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Thisistoeertifythatthe
dissertationentitled
Super-ego Development in Adults Following Paternal

Separation During Different Psychosexual Stages

presented by

Lisa Suzanne Cowden ,

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Doctor of Philosophy Clinical Psychology

 

degreein

 

 

 

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MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution
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SUPER-EGO DEVELOPHENT IN ADULTS FOLLOWING PATERNAL
SEPARATION DURING DIFFERENT PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

By

Lisa Suzanne Conden

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfilleent of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Depart-ent of Psychology

1992

ABSTRACT
SUPER-EGO DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTS FOLLOHING PATERNAL
SEPARATION DURING DIFFERENT PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

By

Lisa Suzanne Cowden

Hypotheses were derived from Freud’s Oedipus complex
model of super-ego development. Two-hundred-forty-seven
college students were administered an Oedipal incestuous wish
(sexual impulse) stimulus story completion task, an Dedipal
death wish (aggressive impulse) stimulus story completion
task, and the Oedipal intensity, castration anxiety and
positive identification Blacky Pictures. A super-ego
functioning scale incorporating measures of resistance to
temptation and internalization of moral standards was
developed and used in rating the story completions.

None of the hypotheses were corroborated. One
hypothesis was partially corroborated: the super-egos of
IUDJOCtI from intact families responded more punitively to
aggressive impulses than those of IUbJOCtS having experienced
paternal separation before the age of 15 years, g<.05.
Similar findings were produced for females, g<.05. Contrary
to prediction, for the Oedipal period paternal presence
group, super-egos of females responded more punitively to
sexual impulses than those of males, g<.05. The earlier the

psychosexual stage that females experienced paternal

separation, the less punitive the super-ego’s response to
sexual impulses, g<.05, and the earlier the age at which
paternal separation occurred, the less punitive was the
super-ego in response to aggressive impulses, p<.05. For
male and female paternal separation groups, the super-ego's
responses to aggressive and sexual impulses were
significantly correlated, p<.05. Host of the other
significant findings involved sex differences on various
measures.

Findings were generally not consistent with Freud’s
Oedipus coeplex model of super-ego development, but some
results were supportive of other Freudian ideas. There were
indications that the super-ego rating scale may be nominal
rather than ordinal in nature, and further exploration is

suggested.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation to my committee
chairperson, Dr. Joseph Reyher, for sharing his expertise in
psychoanalytic theory and in encouraging creativity in the
development of this project. I would like to extend my
gratitude to my other committe members, Dr. Norman Abeles,
Dr. John McKinney and Dr. Bertram Karon for their support and

helpful comments.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST m TABLES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Vi i
LIST W FIELRESe I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Vi i i

IntrOduction I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1
Hypothese. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 8

13

Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Results and Discussion . . . . 20
Inter-rater Reliability. . . 20
Preliminary Analyses . . . . 23

Wish stimuli . . . . . . . 23
Order effects. . . . . . . 24
Type of compensation . . . 24
Sources of subjects. . . . 32
Maternal separation. . . .

Modification of hypotheses
Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . .
Post hoc analyses. . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 2 . . . . . .
Post hoc analyses. . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 3 . . . . . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 4 . . . . . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 5 . . . . . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 6 . . . . . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 7 . . . . . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 8 . . . . . .
Immediate implications
Hypothesis 9 . . . . . .
Post hoc analyses. . .
Immediate implications

832222233333388833

UllUl
0~O<I

SS

Hypothesis 10. . . . . . 61

Immediate implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Hypothesis 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Hypothesis 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Post hoc analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Immediate implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Other Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Sex differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Type of paternal separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Racial consistency of paternal status groups . . . . 71

I I I I 73

Age at time of paternal separation . . . . .
Maternal separation and other paternal status groups 75
su.mar y I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 75
General Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

APPENDIX A Freud’s Theory of Super-ego Development. . . 81

APPENDIX 8 Research Relating Separation to Moral. . . . 86
Development

APPENDIX C 'Michigan State University Consent Form . . . 96
State University of New York at Stony Brook. 97
Consent Form

APPENDIX D Measuring Moral Development. . . . . . . . . 98

APPENDIX E “i 'h StiMli I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 10‘

APPENDIX F Story Completion Rating Method . . . . . . . 118

APPENDIX 6 Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

REFERENCES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 24

vi

1391.9.

0V0 Ul Auto“

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

19

21

22
23

24

LIST OF TABLES

Kappas for Blacky Pictures Story Ratings . . .
Correlating DWS and INS Response Super-ego . .
Ratings

Wish Stimuli and Blacky Pictures Order Effects
on Super-ego Ratings Using Mann-Whitney U Test
Wish Stimuli and Blacky Pictures Order Effects
on Blacky Pictures Ratings

Compensation Type Effects on Super-ego Ratings
Using Mann-Whitney U Test

Compensation Type Effects on Blacky Pictures .
Ratings

Parental Separation Groups by School of. . . .
Recruitment

Super-ego Ratings by School of Recruitment and
Time of Paternal Separation Using Mann-Whitney
U Test

Blacky Pictures Ratings by School of . . . . .
Recruitment and Time of Paternal Separation
Super-ego Ratings by Paternal Status Using . .
Mann-Whitney U Test

Correlating Super-ego Ratings Mean Ranks by. .
Predicted Paternal Status Group Order

Comparing Super-ego Ratings by Time of Paternal.

Separation Using Kruskal-Wallis One-Way ANOVA
Super-ego Ratings by Oedipal Paternal Status .
Using Kruskal—Wallis One-Way ANOVA

Comparing Sexes on Super-ego Ratings by Paternal

Status Using Mann-Whitney U Test
Super-ego Ratings of Males by Paternal . . . .
Identification Using Mann-Whitney U Test

Super-ego Ratings of Males by Castration Anxiety

Using Mann-Whitney U Test

Super-ego Ratings of Females by Paternal . . .
Identification Using Mann-Whitney U Test
Super-ego Ratings by Type of Parental. . . . .
Identification Using Mann-Whitney U Test
Comparing Sexes on Indulging of Wish Stimuli .
Impulses

Comparing Sexes on Blacky Pictures Ratings
Super-ego Ratings by Type of Paternal. . . . .
Separation Using Mann-Whitney U Test

Racial Frequencies by Family Status. . . . . .
Correlating Super-ego Ratings with Time of
Paternal Separation

Super-ego Ratings by Parental Status Using . .
Kruskal-Wallis One-Way ANOVA

vii

72

73
74

74

LIST OF FIGURES

Super-ego Rating Distributions by Paternal . . .
Status
Super-ego Ratings by Oedipal Paternal Status . .

viii

£19!
23

49

Introduction

Single parenting is prevalent, particularily single
mothers raising children. In 1980, 19.3% of American
children under the age of 18 years lived in a single parent
household- 17% living alone with the mother and 2.3% living
alone with the father (Sweet, & Bumpass, 1987). It is
projected that for children born in 1980, by the age of 17
years, 70% of white children and 94% of black children will
have at some point lived in a single parent home (Hofferth,
1985).

Sigmund Freud emphasized the important role that the
father plays in the development of the male super—ego,
particularily during the oedipal period. He was more
tentative on his thoughts about the origins of the female
super-ego and believed the structure to be generally inferior
to that of males. The purpose of this study is to determine
the lasting effects of paternal absence by death occurring
from a child’s birth through early adolescence on super-ego
development. Maturation of this structure will be compared
in young men and women having experienced paternal
bereavement during different psychosexual stages.

The origins of the super-ego is found in the young
child’s ego-ideal, a narcissistically charged structure
modeled after perceptions of the parents’ perfection (Freud,
1957/1914). Paternal identification becomes more prevalent
than maternal identification when the child becomes aware

that the mother has a shortcoming in her lack of a penis

I

2
(1961/1923). The ego-ideal later gives rise to the
super-ego which is formed during the dissolution of the
Oedipus complex.

In the case of boys, the Oedipus complex occurs when
the boy’s sexual impulses toward his mother increase, and he
views his father as a rival and would like to be rid of him.
In the meantime, the boy fears castration, and in the more
ordinary outcome of the Oedipus complex the object-cathexis
of the mother is desexualized or sublimated by the boy’s
increased identification with his father which forms the
beginnings of the super-ego. The super-ego contains moral
prohibitions such as against incest, and anxiety or guilt
arises when the performance of the ego conflicts with the
bidding of the super-ego. Freud (1964/1933I19321)
attributed three basic functions to the super-ego:
self-observation, conscience, and maintaining the ideal.

Freud (1961/1923) initially believed that dissolution
of the Oedipus complex occurs in an analogous manner in
girls such that the girl’s object-cathexis of the father
would ordinarily be replaced by identification with her
mother. Later in his writings Freud (1961/1925) adopted a
different version of what happens to girls during the
oedipal period. A little girl develops penis envy, and her
mother is viewed as having castrated her. The girl equates
having a baby with having a penis, and this leads her to
adopting her father as her new love-object. Unlike boys,

girls view themselves as already having been castrated, and

3
because of this they lack the motivation to end the Oedipus
complex. While in boys the Oedipus complex tends to be
destroyed, in girls it is more likely to be repressed,
linger before being given up or it may last long into a
woman’s adult life. Freud believed that as a result,
women’s super-egos are less developed than those of men.
However, in one of his later writings, Freud
(1964/1933I1932J) admitted to the possible fallibility and
incompleteness of his thoughts on the psychological
development of women.

At about the age of between six and eight years, the
phallic stage comes to an end, and the latency period begins
(Freud, 1963/1917 [1916-1917]). Psychosexual development is
temporarily interrupted, and Oedipal memories are repressed.
During puberty, sexual instincts are reawakened and
intensify, and the Oedipus complex is revivified (Freud,
1955/1923 [1922]). The final outcome of the Oedipus complex
is determined during this time as the adolescent struggles
against renewed incestuous impulses. See Appendix A for a
more complete presentation of Freud’s theories of super-ego
development.

The literature relating paternal absence to moral
development is diverse and fraught with methodological
problems. See Appendix B for a review of this research.
Only six studies were found that were judged to be
methodologically sound determined by reasonable matching of

groups on at least age, IO and SES. Furthermore, in

4
relating these findings to the present study, it should be
kept in mind that most of this research does not measure
Freudian constructs associated with super-ego functioning
such as resistance to temptation or the presence of guilty
feelings, particularily in relation to oedipal strivings.
This makes it difficult to draw conclusions from what is
already a paucity of research. In addition, even though all
experimental subjects in these studies experienced paternal
absence during or prior to early adolescence, the specific
age at time of loss is not always indicated. All subjects
were assessed during or following late latency.

For males, paternal loss has been associated with low
moral judgment when fathers are absent due to unspecified
reasons (Daum, & Bielauskas, 1983). Also, in comparison to
males coming from intact homes, those experiencing
unspecified absence of the father demonstrated lower moral
judgment, guilt, acceptance of blame, moral values, rule
conformity and more aggression (Hoffman, 1971a). One study
yielded mixed results (Santrock, 1975a). Males experiencing
paternal absence due to death or divorce were found to
exhibit lower levels of conscience and sociability and
greater deviation than males coming from intact homes.
However, the groups did not differ on measures of resistance
to temptation, moral jUdngflt or moral effect. This study
also showed no clear trend when comparing the relationship
between paternal absence due to death versus divorce on

moral development. Furthermore, no association was found

5
between age at time of paternal loss and degree of moral
development. Similarily, other research found no
relationship between age at the time of paternal absence due
to death or divorce and moral Judgment (Parish, 1980).
However, one study demonstrated that males having
experienced some paternal absence while between the ages of
one and four years due to their fathers’ military duty,
reported more antisocial behavior than subjects experiencing
no paternal absence (Siegman, 1966). It should be noted
that subjects experiencing paternal absence during other age
periods were not included in this study.

In relating parental loss during childhood to female
moral development, one study found no association between
unspecified paternal absence and moral judgment, guilt,
acceptance of blame, moral values, rule conformity or
aggression (Hoffman, 1971a). Similarily, another study
showed no relationship between paternal absence by death or
divorce and moral judgment (Parish, & Copeland, 1981).
Regarding a possible critical time period when loss may be
most impacting on females, early paternal absence was found
to be associated with decreased moral Judgment (Parish,
1980: Parish, & Copeland, 1981). Of research comparing the
effects of different types of paternal loss in females, one
study suggested that there is no difference between the
impact of parental absence by death in comparison to divorce
on moral Judgment (Parish, & Copeland, 1981).

Some studies combined the two sexes on factors

6
discussed above. One study found a significant association
between paternal absence and low moral judgment (Parish,
1980). The same study suggests that loss of the father
through divorce has a more detrimental effect than paternal

death on moral judgment.

In summary, it is difficult to draw conclusions from so
few studies using a variety of means to measure moral
development. However, the literature does suggest a trend
in which general paternal absence during childhood is
related to low moral development in males but not in
females. This is somewhat consistent with Freudian theory.
But another apparent trend is that early paternal loss in
females is associated with low moral development while no
critical age period at time of loss was suggested for males.
Contrary to these findings, it would be predicted from
Freud’s work that early paternal loss would be particularily
detrimental to moral development, especially for males. But
again, it is difficult to come to firm conclusions from a
handful of studies. Finally, paternal death and divorce do
not seem to be differentially associated with degree of
moral development. Freudian theory would predict any sort
of paternal absence during or prior to the Oedipal period to
disrupt super-ego formation.

Some relevant studies related to super-ego development
have yielded favorable results. Leichty (1959-1960)
discovered that male college students whose fathers were

away during war while they were between the ages of three

7
and five years, demonstrated significantly greater oedipal
intensity and less identification with the father than
control subjects. However, the groups did not differ as
predicted on castration anxiety. Rabin (1958) studied
fourth grade boys and found that those children raised in a
kibbutz demonstrated significantly less positive
identification with the father and less Oedipal intensity
than non-kibbutz Israeli children. Hoffman (1971b) found
that in seventh grade boys, identification with the father
was significantly and positively related to level of moral
iUUOQCflts moral values, and rule conformity. In the girls
in the same study, identification was associated with rule
conformity.

A study of middle to late adolescent girls (Grayson,
1967) compared subjects on psychosexual conflict after
experiencing the death of the mother or father at different
psychosexual stages. No differences were found between
groups by sex of the parent lost. However, Grayson’s
findings supported the idea that death of a parent during
the Oedipal stage results in greater psychosexual conflict
than loss occurring during other developmental stages in the
following descending order: preoedipal, early adolescence,
latency, and no loss.

Taking these findings under account and assuming that
some children bereft of a parent during the preoedipal
period will and some will not gain a replacement parent

during the Oedipal period, suggests that experiencing loss

8
of a parent during the oedipal period contributes more to
psychosexual conflict than the conditions of either missing
a parent from the beginning of that period and throughout or
replacing the previously missing parent sometime during the
Oedipal stage. Using similar assumptions related to the
likelihood of continued absence of one parent from one
psychosexual period to the next, one may conclude from the
study that loss of a parent during adolescence is more
disruptive psychosexually than continual parental absence
following on from the latency period or replacement of the
missing parent before or during adolescence.

Grayson’s findings are somewhat at odds with classical
Freudian theory which would predict that the earlier that
parental absence occurs, the greater the disruption of
psychosexual development. Due to the valuing of empirically
based information, and that the method of the current study
made it possible for a father figure replacement to be
introduced into the home during a later psychosexual stage
following death of the biological father, the author of the
current paper decided to base some predictions on Grayson's
findings. However, it is acknowledged that classical
Freudian theory would predict that the earlier the paternal
separation occurs, the greater the disruption of-super-ego
development. This may be viewed as an alternate prediction.
breathless:

1. Paternal death occurring during childhood is

negatively associated with super-ego development.

9

Freud (1961/1925) believed that the super-ego of males
(eg. fathers) is generally superior to that of females (eg.
mothers). and absence of the father would preclude paternal
identification.

2. Super-ego development is greatest in the following
groups in descending order: intact family, paternal death
during latency, paternal death during early adolescence,
paternal death during preoedipal period, paternal death
during Oedipal period.

The specific ordering of groups was partly determined
by Leichty’s (1959-1960) findings. Paternal absence
occurring during the Oedipal period should disrupt super-ego
development because the Oedipal triangle would no longer
exist, and there would be no Oedipus complex to resolve.
Freud (1961/1925) observed that with the shattering of the
Oedipus complex in males, there is identification with the
father and establishment of the super-ego. Paternal
separation occurring during the preoedipal period- the time
of ego-ideal formation, should negatively affect super-ego
development, but this study’s methodology allowed for the
possibility that there could be a paternal replacement
figure during the Oedipal stage. Paternal status during the
early adolescence period was placed next in importance in
regard to super-ego functioning because of revivification of
the Oedipus complex during this time (Freud, 1955/1923
[1922]). The latency paternal separation group is predicted

to achieve the greatest super-ego development out of all of

10
the father absence groups because latency is typically a
time when sexual impulses are sublimated, and Oedipal issues
are repressed (Freud, 1963/1917 [1916-1917]). The intact
family group is predicted to have the highest super-ego
functioning out of all the groups because both parents have
been present throughout the psychosexual stages, thus
setting up an ordinary Oedipal environment.

3. The detrimental impact of paternal death occurring
during the Oedipal period on super-ego development is
greater on males than on females.

According to Freud (1961/1925), males have greater
potential for super-ego development than females due to
differences in anatomy. Paternal absence during the Oedipal
period would prevent or eliminate the presence of an Oedipal
triangle, and in the case of males, preclude fear of
castration by the father.

4. High super-ego development in males is associated
with strong paternal identification.

When the super-ego forms in males, it takes on the
character of the father (Freud, 1961/1923).

5. High super-ego development in males is associated
with strong castration anxiety.

The motivation for boys to end the Oedipus complex,
which leads to super-ego formation, is fear of castration by
the father (Freud, 1961/1924).

