PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkou! from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE FM~ 17161 MSU I. An Affirmative AdiorVEquaI Opportunity Institution cMml-M ACTION RESEARCH AS AN APPROPRIATE TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE APPROACH IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: AN INVESTIGATION OF ITS UNK TO ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE By Rodolfo Reodica Altamirano A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Resource Development 1 989 (1)00 I L) I ABSTRACT ACTION RESEARCH AS AN APPROPRIATE TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE APPROACH IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: AN INVESTIGATION OF ITS UNK TO ORGANIZATTONAL CULTURE By Rodolfo Heodioe Altamirano For any community development effort to be successful, there is a need to have a goodness of fit’relationship between a providing system and a receiving system. In some specific development efforts, action research has been used by many providing systems as a linking mechanism. However, it has been used without analyzing its appropriateness as a technical assistance approach in relation to the culture of the receiving system. This research will focus on a specific case where action research was used by a university in its efforts to provide technical assistance to a human service agency. In order to assess the appropriateness of the action research approach, the researcher utilized a methodological triangulation strategy. Participant observation, formal and informal interviews, and examination of agency documents were combined to gather data. The researcher analyzed the study using three Cultural Frameworks. The first framework. dealt with temporal and spatial dimensions within the organization. The second framework focused on the organizational culture and its relation to the external environment. Areas dealt with were the mission of the agency, the strategic means used by the organization, and how the agency members perceive its role in the outside environment. The third framework revolves around the organizational culture and its relation to the internal environment. Specifically, three Cultural Elements-Organizational, Orientational, and Operational-were studied in relation to action research. Findings revealed that there are significant compatibilities and incompatibilities between the features of action research and the elements of the organizational culture of the human service agency. Some of the factors in the study that may affect this relationship include the nature, history, and limitations of the organization. The researcher concludes that in the application of the action research framework, it is imperative for the providing system to be sensitive to the nature and limitations of the receiving system. A lack of a careful scrutiny of such factors may impede the successful application of future action research endeavors. This piece of work is humbly dedicated to my father, Domingo, my deceased mother, Brigida; my brothers-Rogelio, Amormio, Rolando, and Maurito; to my sisters- -Divinia and Euselda; my brothers and sisters-in-law--Senen, Aurora, Amando, Miniver, Consorcia, and Lorenzo; my nephews and niecesulvan, Debbie, Ma. Elaine, Aries, Ronald Allan, Edward Walter, Sarah Suzanne, Sheila Joyce, Sherryl Ann, Tyrone John, Liza Joy, Margret Rose, Michelle, Marjorie Anne, Jerome, Christine, Claudette, and Camille; and my cousins-.Josefa, Mamerta, and Virgilio. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This author owes the success of his graduate studies to different individuals. Each one of them has contributed something that either inspired and motivated him to complete the graduate program. These individuals, in one way or another, has helped him go through the rigors of academic life. He expresses his deepest appreciation to his Major Professor, Dr. Frank A. Fear for the guidance that he has provided throughout the years. He has served not only as a mentor but also as a friend-giving him words of encouragement and determination to "hang in there“ despite the odds. The researcher would like to thank the Guidance Committee members «Dr. Milton Steinmueller, Dr. Peter Gladhart, Dr. Jack Bain and Dr. Manfred Thullen--for all the support that they have provided. The Salvation Army staff deserves the warmest gratitude for giving the researcher the chance to be a part. of them: as a researcher and as a "member" of the agency. Thanks go to: Janet Higgins, Capt. and Mrs. Les Morrall, Eric Thelen, lcelee Nelson, Lt. and Mrs. Wayne Rusten, Bessie Bray, Sandy Kirby, Joanne Bennett, Ginger Frink, Melinda Kirn, Betty Criss, Dave Purvis, and Pat Curran. The Thoman Fellowship Program should also be given recognition for providing the researcher not only with financial support but also a chance to enrich his professional experiences. Worthy of appreciation is extended to the Departments of Resource Development and Family and Child Ecology for the financial assistance provided through graduate assistantships. The researcher wishes to acknowledge the University Housing Program-University Apartments Residence Life for their unfailing support and confidence on him. My fondest appreciation is accorded to Ma. Leticia Carpio for serving as a sweet inspiration—her presence makes life easier. Sue Liza Saguiguit deserves