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 3.90 2.42 4.29 3.00 3.92 ' 4.23 .111} - 2.94 3.13 3.25 3.39 4.35 1.00 2.020 1.51 1.02 1.05 2.229 2.400 .31 .15 1.04 * Significant at the .05 level. 85 2.94. Three additional items (No. 1. Provide individual counseling services for personal problems and concerns. No. 5. Provide information to students about the content of school courses and to aid them in course selection. and No. 6. Provide students with information about careers) were not significant at the .05 level but showed a mildly large variance between the male and female mean responses. When the items are placed into the categories of Counseling, Educational and Occupational Planning, or Placement and the mean scores of the male and female student are compared, no significant difference is found between the sexes at the freshmen, sophomore, or junior grades (Table 20). However, the mean scores of the males and females at the senior grade indicated significant differ- ences in the categories of Counseling and Educational and Occupational Planning. In the Counseling category the female mean score of 3.86 was significantly higher than the male mean score of 3.40. In the Educational and Occupa- tional Planning category the female mean score of 4.24 was also significantly higher than the male mean score of 3.70. Significant differences were found between the male and female responses at the various grade levels regarding the importance of counselor functions; thus, the null hypothesis is rejected. 86 Table 20 Comparison of Male and Female Responses by Category for Grades Nine through Twelve Regarding the Importance of Counselor Functions Males Females Category N Mean N Mean t* 9th Grade Counseling 19 3.58 22 3.68 .33 Ed. & Occ. Planning 18 3.64 22 3.76 .49 Placement 18 3.59 21 3.63 .12 10th Grade Counseling 32 3.48 15 3.50 .071 Ed. & Occ. Planning 33 3.99 15 3.85 .54 Placement 27 3.89 15 3.58 1.07 11th Grade Counseling 18 3.53 26 3.88 1.47 Ed. & Occ. Planning 17 4.20 28 4.31 .64 Placement 19 3.81 28 3.76 .38 12th Grade Counseling 31 3.40 22 3.86 1 2.42* Ed. & Occ. Planning 31 3.70 22 4.24 2.46* Placement 31 3.67 21 3.95 1.07 * Significant at the .05 level. 87 Hypothesis V There will be no significant difference between the perceptions of teachers with different years of experience regarding the role of the high school counselor. A one-way anova was used to test this hypothesis. Teachers were placed into one of four categories based on their years of experience: 0-3 years experience, 4-10 years experience, 11-19 years experience, and 20+ years experi- ence. Teacher responses from each experience category were compared for significant differences in their responses. Our random sample of teachers did not obtain any teachers in the 0-3 years experience category. This was not surprising due to the small number of teachers in the school population who had less than three years of experience. Two teachers did not indicate their years of experience on their survey; therefore, the teacher sample for testing this hypothesis consisted of 21 teachers. Table 21 indicates a significant difference in teacher response based on their years of experience for Item No. 2 (Provide group counseling services for personal problems and concerns) and Item No. 11 (Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resume writing, completing job applications, job interviewing skills, and job application follow-up strategies). Teachers with 20+ years of experience gave a 843 table 21 Conparison of teacher Responses to individual Iteus by tears of Experience Question 4-10eygs 11-19 its l"'l"" 201 trs can {0 10. 11. 12. Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. Provide roup counseling services or personal problens and concerns. . Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. . Provide group counselln services for educationa problens and concerns. Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. . Provide students vith infornation about careers. . Provide students vith infornation about educational opportunities after high school. . Conduct uldance activities in the c assroon; such as career developnent, self- avareness decision noting; aioug viti the classroon eacher. . Provide testing to bet students uate career cioices. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vriting, conpleting job applications ob intervieving stills, an ob application follov-up strategies. Assist students to late educational plans for the future; such as selecting a college, career raining progran, e c. 5 5.00 4.50 4.50 3.00 3.00 3.40 5.00 5.00 10 l0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 4.20 2.40 4.00 3.20 4.50 4.40 4.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.50 4.25 4.30 4.20 3.20 4.00 4.30 4.20 3.00 4.00 3.30 4.00 4.20 .33 3.919 .55 .45 2.05 .11 .14 .04 .02 .35 5.139 ‘ .51 lote: there vere no teachers in the 0-3 years of experience range. 4 Significant at the .05 level. 89 mean response of 4.3 on the importance of Item No. 2 compared with a mean response of 3.4 for teachers with 4-10 years experience and a mean response of 2.4 for teachers with 11-19 years of experience. The Tukey procedure was used for post hoc analysis. Pairwise, significant (at .05) differences were found between those teachers with 11-19 years of experience and those teachers with 20+ years of experience in terms of how they perceived the importance of counselors providing group counseling services for personal problems and concerns. Teachers with 4-11 years of experience gave Item No. 11 a mean response of 5 while teachers with 20+ years of experience gave it a mean response of 4 and teachers with 11-19 years of experience gave it a mean response of 2.6. The tukey procedure found pairwise significant differences between those teachers with 4-10 years of experience and those teachers with 11-19 years of experience regarding their perceptions of the importance of counselors conducting group guidance sessions in resume writing, job interviewing, and job application strategies (Item No. 11). Two items, No. 2 and No. 11, showed a significant difference between the responses of teachers with different years of experience. In both items teachers with 11-19 90 years of‘ experience had the lowest mean response regarding the importance of those items. Teacher responses were grouped into three categories: Counseling, Educational and Occupational Planning, and Placement (Table 22). The Anova test showed no signifi- Table 22 Comparison of Teacher Responses to Categories By Years of Experience 4-10 Yrs 11-19 yrs 20+ Yrs Category N Mean N Mean N Means f* Counseling 5 3.90 10 3.65 6 4.33 .83 Ed. & Occ. Planning 5 4.20 10 4.12 6 4.00 .14 Placement 5 4.47 10 3.33 6 4.00 2.42 * Significant