6. High super-ego development in females is associated

with strong paternal identification.

11

Freud (1961/1925) concluded that the super-ego
development of females (eg. mothers) is generally inferior
to that of males (eg. fathers). Strength of the super-ego
in females should be positively associated with paternal
identification.

7. Death of the father during the Oedipal period is
associated with strong Oedipal intensity in males.

Absence of the father during the Oedipal period would
leave a son alone with his mother- the object of his
incestuous desires, and the father would not be present to
curb such wishes by threatening castration.

8. Death of the father during the Oedipal period is
associated with low castration anxiety in males.

The boy’s fear of castration by the father is prominent
during the time of the Oedipus complex (Freud, 1961/1924).

9. The super-ego responds in a similar mannner to an
Oedipal incestuous wish as to a death wish toward an oedipal
rival.

Incestuous desires for the opposite sex parent and a
desire to get rid of the rival opposite sex parent are
related issues during the time of the Oedipus complex
(Freud, 1961/1924). Depending on the outcome of the Oedipus
complex, the super-ego should react to such wishes
similarily.

10. The death of either parent during the Oedipal
period interferes with super-ego development, but paternal

loss during this period has a greater negative impact than

12
maternal loss.

The presence of both parents is required for
development of an Oedipal triangle, which in the typical
case of males, leads to the shattering of the Oedipus
complex and formation of the super-ego. Freud’s (1961/1925)
assertion that the super-ego of males is generally superior
to that of females leads to the prediction that
identification with the father is more positively associated
with super-ego development than identification with the
mother. Loss of the father should be more detrimental to
super-ego formation than loss of the mother.

11. Maternal death occurring during the Oedipal period
interferes with the super-ego development of both sexes, but
regardless of the status of the mother, super-ego
development of males is superior to that of females.

Maternal absence prior to Oedipus complex resolution
would eliminate the Oedipal triangle for both girls and
boys, but anatomical differences between the sexes (eg. the
potential for boys to be threatened with castration) should
give males an edge over females in regard to super-ego
development.

12. Paternal identification is more positively
associated with super-ego development than maternal
identification.

Freud (1961/1925) viewed super-ego development of
females (eg. mothers) to be generally inferior to that of

males (eg. fathers).

Method
Ssbjscts

This study was originally designed to investigate
various effects of parental separation during childhood due
to death using Michigan State University students receiVing
psychology course credits. However, during the course of
data collection it became apparent that not enough subjects
could be procured in this manner within a reasonable time
frame. A deCision was made to extend inclusion in this
study to subjects from another university, to subjects
receiving monetary compensation, and to subjects haying been
separated from a parent during childhood due to causes other
than death (eg. divorce).

Two-hundred-fortv-seven students combined from Michigan
State University (MSU) and State University of New York
(SUNY) at Stony Brook participated in this study. Both are
large. state supported schools located in rural areas. The
mean age of the subjects was 20.60 years with a standard
deviation of 2.98 years. Subjects were recruited by class
announcement. class signup sheet. campus newspaper ad and
flier. The consent forms are in Appendix C. Of the 237 MSU
students who participated in this study, 160 received
research credits for a psychology class, and 74 were paid
$4.00. All 13 of the SUNY students received $4.00 in
compensation. It was decided that subjects from the two
schools would be combined if they did not differ on critical

variables. In addition, subjects receiving different forms

13

14
of compensation would be combined if they did not differ on
i mportant yari abl es.

Seventy-one females and 48 males reported paternal
separation before the age of 15 years. Between 5 and 23
subjects of each sex encompassed each of the following
paternal separation groups in which the father ceased to
reside in the home due to death or other causes (eg.
divorce) during a specific period: between birth and age 2
1/2 years (preoedipal), ages 2 1/2 through 7 years
(Oedipal), ages 8 through 10 years (latency), and ages 11
through 14 years (early adolescence). In addition, subjects
were not used in whose families a paternal replacement
figure (eg. stepfather, mother's boyfriend, etc.) lived in
the home during the specified developmental period in which
the paternal separation occurred. The subjects were also
required to have resided with their remaining natural parent
up to the age of 15 years. In addition, subjects who
experienced any extended separation (greater than six
months) from either parent prior to the paternal separation
were not included in the study. The above restrictions
regarding paternal separation were applied to the mother for
the 14 subjects in the maternal separation group. There
were 56 males and 58 females from intact families. These
control subjects reported no extended separation from either
original parent between birth and the age of 15 years.

Ipstcusspis

The super-ego is a complex construct to operationally

15
define. Three major ways of measuring moral development
have been established in the literature: cognitive,
behavioral and affective. Besides trying to determine which
mode of measurement most accurately taps the super-ego, the
lack of consistency in measurement of moral development
across individual, time, and situation as demonstrated in
the literature presents another challenge. See Appendix D
for a review of research on moral development.

To measure super-ego development in the present study,
the most reliable means possible consistent with Freudian
theory was of interest. Freud noted that guilt and anxiety
can be indicators of friction between the super-ego and ego
when an individual has behaved in a way inconsistent with
internalized moral standards. The transgression may be
overt or covert. Two impulses toward the parents which
theoretically occur during the Oedipal period and should
later be repudiated with development of a healthy super-ego
are incestuous desires and death wishes. After Oedipal
strivings are deemed immoral by the super-ego, these are
such powerful taboo impulses that they should consistently
elicit punitive reactions against the ego.

Allinsmith (1960) devised a story completion approach
to measure conscience in children by severity of guilt,
defensive externalization of guilt, and resistance to
temptation. Allinsmith’s stories were all constructed such
that the hero or heroine violates or is tempted to violate a

moral code in such a way that risk of detection by others is

16
low. Subjects’ completions to the stories were assessed for
internal controls and reactions to transgressions. Guilt
was determined by direct acknowledgement of guilt and
self-blame, indirect acknowledgement such as by reparation
attempts, and the presence of defensively distorted guilt,
indicated, for example, by prOjection of blame onto others.
Defensive externalization of guilt was scored if the
hero/heroine was punished or feared punishment or
disapproval from an external source.

In the present study two story beginnings- wish stimuli
(Appendix E), were constructed to activate super-ego
reactions to Oedipal strivings: Incestuous Wish Stimulus
(INS) and Death Wish Stimulus (OHS). The IRS was devised to
stimulate incestuous desires fcr'the opposite sex parent.

It is a story about a college student alone in a sensual
environment with an older person of the opposite sex who is
intended to symbolically represent a parent. In general,
the INS was designed to stimulate sexual impulses. The DHS
was developed to activate desires to eliminate the same sex
parent as a rival. It is a story about a college student in
a competitive setting in which an older person of the same
sex, who is meant to symbolically represent a parent, is in
a potentially life threatening situation. In general, the
DHS was designed to stimulate aggressive impulses.

The hero/heroine in each wish stimulus, with whom the
subject is presumed to identify with, thinks the wish, but

the ending is left ambiguous such that it is not clear

17
whether or not s/he indulges the impulse. The wish stimuli
were slightly modified for each sex so that the hero or
heroine and death wish target were all of the same sex as
the subject, and the incestous object was of the opposite
sex. Otherwise, the story lines were essentially identical
for both sexes.

The wish stimuli and super-ego rating method (Appendix
F) are loosely based on Allinsmith’s methods. The current
rating method integrates all three of Allinsmith's measures
of conscience into one hierarchical 7 point scale assessing
super-ego functioning. For example, anxiety or guilt
arising out of fear of one's own conscience is rated higher
than that arising out of pne’s fear of disapproval from
others. Also, resistance to'temptation was built into the
rating scale such that super-ego functioning is rated lower
when the impulse is indulged than when it is resisted.

Blum (1949) developed a projective method called the
Blacky Pictures to assess progression through the
psychosexual stages. Subjects tell stories to cartoons that
have animal characters who are introduced as members of a
family. Blum used animals rather than humans as characters
because he believed that it would reduce resistance by
decreasing subjects’ awareness of personal issues in
relation to the stimuli. Using rated Blacky Picture stories
of college students, Blum produced statistically significant
results consistent with Freudian theory in 14 out of 15

areas tested. Temporal stability of stories produced was

18
found in repeated administration of the Blacky Pictures to b
to 11 year old children (Branick & Sheflen, 1958).

Using cards IV, VI and VII, subjects were assessed on
Oedipal Intensity, Castration Anxiety and Positive
Identification through ratings of their stories. Two
raters, one who was the author, independently rated Blacky
Pictures stories and story completions. Both raters were
blind to subjects’ group membership. In the case of rater
disagreement, the author, still blind to subject group
membership, made the final decision on the ratings.

Subjects were also administered a brief family and
personal status questionnaire (Appendix 6). Subjects were
asked for demographic information and to rate creativity in
family members and other people residing in the childhood

household.

Ecgsduce
Considering that this study was designed to stimulate

and tap unconscious behavior, some deception was necessary
to reduce the chance of subjects consciously editing or
manipulating their responses. Accordingly, subjects were
told that this was a study of the development of creativity
in families- specifically measured in this setting by
subjects’ use of imagination when writing stories.
Following completion of the study, all subjects were mailed
a debriefing feedback sheet which explained the procedures
used and the rationale for deception. In addition, the

feedback sheet provided general results of the study and

19
explained their relationship to Freudian theory.
Instruments were administered in a group setting to
reduce self-consciousness and the possibility of producing
socially desirable responses. Subjects were assessed

concurrently in same sex groups. The experimenter and a
male assistant proctored separate research sessions, and

both were blind to individuals’ group membership. Subjects

were first given the personal and family status
questionnaire which required the rating of household
members’ creativity. Administration of the Blacky Pictures
and the story completion method followed and were
counterbalanced. The Blacky Pictures were always given in
the order of Oedipal Intensity, Castration Anxiety and
Positive Identification, whereas the wish stimuli were
always administered with the INS first and the DNS second.
Subjects either viewed the Blacky Pictures prOjected
onto a screen visible to all of the subjects or they were
given a copy of each Blacky Picture on an 8 1/2 X 11' sheet
of paper so that each subject had a separate copy to view.
Instructions given to groups were similar to those given by
Blum (1949). Subjects were given five minutes to write a
story to each picture presented. Regarding administration
of the story completion method, subjects were provided with
a copy of each story stimulus, and they were asked to follow
along as it was read to them by a female voice from a
taperecorder. When the reading was completed, the subjects

were then given five minutes to finish writing the story.

Results and Discussion

Super-ego rating distributions of responses to the
Death Wish Stimulus (DNS) and Incestuous Nish Stimulus (INS)
were multi-modal. Figure 1 shows these distributions for
groups of interest (eg. intactness of family during
childhood. sex). It was not possible to normalize such
distributions via mathematical transformation which
necessitated the use of nonparametric statistics in
analyzing the data. The super-ego rating scale was
theoretically based and designed to be ordinal in nature,
but the nonnormal distributions raise the concern that it is
actually a nominal scale. Nevertheless, ordinal properties
were assumed when analyzing the data.
intsc:céssc_3slis9ilitx

Reliability between the two raters on super-ego
development was calculated separately for each wish stimulus
using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. Using
ratings of responses to the INS and DNS yielded Spearman
rank correlation coefficients of .76 and .73. respectively.
This is marginally acceptable inter-rater reliability.

Reliability coefficient kappa (Cohen, 1960) was
calculated for each of the three Blacky Pictures rating
systems: Oedipal Intensity (k=.60, u=247), Castration
Anxiety (k=.58, 58247), and Positive Identification (k=.82,
38246). Table 1 reveals that the degree of agreement

between raters for each system was satisfactory and

20

15

10

NUMBER OF

SUBJECTS
25
20
15
10
5

Figure 1

 

 

21

o Females

e Males

l 2 3 4 5 6 7

DNS Super-ego Rating of
Paternal Separation Group

o Females

e Males

I I L 1 1 l l

 

l 2 3 4 5 6 7

INS Super-ego Rating of
Paternal Separation Group

5993::299-Bstinn_Distributions-tx.Eaiscpsl-5tatus

”Figure 1 (cont’d)'

NUMBER OF

SUBJECTS

i3

15

10

25

15

10

 

 

22

0 Females

e Males -

I j I I I I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
DNS Super-ego Rating of
Intact Family Group

0 Females

e Males

 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

INS Super-ego Rating of
Intact Family Group

significant. Q{.0001.

Table 1

-___§lssE¥_Eisiscs ...... -3- Es Es -59- Eases __s_-
Oedipal Intensity 247 .82 .54 .97 .60 8.74:
Castration Anxiety 247 .83 .59 .79 .58 7.53:

Positive Identification 246 .94 .64 .94 .82 9.641

Xg< .0001

Nggg. Po is the proportion of agreement between raters. Pc
is the proportion of agreement expected by chance. Km is
the maximum possible value of Kappa as determined by
marginal distributions.

Erslimipscx-ansixsss

Ni§h_§gimglig Super-ego rating distributions vary by
wish stimulus (see Figure 1). 0n the DNS rating
distributions, males and females from both intact family and
paternal separation groups peak on a rating of 6, whereas on
the INS rating distributions, all of the same groups with
the exception of the paternal separation males who peak on a
rating of 2, have the highest frequency on a rating of 7.
Differences between wish stimulus distributions suggest that
ratings and/or material elicited from the two wish stimuli
are not uniform. This could be due to differences specific

to the narratives (eg. narrative style, wish circumstances,

24
etc.).

DNS and INS super-ego ratings were not related ([§=.13,
N8247), g>.05; however, this was not the case when
relationships between the two wish stimuli were broken down
into component groups (see Table 2). Significant
correlations were found for childhood paternal separation
subjects (g§=.24, N=119), g<.01, childhood paternal
separation females (cg-.22, N871), g<.05, and childhood
paternal separation males ([§=.32, 3848), g<.05. There were
no significant correlations for any of the intact family
groups.

Taken together, the obtained differences in the two
types of super-ego ratings, and correlations between the two
wish stimuli suggest that DNS and INS are tapping different
facets of super-ego functioning. As a result, it was
decided to test hypotheses using super-ego ratings to each
wish stimulus separately.

chgc_gfifgg_§, Order of wish stimuli and Blacky
Pictures was uninformative (see Tables 3 and 4). Of the 16
Mann-Nhitney U tests performed, only 1 was significant,
9-8.00. 8-15, g<.05.

Iygg_gfi_ggmggg§§§igg, Subjects either received class
credit or money for participation in the study. Possible
confounding differences between subjects due to varying
motivations for participating in the experiment were

considered. Tables 5 and 6 show that there were no

significant differences between any groups on any of the

25
Tabl e 2

portslstimfiws and-l!§-Bssesess-§sesc:ess_Bsiisss

Easily_§tatss --_§es-.. -5- ——£§——
Combined Combi bed 247 . 13
Females 137 . 09
Mal es 1 10 . 14
Intact Combi ned 1 14 . 03
Family Females 58 -.02
Mal es 56 . 05
Paternal Combi ned 1 19 . 24tt
Separati on F emal es 7 1 . 22'
Males 48 . 323
¥Q< . 05

isg<.01

2912-911

Easily_$tatus _-§ss__ gist

Preoedi pal
Paternal
Separation

Oadi pal
Paternal
Separati on

Latency
Paternal
Separati on

Ear l y

Adol escence
Paternal
Separat i on

Females

Males

Femal es

Males

Femal es

Males

Femal es

Mal es

INS

INS
DNS
INS
DNS
INS

38:55-92297

“sag? ”SEC...

.3 ness_3ask .! ussn-Bss£ __g__

15
15

88

”I"

up
UGNNF‘FVVUUUUNNUM

unfit!

0|“
fl

tg<.05

aSample size was too small for statistical calculation.

27

Table 4

2-8451995
-§E_Bsti_ns
. 2
EasilLé-Irtstss "525-- "-92--.. 9:92: 5399! List 9! X.
Intact Females Oedipal BPJ'S 5 2° 1 -56
Fami I y Intgns. NS, BP 10 23
Castrat. BPgNS 3 22 1 .27
Anxiety NS,BP 9 24
Positive 8P.NS 7 18 1 .72
Identif. NS.BP 5 28
Males Oedipal SENS 12 16 1 .59
Intens. 915.8? 15 13
Castrat. 8P,NS 11 17 1 .59
Anxiety N593P 14 14
Positiyeb arms 6 22 1 .11
Identif. NS,BP 6 22
Preoedi pal F emal es Oedi pal 8P , NS 0 3 c
Paternal Intens. NS , 8P 3 2
‘Separation Castrat. BP,NS O 3 c
Anxiety NS,BP 1 4
Positive BP,NS 1 2 c
Identif. NS,BO 2 3
Males Oedipal BP,NS 2 1 d
Intens. NS,8P 0 2
Castrat. BP,NS 2 1 d
Anxiety NS,BP 2 0
Positive b anus 1 2 d
Identif. NS,BP O 2
Dodipal Females Oedipal 39.1.15 3 5 c
Paternal Intens. as, a? 5 10
Separati on Castrat . 8P, NS 0 8 c
Anxiety NS,8P 2 13
Positive a BP,NS I 7 c
Identif. NS,BP 1 14
Males Oedipal BP,NS 3 7 c
Intens. NS,8P 1 4
Castrat. BP,NS 3 7 c
Anxiety NS,8P 0 5
Positive b BP,NS 0 10 c
Identif. NS,8P O 5
Lst-ncy Females Oedipal anus 3 9 c
Paternal Intens. NS, 8P 3 4
Stunt-an on Castrat. anus 7 5 c
Anxiety NS,BP 3 4

”Table 4 (cont'dI'

Positive a BP,NS 2 10 c
Identif. NS,8P 1 6
Males Oedipal 8P,NS 3 4 c
Intens. NS,8P 0 1
Castrat. BP,NS 2 5 c
Anxiety NS,8P O 1
Positive b BP,NS 3 4 c
Identif. NS,8P 0 1
Early Females Oedipal BP,NS 1 8 c
Adolescence Intens. NS,BP 4 8
Paternal Castrat. BP,NS 5 4 c
Separation Anxiety NS,BP 5 '7
Positive 3 BP,NS 1 a c
Identif. NS,BP 2 10
Males Oedipal 8P,NS 10 5 c
Intens. NS,8P 2 3
Castrat. 8P,NS 7 8 c
Anxiety NS,8P 1 4
Positive b BP,NS 3 12 c
Identif. NS,BP 2 3

Qgtg. None of the above frequencies differed significantly.
aStrong includes identification with mother or parents.
bStrong includes identification with father or parents.
cFisher exact probability test was used.