recognition for her unceasing perseverance in providing help in different aspects of the dissertation. Sincerest thanks go to the following persons: Ma. Gina Tuason-Manaligod, Miriam Pacheco, Marita Bernardo, Lilnabeth Somera, Mary Anne Alabanza, Carla Dombroski, Jo-Anne Palma, Anne Sumagaysay, Lilian Gadrinab, Carmelita Garcia, Merlinda lngco, Almira Gilles, Nancy Lange, iGni Foster, Shirleyetta Sernick, lsidra Guiang, Nora Harrison, Sue Chatterley, David Elsinger, Rex Alocilja, Dylan Dizon, Victor Revilla, Nicanor Mendiola, Reynaldo Sian, Eric Fitch, Carl Gibson, Christopher Grobbel, Jeff Kern, Michael Forrester, Rick Bradshaw, John Egger, Tito de Leon...Each one of them has shared their hands and hearts to help him successfully pursue his goals in life. Finally, greatest thanks should be offered to the Lord Jesus Christ, without him, all things would not be possible! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I: Introduction ........................................ The Problem in Perspective ................................ Statement of the Problem ................................. A. B. 1. 2. Focus of the Study ................................... Purpose of the Study .................................. Alternative Models of Planned Change as Related to the Goodness of Fit Issue ................................... 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Change as a Problem-Solving Process ..................... a. Goodness of Fit in the Problem-Solving Process ............ Change as Research and Development ..................... a. Goodness of Fit in the Research and Development Process . . . . Change as Process of Social Interaction .................... a. Goodness of Fit in the Social Interaction Process ........... Change as a Linking Process ............................ a. Goodness of Fit in the Linkage Process ...... ‘ ............ Comparison of the Planned Change Models ................. Major Approaches to Community Development in Relation to the Goodness of Fit Issue ................................... 1. 2. 3. 4. The Self-Help Approach ................................ a. Goodness of Fit in the Self-Help Process ................. The Technical Assistance Approach ....................... a. Goodness of Fit in the Technical Assistance Process ......... The Conflict Approach ................................. a. Goodness of Fit in the Conflict Process .................. Comparison of the Community Development Approaches ......... A Fundamental Characteristic in the Development Process .......... Action Research as a "Linkage Mechanism" ..................... 1 . 2. 3. Goodness of Fit in Action Research ....................... Action Research and the Collaborative Role of the Social Scientist . . Action Research in a University Setting ..................... Research Approach ..................................... 1. 2. 3. Cultural Framework l: Organizational Culture in Relation to Temporal and Spatial Dimensions ......................... Cultural Framework ll: Organizational Culture in Relation to the External Environment ............................. Cultural Framework lll: Organizational Culture in Relation to the Internal Environment .............................. Research Methods ...................................... Organization of the Study ................................. vii 9&0)“ (DQ‘I‘I 11 11 13 13 15 15 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 8 1 9 20 21 21 23 23 24 25 26 27 28 31 34 35 Chapter II: Perspectives on Action Research ......................... A. B. 3‘!" Introduction ........................................... Conceptions of Action Research ............................ 1. History and Origin of Action Research ...................... 2. Generic Characteristics of Action Research ................... 3. Schools of Action Research ............................. Features of Action Research ............................... 1. Interplay Between Action and Research ..................... 2. Three Key'Dimensions of Action Research ................... a. Action research and innovation ........................ b. Action research and evaluation ........................ c. Action research and policy transformation ................. 3. Principles of Action Research ............................ 4. Action Research: lts Actors ............................. a. Therapist ........................................ b. Detective ........................................ c. Structuralist ...................................... d. Sociotechnical analyst .............................. 5. The Phases of Action Research .......................... Problem Formulation .......................... - ..... Preliminary Data Collection ........................... Theory and Method Clarification ........................ Data Collection and Analysis .......................... Preliminary Feedback of Results ....................... Reporting of Results ................................ Follow-up, Evaluation, and Diffusion ..................... Collaboration. An Important Element of Action Research ............ 1. Why Collaborate? .................................... a. Task system ..................................... b. External system ................................... 0. Value system ..................................... d. Reward system ................................... 