Pull-Enunmlljlullhula

m IIIIIIIII I II IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

31293 00796 7817

{Wt-Ho- a; -.

 

     

 

. "s a A u-Qfl
\‘{}~;,3u3 E-r - .3
t L -— —:a:~ --'—-—-L I
fi‘-°_._'§ !_-_ €95.41-
u-—— v-..‘ —j u” — w'— d—

«J

 

t! -, 9%-- ,-..: L-

.- . o ‘
4 ’7) V A

.-...;. i a.‘ £‘4._:'ll

 

 

This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

Inquiry as a method of teaching and

learning science in elementary school
presented by

Mohammad Abdulj abbar Faraj

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

 

Ph.D. degreein Education

M1: 2...

' ’ Major professoy

Date 7 . 30 . 1986_

MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

MSU

LIBRARIES
5.1—.

 

 

 

RETURNING MATERIALS:
Place in book drop to
remove this checkout from
your record. FINES wiIl
be charged if book is
returned after the date
stamped beIow.

 

 

‘;:,?-' -‘-. f, §fi;§
c;mt L J“ I

IfifiR.1 3 Zeta

Q11
0‘.
ea

 

 

INQUIRY AS A METHOD OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

BY
Mohammad Abduljabbar Faraj

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

1986

© 1987

MOHAMMAD ABDULJABBAR FARAJ

All Rights Reserved

ABSTRACT

INQUIRY AS A NETEOD OP TEACHING AND LEARNING
SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

BY
Mohammad Abduljabbar Faraj

This study is an attempt to investigate whether using
the inquiry method in teaching science in the elementary
schools in the State of Kuwait is better than using the
existing traditional method. Therefore, the main part of
this research is experimental in nature. The researcher
worked with four teachers in two different schools, as well
as 112 students in four classrooms. Two classrooms were
taught by two teachers using the inquiry method, while the
other two classrooms were taught by the other two teachers
using the traditional method. During the teaching period of
a unit about “Magnets" which lasted for 13 lessons, with each
lesson having a duration of 45 minutes, the researcher
observed the students in order to count the number of times
they were involved in each of five essential science
experiences which are observation, measurement, experimenta-
tion, interpretation of data, and prediction. When the
teachers finished teaching the unit, the researcher gave a
uniform exam to all of the students.

Analysis of data at the .05 level of confidence revealed

that there was a significant statistical difference in favor

Mohammad Abduljabbar Faraj

of the group that learned by the inquiry method in the number
of times the students were involved in each of the five
essential science experiences. Also, on the final test, the
means of the scores of the students who learned by the
inquiry method were higher than the means of the scores of
the students who learned by the traditional method.

Other purposes of this study included the following:

1. Defining inquiry, scientific inquiry, and the steps
in the scientific inquiry process.

2. Identifying the role of students, teachers, and
supervisors in the inquiry process.

3. Identifying the healthy learning environment which
serves best for conducting the inquiry process.

4. Comparing the inquiry method with the traditional
method.

5. Elaborating on the advantages and the disadvantages
of using the inquiry method in teaching elementary
science.

6. What are the factors affecting teacher use of
inquiry?

A brief description of the educational system in the

State of Kuwait is also included in this study.

 

fln t5: name 454122.}; t5: most merciful, and His most Ems/cairn

DEDICATION

To my wife Mariam
To my children Musaab, Muna, Maha and Muhanad

To my entire family who provided me
with love and understanding

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEHENTS

Praise and thanks be to God, first and last, Lord and
Cherisher of all the worlds who taught humankind everything
they knew not.

It is not possible to credit all who have contributed
toward accomplishment of this project. In expressimg
appreciation and recognizing the contributions of many, the
writer would like to give particular recognition to those
I'special people" without whose inspiration, encouragement,
guidance and help the completion of this study would not have
been possible.

It is with great pleasure to express my gratitude to the
members of my Guidance Committee, Dr. Charles Blackman and
Dr. Robert Hatfield for their assistance and guidance during
the course of my doctoral studies.

Special appreciation is extended to Dr. Castelle Gentry
for his consideration and willingness to become a member of
the committee at a crucial time during my program and for his
useful suggestions and encouragement. Grateful
acknowledgement is extended to Dr. James Page a former
committee member who retired before the completion of this

study.

iii

A special bouquet of thanks goes to Dr. Martin
Hetherington, who served as my major advisor and dissertation
committee chairperson. His personal integrity and dedication
inspired me to complete this study, and his valuable counsel,
kind consideration, understanding, and encouragement have
left distinct marks on this work. To him my gratitude is
unbounded.

Thanks and wishes are extended to all my colleagues and
"Brothers" at the Islamic Center of Greater Lansing for their
encouragement and prayers. Additionally, without the help of
the teachers who participated in the project, this study
would never have been completed. I thank each of them for so
willingly giving of their time, energy and for their
encouragement.

Finally, my profound gratitude is due to my great
family. They have made the greatest sacrifice of all--time.
To my brother Abdulmajeed Faraj and his family who
contributed more than they realize. To my mother and father-
in-law Nasser Yacoob for their patience, understanding and
prayers. To my wonderful wife, Mariam for her emotional
support and loving concern during my moments of frustration
and for her many sacrifices which have made the pursuit of
graduate study and completion of this dissertation possible
and worthwhile. To our beautiful children Musaab, Muna,
Maha, and Muhanad who listened, supported, encouraged, and
cheered. I am grateful to all of them from the core of my

heart.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LiSt Of Tables. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O v11

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . . 1
Background of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Research Questions and Data Collection. . . . . 8
The Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Limitations of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Inquiry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . 15
The Steps and stages of Scientific Inquiry . . 16
Further Investigation of the Study . . . . . . 18

CHAPTER II REVIEW OR RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . 19
The Learning Environment Which Facilitates

and Encourages Inquiry. . . . . . . . . . . 34
The Role of the Teacher in Inquiry-Centered
Instruction. . . . . 37

The Role of the Student in Inquiry-Centered
InStruCtion. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 40
The Role of the Supervisor in Inquiry-

Centered Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Advantages of Learning by Inquiry . . . . . . . 44
The Disadvantages of Learning by Inquiry and
How to Overcome Them. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Factors Affecting Teacher Use of Inquiry. . . . . . 50
A Brief Description of the Educational System

in the State of Kuwait. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S4
IntIOdUCtion O O O O O O I O O O I O O O O O 0 54
Education in Kuwait. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Educational Development in Kuwait. . . . . . . 55
Educational Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Definition of Terms . . . . .
Data Collection . . . .
Validity of the Final Test.
Research Hypotheses . . . .
Description of the Sample .

Teachers . . . . . . .

Teacher Training . . .
Variables . . . .

The Independent Variables

The Dependent Variable .
summa ry O O O O O O O O I O 0

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA
Introduction. . . . . .
Treatment of Data . . .
summa q 0 O O O O O O 0

CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .
Summary 0 O O O O 0 O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O
canalusions O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . .

Recommendations for the Ministry of Education
Recommendations for the Teachers . . . . . .
Recommendations for Further Research . . . .

APPEND Ix A UNI T ON MAGNETS O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
APPENDIX B TEACHER TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX C FINAL ACHIEVEMENT TEST . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX D THE SCORES AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF
BOTH G ROUP S O O O O O O O O O O O G C O O O

REP ERENC ES 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

vi

134
137

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

LIST OF TABLES

P193

Number of Government Schools, Students, and
TeaChers O O O O O O I O O I O O O O O O O O 0 O 0

Sample Observation Sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Observation of Use of the Five Essential Science
Experiences in the Experimental Classes . . . . .

Observation of Use of the Five Essential Science
Experiences in the Control Classes. . . . . . . .

The Number of Observations of Use of the
Essential Five Science Experiences in the Four
Classes 0 O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Proportions and 2 Scores for the Observation

of the Use of the Five Essential Science
Experiences of the Female Experimental Group

and the Female Control Group. . . . . . . . . . .

Proportions and 2 Scores for the Observation

of the Use of the Five Essential Science
Experiences of the Female Experimental Group

and the Female Control Group. . . . . . . . . . .

Frequencies and Proportions of Essential
Science Experiences in Both Experimental and
Control Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Proportions and 2 Scores for the Observation
of Both Experimental Groups and Both Control
GrouPSo O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for Testing Sex
and Treatment Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Means of Scores and Number of Subjects on the

Achievement Test Broken Down by Sex and
Treatment 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 0

vii

59
68

81

82

82

83

85

87

87

90

91

4.4

4.5

4.6

LIST OF FIGURES

The Structure of the Educational System in
Kuwait. 0 O O I O O O O O O O 0 O I O O O O O

A Comparison Between the Female Control
Group and the Male Control Group. . . . . . .

A Comparison Between the Female Experimental
Group and the Male Experimental Group . . . .

A Comparison Between the Female Experimental
Group and the Female Control Group. . . . . .

A Comparison Between the Male Experimental
Group and the Male Control Group. . . . . . .

A Comparison Between the Experimental
Groups and the Control Groups . . . . . . . .

A Comparison Between the Mean Scores of Both
Experimental Groups and Both Control Groups .

viii

58

92

93

93

94

95

9S

O
l
I
.1
I
o

I

I

Iand how to become self-directing (Gies, 1970).

 

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM

WW
If public education is to meet its obligation to society

 

 

 

._ .._. #MWMW‘I' tag!“ -W..n..'-,

and to the individual, 1t must focus its attention on and

i‘w‘v‘,

direct its efforts toward the deveIOpment of the autonomous

VMJ :u—v...-- 4-.5.‘. 1." ”.05.,- “1“‘Q-FM/WJ-J‘Alfi‘flajymfi‘.‘ «mepmmwh‘“fiwmnh N?“
"Lt-.1-

individual. The autonomous individual cannot deveIOp and

Wu, «WV-“IN"; ‘.;,.“1-Fg.‘.:‘a‘;wtv - 3“. .W ' w.‘ 3“. Kiwi " “RH-L. {2.9.1 }‘;~.,' H

 

TH.) v.~ w}. ‘W‘ ”Mi-Aw h‘ ””1“;

move toward autonomy unless the formal learning setting i

J. “‘50 E’ ’K‘"
a—o ”WW. “-n" -"‘\ II- .W "’Q' " 'r L

styled and structured in such a way as to be conducive to

"I' »
p. "..b nfl“ - .
I'-.- <‘ "

disciplined inquiry and self-directed learning.
If educators are to cope with the needs of learners
living in an increasingly complex and changing world, they

must cease programming the students with more and more

*information and focus on the learner and the processes

involved in teaching the learner how to quest for knowledge

If educators are to meet the challenge of providing the
best type of educational experience possible for youngsters,
then new programs will need to be developed and implemented
with focus on the needs of learners as they strive toward
becoming autonomous individuals (Gies, 1970).

Elementary students who are going to elementary schools
now in 1986 will start and spend all of their adult lives in
the let Century in an increasingly complex and changing
world. Therefore, some of the major goals in education at

this time should be to:

11
C
1’.

“I“ .
”I.
fa

‘ I.
d

2

1. Educate youth to become rational citizens who are
capable of thinking for themselves.

2. Prepare students for success in a world of unknown
dimensions.

3. IProvide students with a general awareness and
appreciation for both science and the processes of
science.

4. Help the children to acquire information and at the
same time to develop a useful set of performance
skills.

Thoughtful educationists have always been concerned with
learning that goes beyond the mere taking in and storing away
of someone else's knowledge. They have always searched for
ways to help learners experience and build upon native
curiosity, the drive to find out, to understand, and to know
first hand (Miller, 1966). Therefore, they have been working
hard to create, deve10p and/or introduce good science
education programs especially at the elementary level,
because through science and science education programs,
students can study the world and make some sense of it. A
good science education program in elementary schools lets
children know the joy and excitement of finding answers,
solving problems, doing meaningful activities, direct
thoughtful questions, and seek answers by applying
investigative techniques. A number of terms are presently

being used to describe this teaching/ learning strategy. The

3
three most common terms are: teaching/learning by inquiry,
teaching/learning by discovery, and teaching/learning by
investigation (Victor, 1974).

As stated by Jacobson (1970):

More recently there has been a growing emphasis on

inquiry in science education. At any rate, one of

the major goals for elementary school pupils in the

‘70's, generally described, is the development of

some skill in the use of the methods and processes

of science. (p. 15)

Therefore, modern science curricula tend to reflect this main
goal. Rowe (1972) wrote that, 'All of the major elementary
science programs extant today were designed to provoke
children to inquire about relationships among natural
phenomena" (p. 1).

For many years, the science education community has
advocated the development of inquiry skills as an essential
product of science instruction, and for an equal number of
years science educators have met with frustration and
disappointment. Several groups of concerned scientists and
educators have developed modern curriculum programs such as:
Biology Science Curriculum Study (BSCS), Science . . . A
Process Approach (SAPA), Earth Science Curriculum Project
(ESCE), Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC), CHEM Study,
Elementary Science Study (E88), and Science Curriculum
Improvement Study (SCIS).

These programs put a great emphasis on the

investigative, exploratory phases of science, and the

development of scientific inquiry skills.

4
W

Since 1965, education in general and science education
in particular have undergone a revolution in the Kuwaiti
schools. Moreover, the early seventies marked a milestone in
elementary science with the development of several innovative
curricula in the different stages. Nevertheless, the
Ministry of Education is still asking the teachers to
concentrate their efforts on covering the content of the
textbooks and to make their students recall information and
be ready for the final exam. In spite of all the efforts
which have been made by the Ministry of Education in
different aspects such as revising the science textbooks at
least once every three years, developing and improving the
science curricula in the different stages, and spending more
than 12% of the annual national income on education, the
Kuwaiti students are not interested in studying science and
very few Kuwaiti students are opting for the scientific
curriculum. Therefore, the country still depends on experts
and specialists from outside to run and operate its
facilities.

In order to meet the increasing needs of scientiffl:
specialists of the society such as engineers, teachers,
physicians, and pilots, it is suggested to use the inquiry
method in teaching science in order to lead and attract more
students toward studying science. The inquiry method will

develop the research skills of the students; foster

5

scientific literacy, enable students to develop into adults
capable of understanding the impact of science on society;
develop communication skills such as uses of reference
materials, writing, listening, speaking, reading and
vocabulary development, along with the recording of
scientific data which can readily be incorporated into the
classroom lessons on research (Rice and Dunlap, 1982).

Further, students at the same time gain practice with
science processes such as the use of tables and graphs,
counting, measuring, problem solving, classifying, organizing
data, and developing an understanding of the experimental
method. Therefore, if teachers and other educators believe
that it is important for students to develop these skills and
develop their thinking powers to the greatest possible

degree, then they will be interested in inquiry.

The ggrpgsg Q: the Study

The major purpose of this study was to investigate,
compare, and analyze the teaching procedures of two groups of
science teachers. One group included two teachers, a male
and a female, who received instruction and training in the
best methods of teaching a unit on magnets to two third grade
classes by the inquiry-discovery method. The second group
included a like number of elementary science teachers who did
not receive any training or instruction through this study
and taught the same unit using the traditional textbook-

centered method.

6

Although many studies have been done in this field in

the United States, none had been done in Kuwait. Therefore,

this study was done in order to bring the inquiry issue to

interested educators in Kuwait.

Other purposes of this study included:

1.

To define inquiry, scientific inquiry, and the

—— " W‘s; “WK!“ miwr‘fl'flbvfifl w WM 0. avat-(‘r‘n- W. “0"”qu W‘a

different phases and steps in the scientific

Mw,v. nu... .. an.

 

.‘. 57.;
.fl .

inquiry process.

{Mi-3V” MW ‘a

To identify the learning environment which

 

facilitates and encourages pupil inquiry and self-
directed approaches to learning among elementary
school pupils.

To identify the roles of the teacher, the student,
and the supervisor in this strategy of learning/
teaching process, i.e. inquiry.

To make a comparison between the inquiry method in
teaching science and the traditional method.

To discuss the strengths and the weaknesses of this
method of teaching science and how to overcome the
difficulties which face the teachers and other
educators while they apply it.

To try to learn why teachers in Kuwait have not yet
started teaching by inquiry and what the

difficulties they face.

During this researcher's experience in supervising 20

schools as well as meeting and discussing this matter with

7
many science supervisors, it was evident the science teachers
were not using the inquiry method in their teaching very
often (sometimes, they do unknowingly), either because they
were not trained to be teachers or not trained to use the
inquiry method in their teaching.

It is expected that this method of teaching science will
be good for teaching general science on the elementary level
as well as teaching separated science subjects in the
advanced levels. Furthermore, it is expected that this
method of teaching science will be of particular benefit to
curriculum planners, supervisors, and classroom teachers who
desire to improve their performance level and prepare the

students for the next century.

W

This study was important for several reasons:

1. No study of its kind has been conducted before in
Kuwait. This was confirmed by: (a) a thorough
search of literature conducted by this researcher
to find any studies related to this area of concern
in Kuwait: (b) two separate interviews: the first
with the General Supervisor of Science in the
Ministry of Education in Kuwait, the second with
the Chairperson of the Department of Science
Education in Kuwait University.

2. Such information will be important for school

teachers, supervisors, administrators, students and

8
curriculum planners. Science educators will be
able to perform their functions more easily and
effectively once they have a better understanding

of their roles, duties, and goals.

c u 'o 3 nd 0 c 'on

This study was designed to investigate the possibility
of teaching science, particularly at the elementary level,
using the inquiry method, and to find out the role that
teachers, students, and supervisors should play in order to
reach this goal. How can teachers become more effective?
What contribution can they make towards helping the students
master the subject matter more easily and effectively? What
restraints are imposed upon their activities under the
particular conditions of Kuwait? What are the drawbacks and
problems that science teachers there face? How can science
educators create and develop a learning environment which
facilitates and encourages pupil inquiry and self-directed
activities among elementary school pupils? What are the
major advantages and disadvantages of the inquiry method of
teaching science? And how can science educators overcome its
deficiencies?

The method of researching these questions was through
two different ways:

1. Reviewing related literature and recent trends in

‘education.