6Sample size was too small for statistical calculation.

Table 5
Qseesssatiss-Ixes-Eitesis_ed_§sesc:sgg__stisss

Usisn_usss:flbitssx_y_lsst

Money____ Credit

Easily Status -_§es_- 51:9 -8 besn_3ant -u bese_Benk __U-_

Intact Females DNS 16 33.34 42 28.04 274.50
Family INS 16 29.81 42 29.38 331.00
Males DNS 16 28.16 40 28.64 314.50

INS 16 31.06 40 27.48 279.00

Preoedipal Females DNS 4 4.75 4 4.25 7.00
Paternal INS 4 4.00 4 5.00 6.00
Separation Males DNS 1 4.50 4 2.63 a
INS 1 5.00 4 2.50 a
Oedipal Females DNS 8 11.19 15 12.43 53.50
Paternal INS 8 12.50 15 11.73 56.00
Separation Males DNS 4 9.13 11 7.59 17.50
INS 4 9.50 11 7.45 16.00
Latency Females DNS 10 7.95 9 12.28 24.50
Paternal INS 10 10.30 9 9.67 42.00
Separation Males DNS 3 3.33 5 5.20 4.00
INS 3 4.50 5 4.50 7.50
Early Females DNS 7 11.64 14 10.68 44.50
Adolescence INS 7 11.21 14 10.89 47.50
Paternal Males DNS 6 7.42 14 11.82 23.50
Separation INS 6 8.42 14 11.39 29.50

3939. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.

aSample size was top small for statistical calculation.

30
Table 6

QQQQgflééiigfl-SQQQQQQSLl-I!9!-E££l§§2-99-BLQE!¥-EISIQEE!-£§EL

Resins!
18.32.21.131:
2
Easilxjtstss “Seat." "-22--.. 999299.13. Stress List at l-
Intact Females Oedipal Money 1 15 1 3.13
Family Intens. Credit 14 28
Castrat. Money 2 14 1 .35
Anxiety Credit 10 32
Positive a Money 4 12 1 1.33
Identif. Credit 8 34
Males Oedipal Money 7 9 1 .02
Intens. Credit 20 20
Castrat. Money 4 12 1 2.47
Anxiety Credit 21 19
Positive 13 Money 2 14 1 .49
Identif. Credit 10 30
Preoedipal Females Oedipal Money 2 2 c
Paternal Intens. Credit 1 3
Separation Castrat. Money 1 3 c
Anxiety Credit 0 4
Positive a Money 2 2 c
Identif. Credit 1 3
Males Oedipal Money 0 1 d
Intens. Credit 2 2
Castrat. Money 1 0 d
Anxiety Credit 3 1
Positive b Money 0 1 d
Identif. Credit 1 3
Oedipal Females Oedipal Money 1 7 c
Paternal Intens. Credit 7 8
Separation Castrat. Money 2 6 c
Anxiety Credit 0 15
Positive a Money 1 7 c
Identif. Credit 1 14
Males Oedipal Money 2 2 c
Intens. Credit 2 9
Castrat. Money 0 4 c
Anxiety Credit 3 8
Positive b Money 0 3 c
Identif. Credit 0 11
Latency Females Oedipal Money 4 6 c
Paternal Intens. Credit 2 7
Separation Castrat. Money 6 4 c
Anxiety Credit 4 5

"Table 6 (cont’d)'

31

Positive a Money 2 8
Identif. Credit 1 8
Males Oedipal Money 2 1
Intens. Credit 1 4
Castrat. Money 2 1
Anxiety Credit 0 5
Positive b Money 1 2
Identif. Credit 3 2
Early Females Oedipal Money 0 7
Adolescence Intens. Credit 5 9
Paternal Castrat. Money 4 3
Separation Anxiety Credit 6 8
Positive a Money 1 6
Identif. Credit 2 12
Males Oedipal Money 3 3
Intens. Credit 9 5
Castrat. Money 3 3
Anxiety Credit 5 9
Positive b Money 1 5 c
Identif. Credit 4 10
Ngtg. None of the above frequencies differed significantly.

aStrong includes identification with mother or parents.
bStrong includes identification with father or parents.
cFisher exact probability test was used.

dSample size was too small for statistical calculation.

7
32

dependent variables by type of compensation. Some analyses
could not be performed due to small sample size.

Sggggg§_gfi_§ggjggt§; Small subject size precluded
making the appropriate comparisons between subjects
recruited from State University of New York (SUNY) at Stony
Brook and Michigan State University (MSU) (see Table 7).
Only inter-university group comparisons were possible on
early adolescence paternal separation males and Oedipal
paternal separation females (see Tables 8 and 9). One
significant difference by school of recruitment was found-
females on castration anxiety. Two out of 3 of the SUNY
subjects were rated strong on castration anxiety while none
of the 20 MSU subjects were rated strong, g<.05. However,
since none of the hypotheses using female subjects included
the castration anxiety variable, this finding did not pose a
problem in analyzing the data. Accordingly, caution will be
exercised when interpreting results that include subjects
from both universities.

Matggg§;_§§ggcgtigg, As Table 7 also illustrates, the
small number of subjects in each maternal separation group
made it statistically implausible to check for compatibility
between groups (eg. sex, type of compensation, order effect,
separation period, school of recruitment). Despite this,
all of these subjects were combined into one maternal
separation group, but analyses using this group should be

interpreted with much caution.

33

Table 7

__._§snssl_--_
"Seat.“ Seascatigd Basset 115.9 £593!
Females Preoedipal Father 7 1
Mother 0 0

Oedipal Father 20 3

Mother 1 0

Latency Father 19 0

Mother 1 1

Early Father 20 1

Adolescence Mother 4 1

Males Preoedipal Father 5 0
Mother 0 0

Oedipal Father 15 0

Mother 0 1

Latency Father 6 2

Mother 3 0

Early Father 17 3

Adolescence Mother 2 0

34
Table 8

§sesc=sgg-Batisgs_9x_§sbsel_gi-Bsscsitesst_sng-Iies_gi

U59-Bsscsitssst SQ!!_Bsscsitesst

Sex Separatiss wish .! usan_Bsss -8 been-8sst _ U

Females Oedipal DNS 20 11.78 3 13.50 25.50
INS 20 11.73 3 13.83 24.50

Males Early DNS 17 7.50 3 11.03 16.50
Adolescence INS 17 7.00 3 11.12 15.00

Ngtg. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.
There were no other paternal separation groups with large
enough samples to perform statistics.

35

Table 9

Iies-si-Eaiscpsl-Sseacstien

-_-§E_Bsting_-

-_§ss__ Separatiss _--§E___ fishes; fittess Net
Females Oedipal Oedipal MSU 8 12
Intens. SUNY 0 3
Castrat. MSU 0 20!

Anxiety SUNY 2 1

Positive a MSU 2 18

Identif. SUNY O 3

Males Early Oedipal MSU 10 7
Adolescence Intens. SUNY 2 1

Castrat. MSU 6 11

Anxiety SUNY 2 1

Positive b MSU 4 13

Identif. SUNY 1 2

tg<.05

Note. Fisher exact probability test was used in all of the

above cases.
a Strong i ncl udes i denti f i cati on wi th mother or parents.

bStrong includes identification with father or parents.

36

Uggiiisstipp_9£_bypgibsss§; As already noted in the
Method section, an attempt to recruit a sufficient number of
subjects having experienced death of a father during
childhood was unsuccessful. As a result, subjects having
been separated from their fathers during childhood for
reasons other than death (eg. divorce) were added to the
original subjects to form general paternal separation
groups. This change made some of the hypotheses untestable
as originally written because they offered predictions
specifically pertaining to groups having experienced death
of a father during childhood. Consequently, in reference to
the status of subjects’ fathers, the word "separation“ has
been substituted for "death" for Hypotheses 1., 2., 3., 7.,
8., and 10. Similarily, maternal “death" was substituted
with ”separation“ for Hypotheses 10 and 11.

Hyggtng§;§_;, which specified that paternal separation
occurring during childhood is negatively associated with
super-ego development, was accepted with reservations.

Using DNS super-ego ratings, resulted in the intact
family group (Mean rank=124.28, N=114) scoring significantly
higher than the paternal separation group (Mean rank=110.03,
38119), Mann-Nhitney g.5953_oo, g<.05 (see Table 10).
However, the intact family group (Mean rank=116.03) did not
differ significantly from the paternal separation group
(Mean rank=117.93) in INS super-ego ratings, U-b672.00,

g>.05.

37

Sis!)
DNS Combined 114 124.28 119 110.03 5953.00.
Females 58 72.03 71 59.25 1651.003
Males 56 53.68 48 51.13 1278.00
INS Combined 114 116.03 119 117.93 6672.00
Females 58 60.32 71 68.82 1787.50

Males 56 56.55 48 47.77 1117.00

¥g<.05

38

EQ§§_QQ;_§Q§ly§g§; For females, using DNS super-ego
ratings, the intact family group (Mean rank=72.03, fl=58) was
rated significantly higher than the paternal separation
group (Mean rank=59.25, B=7l), y=1651.00, g<.05.

lsmegiésg_iseligétigns; The findings provide mixed
support for the hypothesis. The significant difference
between the paternal status groups using DNS super-ego
ratings is consistent with the findings of Parish (1980),
who did find paternal absence to be associated with
decreased moral judgment. The findings suggest that in
comparison to those from intact homes, childhood paternal
separation is associated with greater difficulty in managing
aggressive impulses (eg. death wish toward symbolic same sex
parent), but not significantly greater difficulty in
managing sexual impulses (eg. incestous wish toward opposite
sex parent).

It is possible that the DNS instrument is more
sensitive to super-ego functioning than the INS instrument.
This would be surprising in that the prohibition against
incestous impulses is more directly related to Freud’s
conceptualization of the development of the super-ego, than
‘prohibition of aggressive impulses. Freud was not clear
about developmental mechanisms at work when females achieve
super-ego development, but in the case of males, it is the
incestuous desire for the mother and subsequent fear of
castration from the father which motivates a boy to end the

Oedipus complex. Identification with the father leads to

39
development of the super-ego. The relationship that the
Oedipus complex has to aggressive impulses is the desire to
eliminate the father as rival in possession of the mother as
love object. Perhaps the relationship between aggressive
drive and super-ego functioning is more important than Freud
considered.

In general, Freud placed much less emphasis on
aggressive drive than libidinal drive, but in his later
years he identified both of them as the two major classes of
instincts. At the time that he introduced his structural
theory (Freud, 1923), he showed increased interest in
aggressive drive, which he referred to as death instinct.
The death instinct can be directed toward the external
world, or it can work internally against the ego (Freud,
1940(19381).

He noted that the super-ego uses aggressive instinct
against the ego which results in a sense of guilt. Indeed,
use of aggressive drive may be more important in determining
degree of super-ego functioning than use of libidinal drive.
Perhaps aggressive impulsiveness is an indication that an
insufficient amount of aggressive drive is being channeled
into use by the super-ego to manage morally unacceptable
impulses.

Using super-ego ratings of DNS responses, females from
intact families scored significantly higher than paternal
separation females. This finding parallels those discussed

above when combining the sexes. Other studies have found no

40
relationship between paternal absence and low moral
development in females (Hoffman, 1971b; Parish & Copeland,
1981). It is possible that differences in ways of measuring
moral development between the current study and those in the
literature, account for the different conclusions.

For males, super-ego ratings to neither wish stimulus,
discriminated significantly between intact family and
paternal separation groups. This is in conflict with other
research in which males from intact homes were found to have
greater moral development to those having experienced
paternal separation (Daum, & Bielauskas, 1983; Siegman,
1966; Hoffman, 1971a). Considering the importance that
Freud placed on the presence of the father in males’
super-ego development, it is surprising that the two
paternal status groups did not significantly differ in the
present study. Perhaps this study’s manner of measuring
super—ego development is not precise enough to pick up such
group differences in males. Another possibility is that
childhood paternal presence is not as critical to super-ego
development in males as Freud believed.
bypggbggig_g, which predicted that super-ego development is
greatest in the following groups in descending order: intact
family, paternal separation during latency, paternal
separation during early adolescence, paternal separation
during preoedipal period, paternal separation during Oedipal
period, was rejected.

The order of the mean ranks of these groups was not

41
significantly correlated with the predicted order for DNS
super-ego ratings, c§=.30, g>.05, or for INS super-ego
ratings, E§=-.10, g>.05 (see Table 11). The actual ordering
of mean ranks for DNS super-ego ratings was preoedipal (Mean
rank=98.65, 3813), latency paternal separation (Mean
rank=104.96, 5:27), early adolescence paternal separation
(Mean rank=109.48, ”-41), Oedipal paternal separation (Mean
rank-118.11, 3838), and intact family (Mean rank-124.28,
u=114). The ordering of the groups using INS ratings was
preoedipal paternal separation (Mean rank=100.00, g-13),
latency paternal separation (Mean rank-112.67, 5'27), intact
family (Mean rank-116.03, 38114), Oedipal paternal
separation (Mean rank-117.08, u=38), and early adolescence
paternal separation (Mean rank-127.88, 8'41)-

Egsg ngc_agalygg§, Table 11 shows further exploration
of this hypothesis by applying it by sex. The predicted
ascending order of groups based on classical Freudian
thought is preoedipal paternal separation, Oedipal paternal
separation, latency paternal separation, early adolescence
paternal separation, and intact family. In comparision to
the experimenter’s hypothesis, the classical Freudian based
prediction was more highly correlated with the actual
ordering of groups for sexes combined and females only,
using both DNS and IRS super-ego ratings. The males’
results were mixed in this regard. There was a significant

finding in that the classical Freudian prediction was

perfectly correlated (cs-1.00, 3-5) with the actual ordering

42

Table 11

Seccsleting-§eesc:sae_39§iogs_ugan-829ks_Qx_E:sgi§tsg

Ecegisteg-chgt_§ectslssign

Elsa -__§es__ esteecis Elassisel_Ecssg

DNS Combined .30 .70
Females .80 1.00t
Males -.60 -.10

INS Combined -.10 .50
Females -.10 .40
Males .70 .70

tg<.05

3959. For all of the above correlations, u=5. The author’s
predicted ascending order of super—ego mean ranks for
paternal status groups is Oedipal separation, preoedipal
separation, early adolescence separation, latency
separation, intact family. The classical Freudian based
predicted ascending order of super-ego mean ranks for
paternal status groups is preoedipal separation, Oedipal
separation, latency separation, early adolescence
separation, intact family.

43

of groups for sexes combined and females onlv, using both
DNS and INS super—ego ratings. The males’ results were
mixed in this regard. There was a significant finding in
that the classical Freudian prediction was perfectly
correlated ([§=1.00. u=5) with the actual ordering of groups
for females when using DNS super-ego ratings. g<.05. Table
12 shows comparisons between mean ranks of paternal
separation groups from which the orders of groups were
determined in computation of correlations. Using the
Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance. no significant
differences were found between groups.

Ismsgiss§_ieelisstiense A possible confound is that
for each psychosexual phase paternal separation group, there
is no controlling for the possibility of a father figure
joining the home sometime after completion of the
psychosexual stage at which there was original separation
from the father. Some groups may have greater father figure
replacement rates than others which affect when and for how
long a father figure was present in the home. Also. the
point at which paternal separation began during a particular
psychosexual stage was I10t controlled and may have affected
the outcome. For example, for the Oedipal paternal
separation group, it may make a difference in super-ego
development if the father’s absence began when the subject
was under 3 years old versus the subject being over 7 years
old. In addition, there was no way to control amount of

exposure to father figures outside of the home. The

44

Table 12

Using-EcssKslzusllis_gns:!éx_eugye

__§ss-__ _-Eish_- Sseetstien -8- dean-Bsns -_u-
Combined DNS Preoedipal 13 98.65 3.90
Oedipal 38 118.11
Latency 27 104.96
Early Adol. 41 109.48
Intact Fam. 114 124.28
INS Preoedipal 13 100.00 2.10
Oedipal 38 117.08
Latency 27 112.67
Early Adol. 41 127.88
Intact Fam. 114 116.03
Females DNS Proedipal 8 51.25 5.43
Oedipal 23 55.13
Latency 19 59.95
Early Adol. 21 66.19
Intact Fam. 58 72.03
INS Preoedipal 8 53.31 4.97
Oedipal 23 64. 24
Latency 19 70. 55
Early Adol . 21 78. 19
Intact Fan. 58 60.32
Males 008 Preoedi pal 5 47. 90 5. 50
Oedi pal 15 65. 4O
I_atency 8 41.81
Earl y Adol . 20 44. 95
Intact Fam. 56 53.68
INS Preoedi pal 5 45. 6O 5. 87
Oedi pal 15 52. 07
Latency 8 30.06
Early Adol. 20 52.17
Intact Fam. 56 56.55
591’. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.

For all of the above groups, gts4.

 

45
super-ego ratings of the five paternal status groups did not
differ significantly. Perhaps there is no critical time
linking paternal presence to moral development.