6. Power system .................................... Action Research: Conditions Favoring Its Success ................ Action Research: Its Dilemmas and Limitations ................... 1. Differences Between the Providing System and the Receiving System a. Differences in Values and Ideologies .................... b. Differences in Time Perspectives ....................... c. Process Vs. Measuring Outcomes ...................... A Comparison of Two Traditions: Action Research Vs. Participatory Research ................................... 1. Problem Definition .................................... 2. Data Collection and Analysis ............................ 3. Results Utilization .................................... S9999? (O . Action Research Today ................................... viii 36 36 39 41 45 46 47 49 49 49 49 50 51 51 51 51 52 52 54 55 55 56 56 56 57 57 58 58 59 61 Chapter III: A Background on the Case to be Studied: The Salvation Army in Lansing, Michigan ....................................... 64 A. The Salvation Army in Perspective ........................... 64 B. History of The Salvation Army .............................. 65 C. The Salvation Army: A Spiritual Ministry ....................... 66 D. The Salvation Army: A Social Service Agency ................... 68 E. History of The Salvation Army in Lansing ...................... 69 1. Services Provided Through The Salvation Army ................ 71 2. Organizational Structure of The Salvation Army in Lansing ........ 73 F. History of the Department of Resource Development, Michigan State University ................................. 74 1. The Department of Resource Development's Link with Various Client Systems ...................................... 74 G. The Collaborative Arrangement Between The Salvation Army and the Department of Resource Development ...................... 76 1. The Initial Contacts Between the Two Parties ................. 76 2. The Phases of the Project .............................. 77 3. The Role of This Researcher in the Whole Process ............. 82 4. What The Salvation Army is Doing with the Survey Results ........ 82 Chapter IV: Methodology ...................................... 83 A. Overview of the Chapter .................................. 83 B. Qualitative Research as a Type of Social Science Research ......... 83 1. Description of Research Phases .......................... 83 a. Entry Stage ...................................... 83 b. Data Gathering Stage ............................... 84 c. Data Analysis Stage ................................ 84 2. Methodological Approach to Cultural Analysis ................. 84 3. Methodological Issues Involved in the Study .................. 85 4. Qualitative Research as a type of Social Science Research ....... 85 5. Qualitative Research: Its Importance ....................... 86 6. Qualitative Research: Its Importance ....................... 85 7. Ethnography as a Type of Qualitative Research ............... 88 8. Specific Ethnographic Methods Utilized ..................... 89 a. Participant Observation .............................. 90 b. Interviews ....................................... 91 c. Examination of Documents ........................... 91 4. An Important Empirical Issue to be Addressed ................ 92 a. The First Empirical Alternative: An Indirect Link . Between Cultural Elements and Action Research ............ 92 b. The Second Empirical Alternative: A Direct Measure of the Degree of Fit Between the Cultural Elements and Action Research ............................... 93 C. The Research Phases .................................... 94 1. Entry Stage ........................................ 94 a. The Research Setting ............................... 95 b. Gatekeepers ..................................... 95 ix c. Researcher’s Entry ................................. 96 2. Data Gathering Stage ................................. 96 a. Role of the Researcher .............................. 97 b. Research Boundaries ............................... 98 b1. Observation Settings ............................. 98 b2. Observation Periods ............................. 99 b3. Informants .................................... 99 c. Research Techniques Used ........................... 100 CI. Participant Observation ........................... 100 c2. Review of Documents ............................ 102 c3. Interviews ..................................... 103 04. Description of the Settings ......................... 105 CS. Description of the People .......................... 106 3. Data Analysis Stage .................................. 106 a. Handling the Data ................................. 106 b. Coding the Data .................................. 107 4. Exit Stage ......................................... 108 D. Methodological Approach to Cultural Analysis ................... 108 1. An Overview of the Three Cultural Frameworks ................ 109 a. Cultural Framework l: Organizational Culture in Relation to Temporal and Spatial Dimensions ..................... 109 b. Cultural Framework ll: Organizational Culture in Relation to the External Environment ........................... 111 c. Cultural Framework Ill: Organizational Culture in Relation to the Internal Environment ........................... 113 2. The Relationship Between Action Research and the Three Cultural Frameworks .................................. 