9
2. Investigating, comparing and analyzing the teaching
procedures of the two above mentioned groups of
science teachers through observing their classes
and comparing the scores of their students on the
final exam.

This study was designed to determine whether the
teachers trained to use the inquiry-discovery method were
more willing and able to encourage their pupils to indulge in
a significantly larger number of the “essential science
experiences" (Wilson, 1967, p. 13), which include
observation, measurement, experimentation, interpretation of
data, and prediction, than those teachers who did not receive
any training in using the inquiry method; and finally, to
compare the final achievement test scores of the students who
learned by the inquiry method and the scores of those who

learned by the traditional method.

Ih§_fl222£h§§§§

501 There is no significant difference in the number of
times pupils will provide the five "essential science
experiences'' in those classes which will be taught by
teachers who are trained and educated to use the
inquiry-discovery approach and those classes which are
taught by the traditional, textbook-centered approach.

[-102 There is no significant difference between the male
experimental group who are taught by the inquiry-

discovery method and the female experimental group who

10
are taught the same method in the final achievement test
scores, i.e. male experimental group vs. female
experimental group.

853 There is no significant difference between the male
control group who learned by the traditional method and
the female control group who learned by the same method
in the final achievement text scores, i.e. male control
group vs. female control group.

H 4 There is no significant difference in the scores of the

students in inquiry-discovery classes and the scores of
the students in traditional classes on the final test,

i.e. male and female experimental group vs. male and

female control group.

Ergcgdugg

To conduct this research, the researcher selected two
schools (one for girls and one for boys) in the AL-Ahmadi
educational zone in the State of Kuwait. From each school,
two third grade science teachers were chosen; so there were
four teachers and four classrooms involved in the study. One
teacher from each school was selected to receive training and
instruction on using the inquiry-discovery method in teaching
a: unit about magnets. This step took about three half days
with each teacher. The second teacher in each school was
aasked to teach the same unit using the traditional textbook-

<=entered method. The first group shall hereinafter be called

11
the inquiry or the experimental group while the latter group
will be called the traditional or the control group.

Each of the four teachers was contacted personally for
the purpose of explaining the nature and the goals of this
study and to get their permission to observe their classes
and to give their students a final test at the end of the
unit. All 13 sessions in both inquiry groups were observed
while 10 and 11 sessions in the boys' and girls' control
group were observed respectively. Finally, the final exam
scores of both groups were analyzed to yield a comparison

between the traditional and the inquiry method.

LEW

The limitations of the study were as follows:

1. This study was limited to only two schools within
one educational zone in the State of Kuwait. There
were only 112 students who were subjects of the
study. Furthermore, the study was limited to only
one unit of the science curriculum and only at the
third grade level. Nevertheless, the researcher
thinks that the results can be generalized to all
third graders in the other two educational zones
because of the centralized educational system in
Kuwait.

2. The results of this study were dependent upon one
post-test and many observations by the researcher,

and the extent to which the investigator was

12
objectively able to interpret and describe the
data.

3. Another limitation emerged from the fact that the
teachers involved in this study knew that the
researcher was viewing and observing their lessons
and that he would eventually compare the results of
the four classes. This fact might have affected
their performance as teachers or at least
influenced them to not act normally.

4. For the above-mentioned reasons, the results
obtained in this study may not be generalized
freely to other countries, to other levels of
schooling, or to other subjects. However, this
study should provide methodological impetus for

further research in this area.

D E' '!'

In this part of the study, the researcher discusses what
the literature has said about the definitions of: inquiry,

scientific inquiry, and the steps or the stages of scientific

,. “a,

n’ . 1
\JInguirE )

The dictionary suggested the following: inquire = to

inqgaay

seek for or after by questions. Inquiry = the act of seeking
information or knowledge--an investigation. In the
Iliterature, there are widely varying definitions for inquiry,

but they all have the same essential ingredient of pupils

13

being inquisitive, curious, asking questions, pupils
involvement in identifying and solving problems, developing
higher level cognitive skills. Dewey (1938) defined inquiry
as '. . . the controlled or directed transformation of an
indeterminate situation into one that is so determinate in
its constituent distinctions and relations as to convert the
elements of the original situation into a unified whole" (p.
104-105). In another place Dewey defined inquiry as the
“active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief
or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds
that support it and the further conclusions to which it
tends" (Gies and Leonard, 1970, p. 48). The Ad Hoc Committee
on Undergraduate Teacher Education in their report in 1970
defined inquiry as ”a process that moves in cycles from
experience to conceptualization, from conceptualization to
practice, and from practice to an evaluation that produces
the data necessary for the step back to experience, thus
repeating the cycle" (Ad Hoc Committee on Undergraduate
Teacher Education Report, 1970).

Inquiry has loftily been described as a search for
truth, knowledge, and information. Others have described
inquiry in different ways. Suchman (1969) described inquiry
as a search for meanings. He said, "Inquiry is a pursuit of
more meaningful ways of interpreting ones own perceptions"
(p. 4). Schwab (1963) perceived inquiry as '. . .

researches which receive their conceptual principles from

14

‘others and treat these as matters of fact, not matters for
test“ (p. 50). Trowbridge (1967) defined inquiry as a search
rather than the product (p. 28). Gagne (1963) stated that
"inquiry is apparently a set of activities characterized by a
problem-solving approach in which each newly encountered
phenomenon becomes a challenge for thinking" (p. 144).
According to Bingham et a1. (1974) inquiry is "a set of
activities directed towards solving an open number of related
problems in which the student has as his principal focus
productive enterprise leading to increased understanding and
application“ (349-351). A more recent definition of inquiry
was stated by Massialas and Zevin as ". . . a behavior which
is characterized by careful exploration of alternatives in
seeking a solution to a problem" (Gies and Leonard, 1970, p.
48). Many science curricula, instructional materials, and
methods textbooks have identified inquiry as very different
activities and strategies with little agreement as to what
constitutes scientific inquiry and what does not (Wilson and
Koran, 1976). M.D. Herron (1971) attempted to classify the
characteristics common to all definitions of inquiry. His
composite definition of inquiry may be stated simply as "a
method of learning which conditions students to recognize and
to state problems in a manner that will allow them to pursue
answers, and to recognize that these answers are both the
final product and the starting point for further study" (p.
171).

15
c' n . . u'

Wfiwry 18 a subset of general inquiry.
Schwab (1963) identified scientific inquiry as, "That which
is being offered by some educators as a paradigm on which to
base a teaching strategy" (Kyle Jr., 1980, p. 123).
Scientific inquiry was identified by Rachelson (1977) as ”the
method by which science arrives at its findings" (p. 109).
Another definition of Rachelson (1977) was, "It is a
two-component problem-solving process, These two components
are hypothesis generation and hypothesis testing. A complete
model of scientific inquiry must include descriptions of both
hypothesis generation and testing" (p. 109). Welch, et al.
(1981), in their article, "The Role of Inquiry in Science
Education: Analysis and Recommendations" defined inquiry to
be 'A general process by which human beings seek information
or understanding. Broadly conceived, inquiry is a way of
thought. Scientific inquiry is concerned with the natural
world and is guided by certain beliefs and assumptions" (p.
33). Dressel et al., (1960) stated that the most common
elements listed in the definition of scientific inquiry
include recognition of the problem: collection of relevant
data: formulation of hypothesis, testing of hypothesis; and

drawing conclusions" (p. 123).

16
8 nd 3 ' 'c

There are three basic phases in the inquiry learning
process. These have been identified as: exploration,
invention, and discovery.

W. The first phase of the inquiry method is
termed exploration. Exploratory activity is designed to
encourage students to investigate a particular topic. They
are asked to locate the pertinent information which has a
bearing on the topic. The information collected by students
may come from a variety of sources. They may draw on what
has been found in earlier investigations, or resource
materials, films applicable to the topic, or even
presentations made by the teacher. Once they are satisfied
that they have the necessary data, they are asked to arrange
their findings in some kind of reasonable pattern. Often,
this is accomplished only with some suggestion, clue, or
other assistance from the teacher (Bibens, 1980, p. 87).

W. The second phase of the inquiry method is
termed invention. It is in this phase that students are
asked to consider what they believe they have learned from
examining the content in the exploratory phase. After
exposure to a series of examples which contain similar
elements, students are encouraged to "invent" a rule which
would encompass the examples they have studied. This is a
procedure quite different from one in which the teacher

presents the students with a rule, a theorem, or a principle,

l7
demonstrates a problem by applying that principle, and then
asks the learners to repeat the procedure with a number of
similar problems which follow the rule they have memorized
(Bibens, 1980, p. 87).

Qigggygry. This takes the class into the third phase of
inquiry, discovery. It is in this phase that students
discover the inadequacies of what they have invented. Does
the rule they have evolved apply to all problems related to
the concept under investigation? If it does not, then the
students are to reconsider their invented rule, and modify
it, so that it does have general application (Bibens, 1980,
p. 87).

How do scientists conduct inquiry?

1. Inquiry begins with stimuli that are contrary to
expectations, i.e. sensing a pmoblem and deciding
to find an answer for it.

2. The next step is to try to define the problem and
to study the situation for all facts and clues
bearing upon the problem.

3. Making the best tentative hypothesis as to the
possible solution of the problem.

4. Selecting the most likely hypothesis.

5. Testing the hypothesis by inventing and planning
one or more experiments and by carrying out these

experiments.

18
6. Running check experiments involving the same
experimental factors to verify the results observed
in the original experiment.
7. Drawing a conclusion.
8. Making inferences based on this conclusion when
facing new situations in which the same factors are

operating. (Rachelson, 1977, p. 109).

W

The presentation of this study is organized into five
chapters. Chapter I was an introduction to the study which
included the background of the problem, the purpose of the
study, importance of the study, the research questions and
data collection, the hypotheses, procedure, limitations of
the study, and definitions. Chapter II will include a review
of the literature related to the study, the roles of the
teachers, students, and supervisors in the inquiry teaching-
1earning process, and finally, it will include a brief
description of the educational system as well as the
development of education in the State of Kuwait. Chapter III
will present the methodologies and procedures employed in the
investigation. A brief description of the research design
will be included. Chapter IV is devoted to the presentation
of the findings of the study. Finally, Chapter V will
include a summary of the investigation, appropriate
conclusions, and recommendations that are made on the basis

of the findings of the study for further research.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RBLAIBD LITERAIURB

At the beginning of this chapter, the researcher would
like to indicate that many terms have been used in this
chapter. The words problem-solving, discovery, guided
discovery, inquiry, and scientific inquiry are important
terms in the language of elementary science education. An
inspectixn: of the literature indicates that they are often
used interchangeably (Beaver, 1982). Therefore, during this
review of literature, the researcher will try to take these
words into consideration.

The idea of inquiry is not a new one. The fact is that
inquiry is as old as Socrates and Aristotle. Throughout the
years, many teachers have used it, and many are continuing to
use it. Moreover, many books and numerous articles have been
written throughout history in general and in the last several
years in particular dealing with inquiry (Kaltsounis, 1971).
One of the earliest arguments connecting the logic of inquiry
with liberal education is found in a passage from Aristotle's

W. He wrote:

Every systematic science, the humblest and the
noblest alike, seems to admit of two distinct kinds
of proficiency: one of which may be properly
called scientific knowledge of the subject, while
the other is a kind of educational acquaintance
with it. For an educated man should be able to
form a fair off-hand judgement as to the goodness
or badness of the method used by a professor in his
exposition. To be educated is in fact to be able

19

\

\

20

to do this .. . . . It is plain then, that as in

other sciences, so in that which inquiries into

nature, there must be certain canons, by reference

to which a hearer shall be able to criticize the

method of a professed exposition.

For Aristotle an understanding of the logic

(canons) of how inquiry is undertaken leads to the

development of a rational mind capable of acting as

critic in a field. (Connelly, 1972, p. 386)
Moreover, many educators have written about and discussed
this method of teaching from different points of view. At
the beginning of the 20th century, John Dewey (1916), in his
book Democracy and Education, made one of the earliest and
most significant protests against a curriculum based on the
teaching of specific facts and generalizations. He

maintained that true education is not only the transmission

\
\of accumulated knowledge, but also a process of assisting the

 

development of certain natural tendencies of the child. One
such tendency is to inquire; i.e. wanting and trying to find
out. He also believed that such inquiry, together with
learning how to search effectively for answers to questions
raised, is more important than learning particular
information. The development of such inquiry and procedures
for seeking answers is useful to the pupil in any situation
that might confront him. Dewey (1916) viewed facts as
meanings that have already been established and that should
be used as resources for conducting new inquiries, which lead

to new information, concepts, and generalizations.

21

Dewey (1938) wrote a book called ngig;__mhg_1hgggy_gfi
Laggigy in which he mentioned that the scientific inquiry is
hypothetical - deductive in nature. This view or
interpretation would call for an explanation of a "larger
view' of the area of concern, from which individual examples
could then be drawn. But it emphasizes two necessary
comditions which are usually slurred in statements of that
position: (a) the necessity of observational determinations
in order to indicate a relevant hypothesis and (b) the
necessity of existential operational application of the
hypothesis in order to institute existential materials
capable of testing the hypothesis (p. 427).

Various levels of inquiry may also be identified.
Schwab and Brandwein (1962), who are some of the leading
proponents of inquiry teaching, explained two types or two
levels of inquiry: "stable" inquiry and "fluid" inquiry.

1. Stable inquiry tends to "fill in the blank spaces
in the growing body of knowledge. It proceeds down
an established path which is governed by the
existing principles and generalizations. Stable
inquiry is not concerned with new principles"
(Schwab and Brandwein, 1962). Stable inquiry
treats scientific principles as facts; the
principles, then, define the problem for the

investigators. The investigators who receive their

22

conceptual principles from others, treat these

principles as matters of fact, not matters for test

(Fischler, 1965, p. 402).

2. ”Fluid inquiry, on the other hand," they said,
“refers to situations in which the principles
themselves are the object of the research"
(Nagalski, 1980, p. 26-27). Therefore, it can said
that:

In fluid inquiry, the aim of research is to test

the principles and ultimately revise them or invent

replacements for them. The goal is not the

immediate knowledge of the subject which use of the
principles may lead to, but discovery of their
limitations as intellectual tools of long-term

programs of stable research. (Publiese, 1973)

It takes into account the new bits of information
discovered by the stable inquirer and tries to discover
or invent new relationships, new theories, new
constructs which will open up a completely new line of
inquiry for the stable inquirer. The fluid inquirer is
not searching for the solution to a problem, but rather
for the formulation of a theory which will bring about a
new series of problems (Fischler, 1965, p. 402).
Moreover, Schwab (1963) also stated the following:

To teach science as inquiry means, first, to show

students how knowledge arises from the

interpretation of data. It means, second, to show
students that the interpretation of data - indeed,
even,the search for data - proceeds on the basis of
concepts and assumptions that change as our

knowledge grows. It means, third, to show students
that because these principles and concepts change,

“fi. “"yw-"2-‘ .r. : ~ . ‘ _
i ‘ , .

n. and-n.- -

" "3’- "'._‘~o“|-&.‘

23

knowledge changes too. It means, fourth, to show

students that, though knowledge changes, it changes

for good reason - because we know better and know

more than we knew before. (p. 40)

This then explains not only what inquiry is but also presents
its goals.

Inquiry strategies more frequently engage the pupil in
decision making regarding his own instruction. The pupil in
this approach assumes an active role in activities relating
to his own learning and generally interacts with his peers
and his teacher to a large degree. The inquiry approach is a
student-centered mode of instruction rather than teacher-
centered (Hagen and Stansberry, 1969, p. 534).

Suchman (1961) advances the idea that inquiry provides a
means to indixidualize or self-pace instruction so that
students are abl‘ewto”’l.e’aw:nwnw‘h‘;~tmi:wrelevant to them.
According to Suchman, freedom and a responsive environment
are necessary for self-directed inquiry. He contends that
the ability to inquire and discover concepts autonomously is
more basic than the attainment of concepts. It is implied
that, through inquiry and the ability to individualize
instruction, many of the problems associated with slow or
turned-off learners will be resolved. There is also the
belief that inquiry increases intellectual potency and aids
in developing critical thinking abilities (Kyle, Jr., 1980).

In 1966, Suchman (1966) developed curriculum approaches

which solely relied upon pupil questions: delimiting

teachers to simple Yes or No answers.

24

Gagne (1963) in his article "The Learning Requirements
for Enquiry" stated that "inquiry is apparently a set of
activities characterized by a problem-solving approach in
which each newly encountered phenomenon becomes a challenge
for thinking” (p. 145).

Gagne (1965), in his book In; Conditions gfi Learning,
disagrees with the notion that says that the young person
naturally attains more discoveries through inquiry and
investigative schemes than does an experienced scientist
because: (a) ”for a budding student scientist, each new
insight is a discovery," and (b) ”he believes that to be an
effective problem-solver, the individual must somehow have
acquired masses of structural organized knowledge" (p. 170).
Such knowledge is made up of content principles, not
heuristic ones. Therefore, one can understand that Gagne is
a proponent of guided learning who favors maximum guidance
and acquisition of facts leading to the mastering of
principles and problem solving. He said that "discovery
without guidance makes the learning of concepts a terribly
slow process“ (Beaver, 1982, p. 30).

Similar to Gagne, Ausubel (1963) emphasized time as an-
element of guidance in stating that: "Autonomous discovery
enhances intuitive understanding, but as a primary method of

transmitting subject matter content, this approach is much

25
too time consuming and inefficient simply on a time cost
basis." Ausubel pointed out that:
Any science curriculum worthy of the name must be
concerned with the systematic presentation of an
organized body of knowledge as an explicit end in
itself. It is also completely unrealistic to
expect that subject matter content can be acquired
incidentally as a by-product of problem solving or
discovery experience, as in the typical activity
program or project method. (p. 282)
Ausubel (1963) also maintained that to be pedagogically
realistic about discovery techniques, it must be conceded in
advance that before students can "discover" concepts and

generalizations reasonably efficiently, problems must be

 

structured for them, and the necessary data and available
N

procedures must be skillfully “arranged" by others, that is,

simplified, selectively schematized, and sequentially

organized in such a way as to make ultimate discovery almost

inevitable. No research scholar or scientist has it quite

this easy (Pugliese, 1973).

