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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

A Study on the Adaptation Problems of
Foreign Graduate Students at MSU
_Based on Tinto's Model

presented by

Qasem Sammour

pm
“a.

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph . D . degree in Cguns el 1mg

 

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Major profissor

Dr. Richard Johnson

Date March 6} 1992

MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

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MSU Is An Affirmative ActiorVEqueI Opportunity Institution

cmmx

A STUDY ON THE ADAPTATION PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GRADUATE

STUDENTS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY BASED ON TINTO'S MODEL

BY

Qasem Sammour

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and
Special Education,

1992

o /
AC)

63?;{.6Q?,

ABSTRACT

The. present study investigated the initial or pre-
enrollment characteristics of foreign graduate students (sex,
country of origin, major of study, socioeconomic status, and
financial support), and the academic and social integrations
of foreign graduate students as they relate to depression and
the likelihood of dropping out of school.

The sample included sixty-two foreign graduate students
from the Middle East and North.Africa (Arab students), Africa
(non-Arab students), and East Asia enrolled at Michigan State
University during the winter of 1991.

The instruments used for data collection consist of
personal data sheets, the Beck Depression Inventory, a
questionnaire assessing the self-reported likelihood of
dropping out of school, a measure of social integration, and
a measure of academic integration.

Descriptive statistics and one-way analysis of variance
on country of origin were used. The hypotheses were tested
using a multiple regression procedure and correlational
analysis. The opinion alpha level for this study was set at
.05.

The central findings of the study were as follows:

1. No significant.relationship*was found between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and academic or social integration

variables.

IP-

2. No significant.relationship‘was found between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and the Self-reported likelihood of
dropping out of school.

3. A significant relationship was found between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and depression.

4. A significant negative relationship was found between
academic integration and the likelihood of dropping out of
school.

5. A significant negative relationship was found between
peer-group interaction and the likelihood of dropping out of
school.

6. No significant relationship was found between
interaction with faculty and the self-reported likelihood of
dropping out of school.

7. A significant negative relationship was found between
academic integration and depression.

8. A significant negative relationship was found between
peer-group interaction and depression.

9. a significant negative relationship was found between

faculty interaction and depression.

This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, sisters and
brothers for their patience and support, and to the memory of

a very special friend Hani Barakat.

May God bless all of them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is with deep appreciation that I acknowledge those who
have made the completion of this dissertation possible.

I would like to express my particular appreciation and
thanks to Dr. Richard Johnson for his guidance,
understanding, and support throughout the years as my
academic advisor.

My appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Leonard Bianchi for
his statistical assistance and support.

I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Herbert Burks,
Dr. Malik Balla, and Dr. Robert Lent for serving as members
of my Ph.D guidance committee.

My gratitude is extended to my family for their support and
patience and to my friends who directly or indirectly

provided their support and encouragement.

TABLE OF CON ENTS

List of Tables

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION

V/Statement of the problem

Tinto's Model

\/Purpose of the study

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

\ZAdaptation problems of foreign students

Demographic variables

Depression among college students

Depression among foreign students

Studies using Tinto Model

\/Summary and Hypotheses

III. METHODOLOGY

Research participants

Instrumentation

Procedures for collecting data

Analysis procedures

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

Tests of hypotheses

Results
Results
Results
Results

Results

of testing hypothesis 1_
of testing hypothesis 2
of testing hypothesis 3
of testing hypothesis 4
of testing hypothesis 5

E

Page

12
12
14
20
23
25
34
38
38
41
45
46
48
48
50
56
56
56

57

Chapter

Results of
Results of
Additional

Summary

V. DISCUSSION

Hypothesis
Hypotheses
Hypothesis
Hypothesis

Hypotheses

testing hypothesis 6

testing hypothesis 7

analyses

6 & 7

Recommmendations

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A:

APPENDIX B:

APPENDIX C:

APPENDIX D:

Cover Letter

Data form

The Self-Reported Likelihood of
Dropping Out of School

The Social and Academic Integration

measures

Figure 1: Tinto Model

Page
57
57
58
61
64
66
69
70
70
71
74
93
78
79

81

83

87

91

LIST OF TABLES

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Anova between Pre-Enrollment Characteristics

Academic Integration 50

4.2:

Anova between Marital Status and Academic
Integration

Anova between Pre-Enrollment Characteristics
and Interaction with Peers

Anova between Pre-Enrollment Characteristics
and Interaction with Faculty

Anova between Pre-Enrollment Characteristics
and the Likelihood of Dropping out of School

Anova between Pre-Enrollment Characteristics
and Depression

Anova on Peer-Group Interaction and Country
of Origin

Anova on Faculty Interaction and Country of
Origin

Anova on Academic Integration and Country of
Origin

Anova on Depression and Country of Origin

The Means and Standard Deviations of the main

Page

39

and

51

52

53

54

55

58

59

59

60.

variables

60

Chapter I
IHTBQQQQTIQE

The impact of foreign students on the United States
extends far beyond financial considerations of concerned
administrators. Foreign students provide an opportunity for
American students, faculty, and community members to become
acquainted with people from countries which directly or
indirectly affect the American economy and way of life
(Burn, 1980). Foreign educational exchange also affords the
opportunity for communicating American values, beliefs, and
cultures to important segments of the world's present and
future elites (Hoopes, Pederson, & Renwick, 1978).

The needs, problems, and aspirations of these students
require special attention by the host institutions. Since
1960, increasing interest has been expressed about the
academic and social-personal adaptation of foreign students
in the 0.8. (Ahmadian, 1983; Alexander, Workneh, Klein, &
Miller, 1976; Boer, 1981, 1984; Higbee, 1961; Hull, 1978;
Klineberg, 1979; Mahdavi-Harsini, 1982; Motarassed, 1982;
Porter, 1963; Selltiz, Cook, Christ, & Havel, 1963;

Spaulding & Flack, 1976).

A- “cs- — -,_..

“$37 ‘étatement of the problem
The rapid increase in numbers of foreign students on U.S.

I

2
campuses in the 1960s and 1970s, and the fact that large
numbers of these individuals have come from non-Western
nations, brought the special needs of these individuals to
the forefront as well as the challenges facing student
personnel workers and counselors. It is apparent that
student affairs programs designed to meet needs of U.S.
students are often inadequate to meet the needs of students
who spend long periods of time in a predominantly alien
culture (Wehrly, 1988).

Many studies (e.g., DeArmond, 1983; Dominques, 1970, cited
in Wehrly, 1986; Wehrly, 1988) document foreign students'
special needs. A high percentage of depression has been
found among students in general. Foreign students, in
addition to the stress of being students, are confronted by
other environmental factors related to the adaptation
process within another culture. These factors--such as
language barriers, cultural differences, and
loneliness--play a major role in creating depressive states
among foreign students and causing dissatisfying experiences
for them as they are forced to deal with more pressure and
demands.

These studies emphasize that the stress experienced by
most foreign students is on-going during their time of study
in the United States. Meeting the basic needs of food,
clothing, shelter, and safety is often stressful because of

vast cultural differences between the students' home

3
countries and the culture of the university community.
Homesickness and loneliness are pervasive and depression is
common (Wehrly, 1986). Emotional problems tend to occur
more frequently for students whose home cultures are vastly
different from the United States' culture (DeArmond, 1983;
Dominques, 1970, cited in Wehrly, 1986). Separation from
the extended family support system to which many foreign
students are accustomed can be stressful, especially if the
students are unable to build new support systems where they

are studying (Wehrly, 1988).

T' to's de
Vincent Tinto (1975) articulated a model of retention in
higher education. Tinto's model (see Figure I) was developed
to understand college dropout and was a modification of
Durkheim's theory of suicide, first published in 1897 (cited
in Tinto, 1987).

Durkheim (cited in Tinto, 1987) stated that suicide was

5L ’ ‘ u...

more likely when individuals are insufficiently integrated

\ '\ _ * ...‘ ‘c. J’- v...

into the fabric of society. Dropping out of college,

A.

according to Tinto (1987), is analogous to suicide. Students_‘

 

 

become dis at' fied discourage ed, depressed and consider

.m‘ “M 'mmi-h d7.

leaving school when they are insufficiently integrated into
I_l________*_~___

MM“...

thewxalnempatterns and social struqtn;g_g£wthem school. Tinto

'-'I‘DN'_" ~¢umwmi

 

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_emphasized that integration was necessary in.two

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doma1ns...academ1c and social.

., M—yrm

4

Durkheim (cited in Tinto, 1987, p.99) postulated four
types of suicide: altruistic, anomic, fatalistic and
egotistic. Tinto has used these four types to describe
college dropouts. Altruistic departure occurs when students
leave college as a form of protest. An anomic departure
occurs when there are disruptive forces on the campus that
undermine the daily operation of the institution and
undercut the normal bonds which tie individuals to it. A
fatalistic departure occurs when an individual becomes
oppressed under the structure of the institution and cannot
tolerate it any longer. Egotistical departure arises when
individuals are unable to become integrated into both the
intellectual and social fabric of the institution.

Tinto's model considers the many and complex reasons for
school departure. Tinto (1975, 1987) begins with the
pre-entry attributes of family background, the student's
skills and abilities, and prior schooling. These attributes
that the student brings to the institution become the
base-line for a set of intentions, goals and commitments
vis-a-vis the institution.

From there, the model spreads in two directions- academic
and social systems. In each system there is a range of
experiences: those produced by the institution and those
which the student engages in as a function of his /her
involvement with the institution. These experiences

delineate two levels- academic and social integration, which

5
Tinto emphasized are critical to long-term success. The
social and academic integration lead to the formulation of
goals and commitments. External factors or choices (factors
not related to the institution) also may play an important
role in a student's decision to depart from or stay in the
institution. Tinto's model presents an overall picture of
the aspects and factors of a student's decision to depart
from or stay in the institution. In short, the model asserts
that students come to.a particular institution with a range
of background characteristics (e.g., sex, race, academic
ability, secondary school performance, parents' social
status) and goal commitments (e.g., highest degree expected,
importance of graduating from college). These background
characteristics and goal commitments influence not only how
the student will perform in college, but also how he or she
will interact with, and subsequently become integrated into,
an institution's social and academic systems. Tinto (1975)
indicates that "Given individual characteristics, prior
experiences, and commitments, it is the individual's
integration into the academic and social systems of the
college that most directly relates to his continuance in
that college" [p. 96]. Pascarella and Terenzini (1980)
developed a 19-item measure to operationalize the constructs
of social and academic integration. Results showed a
substantial predictive validity for the measures in 79% of

the persisters and 76% of the voluntary leavers in an

6

independent cross-validation sample.'