117 E. Methodological Issues Related to the Study .................... 124 1. Ethical Dilemmas ..................................... 124 2. Reliability and Validity Issues ............................ 125 Chapter V: Cultural Framework l: Organizational Culture in Relation to Temporal and Spatial Dimensions ............................ 127 A. Summary of the Findings ................................. 128 B. Elaboration of the Main Findings ............................ 129 1. Temporal Dimensions ................................. 129 a. Time Orientation ................................... 130 a1. Role of Past Experiences in the Organization ............ 131 a2. Performance of Functions: Day-to-day Basis ............ 132 a3. Planning of Agency Activities ....................... 133 a4. A Look Into the Future ............................ 133 a5. Program Implementation .......................... 134 b. TIme Management ................................. 134 b1 . Performance of Tasks ............................ 135 b2. TIme as an Important Resource ..................... 136 b3. Quality Vs. Quantity: Which is More Important? ........... 136 b4. Relationship Vs. Efficiency: Which is More Important ....... 137 2. Spatial Dimensions ................................... 138 a. Open Office Landscape Vs. Closed Office Landscape ......... 138 b. Spatial Considerations for Capital Campaign ............... 142 c. Seating Arrangements During Staff and Advisory Board Meetings . 143 d. Policy Regarding Seating Arrangements .................. 144 Chapter VI: Cultural Framework II: Organizational Culture in Relation to the External Environment .................................. 146 A Summary of the Findings ................................. 147 B. Elaboration of the Main Findings ............................ 149 1. Mission of Organization ................................ 149 a. Mission of The Salvation Army: Spiritual and Social Service Ministry ................................... 149 b. How can the Goal(s) of the Agency Be Accomplished ........ 151 c. Barriers in the Accomplishment of the Goal(s) of the Agency . . . . 152 d. Incorporation of the Religious Mission ................... 152 2. Strategic Means ..................................... 155 a. Adaptation ....................................... 156 b. Integration ....................................... 157 0. Stabilization ...................................... 158 3. Role. . . . ......................................... 1.60 a. Superior-Pivotal ................................... 160 b. Inferior-Dependent ................................. 162 c. Collaborative-Egalitarian ............................. 164 Chapter VII: Cultural Framework III: Organizational Culture in Relation to the Internal Environment ................................... 166 A. Summary of the Findings ................................. 166 B. Elaboration of the Main Findings ............................ 170 1. Organizational ................ . ....................... 170 a. Leadership ...................................... 170 a1. Who are the Perceived Leaders ..................... 170 a2. Decision-Making Process in the Organization ............ 171 . a3. Who are Perceived to have "Power" and "Influence" ........ 173 b. Structure ........................................ 174 b1. Hierarchy Within the Organization .................... 174 b2. Division of Labor ................................ 175 b3. Team-Building and Collaboration as an Organizational ApproaCh .......................... 178 b4. Communication Channels Used in the Organization ........ 180 2. Orientational ........................................ 182 a. Symbolical ...................................... 183 a1. Wearing of Uniforms ............................. 183 a2. Use of Military Designations ........................ 185 a3. Quasi-Military Orientations: Its Effect on Interaction in the Organization .............................. 186 a4. Artifacts Used in the Organization .................... 187 xi a5. Christmas Season: A Busy Two for The Salvation Army . . . . 188 a6. Prayers During Staff and Advisory Board Meetings ........ 189 a7. Sharing of Religious Beliefs ........................ 190 a8. Use of Words and Terms of The Salvation Army .......... 191 b. Attitudinal ........................................ 191 b1.Acceptance of Members in the Organization ............. 191 b2. Criteria in Recruiting Staff and Advisory Board Members . . . . 193 b3. Perceptions About the Clients in the Organization ......... 194 c. Emotional ....................................... 196 01. The Organization as a Closely-Knit Family .............. 196 c2. Feelings of Acceptance in the Group .................. 197 3. Operational ........................................ 198 a. Behavioral ....................................... 198 a1. Reactive Vs. Proactive Behaviors in the Organization ....... 198 b. Relational ....................................... 202 b1 . Paternalistic ................................... 203 D2. Consultative ................................... 203 b3. Participative ................................... 204 c. Functional ....................................... 204 CI. Cooperative ................................... 204 c2. Diagnostic .................................... 206 c3. Formulative ................................... 