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THESIS moment sure UNIVE srrv UM Illl “N l \llllllllllllllllllllllllll Ill 1 31293007914603 n LIBRARY Mlchlgan State Untverstty This is to certify that the thesis entitled AFFECTIVE INTENSITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: AN EXAMINATION OF MUSIC STUDENTS presented by Michael James Finton has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.A. Psychology degree in MM M Major professor Date—1L3! Q2. 0-7639 MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or betore date due. ‘I DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE :LJ T—T—TT— l | # El IL____ ILA: l—T—T MSU Is An Affirmative ActiorVEquel Opportunlty Institution email!” ' AFFECTIVE INTENSITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: AN EXAMINATION OF MUSIC STUDENTS By Michael James Finton A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1992 Abstract AFFECTIVE INTENSITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: AN EXAMINATION OF MUSIC STUDENTS By Michael James Finton Affective illness has often been associated with artistic ability; In this study, music students and control subjects were initially assessed for levels of bipolar symptomatology and affective intensity; and.were then administered either an elated or neutral mood induction, utilizing the Autdbiographical Recall Method. Music students did not differ from control subjects in levels of intensity or bipolar symptomatology. However, the experimental groups appeared to differ in their reactions to the mood induction procedure, suggesting that musicians and non-musicians may utilize different processes to regulate the magnitude of experienced affective stimulation. To my parents. Without your love, support, and encouragement. completion of this project would never have been possible. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to extend.my thanks to all those who helped make this project a reality, including Jennifer Fox, who tirelessly entered data, Tommy Chan, who ran subjects, Phil Fastenau, who both ran subjects and patiently answered my questions, Kay Redfield Jamison and Frank Collins, who provided materials used in this study, and Kenneth Bloomquist, who graciously provided access to the music students who were used in this project. In addition, I would like to express my appreciation and gratitude for the invaluable assistance, insight, and guidance of the members of my Thesis Committee, Professors Norman.Abeles, Raymond Frankmann, and Dozier Thornton. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . Review of the Literature . Evaluation of the Literature . The Importance of Affect to Artists . The Relation of Affect Intensity to Hypotheses . . . . . . METHOD . Subjects . . . . . . . . . Materials . . . . . . . . Procedure . . . . . . . . . RESULTS . DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . APPENDICES A: B: C: D: Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Creativity . Levels for Demographic variables . Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels for the GBI . . Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels on the AIM . . Significance Levels of the Differences Between Correlations for Musicians and Control Subjects on the G31 and the AIM ll 15 20 23 23 25 28 31 53 61 65 66 67 68 Page Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels for Levels of Positive.Affect . . . . . . 69 Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels Between Mood Conditions for Levels of Negative Affect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels for Scores on the Pretest . . . . . . . . 71 Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels for ANCOVAs on the EAS . . . . . . . . . 72 Correlations Between Subscales of the Pretest andtheMAACL-R........,........73 Error mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels for ANCOVAs on the MAACL-R . . . . . . . 74 Error Mean Squares, F values, and Significance Levels Between Mood Conditions for Tetal Scores on the EAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 values of Chi Square and Significance Levels for Group Differences Between Paired t Scores and Significant Pretest and EAS Correlations . . 76 Pretest oijood State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 The Affective Intensity Measure . . . . . . . . . 79 The General Behavior Inventory . . . . . . . . . 82 The Emotional Assessment Scale . . . . . . . . . 91 The Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist-Revised . 94 Demographic Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Instructions for the Neutral Mood Induction . . . 98 Instructions for the Elated.Mood Induction . . . 99 vi Table II. III. IV. VIII. IX. LIST OF TABLES Page Means and Standard Deviations for Demographic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :Means and Standard Deviations for GBI Subscales . One Tail Correlations Between Scores on the AIM:and.the GBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard.Deviations for MAACL-R Subscales in Each Group andeood Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36- means and Standard Deviations in Millimeters for the EAS in Each Group and.Mood condition 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 3 8 - Means and Standard Deviations on the Pretest in Mi llimet ers O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 0 Means and Standard Deviations for Corrected Raw Scores on the EAS in.Millimeters . . . . . . Correlations, t-Scores, and Significance Levels Between Subscales of the Pretest and EAS for All Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . 45- Correlations, t-Scores, and Significance Levels Between Subscales of the Pretest and EAS for Subjects in the Neutral Mood Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47- Correlations, t-Scores, and Significance Levels Between subscales of the Pretest and the EAS for Subjects in the Elated Mood Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50- vii 24 32 35 37 39 42 44 46 49 52 INTRODUCTION Andreasen (1978) has noted that ". . . genius has been viewed with ambivalence, seen as both a curse and a blessing, because it has so frequently been attended by physical and mental suffering" (p. 113). In particular, psychological dysfunction has traditionally been associated with those who are gifted artistically. Indeed, a list of individuals, casualties of the creative forces which shaped their lives, would have to include an extensive list of authors (e.g., Tolstoy, Dostoevski, Hemingway, Plath, and Woolf), poets (e.g., Byron, Keats, Mill, and Poe), musicians (e.g., Donizetti, Handel, Tchaikovsky, Wolf, Mahler, and Schumann), and painters (e.g., Van Gogh) . The lives of these artists seem to validate Kierkegaard's observation tha ". . . an artist is an unhappy being whose heart is torn by secret sufferings, but whose lips are so strangely formed that when the sighs and the cries escape them, they sound like beautiful music" (cited in Sandblom, 1989, p. 35) . Links between creativity and mental illness have been made for thousands of years (Andreasen, 1978). Aristotle believed that " . . . those who have been eminent in the arts have all had tendencies toward melancholia . . ." (cited in Andreasen & Canter, 1974, p. 129). Similarly, both epilepsy 1 and melancholia were linked with creativity by the ancient Greeks (Andreasen & Canter, 1974) . However, it was clear that they excluded more virulent forms of psychopathology, since both Socrates and Plato made a clear distinction between insanity and behaviors associated with periods of creative functioning (Frosch, 1987) . These beliefs were modified with the advent of psychiatric nosologies and more sophisticated models of mental illness. Behaviors that exemplified the creative process were no longer seen as benign: The range of pathology associated with the creative process was extended and elaborated. Specifically, because creative states are associated with affective intensity. euphoria, and a decreased need for sleep, comparisons were inevitably made to mania, which is characterized by a similar subjective and objective phenomenology. Changes in the way the creative process was perceived also mirrored shifts in the range of pathology associated with artists. Beginning in the 1700's, candid biographies and historical accounts suggested that creative ability was coupled with a broad spectrum of psychological dysfunction. Of these pathologies, artists suffered most frequently from affective disorders (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990) . However, because these conclusions were based on anecdotal information, the link between creativity and psychopathology was somewhat tenuous. It remained for later investigators to substantiate this link with more rigorous research designs. Wat-airs In the first systematic discussion of the link.between creativity and.psychiatric disorders (Andreasen, 1978), Lombroso hypothesized that genius was a degenerative psychosis. In addition, he suggested that creativity and mental illness were coupled together within families (Andreasen, 1978). Like Lombroso, Galton found that creativity and psychiatric disorders often occurred together within families (Andreasen, 1978). His study was based upon the examination of pedigrees of eminent individuals. In a study of eminent people within British society, Ellis (1926) selected 1,020 persons from the British Dictionary of National Biography. This population was quite heterogenous, and included politicians as well as scientists and artists. Five percent of this sample were diagnosed as suffering from a personality disorder, 8 percent were diagnosed as having an affective disorder, and almost 4 percent were diagnosed as having a schizophrenic disorder. Juda (1949) examined gifted German artists and scientists in a study which attempted to correlate high mental capacity and.psychopathology. Her sample was also heterogeneous: of 113 artists, 12 were architects, 18 were sculptors, 37 were poets, 20 were painters, and 26 were musicians. The sample of 181 scientists included 51 theoretical scientists, 112 natural scientists, 9 technical applied scientists, and 9 'statesmen'. Juda found that artists exhibited higher levels of psychological distress when they were compared to'both scientists and the general population. Personality disorders were the most common diagnosis for both groups, but were applied almost twice as often for artists than scientists. Further, artists manifested higher rates of alcoholism, "weak character", excitability, and hysteria. Interestingly, poets and musicians received the highest number of diagnoses. Eccentrics were more prevalent among artists. This unconventional behavior may have led to more diagnoses of schizophrenia, which was diagnosed within the artists at a rate of almost 3 percent. This sharply contrasted with the rate of 85 percent found in the general population. Both.poets (48 percent) and.musicians (almost 35 percent) were diagnosed as 'psychopathic'. No incidences of manic-depressive psychosis were found. The relatives of artists showed a predominance of cyclothymia. Almost 22 percent of the children of artists received this diagnosis. This figure rose to 32 percent when comparisons were restricted to those children whose intellectual ability was above average. A.famdlial loading for affective disorder was also found in the siblings of artists. These subjects were diagnosed as manic-depressive at a rate twice that of the general population. Finally, endogenous psyChoses were also found in the families of artists at rates approximately twice those found in the general population. MCNeil (1971) attempted to detenmine if creative and noncreative individuals manifested differential levels of psychopathology, and whether genetic or environmental factors influenced this relationship. The subjects were adults who had been adopted shortly after birth, allowing McNeil to examine adoptees as well as their biological and adoptive parents. Levels of psychopathology were determined through an examination of official documents from several sources, including the Psychiatric Register of the Human.Genetics Institute, the Bispebjerg Hospital Psychiatric Records, and military service records. Levels of creativity were determined by selecting occupations deemed 'creative' by three judges. Individuals within these occupations were sent a questionnaire which requested information about their education, memberships in professional associations, free- choice aspirations in life, and the creative aspects of their vocations and avocations. Self-ratings of creative ability were also:made. 0f 50 adoptees, 5 showed a history of mental illness. The diagnosis for all 5 subjects was constitutional psychopathy, a broad category ". . . which includes character disorders, sexual perversions, psychopathic personalities, addictions and strong antisocial behavior" (McNeil, 1971, p. 400). When these individuals were grouped according to creative achievement, 3 were classified in the high- creativity