Since Tinto introduced his model, many research studies
have been generated to test its validity.
Terenzini and Pascarella (1977, 1978, 1980, 1982, 1985) have
worked together in numerous studies to test the validity of
the model. Pascarella and Terenzini (1977a) using a random
sample of 1008 freshman students at Syracuse University in
an effort to investigate the effects of student-student and
student-faculty contacts on voluntary withdrawal from
college, found significant differences in social and
academic integration between persisters and leavers. Later,
in another study, Terenzini and Pascarella (1977b) looked at
the academic and social integration factors of Tinto's model
and used a random sample of 500 students from Syracuse
University. They found significant differences between those
who stayed and those who left the university. Similar
conclusions can be drawn from other studies (Tinto 1975;
Pascarella 1980; Munro 1981; Pascarella & Terenzini 1983).

Terenzini and Pascarella (1978), using the same sample
used in the 1977 study, conducted a longitudinal study to
investigate the predictive value of pre-college
characteristics and the interaction of sex, major field of
study, and ethnicity with academic and social integration
factors. They found that even though the pre-college
attributes are important, they have limited predictive

value. Their findings also indicated that some

7
subpopulations of the university are more susceptible to
specific influences of integration than others.

Terenzini and Pascarella (1980) summarized six studies
done in the previous five years that investigated Tinto's
model, and they concluded that the model has a solid support
and the concepts of academic and social integration have
been significant in discriminating between those who stayed
and those who left the institution.

Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) used a longitudinal study
and a random sample of 1905 freshmen drawn from Syracuse
University in order to test Tinto's model. They developed a
multidimensional instrument to be used in testing the model.
Results showed significant support for both the instrument
and the model.

Pascarella (1985) investigated the structural and
organizational factors of the institution (e.g., type of
control, enrollment, student-faculty ratio). The overall
sample was 9448 nonminority students attending 100 colleges
and universities. He concluded that the institutional
factors have few direct impacts on affective student
development, and at best, those factors are modest and
indirect. They also found that institutions with large
enrollment, a high student/faculty ratio, and public control
negatively influence student social integration with both

faculty and peers.

8

Other studies have investigated the different aspects of
Tinto's model and were supportive of its validity (Steele
1978; Jackson 1978; Tierney 1980; Jensen 1981; Hall 1982;
Crouse 1982; Blanc, DeBuhr, & Martin 1983; Getzlaf,
Sedlacek, Kearney & Blackwell 1984).

Studies of departure among students of different race and
social class have focused almost entirely on black and white
students (Kendrick & Thomas 1970; Shaffer 1973; Sedlacek &
Webster 1978; Allen 1985; Donovan 1984; Tracey & Sedlacek
1985; Pascarella 1985). The emphasis of this study was in
applying Tinto's model to foreign graduate students.

College students must adjust to separation from home
and family, independent living, unexpected demand for
self-care, expectations for achievement, and competition
with others. If this is true for American students, then
how is the experience of adaptation characterized in foreign
college students?

Every foreign student encounters potential inhibitors and
stimulators affecting his/her interaction with the host
society. Language problems often cause a foreign student to
shy away from mixing with local people. Opportunities to
practice English also stimulate interaction. The host
country's culture may have characteristics which offend the
visitor, and he/she may decide not to be part of that
culture. A heavy academic workload can drastically reduce

the time available to a foreign student to develop local

9
relationships (Heikinheimo & Shute 1986).

According to Heikinheimo and Shute (1986), foreign
students find language skills, academic issues, and social
interaction the most difficult adjustment problems.
Alexander, Klein, Workneh, and Miller (1981) researched the
adaptation of foreign students from third world countries to
life on U.S. campuses. They found that most third world
students continued to experience stress and feelings of
vulnerability during their time of study in the United
States.

Depression has been identified as the most common
psychological disorder in the United States. Depression on
college campuses is also a common disorder (Bosse et a1.
1975; Hammen 1980; Kashani & Priesmeyer 1983). It has been
suggested that depression may contribute to the rate of
dropouts among the college student population (Nicholi
1967), and to the suicide rate (Bailey & Hernandez 1982;
Fouts & Norrie 1977).

There has been an increased interest in the cross-cultural
study of depression as evidenced by a number of studies
(Wehrly 1988; Aneshensel, Clark & Frerichs 1983; Jablensky,
Sartarious, Gulbinat & Ernberg 1981; Marsella, Kinzie &
Gordon 1973; Murphy, Witkower & Chance 1967; Tanka- Matsumi
& Marsella 1976; Zung 1969,1972). Wehrly (1988), through
his own work and reviews of numerous other studies, found

that homesickness and loneliness were pervasive and

10

depression was common among foreign students.

Foreign students are a high-risk group, and they encounter
a series of high-risk situations that produce emotional
stress as well as academic and social difficulties.
Identifying the variables related to foreign students'
likelihood of dropping out of school and of suffering from
situational depression may enable counselors and university
administrators to develop support systems tailored to the

special needs of these students.

Purpose of the Study

The previous studies based on Tinto's model have been
conducted with undergraduate American students: Blacks and
Whites. This study has applied the model to investigate some
aspects without testing the entire model with a sample of
foreign graduate students. Additionally, this study has used
depression as another dependent variable. The commitment
variables have been excluded from the study in the belief
that enrolling in college implies an initial commitment
toward completing a degree, and in addition to that, the
measure of likelihood of dropping out is an indication of
the later commitments the students have.

In particular, the present study investigated the initial
or pre-enrollment characteristics of foreign graduate

students (sex, ethnic origin, major of study, academic

11
aptitude, socioeconomic status, and financial support), and
the academic and social integration of foreign graduate
students as they relate to depression and the likelihood of

dropping out of school.

12

Chapter II

BEXLEK_QE_LLIEBAIHB§

This review of the literature covers recent studies in the
following areas: (a) studies on the adaptation problems
faced by foreign students in U.S.A. colleges and
universities, (b) studies on depression among college

students, (c) studies on depression among foreign students,

and (d) studies using Tinto's model.

Adaptation Problems of Foreign Students

It has been established that foreign students' adjustment
is positively related to contact and interaction with
Americans (Hull, 1978; Klinberg & Hull, 1979; Selltiz et

al., 1963). Selltiz et a1. (1963) studied the effects of

”DMD“..- ~01- WHW‘."

 

various factors on the development of social relations. The

following factors were found to have an effect on social

w...._.... .._-.--.
.a.» -.- __p n.— "‘ H

relations: 1nd1v1dual character1st1cs, opportun1t1es for

”~— M- .-.-—— V’
u"-.. ’41—,

E‘SSOCiatiO“ .TROY19393,....bnylsnvirqnment..1 apd. orientation

_experiences. Among the individual characteristics, the

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“ n _“_,___.-——>~

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strongest relation was found to _be nat1onal-cultural

——n..
“M...“

 

background. Europeans scored higher than non-Europeans on

.. -
‘h'rW’

interaction with Americans.

Hull (1978) proposed what he called a "modified culture
contact hypothesis" to explain foreign students'
satisfaction with their sojourn. He points out "contact with
Americans may be a key mechanism in coping as a foreign
student" (p. 126).

Klinberg and Hull (1979) conducted a cross-national study
which reported data obtained in 11 countries: Brazil,
Canada, The Federal Republic of Germany, France, Hong Kong,
India, Iran, Japan, Kenya, the United Kingdom, and the
United States. The investigators argued that, "the more
contact there is with local people, the more satisfying the
overall sojourn experience is likely to be" (p. 53). The
results of this study showed that those students most likely
to be dissatisfied overall with regard to other than
academic aspects of their sojourn, "were the most likely to
have been studying in Iran, followed by France, then India,
and then Canada" (pp. 63 & 66). Those students most likely
to be dissatisfied overall with regard to their studies were
studying in Japan, France, Iran, the Federal Republic of
Germany, or Canada.

Jarrahi-Zadeh and Eichman (1970) found that Indian and
Arab students at the University of North Carolina exhibited
a positive relationship between adaptation and interaction
with American faculty members and graduate students. Valdes
(1979) found that Latin American students at the University

of Houston associate with other Latin American International

13

14
students rather than U.S. students. In the Valdes (1979)
study, the best predictors of social involvement were: years
in the U.S., father's occupation, and marital status. Latin
American students who most associated with American students
were mostly married, had better educated fathers, and had
been in the U.S. longer than Latin Americans associating

with their follow nationals.

Demographic Variables

Studies indicate that the adjustment of international

 

_.-- -11 “-‘...-
--_,.._~— 0-. «bu-o.- um am", ,

students to the U. S. is also affected by several variables

, 3.1....”
_ ,_.. -_..__...,_ ._

such as age, sex, marital status, nationality, academic
level, and length of stay in the U. S.

”WCollins (1977) sought to determine the problems of
international students at Howard University as perceived by
the students themselves. The investigator attempted to
ascertain whether sex, college major, place of birth,

marital status, or class were related to the number and kind

of problems reported. Collins (1977) found that single

___._'———-

 

 

international students, as a group face more problems than

....- pav—n -~4 I ’ ’ h
a- "M. W MW. . “MMMM sow.“ --‘I ~— Mfl". My

married, separated or divorced students. It was also found

,_._.——

-fi—W. we... ._.

“MN-m

that male 1nternational students experienced significantly

.H—or h u-“-

more problems than their female counterparts. There was not

b; 7 «3-.-

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Hfiw, _.

fizeshmanl,--..§,9_nhemgze1...-..aniorp. . $32,191“... and. gadgets students.

15

In addition, the number of problems was not significantly

.W-pvrt—I-W -c—‘Mvu—h

. 1. I
”‘1'...“ . .
“M” m‘“ ’0‘ ’- m‘ .- '9"). F‘- II"

different among international students in various majors. It

-H}¢-‘"“ {-11.5 W
. ‘ Iowa-non...- w; -W aw --. -.....,. .‘; n. AH.

is also noticed that the sample population reported problems

1".“ ‘M.‘-.,

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in home and family, finances, living conditions, and

-11.“..-Mu 0... am A,“ .-

employment «Asian students showed the largest number of

wan-o Maa‘.‘_
1..“ --~1‘;’ .“ ,, 2-».
Mn...» w.-1

 

problems.)Caribbean students indicated significantly fewer
problems/than students from Africa, Asia, and the Near East.
Payind (1977) studied the nature and extent of academic,

social and personal problems of Iranian and Afghan students
in the U.S. The study also examined the relationships
between student's adjustment and length of stay, country of
origin, and financial consideration. The findings indicate
no significant relationship between the students' country of
origin and their adjustment problems. Females were found to

have more adjustment problems than males. Married students

have fewer problems than single students. It was also found

n—V‘am¢ ’mr‘1‘fl .-

 

that students in the humanities and social sciences have

 

 

 

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more adjustment problems than those students in sciences and

.V’oMflW

engineering majors. In addition, students who have financial

Mums—n... . a.
“—'.—L- "W ”rm, ,-" -”"—"'——--.A-TH ._..‘_..n—-~»--.1

 

 

support experienced fewer adjustment problems. Saleh (1980)
studied the adjustment problems of Arab students at selected
Texas Universities. Also, his study investigated the
relationship between adjustment, sex, marital status, and
academic level. Contrary to Payind's (1977) findings, Saleh
(1980) found no significant differences at the .05 level of

significance between males and females, married and single,

16
and graduate and undergraduate Arab students.