The current study’s predicted order of paternal status
groups’ level of super-ego development was based on
Grayson’s (1967) research on psychosexual conflict (eg. sex
role identity, dependency). The difference between the
current study’s outcome and Grayson’s may be accounted for
by the latter having used adolescent females as subjects and
not using super-ego development as a variable.

In the present study, Oedipal paternal separation
SUbjECtS were predicted to be rated lowest on super-ego
development out of all the groups because that is the time
at which, according to Freud, the super-ego is created with
the shattering of the Oedipus complex. Paternal absence
during that time should preclude development of the
super-ego. Another important psychosexual period in
relation to super-ego development is the preoedipal phase.
This is the time that tJTE ego-ideal- the primitive
forerunner of the superw—egp, is formed. In the present
study, the preoedipal paternal separation group was
predicted to have greater super-ego deveIOpment than that of
the Oedipal group because it was possible due to the study's
method that preoedipal subjects could gain a father figure
in the home following the preoedipal period. In developing
the hypothesis, compromised ego-ideal development seemed

less important to super-ego deveIOpment than definite

46
paternal absence during the oedipal phase.

The early adolescence paternal separation group was
predicted to fall between the preoedipal and latency
paternal separation groups on degree of super-ego
development because it is a time at which the Oedipus
complex is revivified with the emerging sexual drive, which
could have further developmental effects on the super-ego.
The latency paternal separation group was predicted to fare
best on super-ego development out of the loss groups because
there should be no active Oedipus complex, and sexual drive
is usually sublimated during that time. In addition, there
was the possibility of a father figure replacement in this
group during the early adolescent period.

Assuming that paternal separation continues from one
psychosexual stage through the remaining ones without a
father figure replacement in the home, a classical Freudian
prediction of a hierarchy of super-ego development based on
paternal absence would place the preoedipal group lowest,
followed by the Oedipal, latency, early adolescent, and
intact family groups. The rationale is that the earlier
that paternal separation occurs, the greater the
psychosexual disruption following from one stage to the
next. If paternal separation begins during the preoedipal
period and continues through childhood, both ego-ideal and
super-ego development should be disrupted. If paternal
separation begins during the oedipal period, the ego-ideal

should be formed, but further development into a super-ego

47
should be compromised.

The classical Freudian prediction was compared to the
actual ordering of groups on all measures of super-ego
functioning. Although not significant, the classical
Freudian order was a better predictor of the actual ordering
of groups than that of the experimenter’s predicted order.
This was true using both sexes combined and females only on
super-ego ratings to each wish stimulus. The relationship
was perfect for females using super-ego ratings of DNS
responses. These findings suggest that for females, the
earlier the psychosexual stage at which there is paternal
separation, the poorer the super-ego’s management of
aggressive drive. The directions of correlations using the
classical Freudian prediction and the experimenter’s
prediction were mixed for males with no clear pattern
emerging in support of one hypothesis over the other. There
may be no critical time associating paternal presence with
super-ego development in males. This is contrary to

Freudian thought.

flyogthesig_§, which stated that the detrimental impact of
paternal separation occurring during the oedipal period on
super-ego development is greater on males than on females,
was rejected.

Super-ego ratings of four groups were compared: males
whose fathers were present throughout the Oedipal period,

males who experienced paternal separation during the Oedipal

period, females whose fathers were present throughout the

48
oedipal period, and females who experienced paternal
separation during the Oedipal period. The Oedipal paternal
presence males should have the highest super-ego ratings of
all the groups, and this group should perform considerably
better than that of the Oedipal paternal separation males.
Differences between super-ego ratings of the two female
groups should be less dramatic. Figure 2 and Table 13
present relationships between the four sex by Oedipal
paternal status groups using super-ego ratings to the two
wish stimuli.

Using the Kruskal-Nallis one-way analysis of variance
on INS super-ego ratings, there was a significant difference
among these four groups H(3, 220)-8.39, g<.05, but the
female Oedipal paternal presence group (Mean rank=122.06,
u=98) was rated the highest followed by the female Oedipal
paternal separation group (Mean rank=119.20, ”‘23), the male
oedipal presence group (Mean rank-97.39, 3-84), and the male
Oedipal paternal separation group (Mean rank=95.10, u=15).
Using the Mann-Nhitney U test, the female Oedipal paternal
presence group (Mean rank=100.88) was rated significantly
higher on super-ego development than the male Oedipal
paternal presence group (Mean Rank-80.55), UI3196.50, g<.05.
There were no other significant differences between pairs of
groups, and groups did not differ significantly when using
DNS super-ego ratings H(3, 220)-7.38, g>.05.

Immediate-ieelisaiiense The findings are contrary to

Freudian theory, and suggest that when there is paternal

DNS
SUPER-EGO
RATING
MEAN
RANK

INS
Figure 2

130

120

110

100

130

120

110

100

 

49

0 Females

 

F

 

r-
e Males
r-n
L
L-
1 1
Separation Presence
Oedipal Paternal Status

0 Females

 

 

 

 

e Males 4—9
r- fi—i
e—AI
— r—————
L.
l I
Separation Presence

Oedipal Paternal Status

599!t:!99-8atinsa-by-92dinil-Eaietnsl-3tatui

Table 13
5222::sge-Bstinns-ex-Qsdiesl-Eststnsl-§tetss-Using

E:es£el:§ellie-Quezusx-eugye

Oedipal Pateggal Statu§____

Presence _§eeecstien--

Qish --§ss-- -3 dean-Bans -u deep-Bank --d---

DNS Females 98 119.52 23 97.04 7.38
Males 84 99.92 15 131.47

INS Females 98 122.06 23 119.20 8.39:
Males 84 97.39 15 95.10

tp<.05

Nggg. For all of the above groups, 91-3.

51
presence through the Oedipal stage, female super-ego
functioning is superior to that of males, particularily when
the super-ego is confronted with sexual impulses.

The constituents of the Oedipal paternal presence group
was broken down to further explore this unexpected sex
difference. The Oedipal paternal presence group contained
three subgroups: latency paternal separation, early
adolescent paternal separation, and intact family. There
were no significant sex differences on super-ego ratings for
subjects from intact families (see Table 14). However, for
latency paternal separation subjects, females were rated
significantly higher on super-ego development than males,
using INS, g<.01. Similarily, for early adolescence
paternal separation subjects, females scored significantly
greater on super-ego development than males, using INS,
g<.05. These findings suggest that males are significantly
more vulnerable than females to super-ego functioning
difficulties in managing sexual impulses, when the father
has been absent sometime from latency through early
adolescence.

It does appear that inclusion of those two paternal
separation groups pulled down the male Oedipal presence
group’s super-ego ratings mean rank. However, it should be
kept in mind that all of these subjects did have paternal
presence throughout the Oedipal period, which according to
Freud is key to super-ego development, particularily for

males. Although the differences were not significant,

Table 14
Seepetipg-Sssss-QQ-§seec:s99-BQSinus-Qx-Estgtnal-§tstss-Qsipg

usnpzuhispsx-u-Isss

---Egselss--- ---nelss----
Eeeily-Statss gist -u- uses-Bent _u- uses-Ben! --_u_-__
Combined DNS 137 129.22 110 117.50 6820.50
INS 137 136.48 110 108.46 5825.50tt

Intact DNS 58 62.20 56 52.63 1351.50
Family INS 58 59.59 56 55.34 1503.00
Paternal DNS 71 60.60 48 59.11 1661.50
Separation INS 71 68.72 48 47.10 1085.003tt
Preoedipal DNS 8 7.00 5 7.00 20.00
Paternal INS 8 7.88 5 5.60 13.00
Separation
Oedipal DNS 23 17.50 15 22.57 126.50
Paternal INS 23 21.13 15 17.00 135.00
Separation
Latency DNS 19 14.79 8 12.13 61.00
Paternal INS 19 16.79 8 7.38 23.003:
Separation
Early DNS 21 23.76 20 18.10 152.00
Adolescence INS 21 24.90 20 16.90 128.003
Paternal
Separation

tg<.05

t¥g<.01

iiig<.001

53
Oedipal paternal separation males actually received a higher
DNS super-ego mean rank than Oedipal paternal presence
males. In contrast, the female oedipal paternal presence
group received higher super-ego ratings than the Oedipal
paternal absence group using both wish stimuli. Nith the
exception of findings already discussed, there were no
additional significant differences between groups. The
results suggest that the oedipal period is not the most
critical time for males in associating paternal presence to
super-ego development. Contrary to Freudian theory, it
appears that it is more important to females’ than males’
super—ego development that the father is present during the
Oedipal phase.
flypgthg§i§_4, which asserted that high super-ego development
in males is associated with strong paternal identification,
was rejected.

Males rated as strong versus not strong on paternal
identification, based on stories given to the Positive
Identification Blacky Picture, were compared on super-ego
ratings using the Mann-Nhitney U test. Although not
significant, the strong paternal identification group was
rated higher on super-ego development on both super-ego
measures (see Table 15). For DNS responses, subjects rated
as strong on paternal identification (Mean rank=57.92, N824)
did not differ significantly from those rated as not strong
(Mean rank-54.18, N885), 98950.00, Q>.05. Using INS

ratings, the former group (Mean rank862.02) did not differ

54
significantly from the latter group (Mean rank853.01),

g>.05.

leeegiste-ieelisetieus; The findings are contrary to
those of Hoffman (1971b) in his study of 7th grade males in
which a significant relationship was found between paternal
identification and moral development. Different ways of
measuring meral development and different age ranges of
subjects may account for the discrepancy in results between
that and the current study. However, perhaps paternal
identification is not as important to male super-ego
development as Freud believed.

Nypgtbgsig_§, which predicted that high super-ego
development in males is associated with strong castration
anxiety, was rejected.

Super-ego ratings of males were compared between groups
rated as strong versus not strong on castration anxiety,
based on stories given to the Castration Anxiety Blacky
Picture. Using DNS super-ego ratings, the strong castration
anxiety group (Mean rank853.44, N843) did not differ
significantly from the not strong group (Mean rank=56.82,
N867), N81352.00. g>.05. Using INS ratings, there was no
significant difference between the strong castration anxiety
group (Mean rank-57.09) and the not strong anxiety group
(Mean rank854.48), 981372.00, g>.05 (see Table 16).

Immgdiate_iggligatiggsg Granted the validity of the

measure used, the lack of significant differences between

groups suggests that castration anxiety in males is not

55
Table 15
Seesczege-Betinns-ei-uslss-px-Estetnsl-IQQQSiiisstiep-Using
flennzuhitnsy-Q-Isst

Stress-Esternal-Ig; NQ§_§SEQDQ_EQSSEQQL_IQa

Qish N Mean Rank N deep-Bent ___u--

DNS 24 57.92 85 54.18 950.00
INS 24 62.02 85 53.01 850.50

Note. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.

Paternal identification includes identification with
parents.

Table 16
fispetzege-Betinns-Qi-uslss-§x-stttetien-ensisty-using
5299:!hispsy-U-Isss

fittepg-stttstiep Hes-51:999-stttstiep

sign -8 been-Bent _u dean-Bank _-_y-_-

DNS 43 53.44 67 56.82 1352.00

INS 43 57.09 67 54.48 1372.00

N913. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.

56
related to super-ego development. This suggests that Freud
overestimated the importance of castration anxiety in the
formation of the super-ego. However, it cannot be inferred
that castration anxiety is not a motivation to end the
Oedipus complex or that the Oedipus complex does not occur,
but just that castration anxiety does not have any
discernable relationship to super-ego functioning.
Nyggtbgsi§_6, which stated that high super-ego development
in females is associated with strong paternal
identification, was rejected. .

Paternal identification was determined by ratings of
stories given to the Positive Identification Blacky Picture.
DNS super-ego ratings of females rated as strong on paternal
identification (Mean rank=73.82, N817) were not
significantly different from those females rated as not
strong on paternal identification (Mean rank=68.32, N8120),
98938.00, Q>.05. Using INS super-ego ratings, the former
group (Mean rank863.21) did not differ significantly from
the latter group (Mean rank869.82), 9=921.50, g>.05 (see
Table 17).

Ismegiste-ieelisetieps; These findings are not
consistent with those of Hoffman (1971b) who found a
positive association between paternal identification and
moral development in 7th grade females. Instrument and
subject age differences may account for the discrepancy in
findings between Hoffman’s and the current author’s studies.

The current study’s findings suggest that paternal

57

identification in females is not associated with super-ego

functioning.

Table 17
5889::899-Batipgs-Qi-Eemsles-§x-Eatetpel-Igent:iisstien
Using-napnzflhitpex-y-Iest

Sirens-Eateteal-Ig; th-§ttgng-Eststpel-Ig;

@189 -E deep-Beet _u- dean-Beg! ___u___
nus 17 73.82 120 68.32 938.00
st 17 63.21 120 69.82 921.50

Note. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.

Paternal identification includes identification with
parents.

nggtng§;§_z, which specified that separation from the
father during the oedipal period is associated with strong
Oedipal intensity in males, was rejected.

Based on stories to the Oedipal Intensity Blacky
Picture, males were rated as either strong or not strong on
oedipal intensity. Oedipal paternal presence and Oedipal
paternal separation males were then compared on Oedipal
intensity. For the Oedipal paternal separation group, 4
subjects were rated as strong on Oedipal intensity while 11
were rated as not strong. For the Oedipal paternal presence

group, 42 subjects were rated as strong on Oedipal intensity

58
while 42 were rated as not strong. The frequencies did not
differ significantly, X2(1, 99)=1.93, p.05.

ngegigtg imaliggtigng, Leichty (1959-1960) found
Oedipal intensity in adult males to be significantly
associated with oedipal paternal absence. The current
hypothesis was based on both these empirical findings and
the idea that if there is paternal absence during the
oedipal period, the boy does not have a castration
threatening rival pesent to challenge him for taking his
mother as love object. However, note the opposite direction
that the results took and consider that in the absence of
the father, there is no oedipal triangle and thus should be
no Oedipal intensity. In retrospect, it would have made
more sense to have predicted the reverse of the hypothesis
proposed. However, even a one-tailed chi-square test would
not have yielded a significant result.

In contrast to Leichty, Rabin (1958) found less Oedipal
intensity in kibbutz compared to non-kibbutz raised boys.
Children raised in a kibbutz live in an environment in which
both parents are absent. In the present study, inclusion in
the paternal separation group did not require the absence of
the father from beginning through the end of the Oedipal
phase. Group membership only required some paternal absence
during that period. Perhaps there was enough paternal
exposure during that time in enough subjects to raise
Oedipal intensity levels in that group to the point that

there was not a significant difference when compared to the

59
Oedipal presence group.
Nypgtgg§;§_§, which stated that separation from the father
during the Oedipal period is associated with low castration
anxiety in males, was rejected.

Ratings of stories to the Castration Anxiety Blacky
Picture were used. For Oedipal paternal separation males, 3
subjects were rated as strong on castration anxiety while 12
were rated as not strong. For Oedipal paternal presence
males, 35 subjects were judged as strong on castration
anxiety while 49 were rated as not strong. The difference
between the frequencies was not significant, X?(1, 99)81.69,
Q).05, but there was a trend in the predicted direction.

lmgggigtg_iggliggtiggg, The finding is consistent with
that of Leichty (1959-1960). Perhaps amount of paternal
absence during the Oedipal period is a factor in both the
present and Leichty’s studies. Neither study required
complete paternal absence through the Oedipal period. Maybe
there was enough paternal Oedipal period exposure in the
present study to prevent the differences between groups from
reaching a significant level. On the other hand, perhaps
paternal presence is not necessary in order for males to
develop castration anxiety. Perhaps the mother or other
authority figures are perceived as castration threatening.
Nyggtgggig_9, which predicted that the super-ego responds in
a similar manner to an Oedipal incestuous wish as to a death
wish toward an Oedipal rival, was rejected.

DNS and INS super-ego ratings were not significantly

60
correlated, c§8.13, N8247, g>.05.

Eogt hgg gnglyggg, As already mentioned and shown by
Table 2, there were significant correlations between
super-ego ratings of the two wish stimuli for childhood
paternal separation subjects, cs8.24,N8119, g<.01, childhood
paternal separation females, [28.22, N871, g<.05, and
childhood paternal separation males, :g=.32, N848, g<.05.

No significant correlations were found for any of the intact

family groups.

leeegiete-ieelisstions SUPEF‘EOO ratings 0* the two
wish stimuli were not significantly related for sexes
combined, all females, all males, and all intact family
groups. However, using paternal separation subjects,
super-ego ratings of responses to the two wish stimuli were
positively and significantly correlated for sexes combined,
females, and males. Literature assessing degree of
consistency of measurement of moral development across type
of measurement or situation is mixed with many studies
showing inconsistency (Burton, Maccoby, & Allinsmith, 1961;
Santrock, 1975b; Hartshorne, & May, 1928; Sears, Rau, &
Alpert, 1965; Kurtines, 1986) and some research finding
consistency (Grinder & McMichael, 1963; Grinder, 1962; Ruma,
& Mosher, 1967). None of these studies assessed moral
development measurement consistency in specific paternal
status groups. The findings suggest that father absence is
associated with more uniformity across super-ego

functioning, whereas father presence is associated with more

61
variance in how the super-ego responds to different types of
impulses.
Nyggtng§i§_lg, which stated that separation from either
parent during the oedipal period interferes with super-ego
development, but paternal separation during this period has
a greater negative impact than maternal separation, could
not be tested.

Only two subjects having experienced maternal
separation during the Oedipal period were acquired which was
not enough to statistically compare groups.

Imeegiete-ieplisetieps; Difficulty in getting a
sufficient number of maternal separation subjects is not
surprising. According to data from 1980, a very small
percentage of children- 2.3% that year, live alone with
their fathers (Sweet, & Bumpass, 1987).
prgthggi§_11, which asserted that maternal separation
occurring during the oedipal period interferes with the
super-ego development of both sexes, but regardless of the
status of the mother, super-ego development of males is
superior to that of females, could not be tested.