Moreover, meaningful learning presupposes that the
learner employs a meaningful learning set, and that the
material being learned is potentially meaningful (Ausubel,
1961). The fact that the learner is undergoing a learning
process implies that scientific inquiry is not meaningful to
the student. It is, therefore, absurd to have students
believe that they are performing scientific inquiry -

something which they are not capable of doing without a prior

learning process. Ausubel (1961) stated that:

26

For meaningful learning to occur in fact, it is not
sufficient that the new material simply be
relatable to relevant ideas in the abstract sense
of the term. The cognitive structure of the
particular learner must include the requisite
intellectual capacities, ideational content and
experimental background. (p. 19)

Ausubel (1964) also noted that:

Most of what [a student] really knows and

meaningfully understands . . . consists of insights

discovered by others which have been communicated

to him in a meaningful fashion . . . . Its's much

less time-consuming to communicate and explain an

idea meaningfully to others than to require them to

rediscover it by themselves. (p. 291)

Finally, and according to Ausubel (1964), "learning by
discovery has its proper place in the repertoire of accepted
techniques available to teachers. For certain purposes and
under certain conditions, it has a defensible rationale and
undoubted advantages“ (p. 291). Hence the issue is not
whether it should or should not be used in the classroom, but
rather for what purposes and under what conditions.

(n: the opposite side of Gagne and Ausubel, it was
' observed that Bruner (1965) favored learning by discovery

.5 with emphasis on structure and guidance as well as maximum

5 inquiry and investigation on the part of the student. Bruner

(1965) in his book The Act of Qiscgyggy maintained that:

Discovery - whether by a schoolboy doing it on his
own or by a scientist cultivating the growing edge
of his field - is in its essence a matter of
rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way
that one is enabled to go beyond the evidence so
reassembled to new information. It may well be
that an additional fagt or shred of evidence makes
this larger transformation possible. But it is

27

often not even dependent on new information.

Emphasis on discovery helps the child to learn the

varieties of problem solving and ways to transform

information for better use and helps him learn how

to go about the very task of learning. (p. 81)
Furthermore, Bruner (1963) in his book Qn_3gggigg
hypothesized that:

Emphasis on discovery in learning has precisely the

effect on the learner of leading him to be a

constructionalist; to organize what he is

encountering in a manner not only designed to
discover regularities and relatedness, but also to
avoid the kind of information drift that fails to

keep account of the usage to which the information

might be put. Emphasis on discoveries, indeed,

helps the child to learn the varieties of
problem-solving and helps him to go about the very

task of learning. (p. 92)

Finally, Bruner (1964), in his work with children,
encouraged them to question things and events as they saw
them, while, during his work on inquiry and learning, he
provided some major impetus to reviving the concern of
question asking in children.

Sund and Trowbridge (1967) defined inquiry as a search
rather than the product emphasizing teaching science and
inquiry, and noted that the essence of inquiry teaching is
arranging the learning environment to facilitate
(student-centered instruction, while giving sufficient
'guidance to ensure direction and success in discovering
scientific concepts and principles.

Sund and Carin (1964) wrote:

Schools have . . . traditionally overemphasized
this product of science, the subject matter, and

28

underemphasized or forgotten the pggcess of
science. [A look at the process by which the
subject matter is obtained reveals the dynamic
nature of the scientific process, for facts become
valid and cumulative only after they survive
unrelenting scrutiny. Thus, scientific facts
. . . although extremely necessary for any
% scientific investigation . . . are only a product
\ of the greater contribution of modern science, the
process of inquiry. (p. 4)

..,.,_.—...«r
CW-W

.A.
.— at...-

School should be practical and, thus, should strive to
prepare youth for life outside the school confines in the
let century. According to Sund and Trowbridge (1967):

The purpose of the inquiry approach is to involve
the student in the processes a scientist really
uses in discovering new knowledge. The objective
is to have the student live, for a time, the life
of a scientist. It is for this reason that the
inquiry approach has also been called the discovery
approach. (p. 28)

 

Many educators believe that when science is taught
properly, it can contribute to these ends, to prepare
students for life and to be life itself, especially when the
learner is given the opportunity to practice in the classroom
what he is learning and is going to use later. Sund and

Carin (1964) discussed how they believed this could be done,
saying:

x Science education should stress the spirit of
discovery characteristic of science. Both teachers
and students find that science teaching and
learning become a chore when approached as a series
of facts to be memorized and regurgitated back on
exams: nothing is more contrary to the spirit of
science than the lecture-memorize-test method.
This does not mean that concepts, theories,
principals, and content areas are abandoned in our
science curriculum; to the contrary, they can be
learned better when approached from a discovery

 

29

method. The student, learning concepts, develops

his skills in observing, checking, measuring,

criticizing, and interpreting discoveries as well

as other skills inherent in the prepared or

scientific mind. Students cannot learn nor grasp

the true spirit of science unless they engage in

discovery. (p. 11)

Many educators advanced the idea that inquiry provides a
means to individualize, or self-pace, instruction so that
students are able to learn what is relevant to them. Suchman
(1960) is one of these educators. His inquiry program was
designed to enable the learner to direct and control his own
learning. Tb do this the teacher must provide the climate
and conditions necessary, structure the process, organize the
sequence, and assist the pupil in evaluating his own
“progress. Thus the teacher is seen as a facilitator, and the
child as a programmer of his own learning. The conditions
which Suchman described as necessary for self-directed
inquiry and which must be provided were: freedom and a
responsive environment (Fish and Goldmark, 1966). He
contended the ability to inquire and discover concepts
autonomously is more basic than the attainment of concepts.
In: is implied that, through inquiry and the ability to
individualize instruction, many of the problems associated
with slow or turned-off learners will be resolved. There is
also the belief that inquiry increases intellectual potency

and aids in developing critical thinking abilities.

Suchman stated that:

30

Inquiry training is designed to supplement the
ordinary science classroom activities. It gives
the child a plan of operation that will help him
discover causal factors of physical change through
his own initiative and control and learn not to
depend (M1 the explanations and interpretations of
teachers or other knowledgeable adults. He learns
to formulate hypotheses, to test them through a
verbal form of controlled experimentation, and to

~- interpret the results. In a nutshell, the program

i is aimed at making pupils more independent,
systematic, empirical, and inductive in their
approach to problems of science. (p. 42)

Finally, there is no apparent reason that both inquiry
skills and understanding of concepts cannot be learned by the
discovery approach to elementary school science instruction.
This conviction was expressed by Suchman (1960) when he
stated the following rationale for the new science approach
in 1962.

1. Learning through inquiry transcends
learning which is directed wholly by the
teacher or the textbook; the autonomous
inquirer assimilates his experience more
independently. He is free to pursue
knowledge and understanding in accordance
with his cognitive need and his individ-
ual level and rate of assimilation.

2. Inquiry is highly motivating because
children enjoy autonomous activity
particularly when it produces conceptual
growth.

3. Concepts that result from inquiry are
likely to have greater significance to
the child because they have come from his
own acts of searching and data
processing. They are formed by the
learner himself; and for that reason
would be more meaningful to him, and
hence more stable and functional.
(Wilson, 1967, p. 38)

31

Inquiry implies question, the learner asks questions to

(flan-M
””‘r “W wmmr-m-u 3;, f.
{1.91. '3“ W- 2“

satisfy his desires and his curiosity. Therefore, it can be

n- c...» .u.‘

said that learning by inquiry or by discovery is emotionally
satisfying and rewarding to the learner. Fish and Goldmark
(1966) affirmed this idea when they said:
The teacher who provides for discovery-learning is
aware that she is nurturing pupil self-
recognition. For she provides opportunity for the
pupil to evaluate his learning experience and thus
discover that he is learning and that learning is
satisfying. She helps the pupil see a relationship
between learning, responsibility, self-discipline,

and increased independent action. (p. 14)

Moreover, Fish and Goldmark (1966) indicated another
level to which inquiry can be taken. In this model, inquiry
shifts from the level on which alternative methods of science
inquiry are focal to the level on which decisions about which

methods to select are focal. The new model is shown as

follows:
Level I: Alternative methods of science inquiry.
Level II: Judgement about alternative methods of science

inquiry.

In this approach to inquiry, pupils make the decisions
and determine the methods to be used in their science
inquiry, experience and face the results and consequences of
their decisions, and assess and/or analyze the consequences
by inquiring into the science inquiry methods which produce

the consequences.

32

Furthermore, Fish and Goldmark (1966) added that inquiry
can also be taken to a third level on which the pupils would
then evaluate the criteria they have built.

Several concerned scientists and educators have written
about modern curriculum programs with a major emphasis on the
investigative phases of science, the exploratory phases of
science, and the development of scientific inquiry skills.
Such science curricula sought to create laboratory
experiences that presented genuine problems of investigation
for students of all abilities. Emphasis was placed on
increasing students' critical thinking and on giving students
some understanding of the nature of science.

Romey (1968) referred to the "Invitation to Enquiry" and
explained that "experimentation and gathering data are
essential to a science course and are usually interesting to
students' (p. 31). He went on, adding that, "The procedure
is truly scientific since it incorporates interpretations,
generalization, and conclusion" (p. 31).

Hund (1969) stated that ”an education in science must
prepare young people to learn on their own" and, that
students should "expect to learn more after leaving school
than they did in school“ (p. 8). He cited this as one reason
for the emphasis in education today on learning to learn,

upon inquiry, and discovery techniques.

33

The best method for reaching this goal is to encourage
students to question things and events as they saw them. The
questioning process as a learning tool has been the concern
of educators for a long time. Several curriculum developers
have been using children's questions as a source of learning.
Many educators such as Dale (1937) recommended pupil
qugggigggmgs being of great value in curriculum construction.§"r
Carner (1963) suggested that teachers be encouraged to
involve children in the questioning process both verbally and
non-verbalLy. In correspondence with the concern to
encourage teachers to involve children in the questioning
process, Susskind (1969) developed some instructional
programs to increase the number and quality of pupil
questions.

In conjunction with the emphasis on pupil questioning
and the inquiry process, came a variety of conceptual and
practical suggestions on improving teachers' abilities in
designing learning environments conducive to pupil
questioning. Wickless (1971) designed an in-service program
to increase teacher ability to involve children in self- and
social questioning. He found that following such in-service
training, children did indeed ask more questions than their
teachers. Further developing this approach was Suchman

(1966). He developed curriculum approaches which solely

34
relied upon pupil questions, delimiting teachers to simple
yes or no answers.

1..) "r‘ ,ua-uAI"
a.”
K‘

  
 
 

 

n,

— ,
‘1' '—- _ ‘_ a-
"n”...J-c-D‘W‘"

The operational spirit of inquiry is central to the
development of the conceptual awareness that science is
investigation. For the learner to comprehend the
investigative aspects of science, he must be in a situation

where he has the freedom to inquire (Weber, 1974).

7" j , W‘“Wmfi~t~w 1. .

A truly free person has internal freedom as well as
external freedom. In regard to the external freedom, there
is an atmosphere of mutual respect and trust that is revealed
as the children move from one area of the room to another
without seeking permission or disturbing others in their
self-directed search for materials (Skeel and Decaroli,
1969). Therefore, the more rules and restrictions thrown in
the way of the learner, the fewer choices he has and the less
his activity resembles inquiry. It is obvious that the
classroom teacher can be very influential in creating
conditions that enhance motives to inquire. Probably the
most important role is to protect the learner from pressures
that get in the way of the emergence of positive motivational
patterns. If a child is afraid of being wrong, he is

concerned too much with doing what is expected of him to

35
wonder about why, or to enjoy the luxury of exploring ideas
or taking exciting perceptual journeys (Suchman, 1965).

On the other hand, if the student does not feel the need
to please the teacher with the correct answer, a climate for
inquiry increases. A student who is encouraged to interact,
whether his idea is right or the theory advanced is workable,
has at least participated and will feel freer to initiate
ideas in later inquiry episodes (Gies and Leonard, 1970).

Regarding internal freedom, scientific inquiry is
essentially an attitude which is characterized by a unique
freedom of the mind. The learner must be free to identify
and pursue the problem as he sees it. His hypotheses must be
his own: data must be obtained through methods of his
choosing. Interpretations, predictions, and conclusions are
based on his personal work. Inherent in this process is the
feeling on the part of the student that this freedom does
exist. The classroom atmosphere should convey this feeling
to the learner (Weber, 1974). The learner should not feel
that he has lost control of his own investigation through
outside forces.

Along with freedom, a responsive environment is
considered a crucial condition for inquiry. A lone child in
a completely bare room may have all the freedom he wants, but
his capacity to inquire is tremendously restricted by the

fact that he has no means of gathering data. Even if his

36

ideas are rich and fluent, he is going to find it very
difficult to engage in inquiry since he has no source of data
to test his ideas or to generate new ones. The more the
teacher puts into the immediate environment of the child to
enable him to interact, gather information, and test ideas,
the more responsive the teacher has made the environment.
Classrooms that are loaded with materials of this kind, and
in which children are free to utilize this responsiveness,
are classrooms that have a great potential for inquiry
(Suchman, 1965).

Finally, inquiry is most productive when it has
direction and purpose. If all searching is diffused, there
is never enough total mobilization of energy to penetrate a
particular area of interest far enough to make a concerted
gain in conceptual growth. The very young infant engages in
fairly diffuse searching, and as a result the sensory motor
type of learning he undertakes builds a kind of intuitive
groundwork for later learning, but it does not penetrate any
particular problem with great power. One of the things which
enables older children to inquire more rigorously is that
they have the power to sustain a focus upon a particular idea
without being sidetracked too much by tangential issues.

One way to provide a focus is to confront the child with
an event that puzzles him. Educators refer to such events as

“discrepant" in the sense that they present a phenomenon that

I“
MJM .

- I... ..

 

37
does not coincide with the child's knowledge and understand-
ing of the world. A gap is created between what the child

perceives and what he knows. The discrepant event provides

not only a motivation to inquim 'point

M“: dis-.’I-u.2 w.n‘f .5

toward which the process of inquiry can be aimed. Focusing,
however, is not a one time activity. It is often necessary
for a teacher to step into a situation in order to resharpen
the focus of inquiry (Suchman, 1965).

It is important to notice that focusing is not a matter
of giving approval or disapproval, but a question of
redirecting the child's attention to discrepancies and thus
sharpening the focus for the child so that inquiry can
continue productively rather than ending in a quagmire of
unjustified closure. This is where the teacher plays a very

important role in providing the child with the wherewithal to
build and test his theories (Suchman, 1965).

,- ;. ‘ - o- -. 9‘ v .9, - -. - :9 a; f .,

Certain facets of the teacher's role in inquiry-centered
instruction have been irmflicit in the section above. But
since this study was based on the assumptions that inquiry
places new demands on the teacher, and that the classroom
verbal interaction developed by the teacher is probably
instrumental in achieving the necessary intellectual climate
to foster inquiry, some related considerations are explained

below.

38

In recent years, considerable attention has been focused
on within-class teacher behaviors and the relationships
between these behaviors and students' achievement. It is a
well known fact that the teacher is the key to the inquiry
process, or as Welch, et a1. (1981) stated:

The teacher is the critical factor in achieving a

desired state consistent with inquiry teaching.

Effective teachers would value inquiry, would

encourage an inquiry orientation in others, and

would possess skills in enabling others to

understand inquiry as a way of knowing. (p. 34)

To do this, the teacher must provide the climate and
conditions necessary, structure the process, organize the
sequence, and assist the pupils in evaluating their own
progress. Thus, the teacher is seen as a facilitator.

As mentioned earlier, Suchman 7i§6§7“§aia that the two
conditions necessary for self-directed inquiry which must be
provided by the teacher are: freedom and a responsive
environment. Students in the classroom must possess a
protected freedom. As they gather data, formulate theories,
and test these theories, they need to be protected from
competitive pressures both from their peer group and from
adult authority. A child must feel that when he is searching
for new answers, no one will punish him.

It is to be remembered that scorn, derision, or even the
disapproval of silence may be a form of punishment, and

nobody can guarantee this right of protected freedom for the

student except the classroom teacher. The teacher

39

purposefully creates a classroom atmosphere that will
maximize opportunities for students to meaningfully identify
the problem and then be able to move toward their solutions.
In such an environment, the teacher provides guidance in
dealing with the problem raised. As he moves from group to
‘ group, he encourages the pupils in their efforts, refocuses
the search for information if necessary, notes areas of
apparent strengths and weaknesses among the pupils, prods the
thinking of a stymied inquirer, points the way to resources
of knowledge and different interpretations of ideas, and
establishes the necessary intellectual framework from which
children learn to draw their own conclusions and to develop
value systems. This role requires the teachers' willingness
to listen to and accept from children a variety of possible
answers instead of seeking the one right answer (Skeel and
Decaroli, 1969).

Finally, Postman and Weingartner (1969), in their book,

W characterized an inquiry

teacher as follows:

i
I

i l. The teacher rarely tells students what he thinks

.' they ought to know.

2. His basic mode of discourse with students is
questioning.

3. Generally, he does not accept a single statement as
an answer to a question.

4. He encourages student-student interaction as
opposed to student-teacher interaction. And
generally he avoids acting as a mediator or judge
of the quality of ideas expressed.

5. He rarely summarizes the positions taken on the
learnings that occur.

\mL-flmwg

‘31.

40

6. His lessons develop from the responses of students
and not from a previously determined logical
structure.

7. Generally, each of his lessons poses a problem for
students.

8. He measures his success in terms of behavioral
changes in students. (Chapter 3)

Postman and Weingartner (1969) contended that:

The only kind of lesson plan that makes sense to
the inquiry teacher is one that tries to predict,
account for, and deal with the authentic responses
of learners to a particular problem: the kinds of
questions they will ask, the obstacles they will
face, their attitudes, the possible solutions they
will offer, etc. Thus, he is rarely frustrated by
"wrong answers,” false starts, irrelevant direc-
tions. These are the stuff of which his best
lessons are made. In short, the "content" of his
lessons are the responses of his students. (Chapter
3)

Q‘ :0, ‘ 0, 9’ _°‘ . 1°- "' ‘! ‘ d n C 'on

The inquiry problem is designed to enable the learner to

direct and control his own learning, i.e., through this

._»~VW’

 

F “my

program that student is seen as a "programmer" of his own
learning, and he is the center of the learning experience.

