A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DEMANDS OF A SPECIFIC CHARACTERIZATION AND FUNCTIONAL VOICE PROBLEMS IN THE MALE ACTOR Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY BONNIE :NANETT E RAPHAEL 1973 ~ JIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII L.— um- . 31293 00800 5518 Michigan Sta cc University ABSTRACT A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DEMANDS OF A SPECIFIC CHARACTERIZATION AND FUNCTIONAL VOICE PROBLEMS IN THE MALE ACTOR By Bonnie Nanette Raphael An investigation was conducted in order to determine the effects of voice alterations used by the male actor in characterization on the physical condition of his throat and larynx and on his vocal character- istics. Eight actors cast in a Michigan State University production of Marat/Sade were used as subjects for the investigation. Each actor was tested by the researcher and examined by a consulting otolaryngologist during the first week of rehearsal, during the week of production, and two weeks after the show closed. Data were collected at each interview and subsequently analyzed to determine breathing efficiency during reading, use of hard glottal attack, habitual reading rate, location of major breathing activity, habitual pitch for reading and conversational Speech, pitch range, maximum dura- tion of phonation, and voice quality. Readings from the playscript were analyzed to determine location of major breathing activity, breathing efficiency, use of hard glottal attack, rate, pitch, and voice quality for characterization. History was provided by each subject regarding Bonnie Nanette Raphael medical, educational, and vocational background. Finally, a log was kept by the investigator, recording all correspondence between director and actor regarding use of voice for characterization and voice problems en- countered during rehearsals. The study revealed that it is possible to determine both quantita- tively and qualitatively in what reSpects and to what extent the actor alters his vocal characteristics for purposes of characterization. All actors participating in the study altered their vocal patterns in one or more of the following ways: change in habitual pitch, rate, and loudness; change in voice quality; and change in location of major breathing activ- ity. The effects which such induced voice alterations had on the characteristics of the actors' own voices varied from one individual to another, and seemed to be related to medical history, condition of the throat and larynx at the initial examination, size of role portrayed and type of voice usage employed by the actor in the production, and perhaps the extent and type of voice and music training which the actor had under- gone. On a more specific level, this study revealed that there may be a relationship between an actor's tendency to breathe clavicularly when in character and the incidence of various symptoms of functional voice prob- lems. The actor's use of habitual pitch for characterization close to or the same as optimum pitch did not seem to prevent the occurrence of func- tional voice problems, nor did the use of a significantly different pitch assure that occurrence. Furthermore, type and extent of quality Bonnie Nanette Raphael alteration induced by the actor did not seem to have a direct relation- ship to the type and extent of functional voice problems he encountered. The study further demonstrated that in general, the greater the demands of a particular characterization on the voice of an actor who is inadequately trained vocally, the greater will be the likelihood of functional voice problems. However, the magngr_in which the actor em- ployed his voice for characterization, in addition to the actual amount_ of use, was an important factor in his acquisition or avoidance of func- tional voice problems. The study described a number of occurrences which may be regarded as symptomatic of the beginnings or presence of a functional voice disorder in the male actor, and others which may not be regarded as such. By surveying existing literature in voice pathology, laryngeal medicine, music, psychology, and theatre, by carefully describing and evaluating methodology employed, and by suggesting ways in which the study could be effectively repeated or expanded into different areas, the researcher has attempted to lay a possible foundation for future research into the vocal techniques and voice problems of the actor. A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DEMANDS OF A SPECIFIC CHARACTERIZATION AND FUNCTIONAL VOICE PROBLEMS IN THE MALE ACTOR By Bonnie Nanette Raphael A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theatre 1973 (9 Copyright by BONNIE NANETTE RAPHAEL 1973 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my major professor, Dr. Clarence Bahs, for his invaluable advice and assistance in the completion of this dissertation. I also wish to acknowledge with sincere thanks the guidance of an individual who saw me through this project from its inception to its completion: Dr. Leo V. Deal, Chairman of the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the cooperation of Dr. Sidney Berger, around whose production of Marat/Sade this study was conducted. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee for their continuing support: Dr. John Waite and Dr. Don Treat. Finally, I wish to thank my husband Jay, whose encouragement, excellent criticism, and constant support were sometimes all I had to keep me going, and who believed this study would see a successful completion long before I did. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...................... Statement of the Problem .............. Questions and Hypotheses .............. Background and Significance ............. Definitions and Limitations ............. Summary ....................... II. SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE ................ Research on the Characteristics of the Normal Speaking Voice .................. General Considerations .............. Pitch ...................... Range ...................... Rate ....................... Quality ..................... Breathing .................... Summary ..................... Research on the Effects of Emotion and Personality on the Voice ................... Summary ..................... Research on the Etiology, Diagnosis, and Character- istics of Functional Voice Disorders ....... Definition .................... Etiology ..................... Symptoms ..................... Classification .................. Prognosis .................... Voice Research of Particular Relevance to Actors and Other Public Performers ............. Summary ..................... An Overview of the Literature ............ III. METHODOLOGY ...................... Design of the Study ................. Selecting a Production .............. Selection of Subjects .............. Overview of Experimental Procedure ........ iv Page d TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued CHAPTER Page Collection of Data ................. 83 Case History ................... 84 Spectator Observation .............. 86 Use of the Tape Recorder ............. 89 Description of Materials Recorded ........ 90 Indirect Laryngoscopic Examinations ....... 94 Procedural Summary for Collection of Data . . . . 96 Processing and Analysis of Collected Data ...... 96 Habitual Pitch for Reading, Speaking, and Char- acterization ................. 99 Habitual Rate for Reading and Characterization. . 100 Occurrence of Hard Glottal Attack in Reading and Characterization ............... lOl Breathing Efficiency during Reading and Char- acterization ................. 101 Vocal Range Including Falsetto .......... 102 Optimum Pitch .................. 102 Voice Quality in Reading, Conversational Speech, and Characterization ............. 104 An Overview of the Methodology ........... 108 IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................. 111 Initial Case History ................ 113 Results ..................... 113 Discussion .................... 120 Breathing Efficiency, Use of Hard Glottal Attack, and Habitual Rate ................ 121 Results ..................... 121 Discussion .................... 126 Location of Major Breathing Activity and Observable Tension .............. . ...... 127 Results ..................... 127 Discussion .................... 129 Maximum Duration of Phonation ............ 130 Results ..................... 130 Discussion .................... 131 Pitch Range and Computed Optimum Pitch ....... 132 Results ..................... 132 Discussion ................ 134 Habitual Pitch for Reading, Speaking, and Character- ization ....... . ............. 135 Results ..................... 135 Discussion .................... 141 TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued CHAPTER Page Voice Quality for Reading and Speaking ....... 143 Results ..................... 143 Discussion .................... 145 Vocal Characteristics During Characterization. . . . 146 Results ..................... 146 Discussion .................... 148 Indirect Laryngoscopic Examination ......... 148 Results ..................... 148 Discussion .................... 150 Actual Vocal Demands Stemming from Participation in Marat/Sade .................... 158 ReSUTts ..................... 159 Discussion .................... 161 Subsequent Case History Information ......... 162 Results ..................... 163 Summary and Discussion of Combined Results ..... 166 Previous Voice and Music Training ........ 169 Indirect Laryngoscopic Examination ........ 170 Location of Major Breathing Activity ....... 171 Breathing Efficiency, Hard Glottal Attack, and Habitual Rate ................. 172 Pitch Range and Habitual Pitch .......... 173 Changes in Voice Quality ............. 174 Size and Demands of Roles Portrayed ....... 175 Production Log .................. 176 Selective Analysis of Combined Results ....... 176 Causes of Functional Voice Problems in the Male Actor ..................... 177 Symptoms of Functional Voice Problems in the Male Actor .................. 177 Actor's Use of Voice for Characterization . . . . 178 Relation of Vocal Hygiene to Functional Problems in the Male Actor ............... 178 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ...................... 180 Summary ....................... 181 Methodology ................... - 181 Results ..................... 182 Conclusions ..................... 184 Questions .................... 185 Hypotheses .................... 185 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued CHAPTER Page Implications for Future Research .......... 188 The Need for More Complete Understanding ...... 191 APPENDICES A. FORMS USED IN COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ..... 196 8. MATERIALS RECORDED DURING COLLECTION OF DATA ....... 215 C. MATERIALS RELEVANT TO THE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY PERFORMING ARTS COMPANY PRODUCTION OF MARAT/SADE . . . 225 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................... 235 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX: GENERAL REFERENCES ......... 243 vii TABLE 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. LIST OF TABLES MASTER TAPES USED IN THE ANALYSIS OF DATA ........ IDENTIFICATION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SUBJECTS . . . SUBJECTS' MEDICAL HISTORIES AND SMOKING HABITS ..... SUMMARY OF EXTENT AND TYPE OF CRAFT TRAINING ...... WARM-UP PROCEDURES UTILIZED BY SUBJECTS ......... BREATHING EFFICIENCY, HARD GLOTTAL ATTACK, AND RATE FOR UNIFORM READINGS .................... BREATHING EFFICIENCY, HARD GLOTTAL ATTACK, AND RATE IN CHARACTERIZATION .................... MAXIMUM DURATION OF PHONATION IN SECONDS ........ PITCH RANGE AND COMPUTED OPTIMUM PITCH ......... HABITUAL PITCH FOR READING AND SPEAKING--DETERMINED BY LISTENING ........................ HABITUAL PITCH FOR READING AND SPEAKING-~DEPRESSING TO A MONOTONE ........................ HABITUAL PITCH FOR CHARACTERIZATION ........... COMPARISON OF OPTIMUM PITCH WITH HABITUAL PITCH FOR READING, SPEAKING, AND CHARACTERIZATION ......... QUALITY EVALUATION BY PANEL OF JUDGES: COMPOSITE SCORES FOR UNIFORM READING SELECTION .............. QUALITY EVALUATION BY PANEL OF JUDGES: COMPOSITE SCORES FOR CONVERSATIONAL SPEECH ................ VOCAL CHARACTERISTICS DURING CHARACTERIZATION ...... SUMMARY OF LARYNGOLOGICAL EXAMINATION REPORTS ...... viii Page 98 112 114 116 118 122 124 131 133 136 137 139 142 144 144 147 149 LIST OF TABLES--Continued TABLE Page 18. SIZE OF ROLE PLAYED AND DEMANDS OF THAT ROLE ON EACH ACTOR .......................... 160 19. SUMMARY OF RELATIONSHIPS AMONG COLLECTED DATA ...... 168 ix k 0..., '. -_ o. . I '0 . ., . 4 'L n .' y. . C 3' ' - °"|.. n. O T v. . b ' 9‘ . n n t p a 3. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem The voice of the contemporary American actor is one of the most vital tools of his art. Yet, until recently, the training of that voice has received comparatively little attention in most curricula, whether they are designed for the working actor or for the theatre major at American liberal arts institutions. The reasons for this lie within the very fabric of the American theatre. Constant need for and relentless emphasis on commercial success have led to a preference by Broadway producers for popular fare. Because of the lack of a significant body of classical American dramatic literature, popular fare has meant contemporary domestic drama (e.g. Williams, Albee), situation comedy (e.g. Neil Simon), and musical comedy in the tradition of Rogers and Hammerstein. The bulk of American drama falling under the classification of popular fare is basically realistic in style and content and, to a greater or lesser degree, psychological in orientation. Hence, the professional training of actors for the drama has been heavily realistic and psychological in its emphasis. Training may be quite intensive in terms of motivation, inner truth, and believ- ability; but the means by which these are externalized--name1y, voice and stage movement--have been relegated a secondary position, if any position at all. The actor may be trained to sing or dance, but his speaking voice has been more or less taken for granted or ignored, if not actually cultivated for its idiosyncrasies. A perusal of the individual institutions' course offerings listed in the DirectorycH’American College Theatre1 corroborates these emphases in training. A student enrolled in any one of the majority of colleges and universities represented in the directory usually participates in an acting curriculum which emphasizes creativity, improvisation, intensive scene study, and some work in acting styles; voice training is seldom if ever a significant ingredient in such a curriculum. With the growing popularity of the B.F.A. program in theatre, skills may_get the attention they deserve. However, an institution's offering of a B.F.A. degree in theatre is no guarantee of the inclusion of voice and movement training for actors in its course offerings. Furthermore, curricula leading to the bachelor of fine arts degree in theatre are still too few and far between, and in an early stage of development as well. For example, according to the Directory of American College Theatre, out of 1581 junior and senior colleges surveyed in 1967, only forty—three offered the B.F.A. in theatre; only thirty-three schools had curricula which were classified by the A.E.T.A. College Curriculum Project as pre-professional in their orientation.2 Surely these numbers have risen by now, but the 1Richard G. Ayers (ed.), Directory of American College Theatre (2nd ed. rev.; Dallas: American Educational Theatre Association, Inc., 1967). 21m. fact remains that the vast majority of United States colleges having theatre departments are liberal arts or content-oriented rather than basically concerned with preparing individuals to become members of the acting profession. Another factor determining the nature of actor training in the United States has been the variety of media in which the actor works after the completion of such training. For the contemporary American actor, the "legitimate stage" (Broadway, regional repertory companies, etc.) is by no means as accessible or as financially lucrative as work in either films or television. The voice of an actor working in these latter media can be and most often is amplified, reverberated, or other- wise mechanically altered to his advantage. So, most American actors are found performing quite adequately in media which make far less strenuous demands on their voices than working in a proscenium theatre, a thrust stage, or an arena theatre does. For these reasons, and some related others, the vast majority of American actors and acting teachers seldom seem to concern themselves directly with the voice--unless something goes noticeably wrong, or until a particular voice proves to be seriously inadequate in a particular situation. The actor may become aware of insufficient breath control, a lack of vocal variety, or a habitual rate which is far too ingrained to respond to the needs of a particular role; or he may be less fortunate and face the more serious problems of recurrent hoarseness, chronic laryngitis, or even vocal nodules. This latter group of problems may fall into the category of func- tional voice disorders, that is, voice problems resulting from misuse or abuse of the vocal mechanism rather than from any organic abnormality. Yet, often the actor is completely unaware of the fact that he is mis- using or abusing his vocal mechanism until something goes seriously wrong with his voice. If this happens during the run of a production, he is apt to compound his problem by speaking over it, pushing his voice further, forcing it instead of resting it. A functional voice disorder can be serious enough to interfere with the actor's work or to put an end to his career entirely. If his disorder can be cured via rest and therapy, the vocal training he receives will be rehabilitory in nature because it is after the fact. However, had the actor received training earlier in his career, training which was both creative and preventative in orientation, a functional voice disorder might never have arisen. Surely this alternative is to be preferred. The need for scientifically based voice training for the actor is only now being fully realized in the United States. This is evidenced by the increasing presence of or demand for voice specialists in various professional schools and in theatre departments at academic institutions. It was notLHNHl the August, 1969 national convention that the Voice Project of the American Theatre Association was given permanent status;3 its first task has been to undertake an evaluation of the status of voice training programs in the United States. However, this country is not yet at a point in the development of this field where the relative merits of 3Under the chairmanship of Dorothy Runk Mennen of Purdue University; at present, the chairmanship has been passed on to Dr. Robert Hobbs of Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. alternative programs of voice training can be meaningfully evaluated. Right now, any_voice training program is considered better than none, and almost any available texts or personnel are considered authorita- tive. The purpose of this study is very closely related to this problem. This study attempts to identify the alterations which an actor produces in his voice as he develops a particular characterization, or in order to be both heard and understood in an auditorium. In addition, this study seeks to identify changes occurring in the actor's own voice as a result of such alterations. In this way, certain critical areas of vocal function in performance may be accurately pinpointed for pur- poses of future study. Furthermore, comparison of an individual actor's vocal characteristics with those of a character he portrays may provide valuable guidelines for training future actors in vocal flexibility and creativity. Assessment of the effects of a particular vocal character- ization on the actor's own voice can 1bad to valuable insights regarding preventative voice training. In addition, this study may perhaps provide a basis for a metho- dology which can be used for future studies of the actor's voice. The stronger the scientific basis becomes for understanding vocal problems peculiar to the actor, the more pragmatic his voice training can become. If such training were made available, at least two vital results could be anticipated: first, voice problems need no longer be tolerated as an unavoidable occupational hazard for the actor; and second, American actors might begin to regard and to use their voices as flexible, durable, and exciting instruments. This study is being undertaken as a beginning, in the sincere hope that others will follow very soon, studies which will provide tomorrow's American actors with the best voice training available. Questions and Hypotheses There are a number of questions with which this study has concerned itself; 1) 2) 3) they fall into three main areas: Is it possible to determine quantitatively and qualitatively in what respects and to what extent an actor alters his vocal characteristics for purposes of performing publically or creat- ing a particular characterization? What effects (if any) do such induced voice alterations and the size of the role portrayed have on the physical condition of the actor's vocal mechanism and on the characteristics of his own voice? Is there a discernible relationship between or among any of the following: previous vocal training; previous acting experience; the demands of a particular characterization; and the presence, the nature, and the severity of any objectively measurable voice problems or symptoms of problems occurring during the course of the preparation and production of a full-length show? The effectiveness of the methodology chosen for this study will be at least partially determined by the accuracy of the following hypotheses: 1) There is a demonstrable relationship between the demands of a specific characterization and the possibility of functional voice problems in the male actor, a relationship which is directly affected by: a) the basic physical condition of the actor's vocal mechanism; b) the efficiency or lack of efficiency with which the actor uses his own voice; c) the type and extent of alterations the actor induces in his own voice for purposes of performance or characterization; d) the actor's previous training and experience; and, e) the particular director's knowledge of and insistence upon good voice production. 