at the .05 level. cant difference in the responses of teachers with different years of experience in any of the three categories. The placement category showed a mild variance between the mean response of teachers in the 4-10 years experience group (4.47) and the response of teachers in the 11-19 years of experience group (3.33). Significant differences were found between the perceptions of teachers with different years of 91 experience on some items regarding the role of the high school counselor; thus, the null hypothesis is rejected. ETHNOGRAPHIC PRESENTATION Introduction In 1959 the Marquette Public Schools sent one of their English teachers to attend a year long institute at the University of Michigan. Attendance at the institute was sponsored by funds from the NDEA (National Defense Education Act), and participants were trained to be secondary guidance counselors. The emphasis of the training was in the use and interpretation of various tests and measurements that were designed to identify high school students who excelled or had the aptitude to excel in the academic areas of math and science. The federal government in reacting to the Rus- sians' success with Sputnik passed the NDEA which provided funds to train educators in secondary counseling with the main objective to have these newly trained counselors return to their school districts and identify and encourage competent students for careers in the math and/or science fields. Marquette's representative returned in the fall of 1960, and the Marquette School system had its first guidance counselor. 92 Background J worked as the only counselor in the Marquette Senior High School for the first two years. In 1963 a second coun- selor was added, and subsequent years saw the addition of other counselors until the high school met the counselor- /student ratio criteria established by the North Central Association for Schools. The ratio suggested by North Central has been maintained to the present day. According to J, the role or job description of the school counselor was initially defined by him. He proceeded in the direction in which he was trained and began to test for math and science competencies in the local students. J felt the main focus of his role was in the area of educa- tional and occupational planning. Consequently, he concen- trated the majority of his activities into this category. As these career testing and advising tasks were pursued, J believed a rapport was developed with a number of stu- dents, and soon the counselor started working with a small number of students in the area of personal counseling. However, the main emphasis of his activities continued to be in the area of educational and occupational planning. J perceived a change in his role as he moved through the late sixties and early seventies. Students became more rebellious and more problems surfaced. Single parent homes 93 increased in number while student use of drugs and sexual promiscuity increased; societal problems affected the functioning of the schools. J felt the community looked to the schools to help deal with these problems, and the school community's expectation was that the' counselors knew best how to deal with these problems. The main focus of J's role was now shifting from educational and occupational planning activities to personal counseling activities. Much of the counselor's time began to be spent working with students who were having various adjustment problems in school. J indicated that it was also during the late sixties and early seventies that the administration began to add responsibilities to the counselors' role. As administration frustration grew due to a larger student body and an increased number of student behavioral problems, administra- tors began to focus on concerns about the counselor's role and how counselors were utilizing their time. There began a questioning by the administration regarding counselor accountability issues and how the counselors could better help the administration deal with their increasing problems. Consequently, the administration slowly added other respon- sibilities such as dealing with students with behavior problems, drug education, career education, and increasing the counselors responsibilities in student testing. 94 J and his fellow counselors also started to take on responsibilities in the area of placement activities. They were expected to work with co-operative training programs, where students received credit for work outside the school. Counselors were asked to do follow-up studies on drop-outs and graduates. The colleges and universities began to require more information from the schools, and counselors were expected to provide this information as well as to help their students interpret the various college entrance requirements. Furthermore, counselors were being asked to assist students in gaining job seeking skills such as inter- viewing and resume preparation. According to J, these added activities and increased responsibilities continued to grow during the eighties. What began as a narrow focus in 1960 had broadened consider- ably. However, much was left up to the counselor to determine how to prioritize their time in order to meet these added responsibilities. Individual counselors often placed various degrees of emphasis on different aspects of their role depending on their own individual strengths and values. J perceives the current counselor's role as varied with responsibilities in many areas, all of which he feels are important. When pressed to prioritize the importance of the categories utilized in this study for the counselor 95 role, he feels the emphasis is on personal counseling, followed by educational and occupational planning, and finally placement activities. Former Teachers Retired teachers who were interviewed concur with J that the original role of the guidance counselor was to assist students with career decisions. The main focus of counselor functions in the sixties was to help students with their educational and occupational planning. These former teachers claim that the counselors were accepted by the rest of the staff when the role was ini- tiated. However, this acceptance by the teachers at that time was not necessarily based upon the feeling that students were going to greatly benefit from the counseling services, but rather the teachers felt they would be freed up from a lot of scheduling and extra assignments that had been taking place in daily homerooms. "We gave that stuff to the counselors so that we could teach." Thus, the fact that counselors were perceived by the teachers as taking over some of the duties that teachers had been doing in homerooms generally aided the counselor's acceptance by the teachers. The counselor's