The student should feel free to initiate th_e inquiry and to

4.-- M ua-r'

\MwM—‘qm 1M «(4-

decide for himself what data will be needed to find this new
set of explainers. He can generate his own theories, test
them through experiments and through gathering suitable data
and finally formulate his own conclusions. Furthermore, he
should try to find the information that he needs while
generating additional questions which will provide the

incentive for further investigation.

41

The inquiry program gives the learner the opportunity to
seek the information he wants, when he wants it, the
opportunity to develop ideas and to discover ways of
explaining what he observes with all of his senses.
Therefore, the child in the inquiry class must learn to make
reliable observations. He must be able to investigate
objects in order to receive input, when possible, from all
his senses. He must, after having been given the opportunity
to interact with objects, be able to transform these input
signals into some form of experience meaningful to him. It
is also desirable that the student be able to translate his
observations into a form meaningful to his peers and his
teacher as well.

The student should not be limited to observations which
use his senses. He should use extensions of these senses by
using tools and instruments whenever possible. The student
should be able to take each experience he has had and
classify it in relation to his other experience, and by using
his past experience and knowledge, he can tabulate many facts
about the object he is studying now. Also, the student is
free to add new experiences as they apply and reject those
experiences which he can no longer support based on new
input.

The inquiry method will be more beneficial and more
effective when there is genuine pupil-teacher planning; when

pupils help to set meaningful goals, help to formulate the

42
procedures necessary for achievement of the goals, help to
develop and apply criteria for assessment of the progress,
and formulate action plans, then, indeed, inquiry is in
process (Miller, 1966).
Finally, Bibens (1980) stated:
Inquiry requires that students participate
actively, and interact directly, with the content.
The learner is not allowed to sit passively while
the instructor reviews the main thrust of the
learning experience for tdhu In essence, inquiry

strongly suggests that the learner is his own
teacher. (p. 90)

“We“ _-....—-—..—.'

u
u' - d n

Supervising elementary school science is a tremendous
task, and defining the role of elementary school science
supervisors has been a matter of controversy for many years.
Nevertheless, the supervisors were carrying out some major
tasks such as:

1. Part of the supervisor's role has been that of
analyzing a classroom environment and assisting the
teacher to achieve the goals of a course. His
observations may indicate a need for more variety
in materials, or different questioning patterns, or
more emphasis on student participation (Azbell,
1977, p. 190).

2. The supervisor serves as a science instructor for
the teachers in a school system and, either by

himself or with the help of outside experts, often

43
a college professor, executes in-service programs
in science education for teachers of the system
(Tannenbaum, 1960).

3. The supervisor participates in preparimg the
curriculum for the elementary school science
program or supervises its preparation or revision.

4. The supervisor serves as the guide for the
classroom teacher, helping him see his shortcomings
and helping him capitalize on his strength.
Moreover, the supervisor serves as a science
subject-matter consultant for the teachers as well
as the students (Tannenbaum, 1960, p. 50).

5. The supervisor evaluates the work of the teachers
in the area of science and reports to the Ministry
of Education the efficiency of any given teacher.

In addition to these traditional tasks, the supervisor

has many other jobs if he wants his teachers to teach by
inquiry; He also needs additional skills to interpret new
jobs that appear to be a unique reflection of inquiry
methods. That is, the supervisor needs to know some of the
essential requirements for inquiry and what to look for as an
indication that inquiry is functioning. The initial role of
the supervisor in the inquiry system is to detect the degree
of acceptance of the inquiry problem by the students. If the

degree of acceptance is too low, the teacher may need

44
assistance in the selection of inquiry problems that have
more potential for student interest. There may be a need for
more resources in visual stimuli, or simply more time,
emphasis, and creativity on this aspect of the unit (Azbell,
1977).

Finally, the supervisor should be sensitive to the kinds
of topics that make good inquiry experiences. Because of the
large amount of time that needs to be devoted to most inquiry
units, problems should have the potential for in-depth study
and should serve to illuminate the larger problems in science

(Azbell, 1977).

W

Although research to date has not shown conclusively
that teaching and learning by inquiry leads to greater or
better understanding of science concepts and conceptual
schemes, it does point to several distinct benefits and
advantages from using this technique (Victor, 1974). The
inquiry-discovery approach is more a matter of the learner,
“rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way that one
is enabled to go beyond the evidence so assembled to
additional new insights" (Bruner, 1961, p. 27).

Inquiry teaching is a type of instruction where the
child becomes a participant, not a spectator. It focuses
more attention oWldren than on the teacher. It re-
lieves children of the deadening boredom of learning science

by rote teaching and experimentation or demonstration, and

45
encourages the child to rely more on his or her own resources
and abilities. It gives the child a sense of accomplishment

and promotes self-confidence. This, in turn, encourages

'§-~—W_M -__.. .' _..'§npmv‘

curiosity for further learning (Victor, 1974).

4“ annmfiJ~ n‘ ‘ 1“
‘.--”l| I

 

Learning by inquiry is concerned not only with
confirming the outcomes of another's research, but also with
the methods of research. Through inquiry, students are

conditioned to think critically’and creatively and to

 

generate their own conclusions based on observations they
themselves collect. In effect, they become scientists
themselves (Nagalski, 1980). ___-,
For the students, the most important result of learning
through inquiry is a change in attitudes toward knowledge.
As they engage in the dialogue of inquiry, they begin to ziew
knowledge as tentative, rather than absolute; and they
consider all knowledge claims as being subject to continuous
revision and confirmation. As they try to provide their own
answers to difficult questions about man and his environment,
they begin to understand the complexity of verifyimg
knowledge and the processes involved in it (Massialas, 1969).
Learning by inquiry attempts to teach children how to
learn. Since this technique is highly activity-oriented, it
tends to develop the child's competency in the use of process
skills. It is also one of the better methods for promoting

desirable scientific attitudes, appreciations, and interests

(Victor, 1974). Moreover, a major goal in an inquiry-

46

centered classroom is providing pupils with an organized,
improved method of contemplating and dealing with
information. A characteristic of effective thinking is that
it should be independent or autonomous (Benne, 1967). To
achieve independent or autonomous thinking, activities must
be provided that allow self-direction and the development of
self-confidence.

As stated by Suchman (1966), "An inquiry-centered
curriculum helps children to":

1. Become more familiar with the realistic world in
which they live. They are dealing with concrete

r phenomena instead of abstractions that deprive them
of first-hand realizations.

2. Relate realities to each other. When everything is
discrete and isolate, meanings are low. When new
meanings are related to old, adjacent and congruent
meanings to each other, usable and applicable
conceptual systems grow out of realities.

3. See that in creating knowledge, man is constructing
order out of chaos. Meaning is an internal thing,
not easily accessible, and is a far cry from the
ultimate goal of achievement. Richness of life is
correlated with level of meaning rather than with
level of achievement. Persons who are not
achievers can have high levels of meaning for their

I own experiences.

4. Develop the process by which man pursues greater
meaning through manipulating and observing his
environment. Out of this process he is in a better
position to generate new ideas, new ways of
ordering and interpreting the world around him.
(p. 24 and 64)

Langdon and Stout (1964) in their book, T;3gh1£g_ig_§hg
W, emphasized Suchman's ideas and added that

h" .
‘I. ' "IV\'

 

teaching by the inquiry-discovery approach is only a matter
of capitalizing on one of children's strongest traits,

curiosity. Children are natural experimenters and scientific

47

investigators. From babyhood on, children become acquainted
with their environment by exploring it in various ways. They
test almost anything accessible by feeling, studying, moving,
handling, striking, and usually by tasting it. Older
children continue to make use of their senses to discover new
things. They are able to add the questioning technique and
soon learn a number of ways to satisfy their almost
insatiable curiosity by inquiry and discovery. An alert
teacher will recognize the numberless discoveries he/she can
help children make.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that methods of inquiry
and discovery can be used profitably in classes that include
students of different academic abilities. Massialas (1969)
said that not only superior students, but also those who have
lower than average IQ scores, prove to be capable of
performing such intellectual operations as defining a
problem, hypothesizing, drawing logical inferences, gathering
relevant data, and generalizing. Given the appropriate
psychological and cognitive climate, these students can
perform on a high level and are as highly motivated as those

having so-called superior abilities.

Tln'1! “.11. 1
WW

Like every teaching strategy, inquiry teaching has its
problems and disadvantages, as well as its advantages. A

number of educators and psychologists have already given

48

warning about some inherent difficulties that teachers may
encounter when using this technique. Some educators and
psychologists caution that inquiry learning is not
appropriate for younger children, especially those below the
age of nine, because they believe that a strong background of
science knowledge is a prerequisite for inquiry learning.
Since the students do not have a high motivation to master
intellectual tasks and they tend to be impulsive, the
students leap at answers and fail.

Gagne (1965) supported this idea because he believed
that to be an effective problem-solver or a discoverer, the
individual must somehow have acquired masses of structurally
organized knowledge. Such knowledge consists of content
principles, not heuristic principles.

On the other hand, Skinner (1968) disagreed with Gagne,
because he believed that the discoveries of the classroom
bear only a vague resemblance to genuine scientific
discoveries. Although the moment of discovery is important
in the life of a scientist and may explain his dedication, it
is necessarily a rare event and cannot explain the quality or
nature of most of his behavior. But to a budding student
scientist, each new insight is a discovery, and the young
naturally attain more discoveries through inquiry and
investigative schemes than does an experienced scientist.

This researcher believes that the goal of educators

should not be to always teach by inquiry, but to allow

49

inquiry to occur in as many areas of the curriculum as
possible. Many teachers and administrators claim that this
teaching strategy is very noisy, unstructured, freewheeling,
and almost totally student centered. These opinions may seem
appropriate when one compares the inquiry method with the
traditional method where all students quietly learn the same
material“ Inquiry teaching may be freer and less rigidly
structured than traditional teaching, but it is not
unstructured. (Inquiry teaching is not completely student-
centered or laissez faire. Inquiry teaching is more client-
centered than centered directly upon tasks prescribed for
students by a teacher. Moreover, it is an approach to
learning that invites cooperative student-teacher planning.

Therefore, planning is a prime prerequisite for
successful inquiry teaching and learning. Before entering
the classroom, teachers must know specifically what they want
to teach, how they think it should be taught, and how they
are going to get the children involved in the process of
learning. The use of questions is vital in inquiry teaching.
The teacher should know in advance not only what questions to
ask, but anticipate the kinds of questions the children may
raise, so the teacher will be able to respond and proceed
accordingly (Victor, 1974).

Another disadvantage is that learning by inquiry takes
time. Although this point will be discussed later, it is

important to mention that this point is vital if the teacher

50

wants their students to learn how to learn. On the other
hand, it will be very difficult for the teacher to cover the
whole science book in each level during the given period of
time, especially in a centralized system like Kuwait. This
researcher thinks that this is the main reason why many
teachers avoid teaching by inquiry. To solve this problem,
it is advisable to reduce the science curriculum in each
level and/or to ask the teachers to use other more
traditional teaching techniques when necessary.

Although many factors are operative in the promotion of
inquiry, the role of the teacher in facilitating inquiry is
the most important one.

-'/ z ’w
(n.v r5 4* x

5" ' _ I h - ‘1 ‘ ‘ »
v H,
u ‘\ .‘H
I -
‘4

C C x n u .
a
‘1‘: a

a, t
The transition in teaching strategy from traditional to

\“"“\x-- wrni,-~.. ‘"

inquiry teaching and learning is not easy, but is not
impossible. This goal can be achieved by revising the
content, format, and approach in both the elementary science
textbook series, as well as the elementary science methods in
order to incorporate an activity-oriented teaching strategy
that will enable the child to learn science as a process of
inquiry. The obvious key to the accomplishment of this goal
is the classroom teacher. No one would expect a group of
students to develop an understanding of the processes
involved in inquiry, evidence a willingness to utilize them,
and move on into learning activities of a self-directing

nature without the instruction, encouragement and application

51
by the classroom teacher in the formal learning situation
(Gies and Leonard, 1970).
Many teachers avoid teaching science by inquiry because

they are not prepared to do so. Esler (1970) summarized the

W
h...” I . qu “‘“rfla‘ ”MID-h- v.”

'L-w “a.

reasons why many teachers avoid teaching science by inquiry

when he wrote:

'- .-
“a _‘_. _ ~L , ',

In spite of the emphasis placed upon it in
professional literature, science textbooks, and
teacher training programs, inquiry as a method for
teaching science in our public schools has achieved
only a very limited acceptance. Several reasons
for this notable lack of success of the inquiry
concept come quickly to mind.

1. There is a greater depth of understanding of
subject matter required of the teacher.

2. It is necessary for the teacher to accept an often
new and alien role of an indirect integrative
leader.

3. Additional, difficult to master skills are required
of the teacher. These skills are those of asking
good questions and administering selective
reinforcements to student response.

4. There are many failures by teachers in early
attempts at conducting inquiry lessons.

5. The students do not know how to react to the often
new and strange atmosphere of inquiry. (p. 454)

These difficulties, to some degree, explain the lack of
general acceptance and indeed, the failure of inquiry
processes in the science classrooms of our nation. They all
are, however, overshadowed in importance by one overriding
problem that in some measure contributes to each. This

problem is the aura of uncertainty and general lack of

-—~.———-

 

 

 

 

w-“

understanding that surrounds the inquiry concept itself

w -—- v— '-- ‘c-m-rm- ”re-gm -»W'-¢"r-"«a- “n o.""I-"' '-'r’P--nn.m.n~-o......

(Esler, 1970).

rvrwn‘.”

 

 

- on...I

”1mm” ‘W

 

52
There are two ways for preparing teachers to use the

inquiry method in teaching science: (a) preservice training,

_.__#,__‘~_"
and (b) inservice training. In both cases the teacher should

k

,Wr"

science, the benefits of this method to the students, and the
best ways to stress the use of inquiry in the classroom.
Moreover, the teachers should be given the opportunity to
practice this method of teaching in workshops or in teaching
units of a curriculum to their peers in a form of micro-
teaching.

In addition to this, Bagenotos (1975) suggested that:

The training of teachers should involve the issue

of bureaucratic constraints on performing as a

teacher-inquirer. IPre-service teachers aware of
the limitations will either know better how to deal
; with them or choose not to teach at all. This
component of training involves dealing with
. questions of power, norms of the school, teacher
f and student status, and the function of schooling.
1 In short, pre-service teachers should gain the
tools of analysis which enable them to determine
the boundaries of their jurisdictions and the roles
they are expected to occupy within the system in
which they work. The further role of the teacher
training institution is to create an informal
support mechanism which continues its role after
the student becomes a teacher. (p. 236)

.-
N-“o Fl Hi itfl‘m‘.‘-

Regarding inservice training, Flanders (1963) worked
with 51 inservice teachers for nine weeks in order to
persuade them to change their teaching to be more open-ended,
to determine the usefulness of a program in which the
teachers learn to assess their own problems of verbal
influence, to experiment with different patterns, and to try

to establish principles of influence from their own

S3

experimentation. The effort was remarkably successful. The

need for in-service in science continues primarily for the

following reasons:

1.

2.
3.

The constantly changing and expanding body of
science knowledge.

Inadequate preservice programs.

The additional modifications of science curriculum
improvement projects.

Ineffective or unavailable science consultant
services.

The disparity between priorities for science in the
elementary school and the requirements for
scientific literacy in our society. (Helgeson,

Blosser, and Howe, 1977, p. 97)

Finally, in comparing the two types of teaching methods,

the traditional method versus the inquiry method, one can see

the inquiry method takes more time, more materia1s, more

Marya-cw... a .., ~~""‘ ““M" ‘bm’W'MN-_

Hm I.“ ‘4 M~ ”‘1. p. (Mil-1 yn-dw'uxm Mum.“ “W \rf’
""" 3‘ a»

\planning, and more effort on the part of students as well as

“WM “my"..- J.~P\1W._CW "2M «mas-n.- vw-q J, ,m Wumfl ”H
the teacher. If covering the textbook is perceived by the
M‘Wmuwwflfim

teacher as a major instructional goal, he/she will not be

i
I

 

1'3 comfortable using inquiry strategies. The inquiry process
/ does indeed use textbooks as a source of knowledge, but the

process does not assume consistent adoption of the textbook's
conclusions without further investigation of other
interpretations. The teacher, therefore, must provide

\Kmaterials that present different points of view and be

54
objective in assessing their value (Skeel and Decaroli,
1969).
E E . E E c . l' E I] E: !° n J
W
Introduction

Kuwait is located at the northwestern corner of the
Arabian Gulf, i.e., at the northeastern corner of the Arabian
peninsula. Kuwait is bounded by the Arabian Gulf on the
east, Saudi Arabia on the south and the southwest, and by
Iraq on the north and northwest. Its area is about 6200
square miles, with a population of 1.5»nu11ion. Only 45
percent of the population are Kuwaitis; while the rest of the
population came from more than 120 different countries around
the world.

E: I' . K '!

Actually, education represents the basic background for
inclusive progress. The government of Kuwait realized that
the human resource is the most important factor in the
development of the country. Productivity output of such
realization leads to hasty progress in all educational stages
beginning in kindergartens and ending in secondary through
the university level (Ministry of Planning the State of
Kuwait, 1985). Therefore, the government of Kuwait is paying
excellent attention and spending more than 12 percent of its

annual income on education. This philosophy is reflected in

55
the following constitutional provisions which define the role
of the state regarding the educational process:
W:

The state cares for the young and protects them
from exploitation and from moral, physical, and
spiritual neglect. (The Constitution of the State of
Kuwait, 1962, p. 7)

W:

Education is a fundamental requisite for the
progress of society, assured and promoted by the state.
(The Constitution of the State of Kuwait, 1962, p. 7)
W:

Education is a right for Kuwaitis, guaranteed by
the state in accordance with law and within the limits
of public policy and morals. Education, in its
preliminary stages, shall be compulsory and free in
accordance with law. Law shall lay down the necessary
plan to eliminate illiteracy. The state shall devote
particular care to the physical, moral, and mental
development of the youth. (The Constitution of the State
of Kuwait, 1962, p. 11)

W

Historically, early schools in Kuwait were religiously
oriented. The mosques played a very important role in

educating people in general, and youth in particular. At

56
that time the main curriculum was the Holy Quran, basic
mathematics, reading and writing.