As already mentioned, there were not enough subjects in
the Oedipal maternal separation group to serve statistical
purposes.
9229§hgsis_12, which stated that paternal identification is
more positively associated with super-ego development than
maternal identification, was rejected.

The super-ego ratings of subjects rated as strong on

62
paternal identification were compared to those as rated as
strong on maternal identification. Type of parental
identification was determined by rating stories to the
Positive Identification Blacky Picture. Using DNS super-ego
ratings, the strong maternal identification group (Mean
rank814.63, N812) did not differ significantly from that of
the strong paternal identification group (Mean rank-14.41,
N816), 9894.50, g>.05. The former group (Mean rank817.21)
did not differ significantly from the latter group (Mean
rank812.47) on INS super-ego ratings, 9863.50, p>.05. All
of the strong maternal identification subjects were females,
whereas 13 out of the 16 strong paternal identification
subjects were males (see Table 18).

EQ§t_bgg_§g_ly§ggg Maternal and paternal
identification groups were compared on super-ego ratings by
sex with no significant findings.

Imeegiets-ieelisgtiensg All 12 of the subjects rated
strong on maternal identification were female, whereas 13 of
the 16 subjects rated strong on paternal identification were
male. Some unknown sex difference may have affected the
outcome. Hoffman (1971b) found that both maternal and
paternal identification were associated with one or more
measure of moral development in boys. Paternal
identification but not maternal identification was
associated with one measure of moral development in girls.

The findings suggest that one type of parental

identification is not more important than the other in

63

Table 18

5982::899-Bstings-Qx-Ixeg-Q£-Eetsntsl-Igspti£isstien-98189

Eetstpal-Igsntii; paternal-Igsptii;
wish --§ss-_- -E been-Bent -8 been-Beet --y_-
nus Combined 16 14.41 12 14.63 94.50
Females 3 9.33 12 7.67 14.00
INS Combined 16 12.47 12 17.21 63.50
Females 3 5.67 12 8.59 11.00

Ngtg. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.
No males were rated strong on maternal identification.

relation to super-ego development. Perhaps Freud
overestimated the importance of the father and
underestimated the mother as an equally important
identification figure in relation to super-ego development.
Considering that all maternal identification subjects were
female, 811 of paternal identification subjects were male,
and that these groups did not differ significantly on
super-ego ratings, perhaps same sex parental identification
is important in super-ego development.
Other-Eiedinss

§g§_gififgcgggg§L The sexes were compared on indulging
of impulse (super-ego ratings of 1 or 2) versus not

indulging of impulse (super-ego ratings of 3 through 7) by

64
wish stimulus (see Table 19). Males were significantly more
likely to indulge the INS impulse than females,‘X2(1,
247)87.77, g<.01. Another significant finding was that
paternal separation males were more likely to indulge the
INS impulse than paternal separation females,‘X2(1,
119)810.37, p<.01. Np sex differences were found for the
intact family group.

These findings suggest that following paternal
separation, males are more likely than females to indulge
sexual impulses. Following childhood paternal separation,
subjects were left alone with the mother. In the case of
males, the Oedipal wish to get rid of the father as rival
for possession of the mother as love object was granted.
The son was then left unchallenged with the object of his
desire. Nithout the threatening presence of the father, it
was more difficult for the son to manage his incestous
impulses. In addition, the father was not present as an
identification figure. In the case of females in this
study, their Oedipal love object- the father, was absent,
and it was the Oedipal rival who remained. Being raised
alone with the opposite sex parent may predispose one to
difficulties managing sexual impulses, particularily in the
case of males.

There were other significant findings in comparing the
sexes on super-ego ratings (see Table 14). Females (Mean
rank-136.48, N8137) were rated significantly higher on

super-ego development, based on INS, than males (Mean

Table 19

gesesting-Seses-Qp-1899191n9-ei-Eish-§tieuli-Ieeelsss

Easily-States

--§ss--

89$ 9!

1(3-

Combined

Intact

Family

Paternal

Separation

DNS

INS

DNS

INS

DNS

INS

Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females

Males

13
17
28

41

15
16
10

8
12

22

124
93
109
69
55
47
43
40
61
40
59

26

1

1.16

7.77! 1

.01

.01

10.37!

tg<.01

66
rank8108.46, N8110), 985825.50, Q<.01. There were no
significant sex differences on super-ego functioning in the
intact family group. For the paternal separation group
using INS super-ego ratings, females (Mean rank868.72, N871)
were rated significantly greater than males (Mean
rank847.10, N848), 981085, g<.001. There were also some
significant super-ego sex differences by specific paternal
separation period. For the latency paternal separation
group, females (Mean rank816.79) were rated significantly
higher on INS super-ego ratings than males (Mean rank87.38),
9823.00, g<.01. In addition, early adolescence paternal
separation females (Mean rank824.90) scored significantly
greater than males (Mean rank816.90) on INS super-ego
ratings, 98128.00, g<.05.

The literature is mixed in regard to comparing the
sexes on moral development. Some studies have found females
to be superior in moral development to males (Rebelsky,
Allinsmith & Grinder, 1963; Blum, 1949; Sears, Maccoby &
Levin, 1957), whereas other studies indicate greater moral
development in males than females (Hall, 1964; Dpuyan &
Adelson, 1966). Other studies resulted in mixed findings
(Luria, Goldwasser & Goldwasser, 1963; Lihsky, Crandall,
Kagan & Baker, 1961), and some research has found no sex
differences (Grinder, 1962; Grinder & McMichael, 1963).
Unlike the present study, none of this research compared the
sexes using only paternal separation subjects. Nalker’s

(1984) review of research on moral reasoning concluded that

67

the literature in general does not support a sex difference.

Findings of the present study indicate sex differences
in super-ego development for paternally separated subjects
but not for those from intact families. The findings
suggest that following paternal separation, female super-ego
development is superior to that of males, particularily if
separation occurred sometime from latency through early
adolescence, and particularily in management of sexual
impulses. Absence of the father around the time of emerging
physical sexual maturity may make management and
satisfactory resolution of the revivified Oedipus complex
more difficult for males than females. Males are left alone
with the original object of their Oedipal desires, whereas
females are left alone with their original oedipal rival.

Some groups differed by sex on some of the Blacky
Pictures measures (Table 20). A significantly greater
frequency of males than females were rated strong on Oedipal
intensity,fX?(1, 247)89.23, g<.01. A similar sex difference
was found for subjects from intact families, 12(1,
114)85.19, p<.05, but not for paternal separation subjects.

This sex difference in oedipal intensity is contrary to
Freudian theory that males tend to shatter the Oedipus
complex, whereas for females, the Oedipus complex tends to
linger and never necessarily reaches a satisfactory
resolution. The findings suggest otherwise. The mother is
the first or primary love object for both sexes. It may be

more difficult for boys to relinquish their primary love

Table 20

000995199-§ssss-98-§lsstx-Eiststss-i§El-Bstipgs

68

Easily-States ---§E---

QB Rating 588812! "31.!

-243- __

Combined

Intact
Family

Paternal
Separation

Oedipal
Intens.
Castrat.
Anxiety
Positive
Identif.
Oedipal
Intens.
Castrat.
Anxiety
Positive
Identif.
Oedipal
Intens.
Castrat.
Anxiety
Positive
Identif.

Strong

Not Strong
Strong

Not Strong
Maternal
Paternal
Strong

Not Strong
Strong

Not Strong
Maternal
Paternal
Strong

Not Strong
Strong

Not Strong
Maternal
Paternal

38
99
38
99
12

3
15
43
12
46

5

0
22
49
23
48

6

3

52
58
43
67

0
13
27
29
25
31

0

7
21
27
17
31

0

5

9.2388
3.07
15.083tt
5.193
6.40!
at:
1.51
.02

3.43

tg<.05
ttp<.01

iiio<.001

dete-

For all cases,

91‘1-

aFisher exact probability test was used.

69 9
object- the mother, than it is for girls to give up their
secondary love object- the father. Perhaps because girls
transfer libidinal investment from the mother to the father
during the oedipal period, there is more diffusion of
directed libido and less Oedipal intensity than that of
boys. Boys continue from birth to the Oedipal period with
major libidinal attachment to the mother, which may be more
intense than the girl’s libidinal attachment to the father.
For the paternal separation group, the sexes did not differ
on Oedipal intensity. The presence of both parents is
required to create an Oedipal triangle, and in the absence
of one parent, the sexes were similar in frequencies of
oedipal intensity.

Females tended to be rated strong on maternal
identification, whereas males tended to be rated strong on
paternal identification (Fisher exact probability test),
g<.001. A similar sex difference was found for subjects
from intact families, thi. 1141-640, o<.01>.

Same sex parental identification is consistent with the
literature (Hoffman, 1971b; Blum, 1949; Sears, Maccoby &
Levin, 1957) and is expected based on Freudian theory.

The lack of a significant sex difference in the
paternal separation group can be explored by examining
parental identification proportions for each sex. No males
in the entire study were rated strong on maternal
identification. Three females out of the whole study were

rated strong on paternal identification, and all of them

70
were in the paternal separation group. Inclusion of these
three females in the strong paternal identification group
contributed to the sexes not differing significantly by type
of parental identification. In fact, those three subjects
make up 331 of the female paternal separation group rated as
strong on either maternal or paternal identification. In
Mourning and Melancholia Freud (1917 [1915]) discussed
incorporation of a lost ambivalently regarded object into
the ego as a pathological mourning response. If a parent is
ambivalently regarded, which cannot be directly ascertained
from this study, separation from that parent during
childhood may alter typical same sex parental
identification, at least in the case of females identifying
with lost fathers. None of the six maternal separation
males were rated strong on maternal identification, but the
sample was quite small.

For subjects from intact families, there was a
significantly greater frequency of males than females rated
strong on castration anxiety,‘X?(1, 114)-b.40, g<.05. There
were no significant sex differences on castration anxiety
for paternal separation subjects.

VandeCastle (1965) found that in their study of college
students, males showed significantly more castration anxiety
than females. This finding is consistent with that of the
present study for intact family subjects. This sex
difference is consistent with Freudian theory. Anatomical

differences between the sexes as well as presence of the

71
father as a source of castration anxiety should result in
greater castration anxiety in males than females. The lack
of a sex difference in the paternal separation group is also
consistent with Freudian theory in that castration anxiety
in males would be expected to decrease or disappear when the
feared agent of castration- the father, is no longer
present.

lat—Qijetecnsl_ssucaiigni Paternal separation

IUbJCCtI were evaluated for super-ego rating differences by
type of separation. As Table 21 shows, there were no
significant differences between subjects having experienced
death of the father versus having separated from the father
due to another reason (eg. divorce).

One study found paternal separation through divorce to
be significantly more associated with low moral development
than paternal separation through death (Parish, 1980).
Another study using females only (Parish, & Copeland, 1981)
concluded that there was no difference between the impact of
paternal separation through divorce than death on moral
development. A study of males (Santrock, 1975a) did not
find subjects having experienced paternal absence by death
versus divorce to differ on moral development. Based on
Freudian theory, it would be expected that the father's
absence from the home, regardless of the reason, would
disrupt super-ego development.

Bacial-cnnsistencx-9i-natscua1-siaius-ncsuns. Pat-rnal

separation subjects were compared to those from intact

72
Table 21
59:95:999-Batiuqs-91-Ixee_9i-Eetecnsl_§sescs§ien-Using

Ugonzubiingy_u-ls§$

_--__Dg§th___- _____thec__--
_ -_§ea-_ £159 -8 usa0-8905 -u Us90_8205 ___u__
Combined nus 47 59.34 72 60.43 1661.00
138 47 59.20 72 60.52 1654.50
Females nus 27 34.09 44 37.17 542.50
Ins 27 37.22 44 35.25 561.00
Hales nus 20 25.60 28 23.71 258.00
Ins 20 22.92 28 25.63 243.50

391;. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.

families on racial consistency (Table 22). For the sexes
combined, there was a significantly greater frequency of
caucasions to subjects of other races (eg. minorities) in
the intact family group in comparison to the paternal
separation group, 12(1, u—2331-4.39, g<.05. A similar
pattern of racial consistency was found for the females, *2
(1, 129)-4.08, p<.05.

Higher proportions of children in minority racial groups
in comparison to caucasions have been found to live alone

with the mother (Bumpass, & Sweet, 1987).

73
Table 22

Basis;_Ecsnssnsies_bx-Eseilx_§tats-

__§:z-- Eamilz_$:atus Caucasian Dineciix -3131
Combined Paternal Sep. 99 20 4.39t
Intact Family 106 8
Females Paternal Sep. 56 15 4.08!
Intact Family 54 4
Hales Paternal Sep. 43 5 .06
Intact Family 52 4

tp<.05

UQIQ- For all of the above groups, 91-1.

892-!I-I1!!-Qi.DQS!£Q§1_IQEQEQSIQQL 50907-090 ratings

were correlated with age at time of paternal separation
(Table 23). All of the female correlations were positive,
while all of the male correlations were negative. The one
significant finding was that for females, INS response
super-ego ratings were positively correlated with age at
time of paternal separation, cg-.24, 3'71, g<.05.

Other studies of females have positively associated
time of paternal separation with degree of moral development
(Parish, 1980; Parish, & Copeland, 1981). The findings of
the present study suggest that the earlier that paternal

separation occurs in females, the less punitive is the

74

Table 23
QQCEQIQSing_§uee::sgg-BQSings-uitb_Iies_9£_Es$s:nsl
5201:91190
__§sz__- Eisb-§tisslus -5- __:5-
Combined bus 119 -.06

st 119 .10
Females DNS 71 .10

rue 71 .24:
Males nus 48 -.26

st 4e -.02

tg<.05

Table 24
3929::299_Batinns-bx_Eaceetai_§tasus-usinn_5:sss§l:!allis

902:!sy_eugge

Insass_Eaeilx Eets:nal-$ee. astecnsl_§se.

3150 __u been-Bsns -_fl 5200.310: -5 Uss9-Ban§ -fl--

OHS 114 131.67 119 116.37 14 126.39 2.85
INS 114 123.93 119 125.95 14 108.04 .81

Ngtg. None of the above mean ranks differed significantly.

75

super-ego’s response to sexual impulses. All of the male
correlations were negative and not significant. Other
research has found no assocation between time of paternal
separation and moral development in males (Parish, 1980;
Santrock, 1975a). As discussed previously, there may be no
critical time associating paternal presence with super-ego
development in males.

netscnel-5sescstiee-sng-9thsc-ns:spssl-statss_sceses.
There were no significant differences between maternal
separation, paternal separation, and intact family groups on
super-ego development (Table 24).

This is consistent with Grayson (1967) who found no
significant differences in psychosexual conflict in
adolescent girls between those bereaved of the mother versus
the father. According to Freud, paternal presence should be
more important in super-ego development than maternal
presence, but both parents are needed for development of and
advancement through the Oedipus complex.

8993:!

Due to the number and complexity of the analyses, the
findings will be briefly summarized. Indications that the
DNS and INS were tapping different facets of super-ego
functioning necessitated testing hypotheses separately for
each wish stimulus. The significant findings will first be
summarized by sex, and then differences between the sexes
will be presented.

The super-ego of females from intact families responded

76
more punitively to aggressive wishes than the super-ego of
paternal separation females. For paternal separation
females, the super-ego’s response to sexual impulses was
significantly associated with the super-ego’s response to
aggressive impulses. For females, the earlier the
psychosexual stage at which paternal separation occurred,
the less punitive the super-ego’s response to aggressive
impulses. For females, the earlier that paternal separation
occurred, the less punitive the super-ego’s response to J
sexual impulses. There was a significantly greater
frequency of racial minorities to caucasions in the paternal
,separation group in comparison to the intact family group
for females.

For paternal separation males, the super-ego's response
to sexual impulses was significantly associated with the
super-ego’s response to aggressive impulses. For the
Oedipal paternal separation males, being administered the
wish stimuli first resulted in a more punitive super-ego
reaction to sexual impulses than those administered the
Blacky Pictures first.

For subjects from intact families, males exhibited
significantly more Oedipal intensity and castration anxiety
than females. For the same group, males showed
significantly more paternal identification, whereas females
showed significantly more maternal identification. For the
Oedipal paternal presence group, females’ super-egos

responded more punitively to sexual impulses than males’

77
super-egos. For the paternal separation group, males
indulged the sexual impulse significantly more. In the
paternal separation group, females’ super-egos responded
more punitively to sexual wishes than those of males, and
the same pattern was found for latency paternal separation

and early adolescence paternal separation groups.

General Discussion

This study consisted of a patchwork of groups (eg.
multiple places of recruitment, types of compensation, types
of parental separation, instrument orders, etc.). Attempts
were made to compare subgroups for compatibility of
inclusion in broader groups. In some cases, subgroups were
too small to make statistical comparisons, and they were
combined anyway with the hope that confounding differences F‘
did not exist. There was one statistically significant 1
instrument order effect, but it was most likely Just an
artifact of running many analyses.

This study was designed with the intention of combining
super-ego ratings of responses to the aggressive and sexual
wish stimuli, which was not done when it was discovered how
greatly the ratings differed between the two wish stimuli.
It was an unplanned modification to test the hypotheses
separately for each wish stimulus. This provided
interesting information (eg. thoughts about how Freud’s two
major classes of instincts differ in regard to super-ego
functioning).