role was further perceived by teachers of the sixties as being strictly involved with the academic 96 counseling of students. Teachers viewed the counselors as doing the career testing that took place in the school. Discipline was handled by the teachers and administration. The evolution of the counselor into the area of personal counseling was viewed by the teachers as a result of the changes in society and a rapidly growing student population. Teachers felt that as societal changes took place, "the students started having more problems," the need for personal counseling became greater. One teacher indicated that most teachers wanted to avoid personal counseling or didn't feel qualified to do it. Counselors were viewed as having the training to deal with the problems students were beginning to demonstrate in the late sixties and early seventies. Teachers cited the Vietnam war, dual working parents, the drug use by students, the impact of television, the increased number of students working part time, the increased number of child abuse cases, and rising divorce rates as factors which caused an increase in the students' need for personal counseling. Additionally, the dramatic increase in the size of the student body was perceived by one teacher as "disintegrating the close relationship that teachers and students used to have with each other." In 1960 the high school population was approximately 650. As a result of the closing of the local 97 catholic high school, the closing of the University experi- mental school and a general increase in the number of school-age children, the population of the school grew to over 2,100 students ten years later. The teachers viewed the change of the counselor role from scheduling and career counseling activities into more personal counseling functions as being caused by factors outside the control of the school. This changing of the counselor's role was also perceived by the teachers as increasing the contact between counselors and teachers. Counselors began alerting teachers to personal problems some students may be experiencing. Counselors for the first time began to play a role in the confrontations between students and their teachers. The size of the school prohibited the administration from knowing all the students and being aware of what was taking place at all times. The teachers interviewed felt that it was appropriate and helpful for counselors to get involved in these student-teacher confron- tations. One teacher also expressed the feeling that the counselor had the responsibility to go to the administration when teachers continued to have problems with their students and refused to make any changes. When questioned about placement activities and respon- sibilities, all teachers interviewed acknowledged that this 98 was not the role of the counselor during the sixties and seventies, and that this task was adequately handled by the vocational co-operative teachers. Some of those teachers interviewed expressed the opinion that counselors should not be involved in placement activities today, "It is not their job." Overall, the teachers interviewed were in agreement that the initial role of the high school counselor was to work with students in the area of educational and occupa- tional planning, guiding students in their career planning and assisting them in making appropriate high school course selections. These teachers also seemed to recognize that personal counseling evolved as an added function for counselors, mainly as a result of changes in society. Placement activities were not viewed as an important function in the counselor's role by the teachers inter- viewed. Former Students Past student graduates of the high school tended to have more diverse perceptions about the role of the high school counselors while they were students. The majority of the students interviewed did not see the counselor more than once or twice during their four years of high school. The contact with the counselor usually regarded a scheduling 99 matter. These students tended to perceive the counselor as someone whom you saw about a schedule change or about career decisions during their senior year. One student felt that the only students who saw counselors about career decisions were the top academic students who were applying to the most prestigious colleges. Most of the students interviewed felt the counselors played little or no role in their career choice. One student graduate of the sixties didn't know who his counselor was or how many counselors were available. Students who graduated in the sixties concurred with the teachers perception that counselors played no role in behavior problems in the school. These situations were handled by the teachers and/or administrators. Students who graduated in the seventies perceived that counselors were doing personal counseling that involved working with problem students. " 'Normal' students didn't go to the counselor for personal counseling. If a student didn't have any major problems in school, they didn't see their counselor." One student who was pregnant during her senior year did not talk to her counselor at any time about her situation. When asked why, she claimed she made the decisions that had to be made by herself and with her family.0ne student claimed, "If you didn't have a scheduling problem, you didn't see a 100 counselor." Few of the students interviewed remembered any of their friends who saw the counselor for personal counsel- ing but perceived those students who did go to the counselor as "really being in trouble." Counselors activities most often mentioned by all students interviewed involved counselors' scheduling of students' classes. The students did remember placement activities occurr- ing (resume and job application preparation, interviewing skills and job placement strategies), but they tended to agree that these activities were handled by the vocational- education or co-operative teacher. None of these former high school students perceived placement activities to be a function of the counselor's role. Most students could not remember counselors administer- ing career tests but indicated that some type of testing took place in their homeroom or classrooms. One student who graduated during the seventies remembered taking an interest inventory test from a counselor during her junior year with a group of other students. Other than this exception, few students associated counselors with testing programs. Student perceptions of the counselor's role did seem to be influenced somewhat by the years the student attended school. Those who attended in the sixties had very little memory of their counselor, and what they did remember was 101 related to scheduling and in a few cases college selection. Those students who attended in the seventies also mentioned scheduling most often as a counselor function. However, these students also perceived that students with problems saw the counselor for assistance, although none of those interviewed indicated that they sought counseling when they had a problem. Summary The students interviewed remembered less about the role and function of the counselor than did the teachers who were interviewed, however, what they did recall seemed to be congruent with the teacher responses. Both groups viewed the main function of the counselor while they were in school to be related to educational and occupational planning activities. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter is presented with the following subsec- tions: 1) summary, 2) conclusions, 3) discussion and implications, and 4) recommendations for further study. Summary The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of high school students and teachers regarding the role and function of secondary school counselors. Comparisons were made between the perceptions of students and teachers, the perceptions of students at different grade levels, and the perceptions of teachers with different years of teaching experience. A secondary purpose of the study was to utilize the ethnographic method of field research to determine how coun- selors and the role of the counselor originated at the sample site, how counselors were perceived by students and teachers during the sixties and seventies, and whether that role is different from the perceptions of students and teachers cur- rently in school. 102 103 A conceptual framework for the study was presented through a review of the literature. The literature review focused on the historical beginnings of guidance and counsel- ing, role conflict and ambiguity, needs assessments techn- iques and instruments, and studies of perceptions and attitudes towards the role of secondary school counselors. The majority of the perception studies focused on the perceptions of counselors, parents, and administrators. Very few studies dealt with the perceptions of students and teachers. A few studies were designed to determine the perceptions of consumers of school counselor services in order to develop ideal counselor education curriculums. Other studies were interested in counselor role definitions and accountability. Many of these studies emphasized that the lack of counselor role definition or counselor role conflict and ambiguity were eroding the support for guidance counselors in the public schools. Procedures utilized to implement this study included quantitative and qualitative research. A needs assessment instrument was given to a sample of current students and teachers. The instrument contained twelve items related to counselor job functions in three categories: 1) Counseling, 2) Educational and Occupational Planning, and 3) Placement. Respondents were asked to indicate the importance of each 104 item as being either "Unimportant," "Important," or "Very Important" and to indicate how well the need for each item was being met by selecting "Need Being Met," "Need Being Partially Met," or "Need Not Being Met." Each response alternative was assigned a numerical score for data analysis purposes. Data was compared by use of a two-sample t-test, a one-way ANOVA, and the Tukey procedure for post-hoc analysis. A detailed analysis of the results are presented in Chap- ter IV. Qualitative data was collected by the researcher utilizing the interview method. Responses from the inter- views were pooled by the researcher in an attempt to deter- mine perceptions of students and teachers who attended or worked at the sample site during the sixties and seventies. Conclusions Based upon the analysis of the data, the following conclusions were reached. 1. There was no significant differences between students' and teachers' perceptions regarding the role of the high school counselor. There was a high degree of congruence between students and teachers on the Placement items. The Counseling Category had the greatest discrepancy between the students and teachers and approached a significant difference at the .05 105 level. The specific item on which the two groups most differed involved counselors conducting guidance activities in the classrooms. The students attached more importance to this activity than did the teachers. Despite these variances no significant differences occurred, and the researcher accepts the null hypothesis and concludes that there is no difference between student and teacher perceptions at the sample site on the importance of guidance activities listed in the needs assessment survey. 2. There was a significant difference between students' and teachers' perceptions of how well counselor function are being met for conducting guidance activities in the class- room. There were no significant differences between the responses of students and teachers when the items were grouped into the three categories of Counseling, Educational and Occupational Planning, and Placement. 3. Student perceptions at difference grade levels, 9- 12, differed significantly on the importance of various counselor functions. The greatest difference between the perceptions of students at different grade levels occurred on the Educa- tional and Occupational Planning items. The junior students attached the most importance to the significant items (No. 6, 106 9, and 12), while the freshmen attached the least amount of importance to these items. The juniors were most concerned about receiving help with their educational and occupational plans for the future. Most educators could have predicted this result as it is quite common for career concerns to become paramount for the majority of the students in their junior and/or senior years. Students at various grade levels did concur about the importance of counselors providing individual counseling services for personal problems and concerns. When responding to how well the needs of each function on the survey was being met by the counselors, the greatest difference between students at various grade levels focused on counselors conducting group guidance sessions for students in resume writing, job applications, and job interviewing skills. The seniors felt the strongest that counselors were not meeting student needs in this area. The freshmen indicated to a significant degree more than the other grades that they wanted more counselor help with testing to assist them in making career choices. 4. The perceptions of male and female students at the junior and senior level differed significantly on the importance of various counselor functions. 