In 1912 the first formal school, Al-Mubarakiah, was
opened. This school was supported by donations from
merchants and traders. In the same year, the second public
school, Al-Ahmadiah, was opened to serve more people and to
increase the number of subjects in the curriculum. They
started teaching the English language in this school, besides
other subjects such as history and geography.

In 1936, a Board of Education was founded. Since that
date, there has been increased interest in education. The
Board of Education started its work by requesting qualified
teachers from Palestine to develop and assist with work in
the schools.

Formal girl's education started in 1937. Before that
time, girls were taught in homes by women interested in
teaching the Quran and writing. By 1938, Kuwait had started
sending her students abroad for further studies. In 1942,

secondary or high school education commenced.

Bi!§§£i§flél.§h§n§§

Education in the modern sense actually started after the
initiation of the Ministry of Education immediately after
achieving Kuwait's independence in 1961. The state accepted
the responsibility to provide free education to every Kuwaiti

from kindergarten to the university, including all types of

57

vocational and professional education as shown in Figure 2.1

(UNESCO, 1971).

In 1965, a law was issued by the government adopting

universal compulsory education for every Kuwaiti child up to

age 18,

which covers kindergarten, elementary level,

intermediate level, and secondary level.

The educational system - educational ladder includes the

following stages:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Kindergarten: A two-year course, ages 4-6.
Elementary: A four-year course, ages 6-10.
Intermediate: A four-year course, ages 10-14.
Secondary: A four-year course, ages 14-18.

University of Kuwait.

In addition to the above mentioned stages, there are

many institutions which accept students from both sexes

either after the intermediate stage or after the secondary

stage such as:

1.
2.

Technical School, after intermediate level.
Commercial Secondary School, after intermediate
level.

Religious Institute, after intermediate level.
Commercial Institute, after secondary level.

Health Institute, after secondary or intermediate
level.

Special Education Institute

Teacher Training Institute, after secondary level.

58

.2333 soon mm $39303. cognac bow fining
mo 333ml: 05 3 @0833 can mnumhma scum beams"... 53 man mmmuu bamboowm on» you ungaoucmo

.Amumofimfiurmu Hoosom mumncoomm may sauna mums» ozuv msom bow musufiumcH
€33,550 93 an 8833 new 232.3 .83 mm cog—mama coon mm: macaw mumgowm 05 now yam—“Hagan

. $303330 Hoonom 3.388....“ on... umumm mung 033 3.50 now 333mg
333.550 may 3 poomaou and 233.3 Boom mm non—twang coon was mmmum mumccoomm on... you ugaoflflm

 

H.~ musafim

EIEIRTIE EIRTLSIEI.
Amfluwo new muons nonsmosom Hmaowmm mo musufiumcH
EIEIEIEIEISTLNTIE
Agog 333mg 9633mm

ETA: mouse
cmuummuwpcwx
cowumosnm
Hoosomlmum
_~_uu_H_ _q_us_m_nu_~_uu_a_nu
omwfiou muocomms ommwfiou H0358?
_¢Hun_m.uu.~_un_a_uunannnnln ~v_nn_m_nu_~_un_fl_nn _¢HII_m_un_~_nn_~_ _q_anmm_un_~_sn_a_un
Ema—Em 0:0 $.35 Ammom .3qu .538 203853 53858
uwmssx no 3333:: some muons—comm Hmuwcoo 3302535 Hung—mo mum—55m

El_m_l_~_!._:|
whom uom momma—50
mom Hoonom humor—comm.
El_m_l_~_l_:|

$28 now H858
bmccoomm 18258.
:8 88 3d 8: 2.: Gd 3: 3c And as :5 83 A3 8v .5 g Amy A3 02

59
8. Technical and vocational institute, after secondary
level.
The following table illustrates the considerable
increase in the numbers of schools, students, and teachers

between 1945-46 and 1984-85.

 

Table 2.1
WW5...
W

Scholastic Number of Number of Number of

Year 52:19:21.5 Students Teachers
1945/46 17 3,635 142
1960/61 134 45,157 2.255
1970/71 230 138,747 9,085
1975/76 326 201,907 15,472
1980/81 481 302,610 22,885
1984/85 568 361,715 26,594

 

Source: Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Planning,
WW: 1975 and 1985-

The organization of the Ministry of Education is built
upon the basis of centralization. It directly controls the
schools and educational units. Education for boys and girls
are separate at elementary, intermediate, and secondary
levels, while in kindergarten and the university level

co-education has been implemented.

Summarx
Inquiry is not only a method of teaching, but it is also

an approach to learning which is based on sound and

60

established concepts and is directed toward achievement in
content areas as well as toward development of rational
powers. A greatly simplified interpretation of inquiry might
suggest that it requires direct involvement of the student
with subject content in the learning process, and in the
quest for meaning and understanding. This implies active
student participation, and emphasizes understanding rather
than merely knowing about subject area (Bibens, 1980).

The idea of inquiry is neither new nor strange.
Imaginative teachers have been doing it for years. Moreover,
all children start learning as pure inquirers by asking a lot
of questions concerning things around them. Therefore,
teachers, especially at the elementary level, should try to
arrange instructional conditions so that pupils become
seekers after meaning, users of information, discoverers of
general principles, validators of first conclusions, and
builders of values as well as memorizers of facts, concepts,
and more general ideas (Miller, 1966). Inquiry teaching
provides the technique for creative and imaginative teachers
to present the curriculum in a manner palatable to each
student. Inquiry does not try to make each student fit the
format implied by the conventional curriculum or the test
series.

A major challenge facing those in teacher education is
that of relevance-deciding what is worth knowing, helping

students find out where they are headed, and realistically

61

explaining what a course is all about and the meaning it has
for their lives. Difficult? Yes! But, the difficulty is
not an excuse to cling to traditional policies and practices,
because unless the pupil perceives the material as relevant,
no significant learning will take place. No one will learn
anything they do not want to learn. Ideally, educators
should teach their classes from the questions their students
raise, i.e. let the students help develop the curriculum from
their questions. In any learning environment, the teacher
and the learner must serve, complement, and derive meaning
from each other (Minneman, 1972).

Nevertheless, it should be noticed that inquiry is not a
magic formula. It is not best used at all times nor is it
suited to every single learning objective. Inquiry requires
practice, patience, and persistance both on the part of the
teacher and on the part of the student. Used with direction,
it can be a valuable tool in developing a self-directed
learner who is capable of pursuing the unknown until he is
satisfied (Gies and Leonard, 1970).

l. The classroom teacher is the key to the

accomplishment of the goals of the inquiry process.
He/she acts as a facilitator who helps and protects
the learner from any kind of pressure which might
prevent the learner from becoming involved in the

inquiry process. The teacher should provide the

62
climate and conditions necessary to sustain the
inquiry once it has been initiated by the learner.

2. The science supervisor plays an important role in
the learning process. He/she participates in
preparing and developing the science curriculum,
helping teachers to develop a better understanding
about the curriculum and its objectives, and in
most cases, the supervisor serves as a science
instructor for the teachers. Tmerefore, the
supervisor can create some opportunities in order
to train and encourage the teachers to be more
involved in the inquiry process.

3. A free and responsive environment is considered a
crucial condition for inquiry. In such an
environment, the student should feel free to move
from one activity to another, ask his/her teacher,
share ideas with his/her peers, etc. On the other
hand, the more rules and restrictions thrown in the
way of the learner, the fewer choices he/she has,
and the less his/her activity resembles inquiry.

This chapter also pointed out the roles of students,

teachers, and supervisors: and discussed the advantages, as
well as the disadvantages of learning and teaching by the
inquiry approach and how to overcome these disadvantages.
There was a discussion concerning why the teachers may avoid

teaching with the inquiry method. Furthermore, a brief

63
description of the educational development and the

educational system in Kuwait was included.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY

This research is an experimental study to determine the
feasibility of using the inquiry method to teach a unit on
magnets to third graders in two elementary schools (one for
boys and one for girls) in the State of Kuwait (see Appendix
A). This unit was designed to be taught in 13 sessions,
each 45 minutes in duration. The subjects were four third
grade classes (two from each school) with a total number of
112 students.

The subjects in two experimental classes (one from each
school, with a total number of 55 students) were taught by
two teachers who received instruction and training in using
the inquiry-discovery method (see Appendix B). On the other
hand, the subjects in two control classes with a total
number of 57 students were taught the same unit by two
teachers who did not receive instruction or training through
this study in using the inquiry—discovery method and were

using the traditional textbook-centered method.

E El '!' E I
The definitions of terms which follow are presented to

aid in the interpretation and clarification of this study.

64

65

Inquiry: A process in which pupils focus on a problem
and in their search for solutions go through a number of
steps ranging from hypothesizing to formulating conclusions.

- c t d: A method of teaching which
has as its basic strategy the involvement of the learners
and teacher in a searching process, one in which solutions
to problems are sought, tested and evaluated.

Gentry (1965) suggested the following definition of the
discovery method. 'A.teaching method whereby a student is
presented instances of objects or events, through which run
common relationships or common elements and is asked to
discover the common relationships or elements“ (p. 16).

W: A method of
teaching in which the teacher plans and directs the learning
experiences depending on a textbook. Emphasis is placed
almost solely on the learning of subject matter.

“LEW: observation.
Measurement, experimentation, interpretation of data, and
prediction.

‘Wilson (1967) defined the five essential science
experiences as follows:

1. ngggyatign: Observations can be made in many

other ways than visually. The pupil may resort to
methods such as feeling, squeezing, poking and

rubbing and be considered observing. Observation

66
is generally considered the first action taken by
the learner in acquiring a new understanding.
usaggjgmgnt: Measurement is similar to
observation with the exception that measurement is
quantitative and can be taken more than once in
the same manner and receive approximately the same
results.
Experimentation: The relationship between
experimenting and observing can be summarized by
saying that experimenting demands that observation
and/or measurement be made, but observing and
measuring do not demand that experiments be
performed.

There must be a carefully defined situation
which those participating in the operation
understand and that which all agree will not be
further understood unless "something" is done (an
experiment). Experimentation is really an
attitude on the part of the experimenter; it is an
attitude which leads the investigator to ask
himself what he has to do in order to change the
types of observations and/or measurements he can
make.

W: When the activity of data

interpretation is viewed in its entirety, it can

67
best be described as making sense out of what you
have found.

Data are the information which are derived
from an experiment or observation. In order for
data to be interpreted they must be available for
inspection. This fact explains that the data must
be arranged in such a way that there exists the
possibility of their telling the interpreter a
story.

5. Egggigtigg: When predictions are made, they are
made in order to foretell what will happen: an
estimate of the events to take place and/or
results to be achieved. A hypothesis is an
assumption to allow the validity of a fact to be
tested, and a prediction is the utilization of
tested facts in order to foretell the future
behavior of an individual, the results of an

experiment, or the outcome of an event. (p. 49-51)

W
This researcher observed all 13 sessions in the
experimental classes in both schools, while ten and 11
sessions in the boys' and girls' control groups were
observed, respectively. The teaching of this unit started

on November 14, 1985 and ended on December 12, 1985. At the

68
end of the unit, all subjects received a common final test,
which was developed by the researcher (see appendix C).

The data for 801 were collected through observations
which took place during the teaching process of the unit
where all four groups were observed and the frequency of the
students' involvement in the essential science experiences

during each session were counted in tables like Table 3.1.

Table 3.1
W

 

WW mm W
Observation
Measurement

Experimentation
Interpretation of Data

2:391:11: ion
____Ts2.tal

 

 

When the observations were completed, the frequency of
each experience was computed to proportion and then the
normal standardized deviate z score was computed for each
pair of categories. This study contains four pairs of
categories which are male control group versus male
experimental group, female control group versus female
experimental group, male control group versus female control
group, and male and female control group versus male and
female experimental group. The formula used to compute the

z scores was the following:

69

 

 

P1 ' P2
2 = -
X1 ‘l' X2 1 - 81 + 32
N1N2 N1 + N2
where:
P1 and P2 = Proportions in each category

x1 and x2 = The frequencies in each category

N1 and N2 = The total frequencies for each
variable

The data for the null hypotheses 802, 803, and 304 were
collected from the final test results (see Appendix D). For
each class, the mean of the final test scores was computed.
Comparisons between the different groups will be shown on
graphs. Therefore, there will be one graph for each of the
following:

1. Female control group versus male control group.

2. Female experimental group versus male experimental

group.

3. Female experimental group versus female control

group.

4. Female and male experimental group versus female

and male control group.

Moreover, for the purpose of explaining the results in
a broader way there will be some additional graphs such as:

1. (A comparison between the experimental groups and

the control groups.

70
2. .A comparison between the male experimental group
and the male control group.
For all of the null hypotheses, the level of

significance was established at alpha - .05.

M I'll! E I] E' J I !

Mosher and Kalton (1972) defined validity by saying
that, "it is the ability of the survey instrument to measure
what it sets out to measure" (p. 356). Furthermore, they
mentioned that a researcher and/or a team of workers in a
particular area with enough knowledge can judge the validity
of the research instrument. They said, “The assessment of
content validity is essentially a matter of judgement: the
judgement may be made by the surveyor or, better, by a team
of judges engaged for the purpose" (p. 356).

The validity of the final achievement test was enhanced
by consulting and seeking advice from four science
supervisors and the science general supervisor in Al-Ahmadi
educational zone in Kuwait. Unfortunately the reliability
of the final test was not tested because of some
difficulties and shortage in time. Nevertheless, it was
found that if a measure has excellent validity, then it must

also be reliable (Oppenhiem, 1966, p. 69-70).

W

Four null hypotheses were tested:

801 'There is no significant difference in the number of

times pupils will use the “five essential science

71
experiences in those classes which were taught by
teachers who were trained to use the inquiry-discovery
approach, as contrasted with classes which were taught

by teachers who were using the traditional
textbook-centered approach.

802 There is no significant difference between the means of
the test scores of the male experimental group who
learned by the inquiry-discovery method and the female
experimental group who learned by the same method:
i.e., male experimental group vs. female experimental
group.

803 There is no significant difference betweeen the means
of the test scores of the male control group who
learned by the traditional method and the female
control group who learned by the same method, i.e.,
male control group versus female control group.

H04 There is no significant difference between the means of
the test scores of the experimental groups (for both

sexes) and the control groups: i.e., male and female
experimental groups vs. male and female control groups.

W

The two schools selected for this study were not
located far from each other in a suburban area in Al-Ahmadi
educational zone. Each school accepted students from the
first through the fourth grade. The girls' school contained
28 classrooms with a population of 791 students, while the
boys' school contained 32 classrooms with a population of
875 students. For both schools, approximately 98 percent of
the students were Kuwaiti. All students involved in the
study were between 8 1/2 - 9 1/2 years old, except one girl
in the girls' experimental class who was about 13 years old.

Based on income, education, and lifestyle, the community

72
would be considered predominantly middle class with about a

60 : 40 ratio of lower middle to upper middle.

resellers

In selecting teachers to participate in this study,
several criteria were used. Teachers were to be
non-Kuwaiti, with at least ten years of experience and
should have a record for being excellent teachers. This
judgement was based on a unanimous decision reached by the
science supervisor and the school principal at the end of
each scholastic year when they evaluate the teachers.

The reason teachers were to be non-Kuwaiti was because
there were no Kuwaiti teachers with more than five years of
classroom experience. Moreover, since most of the teachers
in the schools are not Kuwaiti, it is easier to generalize
the results of a study when it deals with non-Kuwaiti
teachers. The reason teachers were to be experienced and
have good records for being excellent teachers was to reduce
the likelihood of discipline problems detracting from their
teaching experience. Two female teachers from the girls
school and two male teachers from the boys school who were
teaching science at the third grade level were found to
satisfy all criteria, and all of them expressed an interest
and willingness to participate in this study. Moreover, the
two experimental teachers were hopeful that this new

experience would help them to become better teachers.

73

This researcher's experience in being in science
classrooms both as a teacher and as a science supervisor
gave him the opportunity to watch and observe both the
students and their teacher at the same time while in a
classroom. All four teachers were accustomed to having
visitors in their classrooms such as the school principal,
the science supervisor and/or other science teachers in the
school. .All four teachers who participated in this study
knew that the investigator was a science supervisor who was
studying in the United States for the degree of doctor of
education. Therefore, all four teachers had been informed
that the purpose of this study was not to evaluate their
teaching efficiency or their performance, but to learn more
about their decisions, thoughts, and feelings while teaching
science using the inquiry-discovery method and the
traditional textbook-centered method. Thus, the most
important goal of this study was to compare the two

different approaches of teaching science.

W

The researcher spent three half-days of in-service
training sessions with each of the two experimental teachers
individually (see Appendix B). The main purpose of the
training was to plan and to discuss the best ways of using
the inquiry-discovery approach in teaching the unit of

magnets. The training sessions included discussions of how

74

to encourage the students to ask more questions, depend on
themselves during the learning process, encourage students'
involvement in the ”essential science experiences" (which
are observation, measurement, experimentation,
interpretation of data, and prediction) to aid teachers to
understand the nature of inquiry learning through the
activities of the students, and to assist teachers in
designing and conducting inquiry centered lessons applicable
to children's varying intellectual levels. Moreover, the
sessions included checking and preparing all of the
materials which might be needed during the teaching of the
unit and providing whatever was missing.

During the preparation sessions, both experimental
teachers, in the opinion of the researcher, were
enthusiastic, creative and industrious, possessed superior
intellectual ability, were fast learners, and were willing
to test and try new ideas. Both teachers were flexible in
behavior and fluent in cmeating ideas. Prior to the
teaching of the unit, both teachers were questioned about
their plans for the unit. Teachers' plans were also checked
on a daily basis unless no new plans had been made.