Der Yeghiayan (1981) found that Armenian students at
selected universities in southern California had academic,
social and personal problems, but also found no difference
between males and females in their adjustment problems.
Akpan-Iquot (1981) found no significant relationships
between marital status, academic major, country of origin
and problems of foreign students at selected Oklahoma
colleges and universities.

Yeung (1981) attempted to identify the specific adjustment
problems anticipated by foreign students prior to departure
from their home countries and those actually experienced
while they are in the U.S.A. These data were also analyzed
in relation to sex, marital status, age, GPA, academic
level, residence, and incidence of pre- and post- arrival
orientation. No relationship was found. However, Yeung
(1981) said that "there is a tendency for students who are
female, married, in the graduate level, academically below
average, living off campus, less than 25 years of age, and
having no pre— or post- arrival orientation to experience
greater discrepancies between problems as anticipated and
experienced" (p. 4622-A).

Surdam (1981) studied the adaptation of foreign students
at the University of Wyoming and various demographic
variables. Students' adaptation was not significantly

related to sex, GPA, age or marital status. At George

17
Washignton University, MacMillen (1982) found a significant
relationship between sex, academic level and academic major
with self-perceived problems of foreign students.(Country of
origin and marital status were found to be strongly related

to intensity of problems.\Married students/reported more
problems than did unmarried students?) H

The studies discussed above present contradictory results
in regards to the relationship between adjustment and
demographic variables such as sex, marital status, academic
level and major of study.

JAOther studies also investigated the adjustment problems of
foreign students at U.S.A. campuses (Stafford et al., 1980;
Carter & Sedlacek, 1985; Boyer & Sedlacek, 1986; Boyer &
Sedlacek, 1987; Schram & Lauver, 1988; Cunningham & Kang,
1990).

Stafford et al. (1980) asked 747 foreign students to
complete a questionnaire to obtain information about their
adjustment so that special services could be developed for
them. Homesickness was their greatest area of concern, as
well as housing, social relationships, the English language,
and finances.

Carter & Sedlacek (1985) conducted a study to determine
the needs, interests, and goals of undergraduate foreign
students at the University of Maryland, College Park.

Entering undergraduate foreign students (N=56) from Asia,

Latin America, Africa, and the Mideast completed a

18
questionnaire concerning their backgrounds, goals,
perceptions, and attitudes regarding their education,

vocational plans, social issues, and self-perceptions. The

 

results showed that students tended to be supported by

 

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_}__,__.-....o 0'- ”MW ‘

faE$l¥.E§Ehersi-.bothwoconomical1y and psychologlcally

,....»,¢.m-~n-~‘A-

Students reported feeling that meet1ng U. S. students and

learning to think independently would be difficult

_.,, Mflrwmv‘dlrwmr‘ .-

adjustments. Even though they indicated financial

'\. .fl “4' ~'

_d1ff1cult1es, they reported also high hopes and expectations

 

_9£M§BCCESS‘“

Boyer and Sedlacek (1986) administered a questionnaire to
164 incoming foreign students at the University of Maryland
at College Park. Students responded to items pertaining to
study habits, academic background, educational objectives,
college expectations, work plans, and personal orientation,
as well as to questions concerning attitudes toward seeking ’
counseling. The results indicated that foreign students took
their education quite seriously, valuing it both for the
intrinsic reward of academic pursuit and for career-related
reasons. They anticipated that the hardest part of adjusting
to college would be meeting financial expenses. In a later
study by the same authors, (Boyer & Sedlacek, 1987), the
effectiveness of noncognitive variables in predicting
college grades and persistence for foreign students over'
eight semesters was studied at the University of Maryland,

College Park. The Noncognitive Questionnaire (NCQ), an

19
instrument designed to assess eight noncognitive variables
found to be related to academic success for U.S. minority
students, was administered to 248 freshmen foreign students.
The noncognitive dimensions on the NCQ are: self-confidence,
realistic self-appraisal especially regarding academic
abilities, community service, knowledge in a field,
leadership experiences related to cultural background,
preference for long-range goals, understanding of racism,
and having a strong support person. Different noncognitive
varibles were significant predictors of college grade point
average (GPA) and persistence across the eight semesters.
The finding suggests that GPA is related to individual
variables while persistence may require an additional
adjustment to environmental variables.

Schram and Lauver (1988) examined alienation of foreign
students from university life among 600 foreign students.
They found that alienation could be predicted on the basis
of social contact, graduate status , and geographical home
region. Results suggest that foreign students at high risk

for alienation are non-European undergraduates who spend

”iiéttle time with others.
\ . .
'§ K; Cunningham_and gang (1990) investigated adjustment

 

 

 

 

1QrOblemsigfwlalizg£§§nigtnd§9§§iQtfgggyyniversities (three
_,nrban»and~onE"non=urban) in Texas during the 1989—1990
academic year. findings showed thatwstudents seemed to

”M.

adjustirelativelywwellwtgwbmgricanmhigherleducati9n,Hbut

 

 

20

were still struggling to adjust in financial,

\flImmun1cat1on+langnage11anQ1S991achnltural_a;§11~m_ema1e

students seemed to perceive the verbally related adjustment
11.’~—~—-»~_ 111 .11111.

problems as more difficult than male mstudents. The variables

‘w.

 

 

 

 

~_3:5:flEf!9..1.._..5E!SE.?.1..,.<!§}B;l..<;1.531.355i1iica1.21.0111“):eligion,.....amc1family.1.5.5.1.;atus

did not seem to be_s1gn1f1cant adjustment factors.
~»#__”',111

-w am
"HM s-gul'

 

""' 'Mms y», .

Depression Among College Students

Depression, the most common psychological disorder in the
U.S., has been investigated by numerous researchers. Schwab,
Bown, Holzer, and Sokolof(1968) examined various studies and
found that 4 to 24 percent of the population was estimated
to experience depression. The typical depressed person,
according to various epidemiological studies, appears to be
female, married, and between the ages of 26 and 40 (Blaser,
Gehring & Poeldinger, 1969; Schwab et al., 1968; Weissman &
Paykel, 1974).

The frequency of depression among college students is
also a common disorder (Bossee et al., 1975; Hammen, 1980;
Kashani & Priesmeyer, 1983). It has been suggested that
depression may affect the rate of dropouts (Nicholi, 1967).
Bossee et al. (1975), studied the frequency of depression
among Washington University students. The best estimate of
frequency was obtained by finding the proportion of students

who reported having experienced a depressive episode during

21
their freshman year. The sophomores were selected because
they had been exposed to potentially depression-arousing
experiences during an entire academic year, and because they
suffer less attrition than those in upper classes. Of those
responding, 75% reported having experienced at least mild
depression in the preceding year. Of the respondents, 41%
reported moderate to severe depression. Of this 41%, 58%
did not consult a helping facility due to the belief that
one should be self-sufficient. The students who used helping
facilities rated them neutral in effectiveness.
In another study by Kashani and Priesmeyer (1983), of 100
students who used a college counseling service, 31 sought
job counseling and 61 sought help in coping with and
adjusting to college life and other situational stresses.
Thirty-five students were diagnosed as depressed, regardless
of their reason for coming to the center, and 90% of the
freshmen as opposed to 38% of the seniors came to the center
for psychiatric reasons. Freshmen were significantly more
likely to have problems in concentration and appetite
disturbances and to report feelings of worthlessness and
suicidal ideation. Results illustrate the pressures that
college freshmen face in terms of separation from home and
family, independent living, and academic completion. The
lack of sex differences in the incidence of depression was
possibly due to the similar demands faced by both sexes in

the college setting.

22

Cole and Milstead (1989), compared Coyne's
interpersonal model of depression to Lewinsohn's social
skill model of depression in a large sample of college
students (N= 202). Contrary to both Coyne and Lewinsohn, no
evidence of a direct relation between social support and
depression was found. Those results suggest social skills
deficits are a consequence, not a cause of depression.

Tomlinson and Cope (1988), examined characteristics of
black student users of university counseling services
enrolled at a predominently white state university. They
found that black women predominated, reporting a high
incidence of depression and loneliness, whereas black men
tended to underutilize services.

Deykin et a1 (1987) interviewed 434 college students.
Results revealed that prevalence of major depressive
disorder (MDD) was 6.8%; of alcohol abuse 8.2%; and of
substance abuse 9.4%. Alcohol and substance abuse were
associated with MDD. Substance abuse was associated with
other psychiatric diagnosis as well. MDD usually preceded
alcohol or substance abuse, suggesting that self-medication
was a causal factor.

Lopez et al (1986), investigated the influence of
subjects' sex on the relation between psychological
separation (independence of parents), college adjustment,
and depression. Results indicated that men were

significantly more independent of parents than were women,

23
but their hypothsis that this independence would be
positively correlated with college adjustment was not
supported. Contrary to expectation, correlations between
these two variables were negative for both men and women.
The negative correlation between depression and
psychological separation that was hypothesized was found
only for women.

Bryson and Pilon (1984), carried out four experiments in
which male and female undergraduates (N= 384) completed the
Beck Depression Inventory under conditions ranging from
absolute anonymity to a face-to-face interview. Results
showed no evidence that depression is more severe or common
in females. Responses appeared essentially unaffected by
method of administration. Nagelberg et al (1983), used the
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) to assess depression rates
in college students (N= 729). He examined relative
proportions of depressed students among infirmary users,
counseling center users, and class attenders, compared
according to gender. Results showed that all female and male

infirmary users were at risk for depression.

Depression Amogg ngeigg Students

Marion (1986), reviewed research conducted since the
1950's on the academic, social and psychological adjustment
of foreign students in U.S. colleges and universities.