2) The greater the demands of a particular characterization on the voice of the actor who is untrained or inadequately trained vocally, the greater will be the likelihood of potential func- tional voice problems. 3) If and when the demands placed on such an actor's voice are lessened or eliminated, both the physical condition of his mechanism and the characteristics of his own voice will improve (i.e. return towards normalcy). 4) The beginnings or presence of a functional voice disorder in the male actor may be indicated by any one or a combination of the following: a) change in habitual pitch; b) narrowing in pitch range; c) deterioration in vocal quality; d) decrease in efficiency of breathing; e) decrease in length of phonation; f) deterioration in the physical condition of the vocal mechan- ism. ' Background and Significance The vast majority of voice disorders in the American populace in general and in the actor in particular arise not as a result of an organic anomaly but rather from the misuse or abuse of the voice.“ Yet. at present there is a lack of complete understanding of just what constitutes misuse or abuse, especially in regard to an individual actor's voice. Despite a growing recognition of the importance of caring for and training the actor's voice, little scientifically based research has been published on the subject. A survey of the literature indicates applic~ able research done in a number of fields. This literature, however, relates only indirectly to the needs of the actor. Without seriously I'Charles Van Riper and John Irwin, Voice and Articulation (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958), p. 218. infringing on the domain of Chapter II of this study which will review the literature in detail, it is useful to examine briefly the general nature of these contributions. Speech pathologists have published many important studies in voice research methodology5 and in individual vocal characteristics (e.g. pitch,6 rate,7 etc.), studies which can be employed by the actor in vocal characterization and by the researcher investigating the actor's voice. The limitations of the published research stem from the fact that so few studies have concentrated on the stage voice; most deal with the conver- sational voice. Similarly, researcher-physicians such as Dr. F. S. Brodnitz have contributed significantly to our knowledge of functional voice disorders. Limitations in this field (for which Brodnitz, incidentally, is one of the l§g§§_to blame) arise from an understandable concentration on diag- nostic-medical-surgical considerations rather than on functional or artistic ones. Psychologists have indirectly but nevertheless effectively enhanced our understanding of the relationship between voice and personality; 5W. Pronovost, "An Experimental Study of Methods for Determining Natural and Habitual Pitch," Speech Monographs, IX (December, 1942), -1 3. sG. Fairbanks and W. Pronovost, "An Experimental Study of the Pitch Characteristics of the Voice During the Expression of Emotion," Speech Monographs, VI (1939), 87-104. 7G. Fairbanks and L. Hoaglin,-"An Experimental Study of the Duration- al Characteristics of the Voice During the Expression of Emotion,“ Speech Monographs, VIII (1941), 85-90. 'See, for example, F. S. Brodnitz, "Voice Problems of the Actor and Singer," Journal of,§peech Disorders, XIX (September, 1954), 322-326. Paul J. Moses has written extensively on this topic, for example.9 However, most psychologists have approached voice as a symptom of per- sonality disorder rather than investigating alternative reasons for voice difficulties of more direct interest to the actor. Music researchers have contributed some important studies on the relationship between the physiology of the vocal mechanism and timbre, vocal flexibility, registration, and control;10 the limitation here re- sults from their justifiable concentration on the singing voice rather than on the speaking voice. Finally, although many theatre specialists have recognized the im- portance of training the actor's voice, especially for maximum flexibil- ity and durability, more often than not they have tended to ignore or to deny the importance of a broadly—based scientific foundation for such training, preferring instead an aura of creative mystique. For example, at this time there are at least three popular textbooks used by American actors wishing to improve their voices.11 Although each makes its own important contribution to the voice training of the actor, none of the three textbooks reports results of current experimental research in voice or discusses the need for further research in particular areas. The time ) 9Paul J. Moses, The Voice of Neurosis (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1954 . 10D. R. Appelman, The Science of Vocal Pedagogy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967). 11Arthur Lessac, The Use and Training of the Human Voice (2nd ed.; New York: 085 Publications, 1967); Evangeline Machlin, Speech for the Sta e (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1966); C. J. Turner, Voice and Speech in the Theatre (London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1966) 10 is ripe for the indefinable magic of the voice coach-shaman to be re- placed with universally effective techniques of training the actor's voice. This is possible in the not too distant future, but only if two things happen first. Knowledge and research currently available from a great number of tangentially related fields must be synthesized and given direction with the actor as focus. In addition, an imposing list of questions must be answered. A consideration of many of these ques- tions is included in the final chapter of this dissertation. They must be resolved before two broader questions can be answered: 1) Where should the main emphasis be placed in vocal training for the actor? and, 2) What are the most effective methods of achieving maximum flexi- bility, durability, and creativity in an actor's use of his voice? Only intensive research will provide the information necessary to effec- tively and objectively answer such questions, research which this study may hopefully succeed in generating. This study has incorporated relevant contributions made by research- ers in speech pathology, medicine, psychology, music, and theatre. It has also attempted to apply these contributions to the problems peculiar to the actor. By doing so, this study may serve the needs of the actor who desires a greater working knowledge of the dynamics of vocal technique and the dangers of abuse. By identifying and emphasizing the validity of such needs, this study may provide some scientifically based guidelines for future voice courses, courses which can and should be an essential ingredient in the training of the actor, the teacher, and the director. 11 Definitions and Limitations For purposes of clarity and cohesiveness, this study has limited it- self to a consideration of functional voice disorders in the non- professional male actor. The decision not to include actresses in this study was made in order to avoid the addition of a number of further vari- ables in consideration of pitch and location of major breathing activity.12 This study has defined a functional voice disorder as one resulting from misuse or abuse of the vocal mechanism rather than from the presence of some organic abnormality. (The end result could very well be the de- velopment of some organic change; but in the case of a functional voice disorder, the gay§e_is confined to the misuse or abuse of a fundamentally healthy mechanism.)13 For purposes of this study, the non-professional actor has been de- fined as one who is not working exclusively as a paid member of the act- ing profession. Other definitions relevant to an understanding of this study follow: 1) Habitual Pitch--the pitch on which the speaker or reader' vocalizes most often; the average or modal pitch "about which the other pitches used in speech tend to cluster."'“ 2) Optimum Pitch--the pitch at which a speaker achieves the best qual- ity and resonance with the least amount of effort.15 12See, for example, C. F. Lindsley, "An Objective Study of the Respiration Accompanying Speech," Qpprterly Journal of Speech, XXV (1929), 45-48. 1"'F. S. Brodnitz, Vocal ReHabilitation (New York: American Academy of Opthamologists and Otolaryngologists, 1959), pp. 41-42. 1“'Charles Van Riper, Speech Correction: Principles and Methods (4th ed.; New York: PrentiEe-Hall, Inc., 1963), p. 159. 15Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 449. 12 3) Pitch Range--the number of notes a speaker or singer is capable of phonating, from his lowest to his highest, including fal- setto.16 4) Indirect Laryngoscopy--A physical examination in which an otolaryngologist or speech pathologist examines the condition of the vocal mechanism by using a directed beam of light and a laryngeal mirror. Summar A descriptive study has been done to determine 1) what alterations the actor makes in his speaking voice for purposes of public performance and the development of characterization; and, 2) what effects such alterations have on the physical condition of the actor's vocal mechanism and on the characteristics of his own speaking voice. The focal point of the study itself has been an investigation of the relationship between the demands of a specific characterization and the development of func- tional voice problems in the male actor. Research foundations for the present study have incorporated contri- butions from speech pathology, medicine, psychology, music, and theatre. The purpose of the present study is to provide a scientific foundation for future voice training courses for actors and to establish a metho- dological basis for further research on the actor's voice. 16F. S. Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953), p. 74. CHAPTER II SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE At the beginning of this century, Dr. T. Flateau, one of the first investigators specializing in problems of the human voice, wrote a book entitled The Functional Weakness of the Voice. With a great wealth of observations and diagnostic detail he described the functional voice troubles of the professional speaker and singer as a well-defined vocal disease which he called phonasthenia. . . . this book marked the beginning of a new ap- proach to vocal problems.1 Since then, a strong and continuing interest in the characteristics and problems of the voice has grown in this country. However, the most productive period of interest in voice research prospered toward the middle of this century only to taper off after then with the advent of specialization. The increasing 50phistication of scientific and tech- nical knowledge and the invention and increasing availability of new equipment and instrumentation were unfortunately coupled with the re- organization of large university and clinical departments into specialized divisions. Departments of Speech across the country were replaced by Departments of Rhetoric and Public Address, Speech Pathology and Audi- ology, Oral Interpretation, Speech Education, Radio and Television, Com- munication, and Theatre. 1Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, pp. 170-171. 13 14 As speech pathology, music, medicine, and theatre went their seem— ingly separate ways, fields of interest common to them all (such as voice and speech training) suffered. This has resulted in a needless duplication of investigation and research in some areas and in a paucity of investigation and research in others. Researchers have either wasted valuable time because of their ignorance of each other's work or neglected research into some very important areas because they felt that these areas were not part of their domains. Another handicap . . . is the lack of common language used in dif- ferent approaches: singing teachers of various schools used different terms, terms which are not used by laryngologists, who in turn differ from speech teachers, phoneticians and music critics. It is this discrepancy of language which has hampered2 the coopera- tion of the professions in spite of common interests. According to one medical laryngologist, Speech and voice correction has become, particularly in America, a nonmedical field. This development has produced a tremendous growth of training facilities, with speech departments now estab- lished at practically every college and university. But within the field of speech and voice correction it has shifted the center of interest away from voice to speech disturbances. The lack of medical background of the average speech therapist prevents him too often from dealing satisfactorily with voice disturbances. The present state of affairs is extremely self-limiting. On one side stand a large number of therapists who specialize and are trained in speech pathology, for the most part, rather than voice pathology. On the other side stand a large number of otolaryngological specialists who are medically trained to diagnose and treat the physical manifestations of 2Moses, The Voice of Neurosis, p. 9. 3Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 5. 15 voice problems but who neither study voice correction nor teach pre- ventative hygiene. A great deal of what we know about the human voice, especially about functional voice disorders, is a result of the observations and writings of medically trained laryngologists, psychologists, psychia- trists, and teachers of music. Recently, however, speech pathologists have returned to an increasing involvement in establishing the scientific validity of a great deal of voice "folklore," which has been taught, for years, by voice coaches and music teachers. Here, finally, are the beginnings of a foundation upon which specialists in a number of fields can draw for accurate and reliable information regarding the human voice. Finally, a number of contributions to this field have been made by theatre specialists. A growing number of such specialists have begun writing about voice training in this country, but actual scientific re- search either supporting or comparing various approaches to this training is still in its very early stages.“ An examination of Frederic Litto's bibliography of American dissertations on the theatre5 has re- vealed virtually no interest in the voice of the actor. The classifica- tion table in his bibliography included no category for voice or speech. A survey of the dissertations listed under the key words or subject head- ings of voice and speech revealed only four dissertations having a “The Theatre Voice and Speech Project of the American Theatre Associ- ation is in the process of compiling a survey on the status of voice and speech training in American universities and colleges; the tabulated results of a recently distributed pilot questionnaire are expected to be published some time in 1973. sFrederic M. Litto, American Dissertations on the Drama and The Theatre: A Bibliography (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1969). 16 performance orientation; out of these, only one related directly to the voice of the actor, and that one was written in 1935.6 Despite the seeming impossibility of locating and organizing enough literature to support and provide the background for a study such as this, a great deal of very informative literature does exist. At present, much of it is far too scattered, incomplete, or inaccessible to be of real value to the general reader. However, a patient researcher can find and benefit from an impressive body of available materials. For purposes of clarity, these materials have been divided into four main areas: 1) research on the characteristics of the normal speaking voice; 2) re- search on the effects of emotion and personality on the voice; 3) research on the etiology, diagnosis and characteristics of functional voice dis- orders; and 4) voice research of particular relevance to actors and other public performers. Research on the Characteristics of the Normal SpeakingTVoice General Considerations.--In attempting to identify the characteris- tics of the normal speaking voice, vocabulary is often somewhat mislead- ing. There are some authors who use interchangeably words such as "normal," "average," and "optimum." However, other authors are extremely aware of the possible disparities among these terms. They point out that voice is an extremely personal function. As such, it is a product of the individual and unique history of its owner. In addition to its relation ‘Milton J. Cowan, "Pitch, Intensity and Rhythmic Movement in American Dramgtic Speech" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, 1935 . 17 to that owner's age, sex, and subjection to various environmental influ- ences, the voice minutely reflects the perpetual influences of mood, emotions, and state of health. Unfortunately, with the complexity and pressures of contemporary American society, the majority of adult voices can be called normal only when this term is taken to mean "average" rather than "optimum."7 Furthermore, standards for the determination of optimal voice functioning are most often vague or ill-defined, and lead to more confusion than understanding. One fortunate exception to this trend is the discussion offered by W. H. Perkins: Optimal vocal functioning can be defined aesthetically, acoustically and hygienically. . . . The most vital criterion, probably, from the clinicianslstandpoint, is vocal hygiene. Any form of vocaliza- tion abusive to the vocal mechanism would, by any conceivable standard, be undesireable. Moreover, this criterion of hygiene seems to find wide agreement across cultures. The notion that voice is produced most hyg‘ienically when it is produced most effortlessly appears to have universal agreement.8 Once standards are established and no longer vague, it becomes clear that the really healthy or optimum voice is found only "in the majority of pre-school children; it can be observed as a natural (untrained) perform- ance in a number of adults; in others it will be the result of hygienic ~7See F. S. Brodnitz' discussions of this fact in Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 41; and in F. S. Brodnitz, "Functional Disorders of the Voice,“ in Voice and Speech Disorders--Megical Aspects, ed. by N. Levin (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962), p. 453. 8W. H. Perkins, "Vocal Function: Assessment and Therapy," in Handbook of Speech Patholo .and Audiolo , ed. by Lee Travis (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971), p. 507. 18 voice training."9 The literature available at present includes material on the char- acteristics of the voices of both average (i.e. untrained) and superior (trained or experienced) speakers. This material is presented here under the headings of Pitch, Range, Rate, Quality, and Breathing.1° .filtgh,--The term pitch is usually used to describe the highness or lowness of a sound or a voice in comparison with another, or as a note on the musical scale. Many authors equate pitch with the frequency of a sound in cycles per second. Although a close relationship does exist between frequency (physical) and pitch (psychological), perception of pitch is influenced by the intensity of a given tone as well.11 The discussion of the concepts of "normal" and "optimum" is even more widespread when it comes to pitch than it was for the characteris- tics of voice in general. In Chapter I of this study, definitions were provided for the terms optimum pitch and habitual pitch (see p. 11). Both of these terms have been and still are accepted and applied by speech teachers and pathologists. Yet, the existence and nature of both optimum and habitual pitch are still widely discussed. 