group (N = 10), and 2 were assigned to the average-creativity group (N = 20). None of the subjects included in the group of low creativity had a positive history for psychiatric disorders. Adoptive parents did not exhibit differential rates of pathology across levels of creativity. and levels of mental illness were approximately half of that found in adoptees. MtNeil concluded that the relationship between creative ability and mental illness was not affected.by environmental influences. However, the comparatively high levels of pathology exhibited by the biological parents of adoptees seemed to implicate a strong link between creativity and.mental illness. Of those biological parents who were highly creative, almost 28 percent were diagnosed as suffering from mental illness. For those subjects with above average levels of creativity, approximately 8 percent were diagnosed with psychopathology, as compared with 12 percent of those with low creative ability. The strong relationship between creativity and payphopathology found in adoptees and their biological parents suggests that liability is transmitted.by genetic factors, although the small sample size of this study warrants caution in interpretation. Andreasen (1987) examined a relatively homogeneous sample of 30 creative individuals and 30 matched controls. All of her experimental subjects were participants of the university of Iowa's Writer's Workshop, and data were collected over a period of fifteen years. A structured interview designed by the author was used to determine patterns of creativity and history of mental illness, the Research Diagnostic Criteria were used to make psychiatric diagnoses of the writers, and the Family History Research Diagnostic Criteria were used to make diagnoses of first- degree relatives. Andreasen found that the lifetime prevalence of psychopathology in her sample of writers was extraordinarily high: Eighty percent had suffered from.periods of affective disorder, and 43 percent had suffered from.bipolar I or bipolar II disorders. Of the control subjects, only 30 percent had suffered from periods of affective disorder, and only 10 percent had suffered from a form.of bipolar disorder. Alcoholism.was found in 30 percent of the writers, as opposed to 7 percent of the controls. No other findings were statistically significant, although 7 percent of the writers committed suicide during the time of the study. The first-degree relatives of the writers exhibited rates of pathology higher than those typically found in the general population. Eighteen percent reported suffering from some type of affective disorder during their lives. Of these individuals, 15 percent had suffered from major depression. Interestingly, psychiatric disorders within the families of writers were closely associated with creativity, whereas the association appeared to be randomdy scattered in control subjects. These results seemed to amplify many of the conclusions reached by earlier investigators. However, Andreasen cautioned that the results may have been influenced by methodological prdblems. First, because she was aware of the level of creativity within the writers, her estimates of creativity in first-degree relatives may have been biased. Second, only some of the first-degree relatives were directly interviewed; diagnoses based solexy upon retrospective reports may not be valid. Third, some of the responses used to calculate psychopathology were suggestive of an unconventional lifestyle, rather than a clinical manifestation of illness. Finally, the subjects themselves may have been unrepresentative of other psychiatric samples of writers, due to their level of education, income, and professional success. Nevertheless, Goodwin and.Jamison (1990) note that the use of structured interviews and matched control groups make Andreasen's studmeethodologically superior to earlier investigations. It is tempting to speculate that better methodology resulted in diagnoses which centered around affective disorders, rather than a wide range of psychopathology. Richards, Kinney, Lunde, Benet, and.Merzel (1988) studied creativity and the risk for manic-depressive disorder. This study differed from others in an important way. Rather than first identifying a creative population and then establishing rates of psychopathology, Richards et al. used the Lifetime Creativity Scales to evaluate levels of creativity in a diverse population composed of (1) individuals with cyclothymic disorders and manic-depressive disorders, (2) relatives without a history of affective disorder, (3) control subjects with a previous history of affective disorder, and (4) control subjects without a history of affective disorder. Relatives without a history of affective disorder and individuals with cyclothymic disorders exhibited the highest levels of creativity when compared to the other groups. Peak creativity seemed to be related to the severity of the disorder. Those subjects that displayed milder expressions of bipolar liability tended to have the highest levels of creativity, whereas subjects who showed no bipolar liability and those who had.more severe manifestations of psychiatric disorders had lower levels of creativity. Jamdson (1989) designed an investigation whose primary goal was to establish actual rates of treatment within a sample of artists. She suggested that this is potentially an accurate index of the severity' of affective disorders, since two-thirds of those who suffer from such disorders do 10 not seek treatment. unlike other studies, Jamison did not include a component which examined liability in relatives of the experimental subjects. Her sample was comprised of poets, playwrights, novelists, biographers, painters, and sculptors, all of whom were British. Thirty-eight percent of Jamison's sample had.been treated for affective disorder; this rate is slightly higher than the estimate of 33 percent found in American populations. Seventy-five percent of those treated had required a specific medical intervention, such as lithium, antidepressants, or hospitalization. Antidepressants were used by slightly more than 23 percent of the sample, a figure sharply higher than the population rate of 2.5 percent. The frequency and.type of mood that was experienced varied across the subgroups of artists. Poets and novelists experienced extended and elated states more often than other subgroups. In contrast, playwrights and artists were more likely than other groups to experience severe mood swings. The subgroups also exhibited differential rates of treatment. Fifty percent of the poets in the sample ". had been treated with drugs, psychotherapy, and/or hospitalization foerood disorders" (Jamison, 1989, p. 127). Thirty-three percent of the poets were prescribed medication for depression. Seventeen percent were treated for mania by hospitalization, electroconvulsive therapy, or lithium. High rates of treatment were also evident within the 11 playwrights . Sixty-three percent were treated for affective disorders. Of this number, 60 percent utilized psychotherapy, although Jamison was unsure if this reflected severity of the disorder or treatment preference. Interpreted as indicators of pathology, these data reflect a high incidence of affective disorder and medical treatment. However, these rates may be artificially inflated by the use of a British sample. Because the health care system in Great Britain is much more medically oriented than that in the United States, the chances of receiving an organic rather than a psychological diagnosis are therefore much higher. And, instead of comparing the percentage of her sample that received treatment with American estimates of pathology, Jamison should have used British estimates. Even if Jamison's estimates of pathology and treatment are accurate, they do not necessarily indicate a heightened severity of affective disorder. While those who are virtually incapacitated by an affective disorder may search for medical and psychological interventions, paradoxically, treatment may also be sought by those who possess high levels of ego strength. Such individuals are distinguished not by the intensity of dysfunction, but by their willingness to make use of the aid offered by others. MW Although creativity clearly seems to be strongly associated with affective disorders, four fundamental 12 assumptions may have distorted the magnitude of this relationship found in these studies. First, in most of these studies (Andreasen, 1987; Ellis, 1926; Galton, 1892, cited in Andreasen, 1978; Lombroso, 1891, cited in Andreasen, 1978; Jamison, 1989; Juda, 1949; McNeil, 1971), an eminent or creative population was identified, after which estimates or measurements of psychopathology were made. However, societal acceptance of artistic products is not an adequate measure of creative ability, Basing estimates of pathology solely upon those who have attained eminence may distort the actual rates of dysfunction. The true correlation.between artistic ability and psychological disorders will remain unknown until levels of pathology in both successful and unsuccessful artists are considered. Second, several of these investigations were limited by their reliance upon historical accounts of pathology. subjective descriptions of a disorder can potentially magnify unconventional lifestyles, rather than illumine dysfunction. Similarly, estimates by subjects of the level of mental illness in their relatives can be distorted.by the halo effect or the passage of time. Estimates of pathology made without directly interviewing all experimental subjects compromises the veridicality of psychiatric diagnoses. Of the studies reviewed, only Andreasen (1987), Jamison (1989). and Richards et a1. (1988) used some form of direct interviewing. 13 Third, the derivation of estimates of psychopathology from creative populations seans to imply that results can be generalized to those members of typical families who have bipolar disorders (Richards et al., 1988) , and that high levels of creativity cause affective disorders. Neither supposition has yet been satisfactorily demonstrated. Indeed, it is possible that the reverse is true, namely, that affective disorders are instrumental in creativity. Consideration of only one causal direction may obscure facets of etiology which are, as yet, unknown. Richards et a1. (1988) were the only investigators to evaluate the level of creativity in a population known to suffer from affective disorder. Fourth, the cultural components inherent to some studies may have affected the way that psychiatric disorders were identified, diagnosed, and treated. Culturally diverse samples were used in the studies conducted by Ellis (1926) , Galton (1892, cited in Andreasen, 1978), Jamison (1989), Juda (1949) , and McNeil (1971) . Although the high level of agreanent between these studies indicates that the link between creativity and mental illness is maintained across geographical and racial boundaries, future research needs to include adequate control procedures for cultural variables. Given these caveats, research has consistently documented that affective disorders occur with a higher incidence in artistic individuals and their families than in 14 the general population. These pathologies are closely linked to the creative process. For example, Jamison (1989) reported that the phenomenology of intensely creative episodes closely parallels that of hypomania. A majority of her subjects reported a decrease in the need for sleep prior to these episodes. However, as a cautionary note, Frosch (1987) has warned that ". . . it is important that we not mistake analogous behaviors for homologous ones" (p. 321) . That is, while creative furor may mimic mania, it does not necessarily arise for the same reasons. Interludes of weariness between creative cycles might represent the total disbursanent of available creative resources, rather than a pathological state. Similarly, a period reminiscent of manic functioning may merely indicate someone who is at the height of their creative powers. Research also appears to indicate that affective disorders characterize highly creative populations. For example, Jamison (1989) reported that almost one-third of her sample of writers and artists reported severe mood swings, and one-fourth reported histories of cyclothymic or manic mood states. In general, the overall pattern of symptomatology showed a clear correspondence to DSM- III-R criteria for these disorders. In addition, seasonal patterns of psychiatric disorder appeared when the mood and productivity curves of those who had never been treated for mental illness were compared with the mood and productivity 15 curves of those who had a history of such treatment. Significantly, the moods of artists peaked during the summer months. This is consistent with the seasonal patterns for hypomania. mania, and depression. Jamison did not corrment on whether this particular constellation of symptoms could also be interpreted as indicative of seasonal affective disorder (SADS) . W