Academic achievement of foreign students is found to be

24
similar to that of American students and is related to
English language ability. Studies indicate that students'
cultural adjustment follows a U-shaped curve. Difficulties
in adjusting may manifest in social withdrawal, sexual and
sleep disturbances, depression, academic problems, and loss
of self-esteem. These students used a variety of mechanisms
for coping. Association primarily with co-nationals is a
frequent mechanism. Academic achievement affects, and is

aff ed by, student attitudes and adjustment.

   
 
  
  
  
  
   
   

A research study of 245 students from Korea, Arab

w Fin—‘-

countries, and Nigeria was conducted by(Cho (1988) to

I WM ,_,./

.v‘

determine whether there are significant relationships

between any of the three measures (anxiety, depress1on, and“

“somatic complaints) among international college students.
.A,,,WW_W
Variables analyzed in the study included English language

Arr " "'

proficiency; social interaction with Americans,

“-'.-

cg:nationals, and other internationals; health; financial

c ndition; nationality; length of stay; and marital status.
Extensive use of questionnaires and follow-up phone calls
revealed significant relationships between both anxiety and
depression and English language proficiency and social
interaction with Americans. Duration of stay was also found
to be significant in determining overall stress level; this

was not found to be significantly different for marital

status. In regard to anxiety, the two best predictive
M . j ‘

..-H“M— W-” . mus. .H -W“- I.“

__ ,nn-V~—

25

_§E§£iE§PS and heglth conditions; it was concluded that

Nfimwm «a... ””N'w

 

 

 

law-p

freguent social 1nteraction w1th Americans predicts a lower

tuna-O-“— )g—‘n' ,, h ‘Wlfi’ H. . q __ .

stress—leveleand that a poor health condition is suggestive

’“*‘N-~n~_wnmn-—h——Aw .._~.- W'M' ”W’- 'M <l' --:-m 4,...

of a high stre§§_level. It,g§§ 1180 found that stress level

,W-

 

”-‘.

.QEEQmeslhighermduringwthe+firstmand third yé;;:bf stay in

2
this countngmr ‘;;/ .

 

In a longitudinal study, Ebbin and Blankenship (1986),

N...‘ -—n..-- -vdoflw 1 ,.
1n..-r... g‘,’-- ‘A

compared foreign with domest1c students in regards to health

W‘- - a»- v-h‘a ‘0va “‘3'”... _

care. They reviewed 96, 804 diagnoses from student visits to

M”

a university student health center during a 3-year period.

emanawfi ..
‘v .

The diagnoses coded for foreign students were compared to )f’

2.
I"

those for domestic students. Results indicate that foreign V'

 

 

M“

students use the health center more freguently than domestic
W W 7
students. There was_ anmincreased use of the health center by

m—quwmwmm. Wham
- the». .me
19'“ ' 'w" Om“

foreign studentslfor_pmych1atr1c problems such as anxiety,

WWW“- ”w” J m“, ,Mw, “:4 “‘- F'- ,.J anw-nmmfl A...

depressioaninsomniaywandmsexua1~dysfunction.~Itwis
Aw”#flmflflwo

 

 

 

 

My 'mm.
.‘%m ‘WW ”ion-MW MW D-VnA v -- ‘aM‘MMR-M‘fiwflh

 

suggestedwthatwthe”increasedwvisits"by~foreignnstudents.may

Qempartlymrelated.to a need for interaction because of

"H' (:‘I-n n.— 1....“

“1, ._ .mmqym. up...

lonelinesslldepressign, and stress, to a sense of st1gma on
\__.....—-—----~' -,

HM“ --" H...” g‘v-“M‘WMM _ W ‘-

the part of some foreign students around seeking emotional

._ .«my—A-r ~..- - 7
.hAM: —-

support from the student counseling center; and to special

Hcrprggzams deSigned to orient fereign students.
gtudies using Tinto Mode;

Terenzini and Pascarella (1977) assessed the validity of

26
Tinto's (1975) theory of student attrition, which asserts
that withdrawal relates most directly to students'
integration in the social and to the academic systems of an
institution, and examined the relative importance of these
two dimensions. Subjects were 60 Syracuse University
freshmen who returned for the sophomore year and 60 who
chose not to return. Multivariate analyses of variance
indicated that both social and academic integration were
significantly and independently related to voluntary
freshman attrition. Discriminant analysis suggested that
when the two variable sets were combined, the joint
contributions of the two sets were approximately equal,
tending to support Tinto's assertion of the concomitant
importance of these two constructs. The findings also
suggest that informal interaction with faculty may play a
more important role than presently specified by the model in
the socialization of students, contributing to their
integration into both the academic and social systems of the
institutions. Later in the same year, Pascarella and
Terenzini (1977), investigated the pattern of relationships
between different types of informal student contact with
faculty and persistence during the freshman year. A
longitudinal study of 1008 incoming students at a large
private university completed the Activities Index (a
personality measure), and data on Scholastic Aptitude Test

(SAT) scores were obtained from student records. Midway

27
through the second semester and during the next fall
semester, the AI and questionnaires about the amount of
contact with faculty were administered; data were obtained
from 344 students, of whom 55 were determined to be
voluntary leavers at the end of their freshman year. Results
show that informal student-faculty contact was a significant
predictor of college persistence. After controlling for sex,
academic aptitude and personality attributes, frequency of
informal interaction with faculty still discriminated
significantly between subjects who voluntarily withdrew at
the end of the freshman year and those who persisted into
their sophomore year.

To test Tinto's theory of college attrition, Terenzini and
Pascarella (1978) conducted a longitudinal study involving
766 students enrolled in Syracuse University in September
1975 to determine whether freshmen persisters and voluntary
dropouts differed on certain attitudinal and behavioral
measures of academic and social integration once selected
background characteristics had been statistically
controlled. Multiple regression was used to assess the
relative importance of four sets of variables: pre-college
characteristics; level of academic integration; level of
social integration; and interactions between sex, major, and
racial or ethnic origins, and each of the social and
academic integration variables. The results indicate that

pre-college traits are not significantly related to

28

attrition, but that the other three sets are, with the
interactions explaining the largest proportion of the
variance, followed by the academic and social integration
sets in that order. These findings suggest that Tinto's
theory may be conceptually useful in studying attrition, but
also that certain revisions in the model may be needed.

Pascarella and Terenzini (1978) investigated the
hypothesized association between informal student-faculty
interaction and academic achievement, while controlling the
influence of the pre-enrollment characteristics. Usable data
were obtained from 498 university students, including: (a)
the Activities Index, (b) a detailed questionnaire to assess
background and college expectations, (c) Scholastic Aptitude
Test scores, (d) size of high school class and student's
rank, (e) freshman year GPA, and (f) two questionnaires
administered during and after the freshman year to measure
the quantity of student-faculty interaction related to
academic program, careers, intellectual or course matters,
campus issues, personal counseling, and socializing.
Multiple regression analysis showed that interactions
accounted for 62% of the variance between predicted and
actual GPA and that only those related to careers and
intellectual or course matters were significant. Results are
in accord with the hypotheses, but the correlational nature
of the study precludes definite proof of causality.

Terenzini et a1 (1983) replicated an earlier study of the

29
predictive validity of Tinto's theory of college student
attrition by using an independent sample of students from
another university. Tinto conceived of the attrition
[retention process as a series of sociopsychological
interactions between the characteristics students bring with
them to college and their experiences while enrolled. Usable
responses to a questionnaire were received from 1105 college
freshmen at summer orientation; after the first academic
year 723 were assessed. Attention was directed to the major
constructs of Tinto's model: background characteristics,
including family background; individual attributes;
pre-college schooling; academic aspiration; commitment to
staying at the college; and academic and social integration.
With some few exceptions, the results are consistent with
those of the earlier work and with theoretical expectations
based on the model.

Stage and Richardson (1985) investigated the
relationships among motivational orientations of entering
university freshmen, their involvement in social and
academic systems, and persistence/attrition at Arizona State
University. Also considered was the applicability of Tinto's
theory, which suggests that if background and commitments
are equal, the greater the integration of the individual
into the system, the greater the commitment will be to the
institution and to the goal of college completion. From the

random sample of 185 first-year students who were mailed

30
surveys, usable responses were received from 124. The survey
combined Boshier's Educational Participation Scales,
Pascarella and Terenzini's Institutional Integration Scales,
and 21 questions about students' background and
participation in college activities. Findings based on
factor analysis and LISREL analysis included the following:
both academic and social integration directly influenced
persistence, while satisfaction had almost no effect on
persistence.The two background characteristics that had the
greatest effect on persistence were mother's and father's
level of education.

A causal model based on Tinto's work was employed by
Pascarella et al (1986) to explain the long-term
persistence/withdrawal of students who began their
postsecondary education in two-year institutions.
Persistence was defined as completing the bachelor's degree
within a 9-year period, or actively working toward the
degree as of 1980. The model was estimated on a national
sample of 825 students who initially enrolled in 85 two-year
institutions in fall 1971. Although there were differences
in the factors associated with persistence for men and
women, the results tend to confirm the importance of
person-environment fit as a salient influence on degree
persistence/completion. Measures of academic and social
integration had the most consistent pattern of positive

direct effects, while much of the influence of student

31
pre-college traits was indirect. That is, the student's
experience of college may have an important, unique
influence on persistence beyond that of differences in
family background, secondary school experiences, individual
attributes, and initial commitments on college entry.
Subsequent institutional commitment had a significantly
stronger positive influence on persistence for men than for
women. Conversely, level of secondary school social
involvement was a significantly more important positive
influence on persistence for women than for men.

Allen (1986) tested Pascarella's reconceptualization of
the Tinto model of the persistence/withdrawal process for
use in a non-residential institution. Subjects were 372
college freshmen who had attended freshmen orientation and
had completed an opinionnaire both during orientation and at
the end of their first year in a medium-sized, urban
commuter institution. Path analysis and estimates of direct
and indirect causal effects were used to test the predictive
validity of the model. Results tended to confirm the
importance of applying a causal model cautiously even within
the same types of institutions. Results further suggest that
there is considerable between-institution variance within
the broad category of commuter colleges. The influence of
key concepts such as social integration and institutional
commitment were found to vary significantly from the

reconceptualized version of Tinto's model. The degree of fit

32
between the individual student and the institutional
environment was largely predicated upon the magnitude of
relationship between academic integration and institutional
commitment. Other things being equal, the greater the
individual's level of academic integration, the greater his
or her subsequent commitment to the institution. The
combination of academic integration and subsequent
commitment was seen as having a positive influence on
persistence.