9Gertrud Lasch Wyatt, "The Application of Froeschels' Chewing Method in the Treatment of Disorders of the Speaking Voice," in The Chew- in A roach in_Speech and Voice Therapy, ed. by Deso A. Weiss and Helen Beebe IBasel: Friedrich Reinhardt, n.d.), p. 74. 1°Loudness is discussed in this study only tangentially because of the paucity of published research dealing with this vocal characteristic and also because it is of only minor relevance to this study. 11Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 460. 19 A number of very popular speech improvement and speech pathology textbooks have generally defined optimum pitch as that pitch level at which the speaker's resonating chambers perform most efficiently.12 The prevailing school of thought has been that every person has an area of voice at which he can produce a sound of good quality and more than adequate loudness with a minimum of effort. Some authors define this area in terms of a range of notes rather than just one pitch; they locate it one-fourth, or three to five notes, or some other similar interval up the range from the lowest pitch phonated.13 However, reputable voice teachers, notably Arthur Lessac, have taught their students how to produce tones of excellent quality and impressive power throughout the speaking and singing range by simply finding the best balance between the size of the lip opening and the location of focus for any given tone on the hard palate, something which superior speakers do naturally without any voice training. When mastery of Lessac's concepts is achieved the speaker is aware of no extra effort or extra air needed for certain pitches; and yet both the quality and the loudness of the resulting sounds are excellent at a number of dif- 1H ferent pitches. Even in speech pathology research itself, Michel and 12See, for example, West and Ansberry, Rehabilitation of_§peech, p. 217; Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and ArticiTation, p. 449; andFETsenson, Improvement of Voice and Diet on, pp. 88-8 . 13Pronovost, "Determining Natural and Habitual Pitch," pp. 111-123. 1"The author speaks here from personal experience, having trained with Mr. Lessac for eight weeks during the summer of 1972. See also Lessac, The Use and Training of the Human Voice, Chapter IX: "The Call." 20 Wendahl have observed that valid, supportive data for the concept of optimum pitch are difficult to locate.15 The concept of habitual pitch has fallen prey to much of the same criticism. Defined most simply, habitual pitch refers to the pitch level at which an individual most often vocalizes, the pitch to which he returns most often when he speaks. This pitch has been located by certain authors within a habitual range. Some authors have stated that, ideally, the speaker's optimum pitch and optimum range should coincide with those habitually used.16 Van Riper and Irwin have effectively summarized the case against unreserved advocation of the concept of habitual pitch: Certain researchers . . . have felt that the concept of habitual pitch level is meaningless. . . . Fairbanks and Pronovost . . . have shown that marked differences exist in types of utterance in terms of the emotional loading of the communication. Taylor . and others point to the fact that the louder we talk, the higher our pitch level becomes.17 In 1964, Harris and Weiss conducted a study which investigated changes in pitch associated with phonation at loud, normal, and soft voice levels. They found that "for untrained subjects the average fundamental in the loud condition increased about thirty-four per cent above normal. The soft voice condition was marked by an average fundamental about twelve 15John F. Michel and Ronald Wendahl, "Correlates of Voice Production," in Handbook of Speech Pathology and Audiology, ed. by Lee Travis (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971), p. 469. 16Jon Eisenson, The Improvement of Voice and Diction (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1958), p. 89. 17Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 296. 21 per cent below normal."18 These findings are important in assessing the value of a number of studies of the habitual pitch of the adult male voice. Richard A. Hoops, for example, reported the results of a number of such studies and concluded that in adult males, median pitch levels tend to fall somewhere around 130 cycles per second (C below middle C).19 No informa- tion was provided in his summary, however, about the loudness levels at which pitch readings were taken. I Snidecor compared habitual pitch levels obtained in oral reading with those used for impromptu Speaking and found slightly higher pitch levels for males during the readings than during the speeches. He also found that reading exceeded impromptu speaking in pitch variability.2° Although differences of opinion exist regarding both optimum and habitual pitch, some valuable data have been collected regarding pitch norms and variations for both reading and speaking. Van Riper and Irwin have aptly assessed the present state of our knowledge: It is our belief that the appropriate pitch of the larynx is indeed a function of its range, and that the most appropriate or optimum pitch is in itself a range rather than a specific tone or fre- quency. We further believe that this optimum range will fall in the lower portion of the total range of any given voice, but will 18C. M. Harris and M. R. Weiss, "Effects of Speaking Condition on Pitch," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, XXXVI (1964), 933. 19Richard A. Hoops, Speech Science: Acoustics in Speech (2nd ed.; Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1969), p. 58. See also Van'Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 450. 2°John Snidecor, "A Comparative Study of the Pitch and Duration Char- acteristics of Impromptu Speaking and Oral Reading," Speech Monographs, X 1943 , 56. 22 not include the lowermost pitches of that voice. Finally, we be- lieve that the optimum range may vary with the actual intensity of the voice; in general, the optimum range will become higher as the fundamental of the voice increases in intensity.21 .Rggge,--Much of the research on voice range can be found in journals and periodical literature by and for music teachers. Emphasis in such studies has been placed on a consideration of registration in the singing voice rather than on investigation of speaking range. Although they are interesting, most of the findings are not directly relevant to this study. In a survey which is relevant, however, Richard A. Hoops reported that, "In adulthood, both males and females have been reported to have a total pitch range of about one and two-thirds octaves and a functional pitch range of about one octave."22 Results published by two other authors have provided basically the same conclusions: Goates found the average pitch range of a group of male actors he tested to be 10.51 tones,23 whereas Cowan found that the average pitch range for a group of ten professional actors and actresses was two octaves, ranging from 1.28 octaves to 2.56 octaves.2“ 21Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 451. 22H00ps, Acoustics in_§peech, p. 60. 23W. Goates, "Pitch Changes of the Voice of Actors During Rehearsal" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1937), p. 37. 2“Milton Cowan, "Pitch and Intensity Characteristics of Stage Speech," Archives of Speech, Supplement (1936), 80. 23 Rate.--A number of studies have been conducted to determine habitual rate for reading. Darley conducted a rate study for three types of material read aloud by college freshmen. 'The average reading rate with average material was calculated to be 167 words per minute.25 In a study conducted by Franke, the mean reading rate was found to be 157 words per minute.26 Cowan found the average rate of speech for all selections read by ten professional actors and actresses to be 157 words per minute, individual average rates varying from 101 to 247 words per minute.27 The reason that most research on rate has been concerned with read- ing rather than conversational speech is one of practicality: Much as we might like to know a person's rate of speaking, obtain- ing a measure of it clinically is rather awkward since it involves a recording followed by transcription of the material recorded, followed by calculation of the rate of delivery in words per minute. . . . it is generally assumed that a measure of one's rate of oral reading serves as a reasonably valid index of his rate of speaking.28 Kelly and Steer validated this assumption in a study of rate for ex- temporaneous speaking; their subjects were found to speak at a mean rate 25Frederic L. Darley, "A Normative Study of Oral Reading Rate" (unpublished M. A. thesis, State University of Iowa, 1940). 26P. Franke, "A Preliminary Study Validating the Measurement of Oral Reading Rate .in-Words Per Minute" (unpublished M. A. thesis, State University of Iowa, 1939). 27Cowan, "Pitch and Intensity Characteristics of Stage Speech," p. 81. The great variety Cowan reported is explained by the fact that his subjects read different materials; rate in words per minute was not de- termined in his study via use of a uniform selection. 28Darley, Diagnosis and Appraisal of Communication Disorders, p. 71. 24 of 159 words per minute.29 However, Snidecor reported that his compari- son of reading with impromptu speaking showed that rate Was faster for the former; his subjects exhibited a reading rate of 183 words per minute and a speaking rate of 151 words per minute.3° The disparity between the reading rate Snidecor reported and those reported by other researchers cited in this section would indicate the necessity for further research. Quality.--Research on the quality of the Speaking voice has been severely hampered by the lack of precision and consequent subjectivity surrounding its evaluation and identification. Perkins has provided an excellent survey and discussion of all the confusion surrounding terminology as it relates to voice quality.31 The underlying difficulty is a major one: it is exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to relate the subjective perception of voice quality to its acoustic de- terminants. Unlike other vocal characteristics, quality has so many perceptual dimensions that even trained diagnosticians listening to the same voice at the same time will describe what they hear differently. Van Riper has summarized the difficulties involved in incorporating an 29d. C. Kelly and M. D. Steer, "Revised Concept of Rate," Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, XIV (1949), 222-226. ' 30Snidecor, "Impromptu Speaking and Oral Reading," p. 56. 31W. H. Perkins, "Vocal Function: A Behavioral Analysis," in Handbook of Speech Pathology and Audiology, ed..by Lee Travis (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971), pp. 483-497. 25 assessment of quality into a diagnostic voice examination.32 Such dif- ficulties include the multi—dimensional nature of voice quality and the necessity for reliance upon vague and imprecise adjectives to describe subjective perception. However, Van Riper concluded that despite these difficulties, an attempt to identify and evaluate voice quality should be part of standard diagnostic procedure. Breathing.--The nature of the "correct" or most efficient way to breathe for Speech has not been indisputably identified. Huyck and Allen reported that better speakers use more diaphragmatic movement when breathing for speech.33 Drake advocated the use of abdominal breathing, on the grounds that the abdominal muscles were most capable of those directly concerned with breathing, and that concentration on the ab- dominal area appeared to keep tension away from the throat.3“ Studies by Gray indicated not only that no single type of breathing differen- tiates good speakers from poor ones but also that breathing training does not provide better speech and that newly acquired breathing patterns are only very rarely habituated..3S 32Charles Van Riper, Speech Correction: Principles and Methods (3rd ed.; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954), p. 311° 33E. M. Huyck and K. D. A. Allen, "Diaphragmatic Action of Good and Poor Speaking Voices," Speech Monographs, IV (1937), 101-109. 3"0. J. Drake, "Toward an Improved Vocal Quality," Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXIII (1937), 620-626. 356. W. Gray, Studies in Experimental Phonetics (Baton Rouge: State University of LouisiEna Studies, Number 27, 1936). 26 The majority of researchers, however, seem to feel that any type of breathing with the exception of clavicular breathing is equally ef- fective in producing good voice quality.36 Summary.--Research on the characteristics of the speaking voice has indicated that optimum voice usage occurs in only a minority of adults. More specific research has succeeded in identifying certain characteris- tics of average adult male voices: 1) habitual pitch has been found to be approximately 128 cycles per second, or C below middle C; 2) total pitch range in adults has been determined to be approximately one and two-thirds octaves; 3) habitual reading rate for adult males has been calculated to be approximately 160 words per minute; and 4) most re- searchers have reported that any type of breathing with the exception of clavicular breathing seems equally effective in producing voice of good quality. Research on the Effects of Emotion and Personality on the Voice A great deal has been written about the effects of emotion and re- lated influences such as bodily tension and neurosis or psychosis on the voice. More often than not, however, these writings have tended to generalize or to present logical Opinion in place of proven scientific 36See, for example, Albert T. Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc, 1964), p. 18; Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, pp. 289, 353; and Margaret L. Greene, The Voice 9and Its Disorders (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1964) , 27 fact. There are, to be sure, some reports available on controlled experi- mentation in this field, but these are few in number. With this knowl- edge in mind, both types of literature may be examined: literature written on the basis of general knowledge, observation, and deduction; and literature reporting the results of scientifically conducted re- search. A sampling of the literature representing general knowledge and opinion will provide a good background for a consideration of more specific experimentation. During any emotional experience, all the total functions of the body--circulation, breathing, digestion, glandular secretion--are more or less affected, the nature of the affect being determined by the nature and intensity of the emotion. All the parts of the vocal apparatus, from the diaphragm to the lips are intimately related through the autonomic nervous system with the function of the intern- al organs. The neural effects of emotional disturbance in the internal organs are unconsciously transmitted to the various parts of the vocal mechanism. Manifestations of muscular tension through— out the vocal mechanism will thus conform to the nature of the emo- tional state, with the specific quality and intensity of each emotion experienced having their counterparts in the human voice.37 More specifically, there seems to be universal agreement that the experience of emotion has a discernible effect on the process of respira- tion in general and breathing for speech in particular. There is very strong physiological evidence for this relationship: Since the cerebral respiratory centers are influenced by the higher centers of cerebral regulation, such as the cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamic vital centers, it is readily understood that all states of emotional or physical excitement are promptly reflected in changes of the breathing pattern.38 37Charles F. Diehl, "Voice and Personality," in Psychological and Psychiatric Aspects of Speech and Hearing, ed. by Dominick A. Barbara (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1960), p. 175. 38R. Luchsinger and G. E. Arnold, Voice--Speech--Language, trans. by G. E. Arnold and E. R. Finkbeiner (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Pub- lishing Company, Inc., 1965), p. 23. 28 Research has indicated that breathing processes react to different levels of physical activity and to different states of health. In addition, rate, depth, and regularity of breathing are all subject to change under the influence of feelings of contentment, depression, fear, anxiety, anger, and grief.39 The effects of different emotions or of general anxiety in the indi- vidual may be observed not only during quiet breathing but during speak- ing or Singing as well. When an individual experiences an emotion, he reacts to it totally. The reason his voice sounds different under the influence of different emotions is not only that his breathing has been considerably altered but also that the state of his body tone changes. These physiological alterations throughout the body have their effect on the musculature controlling phonation, whether the person is conscious of the results or not. The unconscious or involuntary nature of this very intimate rela- tionship between emotions and voice necessitates a brief consideration of the point at which normal behavior becomes deviant. This relationship between emotions, tensions, and voice characteristics is of great impor- tance to the occurrence of functional voice difficulties. Many authors have been moving towards the conclusion that inner psychological dynamics are extremely important in the development of functional voice problems. Wyatt, for example, has attributed vocal hyperfunction to "the transforma- tion of psychological stress into inappropriate physiological processes."‘° 39Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, p. 19. See also Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 58. l"’Frederick Wyatt,. "The Psychological Diagnosis of Psychosomatic Disturbances" (Abstract), American Psychologist, 1946, p. 46. .pp ,,.. .o» .... ,.. 29 A number of writers and researchers in speech pathology, psychology, and medicine have concerned themselves with an examination of the specific ways in which the effects of different emotions are manifested in vocal behavior. Their statements and the results of their research have indicated that emotions affect every aspect of vocal behavior: breathing, pitch, range, loudness, rate, quality, and use of force. George Huttar conducted an experimental study of some of the relation- ships between emotion and the prosodic parameters of speech and reached the following conclusion: . each degree of emotion perceived in a person's speech appears to be directly related to the fundamental frequency, intensity, and speed of his speech. . . . An increase in tension and muscular ac- tivity during emotional involvement is taken to be the mediating factor which underlies the relations observed."1 Under conditions of stress or excitement, general bodily tension tends to affect the throat and laryngeal musculature. The voice becomes con- stricted or harsh in sound, and the pitch goes up. Similarly, conditions of fatigue or depression will sometimes cause a weakening in adduction and a lowering of pitch level."2 Information on the relationship between emotions and the range of the speaking voice has been based on the observations of practicing otolaryngologists rather than on experimental evidence. Various emotions have been observed to affect the range employed by the speaker in “lGeorge L. Huttar, "An Experimental Study of Some Relations Between the Emotions and Prosodic Parameters of Speech" (Abstract), Dissertation Abstracts, XXVIII (1968), Part 3, p. 2665A. I”Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, pp. 176, 179-180. See also Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 252. 30 different ways. Tension, nervous excitement, and hysteria not only drive the pitch up, but also tend to keep the voice in a narrow range. Use of range has been found to be related to personality type as well.