However, the validity of new instruments is suspect when
hypotheses are not corroborated. In the present study, none
of the hypotheses were corroborated except one which was
accepted with reservations. There were some nonsignificant
trends in predicted directions, and some secondary analyses
provided some support for some of the hypotheses. There is

the issue of the super-ego rating scale possibly being

78

79
nominal rather than ordinal in nature. Future research
could involve further exploring the relationship between
different points on the super-ego rating scale. Another
concern is the possibility of sexual bias in the wish
stimuli, which were designed by a woman. The wish stimuli
forms for the sexes may not be parallel. Future research on
this issue is recommended.

Barring poor instrument validity, subject selection
problems or other confounds, the findings are not consistent
with Freud’s Oedipus complex model of super-ego development,
particularily for males. There were some findings for
females supportive of Freudian theory (eg.earlier paternal
separation being associated with decreased super-ego
functioning), but Freud was much less clear about females’
developmental issues than those of males. Hore
psychodynamic developmental formulation and research of
females is warranted.

Considering the prevalence of childhood paternal
separation, more research should be done exploring
pathological effects of being raised in such an environment.
It is suggested that more research be done exploring effects
of separation from either parent for each sex on moral
development during different childhood periods. It is
unfortunate that not enough maternal separation subjects
were acquired in the present study. In addition, more
research could be done to explore the viability of different

aspects of Freudian theory. The super-ego in particular is

80
difficult to define operationally, and work could be done
looking at how the super-ego responds to different types of
impulses, particularily further exploring the nature of and

relationship between Freud’s two major classes of instincts-

aggressive and sexual.

t“““‘*f§

 

 

APPEND I CES

APPENDIX A

EEIQQI!_IDQQC!-91-§QQQE:EOQ_DSXQLQOQQO!
Freud (1953/1905) observed that the prototvpe of the
identification process occurs during the infant’s oral
stage. At this point in development an individual does not

differentiate ingestion of food from sexual aims. Like

identification proper, this primitive form is colored by

E):

ambivalence in that what is desired is destroyed by eating
(Freud. 1955/1921). Freud (1964/1933 [1932]) believed that
identification is probably the very first type of attachment
to an object. However. he was careful to differentiate
between identification and object choice. To identifv with
another is to incorporate the model’s ego into one’s own
such that one behave’s in certain ways like the other.
One’s ego is modified by the identification process.
Object-choice, on the other hand. is characterized by
wanting to possess or have another, and one’s ego is not
necessarily altered. Although identification and
object-choice are relatively independent of each other, it
is possible to identify with one’s sexual ObjOCt.

The initial state of the infant is one of primary
narcissism (Freud, 1957/1914). The infant’s libidinal
cathexis to its own ego is characterized by an omnipotent
attitude toward its self. However, as the child grows it

learns that it is not the perfect, all-powerful being that

81

82
it initially believed. Primary narcissism must be
relinquished in order for the ego to proceed in its
development. During this process, the parents’ critical
influences form the ego-ideal, a newly differentiated part
of the ego. The ego-ideal is an identification of others
highly esteemed and perceived as the embodiment of
perfection. Identification with both parents tends to occur
until the child becomes aware that the mother has a
shortcoming in her lack of a penis (Freud, 196111923). Then
identification with the father becomes more prevalent. The
child’s narcissistic love is displaced onto the new
structure. The ego desires a return to the state of primary
narcissism but instead finds satisfaction in achieving the
ego-ideal.

The ego-ideal later gives rise to the super-ego which
is formed during the dissolution of the Oedipal complex
(Freud, 1961/1923). In the case of boys, the mother is the
initial love object while the father is a model for
identification. The Oedipus complex begins when the boy’s
sexual impulses toward his mother increase, and he views his
father as a rival. The boy’s ambivalence toward his father
heightens as he desires to get rid of him and take his place
with his mother. In the meantime, the boy views the
anatomical differences between the sexes due to women having
been castrated, and he fears castration himself.

In order to resolve the Oedipus complex, the boy must

give up the object-cathexis of his mother. In the more

r3111 1

B3
ordinary outcome it is desexualized or sublimated by the
boy’s increased identification with his father which forms
the beginnings of the super-ego. The super-ego contains
moral prohibitions such as against incest, and guilt is
experienced when the performance of the ego conflicts with
the bidding of the super-ego. The ego-ideal remains as a
part of the super-ego. In addition to parental
identifications, other authority figures viewed as ideal F

models are incorporated into the super-ego (Freud,

I. ”‘MAA‘H'

1964/1933119321). As the super-ego develops, the k
intensification of the boy’s identification with his father
also consolidates the masculine aspect of his character.

A second but less common dissolution of the Oedipus
complex is for the boy to identify with his mother. Freud
viewed humans as inherently bisexual. As a result, there is
a positive and a negative Oedipus complex. Often a boy will
take both parents as affectionate object-choices, have both
feminine and masculine inclinations and harbor ambivalence
to both mother and father.

Freud (1955/1923) initially believed that dissolution
of the Oedipus complex occurs in an analogous manner in
girls such that the girl’s object-cathexis of the father
would ordinarily be replaced by identification with her
mother. This may be an intensification or it may occur for
the first time. This identification consolidates her
femininity. Later, Freud (1961/1925) adopted a different

version of what happens to girls during the Oedipal period.

84
Like with boys, a girl’s first love-object is her mother.
Upon noticing anatomical differences between the sexes, a
little girl develops penis envy. Her mother is viewed as
having castrated her, and this decreases the
object-cathexis. The girl equates having a baby with having
a penis, and she wishes for a child. This leads to her
adopting her father as her new love-object. Unlike with
boys, girls view themselves as already having been castrated

and lack in motivation to end the Oedipus complex. Hhen

Riff—.3

they do, it tends to be as a result of a fear of loss of
love (Freud, 196111924). Unlike boys, the Oedipus complex
in girls tends to be repressed, linger before being given up
or it may last long into a woman’s adult life. Freud
believed that as a result, women’s super-egos are less
developed than those of men. However, in one of his later
writings, Freud (1964/1933119321) admitted to the possible
fallibility and incompleteness of his thoughts on the
psychological development of women.

At about the age of between six and eight years, the
phallic stage comes to an end, and the latency period begins
(Freud, 1963/1917 (1916-19171). Psychosexual development is
temporarily interrupted, and Oedipal memories are repressed.
During puberty, sexual instincts are reawakened and
intensify, and the Oedipal complex is revivified (Freud,
1955/1923 [1922]). The final outcome of the Oedipus complex
is determined during this time as the adolescent struggles

agai nst renewed i ncestuous i mpul ses.

85

Freud (1964/1933 [1932]) attributed three basic
functions to the super-ego: self-observation, conscience,
and maintaining the ideal. Self-observation is a necessary
step before the conscience can judge one’s self. Freud
recognized that the super-ego does not always operate in a
unitary, consistent manner even in psychologically healthy
individuals. The severity of its standards fluctates
depending on circumstances. For example, Freud (1955/1921)
discussed the common super-ego alteration which occurs when
one is in love or hypnotized. He drew parallels between
these two circumstances in which the Obj-Ct of interest
(love object or hypnotist) temporarily replaces the ego
ideal. During such times, neither the behavior of the
object nor what one does for the benefit of the object are
open to judgment from the conscience. Somewhat similarily.
when one becomes a member of a group, common instincual
impulses may become more powerful than the individual’s
super-ego. A final example is that during a bout of
depression, an individual’s conscience becomes more severe
and punishes the ego based on unusually harsh moral

standards.

 

APPENDIX B

8:599:59-Belsting-2stscnal-Sseacstiign_t9_ugcal-Ds!sleeesni
The literature in this area is diverse and fraught with
methodological problems. Many studies do not specify the
sex of the absent parent, type of absence (eg. death,
divorce, separation, etc.) or age at which the loss f

occurred. Age at assessment is another important variable

2‘ A...—
.5

to consider as is sex of the subject. Also, some studies
either do not have control subjects or if they do, they may
not have been carefully matched with experimental subjects.
Studies also vary by method of determining moral
development. Seventeen studies were found relevant to the
issue of the relationship between paternal absence and moral
development. Details of methodology and findings of each
study will be presented. Despite the aforementioned
methodological problems, the literature as a whole does
strongly suggest a relationship between loss of either
parent during childhood and decreased moral development in
both sexes.

Glueck and Slueck (1950) compared 14 to 16 year old
jUVIflil. delinquent boys to matched nondelinquents on many
variables. The IUDJOCtI were matched by age, IO and ethnic
origins but not on economic status of the family. The
. nondelinquents did come from statistically significantly

better economic conditions than the delinquents. Findings

86

S7
of the study indicated that significantly less delinquents
than nondelinquents live with their own mother, or with
their own father. A significant chi-square was obtained on
marital status of parents. More delinquents than
nondelinquents came from broken homes including: divorce,
separation, widowhood, and parents not married. Statistics
were not performed on age of the boy when separation from a
parent occurred.

Gregory (1965) assessed a group of 9th grade girls and
boys on a variety of factors including those related to
family status, and three years later, the same subjects were
rated on severity of delinquency based on police and court
records. Delinquency was significantly related to low SES
and low IO in both boys and girls. Results of the study
were significant in relating delinquency in boys to loss of
the father by separation or divorce, or by death. For
girls, delinquency was significantly related to parental
separation or divorce, living only with the father, living
with neither parent, and loss of the mother by death.

In a study of prisoners (Brown and Epps, 1966) both
death of the father and of the mother were significant
factors related to males and females being imprisoned. The
prisoners were compared with age matched controls from the
general population. Socioeconomic status and IO were not
controlled. In another study (Cloninger and Guze, 1970),
convicted female felons were clinically diagnosed and

compared on family status rates. Sociopathic subjects

significantly differed from IUDjICtI receiving other
diagnoses (eg. hysteria) in having not lived with the
parents during the entire period while growing up. SUDJOCtI
were not matched on intelligence. The difference between
groups on 388 was not significant. Tuckman and Regan (1966)
studied male and female children seen at an outpatient
psychiatric clinic and found that significantly more boys
coming from broken homes than intact homes displayed
antisocial behavior and aggressiveness. Hale children
exhibiting this behavior came from divorced or unmarried
homes at a greater rate than being bereaved of a parent.
Control of subjects on potentially confounding variables was
not addressed.

Hoffman (1971a) assessed male and female 7th graders on
the relationship between conscience development and father
absence. Father absence was determined by an adult male not
living in the home for at least the last 6 months. Control
subjects came from intact homes, and they were matched with
the experimental group on IO and SES. Father-absent boys
scored significantly lower in comparison to father-present
boys on level of moral judgment, maximum guilt, acceptance
of blame, moral values, and rule conformity. The teachers
also rated the father-absent boys as significantly more
aggressive than the controls. No significant findings were
obtained for girls nor were there any apparent trends.

Using 8th grade males, Schenenga (1982) investigated

the relationship between father absence and two factors:

B9
moral judgment, and ego-ideal development using a
self-report instrument. Father-absence was determined by no
adult male having lived in the home at least since the
subject was 11 years old. Father-present subjects came from
intact homes. SUDjICtI were not matched on any variables
other than age. Father-present IUDJICtS scored
significantly higher than father-absent groups on level of
moral Judgment and ego-ideal development.

A study of male delinquents between the ages of 12 and
17 years (Daum and Bieliauskas, 1983) matched father-absent
and father-present subjects on age, IO and SES.
Father-absence was defined as no father figure (eg. natural
father, stepfather, etc.) living in the home for a minimum
of two consecutive years between the IUbjICt’S second and
twelfth birthdays. The subject had to be living with his
natural mother. No absence was determined by a figure as
defined above as living consistently in the home during the
same specified time period. Father-present boys were found
to have attained a significantly higher level of moral
maturity as determined by a moral Judgment task than the
father-absent boys.

Other studies explored the effects of parental absence
during specific age periods on moral development. The
literature does suggest that parental loss prior to the age
of six years may affect moral development greater than loss
during other age periods.

Greer (1964) compared patients with different

90
psychiatric diagnoses to controls on parent loss. Parent
loss was defined as continuous absence of a parent for at
least one year prior to the age of 15 years. Hatching of
groups on possibly confounding variables was not mentioned
in the paper. Significantly more sociopaths than neurotics
or control subjects were found to have experienced parental
absence. Rate of parental loss was significantly greater in
female than male sociopaths. Loss of a parent prior to the F!
age of five was significantly greater in sociopaths than in
neurotics.

Hale medical and law students whose fathers were away
from home in the army for at least one year while their sons
were between the ages of one and four years, reported
significantly greater antisocial behavior than control
subjects from the same professional schools (Siegman, 1966).
Hale adolescent delinquents coming from intact homes were
found to have significantly lower recidivism rates than
delinquents coming from broken homes (Kelly and Beer, 1969).
Recidivism rates were significantly greater for those
delinquents whose fathers left home between the time of
their birth and six years of age in comparison to those
delinquents whose fathers left home when they were age seven
years or greater and in those delinquents coming from intact
homes. Any matching of sub3ects was not discussed in the
paper. Judd (1980) found that adolescent girls having
experienced father absence achieved significantly lower

moral Judgment scores than those coming from father-present

91
homes. Father absence was defined as no father-figure
residing in the home for a minimum of three years between
the girl’s first and thirteenth birthdays. Girls whose
fathers were absent when they were between the ages of six
and thirteen scored significantly higher on a moral Judgment
measure than those girls whose fathers were absent between
the time of their birth and five years of age.

Parish (1980) studied male and female college students
and found that age at the time of paternal loss was
significantly and positively correlated with moral
development as determined by performance on a moral judgment
test. This was true for females but not males. Loss of the
father by divorce was a significant factor in level of moral
development while loss by death was not. It should be noted
that the number of subjects was quite small with seven males
and seventeen females, and ten subjects lost a father by
death while fourteen subjects lost their fathers through
divorce. Using female college students, Parish and Copeland
(1981) found a significant and positive relationship between
age at time of father loss and level of moral development as
determined by a moral Judgment task. Small numbers.of
subjects were used in groups, and no difference was found in
moral development between those subjects having lost a
father to death and those having lost a father through
divorce.

Three studies were found that did not find early

parental loss to be related to lower moral development than

92
loss during later age periods. However, all of these
studies do link parental absence in general to decreased
-eoral development. A study of male prisoners (Koller and
Castanos, 1970) found significant differences in rates of
parental loss, as defined by continuous absence of a parent
for at least a one year period prior to the subject’s
fifteenth birthday, in the following groups: long term
prisoners > control subjects; short term prisoners > control
subjects: long term prisoners > short term prisoners.
Experimental and control subjects were matched by age, sex,
marital status, social isolation and 888. Both long term
and short term prisoners suffered significantly higher rates
of father loss than the control group. There were no
significant differences between groups on rate of mother
loss. Long term prisoners experienced significantly greater
parental death rates than the control group. However, there
were no significant differences by age at time of the loss
as broken down in the following groups: birth to 4, 5 to 9
and 10 to 14 years.

Santrock (1975a) found significant differences.b0tween
father-absent and father-present fifth and sixth grade boys
on measures of moral development, but age of father absence
was not found to be a significant factor. Subjects were well
matched using IO, SES, race and so forth. Father-absent
boys, as defined by the father being absent through divorce
or by death with no stepfather living in the home, were.

rated by their teachers as exhibiting significantly lower

a.

. s.-

93

levels of conscience and sociability, and higher levels of
deviation, than father-present boys. There were no
significant differences between groups on resistance to
temptation, moral Judgment, and moral affect. Results were
mixed comparing subjects by types of loss. Teachers.rated
boys coming from divorced homes higher on social deviation
than boys coming from widowed homes. However, boys coming
from widowed homes performed significantly lower on moral
jUUOIODt items than boys coming from divorced homes.

Studies of children raised in Kibbutz settings provide
researchers with opportunities to study effects of isolation
from the traditional family unit from the time of infancy
throughout childhood. Rabin and Goldman (1966) found that
seventh grade Kibbutz children exhibited significantly less
guilt as determined by their story completions than
non-Kibbutz Israeli children. Females showed these
significant differences on measures of guilt.about theft,
death wishes and sabotage of group enterprise. .Hales
demonstrated these significant differences on measures of
guilt about disobedience and death wishes. In contrast to
these findings, another study (Luria, Goldwasser and
Goldwasser, 1963) resulted in children between the ages of
eleven and thirteen raised in a Kibbutz giving significantly
more story completions containing confessions of
transgressions than matched Israeli non-Kibbutz children.
This was particularily so for girls. The authors suggested

that maybe use of confession is not a valid indicator of

 

94

moral development. Other factors such as evidence of guilt,
attempts to make restitution and so forth were not analyzed
because the number of subjects were too small for these
variables.

In conclusion, with methodological issues.aside, this
literature as a whole suggests that loss of either parent
for either sex during childhood is associated with low moral

development. This seems to be particularily true for males

' "at

having experienced paternal absence and for females having

1’7. ‘5 .a'...‘

endured maternal absence. The literature also suggests.that
early rather than later parental loss is more detrimental to
moral development. Finally, childhood parental absence due
to either divorce or death appears to be associated with low
moral development.

Slightly different trends emerged when only the six
studies were used that were 3069.6 to be methodologically
sound as determined by adequate matching of groups on at
least age, 888 and IO (Daum and Bielauskas, 1983: Hoffman,
1971b; Parish, 1980: Parish and Copeland, 1981: Santrock,
1975a; Siegman, 1966). However, such conclusions should be
viewed cautiously because of the paucity of research and the
diversity of means used in measuring moral development.

This literature suggests a trend in which paternal.abeence
during childhood is associated with decreased moral
development in males but not in females. Also, early
paternal loss in females appears to be related to low moral

development, but any critical age period at time of loss did

95
not emerge as a trend in males. Finally, there does not
seem to be any significant difference between the effects on
moral development of paternal absence by death versus

divorce.

APPENDIX C

Uifibigéfl_§§§§§_QDEXQE§1S!-QQQEEQS-EQE!