The fact that 89 percent of Jamison's sample experienced intense, highly productive, and creative episodes suggests that these subjects may have used both mood and cognitive symptoms to provide thanselves with a rich environment for the creation of artistic products. Indeed, 90 percent of the subjects reported that their work was dependent on the experience of intense feelings and moods. Extremes of affect, characterized by an elevated and expansive mood and increased anotional intensity, provide a richer palette from which the musical, literary, and visual artist can draw. This seems to validate the observations of investigators (Luxenburger, 1933; Myerson & Boyle, 1941) who noted that positive features are often associated with manic depressive disorders. In a like manner, Jamison (1989) and Goodwin and Jamison (1990) suggested that manic depression, normally a catastrophic disorder, may confer some advantages on its sufferers and make high accomplishment within the arts more likely. For example, the cognitive changes associated with 16 manic states, such as sharpened and unusually creative thinking, flight of ideas, hyperacusis, delusions, and hallucinations can provide a wealth of material for artistic works. Virginia Woolf wrote that As an experience, madness is terrific I can assure you, and not to be sniffed at; and in its lava I still find most of the things I write about. It shoots out of one everything shaped [sic], final, not in mere driblets, as sanity does (in Goodwin & Jamison, 1990, p. 347) . The increased energy level and decreased need for sleep coumon to cyclothymia, mania, and bipolar disorders can also provide the impetus by which emotion is transformed fran a raw material into a finished work of art. This was evident in the life of Schumann, who wrote "I cannot see that there is anything remarkable about composing a symphony in a month. Handel wrote a complete oratorio in that time” (in Goodwin & Jamison, 1990, p. 341). The relative importance of these positive cognitive and affective variables to different kinds of artists may help to explain the relative differences in pathology between subgroups of artists found by Jamison (1989) . Novelists would be expected to exhibit moderate levels of pathology, since the demands of their field draw more equally upon narrative skill and emotion. In contrast, poets would be expected to have high rates of disorder, because the success of their work depends on the creation of vivid imagery. The l7 ability to access, manipulate, and report intense emotional experience presupposes a sensitivity to extremes of affect, and implies personal knowledge of their depth. In this vein, Woodberry believed that poets have been singularly creatures of passion. They lived before they sang. Emotion is the condition of their existence; passion is the element of their being; and, moreover, the intensifying power of such a state of passion must also be remembered, for emotion of itself naturally heightens all the faculties, and genius burns the brighter in its own flames (in Goodwin & Jamison, 1990, p. 342). W The centrality of emotion to the work of the artist suggests that creativity is a by-product, rather than a precursor, of affect. This validates the words of Yeats, who believed that literature was ". . . wrought about a mood, or a community of moods” (in Goodwin & Jamison, 1990, p. 342). As such, the creation of artistic works represents an attempt by the artist to express an intensity of experience which has no analog in the realm of ordinary discourse. Its practitioners are united.by a profound emotional intensity, as well as an intense desire to communicate this experience to others, regardless of whether or not they are consumed in the process. Thus, while creativity may indeed be a marker of psychopathology. a.more appropriate focus for empirical study 18 should be the intensity of the substrate of emotion which inspires it. Those suffering from affective disorders would be expected to manifest higher levels of intensity. Further, their anotional range would self-select them into artistic fields, allowing them to regularly express this emotion. Such a connection would validate Kraeplin, who observed that artistic ability was a by-product of both the mild and severe forms of what he termed the 'manic temperament' (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990) . His use of this construct is analagous to the present definition of cyclothymia. Larsen and Diener (1987) have defined affective intensity as "the typical strength of affective states, regardless of how frequently those states are experienced" (p. 2). When objective measurenents of anotional intensity are made, individuals who score high on this construct tend to react more strongly to mild, moderate, and severe events (Larsen, Diener, & muons, 1986) . Like other traits, emotional intensity has been found to be normally distributed (Diener, Larsen, Levine, r. Enmons, 1985), and is a stable individual difference characteristic. Larsen and Diener (1987) suggested that emotional intensity can be partitioned into both positive and negative affect. The intensity of positive affect can be defined as the strength of a subj ect's positive emotions during periods when the majority of reported emotions are positive. 19 Likewise, negative affect intensity is defined as the strength of a subject's negative affect during periods when the majority of emotions reported are negative. According to Larsen and Diener (1987), ”. . . these scores refer to how high the subject typically goes up when he or she is 'up' and how low that person typically goes down when he or she is 'down'” (p. 3). An emotionally intense individual thus experiences both types of emotion. This characteristic distinguishes affective intensity from emotionality, which refers ”. . . to the regular experience of negative emotion and the tendency to easily slip from a positive or neutral state into a negative emotional state" (Larsen & Diener, 1987, p. 2). Larsen developed the Affective Intensity Measure (AIM; Larsen, 1984) to quantify the subjective intensity of emotional experience. If emotional intensity is an important factor in affective functioning, than individuals who manifest extreme levels of intensity may be at an increased risk for affective disorders. If true, a Pearson product- moment correlation between the AIM and scores on a measure of affective disorder should.be higher in populations who are effectively intense, and this should be more prevalent in artists. This study is an attempt to assess the differential effects of emotional intensity upon affective disorders in samples of music students and controls. 20 Affective intensity subsumes several variables, including strength of response (i.e. , the magnitude with which an individual responds to a given stimulus), emotional reactivity (i.e. , how quickly an individual responds to a given stimulus), and emotional expressivity (i.e., the manner in which emotions are typically expressed by an individual). The latter variable appears to be partially dependent upon subjective awareness of internal affective states. This study will focus exclusively upon strength of response to environmental stimuli. In an early study examining the relationship between cyclothymia and affective intensity, Larsen (personal comunication, May 24, 1991) examined 74 college undergraduates using both the GBI and the AIM. The correlation between the AIM and the GBI was .33, suggesting that only a modest correlation exists between affective disorders and anotional intensity in a population of 'normal' subjects. W W: Although rates of affective disorder have not yet been studied intensively in musicians, the qualitative similarities between their field and other artistic subgroups suggests that the incidence of affective disorders will be highly similar to that found by Andreasen (1987) , Jamison (1989), Juda (1949), McNeil (1971), and Richards et a1. 21 (1988). Specifically, in this study, the group of music students is expected to have a significantly higher mean score on the General Behavior Inventory (GBI; Depue, Krauss, Spoont, & Arbisi, 1989) than a population of control subjects. W: A population of control subjects is expected to have scores on the Depression and Hypomania/Biphasic subscales of the GBI which are significantly lower than those of music students. HEDQLhefiia_III: Because affect intensity is central to the creation of any artistic product, music students in this study are expected to have significantly higher levels of affective intensity than controls, as measured.by the.AIM. W: The correlation between scores on the AIM and the GBI is expected to be significantly higher for the group of music students than for the group of control subjects. W151; If emotional intensity is a stable individual characteristic as suggested by Diener et al. (1985), then a mood induction procedure should differentially affect the subjective perception of emotion for music students and controls. Specifically, mean scores of positive affect on the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist (MAACL; Zuckerman & 22 Lubin, 1965) and the Emotion Assessment Scale (EAS; Carlson et al., 1989) will be significantly higher for music students who are administered an elation induction procedure than for control subjects who undergo the same procedure. W: Subjects who are administered a neutral mood induction procedure will manifest significantly lower levels of both positive and negative affect on the MAACL and EAS than will subjects who are administered an elated.mood induction procedure. H¥DQLhefiis_!II: .Music students who are administered a neutral mood induction procedure are expected to manifest significantly higher levels of positive affect on the MAACL and EAS than control subjects who undergo the same procedure. Method thiscts Fifty~three subjects, many of whom were underclassmen, were recruited from the Michigan State university School of Music. A second group of 53 subjects was formed from students in introductory psychology courses at Michigan State university, Five subjects in the musician group did not complete all of the questionnaires and were dropped from subsequent analyses. To preserve the orthogonality of groups, five subjects assigned to the control group were randomly selected and dropped from subsequent analyses. Participation in this experiment was optional for the music students; subjects from the psychology class were given extra-credit points which were later added to their final course grade. There was not a significant difference between music students and control subjects in age. Demographic information related to experience in music was also collected to ensure that subjects in the musician group differed from.control subjects. Subjects in the musician group differed from control subjects in the number of months involved in music, duration of practice periods, and whether or not they had practiced in the previous three months or six months. However, the groups did not differ significantly in the number of times each.week that they practiced or performed. Group means and standard deviations for demographic information are summarized in Table 1. 23 Table l 24 H i S i i E . l' E D 1. I E I' Musicians Controls Variable 1? SD 5? SD Age 20.2 3.60 19.3 1.50 Experience in.Music 122 44.3 51.0 54.0 Frequency of Practice 1.53 0.74 1.88 1.55 Previous Three Months 1.00 0.00 0.38 0.49 Previous Six Months 1.00 0.00 0.73 0.45 Duration of Practice 4.53 1.23 2.50 1.96 Honesty (in mm) 90.7 15.2 92.4 8.42 Effort (in mm) 88.6 16.7 90.7 9.24 25 Materials The revised version of the General Behavior Inventory (GBI; Depue et al., 1989) is a 73 item self-report questionnaire which assesses behaviors associated with depression, hypomania, and.mania. It has been shown effective in the identification of a wide range of unipolar and bipolar disorder, including active forms of both disorders, mild forms of affective disorders such as euthymda, cyclothymia, and dysthynda.(Goodnick, Fieve, Peselow, Schlegel, and Filippi, 1986), and.subsyndromal forms of affective disorders. Both the original and revised versions of the GBI have been validated on clinical and nonclinical populations, and exhibit virtually identical psychometric data (Depue et al., 1989). One-factor solutions have consistently been found for the GBI, with severity of cyclothymia occurring as the main factor. Coefficient alphas have ranged from .90 to .96, and test-retest reliabilities have ranged from .71 to .74. The external validity of the GBI is also high. Depue et a1. (1981) reported that the GBI is related to the course and outcome of affective disorders, family history of bipolar disorder, informant reports, and ratings of mood and behavior that were taken daily over a 28-day period. In addition, in identifying prdbable cases, the GBI showed an overall concordance of .82 when compared to structured.interviews (Depue et al., 1989). 