206 04. Facilitative .................................... 207 Chapter VIII: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations ............ 209 A. Conclusions, Implications of Methodology ...................... 211 8. Cultural Framework I: Temporal and Spatial Dimensions ............ 211 1. TIme Dimension: Time Orientation ......................... 211 a. Conclusions ..................................... 211 b. Implications ...................................... 211 c. Recommendations ................................. 211 2. Tune Dimension: TIme Management ....................... 213 a. Conclusions ..................................... 213 b. Implications ...................................... 213 c. Recommendation .................................. 214 3. Space Dimension: Sociofugal ............................ 214 a. Conclusions ..................................... 214 b. Implications ...................................... 215 c. Recommendations ................................. 215 4. Space Dimension: Sociopetal ............................ 215 a. Conclusions ..................................... 215 b. Implications ...................................... 216 c. Recommendations ................................. 216 C. Cultural Framework II: External Environment .................... 218 1. Mission ........................................... 218 '8. Conclusions ..................................... 218 b. Implications ...................................... 218 xii c. Recommendations ................................. 218 2. Strategic Means ..................................... 219 a. Conclusions ..................................... 219 b. Implications ...................................... 219 c. Recommendations ................................. 219 3. Roles ............................................. 219 a. Conclusions ..................................... 219 b. Implications ...................................... 220 c. Recommendations ................................. 220 0. Cultural Framework III: Internal Environment .................... 221 1. Organizational: Leadership Aspect ........................ 221 a. Conclusions ..................................... 221 b. Implications ...................................... 221 c. Recommendations ................................. 222 2. Organizational: Structural Aspect .......................... 222 a. Conclusions ..................................... 222 b. Implications ...................................... 222 c. Recommendations ................................. 223 3. Orientational: Symbolical ............................... 223 a. Conclusions ..................................... 223 b. Implications ...................................... 224 c. Recommendations ................................. 224 4. Orientational: Attitudinal ................................ 224 a. Conclusions ..................................... 224 b. Implications ...................................... 225 0. Recommendations ................................. 225 5. Orientational: Emotional ................................ 226 a. Conclusions ..................................... 226 b. Implications ...................................... 226 0. Recommendations ................................. 226 6. Operational: Behavioral ................................ 226 a. Conclusions ..................................... 226 b. Implications ...................................... 227 0. Recommendations ................................. 227 7. Operational: Relational ................................. 227 a. Conclusions ..................................... 227 b. Implications ...................................... 227 c. Recommendations ................................. 228 8. Operational: Functional ................................ 228 a. Conclusions ..................................... 228 b. Implications ...................................... 229 c. Recommendations ................................. 229 0. Limitations of the Study .................................. 232 E. Implications and Recommendations for Future Research ............ 233 APPENDIX A - Interview Schedule for Primary Informants ................ 235 xiii APPENDIX B - Interview Schedule for Secondary Informants .............. 243 APPENDIX C - Interrelationships Among the Three Research Techniques ..... 248 APPENDIX D - The Salvation Army Building Facade .................... 252 APPENDIX E - The Future Salvation Army Building ..................... 253 APPENDIX F - The Salvation Army Building Renovation Floor Plan for the Capital Campaign .................................... 254 APPENDIX G - Seating Arrangements: Advisory Board Meetings, Staff Meetings 255 APPENDIX H - The Salvation Army Shield ........................... 268 APPENDIX I - The Salvation Army Crest ............................ 269 APPENDIX J - The Salvation Army Mission Statement ................... 270 Bibliography . . . . ........................................... 271 xiv Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1 .3 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 5.1 Table 6.1 Table 7.1 Table 8.1 LIST OF TABLES A Comparison of Four "Linking Mechanisms" as Related to the "Goodness of Fit" Issue ........................... 16 A Comparison of Self-Help, Technical Assistance, and Conflict as Planned Change Approach as Related to the "Goodness of Fit“ Issues ............................... 