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Department of Psychology

DEPARTMENTAL RESEARCH CONSENT FORM

1. I have freely consented to take part in a scientific
study being conducted by Lisa Cowden, M.A. under the F
supervision of Joseph Reyher, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology. '

1"- - O
A

I understand that the purpose of this prOject is to study
the development of creativity in families and other factors
that cannot be fully explained to me until the completion of
the study. My participation will require my performance on
three tasks: that I complete a questionnaire, and that I use
my imagination to make-up stories about cartoons that are
shown to me and to complete story beginnings which are read
to me.

Participation in this experiment should take about one
hour, and I will receive $4.00.

2. The study has been explained to me, and I understand the
explanation that has been given and what my participation
will involve.

3. I understand that I am free to discontinue my
participation in the study at any time without penalty.

4. I understand that the results of the study will be
treated in strictest confidence and that I will remain
anonymous. Within these restrictions, general results of the
study will be made available to me at my request.

5. I understand that my participation in the study does not
guarantee any beneficial results to me.

6. I understand that, at my request, I can receive
additional explanation of the study after my participation is
completed.

Signed:

Date:

96

97

CONSENT FORM

Project Title: Creativity in Families
Investigator: Lisa Cowden, M.A.
Supervisor: Joseph Reyher, Ph.D., Professor, Department of

Psychology, Michigan State University

You are being asked to be a volunteer in a research study.

The purpose of this research is to study the development of
creativity in families and other factors that cannot be fully
explained to you until the completion of the study.

8599999593: If you decide to to be in the study, your part
will involve the performance on three tasks: that you
complete a questionnaire, that you use your imagination to
make-up stories about cartoons that are shown to you and to
complete story beginnings which are read to you.
Participation in this experiment should take about one hour.
ggggiitg: The benefit of being in this study is that you will
receive $4.00. If you leave the study before finishing, you
will receive $1.00 for every 15 minutes completed. By being
in this study you will be helping us to increase knowledge
related to parental loss and creativity.

Bigkglpigggmfigrtg: There is no risk involved with being in
this study.

Confidentiality: The results of the study will be treated in
strictest confidence, and you will remain anonymous. Hithin
these restrictions, general results of the study will be made
available to you at your request.
txtxtXItttttt*tttttttxtttxtttttttttttttttttittttttttttttttttt
£313

-You do not have to be in this study if you do not want to
be.

-You have the right to leave the study at any time without
giving reason and without penalty.

-If you have any questions about the study, you may contact
Lisa Cowden, M.A., 883-5421.

-If you have any questions about your rights as a research
subject, you may contact Dr. Robert Schneider, Committee on
Research Involving Human Subjects, 516—632-6960.

-Any new information that may make you change your mind about
being in this study will be given to you.

-You will get a copy of this consent form to keep.

-If you sign below, it means that you have read (or have had
read to you) and have understood all of the information given
in this consent form, and you would like to be a volunteer in

this study.

SUBJECT NANE (Print)

-—*-—n-- ‘— --.e -— -— -- -- -~ ~- ”— - .--w-- ---—h —--- -- .- -- -- -- -- --

SIGNATURE Date INVESTIGATOR Date

71'“

 

APPENDIX D

Three major means of measuring moral development have
been established in the literature: cognitive, behavioral
and affective. Major cognitive methods involve making moral
judgments on hypothetical moral dilemmas (Kohlberg, 1958:
Rest, Cooper, Coder, Masanz and Anderson. 1974: Kurtines,
1986). Behavioral measures of morality problems include
delinouencv or criminality (Glueck and Glueck, 1950: Nye,
1957: McCord. McCord and Thurber, 1962: Brown and Sons,
1966: Cloninger and Guze,1970: Koller and Castanos, 1970:
Fodor, 1972: Datesean and Scarpitti, 1975). Also,
resistance to temptation tasks have been used (Hartshorne
and May, 1928: Glueck and Glueck, 1950: Burton, Maccoby and
Allinsmith, 1961: Grinder, 1962: Grinder and McMichael,
1963: Rebelsky, Allinsmith and Grinder, 1963: Sears, Rau and
Alpert, 1965: Santrock, 1975a, b: Corcoran and Rotter,
1987), combination story completion-doll play (Sears, Rau
and Alpert, 1965), teacher or parent observations (Burton,
Maccoby and Allinsmith, 1961: Grinder, 1962: Sears, Rau and
Alpert, 1965, Yarrow, Campbell and Burton, 1968: Hoffman,
1971a, b: Santrock, 1975a, b), and miscellaneous behaviors
in the laboratory setting (Ruma and Mosher, 1967: Santrock,
1975a, b). Self-report has also been utilized (Siegman,

1966: Hoffman, 1971: Santrock 1975b) and clinical

98

:r-“fi
‘4 '

 

 

99
impressions of antisocial behavior (Greer, 1964: Tuckman and
Regan, 1966).

Affective measures of moral development primarily
involve indications of guilt by projective or
semi-prOjective methods. Many studies have utilized the
story completion method (Allinsmith, 1960: Luria, Goldwasser
and Goldwasser, 1963: Rabin and Goldman, 1966: Hoffman,
1971). Sentence completion methods (Mosher, 1961) and
Blacky Pictures (Blue, 1949) have also been used to
determine the presence of guilt feelings.

Besides trying to determine which mode of measurement
most accurately taps moral development, the lack of
consistency in such measures across individual, time and
situations presents another challenge. This lack of
consistency, which is compatible with Freudian theory, has
been frequently observed in research. In 1928, Hartshorne
and May administered multiple deception tests which tempted
such behaviors as cheating, lying and stealing in fifth
through eighth grade girls and boys. The tests were
conducted across different situations such as in the
classroom, at home, during athletic contests and so forth.
The researchers found relatively low correlations in
measures of honesty across different types of tests and
situations. Similarily, Santrock’s (1975 b) study of
preadolescent boys yielded intercorrelations from -.10 to
+.30 between resistance to temptation tasks. Moral judgment

intercorrelations were somewhat better ranging from +.19 to

"fi ‘

‘P'eai
D

 

100
+.48. No moral judgment items were significantly related to
resistance to temptation tasks. Correlations between
resistance to temptation tasks and guilt as determined by
story completions ranged from -.16 to +.18. A cross
cultural study of American and Samoan sixth and seventh
grade boys and girls yielded inconsistent relationships
between guilt, as determined by responses to forced-choice
story completion tasks, and resistance to temptation
(Grinder and McMichael, 1963). However, intercorrelations [-
between the three guilt scales: remorse, confession and i .....
restitution, were highly intercorrelated ranging from .59 to
.72.

In a study of four year old girls and boys (Burton,
Maccoby and Allinsmith, 1961) a nonsignificant negative
correlation was found between a resistance to temptation
task and evidence of conscience as determined from an
interview with the subjects’ mothers. In another study of
nursery school age children (Sears, Rau and Alpert, 1965)
low correlations were found between individual resistance to
temptation tasks, observed guilt following transgressions
and resistance to temptation, parents’ reports and other
measures of conscience, and doll play as story completion
and other measures. In Schenenga’s (1982) study of early

adolescent boys, the relationship between moral judgment and

 

performance on a test designed to measure ego ideal and
conscience development, was not significant.

Inconsistency across moral development measures has

101
also been found in studies using adults. Hithin a
psychosocial framework, Kurtines (1986) investigated the
consistency of moral decision making in male and female
college students. He presented subjects with six
hypothetical dilemmas. Half of the dilemmas involved making
a moral decision on the basis of consequence while the other
half involved decision making based on fairness without
regard to consequence. Hypothetical situations involved
lYing, stealing and breaking a promise. Subjects were asked {1
to justify their responses as being based on benevolence, L_‘
justice or pragmatism. Individual characteristics were also
measured by self-report and cognitive test performance.
Person and situation variables were found to vary
significantly across types of moral dilemmas.

Blasi (1980) reviewed the literature on moral judgment
versus moral behavior. Ten out of fifteen studies
significantly related delinquency to low levels of moral
reasoning. Studies relating moral reasoning to real life
behavior as determined by such measures as teacher ratings,
drug use, sexual behavior and so forth, were less promising.

Out of twelve studies, six were positive: three were

 

negative, and three gave mixed results. Of seventeen
studies relating moral reasoning to resistance to
temptation, seven were positive: seven were negative, and
three yielded mixed results.

Hith the exception of the positive moral judgment

studies reported by Blasi (1980), research demonstrating

102
consistency across moral development measures are difficult
to find. Santrock (1975 b) found a positive relationship
between guilt as determined by story completions and
altruism as determined by a behavioral task in preadolescent
boys. In another study (Grinder, 1962), mothers were
interviewed to determine conscience development on three
dimensions in their five to six year old children. Hhen the
children were eleven to twelve years old, they were
administered resistance to temptation tests. A significant
association was found between spontaneously admitting
transgressions at age five to six and resisting temptation
at age eleven to twelve in boys. A significant relationship
was also found between resistance to temptation in eleven to
twelve year old girls and voluntary confession and a summary
scale of conscience when ages five to six.

Ruma and Mosher (1967) investigated the relationship
between moral jugment and guilt in adolescent delinquents.
To measure guilt, they used a forced choice sentence
completion method (Mosher, 1966) and three types of ratings
from an interview following the transgression that ruled the
subject delinquent. A significant relationship was found
between moral judgment and guilt via the sentence completion
test and two out of three of the interview measures: content
analysis and global clinical rating. These two interview
measures were significantly correlated. One of them, global
clinical rating, was significantly correlated with the

sentence completion performance. The Mosher Incomplete

 

103
Sentences Test (Masher, 1961, 1966) was developed to measure
sex guilt, hostile guilt, and morality-conscience guilt.
Mosher has created three forms of this test: open-ended
sentence completion, forced-choice and true-false.
Correlations between types of guilt for each form range from
.28 to .89 with the weakest relationships obtained on the
open-ended form. Repeat reliabilities are reasonable, and
are also lowest on the open-ended form ranging from .55 to
.97. However, a problem with this instrument is that one
must question the capacity to tap consciously unacceptable
impulses when sentence beginnings are phrased in the first
person.

In summary, the above findings do strongly suggest that
children and adults alike vary individually in their moral
behavior across situations. Also, the lack of consistency
between different means of measuring moral development

suggest the presence of a multi-faceted construct.

 

APPENDIX E

Jack is a college student. It’s a boring Friday
evening. He doesn’t have a date, and his friends are out
with their girlfriends. For a moment he considers working
on the term paper for his history class, but then he thinks,
“nah, that’s work." He switches on the t.v. and flips
through the channels, catching glimpses of people and
places, but nothing catches his attention. So he decides to
go out to find something to do.

He steps out of his apartment into the heavy rain and
shivers as rivulets of cold water run down his face to his
neck. He shoves his cold hands deep into his jacket pockets
where he finds the comfort of warmth and dryness. After
what seems like an eternity he reaches his car. He stops
for a minute to admire it in the spotlight-like rays of the
streetlight overhead. In the dampness his red Camaro
glitters like it’s covered with rubies. He opens the door
and climbs in. The first thing that strikes his senses is
the strong smell of leather upholstery. He looks about him
in the red interior and pushes his body up against the soft,
cushioned seat. He starts the car and begins driving.

As he watches the hypnotic back and forth swaying of

the windshield wipers, he again wonders how he should spend

104

 

 

 

 

105
his evening. He keeps driving and eventually finds himself
not far from the neighborhood of Mary and Tom, a middle-aged
couple who are close friends of the family. They have known
Jack since he was a baby. It occurs to him that he has not
seen them for a very long time, and he decides to stop in
for a visit. He turns his car into their driveway and gets
out. His legs feel a bit stiff from the drive as he climbs
the wet cement stairs to the entranceway.

He knocks on the door, and it opens slowly. Mary, a
matronly woman, greets him with a wide smile and an
enthusiastic, ”well hello, Jacky! How have you been, honey?

Oh you’re so wet. Come in: come in!“ He follows her
inside, and she takes his dripping jacket. He experiences a
pleasant dejavu at having been called by his boyhood
nickname.

The warm, sweet smell of the house is pleasant. It
smells like freshly baked cookies. She embraces him in a
bearhug, and with her broad lips she plants a hard, wet kiss
on his cheek. He notices that she hasn’t changed much since
he last saw her except that the graying around her temples
has spread deeper into her dark curly hair. This strikes
him as making her look more attractive in a sophisticated
and mature sort of way. She is a soft-looking woman with a
large bust and broad hips.

Jack asks how Hary’s and Tom’s daughter, Miriam, who is
in college out of state, is fairing, and Mary begins to tell

him about Miriam’s experiences. Meanwhile, she offers him a

 

 

 

106

cookie, and he eagerly takes it. He savors a bite of the
chewy, sweet mass. She ushers him into the livingroom, a
vast but inviting space made up of soft overstuffed
furniture and tall erect lamps made out of brass. Light
classical music is humming from her stereo, and the light is
dimmed to a relaxing glow. He looks about the room at art
objects that have fascinated him since he was a boy- the
colorful blown glass vases of many shapes and sizes, and the
statues of people that so capture the body in motion that in
the corner of your eye you would swear they were moving.

Jack sinks his body into a chair across from Mary who
is pouring them glasses of wine from a tall flask. The
flowery scent of her perfume drifts through the room. Jack
wonders where Tom is, but before he gets a chance to ask,
Mary explains, "Tom’s out of town for the next few days.
He’ll be so disappointed he missed you.” Jack nods and
feels the warmth of her fingers as their hands momentarily
touch when he takes the wine glass from her. The diamond on
her wedding ring sparkles like a beacon. They start
smalltalking about such things as the weather and college,
but Jack finds it difficult to stay focused on the
conversation as he drinks the wine and begins feeling
increasingly warm and tingly.

Eventually, Jack finds his.eyes tracing every curve of
her body in the soft light. He decides that her age only
makes her look more beautiful. Mary’s steady voice mixes

with the crescendoing of the symphonic music in the

 

 

 

 

107
background and the beating of the rain against the window as
the storm grows more powerful. Mary comments how lonely her
weekends are when Tom is gone. They finish their
conversation, and Jack reluctantly stands up to leave. Mary
looks disappointed and says, “do you have to go so soon,
Jacky?II Mary gives him a hurt look, and for a moment he
feels mesmerized by her dark blue-green eyes which remind
him of deep pools of turbulent seawater. As Mary walks with
him toward the door, she bumps into Jack, and her full
breasts briefly brush up against him. He feels a rush of
warmth spread through his body. Jack...
nuisances-.1001»- 151192.).

Steve is warming up in preparation for the 100 meter
dash at a collegiate track meet when a slim, red-headed
woman saunters over. At first, Steve’s attention is
captured by the rhythmic swaying of her body as she walks,
but then he recognizes her as Sue, a teammate from the
women’s track team. She smiles at him as she drops to the
ground next to him. He watches with fascination as she
contorts her arms and legs until she reminds him of a
pretzel. He continues to watch her movements as he does
situps on the soft ground. He feels the blood pumping
through his body and the burning of his groin and back
muscles. Breathing hard, he pauses for a moment and catches
a whiff of Sue’s sweet perfume. He starts doing pushups in
synch with her, and the muscles in his arms and back begin a

fine trembling as they endure the increasing strain. The

 

 

 

108
hot midday sun beats overhead, and thick streams of sweat
begin running down Steve’s forehead and cheeks. As a little
runs in the corner of his mouth, a salty taste hits the tip
of his tongue.

He finishes the pushups and lets himself collapse face
first onto the grass. It’s still a little damp from the
morning dew, and Steve feels its pleasant coolness against
his body. He quivers pleasantly as he feels Sue’s arm brush
his leg as she changes her stretching position. Nhile Steve
lies there, he thinks about the big race and hopes that he
can break the school record today. He came so close in the
last meet. He visualizes Carl Lewis with a slew of Olympic
gold medals hanging on his chest, and Lewis’ face changes to
his own. He wonders what it would feel like to have his
picture on the front of a Hheaties box.

Feeling warmed up, Steve nods a farewell to Sue and
then starts walking across the track toward the spectator
stands to look for his aunt and uncle. An acrid smell like
new tires hangs in the air from the sun baking the track.
with each step, he feels his sharp metal cleats tear into
the spongy rubber. He peers into the faces of people
sitting in the stands while he searches for Aunt Sarah and
Uncle Charlie. As he looks, he begins wondering if they
even came. Charlie has been having some hypertension
problems lately, and the heat could put an extra strain on
his heart. Then Steve spots a waving arm and hears a high

voice calling, “over here Steve!‘I He spots the salt and

 

 

 

109

pepper colored hair of his aunt and uncle as they push
through the crowd to meet him at the edge of the track.

“Hello, Steve,“ says Uncle Charlie in a bass voice.
Steve has always admired his uncle, but they have a long
history of getting into disagreements. His aunt meekly
peers around her husband’s broad shoulders and says, ”you’ve
grown to be such a fine, handsome young man.“ Uncle Charlie
scowls and asks Steve how his college work is coming. Steve
tells him that he’s decided that after he gets his
bachelor’s degree in education, he wants to go to graduate
school because he would ultimately like to be an
administrator like a school principal or even a district
superintendant.

Charlie, who is a high school teacher with a bachelor’s
degree, replies, “but we need fine intelligent young people
like you to teach our kids.“ “But I don’t want to teach,‘
says Steve. Charlie’s face turns scarlet, and his voice
booms, “How can you even consider administration? You know
what those people are? They’re nothing but lazy
paperpushers who don’t know a damned thing about teaching!“
”Charlie...,' says Aunt Sarah in a mildly scolding voice.
Charlie ignores her and pulls away. “Come on, Steve,‘I he
says, “let’s take a walk.” Steve follows him from the
bleachers as Charlie continues lecturing, ' You know why?
Because they don’t teach. They just tell us what to do.