26 The Affective Intensity Measure (AIM; Larsen, 1984) is a 40 item self-report questionnaire. Individual items of the AIM were selected.by their ability to assess the intensity of both positive and negative emotions, independent of the frequency of emotional experiences. Respondents are instructed to indicate how they react emotionally to typical life events. .A Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always) is used to measure the magnitude of response. When subjects were evaluated each month for three consecutive months, the test-retest reliabilities were .80, .81, and .81. AIM scores separated by a period of two years were correlated .75. The AIM correlated .50 with parental reports of emotional intensity; Other measures of validity were more variable. When compared with average daily affect intensity as measured by self report at random.times during the day, correlations ranged from .49 to .61. The Multiple.Affect Adjective Check List Revised.(MmACL- R; Zuckerman & Lubin, 1985) is a 132 item self-report scale which contains both positive-mood (e.g., strong, lucky, enthusiastic) and negative-mood (e.g., sad, suffering, lost) adjectives. Responses are scored on seven subscales: Positive Affect, Sensation Seeking, Positive Affect/Sensation Seeking, Dysphoria, Depression, Hostility, and Anxiety; .Although the use of the earlier version in mood induction research was well-substantiated (Kenealy, 1986), revisions were made in order to lower correlations between subscales, 27 limit the possible influence of an acquiescence response set, and reflect the theoretical assumption that positive and negative moods were independent factors. Correlations between MAACL-R scores and peer ratings were generally high, with the Anger subscale correlating .55 with peer ratings of anger, the Depression subscale correlating .47 with peer ratings of depression, the Hostility subscale correlating .53 with peer ratings of hostility, and the Positive Affect subscale correlating .32 with peer ratings of elation (Lubin et al., 1986). To provide a baseline measure of emotional state prior to the mood induction procedure, a bipolar rating scale utilizing positive and negative adjectives was administered to all subjects. Participants were asked to indicate their current mood on a 10-centimeter visual analog scale. The Emotional Assessment Scale (EAS; Carlson et al., 1989) is a 24-item questionnaire developed to evaluate state- forms of emotional intensity. The 24 items are separated into 8 categories: Anger, Anxiety, Disgust, Fear, Guilt, Happiness, Sadness, and Surprise. Subjects are asked to indicate their current level of emotional intensity by placing a mark someWhere along a 10-centimeter analog scale anchored between 0 and 100. "I do not feel ________ " is placed at the left end point, and "I feel extremely ________" at the right end point; the blank is filled with the appropriate item. 28 Interitem.reliability coefficients for the eight emotion categories of the EAS range from .70 to .91. Four of these categories have coefficients greater than .88. Split-half reliability is also high, with a correlation of .94. Criterion validity for this scale is supported by correlations with existing measures. For example, the Anxiety sabscale of the EAS correlated..78 with the State Trait Anxiety Scale, the Anger subscale of the EAS correlated .69 with the Anger/Hostility Scale of the POMS, the Happiness subscale of the EAS correlated -.36 with the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Sadness subscale of the EAS correlated .74 with the Depression/Dejection scale of the POMS and .65 with the Beck Depression Inventory (Carlson et al., 1989). .A questionnaire constructed to obtain information about the musical experience of each subject was administered. This measure also required each subject to indicate on a ten- centimeter visual analogue scale their level of effort and honesty in completing the measures used in this study. Emcemme Administraniani The questionnaires were administered to all 48 music students in a single testing session. The measures were administered to groups of control subjects during a 2-week period: group sizes ranged from 12 to 23 members. All interactions with subjects, including the diSbursement of test materials, were made by experimenters blind to the 29 hypotheses of the experiment and the identities of the subjects. The music students and control subjects were subdivided into neutral mood induction groups and elated mood induction groups during each testing session. Groups were created by randomly distributing the mood induction procedure within the packets of questionnaires. The packets were then distributed sequentially to participants. Each packet of measures contained the current mood pretest, the AIM, the GBI, a mood induction procedure, the MAACL, the EAS, and the musical experience questionnaire. All groups were given the pretest to complete, followed by the.AIM and the GBI. After the completion of these measures, subjects received.mood induction materials in accordance with their group assignment (i.e., neutral or elated). After the mood induction procedures for each group were given, the MAACL, the EAS, and.the musical experience questionnaire were administered. Winn. In the Autdbiographical Recollections Method (ARM; Brewer, Doughtie, and Lubin, 1980) of mood induction, the subject recalls personal events which were affectively charged, and utilizes cognitive imagery to relive them. The ARM is a safe, established, and reliable method of eliciting mood Change, and can be traced to a technique of Adlerian 30 psychotherapy (Brewer et al., 1980; Goodwin and Williams, 1982). The ARM was slightly altered to provide a neutral mood induction condition. To ensure that subjects visualized neutral experiences, subjects in the neutral mood induction condition were given three neutral scenes, such as washing a car, doing laundry, and grocery shopping. This condition served as a control for the effects of both participation in the experiment and the act of visualization. The ARM for elated states required subjects to list three instances during their lives that they felt very happy, as if they were on top of the world. Subjects in both groups were then instructed to think about the first scene, and to try and concentrate their full attention on as many details of the experience as they could. Individuals in the elated condition were also encouraged to feel the emotions that were originally experienced. The examiner told subjects when to proceed to the second and third scenes. The subjects were debriefed about the purposes of the experiment after all data was collected. They were encouraged to discuss the mood induction procedure, and the examiner confirmed.that the subjects' mood returned to normal before they left the experiment. Results Where applicable, Error Mean Squares and degrees of freedom for all statistical tests are reported in Appendix A. W Univariate tests did not produce a significant F value when music students were compared to controls in their reported honesty or effort put forth in completing the questionnaires used in this study. The means and standard deviations for these variables are recorded in Table l (DaQe 24) . W The GBI was first evaluated by analyzing each level of response to the Likert scale, as suggested by Depue (1987) . Contrary to the hypothesis, music students did not have higher total scores on the GBI than control subjects . When analyses were restricted to the highest two Likert responses, no significant differences in total scores were found between music students and control subjects. Means and standard deviations on the GBI are reported for both musician and control groups in Table 2. W Contrary to the hypothesis, scores on the Depression and Biphasic/Hyponania subscales of the GBI did not differ between control subjects and music students. No significant differences between groups were found when analyses were 31 Table 2 H 3 SI 1 i E . I' E GBI S 1 1 musicians Controls x SD f: SD Total Score Depression Subscale Biphasic/Hypomania Subscale 65.1 31.9 40.4 23.2 26.0 11.8 66.6 32.5 40.3 22.2 27.5 12.8 33 restricted to the highest two Likert responses. ‘Means and standard deviations for these data are reported in Table 2. A.Depression subscale item relating to the frequency of suicidal ideation was subjected to analysis. No significant differences were found.between music students and controls when all Likert values were considered. Further, no significant differences were found.between groups when analyses utilized the highest Likert value. H¥DQLh2515_III Contrary to the hypothesis, scores for music students on the AIM (SE = 155.3, SD = 17.0) did not differ significantly frdm.those of control subjects (i = 157.0, SD = 14.9). W Contrary to the hypothesis, music students and control subjects did not differ significantly in the correlation between total scores on the AIM and total scores on the GBI or the correlation between total scores on the AIM and scores on the GBI when analyses were restricted to the two highest Likert values. ZMusic students and control subjects did not differ significantly in the correlation between total scores on the AIM and scores on the Depression subscale of the GBI, or the Biphasic/Hypomanic subscale of the GBI. In addition, when analyses were restricted to the two highest Likert values, the groups did not differ significantly in the correlation.between total scores on the AIM and the Depression subscale of the GBI or the Biphasic/Hypomanic 34 subscale of the GBI . Correlations between scores on the GBI and the AIM are reported in Table 3. W Contrary to the hypothesis, neither MANOVA nor univariate tests were significant between groups. Music students did not differ from control subjects in levels of positive affect as measured by the Positive Affect scale of the MAACL-R or the Happiness and Surprise subscales of the EAS. There were no interactions between group assignment and mood induction conditions. Means and standard deviations for the MAACL-R subscales are reported in Table 4. Means and standard deviations for the subscales of the EAS are reported in Table 5. W Consistent with the hypothesis, subjects in the neutral mood induction groups endorsed significantly lower levels of positive affect than subjects in the elated mood induction groups as measured by the Happiness and Surprise subscales of the EAS. However, levels of positive affect did not differ significantly between groups on the Positive Affect subscale of the MAACL-R. Differences between mood induction conditions were not significant according to group membership as measured by the Happiness or Surprise subscales of the EAS. There were no significant interactions between mood condition and group membership. 35 Table 3 AIM Total GBI variable Musicians Controls Tbtal Score .20 .35** Depression Subscale .13 .28* Biphasic/Hypomania Subscale .30* .40** Extreme Scores Total .32* .25* Depression Subscale .22 .17 Biphasic/Hypomania Subscale .42** .32* Hotel Correlations used 46 degrees of freedom. * p < .05; ** p < .01 Table 4 36 0...!- .06 .40. o I- on- p.101“: 0. . - WW Neutral Elated SE SD 1? SD Musicians PA 54.7 13.0 58.2 12.1 SS 54.5 9.51 54.6 9.09 PA/SS 54.2 13.0 58.7 11.5 DYS 59.4 24.9 50.9 16.5 DEP 58.5 32.8 56.0 24.5 HOS 58.0 23.5 48.5 11.0 ANX 56.9 22.0 49.6 11.7 Table 4 (cont'd) 37 Neutral Elated 1? SD 3? SD Controls PA 58.2 13.7 59.6 9.11 SS 54.6 7.67 58.7 11.1 PA/SS 58.3 11.6 60.9 10.3 DYS 56.4 18.6 51.1 18.9 DEP 61.2 29.2 54.0 28.2 HOS 53.7 16.9 49.4 12.9 ANX 52.8 14.1 49.4 14.2 note; PA.