22 Action Research Framework as Related to the "Goodness of Fit" Issue ................................ 25 A Matrix on the Relationship Between Action Research and Cultural Framework I ............................... 118 A Matrix on the Relationship Between Action Research and Cultural Framework II .............................. 119 A Matrix on the Relationship Between Action Research and Cultural Framework III .............................. 120 A Matrix on the Operationalization of the Specific Variables Related to the Three Cultural Frameworks ................... 121 Cultural Framework I: The Relationship Between Action Research and Organizational Culture ....................... 129 Cultural Framework II: The Relationship Between Action Research and Organizational Culture ....................... 148 Cultural Framework III: The Relationship Between Action Research and Organizational Culture ....................... 168 Cultural Framework I: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations in Relation to the Fit Between Action Research and the Organizational Culture .................... 217 XV Table 8.2 Cultural Framework II: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations in Relation to the Fit Between Action Research and the Organizational Culture .................... 220 Table 8.3 Cultural Framework III: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations in Relation to the Fit Between Action ......... 230 Research and the Organizational Culture LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 The Problem-Solver View of the Change Process .............. 8 Figure 1.2 The "Research, Development, and Diffusion" \erw of the Change Agent .............................. 10 Figure 1.3 The Social Interaction View of the Change Process ............. 12 Figure 1.4 A Linkage View of Resource-User Problem-Solving ............. 14 Figure 3.1 Organizational Chart of Lansing Salvation Army ............... 73 Figure 3.2 The Oak Park Study Area .............................. 80‘ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTTON The Problem in Perspective All community development efforts, irrespective of approach, involve some kind of "linkage“ process between the providing system and the receiving system. For the development episode to be truly effective, there should be a satisfactory link between the provider and the receiver--a goodness of fit between the systems involved. The existence of a link, and whether it is strong or weak or satisfactory or unsatisfactory, makes any development effort a complicated one. This complexity presses a need to understand and examine the goodness of fit between the parties involved in the planned change endeavor. A major step in strengthening the goodness of fit of the participating systems involves the provider’s sensitivity to recipients needs and circumstances. Thus, the recognition of the differences between provider and receiver, and more importantly, how to bridge the gap between the two systems, makes up one dimension of the goodness of fit concept. Social scientists have dealt with the goodness of fit issue. Evans (1979) notes that the provider and the receiver may have divergent views about the need for development. When this occurs, it may be due to differences between the m of the provider and the receiver systems-social customs, religious traditions, political 2 systems, and economic and colonial history. Kilmann, et al. (1985:5) define culture as shared philosophies,ideoloqies, values, assumptionsgeliefs, expectatigns, attitudes and norms that knit a community together. Jedlicka (1977) mentions that the cultural aspects of development efforts have only recently been appreciated. In discussing the transfer of technology to clients, he argues for the need to understand the effect of the client’s culture on the adoption of technology. This understanding of, and respect for, the cultural aspects of the client system helps the change agent accomplish his/her job: If an extension agent working with Quechua farmers in Bolivia insisted, in opposition to their practices, that potatoes not be planted on certain ritual days or that food not be buried in the middle of a field, one can predict that his effectiveness in working with those people would be reduced - particularly if he has the nasty habit of openly ridiculing such beliefs, as is commonly practiced by some extension agents in Bolivia. While his life would not be threatened, his conduct would be considered rude and discourteous. (Jedlicka, 1977:25). The above illustration is just one example. In a development setting, there are other cases that call for urgency in assessing the goodness of fit: 1) the providing system and the recipient system may agree on development goals but disagree on development means; or 2) the provider and receiver may share the same perspectives, but for different reasons (Fear 1985). Webster (1976) defines {It as adapted to if end, obiect, or design; suitable by nature or by art; suited. qualified, agropriate. Good is defined as adapted to the end designed or proposep: useful, suitable, fit. An analysis of these definitions reveals that the goodness of fit concept revolves around the issues of gdaptability, suitability, and appropriateness. In dealing with the goodness of