“3 Rate of utterance or duration of phonation has been found to respond to underlying emotions too. On the basis of his analysis of recordings of ten professional actors and actresses reading dramatic materials, Cowan concluded that "There is a relationship existing between percentage of phonated time and the degree of emotional expression, unemotional "“1 In another speech Showing considerably less time spent in phonation. study, Wagoner demonstrated a relationship between individual temperament or emotional state and the rhythm and tempo of Speech."5 It is not unreasonable to assume that a large number of otolaryngolo- gists and speech pathologists would be actively investigating the multi- faceted relationship between the emotions or the personality and the speaking voice. Surprisingly, and despite the literature which has been cited in this section, such is not the case. Laryngologists are still trained to diagnose from a primarily visual standpoint; symptoms are either described by the patient in terms of kinesthetic sensations or observed by the doctor with the help of a laryngeal mirror. One notable exception to this trend is in the work of Dr. Paul J. Moses who, as early as 1954, devoted an entire book to the relationship among personality, “3Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, pp. 54, 84. ““Cowan, "Characteristics of Stage Speech," P: 82° I'SL. S. Wagoner, "Speech as an Indication of Temperamental Traits," Quarterly Journal of Speech Education, II (1925), 237-242. 31 emotional factors, and vocal characteristics.“‘ He believed the voice to be a reliable enough indicator of both emotional condition and per- sonality to advocate its use as a diagnostic tool by psychologists and psychiatrists. Despite the seemingly limitless possibilities for appli- cation of this book, it has not had the impact upon professionals in speech pathology, psychology, medicine, and theatre that one would expect. There is a reasonable explanation for this failure: the book was written as a series of clinical impressions recorded over a period of time by one observer. Without actual scientific validation of the relationships observed, Moses' very valuable work has remained one man's educated speculations. A number of doctors, speech pathologists, and theatre and music Specialists have remained retiscent to accept findings which lack solid scientific validation. Their somewhat justifiable position has been effectively stated by Van Riper and Irwin: . we have little real evidence for or against the thesis that variations in voice reflect basic variations in personality. Few of the studies are adequate, and the conclusions drawn are often unsubstantiated by the research itself. Once again we are con- fronted with our basic ignorance of human nature."7 Summa y.--Most of the literature dealing with the relationship be- tween voice and emotion is based on the observation of medical specialists rather than on scientifically validated experimental research. Medical specialists have observed that the experience of an emotion affects the rate, the depth, and the regularity of breathing. In addition, the degree “sMoseS, The Voice of Neurosis. l"Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 264. 32 of bodily tension has been found to involve the muscles Of phonation, so that the voice is affected as well, in terms of pitch, range, loudness, rate, quality, and use of force. More specific research has determined that pitch generally rises with stress and falls with grief or depression. Range has been observed to differ among individuals of various personalities. Rate has been similarly found to respond to the influence of emotions. However, until further Scientific validation is available, a number of authors have remained skeptical about the relationship among emotions, personality, and voice. Research on the Etiology, Diagnosis,,and CharacteriStics 6f'FUnctionaT Voice DiS: orders Some years ago, Dr. Emil Froeschels offered a series of lectures on the physiology of the human voice. He introduced his subject as follows: I am going to talk to you about a topic which is practically non- existent in reality. Almost all the voices which we hear around us are not examples of the physiology, but of the pathology of the human voice. It sounds paradoxical, but it is nevertheless true that, with few exceptions, the well-trained voice alone functions physiologically."8 In addition to acknowledging the fact that most adults in this country habitually misuse their voices, available literature has strongly and without exception indicated that functional voice disorders are by far the most frequent problems which voice pathologists encounter.“9 “°Wyatt, "Application of Froeschels' Chewing Method," pp. 70-71. 21'8'95ee, for example, Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. . 33 A number of criteria have been established as a basis for diagnos- ing a problem as a voice disorder. When significant deviations in the characteristics of the voice consistently interfere with effective com- munication, draw undue attention to the voice, adversely affect the audience or the speaker himself, or are inappropriate to the age and sex of the speaker, or when vocal misuse creates a physical or functional impairment of the organs of speech, then a voice disorder is said to exist.50 The experience of a great number of otolaryngologists and research by many speech pathologists have proven that prolonged misuse of the voice is quite capable of producing, and frequently does produce, visible organic changes in the larynx. Conversely, organic diseases, even acute laryngitis, may provide an environment which is conducive to abusive vocal behavior, behavior which perseverates and continues the cycle long after the original precipitating infection has cleared up. It is fre- quently difficult to distinguish clearly between functional and organic voice problems. Organic voice disorders frequently contain strongly functional elements. On the other hand, vocal abuse is quite capable of creating different kinds of organic change in the larynx.51 Definition.--There are so many types, degrees, and manifestations of functional voice disorders that actual, indisputable definition of the s°Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, p. 6. 51Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 41. 34 term is either impossible or must be general enough to encompass all the possibilities. The definition which follows is typical: A functional disorder exists when: (1) there is no apparent altera- ~tion in structure detected by laryngoscopic examination; (2) the laryngoscopic examination is negative but the stroboscopic examina- tion is positive; (3) the dysphonia is disproportionately severe in contrast to existing anatomic lesions or inflammations; (4) the disorder is of nervous origin, has variable symptoms, and is con- ducive to the formation of organic lesions; (5) the disorder.is reversible (an organic one is irreversible); (6) function is altered (the disorder disappears when the organ is used correctly); (7) motor utilization is incorrect (therefore, it is a dysfunction); or, (8) there is a desire to mask ignorance of the exact cause.52 There are good reasons why any definition of functional voice disorder designed to suffer the test of applicability must be this general. When a defect of voice results from some organic anomaly, it follows a somewhat consistent pattern; if the structural abberation responsible has been identified, its effects upon the voice.can be rather accurately predicted. If, however, the etiology is functional in nature, then the voice heard and the organic changes observed as a result can vary a great deal from individual to individual; no standard rules can be prescribed. Etiology.--A summary of the most frequent causes of functional voice disorders indicates how widespread the problems categorized under this label actually are. Factors contributing to the occurrence and severity of functional voice disorders are many and diverse; they range from excessive tension to misuse of the voice and poor training. 52Arnold E. Aronson, H. W. Peterson, and E. M. Litin, "Voice Symptomology in Functional Dysphonia and Aphonia," Journal of Speech and Hearing_Disorders, XXIX (November, 1964), 367. 35 Most people in contemporary American society carry about with them varying degrees of habitual tension. This tension is general in nature and can spread to almost any area of the body. Hyperfunctional phona- tion, in reality, can therefore be regarded as a psychosomatic disorder; inner tensions have manifested themselves externally in tense behavioral 53 Most often, however, such hyperfunctional phonation is not patterns. serious enough to warrant clinical attention. Almost all of us speak with some degree of hyperfunction,.but, as a rule, this deviation from the normal, although esthetically un- pleasant, constitutes no major threat to ordinary function. . . . To the professional user of the speaking and singing voice any ap- preciable degree of hyperfunction is a potential threat because of the tendency to accumulate and spread.’“ So long as the voice used by most people in daily life is restricted to Shorter, infrequent periods of strain, chances are that no dangerous or even very unpleasant consequences will result. But for those people who use their voices either a great deal or in a very specialized way-- teachers, ministers, politicians, actors, and singers, for example--even Slightly incorrect functioning in the production of voice may eventually result in the production of the symptoms indicating a functionally-based voice problem. Functional problems develop as a result of either excessive use of the voice under less than ideal conditions or as a result of misuse or abuse of the voice. However, behavior which is excessive or abusive for one individual may not be harmful for another. The occurrence of 53Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 47. S"Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, p. 173. 36 functional disorders is also influenced by the native constitution of the individual, his general health and resistance to colds, and his indi- vidual reaction to stress.55 For example, sheer amount of use of the speaking voice will not in and of itself produce a functional problem; the question of ppw_the voice is employed rather than for how long it is used seems to be the determining factor: . . . The human voice when well used does not fatigue and does not afford any negative symptoms. Overuse of the speaking voice does not usually incline toward or result in dysphonia . . . (Anderson (1961, p. 18-19) writes: ". . . nor should the vocal organs become fatigued or irritated even after prolonged, steady use under normal conditions. Ordinarily, there should be no feeling of strain or tension in the throat during vocalization." In agreement are West, Ansberry, and Carr (1957, p. 76) who state: "No amount of vigorous vocalization can damage the edges of the vocal folds if the voice is properly used."55 Most speakers, however, especially those who perform publically, do ppt_ use their voices properly, and are consequently subject to the occurrence of functional problems. A number of researchers in speech pathology have attempted to identify specifically those patterns which constitute improper vocal function. In 1940, Brackett produced vocal fold inflammation by deliberate use of harsh voice, and concluded that harsh voice production irritates the vocal folds whereas easy, quiet phonation does not.57 In a subsequent experiment, 55Greene, The Voice and Its Disorders, p. 95. 56Morton Cooper, "Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation for Func- tional and Organic Dysphonias," in Handbook of Speech Pathology and Audi- ology, ed. by Lee Travis (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971), pp. 587-588. S7Isaac P. Brackett, "A Study of the Growth of Inflammation of the Vocal Folds Accompanying Easy and Harsh Production of the Voice" (unpub- lished M. A. thesis, Northwestern University, 1940), p. 45. 37 Allen and Peterson demonstrated that faulty use of pitch and intensity produced both swelling and inflamation of the vocal folds, and they relieved both these symptoms by the use of voice therapy alone.58 Luchsinger and Arnold have described the effects of faulty voice production as follows: Patients suffering from rhesasthenia, or weakness of the speaking voice, usually make the following mistakes when speakipg: poorly supported respiratory movements; mumbling or Sloppy articulation; speaking on too high a pitch level in relation to their natural vocal range; tense or strained phonation With hard glottal strokes; and speaking too loudly in an effort to overcome poor vocal projec- tion. A more Specific examination of some of these "mistakes" makes possible the identification of the point at which acceptable behavior becomes deviant enough to result in functional difficulties. Research and medical observation have shown that the voice can be damaged through the use of wrong breathing (i.e. the area of greatest muscular activity during breathing for Speech is not the most efficient), wrong force (i.e. far too much muscular effort is habitually involved in phonation), and wrong pitch (the pitch employed by the speaker lies out- side his optimum vocal range). However, it is important to remember that voice is a complex process during which a number of contributing func- tions are combined to produce sound. In most cases, disturbances in one of these functions will affect the voice as a whole.60 Problems of 588. Allen and G. E. Peterson, "Laryngeal Inflammation in a Case of Falsetto," Journal of Speech Disorders, VII (1942), 175-178. $9Luchsinger and Arnold, Voice-~Speech--Language, p. 314. 6°Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, p. 170. 38 breathing, force, and pitch are discussed separately here for purposes of clarity, but most often occur in combination. The majority of voice researchers have expressed the belief that all types of breathing with the exception of clavicular breathing are accept- able in the healthy production of voice (see p. 26). The predominance of clavicular breathing, on the other hand, is very frequent in disturbed voices.61 High chest breathing causes functional voice problems for at least two basic reasons: 1) the breathing is not efficient, because the speaker must work too hard muscularly and breathe too often using this method alone to get sufficient air for speaking; and 2) the lifting of the shoulders which is characteristic of clavicular breathing stiffens the muscles in the neck and pharynx. It is extremely easy for this stiff- ness or tension to seep into the intrinsic muscles of the larynx, thereby producing hyperfunction and vocal complications.62 Many individuals employ excessive muscular force in their phonation as a result of general tension and in conjunction with incorrect breath- ing. Another contributing factor to hypertense phonation is the absence of acutely discriminating kinesthetic sensation within the larynx. The various muscles which control the laryngeal form and movements are small and delicate, especially that [sic] situated within the substance of the vocal cord itself. If, for example, the muscles of a limb are exercised too violently or for too long they begin to ache. We have been warned to rest. Most unfortunately no such warning ache occurs in these small larynx muSETes, as it may in the throat and neck. Consequently the singer may employ these too violently (e.g. by singing too loudly or at too high pitches) and 61Brodnitz, "Functional Disorders of the Voice," p. 466. 62Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 56. 39 for too long. The first laryngeal warning is a "weakness" or "hoarseness" of the voice, due to the tired laryngeal muscles failing in their firming, thinning or opposing actions of the cords. . . . Such over-use continued for years leads to a per- manent weakness of the muscles concerned.63 This type of syndrome is by no means confined to the singer but affects all types of public speakers as well. Froeschels, in an extremely important paper dealing with vocal hyperfunction, listed seven different types of hyperfunction which occur while singing or speaking.‘“ Each was found to be located at a different point along the vocal tract--e.g. the vocal folds, or the back of the tongue, or the walls of the pharynx. He also found that the same individual may exhibit certain of these hyperfunctions while singing and the same or other hyperfunctions during Speech. Froeschels found this classification useful for purposes of diagnosis, but also observed a great functional unity among groups of muscles participating in the process of phonation. Hyperfunction rarely, 55 The vicious if ever, affects only one part of the vocal mechanism. cycle may actually begin at any one of a number of different points and may be precipitated by a number of different factors, but it very quickly engulfs other areas along the vocal tract until the entire process is affected. 63Norman A. Punt, TheISinger's and Actor's Throat (2nd ed.; London: William Heinemann Medical Books Lth, 1967), p. 60. 6"Emil Froeschels, "Laws in the Appearance and the Development of Voice Hyperfunctions," in Selected Papers of Emil Froeschel§;_p1940-l964 (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1964), pp.T139-142. 65Froeschels, "Hygiene of the Voice," in SEIECtEd Papers 0f Emil Froeschgls: 1940-1964, p. 150. See also Brodnitz, V0cal Rehabilitation, pp. 45- 5. 4o Habitual hyperkinetic dysphonia is characterized by the excessive contraction of all muscles participating in phonation. Not only the laryngeal muscles but also the entire respiratory apparatus and the cervical suspension muscles of the larynx are involved in excessive function. This fact is not surprising in view of the global nature of all expressive acts of communication. Vocal over- exertion is of involuntary nature in the sense that it is not consciously intended. For various reasons, increased vocal efforts are made when Speaking until these excessive patterns become a habit from which the afflicted patient can no longer break loose.66 Depending on both the type and the extent of vocal abuse, a func- tional voice problem may occur quite suddenly or may develop gradually. Similarly, its symptoms might disappear relatively quickly or persist over a long period of time. Most people have become hoarse or have felt a temporary soreness in the throat after cheering loudly at a football game, after speaking with someone while doing strenuous physical exercise, or perhaps even after addressing a large group or a day of teaching. For many people the hoarseness or soreness disappears with rest. Other indi- viduals suffer hoarseness or complete loss of voice which occurs quite suddenly and without any warning. Such individuals may be experiencing the cumulative effects of forcing the voice; precipitating factors in such cases include crisis, overwork, illness, or anxiety.67 In discussing noninfective and acute laryngitis (i.e. acute inflammation of the laryn- geal mucosa attributable to causes other than infection), Jackson and Jackson have stated that some sort of trauma--shouting, screaming, ex- cessive use of force, and even coughing--is the most frequent cause.68 66Luchsinger and Arnold, Voice--Speech--Language, p. 303. 67Greene, The Voice and Its Disorders, p. 96. 68Jackson and Jackson, Diseases of the Nose, Throat,_and Ear, p. 587. 41 Greene has similarly stated that coughing in and of itself may be suf- ficiently frequent and violent to damage the vocal folds.69 Laryngitis resulting from such traumas subsides after a few days of vocal rest. However, the accumulation of traumatic treatment of the vocal folds may eventually cause persistent laryngitis when the damage becomes chronic.7o In addition to functional abberations, a number of other elements contribute their effects: e.g. physical illness such as colds or laryn- geal infections; the effects of tobacco and dry, dusty atmosphere; faulty voice technique; and negative emotional factors. Many professional voice users have observed a relationship between the beginning of their functional voice problems and a respiratory infection--a cold, influenza, or infectious laryngitis. Speaking, sing- ing, or acting during a respiratory infection can be harmful; kinesthetic cues are affected, and the voice user, in an attempt to work deSpite his illness, uses his voice in ways which are functionally incorrect. The smooth corrdination of automatic breath control depends, to a large extent, on proprioceptive reflexes and kinesthetic sensa- tions. If they are disturbed, the automatism of breathing is dis- turbed. This can be observed in such a minor event as acute laryngitis. Froeschels studied respiratory movements by pneumo- graphy during acute laryngitis. While quiet respiration remained normal, it became quite erratic during speaking and singing, with increased frequency of breathing and marked irregularity of respira- tory movements. This observation suggests an explanation for the onset of some of the functional voice disturbances in professional users of the voice. Singing, acting or public Speaking during acute-laryngitis may set a pattern of wrong respiration that remains after the acute inflammation of the cords has disappeared.71 59Greene, The Voice and Its Disorders, p. 108. 70Arnold, "Modules and Polyps," p. 208. 71Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 55. 42 Respiration is seldom the only activity to be adversely affected by colds, influenza, and infections. Infection of the respiratory tract impairs vocal function as well. As a matter of fact, the degree of disturbance in the voice is very often out of proportion to the acute organic changes due to respiratory infection.72 The mechanism regu- lating voice is complex and finely adjusted enough to be easily un- balanced by any change in the condition of the body. Unfortunately, many young actors and singers, and even those who have worked professionally for years, are unaware of the seriousness of working through a cold, especially in a vocally-demanding role or in environmentally adverse conditions. If they continue to perform instead of resting their voices, the results may be serious. In order to over- come temporary weakness or imbalance caused by illness, the speaker or singer most often uses excessive force; new patterns of voice production are established, patterns which persist after the precipitating infec- tion has cleared up.73 Smoking too has been strongly related in the literature to the occurrence of functional voice disorders. Even if more general health hazards are ignored, the inhaled smoke has been Shown to serve as a direct irritant to the mucous membranes in the throat.’“ Such irritation may in turn lead to vocal misuse, which may then result in still further 7zBrodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, p. 138. 73Ib‘ld., pp. 175-176. 7"Ibid., p. 96. 43 irritation.75 It has also been observed that the smoke from the cigarettes of others can be as irritating to the throat as your own.76 Nor is cigarette smoke the only dangerous inhalant. Voice strain can be complicated by other negative environmental influences as well. For example, if and when the membranes in the larynx are rendered sensitive by vocal abuse, irritants such as dust or a very dry atmosphere may induce coughing which in turn further aggravates the already existing damage.77 Even if the professional voice user is basically healthy and has a sound laryngeal mechanism, and even if he knows enough not to work through a physical illness affecting his respiratory tract or to use tobacco, he can still develop serious functional voice problems because of either a lack of vocal training or vocal training which was deficient or incom- plete.7a It has also been observed that faulty Singing technique, in- volving excessive contraction of the laryngeal muscles or "pushing," may fatigue those muscles and thereby negatively affect the speaking voice as well.79 Brodnitz has attributed a great number of the functional voice prob- lems which he has treated to a lack of voice training in professional users.°° He has described a classic pattern of misuse in actors, for 75Cooper, "Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation," p. 587. 7‘Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, p. 156. 77Greene, The Voice and Its Disorders, p. 92. ”1914., p. 99. 79Luchsinger and Arnold, Voice-~Speech--Langpage, p. 305. °°Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, pp. 175-176. 44 example. The actor who lacks voice training to begin with may have to contend with heavy professional vocal demands. This quantitative burden nay in turn cause vocal fatigue, which the actor counters by using extreme force. If new and persistent patterns of phonation are estab- lished in this fashion, eventual functional voice difficulties are very likely to occur. Brodnitz has also observed that the lack of technical training characteristic of most American actors and many singers as well makes their voices even more vulnerable to the effects of emotional ten- sions and anxieties. In addition to the strong and sometimes violent character emotions which the actor internalizes and which may influence the characteristics of his own voice (see pp. 65-66), he must contend with his own personal emotional environment as a human being. Emotional fac- tors have been found to be quite capable of precipitating or aggravating or even causing all by themselves the occurrence of a functional voice problem. In some cases, to be sure, the problem is basically one of technical misuse, with emotional factors contributing almost incidentally. In other cases, however, the basis for the disturbance may be decidedly neurotic.81 Punt has discussed the effect of emotional upset on the lubrication of the oral cavity. He feels that this lubrication problem is at the basis of many functional voice difficulties encountered by the public performer: Of comparable importance to the effect of anxiety on coordinated muscular action is the frequently neglected effect on the lubrication of various moving parts of the throat. . . . the mouth and tongue are lubricated mainly by saliva, and the pharynx and the larynx 811219;. P. 189. See also Froeschels, "Laws in the Appearance," p. 1423 and FPOESCDGIS. "Hygiene of the Voice," p. 150. 45 mainly by mucus. The few large glands which secrete . . . the saliva and the very many minute glands which secrete mucus are in- fluenced in their function partly by psychological factors. Anxiety causes a reduction in their output, and consequently pro- duces the most troublesome dry mouth and throat with tongue clinging to the roof of the mouth--experienced‘and dreaded by all public per- formers, though strangely neglected by medical men. In recent years the present writer has become more and.more impressed with the importance of this lubrication. It is remarkable how much punishment a well-lubricated larynx will stand, whilst a dry throat is a constant trial to the performer.82 The importance of emotional factors in the occurrence of functional voice difficulties Should not be underestimated. For example, Brodnitz has gone so far as to say: In all forms of functionally based voice disturbance, the impact of psychogenic forces plays a major role in producing vocal dys- function and even tissue alterations.83 To summarize briefly, a number of factors contribute to the etiology of functional voice disorders. General bodily tensions, for example, tend to spread and to affect the internal muscles of the larynx which control phonation. Type and amount of actual voice usage may be excessive enough to cause functional problems, although the point at which misuse becomes excessive may vary with individual constitution. Improper use of the voice through poor breathing, excessive force, or incorrect use of pitch may lead to functional problems as well; very often these difficulties occur in combination. Although hyperfunction may originate in one speci- fic location along the vocal tract, it tends to Spread and to generalize very quickly, setting up a more non-specific hyperphonational pattern. 82Punt, The Singer's and Actor's Throat, pp. 10-11. 83Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 36. 46 Complicating factors in the occurrence of functional voice disorders include respiratory infection, cigarette smoking and the inhalation of other irritants as well, deficient or incomplete voice training, and the emotional environment in which the voice user exists. Although the com- bination of these contributing factors may vary from one individual to another, the impact of emotional factors must alway§_be taken into con- sideration in cases of functional disorder. Sypptoms.--There are many symptoms associated with the occurrence Of functional voice disorders. Some of them can be observed or heard by the diagnostician and others can be described or discussed by the patient, but virtually none of them, by itself, will positively identify the prob- lem as being one of functional misuse.“ When the patient is seen by the examiner, he may be in any one Of a number of stages of functional voice disorder.°“ Therefore, diagnosis is somewhat difficult and is usually accomplished by obtaining many types of information--seen, heard, sensed, elicited, before combining these to formulate the most reliable Opinion. For instance, before the patient speaks or describes his condition, the examiner obtains valuable information by simply observing his appearance and behavior. The first important clues are provided by the patient's habitual mode Of respiration. For example, the predominance Of clavicular breathing with its rais- ing of the shoulders and tightening of the neck muscles is a strong 8“Aronson, Peterson, and Litin, "Voice Symptomology," p. 377. 47 indication Of functional involvement; Brodnitz referred to it as "a danger symptom Of the first order."85 The breathing may also provide valuable information as to what stage Of functional disorder the voice is in. In hyperfunction, the breathing is quite strenuous, in order to overcome the tension present in the throat, tongue, and laryngeal musculature. In hypofunction, the breathing may be shallow, and the passage of air may be audible during phonation due to the weak adduction of the vocal folds.“ Of further diagnostic value is the Observation of the degree of tonus in the patient's muscles. In many individuals with functional voice problems, the muscles of the body, even in a state of rest, are consider- ably tensed. The examiner may observe stiff posture, lifted shoulders, stiff jaw, facial grimaces, tensed hands, or protruding blood vessels on the neck. Murphy has stated: It is unlikely that extreme tension of the vocal folds alone can occur; ordinarily, the entire laryngeal structure is involved. This is also accompanied by restricted jaw and lip movement. The back Of the tongue may be retracted. The supra-hyoids are rock- like in phonation when palpitated. Tautness and inflexibility of the chest and abdominal structure may be evident. . . . All of these featuges produce a rigidity Of surfaces and cavity constric- tion. . . . In addition to general observation of the breathing and degree of habitual tension in the subject, the examiner can listen to the sound of the voice. Symptoms which are heard are just as important in diagnosis of functional voice problems as those which are seen. However, it is asBrodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, p. 181. “6161a., p. 180. “Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, p. 64. 48 tnrite difficult to accurately describe auditory phenomena in written terns. To an experienced and sensitive examiner, barely perceptible changes in voice will indicate improper function; to an untrained examiner, the lack Of major alteration can be either misleading or con- fusing. The experienced diagnostician will not wait for the subject to speak to him at length; there are important auditory symptoms which he can detect immediately. Jackson and Jackson have observed, for example, that in many patients with functional voice problems, there is a need 8 It may have become so for clearing the throat before speaking.8 habituated that the patient is unaware of it, but it is an extremely prevelant tendency in professional voice users. Once the patientbegins to speak with the examiner, the sound of the actual tone produced also provides many clues as to the nature Of his voice difficulty. There are many descriptions of the auditory symptoms of functional voice disorder in the literature. Even the least specific authors have stated that hyperfunction tends to raise the habitual pitch and that hypofunction tends to lower it. Several writers have observed that a diagnosis can never be made on the basis of auditory symptoms alone; they must be added to the list of visual and kinesthetic symptoms before an accurate diagnosis can be achieved. However, the particular auditory symptoms exhibited by the subject often indicate his stage of functional disorder. Cooper sum- marized the auditory symptoms of functional misphonia as follows: 596 °°Jackson and Jackson, Diseases Of the Nose, Throat, and Ear, p. 49 The auditory aspect may be noted in: acute or chronic hoarseness; reduced vocal range; inability to talk at will and at length in variable situations, such as direct conversation or on the phone without vocal fatigue; tone change from a clear voice to a breathy, raspy, squeaky, foggy, or rough voice; repeated loss of voice; laryngitis; voice breaks; voice skips; voice comes and goes during the day or over a period of months; clear voice in the morning with tired or foggy voice in the afternoon or evening; and missed speech sounds. The most typical auditory symptom is hoarseness; the hoarse voice that does not present a pathological cause is frequently seen by the laryngologist.89 The importance of alterations in pitch is somewhat controversial. Jackson and Jackson have Observed that in cases of myasthenia laryngis, although hoarseness is the chief symptom, it is most Often accompanied by a lowering of the habitual pitch during conversation.90 However, when Shipp and Huntington conducted experimentation to verify this Observation, they found no significant difference in fundamental frequency (pitch) between the normal voices and the hoarse voices of subjects suffering from acute laryngitis. They explained their findings as follows: The finding of no Significant difference between the two voice con- ditions in either mean or median fundamental frequency is in disagree- ment with Statements in the literatUre that hoarse voice is typically lower in pitch than normal voice. It can be assumed that the type of hoarseness alluded to in the literature may differ in kind from the acute-laryngitic hoarseness investigated in the present study; or it may be that some characteriStic of hoarseness causes it to be per- ceived as lower in pitch than in the non-laryngitic voice although the mean fundamental frequencies of the two conditions are similar.91 f -°’Cooper, "Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation," pp. 593-4. 9°Jackson and Jackson, Diseases Of the Nose, Throat, and Ear, p. 587. See also Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation, p. 203. 91Thomas Shipp and Dorothy A. Huntington, "Some Acoustic and Percep- tual Factors in Acute-Laryngitic Hoarseness," Journal of Speech and Hear- ihngisorders, XXX (November, 1965), 357. 50 On the basis of this research, however, Shipp and Huntington did discover that the laryngitic subjects used a very restricted pitch range when speaking. Although this fact had not been previously discussed in the literature, they concluded that laryngitic hoarseness is very closely related to severe restriction in pitch range.’2 . A number of authors have further noted that hyperfunctions are most noticeable at the limits of the vocal pitch range.93 Punt's observations are most specific in this regard: Commonly there is a difficulty in singing high notes softl , the reason being that thickened or irregular vocal cords or t ose with weakness of their muscle components cannot be stiffened and thinned, and so high notes can only be achieved by raising breath pressure and forcing air throngh tightly opposed cords--which notes cannot but be loud, as well as shrill. Luchsinger and Arnold concurred with Punt's observations in their summary of auditory symptoms. Besides observing difficulties in singing the high notes softly, they described various degrees of hoarseness at points in the vocal range and increasing difficulties in achieving smooth register transitions in patients misusing theirivoices.95 The information with which a patient provides the examiner regarding the history and characteristics of his difficulty are also of diagnostic importance. For example, one of the few symptoms which seem to be common to all voice disorders of a functional nature is the increase in vocal 92Ibid., pp. 357-358. 93See, for example, Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, p. 27. 9"Punt, The Singer's and Actor's Throat, p. 67. 95Luchsinger and Arnold, Voice-~Speech--Language, p. 309. 51 difficulty under extended use of the voice.’° "Extended" here is a nelative term, depending not only on what sort of demands are made on the voice and how often but also on the constitution of the voice user and the stage of debilitation which his laryngeal muscles have reached. An individual suffering from voice dysfunction may be observed to exhibit a pattern of hyperfunction and hypofunction in the course of a single day. Early in the day, he begins work with a hyperfunctioning, tense voice. By the end of a day of continued use, the voice progres- sively weakens until the hypofunctional element takes over and the voice is quite weak and breathy.97 In describing his own perception of the hoarseness of his voice, the subject is most likely to observe that the hoarseness is worse in the morning before the nocturnal accumulation of mucous has been eliminated or in the evening after prolonged use of the voice. One must be careful, of course, to observe and listen for himself, rather than to trust completely to the patient's own appraisal of his problem: . . the awareness of the patient of his vocal impairment in no way parallels the actual degree of dysphonia. What to a singer is a high degree of vocal dysfunction may be hardly noticeable to a Egggg: who uses his voice only as an instrument of ordinary conver- Kinesthetic or sensory symptoms of voice problems are extremely great in number and varied in kind. Cooper has summarized them most effectively: 96Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 42. 97Ibid., p. 45. 98Ib‘ld., p. 42. 52 The sensory symptoms are: nonproductive throat clearing; coughing; progressive vocal fatigue following brief or limited vocal use; acute or chronic irritation or pain in or about the larynx or the pharynx; sternum pressure and/or pain; neck muscle cording; swelling of veins and/or arteries in the neck; throat stiffness (Glassburg, 1925); rapid fatigue and voice breaks (Hunt, 1906); a feeling of a foreign substance or "lump" in the throat; ear irritation or tickling; repeated sore throats, a tickling, a tearing, soreness, or a burning sensation in the throat; scratchy or dry throat; tenderness of anterior and/or posterior strap muscles; rumble in the chest; stinging sensation in the soft palate; a feeling that talking is an effort; a choking feeling; tension and/or tightness in the throat; earache; back neck tension; headache; and mucus formation (Russell, 1936, and Mithoefer, 1940). Other Symptoms may include arytenoid tenderness, trachael pressure, anterior or posterior cervical pain, and pain at the base of the tongue (Brewer and Briess, 1960a). Almost all patients complained of one or more of the above symptoms. The most common symptoms were vocal fatigue. . . ; throat clearing . . . ; and coughing. Although negative kinesthetic sensations are most prevalent in sufferers of functional voice problems than are those which can be seen and some- times even those which can be heard, some of them do not appear until after the abusive vocal behavior has been established. There is a strong physiological basis for this occurrence: the tiny muscles controlling laryngeal activity do not ache appreciably, and it is not until the muscles of the pharynx become involved that the speaker or singer is warned. By this time, the laryngeal muscles have probably been consider- ably overworked, and complete failure to respond is possible.100 As widespread and varied as sensory symptoms are, their abSence is not a valid basis for ruling out the existence of functional voice diffi- culties in a subject. When the quality of the voice is hoarse and there 99Cooper, "Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation," p. 593. 1”Punt, The Singer's and Actor's Throat, p. 55. 53 is a lack of throat irritation, this may be indicative of longstanding vocal abuse; the voice user may have once exhibited corresponding kinesthetic symptoms, but no longer dues so.”1 The ability or lack of ability of a subject to kinesthetically tolerate an indirect laryngoscopic examination is still another indica- tion of the presence of functional voice difficulties. The well- trained speaker and singer are generally easy to examine. If the tongue moves forward easily and throat is relaxed, the vocal folds can be seen quite easily. However, the patient with hyperfunctional difficulties constricts the throat and pulls back the tongue frequently during laryngeal examination. Observation of the vocal folds becomes possible only in glimpses.”2 When the examiner does succeed in observing the appearance and func- tion of the vocal folds, what he sees will give him the final type of information he has available in making his diagnosis. As a matter of fact, what he sees may be the determining factor in differentiating be- tween functional and organic voice problems. Functional problems can be seen, felt, or heard in varying combinations--they can sometimes be seen; they can usually be felt; and they can almost always be heard. Organic abnormalities in the larynx can most often be seen, felt,gng.heard.1°3 101Cooper, "Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation,“ p. 594. 