= Positive Affect; SS = Sensation Seeking; PA/SS = Positive Affect/Sensation Seeking; DYS = Dysphoria; DEP = Depression; HOS = Hostility; ANX = Anxiety Table 5 M 1 SI 3 i D . I' . Hill' | E 1 E 3 i 38 WW Neutral Elated 1? SD 56 SD Musicians Anger 60.8 81.4 54.4 75.2 Anxiety 92.5 75.9 97.7 78.6 Disgust 43.9 58.0 31.6 48.7 Fear 43.0 67.7 56.0 73.7 Guilt 33.2 53.9 26.3 34.0 Happiness 118.2 76.9 157.0 72.5 Sadness 62.5 82.1 55.4 58.5 Surprise 27.0 28.8 45.5 50.2 Table 5 (cont'd) 39 Neutral Elated 1? SD 1? SD Controls Anger 36.2 40.2 53.1 63.1 Anxiety 97.5 77.1 78.9 69.3 Disgust 30.8 39.8 41.6 47.2 Fear 34.6 48.3 55.6 67.1 Guilt 27.8 45.3 31.3 43.0 Happiness 127.0 77.0 177.3 68.8 Sadness 58.2 63.3 50.8 57.0 Surprise 36.3 40.0 63.8 68.5 40 Contrary to the hypothesis, subjects in the neutral mood condition did not endorse lower levels of negative affect than subjects in the elated mood condition on the Anger, Anxiety, Disgust, Fear, Guilt, or Sadness subscales of the EAS. However, subjects in the neutral mood condition had higher scores than subjects in the elated mood condition on the Hostility subscale of the MAACL-R. Means and standard deviations for those subscales on the EAS that measure negative affect can be found in Table 5 . Means and standard deviations for subscales on the MAACL-R are reported in Table 4. W Contrary to the hypothesis, neither MANOVA nor individual univariate tests found differences in positive affect between music students and control subjects in the neutral mood condition on the Positive Affect scale of the MAACL-R or the Happiness and Surprise subscales of the EAS. Means and standard deviations for the EAS can be found in Table 5. Means and standard deviations for the MAACL-R can be found in Table 4 . KW There were no significant differences in affect among music students and control subjects evident in the pretest, although music students showed a slight trend toward higher scores on the Happiness subscale. Means and standard 41 deviations for subscale scores on the pretest are listed in Table 6. Comparisons between posttest scores on the EAS suggested that the ARM for induction of positive affect was successful. Both.MmNOVA and univariate tests indicated that subjects in the positive mood condition scored higher on theHappiness and Surprise subscales of the EAS. The interaction between group assignment and.mood condition was not significant. Means and standard deviations for the EAS are reported in Table 5. ANCOVAS were performed for MAACL-R and EAS subscales that showed significant correlations with pretest subscale scores. Scores on the Happiness subscale of the EAS were significant for group assignment and.mood condition when pretest Happiness, Tranquility, and Sadness scores were used as covariates. The interaction between group and mood condition was not significant. Scores on the Surprise subscale of the EAS were not significant for group assignment or mood condition when.pretest Anger scores were used as a covariate. The interaction between group and mood condition was not significant. When pretest Boredom, Sadness, Happiness, Anger, and Tranquility scores were used as covariates, scores on the Positive Affect subscale of the MAACL-R were not significant for group assignment or mood condition. The interaction term was not significant. Scores on the Positive Affect/Sensation Seeking subscale of the MAACL-R were not significant for 42 Table 6 0;-.- .00 -no'- 0 I- on- on 1‘ ' ‘ a v u‘ Musicians Controls Pretest x SD 2 SD Anger 36.7 39.0 41.8 42.3 Boredom 63.9 39.8 61.2 36.8 Fatigue 127.4 59.5 117.5 59.6 Happiness 97.4 41.8 81.8 41.4 Sadness 50.7 37.9 61.4 52.0 Tranquility 123.5 42.2 121.4 43.8 43 group assignment or mood condition when pretest Boredom, Sadness, and Happiness scores were used as covariates. The interaction between group assignment and mood condition.was not significant. .As evaluated by the Brown-Forsythe procedure (Winer, Brown, & Michels, 1991), the variances were homogeneous between groups and mood conditions. Means and standard deviations for scores used in this procedure can.be found in Table 7. Correlations, paired t-scores, and significance levels between subscales of the pretest and the EAS are presented for all subjects in Table 8. For comparison, correlations, paired t-scores, and significance levels between subscales of the pretest and the EAS are presented for subjects in the neutral mood condition in Table 9. Identical statistics for subjects in the elated mood condition are presented in Table 10. There were no significant differences between groups in the number of significant paired t-scores for both elated and neutral conditions. Similarly, music students and control subjects in the elated.mood condition did not differ in the number of correlations that reached statistical significance. However, music students in the neutral mood condition had more significant correlations than did control subjects. 44 Table 7 v:.l- .I. -06- o D- . on- o o : :10 o . z I] EESi ”.11. | Neutral Elated Total 2 SD i SD Musicians 249.7 199.8 234.7 190.0 Controls 224.0 202.3 260.0 279.7 Table 8 45 C J” -S 35..“ I 1E WWW Pretest EAS ANG BOR EAT HAP SAD TRA Anger r .56** .27** .30** -.28** .26** —.27** t -2.11 1.67 9.38 4.29 .69 7.94 p i .10 ** *** .49 *** Anxiety r .45** .24* .20 -.15 .24* -.37** t -7.68 -3.81 -— — -4.52 3.06 p *i* ink-k - — *** ** Disgust r .49** .34** .26* -.26** .40** -.28** t .50 4.99 12.68 7.17 3.64 11.5 p .62 *** *** iii ink-k *** Fear r .38** .23* .27** -.04 .21* - 19 t -1.27 2.24 9.86 - 1.22 -— p .21 * NH — .22 — Guilt r .34** .28** .23* -.15 .30** -.20* t 1.92 6.55 13.96 -— 4.90 13.58 p .06 *** *** — *** *** Happiness r -.26* -.20* -.22* .53** -.31** .34** t -10.74 -8.77 -2.07 -8.33 -8.69 -2.97 p *i'i' *** * *** int-It ** Table 8 (cont'd) 46 Pretest EAS ANG BOR FAT HAP SAD TRA Sadness r .48** .36** .23* -.28** .57** -.27** t -2.95 .91 8.33 3.72 -.12 7.41 p 4* .35 44* *44 .90 4** Surprise r .37** .21* .12 .12 .18 -.25* t -.73 3.38 ‘— '- —' 10.60 p .47 *** ._ .— — *** Hate. Correlations have 46 degrees of freedom. ANG = Anger; BOR = Boredom; EAT = Fatigue; HAP - Happiness; SAD = Sadness; TRA = Tranquility. * P S .05; ** P S .01; *** p S .001. Table 9 47 W Pretest EAS ANG BOR FAT HAP SAD TRA Anger r .29 .45* -.01 -.05 .20 -.08 ra .55** .43* .44* “.39 .32 -.29 t - 5.78 — — — '- ta '2.03 .04 3.93 — — — p -— *** — — _ _ pa 1: .97 mu — — — Anxiety r .47* .38 -.07 -.19 .42* “.32 ra .55** .04 .35 -.25 ‘.01 -.53** t ‘4.54 - - - '2.49 - ta "4.58 — '- — — 1.47 p *iv'k -— — —- * _ pa *1“: - — — - .16 Disgust r .25 .36 -.09 '.15 .34 -.07 11‘a .42* .36 .45* -.43* .42* -.41* t _ _ — — _. .— ta '1.14 - 6.40 2.82 .92 4.70 p — — —. — a.— _ pa .27 — *** ** .37 *** Table 9 (cont'd) 48 Pretest EAS ANG BOR FAT HAP SAD TRA Fear r .48* .24 .01 .06 .20 -.12 ra .26 .06 .43* -.30 .27 -.41* t - 03 — — — — — ta — — 5.79 - — 4.29 p .98 - ‘— —' - —' pa — —- *in — — *** Guilt r .31 .33 .07 -.14 .24 -.20 ra .50* .09 .45* -.22 .28 -.17 t _ _ .— — —. _ ta -.16 - 7.56 — — — p - — - — — — pa .87 — *** — — — Happiness r -.15 .10 -.13 .74** -.42* .60** ra -.24 -.45* -.39 .63** -.18 .29 t ‘- - - -8.33 -2.97 -.75 ta — -2.68 -— -1.98 - — p — _ — nut ** .45 pa -— ** —' .06 - — 49 Table 9 (cont'd) Pretest EAS ANG BOR EAT HAP SAD TRA Sadness r .30 .30 -.14 -.30 .62** -.18 ra .51* .49* .51* -.41* .51* -.44* t — — — — . 24 — ta -2.10 -.08 4.00 1.43 -.59 2.81 p - - -— - .82 — pa * .94 ** .12 .56 ** Surprise r .34 .16 -.01 .00 .12 -.13 ra .24 .03 .34 .28 -.03 -.16 t — _. — — —. _. ta _ _ _ __ _. _ p —- — — — — — Pa " * r * '“ “ note. All correlations utilize 46 degrees of freedom. values for t or p are omitted if the correlation was non- significant for that group. a = Musicians . * P S .05; ** P S .01; *** p 5 .001. 50 o- -- o u‘ ‘ -- 06 a- o .. q- E] | i H i 2 i'l' Pretest EAS ANG BOR EAT HAP SAD TRA Anger r .71** .21 .17 -.20 .35 -.27 ra, .67** .05 .46* -.49* .29 -.42* t -.41 — — '— -— — ta -1.12 —' 5.31 2.28 - 3.32 p .69 — —» - - — pa .28 — *** * .— ** Anxiety r .71** .33 .08 -.15 .31 -.19 ra .29 .26 .38 -.04 .23 -.45* t -2.99 — -— - —' — ta - —- — ‘— -— 1.20 p *i' — — — _ _ pa -— - —‘ — '— .24 Disgust r .51* .54** .33 .07 .47* -.13 ra .75** .12 .30 -.51* .41* -.49* t .78 2.32 5.65 - 1.96 '- ta 1.42 — — 4.48 1.62 5.62 p .44 * *** —- .06 — pa .17 _. — *** .12 *** 51 Table 10 (cont'd) Pretest EAS ANG BOR FAT HAP SAD TRA Fear r .66** .44* .19 .00 .29 -.18 ra .15 .20 .38 .05 .15 -.10 t ‘ 60 .46 - - — - ta _ _ _ _ ._ _ p .55 .65 — — — — pa —— — — ..... _ _ Guilt r .46* .52** .36 .11 .40 -.16 ra .24 .30 .01 -.42* .31 -.33 t 1.80 3 66 - - - — ta — - — 6.00 - - p .08 *** - - — — pa — — — *** — .. Happiness r -.22 .00 .04 .47* -.30 .22 ra -.66** -.47* -.44* .36 -.44* .24 t - - — -7.50 - — tal -5.00 -4.65 -.98 — -5.60 — p — — — *‘k'k — _. pa *** *** .34 —- *** — 52 Table 10 (cont'd) Pretest EAS ANG BOR FAT HAP SAD TRA Sadness r .54** .33 .07 -.15 .58** -.08 ra .73** .25 .42* -.21 .72** -.36 t - . 14 _ - - 1 . 11 — ta -1.65 - 5.77 — -.96 — p .89 — ._ «- .28 - pa .11 — *** - .35 — Surprise r .43* .57** .24 .13 .35 -.39 ra .26 -.08 .01 .22 .05 -.30 t -1.08 -.21 —' - — — ta -— — — — - — p .29 .83 —' - - - Pa '— — r - r “ note. All correlations utilized 46 degrees of freedom" values for t or p are omitted if the correlation was non- significant for that group. a = Musicians . * P S .05; ** D S .01; *** p S .001. Discussion Earlier research which supported a link between artistic ability and affective disorders (Ellis, 1926; Juda, 1949; Andreasen, 1987; Jamison, 1989) utilized professional artists. Levels of artistic ability within these subjects were clearly higher than those found in comparison groups. In this study, the relative lack of significant differences between groups was unexpected, but may have reflected methodological error as well as characteristics of the subjects. At the outset of this study it was assumed that university music students could be differentiated from Students in the general population with regard to artistic ability, simply on the basis of higher levels of musical experience and daily participation in musical activities. While these factors may indeed provide a rough index of ability, achievement in the arts is likely a broad concept that encompasses several factors (i.e., sensitivity, technical proficiency, creativity) which are common to all artistic endeavors. Future research should utilize standardized.measures to assess experimental subjects for overall levels of artistic ability prior to group assignment. Comparable levels of artistic ability between experimental groups may have also reflected a developmental process. That is, group variability in artistic ability becomes more skewed as less proficient individuals leave the 53 54 talent pool. Further, progressive levels of age, training, and experience result in a sample that is increasingly homogenous in level of ability. Professional musicians would thus be expected to have unifonmly high levels of artistic ability that are markedly disparate from levels found in the general population. In contrast, the university musicians ‘ used in this study, the majority of whom were underclassmen, would not be expected to differ significantly from a comparison group of control subjects. T Third, segregation of groups by skill level exists within the university setting, where membership in the more advanced ensembles is a condition of higher musical and technical proficiency. .A gradient in ability also exists between collegiate institutions: conservatories of music often attract a higher proportion of talented student musicians than do public universities, simply because they offer a more rigorous, comprehensive, and competitive level of musical training. Since many of the individuals in this sample were members of a.middle-level ensemble at a public university having a small School of Music, thewaere likely not representative of instrumentalists possessing extremely high levels of proficiency. This is particularly important if affective illness in musicians is restricted to those with superior levels of artistic ability. Affective intensity was assumed to be a trait of musicians as well as a requisite tool for artistic 55 expression. The values reported on the AIM were consistent with those of earlier studies (Goldsmith and Walters, 1989; Flett et al., 1986). The absence of differences between groups suggests that intensity as a trait is not a necessary characteristic for the creation of an artistic product. However, affective intensity may be a situationally related variable, and.may only be displayed during the creative process itself. In addition, the lack of differences in intensity between groups may have been due to the presumed variability in artistic ability within the group of music students. The relative lack of concordance between the EAS and the MAACL-R in evaluating the efficacy of both positive and neutral mood inductions was somewhat surprising. Discrepancies between these two measures may have reflected differences in the spectrum of affect identified on each questionnaire. Specifically, each subscale of the MmACL-R contains a wide range of adjectives that seem to differ qualitatively in the magnitude of affect represented. Responses to this measure may have been especially vulnerable to a method of mood induction which appears to emphasize the experience of affect solely along a single vector (i.e., high levels of happiness). In contrast, adjectives on each subscale of the EAS appear to assess unitary dimensions of affect, which suggests that, in this study, the EAS may be a 56 more appropriate index of emotional functioning than the MAACL-R. Each subscale on the EAS is a composite of 3 semantically similar adjectives. Subscale scores thus reflect the additive contribution of 3 separate measurements, making the means and standard deviations appear to be excessively high. However, for most subjects, these values are consistent with those of the earlier validation study conducted by Carlson et al. (1989). The majority of exceptions were confined to the group of music students, whose responses were occasionally characterized by higher levels of variability, This suggests that the music students were somewhat more heterogenous with regard to emotional reactivity than were control subjects. Responses to the EAS indicated that the neutral mood condition was somewhat effective in its intent to provide a comparison group for the elated.mood condition. That is, subjects exposed to the neutral mood.induction endorsed lower levels of positive affect than subjects in the elated.mood induction. However, the