Stage (1987), in a longitudinal study, examined the
associations among background characteristics, commitment
levels, institutional involvements, and persistence for male
and female university students. Data were collected from
college records and surveys completed by 316 university
freshmen at the beginning of, and 10 weeks into, the 1984
fall semester and at the beginning of the 1985 spring
semester. Logistic regression analysis in conjunction with
LISREL was used to analyze the data. Within LISREL, an
initial model was specified using paths described in Tinto's
model of college student attrition. Tinto's model consists
of six key constructs linked causally: background
characteristics, initial commitments, academic and social
integration, later commitment, and persistence. Results
reinforced Tinto's conjecture that background effects do
influence persistence directly. Initial levels of

institutional and goal commitments strongly influenced later

33
levels of the same variables. For both males and females,
academic and social integration positively influenced
persistence. For females, academic integration, social
integration and later institutional commitment were
significant predictors of persistence. For males, only
academic integration and social integration significantly
and directly influenced persistence.

Beltzer (1985) tested the Tinto (1975) model on a group of
General Educational Development (GED) examinees and on a
comparison group of traditional high school graduates from a
single public community college. The sample consisted of 198
GED students and 201 traditional high school graduates who
entered Queensborough Community College, City University of
New York in the fall 1981 semester. The instrument used was
one developed by Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) that was
designed to tap the major dimensions of the Tinto
model--specifically, levels of academic integration, social
integration, institutional commitment, and goal commitment.
Results supported the predictive validity of the Tinto model
in identifying potential dropouts among GED examinees as
well as for the comparison group. It was found that for GED
examinees, first-year grade point average was the most
important predictor of persistence; institutional commitment
was the most important predictor for the traditional high
school graduates; and the two groups were not statistically

different in the rate of persistence.

34

Pascarella (1985) employed data frOm the 1971-1980
Cooperative Institutional Research Program surveys on 5,577
students (2,096 White men, 2,641 White women, 362 Black men,
and 478 Black women) initially enrolling in 352 4-year
colleges and universities to investigate racial differences
in the factors associated with bachelor's degree completion.
Tinto's (1975) theoretical model guided the selection of 19
predictor variables, which account for 15-20% of the
variance in attaining the bachelor's degree. For all race
and sex subgroups, measures of the collegiate experience
(e.g. number of institutions attended, academic and social
integration, subsequent institutional commitment
/satisfaction) had the strongest and most consistently
positive regression weights with degree completion. Only a
few significant race or sex differences were found in the
factors associated with degree completion. For Black men,
the number of institutions attended and the size of the
institution initially attended had significantly stronger
negative associations with degree attainment than they did
for White men. Institutional commitment/satisfaction had
positive regression weights for all subsamples, but the
magnitude was greater for men of both races than it was for
women. Within samples, academic integration was a stronger
predictor of degree attainment than social integration for
Whites but not for Blacks. Findings suggest similarity in

the Tinto model constructs influencing bachelor's degree

35

completion for Black and White students.

Summar an H otheses

Foreign students have all of the stressors that most
college students have, but are also faced with language and
cultural differences that pose additional problems for them
in completing degree programs in this country. In his work
on persistence in college, Tinto has postulated that
preexisting family and personal characteristics interact
with school experiences to create a level of social and
academic integration that is related to personal
satisfaction and persistence in school. His theory has had
some empirical support, but has not been tested with
graduate students or with foreign students. Tinto indicated
that depression was one of the outcomes of lack of social or
academic integration, but this relationship has not been
tested until the study reported here.

The studies based on the Tinto model have indicated a
relationship between integration variables (social and
academic) and attrition. However, the results of the
relationship between the background variables and attrition
have not been conclusive .

Previous studies based on Tinto's model have been
conducted with undergraduate, American students: Blacks and

Whites. The study presented here has applied the model to

36
investigate some aspects of it with a sample of foreign
graduate students. Furthermore, this study has added
depression as another dependent variable.

Specifically, the present study investigated the
pre-enrollment characteristics of foreign graduate students
(sex, country of origin, major field of study, academic
aptitude, socioeconomic status, and financial support), and
the academic and social integration of these students, and
the relationships of these variables to depression and the
likelihood of dropping out of school.

This study attempted to answer these questions based on
the Tinto model:

1. Is there any relationship between the pre-enrollment
characteristics of foreign graduate students at MSU and
their social and academic integration?

2. Is there a relationship between the pre-enrollment
characteristics of foreign graduate students and the
likelihood of their dropping out of the school?

3. Is there a relationship between the pre-enrollment
characteristics of foreign graduate students and depression?

4. Is there a relationship between the social and
academic integration of foreign graduate students and the
likelihood of dropping out of school?

5. Is there a relationship between the social and academic
integration of foreign graduate students and depression?

The present study used multiple regression procedure and

37
correlational analysis to analyze the data. This procedure
investigated the relationships among the following
variables: (1) the initial or pre-enrollment characteristics
of foreign graduate students, (2) the social and academical
integration of foreign graduate students and, (3) the
self-reported likelihood of dropping out of college and

depression as dependent variables.

The following hypotheses were tested:

1. There will be a relationship between the pre-enrollment
characteristics and other variables in this study,
specifically:

a. There will be a relationship between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and academic integration.

b. There will be a relationship between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and social integration
(interaction with peer group).

c. There will be a relationship between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and social integration
(interaction with faculty).

d. There will be a relationship between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and the self-reported
likelihood of dropping out of school.

e. There will be a relationship between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and depression.

2. There will be an inverse relationship between academic

38
integration and the likelihood of dropping out of the
school.
3. There will be an inverse relationship between social
integration (interaction with peers) and the likelihood of
dropping out of school.
4. There will be an inverse relationship between social
integration (interaction with faculty) and the likelihood of
dropping out of school.
5. There will be an inverse relationship between academic
integration and depression.
6. There will be an inverse relationship between social
integration (interaction with peers) and depression.
7. There will be an inverse relationship between social

integration (interaction with faculty) and depression.

Chapter III

MEIEQQQLQQX

This chapter presents the method of investigation
employed in this study. It includes a discussion of
subjects, instruments, data collection procedures, and data
analysis.

The hypotheses that were the focus of this study involved
the expected relationships among pre-enrollment
characteristics, social and academic integration, and
depression, and the self-reported likelihood of dropping out
of school as suggested by the Tinto model. The model was
tested on a sample of foreign graduate students selected
from three geographical areas: East-Asia, Middle-East &

North Africa (Arab students), and Africa (non Arabs).

Resea c a 'ci a ts

A random sample of 112 graduate foreign students: (36 Arab
students, 31 African {non Arabs} students, and 45 East-Asian
students) attending Michigan State University in the
academic year of 1990-1991 were selected by computer. Each
of these students was contacted by mail and asked to
participate in the study. A total of 62 students or 55.4 per

cent of the initial sample agreed to be subjects in this

39

40

study and completed a personal data Sheet and four other
instruments (the Beck Depression Inventory, a questionnaire
assessing the self-reported likelihood of dropping out of
school, a measure of social integration, and a measure of
academic integration). The personal data sheet requested
information on the subject's country of origin, sex, marital
status, major of study, academic aptitude, socio-economic
status, father's education, mother's education, and major
source of income. The demographic characteristics of the

sample are shown in Table 3.1.

 

TABLE 3.1
Demographic characteristics 0; the sample
N=62

VARIABLE * E-Asia M-East Africa
Subsample

composition 3 21 21 17 62
st; 3
Male 15 19 10 44
Female 6 2 7 15
MARITAL STATUS 4
Unmarried 6 14 3 23
Married 14 7 14 35

CAD C OR 1

Agriculture 1 3 6 10

Arts & Letters
Business
Communication
Education
Engineering
Ecol & Medicine

Nat. & Soc Science

PARENIS' SES 5
Upper
Middle
Lower

MOTHER'S EQQCATION 10

No schooling

High school

BA/BS

Graduate Degree
FATHER'S EDUCATION 9
No schooling

High school

BA/BS

Graduate Degree

SO CE NCOME 6
Scholarship

Parents or saving

Work

11

11

12

15

41

12

10

11

15

10

19

3O

20

21

10

11

26

12

12

10

34

 

*= missing values

Instrumentation

Five instruments were used for data collection in this
study. These instruments were: personal data form, Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI), a measure of social integration,
a measure of academic integration, and a self-report

instrument of the likelihood of dropping out of school.

Personel Date Fotn, A personal data form was developed by
the researcher to obtain descriptive information of the
students' initial or pre-enrollment characteristics,
including sex, marital status, country of origin, major of
study, academic aptitude, socioeconomic status, father's
education, mother's education, and major source of income

(See Appendix B).

Beck Dentession Inventory (BDI). The BDI consists of 21

items and takes approximately 15-20 minutes to complete.
Each item is rated on a 4-point scale, ranging from 0 to 3.
The maximum total score is 63. The scores from 0 to 9 are
considered within a normal range or asymptomatic; scores of
10 to 18 indicate mild-moderate depression; scores of 19 to
29 indicate moderate-severe depression; and scores of 30 to

63 indicate extremely severe depression. The stability of

43
this instrument for psychiatric patients ranged from .48 to
.86, whereas the test-retest correlations for nine studies
of nonpsychiatric patients ranged from .60 to .90 (Beck &
Steer, 1987).

Moran & Lambert (1983, cited in Beck et al., 1987)
compared the BDI's content against DSM-III Affective
Disorder criteria and concluded that the BDI reflected only
six of the nine DSM-III criteria well. Two DSM-III criteria
were only partially addressed, and one was not included.

The BDI was found to discriminate between Dysthymic and
Major Depressive Disorders (Beck et al., 1987).

Beck et al. (1974, cited in Beck et al., 1987) found that
scores on the Hopelessness Scale (HS) were positively
related to the BDI scores in all six normative samples.

Meta-analysis found a mean correlation of .72 between
clinical ratings of depression and the BDI for psychiatric
patients, and a mean correlation of .60 between clinical
ratings of depression and BDI scores for nonpsychiatric
subjects (Beck et al., 1987).

Previous research with the BDI (Bumberry et al., 1978;
Oliver et al., 1979) provides evidence that this measure is
valid and reliable in the detection of depression in college
students. Bumberry et al (1978) selected a sample of 56
students at both undergraduate and graduate levels from both
Washington University and St. Louis University. The

interrater reliability of psychiatric estimate was .62, and

44
the correlation coefficient between the inventory and the
psychiatric rating was .77. Oliver et a1 (1979) randomly
selected a sample of 222 undergraduate and graduate students
at St. Louis University and the 3-week test-retest

reliability was .78.