107 Junior male and female students differed significantly on the importance of counselors providing individual counsel- ing for educational problems and concerns. The female juniors attached more importance to this item than did the males. The senior male and female students differed signifi- cantly on one item in the counseling category and two items in the Educational and Occupational Planning category. The female senior students attached more value to the importance of counselors providing group counseling services for personal problems and concerns than did the male seniors. The female students also attached more importance to counsel- ors providing students with information about educational opportunities after high school and the importance of counse- lors conducting guidance activities in the high school relating to career development, self-awareness, and decision making than did the male seniors. 5. The perception of teachers with various years of experience differed significantly on some items regarding the importance of counselor functions. Teachers with 11—19 years of experience ranked the importance of counselors providing group guidance sessions for students in resume writing, job application and job interviewing skills significantly lower than did the teachers with 4-10 years of experience and the teachers with 20+ years 108 of experience. The same result was found in regard to counselors providing group counseling services to students for personal problems and concerns. Again, teachers with 11- 19 years of experience ranked the importance of this item significantly lower than did the other two teacher groups. 6. Students and teachers of the sixties and seventies perceived the role of the high school counselor as primarily involved with assisting students with their career plans. Personal counseling activities were added to the coun- selor's role as the number of students attending the high school increased and societal changes during the late sixties and early seventies impacted students. Placement items were not perceived as being a part of the counselor's role during the sixties and seventies. Discussion and Implications There may be a number of implications drawn from this study, the researcher will try to highlight the most signifi- cant. Aubrey (1982) and Schmidt (1984) found that the role and the function of the high school counselors have become unclear to students, teachers, and counselors alike. A shared common perception of the school counselors' role by the school community is vital for a successful guidance program (Helms and Ibrahim, 1985). Herr (1986) feels that counselors need to sharpen counselor roles and to plan 109 interaction with parents, teachers, and others. Schmidt (1984) feels that utilizing a needs assessment instrument will help identify the kinds of services appropriate for future counseling programs. The study conducted by this researcher demonstrates that secondary guidance programs can utilize a needs assessment survey to determine student and teachers perceptions of counselor roles and counselor effectiveness. The results could be utilized to design a comprehensive guidance program tailored to fit the needs of a local school district. This study found a degree of similar perceptions regarding the school counselor's role by students and teachers. However, a discrepancy between the two groups involved counselors conducting guidance services in the classroom. Teachers indicated the need for this function was being met and didn't attach as much importance to it as did the students. Furthermore, there was a significant differ- ence between the two groups about how well the need for some counselor functions were being met. Counselors need to remain sensitive to the perceptions of both students and teachers. Ignoring the perceptions of either group in designing a guidance program can lead to counselor role conflict and a resulting lack of support for the guidance program. To address this need counselors could involve 110 students and teachers on a counselor advisory committee. The advisory committee would have the responsibility for assess- ing student and teacher needs and designing counseling activities to meet these needs. This step would help to clarify the counselors' role and gain valuable teacher and student support for the school guidance department. A further implication of the study relates to the specific needs of the students at each grade level. This study found significant differences between the students at different grade levels about the import of various counselor functions. Junior students ranked Educational and Occupa- tional Planning items as a more important counselor function than did the students at other grade levels. The freshmen ranked the importance of counselors providing group counsel— ing services for personal problems and concerns higher than did students at the other grade levels. The senior students gave a significantly lower score than did the students at the other grade levels to how well the need for resume writing, job application and interviewing skills were being met. School administrators and counselors need to remain sensitive to these unique grade level differences in design- ing a comprehensive guidance program. Student needs at each grade level should be assessed prior to formulating counselor objectives by utilizing a need assessment instrument. 111 Counselors could then prioritize their activities by grade level, and administrators could regularly evaluate counselor efforts. This study also found significant discrepancies between the perceptions of malejand female junior and senior students regarding the counselors' role. On each item that male and female students showed a significant difference in their response, the females ranked the item higher than did the males. The discrepancy may exist because it may be more acceptable for female high school students to indicate a need for help than it is for a male student to do so. Counselors utilizing a needs assessment instrument should remain cognizant of this potential male and female difference when analyzing their results. Historically, Placement activities were not viewed as a counselor's function at this study's sample site. This apparently continues to be the case as both current students and teachers ranked the importance of counselors assisting graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs low. One reason for this low ranking may be attributed to the fact that a majority of students at the sample site enroll in a post secondary institution following graduation. The results may be quite different if the study is duplicated at a high school with a large dropout rate and/or a large majority of 112 the graduates entering the work force upon their graduation