specific nature of the neutral condition itself was somewhat difficult to determine. It was assumed that the impact of this condition.would.be manifested by lower levels of total affect on the EAS. Although this index seemed to indicate that the neutral mood induction was not effective, a valid and well-standardized outcome measure 57 is necessary to validly and accurately assess the influence of a neutral mood induction procedure. Interestingly, the amount of positive affect increased for both groups in the neutral mood induction. Increases in positive affect in this condition were unexpected. While these changes may have reflected a treatment effect associated with the attention given experimental subjects, they may also reflect personality traits. For example, Larsen and Ketelaar (1991) found that extraverts were more responsive than introverts to inductions of positive affect. Given the higher magnitude of change in control subjects, it is tempting to speculate that the musician group was characterized.by somewhat higher levels of introversion. This possibility should be explored further in future research. Control subjects and music students appeared to be differentially affected.by the mood induction procedures. Strelau (1983) suggested that individuals regulate their reactions to affective stimuli by an internal control mechanism. If true, the results from this study indicate that music students and control subjects seek optimal levels of arousal through somewhat different processes. In general, control subjects appeared to respond directly to the valence of the mood induction procedure, rather than diffusing their reaction across a wide range of affect. This may partially explain.why they obtained higher 58 scores than music students on scales measuring positive affect in the elated mood condition. While this response style may create optimal levels of arousal when low and moderate stinulation from affective sources is present, the unidimensional nature of their reaction to emotional stimuli implies that these individuals may be vulnerable to high I’ 'I 0‘ “NEHI levels of affective stinulation. In such cases, optimal levels of arousal may be regulated in part by a tendency to withdraw from the inmediate affective environment . The trend rs- toward higher levels of anxiety noted in control subjects may have thus reflected a fear of becoming overwhelmed by affect and a concomitant inability to withdraw from emotionally- 1aden stimuli. In contrast to control subjects, music students tended to respond with higher levels of negative affect when confronted with a task deliberately designed to limit affective involvement . Moreover , they were somewhat more reactive to the influence of the elated mood induction than control subjects, both on positive and negative subscales of the EAS. This suggests that they may resent being placed in situations where affective stimulation is not present or is controlled by others. When this stinulation is present, music students may attempt to control the magnitude of their response by diffusing it through a broad spectrum of both positive and negative affect. If musicians are highly reactive to anotional stimuli (Lowenfeld, 1962; Getzels and 59 Csikszentmihalyi, 1975), then this process may help ensure that they are not overwhelmed by affective involvement. The question of whether this pattern of regulating emotional states harnesses an inborn awareness of multiple affects or whether knowledge of a broad range of emotion is acquired through extensive musical or artistic training would.be an interesting area of exploration for future research. Although the elated mood condition of the ARM produced results consistent with prior research, the validity of mood induction procedures has often been hotly debated. However, after reviewing extensive evidence, Martin (1990) reported that experimental demand does not seem to be sufficient to account for the changes in affect after mood induction procedures have been implemented. And, although it is difficult to reliably assess the degree to which subjects comply to the stated instructions of most mood induction procedures in general or the ARM in particular, the clear differences between mood conditions found in this study indicate that the procedures were indeed effective. Future research should ensure that the individual components of artistic ability are clearly defined so that musician and control groups are clearly differentiated. Second, levels of artistic ability should be homogenous within each experimental group. Third, appropriate outcome measures for mood induction conditions should.be specified and appropriate control over compliance of subjects to 60 instructions should be exercised. Attention to these details may reveal a direct and significant relationship between artistic ability and both affective disorder and affective intensity . LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Andreasen, N. C. (1978). Creativity'and psychiatric illness. W15.8411.113-119. Andreasen, N. C. (1987). Creativity and.mental illness: Prevalence rates in writers and their first-degree relatives . WW. 14441111. 1288-1292. Andreasen, N. C., & Canter, A. (1974). The creative writer: Psychiatric symptoms and a family history. MW 1542)., 123- 131. Brewer, D., Doughtie, E. B., & Lubin, B. (1980). Induction of mood and.mood shift. Jnurnal_nf_91ininal_252:hnlnsr, 45, 129-148. Carlson, C. R., Collins, F. L., Stewart, J. F., Porzelius, J., Nitz, J. A. & Lind, C. O. (1989). The assessment of emotional reactivity: A scale development and validation study W BelmnraLAssessment. 11.441, 313- 325. Cunningham., Mi. R. (1988). What do you do when you're happy or blue? Mood, expectancies, and behavioral interest. Winn. 124.41. 309 331. Depue, R. A., Krauss, S., Spoont, M. R., &.Arbisi, P.(1989). General Behavior Inventory identification of unipolar and bipolar affective conditions in a nonclinical university population. JnumalJLAhnnmal W121 117 '126 - Depue, R. A., Slater, J. F., Wolfstetter-Kausch, R., Klein, D., Goplerud, E. & Farr, D. (1981). A.Dehavioral paradigm.for identifying persons at risk for bipolar depressive disorder: A conceptual framework and five validation studies. immal_nf_8bnnrmal_25ynhnlnny Monograph. 9.8451. 381-437. Diener, E., Larsen, R. J., Levine, S., & Emmons, R. A. (1985). Intensity and frequency: Dimensions underlying Positive and negative affect. W115): andjnnialjsynhnlnm. 48.451. 1253-1265. 61 62 Ellis. H. A. (1926). W. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Flett, G. L.; Boase, P.; McAndrews, M.P.,- Pliner, P.; & Blankstein, K. R. (1986) . Affect intensity and the appraisal of auction. JnurnaLnLResearnLin Rersnnality. 2.0. 447-459. Frosch, W. A. (1987). Moods, madness, and music. I. Major affective disease and musical creativity. Cmrehensiye Earnhiatnz. 284.41. 315-322. Getzels, J. W. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). From problem solving to problem finding. In I. A. Taylor & J. W. Getzels (Eds ). RersnentixeLiLnreatixitx (PD 90 116) Chicago, IL. Aldine. Goldsmith, R. E. & Walters, H. (1989). A validity study of " the Affective Intensity Measure. W]. W. 441).. 133-140. Goodnick, P. J., Fieve, R. R., Peselow, E., Schlegel, A., & Filippi, A. (1986). General Behavior Inventory: Measurement of subclinical changes during depression and lithium Prophylaxis. WM. 1.1, 529- 532. Goodwin, A. M. & Williams, J. M. G. (1982). Mood induction research-its implications for clinical depression. W. 28. 373-382. Goodwin, F. K. & Jamison, K. R. (1990). W illness. New York: Oxford University Press. Jamison, K. R. (1989) . Mood disorders and patterns of creativity in British writers and artists. W, 52, 125-134. Juda, A. (1949) . The relationship between highest mental capacity and psychic abnormalities. W Bsxnhiatrx. 105. 296-307. Kenealy, P. M. (1986) . The Velten Mood Induction Procedure: A methodological review. W. 1.0 141, 315-335. Larsen, R. J. & Diener, E. (1987). Affect intensity as an individual difference characteristic: A review. WM. 21. 1-39. 63 Larsen, R. J. & Ketelaar, T. (1991). Personality and susceptibility to positive and negative emotional states . W. M, 132-140. Larsen, R. J., Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1986). Affect intensity and reactions to daily life events. Journal anersnnalitLammiaLEmhnlnny. 51. 803-814. Lowenfeld, v. (1962). Creativity: Education's stepchild. In S. J. Parnes & H. F. Harding (Eds.). Lsnurnejnnk fnrinrnatixe_thinkins (PD. 9'17). New York: Scribner. E Lubin, B., Zuckerman, Mg, Hanson, P. G., Armstrong, T., Rinck, C. M., & Seever, M. (1986). Reliability and validity of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List-- Revised. WWW - Assessment. 8421. 103-117. Martin, M. (1990). On the induction of mood. Clinical W. 1.0.. 669-697. McNeil, T. F. (1971). Prebirth and.postbirth influence on the relationship between creative ability and recorded mental illness. Wing. 39. 391-406. Myerson, A. & Boyle, R. D. (1941). The incidence of manic- depressive psychosis in certain socially important families: Preliminary report. Amerinan_annrnal_of W. 9.8. 11-21. Richards, R., Kinney, D. R., Lunde, I., Benet, M., &.Merzel, .A. P. C. (1988). Creativity in manic-depressives, cyclothymes, their normal relatives, and control subjects. W. 9.7431. 281- 288. Sandblom, P. (1989). WW5 W515. Philadelphia: Lippencott Co. Strelau. J. (1983). W. New York: Academic Press. Velten, E. (1968). A laboratory task for induction of mood states. Warm. 6. 473-482. Winer, B. J., Brown, D. R., &.Muchels, K. M. (1991). Statistical principles in experimental design (3rd edition). Marion, NY: IMCGraw Hill. 64 Zuckerman, M., & Lubin, B. (1985). Minnal_fnr_the_Rexisen W. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service. APPENDICES 65 Appendix A Ell] E H 5 33' )E' I J E W25 Variable Error Mean Square F p Age 20.17 2.65 .11 Experience in Music 120204.26 49.2 < .000 Duration of Practice 98.04 36.5 < .000 Previous Three Months 9.38 78.3 < .000 Previous Six.Months 1.76 17.4 < .000 Frequency of Practice 2.80 1.87 .17 Honesty 69.74 .464 .50 Effort 105.98 .586 .44 Note. Analyses utilized ANOVA at 1, 94 degrees of freedom. 66 APPENDIX B ' o 0;... 01.- -- I: -- .06 on -c - q: .. .- GBI variable Error Mean Square F p Total GBI 58.59 .056 .81 Extreme GBI x2 = .094 < .25 DEP Subscale .01 .000 .99 B/H Subscale 52.51 .348 .56 Extreme DEP x2 = .419 < .60 Extreme B/H x2 = 1.88 < .25 Suicidal Ideation .09 .106 .74 Constant Suicidal Ideation x2 = .616 < .50 none. DEP = Depression; B/H = Biphasic/Hypomania. All Chi Square tests utilized 1 degree of freedom. .All other tests utilized ANOVA with 1, 94 degrees of freedom. 67 APPENDIX C ”q. 0.... 0|- - - ‘ -IO 0.” «I ‘ :4‘ SQQIEB_QD_LhESAIM Error Mean Square F p 1.04 .004 .95 Note. ANOVA was used with 1, 94 degrees of freedom. 68 APPENDIX D GBI variable Standardized Correlation p Tbtal Score .71 > .05 Depression Subscale .72 > .05 Biphasic/Hypomania Subscale .60 > .05 Extreme Scores Total .33 > .05 Biphasic/Hypomania Subscale .55 > .05 Depression Subscale .25 > .05 69 APPENDIX E Measure Error Mean Square F‘ p Mood Condition EAS Happiness 5459.44 8.72 .004 Surprise 2409.56 5.28 .02 MAACL-R Positive Affect 146.37 1.06 .31 Group EAS Happiness 5459.44 .930 .34 Surprise 2409.56 1.90 .17 MAACL-R Positive Affect 146.37 .925 .34 Hots. Analyses utilized.ANOVA at 1, 92 degrees of freedom. 70 APPENDIX F Measure Error Mean Square F p EAS Anger 4469.02 .150 .70 Anxiety 5671.56 .193 .66 Disgust 2386.40 .005 .94 Fear 4213.88 1.66 .20 Guilt 1988.94 .034 .86 Sadness 4353.45 .288 .59 MAACL-R Hostility' 282.15 4.00 .05 note. .Analyses utilized.ANOVA.with 1, 92 degrees of freedom. 71 APPENDIX G ' o o z 0 0| - : r z _ I 0 on - u - - : : o W Measure Error Mean Square F p EAS Anger 1768.33 .356 .55 Boredom 1479.12 .112 .74 Fatigue 3565.66 .656 .42 Happiness 1741.16 3.40 .07 Sadness 2069.06 1.32 .26 Tranquility 1853.33 .056 .81 Hate. Analyses utilized ANOVA at 1, 92 degrees of freedom. 72 Appendix H E II S E Hi] i 5' IE' I J E W Measure Error Mean Square df F p EAS Happiness Group 21313.84 1 5.83 .02 MDod 35800.36 1 9.79 .002 Interaction 1133.46 1 .310 .58 Surprise Group 3318.13 1 1.54 .22 MOod 7600.76 1 3.53 .06 Interaction 289.88 1 .135 .71 Note. All ANCOVAs utilized 95 total degrees of freedom. 73 APPENDIX I o - .. :- o- - c- o c- " - -- no a- y7;;II-: fnLAlLSubjnnts Pretest MAACL-R ANG BOR EAT HAP SAD TRA PA -.30** -.36** -.19 .32** -.34** .30** SS -.10 -.10 -.09 .21* -.10 -.02 PA/SS -.25* -.30** -.17 .26** -.29** .23* DYS .32** .29** .27** -.41** .46** -.32** DEP .24* .20 .20 -.22* .46** -.17 ANX .35** .29** .22* -.36** .36** -.33 HOS .18 .20 -.39** .26* .22* -.34** mate. All correlations utilized 94 degrees of freedom. PA = Positive Affect; SS = Sensation Seeking; PA/SS = Positive Affect/Sensation Seeking; DYS = Dysphoria; DEP = Depression; ANX = Anxiety; HOS = Hostility, *p( .05; ** p < .01 74 Appendix J W W MAACL-R Error Mean Square df F p PA Group 296.83 1 2.58 .11 Mood 181.68 1 1.58 .21 Interaction 27.95 1 .243 .62 PA/SS Group 419.07 1 3.60 .06 MDOd 338.20 1 2.90 .09 Interaction 18.02 1 .156 .70 Note. All ANCOVAS utilized 95 total degrees of freedom. PA = Positive Affect; PA/SS = Positive Affect/Sensation Seeking 75 Appendix K Total_8nnr.es_nn_the_EAS Test Error Mean Square df F p ANOVA 48790.33 1, 92 .055 .82 ANCOVA EAS Total Group 3178.53 1 .084 .77 MDod 12855.10 1 .338 .56 Interaction 9589 . 