1”Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, pp. 173-174. See also Brodnitz "Functional Disorders of the Voice," p. 458; and William Zerffi, "Voice Reeducation," Archives of Otolaryngology, XLVIII (1948), 522. 1“Cooper, "Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation," p. 594. 54 In a state of health, the vocal folds look thin, sharp—edged, and pearly white in color, in contrast to the light pink of the laryngeal mucosa. In the first stages of functional voice difficulty, there is little if any change in the laryngeal appearance. The diSparity between the voice difficulties described by the patient or heard by the examiner and this seemingly healthy appearance of the vocal folds is, in fact, characteristic of the beginning stages of most voice disorders of func- tional origin.’°“ If the functional disorder is in a slightly more advanced stage, there will be some change in the appearance of the vocal folds visible to the examiner's eye. The most valid observation is a comparative one; if the appearance of the vocal folds of the subject is noted in health (i.e. when the voice is not professionally misused, when the subject is not suffering pain or discomfort or experiencing fatigue), then the examiner can be far more accurate in his perception of any change in that appearance. If color, motility, and adduction of the cords are observed in days of health, pathologic findings can be more reliably diagnosed in time of complaint. For example, a blood vessel on or marked pinkishness of the vocal folds which has already been observed during days of health will not be misinterpreted by the examiner as a symptom of acute dis- ease.”5 1“Luchsinger and Arnold, Voice--Speech--Language, p. 310. 1”Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 34. See also Friedrich S. Brodnitz, "The Voice of the Speaker and Singer," in Voice and Speech Disorders: Medical Aspects, ed. by Nathanial M. Levin (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962), p. 447. 55 When visible symptoms do occur in cases of functional origin, they do not follow hard and fast rules, but vary in appearance, severity, and combination. Laryngological findings in typical cases of phonasthenia include the following: mild signs of pharyngitis; inflamation of the "lateral bands' of residual adenoid tissue on the posterior pharyn- geal wall following tonsillectomy; slight reddening of the vocal cords, or injection of the chordal blood vessels; slight reddening of the vocal- cord margins, known as "marginal chorditis;" slight increase of laryngeal mucous secretion; . . . The type and duration of the functional problem, as well as the physical resistance or susceptibility of the subject to stress, will determine the appearance of the folds. The vocal folds of a patient with acute laryn- igitis may exhibit many kinds of changes, ranging from pink coloration to deep reddening, from slight congestion to severe swelling. It is also very important to remember that all vocal folds may show some change in appearance under physiological use or strain. For example, a pinkishness may be seen when examining a singer or an actor during an intermission or immediately after a performance. How long the hyperemia lasts may be a criterion of the amount of strain which that performer has placed upon his vocal mechanism.”7 In discussing the diagnosis of noninfective acute laryngitis (i.e. laryngitis due to causes other than infection), Jackson and Jackson have observed that the laryngeal appearances are diagnostic. "On examination 1“Luchsinger and Arnold, Voice--Speech--Language. p. 310. 1”Nathaniel M. Levin, "The Professional Singer," in Voice and Speech Disorders: Medical Aspects, ed. by Nathaniel M. Lev 1n (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962), p. 487. 56 with the laryngeal mirror the mucosa appears diffusely reddened except the cords, which usually seem pink. If a hematoma is present its deep crimson color will make the cords seem paler.'."'°8 Brodniti has observed that hemorrhages are frequently seen in laryngologic practice and occur after any kind of vocal abuse.109 Once misuse becomes chronic, the appearance of the vocal folds may undergo further change. Jackson and Jackson, for example, have described the appearance of the larynx of an individual suffering chronic laryn- gitis: The redness of long-standing chronic laryngitis is patchy. The illusion of pearly luster of the reflected image of the cords is absent; the color is pinkish early, grayish later, but in either stage the surface appears slightly roughened, dull, and lusterless. The cords lack the illusion of thinness, flatness, and sharpness that characterizes the normal reflected image; but at the early stage the edges appear only slightly rounded.11° Therefore, if the examiner is familiar with the appearance of the larynx and vocal folds in days of health, he may be able to determine on the basis of visual examination whether the vocal folds are in an abnormal condition. However, laryngoscopic findings are not in them- selves indicative of the cause of observed abnormalities; inflammation or discoloration or the presence of mucous are symptomatic not only of functional voice disorders but of infectious laryngitis and a number of organic voice problems as well.111 It therefore becomes necessary to 1”Jackson and Jackson, Diseases of the Nose, Throat,gand Ear, p. 587. 109Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, pp. 62-63. See also Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, p. 174. 11°Jackson and Jackson, Diseases of the Nose, Throat, and Ear, p. 596. 1113rodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 60. 57 diagnostically differentiate among these various problems. To an ex- tent, this is quite possible. Hayashi conducted research on the visual symptomology of functional voice problems. He reported that in the case of upper respiratory in- fections, both folds are usually equally inflamed, whereas in cases of acute functional misuse, one vocal fold appears to be more affected or inflamed than the other.112 A second method of differentiation may be possible, but only if the examiner has enough time at his disposal. Trauma to the vocal folds which has been caused by excessive pqunding of their inner margins can result in a small hemmorhage and/or swelling of the mucous membranes, but these symptoms may disappear rapidly with voice rest.113 If the examiner has the opportunity to rest his subject and then to re-examine him, the information received from such a com- parative examination can be of important diagnostic value. In addition to viewing appearance, texture, color, and degree of swelling in the vocal folds, it is standard procedure in laryngological examinations for the examiner to have the subject phonate a high-pitched "eeeee" sound so that he can observe the physiology of the larynx during phonation. There are functional abnormalities which the diagnostician way be able to observe even during the course of his laryngoscopic exami- nation. The movable parts of the larynx may be observed to be no longer capable of a full range of activity. Facility in achieving both coarse 112Y. Hayashi, "Unilateral Inflamed Vocal Cords in Singers," Oto-Rhino-Laryngolggica, IX (Tokyo, 1936), pp. 250-254. 113Greene, The Voice and Its Disorders. P» 107° 58 and fine movement is characteristic of the healthy or well—trained voice. In the healthy larynx, the various muscles regulating the stiffness of the folds by their stretching and firming actions, and the muscles con- trolling the shape and adduction of the folds, are capable of extremely delicate and precise adjustment.11“ In the larynx of an individual who has misused his voice, however, muscular activity is quite different. For example, Murphy has observed that in some cases of serious hyper- function the force of muscular contraction is so great that laryngoscopic examination reveals an actual crossing over of the vocal folds during phonation.115 In advanced cases of phonasthenia (i.e. weakening of the voice), the longstanding hyperfunction has weakened the internal muscles of the larynx to the extent that the vocal folds are no longer capable of efficient adduction. In other words, functional voice problems tend to progress chronologically from a characteristic state of hyperfunction to a characteristic state of hypofunction. The tremendous effort and contraction of many muscles which can be observed in earlier stages wear out the internal muscles of the larynx, making them weak and inefficient. When the subject is asked to phonate during a laryngoscopic examination, the examiner can observe a bowing or inefficient adduction of the vocal folds. In addition, he can hear the breathy, weak, inefficient voice which results from their inability to perform normally.116 11"Punt, The Singer's and Actor's Throat, p. 34. 115Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, p. 27. 116Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 46. See also Froeschels, "Hyg;ene of the Voice," p. 161; and Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, P- . . 59 To summarize, there are many symptoms associated with the occur- rence of functional voice disorders. These symptoms vary in number, in kind, in severity, and in combination, but their presence or absence is important to accurate diagnosis. Symptoms which are seen or heard by the examiner in addition to those which are experienced by the patient must be considered in determining diagnosis. The predominance of clavicular breathing is frequently a strong indication of functional involvement. Type of breathing may also indi- cate the stage of functional disorder which the patient has reached at the time of his examination. Degree of muscular tonus and evidence of general bodily tension are similarly important in the determination of functional abuse. Auditory symptoms of functional disorder are also important. Many patients habitually and frequently clear their throats before speaking. Habitual pitch may be raised by hyperfunction and lowered by hypofunction of the laryngeal muscles. The voice itself is frequently hoarse in qual- ity and may skip or break during phonation. In addition, pitch range may be comparatively restricted and high notes frequently cannot be sung softly. In singers, transitions between registers may lack ease or smooth- ness. Commonly, the victim of functional disorder reports an increase in vocal difficulty under extended use of the voice. The voice may be best in the morning or at the beginning of the business week, progressively worsening thereafter as continual usage causes debility and discomfort. Kinesthetic symptoms such as these are extremely great in number and varied in kind. However, their absence is not a valid basis for ruling out functional misuse of the voice. 60 The lack of ability of a subject to tolerate a laryngoscopic exami- nation is yet another indication of functional involvement. When the examiner is able to observe the appearance and motility of the vocal folds and laryngeal muscles, he may see no organic involvement during the early stages of functional misuse, or he may see various organic symptoms of functional misuse characteristic of later stages. When visible symptoms do occur in cases of functional origin, they vary greatly in appearance, severity, and combination. Symptoms include inflammation of throat and laryngeal mucosa, swelling, discoloration of the vocal folds, and local hemmorhages. Upon phonation, the vocal folds may be observed to cross over one another, or to adduct imperfectly, resulting in bowing and in the escape of unphonated air. In a number of cases, such symptoms will disappear or improve with vocal rest. The presence or absence of many symptoms of functional misuse is dependent upon the duration and extent of misuse and on the general physi- cal condition of the patient; if he has been examined in times of health, the diagnosis made in time of complaint tends to be most valid. Classification.--The symptoms just discussed have a tendency to group themselves into patterns characteristic of different functional disorders. Review and analysis of data collected during examination makes it possible, to a certain extent, to pinpoint the disturbance, perhaps even to give it a name. Functionally based changes in the larynx and vocal folds range in degree and kind from simple and temporary inflammation to permanent thickening of the folds, nodules, polyps, and contact ulcers. The informa- tion available on the three general classifications of functional voice 61 disorder most germane to the present study are summarized here for pur- poses of clarification. These classifications are acute hemorrages on the vocal folds, chronic non-specific laryngitis, and myasthenia laryngis. Tiny submucosal hemmorhages on the vocal folds themselves may be due to sudden, violent, and excessively forceful approximation of the vocal folds. They are not necessarily confined to professional voice users and can be produced by shouting at sports events, screaming, energetic bouts of coughing, weight lifting, singing out of one's range, or speaking too loudly. The hemorrhages may be single or multiple; rarely is the whole vocal fold involved. Other symptoms include hoarseness (which comes on suddenly) and some kind of negative kinesthetic sensation.117 Chronic non-specific laryngitis may follow an acute attack, but more often it arises gradually. Simpson, Robin, Ballantyne, and Groves have provided a concise summary of its characteristics. They have described its causes as: l) Faulty Use of the Voice--with overstraining or excessive force . the most important factor; 2) Infection in Teeth, Tonsils, and Sinuses--especially when accom- panied by excessive hawking or coughing; 3) Excessive alcohol or tobacco; and 4) Dust or fumes.118 They have described its pathology as consisting of hyperemia of the mucous membrane covering the vocal folds, swelling of the vocal folds, and 117John F. Simpson, Ian G. Robin, John C. Ballantyne,-and John Groves, A Synopsis of Otolaryngology (Bristol: John Wright and Sons, Ltd., 1967), p. 358. 118Ibid., pp. 365-366. n\ i0 "9' . a" 62 excessive secretion of mucous by local glands. Hoarseness is described as the predominant symptom--intermittent at first and perhaps less marked after use of the voice. If a cough is present, it is slight, dry, and irritating, causing constant desire to clear the throat. Soreness in the throat is a frequent complaint.119 Myasthenia laryngis is a term proposed by Chevalier Jackson in 1940 to describe a vocal syndrome affecting professional voice users. Even though major pathology in the laryngeal area is absent, myasthenia laryngis is characterized by progressive weakening of the voice, a weaken- ing which is due to improper speakimg or singing habits. Most typically, tense phonation, the use of hard glottal attacks, and inefficient breath- ing produce a pattern of vocal overexertion which ultimately renders the intrinsic muscles of the vocal folds incapable of achieving efficient adduction. The examiner can observe the bowing of the weakened vocal folds and can hear the escape of unphonated air in the vocal tone.12° Prognosis.--There can be no really definitive line of demarcation between a slight voice disorder and a severe one. On one hand, the voices of most adults exhibit one or more of the hyperfunctions described by Froeschels (see p. 39). On the other hand, what appears to be a very serious problem to one individual will be ignored by another as being of absolutely no importance. Continued misuse of the voice or heavy use of 119Ibid. 12°Jackson and Jackson, Diseasesgof the Nose, Throat,_and Ear. PPe 625-626. 63 the voice during a respiratory infection can lead the voice user, especially the professional who makes more stringent demands on his voice, to a progressive deterioration in the tonus of the laryngeal muscles which is, at the present state of medical knowledge, eventually irremedial. It is therefore extremely important to understand the nature of the prog- nosis in these cases. If a professional voice user is in the early stages of functional misuse, prognosis is relatively hopeful. If, however, he is not seen by a physician until hypofunction has already set in, prognosis is far worse. Hypofunction may represent exhaustion of the vocal muscles after prolonged hyperfunctional use. It can therefore be considered a more severe form of voice disturbance and presents a poorer prognosis than does hyperfunc- tion. The voice may already be damaged beyond repair. At best, long periods of retraining may be required before part or most of the vocal strength is regained.121 Voice Research ofIParticular'Relevance to Actors and Other Public Performers A Actors and other public performers are particularly prone to the occurrence, the complications, and the consequences of functional voice disorders. With many voice professionals, the absence of vocal training or the presence of improper or inadequate vocal training and the constant and specialized vocal demands made on these individuals by the practice of 121Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 83. See also Chevalier Jackson and Chevalier L. Jackson, D1seases and Injuries of the Larynx (New York: Macmillan Company, 1942), pp. 39- 40. 64 their professions have combined to make functional voice difficulties a very frequent occurrence. Literature dealing with the specialized problems of acting, singing, and\other types of public performance can be divided into two general areas. The first group concerns research on the characteristics of the voice in performance, whereas the second group deals with the effects of prolonged performance on the voice itself. Lynch had two groups of readers record three selections--factua1, angry, and grief-stricken. Her trained readers consisted of staff members in dramatic art, professional actors, and students experienced in dramatic work; her untrained readers were university freshmen having little or no experience in platform reading, speaking, or acting. She analyzed her readers' use of pitch, rate, and loudness in each reading, by using the phonophotographic apparatus described by Tiffin.122 0n the basis of her experiment, Lynch concluded: The trained readers used longer pauses between phrases for each passage, a much slower rate of speech within phrases for the third passage, a wider pitch range and greater pitch variation for all passages, a more marked tendency to set off significant words by using large inflections, and a significantly greater tendency to use more complex and fewer simple pitch inflections than did the subjects in the inexperienced group. The trained group in reading the emotional passages shortened the polysyllabic words and pro- longed the pauses between phrases. Both groups raised the pitch level in the expression of emotion, the passage expressing anger exhibiting the greatest rise.123 122J. Tiffin, "Phonophotographic Apparatus," University of Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music, I (1932), pp. 118-133. 123Gladys E. Lynch, "A Phonophotographic Study of Trained and Un- trained Voices Reading Factual and Dramatic Material," Archives of Speech, I (January, 1934), p. 24. 65 Cowan, in another experiment, made recordings of ten professional actors and actresses reading dramatic materials which they had selected them- selves and found that dramatic speech is characterized by a wider pitch range and greater variability in both pitch and intensity than that reported for any other type of speech.12“ Goates was able to show in his study that the emotions portrayed by actors in rehearsal reflected them- selves in greater and more inflections as they continued to develop their characterizations. In addition, Goates found that tonal range increases but that mean phonational range remains approximately the same during the rehearsal period, whereas the rate of speech increases during that time.125 Research dealing with voice projection by actors and other public performers has been extremely sparse and intermittent. Talley, in an experiment using actors, found that: . . . when a speaker changed from conversational to the audience type of speech, three changes in the sound wave produced by his voice took place simultaneously, namely heightened pitch, increased intensity, and a shift of energy from the lower to the higher partials. . it does not seem possible at present to evaluate the relative im- portance of the three factors nor to state whether one element causal- ly influences the other two.12‘ It seems evident that an actor makes certain modifications in his voice in order to communicate with an audience. Part of an actor's skill involves his ability to communicate vocally the emotional states experi- enced by the character which he is portraying. Fairbanks and Pronovost 8212~cowan, "Pitch and Intensity Characteristics of Stage Speech," p. . 125Goates, "Pitch Changes in Actors," p. 49. 126C. Horton Talley, "A Comparison of Conversational and Audience Speech," Archives of Speech, II (July, 1937), 40. 