Measute of Social and Academic Integration. A instrument

developed by Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) to assess the
social and academic integration constructs was used. This
measure consists of the following two scales: Social
Integration and Academic Integration. The items for each
scale are scored on a five-point, Likert-type scale, where
5= strongly agree and 1= strongly disagree.

The social integration scale measures interaction with
peers and with faculty. The measure yields a peer
interaction score based on seven items and a faculty
interaction score based on five items as well as a combined
score for a measure of social integration. Pascarella and
Terenzini reported an alpha reliability of .84 for the
measure of peer integration and a .83 for the measure of
faculty interaction. An alpha reliability of .47 for the
measure of peer integration and .88 for the measure of
faculty integration was found with the sample under the
present study.

The social integration measure (Interaction with Faculty

scale) is a five-item scale of student interaction and

45
familiarity with faculty and staff. Alpha reliability was
.83. Simple correlation was .35, and partial correlation .34

with the criterion variable.

Tne Self-Repotted Likelihood of Dropping Out of School.

A self-report instrument was developed consisting of

 

statements assessing the subjects' likelihood of dropping
out of school (e.g. asking subjects if they thought, or are
thinking, of dropping out of school, thinking of moving to
another school, changing their major of study, etc.) (See
Appendix C.) The subjects responded to each statement on a
five-point scale, ranging from "strongly agree" (1) to
"strongly disagree" (5).

In an initial pilot test of this instrument, eight
statements were given to five foreign graduate students to
obtain their responses. Reliability in this test
administration as determined by the alpha coefficient was
.56. This reliability was considered to be too low and the
measure was revised.

Four more items were added to the measure to bring the
total to twelve. A second pilot test of the instrument with
five foreign graduate students resulted in an alpha
coefficient of .76, which was regarded as sufficiently

reliable for this study.

46

Procedures for Collecting Data

A stratified random sample was selected through the
Registrar's office by generating a random list of subjects
according to the country code in student records. The number
of subjects in each subsample and their percentage in the
subgroup from which they were drawn were as follow: 36 Arab
graduate students (25%), 31 African graduate students (25%),
and 45 East Asian graduate students (5%).

After obtaining permission to conduct the study on human
subjects from the Human Research Committee at MSU, the
instruments were sent to each student in the sample by mail
with a stamped return envelope and a cover letter (See
Appendix A) explaining the voluntary nature of their
participation and asking the subjects to complete and return
the following materials:

1. A Personal Data Form.

2. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI).

3. Academic and Social Integration Assessments.

4. Self-Reported Likelihood of Dropping Out of School.

After two weeks, a postcard was sent to all subjects
thanking those who had returned the completed materials and
reminding those who had not yet replied. Two weeks later a
follow-up letter was sent to the subjects who did not return

the questionnaire, again asking them to comply. Sixty-two

47
subjects finally agreed to participate and returned the

completed materials.

Analysis Ptocedures

The scores of the four measures were determined for each
subject. The data was coded according to country of origin,
marital status, sex, socio-economic status, father's
education, mother's education, major of study, and major
source of income.

Descriptive statistics and a one-way analysis of variance
on country of origin were used. The first hypothesis was
tested using a multiple regression procedure, and for
hypotheses two through seven correlations were computed. The
a priori alpha level for this study was set at .05.

The original plan had been to include aptitude test scores
and grade—point averages as part of the pre-enrollment data.
However, these scores were excluded from the analysis
because of many missing values. There were 36 aptitude test
scores (GRE/GMAT) missing, and 15 grade-point averages

missing in the data collected.

Chapter IV

a 5'5 t ta

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
pre-enrollment characteristics (sex, country of origin,
major of study, academic aptitude, socioeconomic status and
financial support), and the academic and social integration
of foreign graduate students at MSU as those variables
relate to depression and the self-reported likelihood of
dropping out of school based on the Tinto Model.

This chapter presents a description of the results of the
test of the seven major hypotheses and the subhypotheses,
followed by an overall description of the manner in which
the variables related to one another. The academic aptitude
variables have been excluded from the analysis because of
many missing values. Thirty-six Graduate Record Exam scores
were missing as were 15 per-enrollment grade point averages

and 15 graduate grade point averages.'

Tests 0; Hypotheses

To test the first major hypothesis (the power of the pre-
existing variables of sex, marital status, country of
origin, major of study, socioeconomic status, and financial

support to predict social and academic integration,

48

49
depression, and the likelihood of drOpping out of school), a
multiple regression procedure was used. For each of the
subhypotheses, the null hypothesis of no linear regression
was tested using the F ratio: F= Mean square linear
regression] Mean square deviations and error. An alpha level
of .05 was used in the test of each hypothesis.

For hypotheses two through seven which predicted
relationships between the variables measured in the
questionnaires completed by subjects, correlations were
computed.

In addition, descriptive statistics have been used, and
analysis of variance was used to test for differences on all

measures that could be attributed to country of origin.

Hypotheses:

There will be a relationship between the pre-enrollment
characteristics and other variables in this study,
specifically:

a. There will be a relationship between academic

integration and the pre-enrollment characteristics.

b. There will be a relationship between the pre-enrollment

characteristics and social integration (interaction with

peer group).

c. There will be a relationship between the pre-enrollment

characteristics and social interaction (interaction with

faculty).

50
d. There will be a relationship between the pre-enrollment
characteristics and the self-reported likelihood of
dropping out of school.
e. There will be a relationship between the pre-enrollment

characteristics and depression.

Results of Testing Hypothesis 1:

Hypothesis I predicted a relationship between pre-
enrollment characteristics and each of the variables
assessed in the questionnaires filled out by subjects.
a. No significant relationship was found between
'pre-enrollment characteristics and academic integrations

significance (F=1.06, p=.43 and R-square=42.1%). (See Table

4.1).

51
Table 4.1'
Analysis of Variance on the Relationship Between Pre-

Enrollment Characteristics and Academic Integration

Source DF SS MS F P

;;;;;;;;";TIQILTTII"TIMI; """""
LLLLL"""';;"ZSITE; """"""""""""""
;;L;l"""';;"’.;§i§; """""""""""""""""""

A simple regression using only the marital status as an
independent variable, showed a relationship between academic
integration and marital status. Married students in this
sample were more academically integrated than nonmarried
students (F=5.70, p=.02), but only 9.1% of the variance

(R-square) is explained. (see Table 4.2).

52
Table 4.2
Analysis of Variance on the Relationship between Marital

Status and Academic Integration

Source DF SS MS F P

;;;;;;.;"l""§;T;;'""§;f;""ISTMT; """"""
;L;.L"""’;"'§;;I;"";Z;$ """"""""""""""
LQL;Q"""';;"';;I;; """"""""""""""""""""

b. No significant relationship was found between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and interaction with peer group

(F=.82, p=.67 and R-Square=35.4%). (See Table 4.3)

53
Table 4.3
Analysis of Variance on the Relationship Between Pre-

Enrollment Characteristics and Interaction with Peer Group

Source DF SS MS F P

LQQLQQLQQI'QTZQIQMIQTmI?””I; """"""
.LL:'""'QQ"';;I.;""I;. """"""""""""""
LQLQTMZQTQZQ. """""""""""""""""""

c. No overall significant relationship was found between
pre-enrollment characteristics and interaction with faculty
(F=1.66, P=.099 and R-square=51.8%). (See Table 4.4) Simple
regression analyses found relationships between marital
status and faculty interaction (p=.005); between engineering
and social science majors in interaction with faculty
(p=.01); between income from scholarship vs. parents'
support and saving in interaction with faculty (p=.006); and
income from work vs. parents' support and savings and
faculty interaction (p.=.007). Married students in this
sample interacted more with faculty than did nonmarried
students, and engineering students interacted with faculty

more than did social science students. Furthermore, students

54
who worked interact more with faculty than students who do

not work. (see Table 4.4).

Table 4.4
Analysis of Variance on the Relationship Between Pre-

enrollment Characteristics and Interaction with Faculty

Source DF SS MS F P

LLQLLQLQLL"I";QWQZQQMQIQM"I; """""
.LLLLM".T'QQZQQWLI; """"""""""""""
L; """""" :13}. """""""""""""""""""""

d. No significant relationship was found between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and the self-reported likelihood
of dropping out of school (F=.67, p=.82 and R-square=31.7%).

(See Table 4.5)

55
Table 4.5
Analysis of Variance on the Relationship Between Pre-
Enrollment Characteristics and the Likelihood of Dropping

Out of School

Source DF SS MS F P

;;;L;;;l;;";;"';§Z;';"";I;;""'fI'm"I; """""
LI.”M";.“iiJIQT'lI; """"""""""""""""
;;L;l"""'l;"'l$;lf;; """""""""""""""""""

-—-------------~--—------~---_-—--—---------------—-—-------
.

e. A significant relationship was found between the pre-
enrollment characteristics and depression (F=2.30, p=.018,
and R-square= 59.7). (See Table 4.6) A significant
relationship was found between marital status and depression
(p=.04). Married students had lower scores on the depression
measure than nonmarried students. A significant relationship
was also found between source of income and depression
(p=.02). Students who worked scored lower on the depression
measure than students who received their financial support

from parents or personal saving.

56
Table 4.6
Analysis of Variance on the Relationship Between Pre-

Enrollment Characteristics and Depression

Source DF SS MS F P

;;;L;;;;;";;"'l;;fl5';le“CIT""Z'Ll; """""
LL:""';l"'$;;f;;;"';2; """""""""""""""
;;;l"""';l"'l;$;f; """"""""""""""""""

Resuite of Testing Hypothesis 2;

It was hypothesized that there would be an inverse
relationship between academic integration and the likelihood
of dropping out of school. A significant negative
correlation was found between these two variables and the
pre-enrollment characteristics (r=-.34, p<.01).

Students who were satisfied with their academic progress,
found their courses interesting, and experienced a
stimulating intellectual environment at the university were

less likely to be considering dropping out of school

57
es 1 o Test'n ot s' 3:

It was hypothesized that there would be an inverse
relationship between social integration (interaction with
peers) and the likelihood of dropping out of school. A
significant negative correlation was found between peer
group interaction and the self-reported likelihood of
dropping out of school (r=-.46, p<.01).

Students who reported positive social relationships with
fellow students were less likely to be contemplating

withdrawal from school.

Results of Testing Hypothesis 4:

It was hypothesized that there would be an inverse
relationship between social integration (interaction with
faculty) and the likelihood of dropping out of school. No
significant relationship has been found between these two
variables (r=-.23, p<.05).