69 1 . 252 . 62 Note. ANCOVAs utilized 95 total degrees of freedom. 76 Appendix L I O O ‘ I _o o . ’. o - . - Variable x2 P Neutral Mood Condition r 8.19 < .005 t 3.35 > .05 Elated Mood Condition r .047 > .05 t 1.26 > .25 Note. x2 utilized 1 degree of freedom. Pratt-1W Appendix M DIRECTIONS: For each word below, place a slash somewhere on the appropriate line to indicate how you are feeling AT THIS MOMENT. I do not feel angry I do not feel joyful I do not feel irritated I do not feel detached I do not feel peaceful I do not feel bored I do not feel unhappy I do not feel exhausted 0 I feel extremely 100 angry I feel extremely 100 joyful I feel extremely 100 irritated I feel extremely 100 detached I feel extremely 100 peaceful I feel extremely 100 bored I feel extremely 100 unhappy I feel extremely 100 exhausted 78 For each word below. place a slash somewhere on the appropriate line to indicate how you are feeling AT THIS MOMENT. I do not feel I feel extremely elated o 100 elated I do not feel I feel extremely calm O 100 calm I do not feel I feel extremely tlred O * ' 100 tired 'I do not feel I feel extremely sad 0 . too sad 79 Appendix N W DIRECTIONS: The following questions refer to the emotional reactions to typical life-events. Please indicate how YOU react to these events by placing a number from the following scale in the blank space preceding each item. Please base your answers on how YOU react. not on how you think others react or how you think a person should react. ALMOST ALMOST NEVER NEVER OCCASiONALLY USUALLY ALWAYS ALWAYS 10. 11. 12. 2 3 4 5 6 When I accomplish something difficult. I feel delighted or elated. . When I feel happy. it is a strong type of exuberance. I enjoy being with other people very much. I feel pretty bad when l‘teII a lie. ' When I solve a small personal problem. I feel euphoric. My emotions tend to be more intense than those of most people. My happy moods are so strong that I feel like I'm 'In heaven'. I get overly enthusiastic. If I complete a task I thought was impossible. I am ecstatic. My heart races at the anticipation of some exciting event. Sad movies deeply touch me. When I'm happy. it’s a feeling of being untroubled and content. rather than being zestful and aroused. 80 ALMOST ALMOST NEVER NEVER CCCASIONALLY USUALLY ALWAYS ALWAYS 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 2 3 4 5 6 When I talk In front of a group for the first time. my voice gets shaky and my heart races. When something good happens. I am usually much more jubilant than others. My friends might say I'm emotional. The memories I like the most are those of times when I felt content and peaceful. rather than zestful and enthusiastic. The sight of someone who is hurt badly affects me strongly. When I'm feellng well. it‘s easy for me to go from being in a good mood to being really Joyful. 'Calm and cool' could easay describe me. When I'm happy. I feel like I'm bursting with joy. Seeing a picture of some violent car accident in a newspaper makes me feel sick to my stomach. When I‘m happy, I feel very energetic. When I receive an award, I become overjoyed. When I succeed at something. my reaction is calm contentment. When I do something wrong. I have strong feelings of shame and guilt. I can remain calm, even on the most trying days. 81 ALMOST ALMOST NEVER NEVER OCCASiONALLY USUALLY ALWAYS ALWAYS 27. 28. 29. so. 31. ' 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 2 3 4 5 6 When things are going good. I feel 'on top of the world'. When I get angry. it‘s easy for me to still be rational and not overreact. When I know I have done something very well. I feel relaxed and content. rather than excited and elated. When I do feel anxiety, it is normally very strong. My negative moods are mild in intensity. When I am excited over something. I want to share my feelings with everyone.- When I feel happiness. It is a quiet type of contentment. My friends would probably say I'm a tense or 'high-strung' _ person. When I'm happy. I bubble over with energy. When I feel guilty. this emotion is quite strong. I would characterize my happy moods as closer to contentment than to joy. When someone compliments me. I get so happy I could 'burst‘. When I am nervous. I get shaky all over. When I am happy. the feeling is more like comentrnent and inner calm than one of exhilaration and excitement. 82 Appendix 0 WW GENERAL nemmon INVENTORY HERBARBSOMEQUESTIOMABOUTIEHAVIORSWTOCCUR mn-IEOENERALPOPULATION. THINKABOU'I' IIIOWOFIINTIEYOCCU'RNRYOU. USINOTIIBSCALEBELOWJELBCTTHENUMBERTHATIESTDBCRIBES WWWWMRWW: I 2 3 4 NEVER OR . SOMETIMES om VERY OFTEN OR IIARDLY IVER ALMOST CONSTANTLY KEBPMWPOM'SNWD: FREQUENCY: YOU MAY HAVE NOTICED A BEHAVIOR AS PAR DACR AS THE EARLY TEENS. OR YOU MAY HAVEIXPERIENCEDITMORR RECENTLY. INII'I'I-IRCASEISTIMATBI'IOW FREQUD‘TLYTHSIRI'IAVIOR HAS OCCURRED SINCE YOU FIRST NOTICED IT. “EXAMPLE: IFYOUFIRSTNO‘I'ICEDAIEHAVIORWHENYOUW 14. AND YOU HAVE EXPERIENCED IT REPEATEDLY SINCE THEN. MARK YOUR ANSWER "OFTEN“ OR 'VRRY OFTEN - ALMOST CONSTANTLY”. WYOU HAVE WAIEI'IAVIORDURMMYN ISOLATED PERIOD INYOURUFE. SUTNOTOUI'SIDETI'IAT PERIOD. MARX YOUR ANSWER 'NIVRR . IIARDLY RVRR' OR "SOMETIMES”. DURATION: “ANY QUESTIONS REQUIRE THAT A BEHAVIOR OCCUR FOR AN APPROXIMATE DURATIW OF TIME (FOR EXAMPLE. “SEVERAL DAYS OR MORE"). TIE DURATION GIVEN IS A MINIMUM DURATION. IF YOU USUALLY EXPERIENCE A RRIIAVIOR FOR SNORTER DURATIONS. MARK TIE QUBS‘I'IW ‘NEVIR - HARDLY EVER" OR ”SOMETIMES". CIIIANORAIILITY: WHAT MATTERS IS NOT WHETHER YOU CAN GET RID OF CERTAIN REHAVIORS IF YOU HAVE TIIEM.IUTWI-IETIIERTI-IEY HAVEOCCURREDATALL. SOBVENIFYOUCANGETRIDOFTHESE WW.YOUSWWYMMWWWMWWYWUWW YOUR JOI, THIN. IS TO RATS IIOW FREQUENTLY YOU IIAVR EXPERIENCRD A IRIIAVIOR. SINCE YOU FIRST NOTICRD IT, FOR THE DURATION DRSCRIIRD IN TUE QUESTION. PLEASE READ SACI'I QUESTION CAREFULLY. AND RECORD YOUR ANSW IN THE APPRGRIATE SPACE ON TIE COMPUTERZRD AMWER SHEET PROVIDED. BE SURETOFIILNTHEANSWER SPACE COMPLETELY ANDTOFINCIL INTRE SFACRS FOR YOUR NAME ON T!!! RACK OF THE ANSWER sum. [IF NO COMPUTER SHEET IS PROVIDED.CIRCL8 ONE OFTI'IE NUMBERSTOTI'ELBI'T (PEACH QUESTIONCORRBSFONDINO TO YOUR ANSWER W TIE SCALE J 01987 RICHARD A. DEPUE. DEPARTMENTOFPSYWY. NZIS ELLIOTT HALL. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 75 SASTRIVRRROAD. W8. MN 55455 I234 I234 1234 I234 I234 1234 I234 1234 1234 1234 83 i 2 3 4 NEVER OR SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN OR . . HARDLY EVER MST CONSTAN'IIY . l. Havetherebeenperiodsinyour lifewhen itwasaimstimposslbletontakeevenstnaiideeisions. ewethouahthlsntaynotbegenenllynueolyou? zI-Isve youtoundyour ymentinheingwithpeopieehanges memmwm theminxnenseiymdwanttobewiththemalimetirne. totinieswhenyoudon'twantnsesthemataii? » 3. HeyeyoubeoonnMWMorirritabieforsevmidsysorme withootmilyunderstandtngwhy? 4. Haveyou ofseveralda ormorewhen. although MWMW happy aynsd intensely energetic (clearly ymotethanyourusualseif). youaisowerephynesiiymdessunsbletositstiii. andhadtokeepmovingorjumpinyh'omoneaedvirytomother? 5.Havetherebeen ofssveraida newer/hen youfeltyo Megan“ ys slept Ion at n: more data the day (not emhclyuihnyoum of «gin. pgsicaims. or heavy frothy schedules)? 6. Have peoplessiddiatyouiookedsadorioneiy? 7. i-Iavethetebeenperlodsofseveraidaysortnorewhen “$3.5???” m Idnkeep with sue t to con 't orthuyouworedumygn’ up you 8. I-iavetherebeenperiodsofseveraidsysormorewhen youeouidnotkeepyotnmendononanyonediingforrnoredtansfewseconds. andygnmindjumpednpidiyhomonediouahttoanodm one [snound 9. Have there been lasting severaidsysormore when youiostaimost interestinpelo‘pleciosetoyou andspentiong timesbyyourse iO. Haveyouhadperiodsof‘severaidaysorrnorewhen foodseemedratherflavoriessandyoudidn'tenjoyeatinaetali? 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. I9. 84 l 2 3 4 NEVEROR SOMETIMES OFTEN VERYOFI'ENOR I-IARDLYEVER . ALMOSTCONSTANTLY . E ii.HavetherebeenM nfifmganwmml Iuh mm“ 7 M I Mun happyor’ - cleulydiffuemhomymuusuaiughomatypicsigozdmood? ‘ 12. Havetherebeendmeswhenyowmemryorconcenndonseemedespecuu' andyoufoundhdifiieuitforenamphtoreadorfollowsTVprogmn. ypoor eventhoughyounied? .. 13. Have there been ‘ oftime when you losteimost interestlnthethingsthstyouusualiyilke todo (such as hobbies. school. work. entertainment)? gaveyouhsdperiodsofsadnessuiddeupressionwhen mosteverythin getsonyournervss makes irritabieoran (otherthanreimgtothemensnuaicyeie)? M W Havemereheentimesofseveraldaysormorewhen youdidnotfeeltheneedfor mdwereabletostayswakeandalertformuehlongerthannmai becauseyouwerefuliofenergy? Have you had long periods in which you felt you couldn't enjoy life as easily as other people? I-Iaveyouhad ' ot'seversldsysormorewhen youwantedto withpeoplesomuchofthetime thattheyasndyoumiesvethemaioneforawhiie? Havetherebeentimesofseveraldaysormorewhen nmmmm m... .. m. .,.. . titwas ' teutorevenim to ev ysc vitics (mWWWdWWfiyMflmhavywkmheduhs)? Has your mood or energy shifted rapidly back and forth from heppy'to sad or high to low? . Havetherebeenpetiodslsstingseversldaysormorewhen you spent much of your time brooding about unpleasant things that have happened? 1234 1234 .1234 1234 1234 1334 1234 1234 85 l 2 3 4 NEVER OR SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN OR HARDLY EVER ALMOST CONSTANTLY 21. Havetherebeentlmeswbenyou youfeitthayouwerephysicaliycutofffmmotherpeople yousdfmrfeitasif orfeltdtattheworldlookeddytgfceremorhadehangedinsomeway? 22. Have you had periodsofexuernehappinessandintenseenergylesnn severaldaysorrnote 26. 28. whenyoualsofeltmuchmoreanxiousorsense nervous.u ti ht)thanusual (otherthanreiamdtothemensnuaicyeie)? (11W P ‘ .I-iavetherebeentimesofseveraldaysormorewhen youweresosatithatitwasquitei l oryoufeitthatyouoouidn'ts .Haveyoufotmdthatyotnenjoymntineatlngchan gel- fromperiodsoftwoormedayswhenfoodtastesexeeptionall good. clearlybetterthanusufl. y tootheperiodsofseveraldaysormorewhenfoodseemsmherflavorless andperhapsyoudon‘tenjoyeatingatall? .liavethere beentimesofseveraidaysormorewhen you wake up much too early in the morning andhave problems getting back to sleep? Have you had whenyou weresodown thatyoufound thardtostarttaiiring ortltsttailtingtooltroomuchenergy? .-Havetherebeentimesofseveraldaysormorewhen. although you were feeling unusually happy and intensely energetic (clearly more thanyourusual self). youalso hadtosnuggleveryhudtoconnoilnnerfeelingsofrage oranurgetosrnashordestroythings'.’ Have there been periods other than when you were physically ill that you had more than one of the following: , (a) headaches or feelings of tightness. pressure. or “weariness in your head; (b) dizziness: (c) consripation or diarrhea: (d) aches and pains: (e) nausea. vomiting. or stomach aches: (f) blurred vision: (g) trembling or shaking hands. or (II) feeling too hot or too cold? 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 12.34 1234 1234 86 l 2 3 4 NEVER OR SW OWEN VERY OFTEN OR HARDLY EVER ALMOST CONSTANTLY 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Haveyouexperiencedperiodsofseveral daysormore when you were feelingdownand and ouaisowuephyslcanyresdeenunabletositstill. and tokeepmovingorjumpingfromoneaetivitytoanodu? Havetherebeentimeelastingseveraidaysormorewhen .youfeltyoumhaveiotsofexcitement. andyouaenialiydidaiotofne'wordifierentdiings? Haveyouhad 'odsofexueme pinessandinte‘nse (.iwiymiii meg” m” whemforseverai ysormore. ittookyouoveranhourtogettosieepatnlght? Havetherebeentimeswhenyouiooltedbeckoveryotniife andoouidseeoniyfaiiuresorhatdships? Haveyouexperienoedtimesofseveraldaysormorewhen youfeltasifyouweremovlnginsiowmotion? . Have there been long periods in your life when you felt sad. depressed. or irritable most of the time? I-iasitseemeddtatyouexperienoebothpleasunbleandpninfuiernotions moreintenselythanothetpeople? Have there beenperiodsofseveraldaysormorewhen Mfehluflw ‘ andthoughtyoudeservedtobepunishedfasomethhtgyouhadorhadnotdone? Haveyouhadtimeeofseveraidaysormolewhen youwokeupd'equentiy . orhsdnoubestayingasieepduringthemiddleofthentght? Have you had periods of extreme happiness and high energy lasting several days or more when what you saw. heard. smelled. tasted. or touched seemed vivrd or intense? Have there been times when you weisfeelinglow “depressed. andyou alsohadtostru Ie very hardtooontroiinnerfeeltngsofrage oranurgetosmashor stroythings? I234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 87 1 2 3 4 NW OR SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN OR HARDLY EVER ALMOST CONSTANTLY 40. Have youfound feelingsorenergyaregeneraiiy ordown. buttereiyinthe item up 41. Haveyouhadperiodsofseveraldaysormorewhen itwasdlfiicuitoraimosrlmpossibletothink andyommindfeltsluggislustagnanaor “dead“? 