66 concluded, on the basis of their experimental research in this area, that a group of listeners was able to identify quite consistently the emotional states of grief, anger, fear, contempt, and indifference when particular sentences were spoken by trained actors who were attempting to communicate these emotions.127 It is doubtful that the actor himself must experience an emotion in order to communicate it effectively to an audience. Even if he were to do so, the emotion is not experienced in its original form. And yet, both tension and emotional factors are quite capable of producing physio- logical changes in the individual which in turn affect his breathing and his voice. Moses has stated that whether these emotions are real or imagined is not important; both are quite capable of affecting the indi- vidual's breathing and the characteristics of his voice in the same manner.128 Moses has also stated that this is precisely what happens in the good actor; he does not merely affect certain types of breathing, but actually experiences them by imagining certain emotions.129 The working actor must contend not only with the effects of his characters' emotional conflicts on his voice, but with the effects of his own emotions as well. Even experienced actors have suffered occasional first-night jitters or symptoms of stage fright during an important 127Grant Fairbanks and W. Pronovbst, "Vocal Pitch During Simulated Emotion," Science, LXXXVIII (1938), 382-383. 128Moses, The Voice of Neurosis, p. 32. See also Paul J. Moses, "The Vocal Expression of‘Emotional Disturbances," Kaiser Foundation Medi- cal Bulletin, VII (April-June, 1959), 109; and Moses, The Voice of Neurosis, p. 82. 129Moses, The Voice of Neurosis, p. 32. 67 audition. The observable characteristics of stage fright have been dis- cussed by Clevenger and King.13° As many as eighteen different visible symptoms, falling into one of three categories (figitiness, inhibition, and autonomia), may appear during stage fright, according to their study. Even though a number of researchers have found that increased performance experience tends to lessen or eliminate stage fright,131 Lomas found that the physiological effects of stage fright on the performer are ex- tremely similar to the effects of other emotional states.132 Given bgth the pressure-saturated environment in which he works and the need to externalize strong character emotions onstage, it is not at all diffi- cult to see why actors are so susceptible to tension in general and to the occurrence of—functional voice problems in particular. In those who use the voice professionally, the vocal organs are unfortunately the most logical and most typical place for the transformation of emotional tension into disturbances of function. The vocal mechanism may be healthy and undamaged, but the precision with which it responds to the subtle and intricate demands made upon it is so often affected by the state of mind and emotions of the performer. . . . Tranquility and confidence, anxiety set-aside, yet senSitivity to the emotions of the dramatic situation and of the participating audience, should be the player's aim. But this ideal 130Theodore Clevenger, Jr., and Thomas R. King, "A Factor Analysis of the Visible Symptoms of Stage Fright," Speech Monographs, XXVIII (November, 1961), 296-298. See also Theodore Clevenger, Jr., "A Synthesis of Experi- mental Research in Stage Fright," Quarterly Journal of Speech, XLV (April, 1959), 134-145; and Floyd Greenleaf, "An Exploratory Study of Speech Fright," Qparterly Journal of Speech, XXXVIII (October, 1952), 326-330. 131See, for example, Gordon M. Low and Boyd V. Sheets, "The Relation of Psychometric Factors to Stage Fright," Speech Monographs, XVIII (November, 1951), 266-271. 132Charles W. Lomas, "The Psychology of Stage Fright," Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXIII (February, 1937), 35-45. 68 is*rarelyuachieved,.and such failure is often a large factor in the singer or actor not making the most effective use of his voice. On occasions it may be the onl cause of disaster, but in any_dysfunc- tion, or even disease of t e throat, this emotional factor may be of importance. . . .133 ’ Thus, vocal strain occurs most frequently in those whose professions make the most stringent demands upon their voices. For such professionals, dysphonia is therefore an occupational hazard--un1ess their voices have been well trained or unless they happen to have exceptionally placid natures.13“ Such individuals are extremely few in number when it comes to the acting profession; actors and singers are known to be sensitive, excitable people, easily influenced by both emotions and environment.135 To these emotional factors must be added a number of technical problems, such as the acoustics of particular theatres or the mastery of microphone techniques. The speaker or singer who must produce a carrying voice may be trapped into the use of too much force by proprioceptive reflexes: In singing and speaking, sensations of tension and vibration play an important part in controlling vocal functions. This proprioceptive control may become a source of hyperfunction. The speaker or singer who tenses his muscles to produce a loud voice perceives a high de- gree of vibratory sensation: his voice "feels" loud like a cheap violin that creates a large amount of vibrating noise for the ear of the player but does not carry the sound far, as a good instrument does. The greater the muscular constriction, the more powerful the voice seems to become to the singer or speaker. A vicious circle develops with hyperfunction feeding on hyperfunction.136 133Punt, The Singer's and Actor's Throat, p. 3. 13"Greene, The Voice and Its Disorders, pp. 92-93. 135Punt, The Singer's and Actor's Throat, pp. 1-2. See also Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitatibn, p. 48. 136Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 48. See also Lessac, The Use and Training of the Human VOice, p. 222. 69 As previously discussed, if the voice is correctly produced by the speaker, sheer amount of use will not cause functional voice disturbance (see pp. 35-36). The task of the actor, then, is to imitate or recreate life in all its complexity, using tremendous flexibility and adaptability of the voice to various performing situations and projecting effectively (i.e. communicating with his audience without changing or distorting the type of speech the play requires) without damaging his own vocal mechan- ism in the process. It is almost needless to point out how few are successful in this extremely demanding undertaking. Those who are not totally successful must pay the price, which too often comes in the form of functional voice disturbance. The actor who lacks vocal training or whose vocal training has been deficient will not know how to add volume to the voice without muscular effort, bodily tension, oruse of too much air. It is just a matter of time before negative patterns become habitu- ated and begin the functional syndrome.137 Even when the voice is generally well focussed and not often abused, the question of how much performance it can take should be considered. Yet, not only hasn't this question been completely resolved, but many per- formers have also ignored the advice which has been offered by voice specialists. Levin has stated that when performance requires about one hour of specialized voice usage, the artist should appear no more often than twice weekly, and needs a twenty-four hour rest period before and 137Emil Frbschels and .A. Jellinek, Practice of Voice and Speech Thera (Boston: Expression Co., 1941), p. 194. See also West and Ansberry, Rehabilitation of Speech, p. 216. 70 after such a performance. Smaller parts, in his opinion, could allow daily performance, or even performance twice daily four days a week.138 Even if we consider Levin's advice a bit conservative, the fact remains that many actors and singers are guilty of either overworking their voices or continuing to work even when a reSpiratory infection is present. If the voice is not rested during these critical times, it may physically fatigue.139 In an attempt to overcome the resulting weakness, the performer will further strain the already tired muscles. Soon he will begin to worry about his voice difficulties and the resulting anxiety will also complicate the functional syndrome. The vicious cycle thus established can disturb even the best vocal technique. Faulty habits then replace good ones and the vocal organs can incur damage. If such damage is not treated via rest and retraining, it can become permanent. Of those who start out with an ambition for a great career in vocal music probably more than 95 per cent never attain it; and most of the promising vocalists who fail do so because of myasthenia laryngis. The laryngeal muscles, especially the thyro-arytenodei, cannot stand the strain of the years and years of grueling daily practice neces- sary to reach the top in operatic and concert work. . . . To make matters worse most singers talk all the time when they are not sing- ing in performance or practice. The laryngeal muscles get no rest. ~ Additionally, all sopranos and tenors are under incessant pressure all their professional lives to increase their vocal range upward in pitch. The strain on the thyro-arytenoidei is extremely severe and in most instances ruinous. Faulty methods, as all vocal teachers know, are sometimes partly to blame; but few human larynges can stand the strain of constant severe work and no rest. Another causative factor is forced use of the larynx in performance and practice while the larynx is acutely inflamed. . . . This is one of the worst forms of injury_anyone can.inf1ect on his larynx. [Italics'mineJHo 138Nathaniel M. Levin, "The Professional Singer," Voice and Speech Disorders--Medical_Aspects, ed. by Nathaniel M. Levin (Springfield, Illi- nois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962), p. 484. 139Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy, p. 157. 1“Jackson and Jackson, Diseases of the Nose, Throat,_and Ear, p. 625. 71 Fortunately, the work of most actors is not as vocally demanding as is the training of legitimate singers. Nevertheless, many of the principles are exactly the same. Furthermore, severe functional problems in the singing voice will eventually affect the speaking voice as well. Summary.--Actors and other public performers are particularly prone to the occurrence, the complications, and the consequences of functional voice disorders. The special problems of public performers have been discussed in research on the characteristics of the voice in performance and research on the effects of prolonged performance on the voice itself. Research has indicated that actors alter their vocal characteristics when communicating specific emotions or when projecting their voices. Research has also indicated that listeners are able to identify specific emotions when listening to readings by trained actors. Both the emotions which the actor portrays and those which he contributes himself during a performance influence his breathing patterns and the characteristics of his voice. Because of the pressure-saturated environment in which he works and the strong character emotions which he portrays, actors are particularly susceptible to tension in general and to the occurrence of functional voice problems in particular. In addition, problems of acoustics and projection may force actors into patterns of hyperfunction during performance. Furthermore, overworking the tired voice and working during respiratory infection are particularly dangerous for actors and other public performers. A growing number of theatre, music, speech, and medical specialists have been pleading for far more extensive voice training for actors, 72 singers, public speakers, and clinicians. This is not the proper place for a discussion of the merits of such training or for a discussion of the relative worth of various systems presently taught in this country. However, these issues are of tremendous and immediate importance to the future of voice training in America and are in desperate need of quali- fied attention and investigation. An Overview of the Literature An examination of the literature available in speech pathology, laryngeal medicine, psychology, music, and theatre has revealed both a basis for research into the actor's voice probleMs and a number of gaps in existing research. Available materials have been classified under four main areas: 1) research on the characteristics of the normal speak- ing voice; 2) research on the effects of emotions and personality on the voice; 3) research on the etiology, diagnosis, and characteristics of functional voice disorders; and, 4) voice research of particular relevance to actors and other public performers. This review of the literature has revealed that the normal voice (in the sense of optimum) is far less frequent in contemporary America than is the functionally disordered voice. For the most part, the normal voice is found only in pre-school children or as the result of hygienic training. The normal voice (in the sense of average) has been found to exhibit certain typical characteristics. The adult male voice has been found to have a pitch of 130 cycles per second, a range of about one and one-half octaves, and a rate of about 160 words per minute. Loudness and quality 73 in normal voices have not been studied as extensively because of problems of definition and methodology, problems which have yet to be solved. The majority of researchers have agreed, however, that any type of breath- ing with the exception of clavicular breathing is equally effective in producing good voice quality. Research has revealed an intimate relationship between the emotions and the voice. Rate, depth, and regularity of breathing, for example, are related to emotional states. Similarly, pitch, range, loudness, rate, and quality have been found to be dependent on emotional factors. Emotional factors constitute but one type of contributor to the etiology of functional voice disorders. Other contributing factors in- clude improper or excessive use of the speaking or singing voice (in terms of breathing, force, and pitch), use of the voice during respira- tory infection, simple overwork, the inhalation of cigarette smoke and other laryngeal irritants, and lack of good vocal training in profes- sional voice users. When a functional voice problem does occur, its symptoms may be seen, heard, or felt. Such symptoms vary in number, in kind, in severity, and in combination. They include: clavicular breathing; observable tension; non-productive throat clearing; pitch and quality aberration; range restriction; increasing difficulty under extended voice usage; various negative kinesthetic sensations; inability to tolerate an indirect laryngosc0pic examination; inflammation, edema, hemmorhage, and discolora- tion of the vocal folds and pharynx; and observable functional abuse during phonation. The most reliable diagnoses are based on the comparison of results obtained in examination during times of health with those 74 obtained in time of complaint. Prognosis is more positive in cases of functional hyperfunction than in cases of functional hypofunction. Actors and other public performers are particularly prone to the occurrence, the complications, and the consequences of functional voice disorders. The need for projection and other specialized use of the voice, the pressures of the working environment, and even the influence of character emotions have made dysphonia almost an occupational hazard. Training and preparation for professional workmust be greatly improved and intensified before voice users can regard a durable and flexible voice as an asset rather than regarding an unreliable and susceptible voice as a necessary occupational liability. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY To facilitate an understanding of the methodology employed for this descriptive study, Chapter III has been divided into three parts. The first part discusses the overall design of the study. The second part discusses in greater detail the processes by which the data for the study were collected. The third part deals with the manner by which the collected data were processed and analyzed. De§jgn of the Study During the spring quarter, 1969, at Michigan State University, a descriptive study was conducted in order to answer the following ques- tions: 1) Is it possible to determine quantitatively and qualitatively in what respects and to what extent an actor alters his vocal character- istics for purposes of performing publically or creating a particular characterization? 2) What effects (if any) do such induced voice alter- ations and the size of the role portrayed have on the physical condition of the actor's vocal mechanism and on the characteristics of his own voice? 3) Is there a discernible relationship between or among any of the following: previous vocal training; previous acting experience; the demands of a particular characterization; and the presence, the nature, 75 76 and the severity of any objectively measurable voice problems or symptoms of problems occurring during the course of the preparation and produc- tion of a full-length show? The first task was to locate a suitable production around which the study could be organized. Selecting_a Production.--Because there had not been a significant number of studies dealing with the actor's voice, there was no reliable set of criteria already established to determine the choice of a suit— able production. In Goates' study of the pitch changes experienced by actors during rehearsal, he stated only that he made his choice of play because "It was felt that this play and the passages it provided were sufficiently established in typicalness, and dramatic and literary value."1 Since such guidelines provided far less structure than was con- sidered necessary for the study being planned, more specific criteria had to be established for the selection of a suitable production. After considerable thought and meetings with faculty members in both the Department of Theatre and the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University, a list of criteria for choosing a suitable production was finally evolved. In order to ascertain the effects of a particular vocal and physical characterization upon the laryngeal condition and vocal characteristics of a number of actors, a production had to be found which met the following criteria: 1) the play had to provide an adequate number and appropriate type of roles for at least three major actors who would comprise the experimental group, and at least three minor actors who would comprise the control group; 1Goates, "Pitch Changes in Actors," p. l. 77 2) the play had to be done in a production whose cast members were likely to include both experienced or vocally trained actors and novice actors appearing in one of their first productions; 3) the play had to be of sufficient length to challenge a number of actors' vocal and physical capabilities; 4) the play had to include a number of passages of sufficient length and typicalness to serve as suitable material for recording vari- ous actors' voices in character; and 5) the play in production had to have a director willing to allow the experimenter to observe and take notes at all rehearsals and will- ing to consult with her whenever necessary regarding certain facets of the work. The decision regarding the number of subjects for this study was made after a consideration of three relevant facts: 1) Because of a lack of established methodology for a study such as this one, the greater value would be achieved by emphasizing the evaluation of its methodology rather than by involving a large number of subjects. 2) The amount of data being collected for each subject was quite substantial; involvement of more than six or eight subjects would be of little practical value. 3) The few other studies which might be used as a guide for this one had few subjects: the Cowan study2 was made using ten actors, and the Brackett study3 used only three. After preliminary research and consultation with the chairman of the Department of Theatre and the director of the play, the 1969 Michigan State University Performing Arts Company production of Peter Weiss' The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul.Marat as Performed by the 2Cowan, "Pitch, Intensity and Rhythmic Movement." 