And they think they’re so smart just because they have fancy

degrees.” Charlie angrily jerks a handkerchief out of his

Jrr- -

 

 

 

110
back pocket and blots the large beads of sweat spotting his
forehead. Then he adds, “those degrees don’t mean anything.
It just gives those bastards a reason to think they’re
better than the rest of us. Nell they’re not!”

Steve feels anger welling up inside him. Charlie would
have to do this on the day of a big race, he thinks to
himself. The muscles in his entire body tense as he
clenches his hands into fists at his sides. The blood
surges through his veins as if he were sprinting all out on
the track. Finally he shouts, ”you’re just afraid of me
outdoing you, old man!” Charlie glares at him and with a
smirk, says, ”you have a lot of growing up to do, young
man.” Both men know that this is just what Steve despises
to hear. Steve really wants to get the last word in and say
to him, ”fall off the face of the earth, you old relic!”

But instead he announces, "I have to continue warming up,”
and he turns away.

Steve glances behind him and doesn’t see Charlie, but
he notices the door to the men’s restroom closing. Then he
hears a heavy thud and a fading voice that sounds very much
like Uncle Charlie gasping, “help me- my heart.” Steve
looks around and doesn’t see anyone nearby. Just then the
announcer says, ”all competitors in the men’s 100 meter dash
please report to the starting blocks immediately.” Steve...
Incestuousjisbjtieulss-iEeealss).

Jane is a college student. It’s a boring Friday

evening. She doesn’t have a date, and her friends are out

 

 

111
with their boyfriends. For a moment she considers working
on the term paper for her history class, but then she
thinks, “nah, that’s work.” She switches on the t.v. and
flips through the channels, catching glimpses of people and
places, but nothing catches her attention. So she decides
to go out to find something to do.

She steps out of her apartment into the heavy rain and
shivers as rivulets of cold water run down her face to her
neck. She shoves her cold hands deep into her jacket
pockets where she finds the comfort of warmth and dryness.
After what seems like an eternity she reaches her car. She
stops for a minute to admire it in the spotlight—like rays
of the streetlight overhead. In the dampness her red Camaro
glitters like it’s covered with rubies. She opens the door
and climbs in. The first thing that strikes her senses is
the strong smell of leather upholstery. She looks about her
in the red interior and pushes her body up against the soft,
cushioned seat. She starts the car and begins driving.

As she watches the hypnotic back and forth swaying of
the windshield wipers, she again wonders how she should
spend her evening. She keeps driving and eventually finds
herself not far from the neighborhood of Mary and Tom, a
middle-aged couple who are close friends of the family.

They have known Jane since she was a baby. It occurs to her
that she.has not seen them for a very long time, and she
decides to stop in for a visit. She turns her car into

their driveway and gets out. Her legs feel a bit stiff from

 

 

 

112
the drive as she climbs the wet cement stairs to the
entranceway.

She knocks on the door, and it opens slowly. Tom, a
husky man, greets her with a wide smile and an enthusiastic,
”well hello, Janey! How have you been, honey? Oh you’re so
wet. Come in: come in!” She follows him inside, and he
takes her dripping jacket. She experiences a pleasant
dejavu at having been called by her childhood nickname.

The warm, sweet smell of the house is pleasant. It
smells like freshly baked cookies. He embraces her in a
bearhug, and with his solid lips he plants a hard, wet kiss
on her cheek. She notices that he hasn’t changed much since
she last saw him except that the graying around his temples
has spread deeper into his dark curly hair. This strikes
her as making him look more attractive in a sophisticated
and mature sort of way. He is a rugged-looking man with
broad shoulders and sinewy muscles.

Jane asks how Mary’s and Tom’s son, Mark, who is in
college out of state, is fairing, and Tom begins to tell her
about Mark’s experiences. Meanwhile, he offers her a
cookie, and she eagerly takes it. She savors a bite of the
chewy, sweet mass. He ushers her into the livingroom, a
vast but inviting space made up of soft overstuffed
furniture and tall erect lamps made out of brass. Light
classical music is humming from the stereo, and the light is
dimmed to a relaxing glow. She looks about the room at art

objects that have fascinated her since she was a girl- the

113
colorful blown glass vases of many shapes and sizes, and the
statues of people that so capture the body in motion that in
the corner of your eye you would swear they were moving.

Jane sinks her body into a chair across from Tom who is
pouring them glasses of wine from a tall flask. The spicy
smell of his cologne drifts through the room. Jane wonders
where Mary is, but before she gets a chance to ask, Tom
explains, ”Mary’s out of town for the next few days. She’ll
be so disappointed she missed you.” Jane nods and feels the
warmth of his fingers as their hands momentarily touch when
she takes the wine glass from him. The shiny gold of his
wedding band flashes like a beacon. They start smalltalking
about such things as the weather and college, but Jane finds
it difficult to stay focused on the conversation as she
drinks the wine and begins feeling increasingly warm and
tingly.

Eventually, Jane finds her eyes tracing every angle of
his solid body in the soft light. She decides that his age
only makes him look more handsome. Tom’s steady voice mixes
with the crescendoing of the symphonic music in the
background and the beating of the rain against the window as
the storm grows more powerful. Tom comments how lonely his
weekends are when Mary is gone. They finish their
conversation, and Jane reluctantly stands up to leave. Tom
looks disappointed and says, ”do you have to go so soon,
Janey?” Tom gives her a hurt look, and for a moment she

feels mesmerized by his dark blue-green eyes which remind

 

 

114

her of deep pools of turbulent seawater. As Tom walks with
her toward the door, he bumps into Jane, and he briefly
brushes up against her breasts. She feels a rush of warmth
spread through her body. Jane...
Death-uisb-§$ieulss_ifieeslesl

Sandra is warming up in preparation for the 100 meter
dash at a collegiate track meet when a slim, red-headed man
saunters over. At first, Sandra’s attention is captured by
the rhythmic swaying of his body as he walks, but then she
recognizes him as Sam, a teammate from the men’s track team.
She smiles at him as he drops to the ground next to her.
She watches with fascination as he contorts his arms and
legs until he reminds her of a pretzel. She continues to
watch his movements as she does situps on the soft ground.
She feels the blood pumping through her body and the burning
of her groin and back muscles. Breathing hard, she pauses
for a moment and catches a whiff of Sam’s musky cologne.
She starts doing pushups in synch with him, and the muscles
in her arms and back begin a fine trembling as they endure
the increasing strain. The hot midday sun beats overhead,
and thick streams of sweat begin running down Sandra’s
forehead and cheeks. As a little runs in the corner of her
mouth, a salty taste hits the tip of her tongue.

She finishes the pushups and lets herself collapse face
first onto the grass. It’s still a little damp from the
morning dew, and Sandra feels its pleasant coolness against

her body. She quivers pleasantly as she feels Sam’s are

 

 

 

 

 

115
brush her leg as he changes his stretching position. Hhile
Sandra lies there, she thinks about the big race and hopes
that she can break the school record today. She came so
close in the last meet. She visualizes Florence
Griffith-Joyner with a slew of Olympic gold medals hanging
on her chest, and Griffith-Joyner’s face changes to her own.
She wonders what it would feel like to have her picture on
the front of a Hheaties box.

Feeling warmed up, Sandra nods a farewell to Sam and
then starts walking across the track toward the spectator
stands to look for her aunt and uncle. An acrid smell like
new tires hangs in the air from the sun baking the track.
Hith each step, she feels her sharp metal cleats tear into
the spongy rubber. She peers into the faces of people
sitting in the stands while she searches for Aunt Louise and
Uncle Charlie. As she looks, she begins wondering if they
even came. Louise has been having some hypertension
problems lately, and the heat could put an extra strain on

her heart. Then Sandra spots a waving arm and hears a deep

 

voice calling, "over here Sandra!” She spots the salt and
pepper colored hair of her aunt and uncle as they push
through the crowd to meet her at the edge of the track.
”Hello, Sandra,” says Aunt Louise in a soprano voice.
Sandra has always admired her aunt, but they have a long
history of getting into disagreements. Her uncle meekly
peers around his wife’s slight shoulders and says, ”you’ve

grown to be such a fine, lovely young woman.” Aunt Louise

 

116
scowls and asks Sandra how her college work is coming.
Sandra tells her that she’s decided that after she gets her
bachelor’s degree in education, she wants to go to graduate
school because she would ultimately like to be an
administrator like a school principal or even a district
superintendant.

Louise, who is a high school teacher with a bachelor’s
degree, replies, “but we need fine intelligent young people
like you to teach our kids.” ”But I don’t want to teach,”
says Sandra. Louise’s face turns scarlet, and her voice
booms, ”How can you even consider administration? You know
what those people are? They’re nothing but lazy
paperpushers who don’t know a damned thing about teaching!”
”Louise...,” says Uncle Charlie in a mildly scolding voice.
Louise ignores him and pulls away. ”Come on, Sandra,” she
says, "let’s take a walk.” Sandra follows her from the
bleachers as Louise continues lecturing, ” You know why?
Because they don’t teach. They just tell us what to do.

And they think they’re so smart just because they have fancy

 

degrees.” Louise angrily jerks a handkerchief out of her
purse and blots the large beads of sweat spotting her
forehead. Then she adds, ”those degrees don’t mean
anything. It just gives those bastards a reason to think
they’re better than the rest of us. Hell they’re not!”
Sandra feels anger welling up inside her. Louise would
have to do this on the day of a big race, she thinks to

herself. The muscles in her entire body tense as she

 

117
clenches her hands into fists at her sides. The blood
surges through her veins as if she were sprinting all out on
the track. Finally she shouts, ”you’re just afraid of me
outdoing you, old woman!” Louise glares at her and with a
smirk, says, ”you have a lot of growing up to do, young
woman.” Both women know that this is just what Sandra
despises to hear. Sandra really wants to get the last word
in and say to her, ”fall off the face of the earth, you old
relic!” But instead she announces, ”I have to continue

warming up,” and she turns away.

 

Sandra glances behind her and doesn’t see Louise, but
she notices the door to the women’s restroom closing. Then

she hears a heavy thud and a fading voice that sounds very

 

rmuch like Aunt Louise gasping, ”help me- my heart.” Sandra
looks around and doesn’t see anyone nearby. Just then the
announcer says, ”all competitors in the women’s 100 meter
dash please report to the starting blocks immediately.”

Sandra...

 

APPENDIX F

Stories will be rated such that development of the
super-ego will be determined on a 7 point scale from "1“
representing a poorly functioning super-ego to "7”
indicating a highly functioning super-ego.

1. Hero/heroine indulges impulse, and there is no
evidence of any guilt feelings or anxiety related to the
transgression.

2. Hero/heroine indulges impulse, and there is evidence
of guilt feelings or anxiety related to the transgression.
3. Hero/heroine resists impulse. If there is any

indication of guilt feelings or anxiety related to the
impulse, the threat of punishment, abandonment, or loss of
love regards an external source eg. being afraid that
someone will disapprove of one’s behavior.

4. Hero/heroine resists impulse, and there is a sign of
guilt feelings or anxiety related to the impulse, but it is
not clear if the threat of punishment, abandonment, or loss
of love regards an internal or external source.

5. Hero/heroine resists impulse, and the threat of
punishment, abandonment, or loss of love emanates from
within the individual. One is aware of guilt feelings
related to the impulse, but they are mild to moderate in
strength eg. being angry at one’s self or feeling

incompetent (rated 5) versus thinking of committing suicide

118

 

119

(rated 6).

6. Hero/heroine resists impulse, and the threat of
punishment, abandonment, or loss of love emanates from
within the individual as suggested by satisfying at least
one of the following criteria:

a. If one is aware of guilt feelings, they are extreme
in strength eg. severe self-reproach, self-destructive
thought or action.

b. One is not conscious of the desire for punishment.

One may suffer from an accident, misfortune, mistake, poor

 

performance, self-defeating behavior, fate, illness, death,
etc. In addition, receiving punishment from another person
may be viewed as the projection of one’s punitive super-ego
onto that person. However, it is important to note that
punishment delivered by another person after violation of an

internalized moral standard- entertaining a forbidden wish

 

(rated 6), must be differentiated from the threat of
punishment from another person as the motive for not
indulging the warded off impulse (rated 3).

c. Unconsciously unacceptable instinctual impulses are
repressed or transformed as revealed by a sublimation,
reaction-formation, neurotic symptom, etc. If repression
fails, anxiety will appear. However, the distinction must
be made between neurotic (rated 6) and realistic (rated 3)
anxiety.

d. One experiences feelings of inferiority.

7. Hero/heroine resists impulse and rationalizes the

situation.

 

APPENDIX 6

Questionnaire

INSTRUCTIONS: PLEASE “RITE IN OR CIRCLE ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
AS INDICATED.

Personal Information:

Sex: M F

Age: __ years _months

Race: Hhite Black Other: ____

Relationship Status: Married Divorced Separated
Widowed Single

Family Information:

5.

6.

Are your parents still married? Yes No

Have your parents ever separated? Yes No

If no, skip to question #7.

a. How old were you at the time? __ years,__ months

b. who did you live with? Mother Father

Both Other:____

c. How long did the separation last? __ years,__ months

Is at least one of your parents widowed? Yes No

If no, skip to question #8.

a. How old were you at the time? __ years,__ months
b. Hhich parent died? Mother Father Both

c. Cause of death: Illness Accident Murder War
Suicide Other:____

d. Who did you live with afterwards? Mother Father

Other:

e. Did your surviving parent remarry? Yes No

If so, how old were you at the time? __ years,__ months
f. After your parent’s death, was anyone else but you,
your surviving parent, a step-parent or any siblings,
living in your house? Yes No

If so, who? Parent’s Boy/Girlfriend Relative

Friend Other:____

Sex of occupant: M F

Age of occupant at the time: __ years

Your age at the beginning of the stay: __ years,__
months

How long did the occupant stay? __ years,__

120

 

 

 

10.

121

Are your parents divorced? Yes No
If no, skip to question #9.
a. How old were you at the time? _ years,__ months

b. Who did you live with afterwards? Mother Father
Both Other:____

c. Did either parent remarry? Yes No

If so, which one? Mother Father Both

d. After the divorce, did anyone else but you, a parent,
step-parent or siblings reside in your home? Yes No

If yes, who? Parent’s Boy/Girlfriend Relative
Friend Other:____

Sex of occupant: M F

Age of occupant at the time: __ years

How old were you when this person first moved in?

-_ years,__ months

How long did s/he stay? __ years,__ months

Prior to entering college, have you ever experienced any
continuous separation (not lived together in the same
home) from either parent for a period of at least 6
months? Yes No

If no, skip to question #10.
a. How old were you at the beginning of the separation

period? __ years,__ months

b. How long were you separated? __ years,__ months
c. Which parent were you separated from? Mother
Father

Both

d. Why? Divorce Separation Death Illness
Military Service Other:___-

Do you have any brothers or sisters? Yes No
If no, skip the remainder of this question and go to the

instructions at the bottom of this page.
a. Please give age(s) and sex(es) of sibling(s):

Brother Si ster _ _ years 01 d
Brother Si ster _ __ years 01 d
Brother Sister __ years old
Brother Sister __ years old
Brother Sister _ years old

b. Prior to your entering college have you ever
experienced any separation of six months or greater from
any of your siblings with the exception of an older
sibling reaching adulthood and moving out of the house?

Yes No

If so, which one? ____
How old were you at the beginning of the separation?

How long were you separated? __ years,__ months
Why were you separated? __--

‘STOP HERE AND TURN IN THE THO PAGES YOU HAVE JUST
COMPLETED. THEN FILL OUT THE FOLLOHINS THO PAGES-

 

 

 

 

122

Family/Household Creativity:

INSTRUCTIONS: PLEASE RATE THE FOLLOWING FAHILY HEHBERS AND
OTHER(S) IF APPLICABLE ON CREATIVITY. WHEN DOING SO,
COMPARE THEIR ABILITIES TO THE RANGE OF TALENT THAT YOU ARE
AWARE OF WHEN YOU THINK OF SOCIETY AT LARGE. CIRCLE THE
NUHBER THAT BEST DESCRIBES THAT PERSON. HERE IS THE RATING

KEY:

1. Not at all creative.
2. Slightly creative.
3. Moderately creative.
4. Very creative.

5. Extremely creative.

11. Your mother’s creativity:
a. Artwork (this includes sketching, painting,

sculpting,

crafts, woodwork, etc.). 1 2 3 4 5

b. Writing 1 2 3 4 5

c. Story telling 1 2 3 4 5

d. Problem solving 1 2 3 4 5

12. Your father’s creativity:

a. Artwork 1 2 3 4 5

b. Writing 1 2 3 4 5

c. Story telling 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5

d. Problem solving

13. Your siblings’ creativity (if applicable):
If You don’t have a sibling(s) skip to 414.

Brother Sister

Age __ years

a. Artwork 1 2 3 4 5

b. Writing 1 2 3 4 5

c. Story telling 1 2 3 4 5

d. Problem solving 1 2 3 4 5

Brother Sister

Age __ years

a. Artwork 1 2 3 4 5

b. Writing 1 2 3 4 5

c. Story telling l 2 3 4 5

d. Problem solving 1 2 3 4 5

Brother Sister

Age __ years

a. Artwork 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5

b. Writing

 

 

 

123

c. Story telling 1 2 3 4 5
d. Problem solving 1 2 3 4 5

I have more brother(s)/sister(s) which I have listed and
rated at the end of this questionnaire: Yes No

14. Creativity of any other person(s) residing in the home
prior to you entering college (if applicable):

Relative Friend Parent’s Girl/Boyfriend

Step-parent
Other:
Age:

__ years
a. Artwork 1
b. Writing 1
c. Story telling 1
d. Problem solving 1

NNNN
wuww
aaaa
uuuu

Other people lived in the home which I have listed and
rated at the end of this questionnaire: Yes No

 

 

 

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