Besides the previous mentioned sessions, other
consultation times were held weekly during the study to
discuss the field notes which had been taken during the

daily observation of the experimental classes. These

75
sessions included discussions of how to encourage critical
responses from the students, reminding the teachers of their
roles and the roles of their students during the study:
defining the objectives and goals: and predicting some
behaviors that pupils could and/or must achieve during the

coming week.

Enables
This study involved two main independent variables and

only one dependent variable (outcome).

W

There were two independent variables:

1. The sex of the students (school) which consisted

of two categories: (a) girls and (b) boys.

2. The treatment or method of teaching, which also

had two categories: (a) experimental and (b)
control.

There were two female classes (one experimental and one
control) with a total number of 55 students. Twenty-seven
students were in the experimental class, while the rest were
in the control class. The experimental group learned by the
inquiry-discovery method while the control groups learned by
the traditional textbook-centered method.. Also, there were
two male classes (one experimental and one control) with a

total number of 57 students. Twenty-eight students were in

76
the experimental class, while the rest were in the control

class.

W

This was the score of the students on the final
achievement test which contained 20 questions--each question
was equal to one point. Therefore, the minimum score was
zero and the maximum score was 20. However, the range of
scores for the subjects involved in the study was between 6
and 20.

Three questions of interest were posted for this study:

1. Is there a significant statistical difference
between the girls and the boys in their scores on
the final achievement test?

2. Is there a significant statistical difference in
the scores of the final achievement test between
the experimental group and the control group?

3. Does the effect of the treatment (experimental
versus control) depend on the sex of the students?

To answer the above questions, the second, the third
and the fourth null hypotheses were restated as follows:

H§l There will be no significant effect of the sex
variable.

HOZ There will be no significant effect of the treatment
variable.

H03 The effect of the treatment does not depend on the sex
of the students.

77
SEEEQLX

The setting of this study was at Al-Ahmadi educational
zone in the State of Kuwait. The sample was composed of 112
third grade level students studying in fOur classes in two
different schools. The subjects were divided into two
experimental groups who learned by the inquiry method and
two control groups who learned by the traditional method.
Data were collected through two methods: (a) observations
and (b) a final achievement test. The null hypotheses were
tested to compare between the two methods of teaching.
Chapter IV will be devoted for the in-depth analysis of the
data and for the findings of the study.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS 0? DATE

W
The goal of this study was to investigate the
appropriateness of the inquiry method for teaching science
in the elementary level in the State of Kuwait. The sample
included 112 third grade students in two schools from Al-

Ahmadi Educational Zone in the State of Kuwait. The

students were learning in four classrooms in two schools--

one for boys and one for girls. They were taught by four
teachers. A male and a female teacher were using the
inquiry-discovery method in teaching two classrooms

(experimental group) while a like number of teachers were

using the traditional textbook-centered method in teaching

in the other two classrooms (control group). Four
hypotheses were formulated:

H51 There is no significant difference in the number of
times pupils will use the "five essential science
experiences in those classes which were taught by
teachers who were trained to use the inquiry-discovery
approach, as contrasted with classes which were taught
by teachers who were using the traditional
textbook-centered approach.

H02 There is no significant difference between the means of
the test scores of the male experimental group who
learned by the inquiry-discovery method and the female
experimental group who learned by the same method;
i.e., male experimental group vs. female experimental
group.

H03 There is no significant difference betweeen the means
of the test scores of the male control group who

78

79

learned by the traditional method and the female

control group who learned by the same method, i.e.,

male control group versus female control group.

H 4 There is no significant difference between the means of
the test scores of the experimental groups (for both
sexes) and the control groups: i.e., male and female
experimental groups vs. male and female control groups.
Two different methods were used to collect data for

this study. Observation was the method used to test the

first hypothesis, and a final test was developed to measure
the achievement of the subjects for the purpose of testing
the second, the third, and the fourth hypotheses.

The researcher observed all of the lessons taught by
both teachers who used the inquiry-discovery method in
teaching the experimental groups. During these lessons, it
was noticed that there was more involvement and
participation of the students in both experimental classes
than iJI the control classes when doing their experimental
tasks either individually or with a group. Some tasks
proved more difficult than others; nevertheless, student
participation and involvement was noticeable throughout the
unit. Also, it was obvious that some students participated
much more frequently than others, but in general, all of the
students were involved in the process. All of them raised
their hands frequently to respond to questions, to ask
questions, to share ideas, or to volunteer information.

Concerning the teachers in the inquiry-discovery

classes, both teachers performed more like directors than

80

lecturers or demonstrators. However, the female teacher was
more enthusiastic and more animated in her teaching than the
male teacher. Outside of the classroom, she was always
asking for suggestions to improve her teaching. Inside the
classroom, she often posed problems and questions which
encouraged the recognition of new patterns or rules.
Moreover, she was always encouraging students to get
involved in the different activities she had in her lessons.

In general, both experimental teachers were cheerful,
patient, and in control. In both classrooms, praise was
given to the class as well as to the individuals when the
teachers were particularly pleased with what their classes
had said or done. There were only a few times during the
unit when the experimental teachers made overt efforts to

regain student attention or to keep them in control.

W

During the observations of 13 forty-five minute science
lessons in two experimental classes; and observations of 10
and 11 lessons in the control classes, the researcher
counted the number of times students in these classrooms
were involved in one of the five essential science
experiences. When the observations were completed, a
composite score for each experience was derived for each
class. These composite scores were then computed to

proportions as will be shown in the tables.

81

Hbl There is no significant difference in the number of
times pupils will use the "five essential science
experiences in those classes which were taught by
teachers who were trained to use the inquiry—discovery
approach, as contrasted with classes which were taught
by teachers who were using the traditional
textbook-centered approach.

To test the first hypothesis, the following tables were
developed. Table 4.1 shows the number and proportion of
male and female students who used the five essential science

experiences in the experimental science classes.

Table 4.1

. .
Q9§9figatifin—9t-ng3—fifi-3g§-£1¥3-Efifififififinl-591§ngg

 

 

 

 

 

Essential Science ______M§l§ ______£gmalg____
W NW}

bservation 198 .548 256 .469

easurement 24 .066 30 .055
Experimentation 76 .211 178 .326
Interpretation of

Data 45 .125 48 .088
Prediction 18 .050 34 .062
ITOTAL 361, 546

 

 

Table 4.2 shows the number and proportion of male and
female students who used the five essential science
experiences in the control science classes.

Table 4.3 shows a comparison between the four classes
involved in the study regarding the number of times that the
five essential science experiences occurred in each

classroom.

82
Table 4.2

u I' E n E I] E' E l' J SCI n
Bx2erien2e§_in_ths_92ntrcl_sla§ae§

Essential Science ______Male ______£gmalg____
Exeerience N ' '
Observation 102 .622 124 639

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Measurement 3 .013 4 :021
Experimentation 35 .213 41 .211
Interpretation of
Data 21 .128 20 .103
Prediction 3 .018 5 .026
TAL 164 194
Table 4.3

Ths_N2mher_2f_Qhaer1ati2na.2f_use_2f_the_E§§ential
E' sci E . . ll E :1

 

 

 

 

 

 

Essential Science __£xeerimsmgzL__ ___£9ntrcl____'
Experianse Male______£emalell
bservation 198 256 102 124
easurement 24 30 3 4
xperimentation 76 178 35 41
Interpretation of
Data 45 48 21 20
rediction 18 34 3 S
FOTAL 351 545 164 194.

Table 4.4 shows a comparison between the female
experimental group and the female control group. The
comparison was done by computing the z scores for each
science experience. The normal standardized deviate z

scores were calculated at the .05 level of confidence to see

83
if there were any significant differences between the two
methods of teaching for the same sex (female). A value of

1.96 or greater was required to show any significant

 

 

difference.
Table 4.4
000 '0 . d o ‘ o 9‘ Op:‘ 0! o g
e ' ss ' c' e '
WWW
Eemale.§92irel_§rcnn
Female Female Differences

Essential Science Experimental Control in
W BMW
Observation .469 .639 .170 4.069fl
Measurement .055 .021 .034 1.943
Experimentation .326 .211 .115 3.014fi
Interpretation of

Data .088 .103 .015 .621
Prediction .062 .026 .036 1.928

 

 

 

*Significant at .05

A z score for comparison of proportions of 4.069 was
obtained from the category of observation. This fell above
the established level of significance, and was interpreted
to show a significant difference in favor of the
experimental group. They had 256 tallies or 2.065 as many
times as the control group total of 124.

For the category of measurement, a z score of 1.943 was
obtained. This fell below the established level of

significance and was interpreted to show no statistical

84
difference. Nevertheless, it is important to notice the
total number of measurement experiences tallied for each
group. The experimental group had 30 tallies or 7.5 times
as many as the control group.

For the category of experimentation, a z score of 3.014
was obtained. This fell above the established level of
significance and was interpreted to show a significant
difference in favor of the experimental group. The
experimental group had 178 tallies or 4.341 times as many of
these experiences as the 41 tallied for the control group.

For the category of interpretation of data, a z score
of .621 was obtained. This fell below the established level
of significance and was interpreted to show no statistical
difference. Yet, the experimental group had 48 tallies
versus 20 tallies for the control group, or 2.4 times as
many of these experiences in the control group.

For the category of prediction, a z score of 1.928 was
obtained. ‘Although this value fell below the established
level of significance, it is important to take note of the
total number of prediction experiences tallied for each
group. The experimental group had 34 tallies or 6.8 times
as many as the control group total of 5.

Similarly, a comparison between the male experimental

group and the male control group will be shown in Table 4.5.

85
A z score was computed for each science experience at the

0.05 level of significance.

 

 

Table 4.5
W
e s e ' c' nc e ' c
e ' ta d
E§m§l§_§2E£L21_GL222
Male Male Differences
Essential Science Experimental Control in
We MW
Observation .548 .622 .074 1.588
Measurement .066 .018 .048 2.3084
Experimentation - .211 .213 .002 .0520
Interpretation of
Data .125 .128 .003 .096
Prediction .050 .018 .032 1.734

 

 

 

*Significant at .05

A z score for comparison of proportions of 1.588 was
obtained from the category of observation. This fell below
the established level of significance and was interpreted to
show no statistical difference. But, the experimental group
had 198 tallies or 1.941 times as many as the control group
total of 102.

For the category of measurement, a z score of 2.308 was
obtained. This fell above the establiShed level of
significance and was interpreted to show a significant
difference in favor of the experimental group. The
experimental group had 24 tallies or 8 times as many as the

control group total of 3.

86

For the category of experimentation, a z score of .052
was obtained. This fell below the established level of
significance and was interpreted to show no statistical
difference. Nevertheless, it was noticed that the
experimental group had 76 tallies or 2.171 times as many of
these experiences as the 35 tallied for the control group.

For the category of interpretation of data, a z score
of .096 was obtained. Although this fell below the
established level of significance and was interpreted to
show no statistical difference, it is important to notice
the total number of these experiences occurred in the
experimental class which had 45 tallies or 2.143 times as
many as the control group total of 21.

A z score of 1.734 was obtained for the category of
prediction, which was considered below the established level
of significance. An examination of the total number of
frequencies for each group showed that the experimental
group had 18 tallies or 6 times as many prediction
experiences as the control group's total of 3.

Finally, a comparison between both experimental groups
(male and female) and both control groups is presented in
Tables 4.6 and 4.7. Firstly, in Table 4.6, frequencies and
proportions for the observation of the essential science
experiences which occurred in both classes of the
experimental group and both classes of the control group are

presented.

 

87

 

 

 

 

Table 4.6
Eu3samen91rsL_anQ_lauaa9riJrnEi.9fllhaaenxdsuL_ssi§uEa:
' c x n d n
Frequencies Proportion Frequencies Proportion
for Both for Both for Both for Both
Experimental Experimental Control Control
Observation 454 .501 226 .631
Measurement 54 .060 7 .020
Experimentation 254 .280 76 .212
Inflammeundcn
of Data 93 .103 41 .115
Prediction 52 .057 8 .022
907 358

 

 

Secondly, Table 4.7 shows a comparison between both
experimental groups and both control groups by computing the
z scores for each science experience at the .05 level of

confidence.

Table 4.7

 

quxuthxi Iuopanflsn

 

for Both for Both Differences
:aanflmmmal (xmmnfl. in
(bservation .501 . 631 .130 4.177*
rement .060 .020 .040 2.992*
EXperimentation .280 .212 .068 2.481*
nummpnfiztflxn
of Data .103 .115 .012 .625
Prediction .057 .022 .035 2.639*

 

 

 

*Significant at .05

88

A z score for comparison of proportions of 4.177 was
obtained for the category of observation. This value was
considered significant in favor of the experimental group
with larger proportion. An examination of the total number
of frequencies for each group showed that the experimental
group had 454 tallies, or 2.01 times as many as the control
group tallies of 226.

A z score of 2.992 was obtained for the category of
measurement. This value was considered significant because
it was a higher value than that established for the .05
level. This difference was in favor of the experimental
-group. The experimental group had 54 tallies, or 7.71 times
as many as the control group total of 7.

For the category of experimentation, a z score of 2.481
was obtained. This value fell above the established level of
significance and was interpreted to show a significant
statistical difference in favor of the experimental group
which had 254 tallies or 3.34 times as many as the control
group total of 76.

The category of interpretation of data obtained a z
score of .625 and was considered too low to show a
statistical difference. Nevertheless, it is important to
take note of the total number of interpretation of data

experiences tallied for each group. The experimental group

89
had 93 tallies, or 2.27 times as many of these experiences as
the control group total of 41 frequencies.

For the category of prediction, a z score of 2.639 was
obtained. Since this value fell above the established level
of significance, it was interpreted to show a significant
statistical difference in favor of the experimental group.
An examination of the total number of frequencies for each
group showed that the experimental group had 52 tallies, or
6.5 times as many prediction experiences as the control group
total of 8.

Finally, it is interesting to note that the total number
of the essential science experiences observed for the
experimental group (male and female) was 907 while the total
number of the same experiences observed for the control group
(male and female) was 358. This is a difference of 2.536
times in favor of the experimental group.

For testing the second, the third and the fourth
hypotheses, the researcher depended on the results of the
final achievement test (see the scores in Appendix D).

To test the hypotheses, the two—way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was utilized.

Table 4.8 shows the three tests for the three null

hypotheses given on page 76.

 

 

 

 

Table 4.8
W
W
Sum of Degrees of Significance

Effie-.52.: W6 - t of F
Sex (school) .749 1 .093 .761
Treatment 209.376 1 25.951 .001*
Interaction

(Sex by

Treatment) .214 1 .027 .871
esidual 871.347 108

 

 

*Significant at .05

It is clear from Table 4.8 that treatment, i.e. method
of teaching makes a significant statistical difference at .05
level, while sex does not. Therefore, H01 was not rejected
while H02 was rejected.

To see the direction of the effect which makes the
significant statistical difference (the treatment), means and
number of subjects were broken down by sex and treatment as

shown in Table 4.9

91
Table 4.9

 

 

 

 

 

   
 
 

    
 

 

 

- _Treatment
W Control LIL,
Female Mean 2 16.07 Mean = 13.36 Mean a 14.6
NW,
Male Mean = 13.17 Mean = 14.4
.Nu = =
Total Mean = 13.26 Mean = 14.5

 

Numb§r4= 57 Nu

It can be seen from the above table that the
experimental group did better on the final achievement test
than the control group. This is reflected by the means of
the two groups because the experimental group had a mean of
15.95 while the control group had a mean of 13.26.

Moreover, this difference was also true for each sex
category, because the mean of the female experimental group
was 16.07 while the mean for the female control group was
13.36. Also, the mean for the male experimental group was
15.82 while the mean for the male control group was 13.17.

(M1 the other hand, looking at means for the two sexes
within the same treatment, one can notice that the
differences between the two means were relatively small. This
confirms the previous result of not rejecting the H01
hypothesis and rejecting the H02 hypothesis.

To have a better understanding of the effect of each

independent variable (sex and treatment) and the relationship

92
between them, some graphical representations of the data are
provided. Figure 4.1 shows a comparison between the female

control group and the male control group.

 

 

15 -
Means l4 -
13.36
13 -
I
Female ' Male
Figure 4.1
MW
Wm

Since the line between the two means is almost
horizontal, there is almost no difference between the two
sexes who learned by the same method. Therefore, the H03
hypothesis was not rejected. This result is further
confirmed by Figure 4.2 which shows a comparison between the

female experimental group and the male experimental group.

93

 

 

17 -
16.07
15 -
L
Female I Male
Figure 4.2
W

Wrote

On the other hand, Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show the
comparisons between the two different groups (experimental

and control) within the same sex.

 

 

16.07
16 1
Means 15 -
14 -
13.36
13 -
1
Experimental 1 Control

Figure 4.3
W
Wrens

n

94
It is clear from Figure 4.3 that there is a big
difference between the two female groups who learned by two
different methods. This result is further confirmed by
looking at.F1gure 4.4 which shows a comparison between the

male experimental group and the male control group.

16 J 15.82

Means 15 -

 

 

l4 -
13.17
13 -
J
Experimental 1* Control
Figure 4.4
E C . E l !] H J E . ! J 3
and_the_uale_§ontrol_§rohs

Finally, the means of the four groups (two experimental
and two control groups) are shown in one figure which shows a
clear comparison between them (see Figure 4.5).

It can be seen from Figure 4.5 that there is a
significant difference between the experimental group and the
control group. This result is further confirmed by Figure
4.6 which shows the differences between the means for each

group.

95

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

16 - 16707 V
15.82 Experimental
Group

Means 15 -

14 -

n- _____________
13 - 13'36 --“f§f17 Control Group
1
Female 7’ Male
Figure 4.5
W
W
J 15.95

16 1
Means 15 e

14 -

13.26
13 -
1
Experimental I Control
Figure 4.6

96
Summarx

In this chapter, the three main hypotheses of this study
were tested. The results indicated that there was a
statistically significant difference in the number of times
pupils were involved in one or more of the essential science
experiences in favor of the students in the experimental
class. This indicated that the first null hypothesis was
rejected.