from high school. Teachers in the 11-19 years of experience category tended to rank the importance of various counselor functions lower than did teachers with 4-10 years of experience or teachers with 20+ years of experience. This result was especially apparent in the two items which showed a signifi- cant difference between the three teacher groups. One wonders whether there are significant reasons for the teachers in the 11-19 years of experience category ranking more items lower than did the other teacher groups. Many of these teachers started teaching during the period that teacher contracts were being negotiated for the first time. Many of these teachers received their college educa- tion during the turbulent sixties and started working in the public schools while great changes in student behavior was being manifested. Perhaps these factors are related to their lower perceptions of the importance of various counselor functions. Finally, the researcher would like to advise caution to any conclusion that would lead to the exclusion of any of the items from a secondary guidance program. All of the items were deemed important by some of the students and teachers. To exclude any of them completely may lead to severe gaps in 113 the comprehensiveness of a program. Rather a needs assess- ment survey can allow counselors to prioritize their func- tions and to decide what activities to emphasize on each grade level. Recommendations for Further Study The following suggestions are based on insights gained during the course of this study. 1. It is recommended that this study be replicated using representative samples from other socioeconomic groups to test the general applicability of the findings in the study. As indicated previously, student and teacher respon- ses may be affected by socioeconomic status and community school standards. For example, Placement activities may be perceived as a more important counselor function by the students and teachers at a different sample site. 2. As school counselors are often not given a clear role definition, it is recommended that school administrators utilize a needs assessment survey to be aware of the needs of their students and the expectations of their staff in order to clearly identify counselor goals and priorities. These goals can serve as a basis for evaluating the guidance program in terms of how well it is meeting the needs of students, parents, and teachers. 114 3. It is recommended that this study be extended in order to prioritize counseling functions by combining the numerical score given to the importance of each item on the survey with the numerical score given to how well the need for each item is being met. For example, an item with a high score on importance and a low score on how well the need is being met would become a high priority item. Conversely an item with a lower score on its importance and a higher score on how well the need is being met would be a lower priority item. 4. Given the current student-counselor ratio in secon- dary schools and the broader expectations of their consumers, counselors should consider ways to decentralize guidance services in order to better meet the needs of all students. Further studies could be conducted to determine strategies which can utilize teachers within their classrooms to help deliver career guidance services to all students. Teacher involvement may include classroom activities and/or being assigned a small number of students for general and career counseling thereby assuring that every student develops a good relationships with at least one adult in that school. 5. Further studies should be conducted to determine whether teachers with 11-19 years of experience have lower perceptions of the importance of counselor functions and if 115 so, why? This group of teachers are not due to retire soon and could greatly impact the effectiveness of guidance programs in secondary schools. APPENDICES APPENDIX A NEEDS ASSESSMENT SURVEY FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 211.6 03305 ASSISSIIIT SURVEY - YBACIBIS Please check (I) years of experience: 0-3 __4-10 __11-19 __20+ Please circle sex: P h be ask our assistance in deterninin vhat are the nest inportant tasts of the high school counselor. the foiloving list of ob functions represent uany o the job tasts vhich counselors have been expected to carry out. Re ast tha on rate each iten as to vhether on believe it is [spy IngortantE In ortant or dnin ortant and hen rate the iten in eid ieiug e . ee being Partially bet. or erus of hov veil you feel the nee is currently being no y c ec ing leed lot being let. the Counselor Should: Very Reed Reed bein leed dnigpprtaut igportant inportant being let Partially et lot let 1. Provide individual counseling services for personal problens and concerns. 2. Provide group counseling services for personal pro lens and concerns. 3. Provide individual counseling services for educational problens and concerns. 4. Provide group counselln services for educational problens an concerns. 5. Provide infornation to students about the content of school courses and to aid then in course selection. 5. Provide students vith infornation about careers. 1. Provide students vith infornation about edu- cational opportunities after high school. 0. Conduct guidance activities in the class- roon; such as, career developnent, self- avareness, decision-noting; along vith the classroon teacher. 9. Provide testing to help students uate career choices. .____ 10. Assist graduating students and dropouts in getting jobs. 11. Conduct group guidance sessions for students in resune vr t ug conpleting ioh ap lica- tions, ob intervieving stil s, and ob applica lon foilov-up strategies. 12. Assist students to nate educational plans for the future; such as, selecting a college, career training progran, etc. APPENDIX B LETTERS TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 118 Dear Teacher: As you know, I am completing my doctoral program at Michigan State University. My dissertation calls for me to conduct a survey. I realize the remaining few weeks are busy for you, but only 15 minutes of your time will be needed to complete the questionnaire. You have been randomly selected to participate in this study to determine teacher perceptions of the role and function of the high school guidance counselor. Your response is important as you are one of only twenty-five teachers who have been selected. Your participation is voluntary. You may decide not to participate at all or not to answer certain questions without penalty. You may indicate your willingness to participate by completing and returning the enclosed questionnaire to Mrs. Judy Gooch in the high school office on or before (insert date). A