While the observed relationship was in the direction
hypothesized, the correlation coefficient did not reach
significance. A correlation of .25 was necessary to be

significant at the .05 level.

Results of Testing Hypethesie 5:

An inverse relationship between academic integration and
depression was hypothesized, and the results support this

hypothesis. A significant negative correlation was found

58
between academic integration and depression (r=-.38,
p<.01.). High academic integration scores were associated

with low depression scores.

Results of Testing Hypothesis 6:

An inverse relationship between social integration
(interaction with peers) and depression was hypothesized,
and the results support this hypothesis. A significant
negative correlation was found between these two variables
(r=-.30, p<.05).

Students who had positive social interactions with other

students indicated less depression.

Results of Testing Hypothesis 7:

It was hypothesized that there would be an inverse
relationship between social integration (interaction with
faculty) and depression. A significant negative correlation
was found between interaction with faculty and depression
(r=-.38, p<.01). The higher the student interaction with

faculty, the lower was the depression they reported.

Additional Analyses

A one-way anova was run on each of the major variables in
regards to country of origin. The results of the analysis of

variance showed no significant differences among the three

59
subsamples, East Asians, Arabs and Africans (non-Arabs), on
any of the variables under study. (See Tables 4.7, 4.8, 4.9,

and 4.10).

Table 4.7
Analysis of Variance on Peer-Group Interaction and Country
of Origin

Source DF SS MS F P
Country 2 32.6 16.3 1.11 0.336
Error 55 806.2 14.7
Total 57 838.8

Table 4.8

Analysis of Variance on Faculty Interaction and Country of

Origin
Source DF SS MS F P
Country 2 0.6 0.3 0.01 0.336
Error 55 1295.83 23.6

Total 57 1296.4

60
Table 4.9

Analysis of Variance on Academic Integration and Country of

Origin
Source DF SS MS F P
Country 2 4.1 2.0 0.14 869
Error 53 770.9 14.5
Total 55 775.0
Table 4.10

Analysis of Variance on Depression and Country of Origin

Source DF SS MS F P
Country 2 13.32 6.7 0.18 0.835
Error 56 2059.62 36.8

Total 58 2072.9

In addition, the means and standard deviations of the main

variables are shown below (Table 4.11).

61
Table 4.11

The Mean and Standard deviation of the Main Variables

N MEAN Stdev
BDI 61 5.6 6.0
Dropout 60 42.4 5.7
Peer intg 61 19.1 3.9
Fac intg 61 13.3 4.8
Acad intg 59 16.6 3.8
§BEE§£¥

The results of the multiple regression analysis failed to
support the hypotheses of a relationship between the
pre-enrollment characteristics tested and the social and
academic integration variables.

Simple regression analysis showed that in this sample of
subjects, married students were more academically integrated
and apt to socialize with the faculty than were nonmarried
students, and engineering students interacted with faculty
more than did students in social science. Simple regression
also revealed that students who worked interacted more with
faculty than did students who received their financial

support from their parents or savings. Although the above

62
relationships were found to be significant at the .05 level
when tested using simple regressions, they are not taken to
be indicative of population parameters as they were not
hypothesized and were the result of multiple tests that were
not independent.

A relationship was found between pre-enrollment
characteristics and depression. Specifically, a relationship
was found between marital status and depression. Married
students had lower mean scores on the depression measure
than did nonmarried students. Also, students who work have
lower mean scores on the depression measure than students
who receive their financial support from parents or personal
savings.

No relationship was found between the self-reported
likelihood of dropping out of school and the pre-enrollment
characteristics.

Academic integration, satisfaction with courses, education
progress, and the intellectual environment was found to be
inversely related to depression and the likelihood of
dropping out of school.

Social integration with peers was inversely related to
depression and the likelihood of dropping out of school.

A significant inverse relationship was found between
social integration with faculty and depression, but the
inverse relationship between social integration with faculty

and the likelihood of dropping out of school failed to reach

63

the.05 level of significance.

Chapter V

Discussion

This chapter contains a brief summary of the study and the
findings it produced. Conclusions and recommendations are
made based on these findings. Various observations and
reflections are shared as the ramifications of the findings
and conclusions are considered.

The primary purpose of the study was to investigate the
pre-enrollment characteristics of foreign graduate students
(sex, country of origin, major field of study, academic
aptitude, socioeconomic status, and financial support), and
the academic and social integration of these foreign
graduate students as they relate to depression and the
self-reported likelihood of dropping out of school based on
Tinto model. Tinto had hypothesized that persistence in
school was related to students' academic and social
integration in the school setting, which, in turn, was
dependent upon the students' pre-enrollment characteristics.

Seven major hypotheses were formulated describing the
expected relationships among pre-enrollment variables,
measures of academic and social integration and feelings of
depression and satisfaction with school. Data were

collected from a stratified random sample of foreign

64

65
graduate students attending Michigan State University. From
the original sample of 112 students, responses were obtained
from 62 of them after repeated mailings. Missing
information in three data sets made the usable sample 59
students composed as follows: 21 East Asians, 21 Middle
Eastern Arabs, and 17 Non-Arab Africans.

The assessment of depression was measured using the Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI) scale. The academic and social
integrations were measured by scales developed by Pascarella
and Terenzini (1980). The self-reported likelihood of
dropping out of school was measured by a scale developed and
pilot tested by this researcher. A personal data sheet,
also developed for this study, which served to gather
demographic data from the subjects studied. Data were
collected by mailing the instruments to subjects with a
request for them to complete and return them. Followup
mailings were used to increase the response rate.

The statistical analysis chosen to test the hypotheses in
this study consists of multiple regression to test the first
hypothesis and correlational analysis to test hypotheses two
through seven. The a priori alpha level for this study was
set at .05.

Overall, the results of the study were consistent with the
literature reviewed or supportive of the Tinto model. This
study supports the applicability of the Tinto model to

foreign graduate students.

66

A relationship between the pre-enrollment characteristics
of students and measures of academic and social integration,
likelihood of dropping out of school, and depression was
hypothesized.

No statistically significant relationship was found
between the pre-enrollment characteristics and the academic
or social integration variables using multiple regression
analysis. The failure to get a larger return from the
original sample may have prevented the finding of a
significant relationship. In subsequent simple regression
analyses, a relationship was found between marital status
and social integration (interaction with faculty), and
between major field of study and interaction with faculty.
Married students interacted more with faculty than did
nonmarried students. Engineering students interacted more
with faculty than did any other majors. In addition, a
relationship was found between source of income and
interaction with faculty. The students who worked
interacted more with faculty than other students who did
not. These findings are only descriptive of the sample and
are not to be generalized beyond the sample as they were not
hypothesized and were the results of multiple
non-independent tests.

The failure to find a relationship between the

pre-enrollment characteristics and academic and social

67
integration is congruent with the early work of Terenzini
and Pascarella (1978), whose findings suggested that even
though the pre-college characteristics are important, they
have limited predictive value. However, a later study by
Terenzini et al (1983) found support for the predictive
validity of Tinto's theory of college student attrition,
which postulates a relationship between the pre-enrollment
characteristics and social and academic integration
variables. The failure of the present study to support this
hypothesized relationship may be due to the particular
pre-enrollment characteristics chosen or to the poor return
of data from subjects. The inability to obtain academic
aptitude measures as a pre-enrollment characteristic was
unfortunate, because logic would lead one to believe this
variable to be among the most important student
characteristics in relationship to academic integration.

No significant relationship was found between the
pre-enrollment characteristics and the self-reported
likelihood of dropping out of school. The failure to find
this hypothesized relationship is consistent with results of
a study by Terenzini and Pascarella (1978), which indicated
that pre-college traits are not significantly related to
attrition. Stage and Richardson (1985), however, did find
such a relationship. They concluded that the two background
characteristics that had the greatest effect on persistence

in college were mother's and father's level of education.

68
Pascarella et a1 (1986) concluded from their own study that
much of the influence of student pre-college traits was
indirect. That is, the student's experience of college may
have an important, unique influence on persistence beyond
that of differences in background characteristics and
individual attributes on college entry. These findings are
inconsistent with the assertion of Stage (1987) that
background characteristics do influence persistence
directly. The present study can shed no light on this
subject.

A significant relationship was found between the
pre-enrollment characteristics and depression. Married
students scored lower on the depression measure than
nonmarried students. Furthermore, students who worked
scored lower on the depression measure than students who
receive their financial support from either parents or
personal savings. These findings are consistent with those
of Collins (1977) who found that single foreign students, as
a group, face more problems than married, separated, or'
divorced students. But he noted that all students in the
sample reported some problems in home and family and
finances, living conditions, and employment. Payind (1977),
also found married students have fewer problems than single
students.

This present study also found that students in the

humanities and social sciences have more adjustment problems

69

than those students in science and engineering. A possible
explanation for this might be that the social sciences rely
more on ability in English, and the sciences rely more on
ability in math, and foreign students are more disadvantaged
in the English language.

As might be expected, students who had financial support
experienced fewer adjustment problems.
Contrary to Payind (1977), and the present study, Saleh
(1980) found no significant differences between males and
females, married and single, graduate and undergraduate Arab
students. In addition, Der Yeghiayan(1980),
Akpan-Iquot(1981), Surdam(1981), and Yeung(1981) reported
findings which were consistent with Saleh's (1980)
conclusions, while MacMillen's (1982) results were

consistent with the present study findings.

H eses & 3:

A significant negative relationship was found between
academic integration and the likelihood of dropping out of
school. Also, a significant negative correlation was found
between peer-group interaction and the likelihood of
dropping out of school. These findings are in accord with
the hypothesized relationships and consistent with the
results of previous studies (Allen, 1986; Beltzer, 1985;
Pascarella, 1985; Pascarella et al, 1983, 1986; Pascarella &

Terenzini, 1977, 1978, 1980 ; Stage, 1987; Stage &

70
Richardson, 1985).
These results imply that, the more academically integrated
the students are, and the more they interact with peers, the

less likely it is that they consider dropping out of school.

Hypothesis 4:

No significant relationship was found between interaction
with faculty and the self-reported likelihood of dropping
out of school. These findings are inconsistent with the
results of the previous studies (Pascarella & Terenzini,
1978; Stage, 1987; Stage & Richardson, 1985; Terenzini et

a1, 1983; Terenzini & Pascarella, 1977).

Hypothesis 5:

A significant negative relationship was found between
academic integration and depression. These findings are
consistent with the previous studies in regards to the
relationship between depression and academic problems
(Bossee et al., 1975; Cho, 1988; Kashani & Priesmeyer, 1983;
Marion, 1986; Nicholi, 1967) and present partial support for
Tinto's model.