fit issue in development, it is imperative to focus on the WHO, the WHAT, the HOW and the WHY of the fit. The WHO includes the key actors in the development effort--the provider and the receiver. The WHAT 3 encompasses the content of what is being provided. The HOW describes the manner in which the provider and the receiver are linked. This focuses on the means and processes of reaching an end (i.e., the linking mechanism used). Finally, the WHY delves into the reasons dealing with a need for the provider and the receiver to be linked. This puts great emphasis on the goals of the change effort. Given this background, the concept goodness of fit will be defined as the extent to which p linking mechanism is appropriate to the situation. Appropriateness is concernedr with the establishment of mutually acceptable (Lopls and processes of the planned change effort. It may be assumed that, in any community development endeavor, the providing system (or change agent) diagnoses the culture of the receiving system or client system and then makes the necessary adjustments before they use a specific approach. This may not always be the case. A providing system may have a "pet" approach that it may consider as the most appropriate strategy to use in a planned change effort. Statement of the Problem The action research framework-—a widely used research-action approach in community development’has distinctive features that, in theory, enhance a strong link between the provider and the receiver. However, action research has overlooked one critical aspect in the relationship-the npture of the receiver. This entails the understanding of the organizational culture of the client system as it relates to action research. Schein (1985:9) defines organizational culture as: A pattern of basic assumptions-invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration-that has worked well enough to be considered 4 valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. The above definition supports the contention that it may pgt be appropriate to assume that the action research approach will prove to be effective in any effort and in every setting. Each organization, whether private or public, profit or non-profit, possesses a unique set of cultural characteristics that affects how a particular organization functions. Some client systems may have relatively constant needs while others may have fluctuating needs and problems. Moreover, client systems‘ culture and functions may vary depending on the extent to which they consume products in a collective or individual basis (Havelock, 1971). Havelock (1971) also suggests that there may be a "gap" between the provider of knowledge and the user of knowledge; neither the provider nor the client feels comfortable due to differences between the two systems in terms of values, languages, rules, norms, common patterns, perceptions and expectations. This opens an opportunity for scholars to analyze the differences between the provider and the receiver in relation to the planned change effort-specifically the appropriateness of the linking mechanism used by the provider. Due to lack of understanding of the perceived differences between the cultures of the systems, difficulties will arise in assessing the appropriateness of a linking mechanism (i.e., action research). Focus of the Stugy Human service agencies are engaged in long-range planning efforts in order to establish new programs and improve their services. In this regard, they need the technical assistance of outside experts. The Department of Resource Development of 5 Michigan State University (MSU) is an example of a provider of technical assistance to various user groups. To provide this assistance, it has utilized the action research approach with community groups, agencies, and government organizations-—especially with respect to needs assessment implementation. In all of its undertakings, it has used the same approach regardless of the type of organization with which it was working. Because action research is the process by which the provider and the receiver of the technical assistance efforts are linked, it is essential to examine whether the linking mechanism is appropriate to the receiving organization. The determination of appropriateness can be achieved through understanding and analysis of the organizational culture of the client system. Such analysis should allow for the determination of whether there is “goodness of fit" between the providing system and the receiving system. In other words, this will reflect whether the action research approach is actually appropriate to the organizational context of an agency. During \Mnter and Spring of 1986, the Department of Resource Development used the action research approach during the process of providing technical assistance to The Salvation Army Lansing, Michigan chapter (SALM). The agency, with the university’s assistance, conducted a needs assessment of the Oak Park area-~a lower- income, racially and ethnically mixed neighborhood. A case study of SALM, as a receiving system, will be the focus of this research. There are two reasons why the researcher selected SALM as the setting for the study. First, it is a good example of a human service agency that has become well-established through the years. Second, the relationship between the two systems made it easy for the researcher to conduct a post-hoe study. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the research is to analyze elements of the culture of the receiving organization (SALM) in relation to the features of the action research framework for the purpose of answering the question: How appropriate was the use of action research approaph in this page; Research Questions The study will focus on the following research questions: 1. What are the elements of organizational culture that are compatible and incompatible with the action research approach? 2. What elements of organizational culture should action research scientists consider before they engage in a planned change effort? To better understand the significance-and to more fully appreciate the applicability-pf the goodness of fit concept, is to explore Its relevance for development in general, and for a specific type of development, viz., community development. In considering the relevance of the fit concept and the WHO, WHAT, WHY, and HOW of the fit, we shall focus on alternative modLels of plgpnedL changp and the alternative approaches that have been used in the community development process. These models and approaches will reflect that there is an emphasis on the collaboration between the providing system and receiving system. It is asserted that there is a client-centered orientation in each of them. Goodness of fit issues are indirectly addressed in each model or approach. However, notably absent is an analysis of the features of a model or approach in relation to the culture of the receiving system. 7 Alternative Models of Planned Change asReIatedtotheGoodnessofF‘rtlssue Havelock and Havelock (1973) describe four major approaches: change as p problem-solving process, change as research _a_nd development. chaane as a process of social interaction, and change as a linking process. Change as a Problem-Solving Process The problem solving process has as its emphasis the client-centeredfiproach to planned change. As illustrated in Fig. 1.1, the process is composed of a sequence of activities that starts with a particular need as sensed by the client. The need is then translated into a problem statement through problem diagnosis. The succeeding steps or stages includes the evaluation of alternatives, selection of the preferred alternative and, finally, implementation. Because the model treats the users as client systems, the relationship between the provider and the recipient implies a collaborative arrangement. Four issues are important in this approach: 0 0 User need is a paramount consideration in the planned change activity. Problem diagnosis is a critical part of the change process. It is assumed that, unless an effort has been made to define user needs through diagnosis, user needs cannot be effectively served. There should be an optimal use of the client’s resources to solve a problem. Change that is self-initiated is usually the best change. It is said that this is more long-lasting than change initiated by outsiders. It is therefore more effective if the change agent employs a non-directive approach. . . .a d .28. .5820? up 33.3925 6.308.. «Soon com 3332: n .3352 £82 :5 .nufl Hum—O non. $338. 3.03058. .2 93 .m 3.032%: "00th . .5233 .3384 A. IIIIIIIII I Eou<.ouc£u \j 25.3300 4 I 330.5 006 ” kn! ‘ Gamma—Jo s I Ewhm>m thZU 033. I mmUKDOmux I 033:0 s s . s ~ x mm: v \ s 363»! \\ \ . s a s s a. .a w s .9. s v.0; \ 4a a... \s I \ \ \ I I I \ \. magma wavy—(=9 m:.—. “.0 3m; zm>40m.2wqu~—m wzh —.— N830?- I in; ,u v‘ 0‘: Rn- U i y I I); 9 Goodness of Fit in the Problem-Solving Process. In the problem solving model, the WHO pertains to the outside consultant/change agent and the user-client system. To evaluate the effectiveness of the innovation in relation to the needs of the user (WHY), both parties engage in a collaborative, nondirective arrangement (HOW). The change agent provides new ideas and innovations (WHAT) specific to the diagnosis. Because the client involvement is vital, it is important for the change agent to be non- directive in sharing his/her diagnostic skills with the user. Change as Research and Development As shown in Figure 1.2, five major components or stages are included in the research and development approach. This sequence starts with basic, and is followed by applied, research. The development and testing of prototypes follow before products are produced and packaged. The final phase involves mass dissemination to the user. Havelock and Havelock (1973) state that, in this model, the innovation becomes more effective when two factors are in place. First, evaluation should be employed at each stage of the process. Second, the innovation process should be guided by cost-benefit analysis of specific alternatives. The approach represents a highly systematic process, and is based on four assumptions: 0 There is a rational sequence in the evolution and application of an innovation. 0 The sequence involves a systematic, long-term planning process. 0 The consumer is rational, and his/her involvement in the research and development process is passive. o The consumer will likely accept the new idea if presented in the right way, at the right time, at the right price, and in the proper form. 10 . .2 d .28. .5352 up 3353.5 303% unquom you Bandung » c333: £82 52 .nucmm< 00:50 you weds—Eh. 3.0396: .2 use .z £0396: "00.58 . Pzw0< mUZmo .qu ZOP—Iu