For the second hypothesis, the results indicated that
there was no significant statistical difference between the
female experimental group and the male experimental group
regarding their scores on the final achievement test.
Therefore, this null hypothesis was not rejected.

For the third hypothesis, the results showed that there
was a statistically significant difference between the
experimental group (for both sexes) and the control group
(for both sexes) regarding their scores on the final
achievement test. Therefore, the third null hypothesis was
rejected.

Chapter V will be devoted to the summary, conclusions,

and recommendations.

CEAPTER'V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SEEEEI!

The purpose of this study was three-fold. First, to
determine whether or not there was a significant statistical
difference between the experimental classes and the control
classes in the number of times when students indulged in one
or more of the five essential science experiences. The
second purpose of the study was to determine whether or not
there was a significant statistical difference between the
male experimental group, who learned by the inquiry-discovery
method, and the female experimental group who learned by the
same method in the final achievement test scores. The third
purpose was to determine whether or not there was a
significant statistical difference between the experimental
group (of both sexes) and the control group in the final
achievement test scores.

The sample for this study included 112 students (55
female students in the two classes in the first school, and
57 male students in the two classes in the second school).
One female classroom and one male classroom were considered
as the experimental group, while the other two classes were
considered as the control group. The experimental groups
were taught by two teachers who received instruction in using
the inquiry-discovery method, while the control groups were

97

98
taught by two teachers using the traditional textbook-
centered method. Both observations and a final achievement
test were used to test the three hypotheses of the study.

By observing the students in the fOur classrooms, data
were gathered about the number of times the students in each
classroom were involved in one of the five essential science
experiences (observation, measurement, experimentation,
interpretation of data, and prediction). The data were then
statistically treated to determine whether or not differences
existed. Analysis of the data and computing the z scores
revealed that there was a significant statistical difference
between the experimental group and the control group in all
of the essential science experiences, except prediction, in
favor of the experimental group. The total frequency of the
essential science experiences in the two experimental classes
was 907 or 2.536 times as many as the 358 frequencies for the
other two control classes.

Regarding the second hypothesis, the scores of the
students on the final test were analyzed and through the
analysis of variance, sex (male and female) was not found to
be significantly related to the achievement ability of the
students. Finally, through the last analysis, it was also
found that there was a significant statistical difference in
the mean of scores between the experimental classes and the

control classes in favor of the experimental group, which

99
indicated that the method of teaching makes a difference;

therefore, confirming the third hypothesis of the study.

9211219320:
Based on the findings of this study and within the

limitations of this research, the following conclusions were
drawn:

1. The amount of time for training the teachers who
were involved in teaching science by inquiry was
not long enough to make the teachers exactLy
understand the main points of the process. The
beginning teachers believed that an effective
inquiry lesson had occurred if many students
participated in a discussion. While inquiry
instruction includes increasing the amount of
student talk, that is not enough. The talk must be
purposeful as well. Therefore, this study was
affected by the participants' understanding of each
item and step of teaching science by inquiry.

2. Students play a major role in this teaching

strategy. They participate actively and interact
“ directly with the content. The inquiry program is

designed to enable the learner to direct and

 

control his/her own learning. He/she acts as a
programmer of his own learning and he/she is the

center of the learning experience. He/she is free

100
to initiate the inquiry and to decide for
himself/herself what data will be needed to find
this new set of explainers. In essence, inquiry
strongly suggests that the learner is his/her own
teacher.

3. There was no significant statistical difference in
the means of the scores of the male experimental
group and the female experimental group. Therefore,
the second null hypothesis was not rejected.

4. There was no significant statistical difference in
the means of the scores of the male control group
and the female control group. Therefore, the third
null hypothesis was not rejected.

5. There was a significant statistical difference
between the experimental group of both sexes and
the control group of both sexes regarding their
scores (n: the final test. Therefore, the fourth

null hypothesis was rejected.

Eesommenéations
Currently, the inquiry method is not utilized
extensively in teaching sciences in the elementary schools of
the State of Kuwait. During the experimental part of this
research, the researcher noticed that the two science
teachers had positive attitudes toward the inquiry method.

It was indicated through many discussions with the teachers

101
that lack of some materials, misperceptions of the Ministry's
position, lack of encouragement on the part of the
supervisors, and most important, lack of time and the length
of the curriculum were responsible for not using the inquiry
approach in teaching science. Therefore, this researcher
would like to provide these recommendations in order to

increase the use of the inquiry method in teaching science.

'n st

Recommendations for the Ministry of Education are as

follows:

1. The Ministry of Education should give special
attention to the future of the country through
encouraging the teachers to use the inquiry method
in their teaching in order to produce capable
citizens who will be living all of their adult
lives in an advanced world in the 21st century.

2. The Ministry of Education should arrange for some
training programs for the teachers (in—service)
with flexible schedules, and with definite goals
and objectives. A follow-up program should be
provided by the supervisors in order to maintain
the outcomes of the training.

3. The Ministry of Education should decrease the

amount or the size of the curriculum in order to

102

provide more time for the teachers to use the
inquiry method in their teaching.

The Ministry of Education, with the cooperation of
the Ministry of Information, might also broadcast
programs on radio and television about the goals,
objectives, and the importance of the inquiry
method so parents and children will be aware of its
educational values. Moreover, they can cooperate
together in producing some science lessons for use
as models for training teachers.

The Ministry of Education should encourage the
teachers to exchange and share experiences with
their peers by arranging some visits to their

classes and by observing their teaching.

W

The recommendations for the teachers are as follows:

1.

2.

The teachers should practice asking more open-ended
questions during their teaching in order to make
their students think more and to help them seek
knowledge and information through the inquiry
process.

Teachers should not hesitate or be shy about asking
the science supervisor or any other resource person
for help in order to develop their inquiry method
skills.

103
A teacher should learn from his peers and
colleagues by visiting other classes as well as
inviting others to his classes. Afterwards, he
should hold a discussion session so that ideas and
information could be exchanged.
The teachers should have clear goals and objectives
for every lesson, and they should try to achieve
these goals and objectives through the inquiry
process.
The teachers should prepare the required materials
for the whole unit in advance in order to have
enough time to request the materials which are
necessary for the unit, but not available in the
school.
The teachers should participate in any opportunity
for in-service training about inquiry in order to
learn more and/or in order to update their
practices and activities.
The science teachers should review the periodical
list of films and try to utilize suitable films in
their teaching.
The teachers should try their best to use the
inquiry method as much as possible and also to

encourage their students to acquire the inquiry

104
skills by involving them in the essential science

experiences during the science lessons.

WW
Given that the number of participants in this study was

small (112 students and four teachers), and that there were
other limitations to the study, replication of this study is
recommended. Research should be conducted to replicate the
findings of this study using a larger number of subjects;
other levels of schools such as the intermediate level or the
secondary level: and/or to teach other subjects, such as
social studies or mathematics. Nevertheless, as a result of
this study, several questions can be proposed for further
research.

1. Would a longer period of both preservice and
inservice training and educating teachers in using
and utilizing the inquiry method bring about
desired changes in teaching strategies of the
elementary science teachers?

2. If the science method courses being taught in the
College of Education in Kuwait University included
courses about inquiry, would the teachers adapt
inquiry approaches more readily?

3. IDo characteristics such as size of family and

parental education and attitudes affect the

105
achievement ability or level of the students who
learn by inquiry?
4. In case of a larger sample size, i.e. more teachers
and more students, what would the results be?
These studies, if conducted, would build a framework for
future decisions by educators and administrators in the

Ministry of Education in the State of Kuwait.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
UNIT ON MAGNETS

W

Le§§2n_l
What Does a Magnet Attract?

One Session

021mm:

1. To help students understand that magnets attract
materials made of iron.

2. To encourage the students' curiosity and their love of
reading and knowing.

3. To let the students conduct experiments to see and find
out what a magnet attracts and what they do not attract.

4. To guide and help the students in writing their
observations and the results of the experiments in a
simply way.

5w To let the students conduct experiments to separate
things made of iron from other things.

Materials:

Pieces of paper, magnets, nails, iron filings, match
boxes, pieces of stone, erasers, gold rings, paper clips,
pieces of chalk, corks, combs, pieces of different metals,
pins, buttons, pencils.

W:
1. The teacher divides the class into groups each of two
students.

2. Provide each group with the above materials and ask them
to conduct experiments.

3. Each student should write his observation after each
experiment.

4. The teacher asks a final question about what a magnet
attracts.

106

107

G§B££§l_§22212§12£i

Magnets attract things made of iron.

Assignments:

List seven things in your classroom which can be
attracted by a magnet.

2. List ten things in your house which can be attracted by
a magnet.

3. List five machines which contain magnets (you can read
magazines, books, or ask your parent).

W:

1. You lost some iron pins in the sandbox. How can you
collect them again?

2. How can you distinguish between a bar of iron and a bar
of copper?

3. How can you distinguish between a magnet and a bar of

iron?

108

Lesson_2
Do Magnets Differ?

One Session

(Meeting:

To help students be aware that magnets differ in shapes,
sizes, forms and strength.

2. To help students acquire some skills like drawing some
magnets.

3. To encourage students to share ideas and work positively
with others.

4. To encourage the students to search for knowledge and
answer questions through experimentation and
observation.

5. 'To let the students conduct experiments to distinguish
between strong and weak magnets.

Materials:

Different kinds of magnets, magnets with the same size

and shape but different strengths, pins, iron filings, a loop
film (magnets), nails.

W:

1.

S.
6.

The teacher divides the class into groups each of two
students.

Provide each group with the above materials and ask them
to conduct some experiments to distinguish between
strong and weak magnets.

Students conclude that strong magnets can attract more
pins or nails or iron filings than weak magnets.

Students predict that all magnets can attract materials
made of iron.

Students draw the different forms of magnets.

The class reviews the loop film and asks questions.

109

7. The class writes their observations and conclusions in a
simple way.

W:

Magnets differ in their strength. Therefore, a strong
magnet attracts a greater number of nails or pins than a weak
magnet.

Wine:
1. Draw three different shapes or forms of magnets.

2. How can you compare between two magnets in terms of
strength?

110

L£§§QE_1

Does a Magnet Attract From a Distance?

One Session

W:

To make the students aware that magnets can attract
materials without touching them.

2. To help students understand that a strong magnet can
attract from a longer distance than that of a weak
magnet.

3. To encourage the students to read more materials other
than the textbook.

4. To help the students develop some inquiry skills like
measuring a distance or the size of a magnet.

5. To help and guide the students in writing their
observations and conclusions in a simple and acceptable
way.

Materials:

Magnets, iron filings, pins, rulers, pencils, sheets of
paper.

Mrs:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Students start by placing some of the iron filings on
the sheet of paper and placing the magnet in a place
where no effect on the iron filings will appear. Slowly
they start to move the magnet toward the iron filings
until it starts to be attracted. Place a mark at the
end of the magnet on the sheet of paper.

3. Students measure the distance between the magnet and the
iron filings.

4. Repeat steps 3 and 4 using magnets with different

strengths and write the observations.

111

W:

Magnets attract materials without touching them. Strong
magnets attract things from longer distance than weak magnets
do.

W:
1. How can one distinguish between a weak and a strong
magnet?

2. Which is longer, the distance between a strong magnet
and an object or the distance between a weak magnet and
the same object?

112

W
Does the Power of Magnets Go Through Things?

One Session
il' !. g

1. To help students understand that the force of a magnet
can pass through materials such as papers, glass, wood,
etc.

2. To help students be aware that the penetration of the
force of a magnet through a material depends on the
thickness of the material.

3. To encourage the students' curiosity and their love of
reading and knowing.

4. To encourage students to share ideas and work positively
with others.

5. To encourage the students to conduct experiments and to
write these observations and conclusions. ~

W:

Magnets, pins, iron filings, mirrors, pieces of wood,
papers.

W:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above-mentioned materials.

2. The students start to do more experiments to see how the
magnetic force can penetrate the different materials by
placing a pin or some iron filings on the different
materials and start to move the magnet from under the
material.

3. Repeat the second step with the other materials.
Winn:

Magnets power or forces can penetrate different
materials. The penetration power depends on the thickness of
the material.

113
W211:
1. What will happen if the material was very thick?

2. Does the magnet force penetrate iron?

114

L§§§2E45
Do Magnets Attract Through Water?

One Session
3!. !' :

1. To help the students understand that magnets attract
through water.

2. To encourage the students' curiosity and love of
reading.

3. To encourage the students to depend on experimentations
and observations in seeking more knowledge.

4. To help students conduct some experiments and write
their observations and conclusions in a correct form.

materials:

Beakers filled with different liquids such as water,
alcohol, oil, kerosene, nails, pins, magnets, ropes.

flotsam:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Guide the students to drop the nails or the pins in the
different beakers and ask them to think how they can
take them back from the beakers.

3. Let the students conclude that they can tie the magnets
with ropes and hang it in the beakers to attract the
nails or the pins.

4. Help the students to write their observations and
conclusions in a simple and correct way.

W:
Magnets attract through the different liquids.
W:

1. How can you take some pins from a beaker of oil without
getting your hand wet or dirty?

2. Does the magnetic force through the liquids differ from
one liquid to another?

115

Lesson 6
HQ! Many Eglgs Does a Magnet flayg?
One Session
miss:
1. To help students understand that the strength of magnets

concentrates at the ends.

2. To help students understand that the end of a magnet is
called a "pole."

3. To encourage the students to repeat some experiments in
order to be sure of their results and conclusions.

4. To guide and help students to conduct some experiments
which help them notice that the poles of a magnet have
the strongest attraction power.

5. To make students become aware of how to protect and
maintain magnets.

Materials:

Magnets, pins, nails, iron filings.

W:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Help and guide the students to conduct some experiments
to find out that the strength of a magnet concentrates
near its end.

3. Give the students chances to repeat the experiments with
different materials and to write their observations and
conclusions.

4. Draw their attention to count the number of nails which

are at the end of a magnet and to compare that number
with those which are toward the middle of the magnet.

DC 8 n:

The strength of a magnet concentrates toward its end.

116'
W:
1. How many poles does a magnet have?

2. Where do you find the strongest point on a magnet?

3. Is there any magnet with just one pole?

117

Lesson 7
W?
One Session
01122111235:

1. To help students understand that each magnet has two
poles, north pole and south pole.

2, To help students notice and understand that a free
suspended magnet takes a certain direction.

3. To encourage students to seek knowledge through
experimentation and observation.

4. To help students write their observations and
conclusion.

Materials:
Iron bars, magnets, ropes, hangers
W:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Let the students hang a magnet by the rope from its
middle to see its direction.

3. To encourage students to seek knowledge through
experimentation and observation.

4. To help students write their observations and
conclusions.

Materials:
Iron bars, magnets, ropes, hangers
W:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Let the students hang a magnet by the rope from its
middle to see its direction.

118

3. Ask the students to move the magnet bars and let them
settle again and compare between the old and the new
direction.

4. Let the students replace the magnet in the previous step
with an iron bar and compare between the two directions.

5. Let the students write their observations and

conclusion.
W:
A magnet has two poles, a north pole and a south pole.
Exam:
1. How can you determine the two poles of an unknown
magnet?

2. How can you distinguish between a magnet and an iron bar
if you have no magnetic materials?

3. If you hang a metal bar freely and that bar was settled
in the east-west direction, can that bar be a magnet?

119

Lesson 8
How Can a Magnet be Used to Know the Direction

Two Sessions
Questions:

1" Help the students to practice using the scientific
method to solve problems.

2. To help the students in constructing some simple
equipment such as a compass.

3. To encourage the students' outside reading and searching
for knowledge and information.

4. To help the students to use the magnet in knowing the
four basic directions, north, south, east, and west.

Materials:

Strong small magnets, corks, ropes, rulers, compasses,
hangers, deep dishes half filled with water, a film about
"teaching the beginners about the four directions" movie
#1492.

Pressure:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials except the film.

2. Try to ask some questions to remind the students about
the two poles of the magnet.

3. Try to guide them to think how they can decide, during
the night, where the direction east is.

4. Let the students conduct some experiments to know the
north direction (by two ways).

5. Ask the students, "If we know the north direction, can
we figure out the other directions? '

6. Help them to stop and point to the different directions
by using their hands.

7. Let the students examine the compasses and try to draw a
picture of it and try to use it.

120

8. Let the students write their observations and
conclusions.

Estimation:

1. List the names of the different types of transportation
means man use.

2. What do most of the travellers use to know their
direction?

3. Why is the top cover of a compass made of glass?

4. What is the container of the compass made of? Why?

121
L£§§QD_2

What Are the Reactions Between Magnets?

One Session
09.1mm:

1. To help students be aware of the different kinds of
reactions between the magnets' poles.

2. To help the students to understand that there is a
repulsion power between similar or alike poles, and
attraction power between the unlike poles.

3. To encourage the students' curiosity to read more about
magnets and to seek knowledge and information.

4. To help the students in their experiments to reach the
conclusion.

5. To help the students to write their observations and
conclusions in a simple and correct way.

Materials:
Magnets, magnetic needles on hangers, hangers, ropes
W:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Let the students take one magnet in each hand and try to
get them near each other.

3. Let them change the direction of one of the magnets and
notice the difference in the reaction between the two
magnets.

4. Let the students hang one magnet and then try to get the
other magnet near the poles of the suspended one and
take note of the different reactions.

93112131421121.1151”:

The similar poles of magnets repulse while the different
poles attract each other.

122

wineries:

1. What will happen when you get a magnet near an iron bar?

2. What will happen when you get a magnet near a copper
bar?

3. ‘What will happen when you get a magnet near another
magnet?

4. If you have a magnet but you do not know where the north

and south poles are, how can you find out?

123

L£§§Qn_lQ
How Can You Make Your Own Magnet?

One Session
il' l' g

1. To help the students understand that it is possible to
get a magnet by stroking a nail or a piece of iron in
one direction with the end of a strong magnet.