The mean of the BDI score in this study was 5.62, and is
generally interpreted as normal rather than depressed.
Furthermore, the explained variance of the relationship

between depression and academic integration is very small

71
(R-square = 14%). Consequently, these findings should be

looked at with caution.

Hypotheses 6 & 7:

A significant negative correlation was found between
peer-group interaction and depression, and between faculty
interaction and depression. These findings are consistent
with previous findings, which indicated that satisfaction
and adjustment of foreign students are positively related to
contact and interaction with Americans (Hull, 1978;
Jarrahi-Zadeh & Eichman, 1970; Klinberg & Hull, 1979;
Selltiz et al., 1963).

With some few exceptions, the results are in accord with
the hypotheses, and generally support the validity of
Tinto's model of college student attrition. The findings of
the present study served to complement and extend the body
of research that concerns itself with the role of the Tinto
model in explaining student attrition. The results of the
present study further indicate that depressed subjects are
less likely to be integrated academically and socially.
Furthermore, the results indicate that depressed students
are likely to be nonmarried and receive their financial
support from either parents or personal savings. In
contrast, no significant relationship was found between
interaction with faculty and the self-reported likelihood of

dropping out of school, which is inconsistent with the

72
results of the previous studies. There are several possible
reasons that the results of hypothesis four appears to
differ from the results of previous research based on the
Tinto model. First, the sample used in this study differs
from the kind of samples used in the previous studies. This
study employed a sample of graduate foreign students unlike
the previous studies which used samples of American
undergraduates. The graduate students generally are older
than undergraduates. Their age and their choice to pursue
higher level of education may reflect more maturity and
apparantly more experience with the school's pressure and
study demands than is true of undergraduate students. That
is, social integration may play a more critical role for
poorly prepared students than for those who enter with
better preparation. In addition, some of them have
established themselves and have jobs waiting for them back
in their country. Even though they might encounter the same
problems as the undergraduates, they appear less likely to
give up easily and decide to leave the school.

Second, the measure of dropout used in this study, differs
from the measures of dropout used in the previous studies.
Most of the previous studies were longitudinal in nature and
compared the actual dropouts and nondropouts in regards to
other variables, while the current study was correlational
in nature and used an attitude measure that measures

students' likelihood of dropping out of school. Also, it

73
might be that the measure itself, although it demonstrated
moderately high reliability, was not reliable enough to
detect a relationship if indeed one existed.

Third, whereas the previously cited research focused on
larger sample sizes, the sample size in this study (62
subjects) was very small compared to the samples used in the
previous studies. If the sample size were larger, the
variance of the scores on the measures used might have
increased the ability to detect relationships among
variables.

In addition, no relationship was found between the
pre-enrollment characteristics and any of the integration
variables. Furthermore, no relationship was found between
the pre-enrollment characteristics and the self-reported
likelihood of dropping out of school. These findings are
consistent with some of the previous studies, but
inconsistent with other research findings. The contradictory
results across these studies could be explained, in part,
within the broad context of differences across institutional
types, which were mentioned in the second chapter of this
study. It seems to be that larger institutions provide less
opportunity for students to interact with faculty than
smaller institutions. In addition, the students's
experiences within the school system, rather than the
pre-enrollment characteristics may have different effects

upon their integration into the school system, which

74
influence, in turn, the decision of staying or leaving the
school. Though the model emphasizes the role of
intra-institutional experiences, it does not exclude the
possibility that external events can also influence
individual decisions regarding departure. Social forces
external to the institution may influence student decisions
regarding behavior in the institutional setting. External
communities including families, work settings, and peer
groups may serve to counter, rather than support,

participation in college communities.

ecommendations

The following section presents recommendations concerning
future research:
1. Future research on the adjustment and psychological
problems of foreign students in the U.S. might use different
instruments. In regards to depression, instruments such as
the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale and The Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale can be used. The Zung Self-Rating
Depression Scale and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale have
been used with foreign students and can provide information
on factors related to the psychological profile of different
cultural groups. In addition, different instruments need to
be developed to measure the likelihood of dropping out of

school as well as collecting actual data on dropouts and

75
comparing them to nondropouts. Based on the research in this
area, counselors and other helping professionals can design
services aimed at helping students recognize, deal with, and
overcome specific behaviors that block their process of
adaptation.
2. Reseach is needed in the way foreign students deal with
stress and conflict. It is believed that foreign students
who lack appropriate coping mechanisms isolate themselves,
withdraw, and/or avoid interaction with Americans as a way
to protect themselves against the new culture, or associate
only with co-nationals. This knowledge of stressors and how
foreign students deal with stress will help counselors in
designing educational services to help these students to
develop the coping skills needed to adapt to the new
culture.
3. Research is needed on the use of an American subsample in
addition to a foreign students sample in applying the Tinto
model. This would serve counselors in differentiating
between the needs and problems of foreign students and
American students.
4. Research is needed to include college characteristics in
the model when used with foreign students. The previous
studies showed how college characteristics interact with
different variables and affect students' decision to stay or
to leave the school.

5. Research is needed on the use of both graduate and

76
undergraduate foreign students. Both groups differ in their
perspective and orientation regarding study and career.
Graduate students as a group are more likely to be
professionally established than undergraduates and more
likely to cope with study pressures than undergraduates, and
consequently, less likely to drop out of school. Adding
undergraduates might help to clarify the relationship
between academic level and the other variables. In addition,
a larger sample might be needed, since many variables are
included in the model. A larger sample would allow more
variation among the subjects, and the larger the sample the
more heterogeneous the group will be, resulting in less
error, and a lower probability of finding some relationships
by chance.
6. Additional research is recommended to measure the
differences in depression between males and females, between
married and nonmarried, between students who have financial
support and those who do not, and between students in
different academic majors. The research findings were not
conclusive in these issues. This knowledge will help
counselors to design services suitable for the different
groups and to understand better the differences among the
various groups, which will help in counseling and therapy.
7. More research is needed on the relationship between
depression and the other variables in the Tinto model.

Since this is the first study to include depression as an

77
additional variable in the Tinto model, further research is

needed to verify the present findings.

APPENDIX A: Covet Letter

80
Announcement
Re: Study on adaptation of foreign students at MSU.
Dear student,

I am a doctoral student in counseling, and I am interested
in studying the factors which relate to the adaptation of
foreign students at MSU.

Foreign students encounter many difficulties during their
stay in the United States, and this study will help in
revealing some of the factors that affect your adaptation in
the United States as a foreign student.

I am asking students who are interested in volunteering to
give about one to two hours of their time to fill out some
forms and questionnaires pertaining to thoughts and
responses about the adaptation of foreign students.

In return for the volunteered time, I will provide each
participant with some information about the study and the
results after the collection of data upon request.

If you are interested in learning more about this study,
please contact me at 339-2756. If you should decide that you
are interested in participating in this study, your
confidentiality will be protected, and the study will be

conducted within the university regulations.

Qasem Sammour

Doctoral student in Counseling

APPENDIX D; Data Form

82

Instructions: please complete the following information and
answer each statement by writing the appropriate answer

which applies best to your situation.

Sex: ........................................................
Marital status: ---------------------------------------------
Country of origin: ------------------------------------------
Major of study: ---------------------------------------------
Combined GRE or GMAT score: ---------------------------------
Grade Point Average: ----------------------------------------
B.A./B.S or MA/MS G.P.A.: -----------------------------------
Parents' social class ( e.g. upper-upper class, upper class,

upper-middle class, middle, lower middle, lower class)

Mother's formal education: ----------------------------------
Father's formal education: ----------------------------------

Major source of income: -------------------------------------

Comments or additions: --------------------------------------

PPE ° The Sel -Re 0 t ike 'hood 0 Dro in Out of

School

85

Instructions: Qead each statement carefully and mark the
appropriate answer which applies best to your situation.

The answers range from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

SA = Strongly Agree D = Disagree
A = Agree SD= Srongly Disagree
U = Undecided

1. I am thinking of quitting
the university at the present. SA A U D SD
2. I thought about dropping
out of the university before. SA A U D SD
3. I am thinking about moving
to another university. SA A U D SD
4. I think that the courses
I must take are beyond my
ability. SA A U D SD
5. I am thinking of changing
my major of study. SA A U D SD
6. I have low grades, or
lower than those required
by the school system. SA A U D SD
7. I think that I made a mistake
by coming here to study. SA A U D SD

8. I think life is so stressful

86
here, that it interferes with
my studies.

9. I have repeated class absences.

10.I am always late in completing
the class assignments.

11.My financial situation
interferes with my study.

12.My social life is very

unsatisfying here.

SA

SA

SA

SA

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

”a

_, to°

0! mm-surs

88
Instructions: Read each statement carefully and mark the-

appropriate answer which applies best to your situation.

The answers range from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

SA= Strongly Agree D = Disagree
A = Agree SD= Strongly Disagree
U = Undecided

1. Since coming to this university

I have developed close personal

relationships with other students. SA A U
2. The student friendships I have

developed at this university have

been personally satisfying. SA A U
3. My interpersonal relationships

with other students have had a positive

influence on my personal growth,

attitudes, and values. SA A U
4. My interpersonal relationships

with other students have had a positive

influence on my intellectual growth

and interest in ideas. SA A U
5. It has been difficult for me to

meet and make friends with other

students. SA A U

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

89
6. Few of the students I know would
be willing to listen to me and help
me if I had a personal problem.
7. Most students at this university
have values and attitudes different
from my own.
8. My nonclassroom interactions with
faculty have had a positive influence
on my personal growth, values, and
attitudes.
9. My nonclassroom interactions with
faculty have had a positive influence
on my intellectual growth and interest
in ideas.
10. My nonclassroom interactions with
faculty have had a positive influence
on my career goals and aspirations.
11. Since coming to this university
I have developed a close, personal
relationship with at least one faculty
member.
12. I am satisfied with the opportunities
to meet and interact informally with

faculty members.

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

90
13. I am satisfied with the
extent of my intellectual
development since enrolling
in this university.
14. My academic experience has
had a positive influence on my
intellectual growth and interest
in ideas.
15. I am satisfied with my academic
experience at this university.
16. Few of my courses this year
have been intellectually
stimulating.
17. My interest in ideas and
intellectual matters has increased
since coming to this university.
18. I am more likely to attend
a cultural event (for example,
a concert, lecture, or art show)
now than I was before coming to
this university.
19. I have performed academically

as well as I anticipated I would.

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

FIGURE I: Tinto Model

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