high rate of survey returns is very important to me. To express my thanks, I have enclosed a Frosty Treats coupon for you. Your survey responses are completely confidential; please do not sign your name on the survey form. I look forward to seeing you this summer. Sincerely, Bill Ostwald Enclosure: Questionnaire 119 Dear MSHS Student: You have been randomly selected to participate in a study to determine student perceptions of the role and function of the high school guidance counselor. This study is being conducted as partial fulfillment of my doctoral program at Michigan State University. Your responses to the enclosed questionnaire is important as you are one of only fifty other students in your class who have been selected. Your participation is voluntary. You may decide not to participate at all or not to answer certain questions without penalty. You may indicate your willingness to participate by completing and returning the enclosed questionnaire to me in the enclosed stamped, self-addressed envelope as soon as possible. As your questionnaire responses will be completely confidential, please do not sign your name. Your assistance in this study will be greatly appreciated. Sincerely, Bill Ostwald Enclosures: 1. Questionnaire 2. Envelope APPENDIX C ETHNOGRAPHIC PARTICIPANTS' CONSENT FORM 120 Dear Study Participant: As part of my doctoral dissertation work in educational administration at Michigan State University, I am conducting a study regarding the role and function of secondary school guidance counselors at Marquette Senior High School. In your capacity as a past school official or student at Marquette senior High School, I would like to interview you regarding your perceptions of the Marquette Senior High School guidance counselors when you were an official or student at Marquette Senior High School. Should you consent, this interview should last approximately 45 minutes to an hour. Your comments will be held in strict confidence and all notes taken during the interview will be anonymous. If you are willing to be part of this study, please sign this form which states that you have read the conditions and agree to be part of this study. A self-addressed, stamped envelope is enclosed for your convenience in returning the consent form to me. Sincerely, Bill Ostwald CONSENT FORM I have read the conditions as stated, and I agree to be a participant in the study Bill Ostwald is conducting. Date BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Adler, Mortimer J., The Paideia Program, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1984. ---- "ASCA Position Statement: Ethical Standards for School Counselors," The School Counselor, November 1984, pp. 84-87. Atkinson, Donald R., Fromand, Terry, Romo, John, and Mayton, Daniel M., "The Role of the Counselor as a Social Activist: Who Supports It?," The School Counselor, November 1977, pp. 85-91. Atkinson, Donald R., Furlong, Michael J., and Janoff, Dean S. "A Four Component Model for Proactive Accountability in School Counseling," The School Counselor, March 1979, p. 222. Aubrey, Roger F., "A Counseling Perspective on the Recent Educational Reform Reports," The School Counselor, November 1985, pp. 91-99. Aubrey, Roger F., "A House Divided: Guidance and Counseling in Twentieth Century America," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, December 1982, pp. 198-204. Aubrey, Roger F., "Relationship of Guidance and Counseling to the Established and Emerging School Curriculum," The School Counselor, January 1979, p. 151. Aubrey, Roger F., "Historical Development of Guidance and Counseling and Implications for the Future," Personnel and Guidance Journal, February 1977, p. 288. Banton, M., Roles: An Introduction to the Study of Social Relations, New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1965. Bardo, Harold R., Cody, John J., and Bryson, Seymour L., "Evaluation of Guidance Programs: Call the Question," Personnel and Guidance Journal, December 1978, p. 204. 121 122 Bedeian, Arthur G., and Armenakis, Achilles A., "A Path- Analytic Study of the Consequences of Role Conflict and Ambiguity," Academy of Management Journal, 1981, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 417-424. Boyer, Ernest L., High School, New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1983. Bradley, Marjorie K., "Counseling Past and Present: Is There a Future?" Personnel and Guidance Journal, September 1978, p. 44. Brewer, J.M., History of Vocational Guidance, New York: Harper, 1942. Carroll, M.R., "Standards for Guidance and Counseling Programs," The School Counselor, November, 1980. Celotta, Beverly, "The Systems Approach: A Technique for Establishing Counseling and Guidance Programs," Personnel and Guidance Journal, April 1979, p. 412. Clay, H., "Kentwoods Public School's Needs Assessment Survey." Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, Washington, D.C., March 1978. Cottingham, Harol F., "Psychological Education, The Guidance Function and the School Counselor," The School Counselor, March 1976, p 340. Crabbs, S.K. and Crabbs, M.A., "Accountability: Who Does What to Whom, When, Where and How?" The School Counselor, March 1977, p. 104. DiSilvesto, F.R., "The School Counselor and Political Activity: Influencing School Boards," The School Counselor, Vol. 27, 1980, pp. 351-356. Drury, Susanne S., "Counselor Survival in the 19805," The School Counselor, January 1984, pp. 2340240. Fairchild, Thomas N. and Zinns, Joseph E., "Accountability Practices of School Counselors: A National Survey," Journal of Counseling, and Development, December 1986, Vol. 65, pp. 196-199. Gerber, Edwin R., Jr., "New Directions for School Counseling," The School Counselor, March 1976, p. 247. Gibson, R.L., "Teacher Opinions of High School Guidance Programs," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1965, Vol. 44 pp. 416—422. Goldstein, I.L. Training in Organization, Needs Assessment, Development, and Evaluation. Belmont, California, Brook/Cole 1986. Hargens, Mark, "Developing a Comprehensive School Counseling Program," NASSP Bulletin, May 1987, pp. 10-13. Helms, Barbara J. and Ibrahim, Farah A., "A Comparison of Counselor and Parent Perceptions of the Role and Function of the Secondary School Counselor," The School Counselor, March 1985, pp. 267-274. Helms, Barbara J. and Ibrahim, Farah A., "A Factor Analytic Study of Parents' Perceptions of the Role and Function of the Secondary School Counselor," Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, 1983, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 100- 106. Herr, E.L., "The Relevant Counselor," The School Counselor, September 1986, pp. 7—13. Herr, E.L., "Counseling: Accountability, Reliability, Credibility, Journal of Counseling Services, 1976, Vol. 1, p. 14. Hutchinson, Roger L., Barrick, Ann Louise, and Groves, Mary, "Functions of Secondary School Counselors in the Public Schools: Ideal and Actual," The School Counselor, November 1986, pp. 87-91. Ibrahim, Farah A., Helms, Barbara J., and Thompson, Donald L., "Counselor Role and Function: An Appraisal by Consumers and Counselors," Personnel and Guidance Journal, June 1983, pp. 597-601. Ibrahim, Farah A. and Thompson, Donald L., The Development of a Model Secondary School Counselor Education Curriculum, Connecticut State Department of Education, Bureau of Educational Services, August 1981. 