42. Havetherebeendmeswhen ‘ youhadasnongwgemdowmdtingmisehsevousdemdvmdskymrshoeking? 43. Havedlerebeenperiodsofseveraidaysormorewhen yourthinkingwassoclaarandquiek thatltwasmuchbetterthanmostotherpeople's? 44. I-Iavetherebeentimeswhenyouexplwdatomers andafterwardsfeltbadaboutyuu'selfl 45. Havetherebeentimesofseveraids ysormorewhen youweresodownthatnodiing(notyevenfriendsorgoodnews) couldcheeryouup? 46. Have there beentimesofacoupiedaysormorewhen youfeitthatyouwereavety tperson orthatyotnabilidesortaienuwerebenerthanmostodterpeople's? 47. Havetherebeenn'meswhenyouhavehatedyomseif or felt that you were stupid. ugly. unlovahle. or useless? 48, Haveyoufoundthatyourthinkingehanges greatly- thattherear'eperiodsofseveraidaysormote when uthinkbenerthanmostpeople. periodswhenyowminddoesn'tworkwellatail? 49. Have dterebeentimesofadayormorewhen youhadnofeelin gsor oremodons andseemedeuto fromotherpeople? 50.1-Iaveyouhadsadanddepressedpetiodslasdngseveraldsysormore when youalsofelt muehmoteanxsousortense (jittery nervous. uptight)than usual (outerthanrelatedtothemensu-uaicyeie)? 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 88 NEVIROR SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN OR HARDLY EVER ALMOST CONSTANILY 51. Havcthereheendmeswhenyouhavedonethin'g-o iikeperhepsdr-lvingreekiesslmkingauipon spurofthemoment. ° ”Inn: ' ”“9“" flats... gemngtnro ts. [propertymrgetnngrnto w-o WWW 32. Have you had periods of'sadness anddepression when. forseveral days orrnore. ~ 53. 53. ittookyouoveranhotntogettosleepatni t. eventhoughyouwereverytlred? ‘1 Haveyouhsdperiodslastingseveraldaysormorewhen youfelt orirritable. andthen erper'lodsofseveraldaysormorewhen youfeltextremclyhigh.elated.andoverflowlngwithenergy? . Havethereheen periodswhen. although you were feeling unusually hay and ‘uttensely energetic. almoeteverytiunggotonyournervee made irritableorangry (otherthan related tothe mensmtaicyele‘)? you Have there been times when upsetting or bed thoughts kept going throughyour mind and you couldn't stop there? 56. l-Iavetherebeentimesofseveraimormore when S7. S8. youreallygotdownonyourself eltworthless? Have there been times when you had blankspells in which your activities were interrupted. andyoudidnotknow whatwasgoingonaroundyou? Have hadsadanddcptessedpenods' ofsevcralda ormore. interru’pgsgdbyperiodslastinigbetwesnanhotnoadayywhen you felt exuetneiy happy intensely energetic? . Hawthereheenperiodsofseveraidaysormorewhen youweresloweddownandcouidn‘tmovcasquicklyasusuai? . Have you experienced weight changes (increases. decreases. or both) ofhve(5)potutdsormoretnshonperiodsoftime(threeweeksoriess). notincluding changes due to physical illness. menstruation. exercise. ordiering? 1234' 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 1234 89 NEVER OR 30m OFTEN VERY OFTEN OR HARDLY IVER ALMOST CONSTANTLY 61. Havethereheenperiodso'faeoupledaysormorewhen sexualfeelingsandthougohtswere wereaimosteonstant. andyoucouldn'tthink utanythingeise? 62. Haveyou thwhuemedmmemeashopeiess 63. 70. .andthrngs Have there been periods lasting several daysormore when youweresodowninthedumpsthatyouthoughtyounrightneversnapoutofit? . Haveyouhadtimeswhenyomthoughtsandideascamesofan thatyoucouidntgetthemaliout. ortheycamesoquiekly MWWMMMWIWWMGMM? .Havetherebeentimesofseveraldsysormorewhen verydownanddepressaddurin theearl oftheda. uttheniesssoduringtheevening? ‘ ”m y . Have there been times when you began many new activities with lots of enthusiasm and then found yourself quickly losing interest in thorn? . Have you found that your mood consistently follows the seasons. where you have long periodsof depression during the winter but mostly happy periods duringthe summer? . Haveyouhadlongperiodswhenyouweredownanddepresscd. interrupted by briefperiodswhenyotnmoodwasnamlorsiightly happy? .i-iave there been nmesofseverai daysormore when fine have struggled to control an urge testy. had frequent crying spells. or found yetirself crying without really under-sanding why (other than related to die menstrual cyc'.’le) Have there been timesofseveraldaysorrnorewhen almost all sexual interest was lost? 1234 1234 1-234 90 l 2 3 4 NEVER OR SOMETIMES OFI'RN VERY OFTEN OR HARDLY EVER ALMOST CONSTANTLY 71.1-Iaveyoufoundyourse1fattimesfeelin mat-Mormsplcious ofyourenvironmentorpeoplearotmdygu? 72. Havedterebeenperiodsofdmewhenyoufeltapersimntsensewgioom? 73. Havedterebeendmeswhenyouhavefcltdratyouwouidbebeneroffdeu? 12343 12 12343 12 I2 12 74. Age: 1) 18.25 2) 26-35 3) 36-43 4) 46-55 5) over 55 73. Sex: 1) Female 2) Male 76. Ethnicbackground: l)Caucasian 218W '3)I-Iispanic 4)Asiah ”Other 77. l-Iaveyouhadlordoyoustillhave) elite-threaternngw veryseriouschronicmedicalilinees (includingaphysicalhandimpiindtepestym? 1) Yes 2) No 78. Haveyouhadanyhormonalorendocrineprobiems. ortakenhormonesasaneatmenunytimeinthelastiive(5)years (notinciudingbirthconnolpiils)? I) Yes 2) No 79. i-iuaelosereladwofyomsdiedaexperhncedalifeduearednglflness irtmepesttlu'eemondts? 1) Yes 2) No 9.1. Appendix P W12 DIRECTIONS: For each word below. place a slash somewhere on the appropriate line to indicate how you are feeling at this moment. I do not feel I feel extremely surpnsed too surprised I do not feel I feel extremely afraid 100 afraid ' I‘do not feel I feel extremely disgusted 100 ' I do not feel I feel extremely 3390’ 100 angry - I do not feel I feel extremely guilty too cum? I do not feel I feel extremely anxious too anxious i do not feel I feel extremely sad 100 sad I do not feel I feel extremely delighted 100 delighted 92 For each word below. place a slash somewhere on the appropriate line to indicate how you are feeling at this moment. I do not feel scared I do not feel astonished I do not feel repulsed I do not feel mad I do not feel ashamed I do not feel worried I do not feel disturbed ' I do not feel 10W! 0 I feel extremely 100 scared I feel extremely too astonished ' I feel extremely 100 repulsed i feel extremely 100 mad I feel extremely 100 ashamed I feel extremely 100 worried I feel extremely 100 disturbed I feel extremely 100 ioyful 93 For each word below, place a slash somewhere on the appropriate line to indcate how you are feeling at this moment. I do not feel frightened I do not feel amazed I do not feel sickened I do not feel annoyed I do not feel humiliated I do not feel nervous I do not feel hopeless I do not feel happy 0 I feel extremely 100 frightened I feel extremely 100 amazed I feel extremely 100 sickened l feel'extremely 100 annoyed I feel extremely 100 humiliated I feel extremely 100 nervous I feel extremely 100 hopeless I feel extremely 100 happy 1 [3 active 2 D adventurous 3 D affectionate 4 [j afraid 5 D agitated 6 C] agreeable 7 E] aggressive 8 D alive 9 E] alone 10 D amiable 11 [j amused 12 Cl angry 13 C] annoyed 14 [j awful 15 [j bashful 16 [j bitter 17 0 blue 18 C] bored 19 D calm 20 [j cautious 21 C] cheerful 22 U clean 23 C] complaining 24 C] contented 25 C] contrary 26 C] cool 27 D cooperative 28 [jcritical 29 C] cross 30 D cruel 31 Ddaring 32 C] desperate 33 [j destroyed 34 D devoted 35 D disagreeable 36 C] discontented 37 [j discouraged 38 Ddisgusted 39 C] displeased 40 Denergetic 41 Denraged 42 Denthusiastic 43 D fearful 44 D fine 94 Appendix Q 45 C] fit 46 L—Jforlorn 47 [1ka 48 [:lfree 49 Dfriendly 50 Dfrightened 51 Dfurious 52 Dlively 53 Dgentle 54 Dglad 55 Dgloomy 56 [jgood 57 Dgood-natured 58 Dgrim 59 Dhappy 60 Dhealthy 61 C] hopeless 62 Dhostile 63 Dimpatient 64 [j incensed 65 [j indignant 66 D inspired 67 [Jinterested 68 Uirritated 69 Ujealous 70 Ujoyful 71 Clldndly 72 Dlonely 73 Blast 74 Dloving 75 [How 76 Dlucky 77 Band 78 Dmean 79 Dmeelt 80 Dmerry 81 Dmild 82 Dmiserable 83 Dnervous 84 Uobliging 85 Doffewed 86 Donn-aged 87 Dpaniclty 88 Dpatient 89 C] peaceful 90 C] pleased 91 [j pleasant 92 C] polite 93 D powerful 94 E] quiet 95 D reckless 96 C] rejected 97 D rough 98 [3 sad 99 C] safe 100 C] satisfied 101 C] secure 102 C] shaky 103 D shy 104 C] soothed 105 C] steady 106 [j stubborn 107 C] stormy 108 C] strong 109 C] suffering 110 C] sullen 111 E] sunk 112 C] sympathetic 113 D tame 114 C] tender 115 C] tense 116 CI terrible 117 C] terrified 118 C] thoughtful 119 D timid 120 C] tormented 121 C] understanding 122 C] unhappy 123 C] unsociable 124 C] upset 125 U vexed 126 U warm 127 C] whole 128 C] wild 129 E] willful 130 D wilted 131 D worrying 132 C] young 95 Appendix R W Please answer the following questions. This Information will be used only for statistical analyses. and will be kept confidential. Major: Age: __ Sex: Class standing according to number of credits earned (circle one): Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Masters Doctoral 1. Have you played a musical instrument in the past three months? Yes No If you answered 'No' to question #1. please proceed directly to question #2. If you answered 'Yes' to question #1. please continue. a. what type of instrument do you play (if you play more than one. circle the one you play most frequently)? String Woodwind Brass Percussion b. How long have you played? years months c. How long have you taken private instruction? years months . 96 d. On average. how frequently do you play (mark only one)? Every day Three or four times each week Once or twice a week One to three times a month Once every titres months e. On average. how long do you play at a time (mark only one)? Fifteen minutes Half of an hour Forty-five minutes An hour An hour and a half Two hours More than two hours You may now skip to question #3. 2. Have you played a musical instrument In the past? Yes __ No If you answered 'No' to question #2, please proceed directly to question #3. If you answered ‘Yes' to question #2. please continue. a. What type of instrument did you play (If you played more than one. circle the one you played most frequently)? String Woodwind Brass Percussion b. How long did you play? years months 97 c. How long has it been since you last played? years months d. How long did you take private instruction? years months e. On average. how frequently did you play (mark only one)? Every day Three or four times each week Once or twice a week One to three times a month Once every six months f. On average. how long did you play at a time (mark only one)? Fifteen minutes A half hour Forty-five minutes An hour An hour and a half Two hours More than two hours 3. l have responded honestly to all of the questions in this research study. (Place a mark on the line below to Indicate your present feelings.) Strongly Strongly disagree 0 100 39?” 4. l have given my best effort on every question in this research study. (Place a mark on the line below to indicate your present feelings.) Strongly Strongly disagree o 100 agree 98 Appendix S WW II. III. INSTRUCTIONS I would like for you to imagine yourself washing a car and then rinsing it with water from a garden hose. I would like for you to take this incident and project it in front of your mind’s eye as if you were watching it on TV, letting the "movie" run through from beginning to end. While you are watching, I would like for you to attach to it the same feelings you had at that time and relive it as if it were happening right now. Now I want you to think of the last time you went grocery shopping. Try to see yourself going down each aisle. Think about it, project it in front of your mind’s eye, and feel now exactly what you felt then. I want you to think of the last time you did your laundry. Try to see yourself sorting your clothes, putting them into the washer, and lastly, putting your clothes into the dryer. Think about it, project it in front of your mind’s eye, and feel now exactly what you felt then. 99 Appendix T W I. II. III. INSTRUCTIONS I would like for you to think of some happy incident where everything went right - one where you felt loved, or successful. or'pleased, or accomplished, or somehow special, or gratified. I would like for you to take this incident and project it in front of your mind’s eye as if you were watching it on TV, letting the "movie" run through from beginning to end. While you are watching, I would like for you to attach to it the same feelings you had at that time - feelings of being loved, successful, or special - and relive it as if it were happening right now. I want you to think of another experience in your life that was even happier than the one you just thought of - an experience where you felt even more loved, or successful, or pleased, or accomplished - a really special incident where you felt happy or gratified. Think about it, project it in front of your mind’s eye, and feel now exactly what you felt then. Now I want you to feel the best you possibly can. I want you to think of the happiest thing that ever happened in your whole life - the one experience that is different from all the rest - one where your spirits really soared, you felt on top of the world, like you had everything together and going for you, like you could do no wrong, everything you did was perfect, and you were a complete success. Think about it, project it in front of your mind’s eye, and feel now exactly what you felt then. "Illllllllllllllill