2. To make the students be aware that a magnet is made of
iron.

3. To let the students conduct some experiments to transfer
an iron bar or a nail to a magnet.

4. To help the students to write the results and the
observations in a simple way.

Materials:

Magnets, nails, pieces of iron, iron filings, magnetic
needles.

13.19.930.13:

1. Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Try to remind the students by asking them questions
about the properties of a magnet.

3. Help them to conduct some experiments such as trying to
get a nail to attract the iron filings and write your
observation.

4. Try to guide them to stroke the nail in one direction
with the end of a magnet, then let them try it again
with the iron filings and write their observations.

WW:

An iron nail or an iron bar can be changed to a magnet
by stroking.

124

finalization:

1. Can you transfer an iron nail to a magnet by stroking it
with a magnet in two directions?

2. Can you change an iron nail to a magnet by stroking it
in one direction with both poles of a magnet?

3. Can you change a cooper bar to a magnet?

125

Le§§2n_ll
How Many Kinds of Magnets Are There on the Earth?

Two Sessions

001mm:

To help the student to understand that there are two
kinds of magnets that exist on earth: natural magnets
and artificial magnets.

2. To help the students be aware that artificial magnets
are made of iron.

3. To make the students test both natural and artificial
magnets in order to understand that they have the same
properties.

4. To let the students examine the natural magnet and its
properties.

Materials:

Natural magnets, artificial magnets, iron filings,

movies about magnets.

W:

1.

Divide the students into groups and provide each group
with the above mentioned materials.

2. Let the students compare between the two kinds of
magnets to find out that they have the same properties.

3. Help the students to write their observations and
conclusions in a correct way.

4. Review the different movies about magnets without
letting the students hear the sound and then discuss
with them about what they saw.

WM:

1. There are two kinds of magnets: natural and artificial.

2. Artificial magnets are made of iron.

3. All magnets have the same properties.

126

W:

1. ‘What are the similarities and differences between the
natural magnets and the artificial magnets?

2. Why did they call the natural magnet by this name?

APPENDIX B

TEACHER TRAINING

I l I . .

A program to prepare and train the science teachers who
were involved in the study on how to use the inquiry method
in their teaching was prepared. The program was divided into
three sessions. During these sessions, discussions and
activities were focused on some major areas such as: the
nature of the study, the purposes of the study, and the roles
of the teacher. Moreover, during the first session, a list
of the required materials was developed to determine whether
the needed materials were available and to provide and/or
request whatever extra materials were needed. Also, the
first session was devoted to discussing and explaining the
nature and the purposes of the study to each teacher
individually, which could be summarized in the following:
This study is a part of the investigator's research
requirement to complete his doctoral degree in education at
Michigan State University in the United States, and that, all
teachers, schools, and students participating in the study
will remain anonymous. Furthermore, it was clear to all
teachers that this study had nothing to do with the
evaluation process of their teaching.

During this study the two experimental teachers were
informed that they should try their best to use and encourage
their students to be involved in the inquiry method of
teaching/learning science. Inquiry is a process in which

127

128

pupils focus on a problem and in their search for a solution
go through a number of steps ranging from hypothesizing to
formulating conclusions. Therefore, the teacher should use
an inquiry-centered instruction as much as possible.
Inquiry-centered instruction is an instruction which has
as its basic strategy the involvement of the learners and
their teacher in a searching process, one in which solutions
to problems are sought, tested and evaluated. The basic
purpose of this instruction is to develop in the learners the

ability to systematically search and evaluate ideas.

WM:

J.F. Newport (1965) suggested the following:

1. To help students develop scientific attitudes such as:
(a) develop the attitudes of willingness to suspend
judgement, to consider new evidence and to change an
opinion or conclusion because of later evidence, and
(b) develop an attitude of inquiry.

2. To help young people gain some understanding of methods
used in the sciences.

3. To help the student to learn what it is like to work and
study in science.

4. To help the students develop a better understanding of
the natural, physical world.

5. To help the students develop fundamental skills of

inquiry such as: observing through the use of all the

129

senses, measuring, communicating information accurately,
both orally and in written form and manipulating science
equipment and instruments, etc.

6. To help the students develop an appreciation of the

contributions of science and of the work of scientists.

Where:

Session two and session three were devoted to discussing
the role of teachers and the importance of involving the
students in the process of learning in order to aid the
students in developing problem-solving skills. There are
many teaching techniques used in teaching science as inquiry.
Esler (1970) described two teaching techniques used in
dealing with inquiry activities.

The first technique is a teacher question - student
answer mode. This teaching technique calls for a high degree
of skill in asking open-ended questions and directing the
resulting variety of student responses toward understanding
of a predetermined scientific principle. To do this the
teacher must call upon the refined use of selective
reinforcement, accept and clarify student responses and at
the same time move the discussion toward the desired goal.

A second inquiry teaching technique might be termed
student question - teacher answers questions which are posed
by the students. The most difficult task of the teacher

employing this technique is to refrain from supplying more

130

information than is reasonably called for. ' To safeguard
against this, many teachers require the students to pose
questions that may be answered by yes or no responses.
Experimentation may also be considered an inquiry
technique provided the investigator who has no prior
knowledge of the expected outcome of the investigation. He
must be involved in a problem-solving situation, the goals of
which are determined and clarified by inquiry (Esler, 1970).

Esler also mentioned that there are many introductory
procedures from which the teacher can choose one or more to
implement the inquiry session such as:

l. Discrepant Event - A discrepant event is one that
offends the senses of the observer. It represents
an unexpected outcome of a physical condition. The
discrepancy may be natural or one contrived by the
teacher.

2. Anecdote (with demonstration) - While verbally
relating the anecdote the teacher may perform the
acts described.

3. Invitation to Inquiry - Invitation to inquiry is a
general category of procedures for inquiry that
requires no demonstration. Several procedures that

_fall within this general category are subsequently

described.

131

A. Anecdote — The anecdote without a
demonstration takes place when the teacher
relates a problem situation to the class and
directs an inquiry session wherein the
students attempt the solution.

B. Interpretation of Data - A second method of
initiating inquiry without resorting to
demonstration is to present to a class some
data in the form of a chart, graph, or table
and direct an inquiry session which attempts
to interpret the data and draw generalizations
therefrom.

(L Pictorial Stimulator - A third method of
stimulating investigation by inquiry without
resorting a demonstration is by pictorial
stimulation. Problem situations are depicted
by pictures, filmstrips, movies, or other
visual media. Inquiry techniques are employed
to solve the problem presented in this way
(Esler, 1970).

Finally, teachers should keep in mind that there is no
one magic method which can be considered as the best way for
teaching science by inquiry. Teachers should be able and
ready to combine more than one approach and method during the
same period or lesson depending on the problem and the

situation.

APPENDIX C

FINAL ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Part1

Answer the following questions by underlining the correct answer.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l. Magnets have [one shape or form - 3 forms - different forms]

2. A strong magnet [attracts many - attracts few - does not attract]
nails.

3. A free suspended magnet takes (east-south, west-south, north-south]
direction.

4. L_¢l [hL SI [attract - repel - nothing happens]

5. U aChalk [attract - repel - nothing happens]

6. m [5 El [attract - repel - nothing happens]

7. lb-‘i winder [attract - repel — nothing happens]

8. m [attract - repel - nothing happens)

9 . M alder: Ring [attract - repel — nothing happens]

Part II

Answer the following questions by putting either \/ or X by the nunber of
each statement.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Magnets differ in their strengths.

Magnets do not attract nails through water.

Magnets attract nails without touching them.

Scouts use coupasses in order to know their directions.

The strength of a magnet concentrates near its middle.

The two ends of a magnet are called poles.

There are two kinds or types of magnets natural and artificial.
A coupass does not contain a magnet.

A copper bar may be nagnetized by stroking it in one direction with
the end of a strong magnet.

132

133
Part III

Catplete each sentence with suitable words.

1. A region around a magnet and characterized by the existence of a
detectable magnetic force at every point in the region is called

2. This region can be determined by using __________

D

APPENDIX

The Scenes and S§§t1§ti£§l Analysis 9:
82ih_§r992§

The Scores and the Statistical Analysis of the Girls in the
Experimental Group

The
The
The
The
The
The
The

The

20, 20, 19, 19, 19, 18,
17, 17, 17, 16, 16, 15,

14, l4, l4, 13, 12, 12,
total number of students
sum of the scores
mean of the scores
variance
standard deviation
mode
median
range

The scores and the statistical
experimental group

The
The
The
The
The

The

20, 19, 19, 19, 18, 18,
17, 17, 17, l6, l6, 16,
15, 14, 13, 13, 12, 12,
total number of students
sum of the scores
mean of the scores
variance
standard deviation

mode

18, 18, 17, 17:
15, 15, 15, 15,
12.

I 27

8 434

16.074

5.76
2.4

17 and 15
= 16
= 8

analysis of the boys in the

18, 18, 17, 17:
16, 16, 15, 15,
11, 9

= 28

= 443

15.281

7.187

2.68

17 and 16

134

The

The

135

median

range

8 16
= 11

The scores and the statistical analysis of the girls in the
control group

The
The
The
The
The
The
The

The

19, 19, 18, 18, 17, 16,
14, l4, 14, 13, l3, 13,
ll, 11, 10, 10, 9, 9,
total number of students
sum of the scores
mean of the scores
variance
standard deviation
mode
median

range

The scores and the statistical
control group

The
The
The
The

The

18, 18, 17, 17, 17, 16,
l4, 14, 14, 13, 13, 13,
12, 12, ll, 10, 10, 10,
total number of students
sum of the scores
mean of the scores
variance

standard deviation

16, 16, 15, 15,
12, 12, 12, 12,

8, 7
8 28
B 374
= 13.357
= 10.9
= 3.3
= 13
= 13
= 12

analysis of the boys in the

16, 15, 15, 14,
13, 13, 12, 12:
9, 8, 6

= 29

= 382

13.172

9

3

The mode
The median

The range

136

13
13
1.2

REFERENCES

Refereneee

Ad Hoc Committee on Undergraduate Teacher Education, Report,
Washington University, 1970.

Ausubel, D.P. “Some Psychological Considerations in the
Objectives and Design of an Elementary School Science

Program.“ SeieneLEeeearien. April 1963. 47:282.

. 'In Defense of verbal Learning," Egeeeeiehel
Theegy, Vol, 11, 1961, pp. 15-25.

Azbell, W. "Supervising the Inquiry Method," The_§eeiel
aghgiee, September/October, 1977.

 

Bagenotos, N.T. "The Teacher as an Inquirer,‘ The_£gheeeiehe1
Eexgm, January, 1975, p. 236.

Beaver, £I;B. Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University,
1982.

Benne, K.D. “The Major Tasks of Contemporary Thinking,"

900. o \1 0’. 0., o g‘

Seeie1_§ehgiee, Washington, D. C., 1967.

Bibens, R.F. "Using Inquiry Effectively," Ih£2£1_1££2
2112;1231 Vol. XIX, No. 2, pp. 87-92.

Bingman, R.M. et.a1. 'A Successful Inquiry Methodology," The
Amerieen_fiieleex_1eaeher. September. 1974. pp- 349-351-

Bruner, J. W111, New York: Atheneum
Publishers, 1965.

. WW. Cambridge.
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963.

. "The Art of Discovery." W
Beyieg, vol. 31, 1961, p. 27.

Carin. A. and 12.13. Sund. WW.
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books Inc., 1964,
p. 11.

 

 

Connelly, M. F. I'Liberal Education in Biology: An Inquiry
Perspective.“ Tbe_Amer_ieea_B.iel.oey_Teeeber October.
l9_

Constitution of the State of Kuwait, 1962.

137

138

Dale, D.R. and W.P. Dunlap. "Introducing the Ways and Means

of Inquiry," e c n c , March 1982, pp. 55-
65.

Dewey, J. W. N-Y-. N-Y-. Henry
Holt, 1938.

Dewey. J. W. NY: The Macmillan Co..
1916.

Esler, W.K. “Structuring Inquiry for Classroom Use," 8.20.921.
seieneeJad—Metbemaeiee. May. 1970. p. 454-

Fischler, A.S. "Science, Process, The Learner: A
Synthesis," Seience Eggcegieh, Vol. 49, No. 5,

Dee. 1965, PP. 402-409.

Fish, A.S. and B. Goldmark. "Inquiry Method: Three Inter-
pretation8." TbLseieneeJeaeber. February. 1966. p. 13-

Gagne. 12.11. W- Holt. Rinehart and
Winston, N.Y., 1965. '

. “The Learning Requirements for Enquiry," {ehghel
eLBeeeareLiLseieneLTeaebine. 1963. 1: 144-153.

Gentry, C.G. "Relative Effectiveness of Discovery and
Expository Materials of Teaching Concepts Through the
Single-Concept Film." Thesis for the Degree of Ed.d..
Michigan State University, 1965.

 

Gies, F.J. and B.C. Leonard. “Inquiry and Self-Directed
Learning." Waite. December. 1970. p. 35-

Hagen, O.A. and S.T. Stansberry. "Why Inquiry?" $29131
Eeeeaeiea. May 1969. p- 534.

Hegelson, S.L., P.E. Blosser, and R.W. Howe. "The Status of
Pre-College Science, Mathematics, and Social Science

Education," S£1§E£§_EQEEQLIQE. vol. 1, 1977, p. 97-102.

Herron, M.D. "The Nature of Scientific Enquiry," 8.9.0.921
Begum, 1971, 79:171-212.

Hoskin, B. and K. Swick. “Questioning and Learning," The
91W- May 1973. P- 557-553-

Hurd, P.D. ' ' ' C
$21£E_§- Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969, p. 8.

139

Jarolimek, J., et a1. "Social Studies Education: The

Elementary School. Focus on Inquiry." Seeiel_Ednee§ien,
May 1969, pp. 533-550.

Kaltsounis, T. "Swing Toward Decision Making." IDELLEQLQL.
April 1971, pp. 49-50.

Kyle, w.c. Jr. W.
Vol. 17, No. 2, 1980, pp. 123—130.

Langdon G. and I.W. Stout. W.
New York: The MacMillan Company, 1964, p. 205-207.

Leonard, B.C. and F.J. Gies. ”Improving Instruction Through

Inquiry.“ Wm. February. 1970.
pp. 48-49.

Massialas, Byron, G. "Inquiry," TedeyLe_Edneeeien, May 1969,
P0 410

Miller, G.L. "The Teacher and Inquiry," meme].
Leaderabie. April 1966-

Ministry of Planning in the State of Kuwait. Annual
Statistical Abstract, Edition 22, 1985, p. 296.

Minneman, M. "A Student Proposal for an Inquiry Method
Preparation Curriculum,“ JQHEEB, May 1972.

Mosher, C.A. and G. Kalton.
Taxeeeigeeien, New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1972.

Nagalski, J.L. “Why Inquiry Must Hold Its Ground," The
Seieneeleaeber. April 1980. p. 26-27-

Newport, J.F. "Are Science Objectives Changing?" sehee].
SeieneeJMatbematiea. April 1965.

Oppenheim, A.N. '
Meeenzemene, New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1966.

Postman, N, and C. Weingartner.
Aetixiey, New York: Delacorte Press, 1969.

Pugliese, A.C. “The Meaning of Inquiry, Discovery, and
Investigative Approach to Science Teaching,"

Teaeher, January 1973.

Pugliese, A.C. "The Meaning of Inquiry, Discovery, and
Investigative Aprpoaches to Science Teaching,” The

SeieneeJeaeber. January 1973. pp. 24-27.

140

Rachelson, S. 'A Question of Balance: A Wholistic View of

scientific Inquiry.“ WM. 1977.
61(1):109-ll7.

Rice, D.R. and WQP. Dunlap. I‘Introducing the ways and Means

of Inquiry." TtheieneeJeeeber. March 1982. pp. 56-

RomeY. W.D. LneeirLleehaieeeeJerJeeehiW
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968.

Schwab. J. Warm. N.Y.z John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1963.

Schwab, J. and Brandwein. The Teeehing efi fieiehce,
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univeristy Press, 1962.

Skeel, D.J. and J.G. Decaroli. "The Role of the Teacher in

an Inquiry-Centered Classroom,“ W, May
1969, p. 547.

Skeel, D. J. and Deacroli, J. G. “The Role of the Teacher in an

Inquiry-Centered Classroom," seeje1_£gheeeieh, May 1969,
p. 547-5500

Skinner, B.F. 'Teaching Science in High School - What is
Wrong?“ Seiehee, 159, February, 1968, p. 704-710.

Suchman. J.R. WW.
Science Research Associates, 1969.

. “Inquiry in the Curriculum," The IDSSIEQLQE.
January 1966, p. 24-64.

 

. Chicago: Science

 

Research Associates, Inc., 1966.

. "The Motivation to Inquire," The_1hee;he;er,
October, 1965, p. 26, 122, 125.

 

. "Rebuilding the Science Program, Inquiry

Training in the Elementary School,” The_§eiehee_Teeehe;,
November 1960, 27:42-47.

 

Sund, R.B. and A. Carin. c '
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1964.

. and L.W. Trowbridge. c c
iLetheceneeLSebeel. Columbine. OhiO: Charles
E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1967.

 

141

Tannenbaum, H.E. ”Supervision of Elementary School Science:

In-Service Courses," The_§eiehee_Jeeeheg, April, 1960,

p. 50.
Trowbridge. L.W. WW
d <> . Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.,

Columbus, Ohio, 1967, pp. 28-43.

UNESCO- WW. PariS: Educational
policy, UNESCO, 1971.

Victor, E. I'The Inquiry Approach to Teaching and Learning: A

Primer for Teachers," W, October
1974, pp. 23- 6.

Weber, M.D. ”Behavioral Objectives: Another Look," Seiehee
anisbileren. Jan/Feb. 1974. p. 20-

Welch, W.W. et.al. "The Role of Inquiry in Science
Education: Analysis and Recommendation," selenee

Egngefiieg, 1981, 65(1):33-50.

Wilson, JuH. “Differences Between the Inquiry-Discovery and
the Traditional Approaches to Teaching Science in
Elementary Schools. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Oklahoma, 1967.

“ill"l’llllflll'iflillllr