124 Kahn, R.L., Wolfe, D.M., Quinn, R.P., and Snoek, J.D., Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity, New York: John Wiley, 1964. Kaufman, R.A., Educational System Planning, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1972. Leviton, Harry 8., "Consumer Feedback on a Secondary School ,Guidance Program," Personnel and Guidance Journal, January 1977, p. 242. MacDevitt, Margaret and MacDevitt, John, "Conducting a Low Cost Needs Assessment in a Rural Mental Health Center," Journal of Counselingy and Development, May 1875, Vol. 65. pp. 505-507. Miller, C.H., Foundations of Guidance, New York: Harper, 1961. Monson, Robert J. and Brown, Duane, "Secondary School Counseling: A Time for Reassessment and Revitalization," NASSP Bulletin, December 1985, pp. 32- 35. Murray, Paul V., Levitov, Justin E., Castenell, Louis, and Joubert, J. Henry, "Qualitative Evaluation Methods Applied to a High School Counseling Center," Journal of Counseling, and Development, January 1987, Vol. 65, pp. 259-261. Odell, L.M., "Secondary School Counseling: Past, Present, and Future," Personnel and Guidance Journal, May 1973, p. 151. Olson, Margaret J. and Dilley, Josiah S., "A New Look at Stress and the School Counselor," The School Counselor, January 1988, pp. 194—198. Peer, Gary G., "The Status of Secondary School Guidance: A National Survey," The School Counselor, January 1985, pp. 181~189. Pershing, James A. and Demetropoulos, Efstathios, G., "Guidance and Guidance Systems in the Secondary Schools: The Teacher's Views," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, March 1981, pp. 455-459. 125 Policies and Standards for the Approval of Secondary Schools, North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, 1978-79. Rimmer, S.M. and Burt, M.A., "Needs Assessment: A Step-By- Step Approach," The School Counselor, September 1980. Rogers, Carl R., Counseling and Psychotherapy, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942. ---- "The Role of the Secondary School Counselor," The School Counselor, March 1977, pp. 228-234. Sarthory, Joseph A., "Needs Assessment and the Practitioner: Problems and Prospects," Educational Technology, November 1977, p. 24. Schmidt, John J., "School Counseling . . . Professional Directions for the Future," The School Counselor, March 1984, pp. 385—392. Shaw, Merville C., "The Development of Counseling Programs: Priorities, Progress, and Professionalism." Personnel and Guidance Journal, February 1977, p. 344. Shertzer, B. and Stone, 5., Fundamentals of Guidance, Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1971. Sizer, T., Horace's Compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984. Smith, G.D., "Attitudes of Teachers Toward Career Education," Greenville, Tennessee: Greenville City Schools, 1974, (ERIC Document: Reproduction Service #90.ED102 337). Sprinthall, Norman A., "A Curriculum for Secondary Schools: Counselors as Teachers for Psychological Growth," The School Counselor, May 1973, p. 361. Steadham, S.V., "Learning to Select a Needs Assessment Strategy," Training and Development Journal, 1980, 30, pp. 56-61. Stewart, J.A., "Factors Influencing Teacher Attitudes Toward the Participation in Guidance Services," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1961, Vol. 39, pp. 729-733. Stufflebeam, D.L., McCormick, C.H., Brinkerhoff, R.D., Nelson, C.O., Conducting Educational Needs Assessment, Boston, Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1985. Super, D.E., "Transition: From Vocational Guidance to Counseling Psychology," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1955, 2, p. 3. Super, D.E., "Vocational Development: The Process of Compromise or Synthesis," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1956, 3, p. 249. Sweigart, Ray L., Jr., "Assessing Learner Needs with Criterion-Referenced Tests: A Working Approach," Educational Technology, November 1977, p. 28. Valine, Warren J.; Higgins, Earl B.; and Hatcher, Roger 3., "Teacher Attitudes Toward the Role of the Counselor: A Eight-Year Follow-up Study," The School Counselor, January 1982, pp. 208-211. Van Sell, Mary; Brief, Arthur P.; and Schuler, Randall 5., "Role Conflict and Ambiguity: Integration of the Literature and Directions for Future Research," Human Relations, November 1, 1981, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 43-71. Wells, Carl E. and Ritter, Kathleen Y., "Student Attitudes Towards Guidance Services and Implications for the Profession," The QIPersonnel agd Guidance Journal, November 1979, Vol. 58, pp. 170--175. Wiggins, James D., "Six Steps Toward Counseling Program Accountability," NASSP Bulletin, December 1985, pp. 28- 31. Wiggins, James D. and Moody, Anne H., "Student Evaluations of Counseling Programs: An Added Dimension," The School Counselor, May 1987, pp. 353-360. Witkin, Ruth Belle, "Needs Assessment Kits, Models, and Tools," Educational Technology, November 1977, p. 5. Wrenn, C.G., "The Counselor in a Changing World." Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, Washington, D.C., 1962. GENERAL REFERENCES GENERAL REFERENCES Beale, Andrew V., "Trivial Pursuit: The History of Guidance," The School Counselor, September 1986, pp. 14- 17. Fisher, Cynthia D. and Gitelson, Richard, "A Meta-Analysis of the Correlates of Role Conflict and Ambiguity," Journal of Applied Psychology, 1983, Vol. 68, No. 2, pp. 320- 333. Getzels, J. W. and Guba, E.G., "Role, Role Conflict, and Effectiveness: An Empirical Study," American Sociological Review, Glass, G.V., and Hopkins, K.D., Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. 1984. Gutsch, Kenneth V., Alcorn, John D., Guidance in ActionL Ideas, and_Innovations for School Counselors, New York: Parker, 1970. Ivey, A.E. and Alschuler, A.S., "An Introduction to the Field," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1973, 51, p. 591. Prediger, Dale J. and Sawyer, Richard L, "Ten Years of Career Development: A Nation Wide Study of High School Students," Journal of Counseling? and Development, September 1986, Vol. 65, pp. 45-49. 127 HICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES 10000 10 ”I Will“ I! Iii“ Hill ”010001 31293007864261