3Brackett, "Easy and Harsh Production of the Voice," p. 3. INH oi AI .7 vi. T5 Q. I 78 Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade,“ directed by Dr. Sidney Berger, was selected for this study. An examination of both the script itself and the play's previous produc- tion record immediately illustrated how well suited this production was to all the criteria. The script calls for a large number of male actors in both major and minor roles. In addition to the six speaking roles of the Marquis de Sade, Jean-Paul Marat, Duperret, Jacques Roux, the Herald, and Coul- mier, the script calls for a variable number of asylum inmates, male nurses, singers, and musicians. The production at Michigan State Univer- sity was to be cast from members of its Performing Arts company and from the graduate and undergraduate student body, insuring a good combination of both experienced and inexperienced actors.5 The play is a contemp- orary full-length work. Its script contains a number of passages of sufficient length and typicalness to serve as suitable material for recording various actors' voices as they read in character.6 The play's “Hereinafter referred to as Marat/Sade. 5During the year in which this study was done, the Performing Arts Company at Michigan State University was made up of 25 M.A. and Ph.D. students in theatre, ten of whom were actors and therefore required to audition for Marat/Sade. The Performing Arts Company actors were graduate assistants, paid stipends by the University for acting in its productions; they were accepted into the company on the basis of audition, resumés, and letters of recommendation. The vast majority of company members had at least a few years of acting experience and training. 6Sufficient passage length was established as the minimum number of words common to the passages read by all subjects. The shortest of the three longest passages spoken by all of the inmates was thirty words in length. Establishing this as the—minimum therefore guaranteed an equiv- alent sample for the purposes of data analysis. Passages were considered typical if both their content and their style conformed generally to over- all demands of a particular characterization. 79 artistic merit had already been established by the critical reception to both its 1965 Peter Brook-Royal Shakespeare Company production in England and its subsequent limited Broadway engagement at the beginning of 1966.7 As the unabbreviated form of the title indicates, the play written by Peter Weiss is an enactment of the persecution and assassination of Jean-Paul Marat, a literary figure during the French Revolution, as per- formed by the inmates of the asylum of Charenton under the direction of the Marquis de Sade. The characters in de Sade's play within a play are portrayed by individuals incarcerated in the asylum because they were believed to be insane or politically unsafe. The inmate playing Jean-Paul Marat is described in the script itself as a paranoiac, and Duperret is described as an erotomaniac. In addition, each of the twenty to thirty or more inmates who serve as chorus and minor characters in the production were portrayed as in some way mentally unstable. Furthermore, the actual demands of the play's plot and physical staging made their demands on the actors' capabilities. All the charac- ters, for example, are required by the script to come onstage at the play's opening and to remain there throughout the course of the produc- tion; actors could get out of character and relax only during one brief intermission between the two acts. In addition, the play itself consists of a procession of theatrical digressions;° there is constant activity 7Marat/Sade won both the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and the Tony award dUring the 1965-66 New York theatre season. See New York Times, May 27, 1966, p. 33 column 5, and June 17, 1966, p. 37 column 1 for the announcements of these awards. ‘ 8Henry Hewes, "Broadway Postscript: The Weiss/Brook," Saturday Review, January 15, 1966, p. 45. 80 onstage, and the level of that activity is consistently high throughout the‘play.9 There seemed little doubt that such a production was more than likely to prove a good test of the actors' vocal and physical capabilities. Finally (but of utmost importance in terms of the original criteria), the production's director was not only willing but also very interested in working on the present study. Selection of Subjects.--Before the play was cast, the researcher met with the play's director in order to select the subjects for this study. As previously stated, six subjects were considered the minimum number needed to comprise an experimental group and a control group (see page 78); eight subjects were selected in case any of them had to drop out of the study during the course of the data collection.10 The study required the participation of the four actors playing the most vocally demanding roles in the play and four actors playing very minor roles as inmates who had little or no previous acting experience or training. The four most vocally demanding roles were determined on the basis of an examina- tion of: l) the length of the roles in number of lines; 2) the play- wright's description of some of the characters from the script and stage directions; and 3) the director's conception of how he wanted these characters portrayed by the actors he would cast. The four major roles thus selected were Jean-Paul Marat, the Marquis de Sade, Duperret, and 9Robert Brustein, “Embarrassment of Riches," New Republic, January 22, 1966, p. 26. 10Such was not the case; consequently, results are reported in Chapter IV of this study for all eight subjects. 81 Jacques Roux. Four actors cast in minor roles as asylum inmates were selected when the cast list was posted. Their selection was based on their lack of extensive previous acting experience or voice training. Overview of Experimental Procedure.--The.general shape of the experiment was based very loosely on two previous studies of actors' voices during the production of a play and more specifically on standard procedure in the examination of voice patients by laryngologists and speech pathologists. When Goates did his study of pitch changes in actors during rehearsal, he began collecting data as soon as a cast was selected and before any rehearsal had begun. He made phonograph records on a number of occasions during the rehearsal period, instructing his actors to read the selections from the play "in the same manner as they did in regular rehearsals.“1 In another study, Marie Park kept a daily log of the directions given and the responses made by each player in a production during rehearsal. She obtained data concerning each player's previous training in speech and dramatic art by means of a questionnaire used in connectionwith an individual conference.12 These methodological ingredients provided a general framework for the present study. The present study was designed to ascertain what changes the actor induces in his voice for purposes of characterization; the effects of such changes on the characteristics of his own voice; and the relationship 11Goates, "Pitch Changes in Actors,‘I p. 3. 12Marie Park, "Diagnostic Study of Development in Rehearsal and Per- formance of Students in Dramatic Interpretation" (unpublished Ph.D. dis- sertation, State University of Iowa, 1938), pp. 1-2. 82 among his previous training and experience, the demands of his particular role, and the occurrence of any functional voice problems as a result of his characterization. In order to accomplish these tasks, the present studyrwas constructed around a series of interviews held at the beginning of rehearsals, during the week of production, and following the close of Marat/Sade. The researcher met with each subject being studied on three occasions, for one to two hours at a time. The first set of interviews and exami- nations took place during the first week of rehearsal, while the produc- tion was being blocked. At the interviews, an extensive history was taken in order to ascertain the condition of each subject as he entered into the study. Furthermore, data were obtained which would be used to assess degree of relaxation, habitual breathing patterns, and vocal character- istics of each subject. Following the interview, each actor was sent to a consulting medical laryngologist, whose examination determined the con- dition of the throat and larynx. All interviews were held in the same quiet and soundtreated room, and all recordings were made using the same equipment. As far as possible, the time of day which had been established for the first set of interviews was adhered to for the second and the third interviews as well. In this way, variables relating to both vocal behavior and equipment fidelity were controlled. The second set of interviews and examinations was held during the week in which the show was in production, having been in rehearsal for the four previous weeks. These interviews and examinations also con- sisted of the taking of pertinent history by the examiner; the collection of data to be used for an analysis of degree of relaxation, habitual 83 breathing patterns and vocal characteristics; and an indirect laryngo- scopic examination. The third set of interviews and examinations took place two weeks after the show had closed, and most of the same tests were-repeated in order to determine whether the absence of rehearsal and performance demands on the voice would result in any physical or vocal change in the subjects. In addition, all rehearsals of Marat/Sade were observed, and a pro- duction log was compiled. Entries included every director's comment to the subjects relating to the use of voice in the production. Symptomol- ogy of functional voice problems which could be observed during the course of the rehearsal period were also recorded in the log, for purposes of pinpointing the time of their occurrence in relation to production demands. By keeping such a daily record, the researcher was not totally dependent on the subjects' memories of vocal problems encountered between scheduled interviews. The data collected at all interviews were processed and analyzed with the assistance of the Instructional Media Center at Michigan State Univer- sity and two voice specialists in the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences. Collection of Data Decisions regarding what data would be collected and in what manner were based on both general and specific suggestions found in the litera- ture. The general approach was based on the diagnostic outline sug- gested by Moore. The four steps he listed as a basis for diagnostic 84 procedure included the analysis of vocal characteristics, the obtaining of relevant history, the physical examination of all related structures, and the evaluation of contributing nonspeech skills and abilities.13 More specifically, data were obtained through use of the two essential types of diagnostic tools described by Darley: the test and the history.'“ Darley has described the test as a presentation of any stimulus to a subject for the purpose of eliciting some sample of behavior. Such a sample may range from a simple prolonged vowel to an unstructured discus- sion by the subject of some stimulus material. Darley has described the history as the provision of essential information about a great number of factors related to the problem being studied. The use of these defini- tions provided a general foundation for the methodology used in this study, upon which a number of specific techniques were based for the actual data collection. Case History.--At every interview, information was elicited from each subject on the basis of its relevance, sufficiency, representativeness, and reliability.15 The case history was administered orally by the researcher to each subject. It consisted of a list of questions, both specific and general, designed to obtain information about family history, medical history, education and training, acting experience, and vocal 13G. Paul Moore, "Voice Disorders Organically Based," p. 553. 1"Darley, Diagnosis and Appraisal of Communication Disorders, pp. 5, 7. 15Wendell Johnson, F. L. Darley, and D. C. Spriestersbach, Dia nostic Methods in Speech Patholpgy_(New York: Harper and Row, 1963), p. 26. 85 development and problems. The questionnaire completed by the researcher during this interview was adapted from the standard case history outlines described by Van Riper16 and from the Luchsinger and Arnold outline for a phoniatric examination report.17 These outlines were amended in order to meet the needs of this particular study. For example, questions were incorporated regarding type and duration of vocal training. As was suggested by Luchsinger and Arnold, subjects were asked to describe specific training methods, attempts to expand the natural range of the voice, and their teacher's preferences for open or covered tone.18 Each subject was also asked to describe any physical or vocal warm-up techniques he employed during rehearsals or before performances.19 A copy of the case history ques- tionnaire used in this study can be found in Appendix A-I. Although the use of the case history is standard procedure in voice diagnosis, there are some important factors which should be considered regarding the use of this technique. Case history does provide a de- tailed account of the familial, medical, educational, and vocal history of an individual. When administered orally, it also provides the subject with an opportunity to relax and just talk with the diagnostician. At the same time, it permits the diagnostician to listen to the subject's 1“Van Riper, Speech Correction: Principles and Methods (4th ed.,), pp. 492ff. 17Luchsinger and Arnold, Voice--Speech--Language, pp. 163-164. 18Ibid., p. 309. 19Dorothy Sherman and Paul Jensen, "Harshness and Oral-Reading Time," Journal of Speech and Hearing_Disorders, XXVII (1962), 176. 86 voice without the subject realizing he is in any kind of a test situa- tion. However, the necessity for relying on a subject's memory at the time of a particular interview can be a limiting factor. For example, a subject may simply forget the fact that he lost his voice completely for two days when he was fourteen-~or he may decide for some reason to conceal this fact from the diagnostician. Such difficulties may be avoided or circumvented in some cases in at least two ways. Firstly, the diagnostician can question not only the subject, but members of his family or co-workers as well. They may pro- vide important facts which the subject has omitted or shed further light on the information which he has provided. When necessary and practical, the diagnostician may also consult medical and educational records for confirmation or clarification of facts. Secondly, if a certain amount of repetition is actually built into the case history questionnaire, a subject may remember information the second time he is questioned on a particular subject, information which he had omitted the first time around. In using a case history questionnaire, and especially when adminis- tering it orally, the diagnostician must also be careful not to word any question in such a way as to indicate to a subject an answer he antici- pates or desires. If these cautions are kept in mind, the use of the case history questionnaire is a very valuable diagnostic technique for the voice researcher. Spectator Observation.--Johnson, Darley, and Spriestersbach have effectively discussed the value of spectator observation in the diagnostic 87 interview.2° A trained and disciplined examiner can learn much about a subject's habitual level of tension or relaxation and his pattern of breathing by observing his behavior during the diagnostic interview. Tension in the throat and neck can be seen as well as heard. The strap muscles of the neck may be contracted and the larynx may be held in an elevated position. The subject may habitually hold his head in what seems to be a tight or awkward position or may sit with his hands fidg- eting or tightly gripping the arms of his chair throughout an interview. Observation and notation of such occurrences provide valuable informa- tion. 0n the other hand, the absence of tension in the muscles involved in voice production can be taken as an indication that these muscles are being used efficiently and are in their most natural positions.21 At various times during each interview, the physical state of each subject was observed for signs of tension or relaxation. Although such observation necessitated subjective value judgment (see Appendix A-IV), the use of the same observer for all subjects at all interviews and the use of a checklist by that observer helped to minimize fluctuations which might be attributed to sheer chance. During each interview, the re- searcher also performed the very simple "test" described by Jacobson to evaluate state of tension.22 The subject's hand was raised up off the arm of the chair on which it was resting and his reaction was observed. 2°Johnson, Darley, and Spriestersbach, Diagnostic Methods in Speech Pathology. Pp. 24-25. 21Greene, The Voice and Its Disorders, pp. 65466. 22Edmund Jacobson, Progressive RelaXation (Chicago: Chicago Univer- sity Press, 1938). 88 The subject was then asked to relax completely, and the same procedure was repeated. A notation was made each time of whether the arm remained up, was forced down, or fell of its own accord after its release. Of course, a decision as to whether a voice difficulty is of psychogenic or physiogenic origin is not directly aided by observing whether the patient can relax his arm voluntarily, but "certain valuable negative inferences may be drawn that will throw light on findings otherwise arrived at."23 The pattern of respiration used by each subject during rest, when speaking or reading, and when reading in character from a script of Marat/Sade was also observed. A number of leading clinicians highly recommend this practice, although they have observed that too few diagnos- ticians regularly employ it.2“ Respiratory patterns can usually be ob- served sufficiently during other activities comprising the diagnostic interview, and without the use of any complicated machinery. Accordingly, while the subjects were engaged in various activities related to the collection of recorded vocal data, their respiratory activities were ob- served at a number of scheduled opportunities. Location of major muscular activity during inhalation was notated as either central (located in the vicinity of the diaphragm or rib cage) or clavicular (located in the vicinity of the upper chest or shoulders). Finally, in order to ascertain breathing efficiency, the researcher observed and made note of the number of breaths which were taken by each subject during his reading of a uni- form selection. This procedure was based on Van Riper's procedure for 23West and Ansberry, Rehabilitation of Speech, p. 248. 2"Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, p. 97. See also Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, pp. 12913. 89 assessing breath economy during speech.25 On a text of the selection being read, a slash mark was entered for each inhalation taken by the subject during his reading, and the total number was calculated. To summarize, data was obtained at each interview using the method of spectator observation. An assessment was made of the subject's visible level of tension when at rest, when speaking, and when reading in character. In addition, an assessment was made of the subject's type and efficiency of breathing under these circumstances. The checklist used for the notation of these observations can be found in Appendix A-IV. Use of the Tape Recorder.--In order to make both the gathering and the subsequent analysis of data as objective as possible, it is standard procedure among speech clinicians and voice researchers to tape record their subjects' voices. This enables them to play back a voice tape as many times as necessary under optimum conditions for purposes of analysis and reliable evaluation. For purposes of diagnosis, the recorded materi- als should include samples of both conversational speech and reading. In addition, a sample of the voice under conditions of professional use is quite valuable to effective diagnosis.26 In the present study, most of the data obtained for each subject was tape recorded for purposes of future examination and analysis. All re- cordings were made by the researcher herself on an Ampex 601 monaural 25Van Riper, Speech Correction: Principles and Methods (4th ed.), p. 469. 26Brodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation,.pp. 43, 69-70. 9O tape recorder in the same private, soundtreated room.27 A table omni- directional microphone with a cover filter was used; the subjects were instructed to maintain a distance of approximately twelve inches between themselves and this microphone as much of the time as possible. Based on Lunday's procedure in her study of the vocal quality and pitch of voices suspected of laryngeal pathology, the micrOphone was adjusted with the help of a VU meter in order to make volume the same for all the 2° Such adjustment made the assessment of habitual pitch more subjects. accurate (see p. 20) and facilitated quality evaluation by eliminating an unnecessary vocal variable. In this manner, recordings were made of each subject reading, speak- ing conversationally, performing a number of vocal tasks, and reading in character from a script of Marat[Sade. Description of Materials Recorded.--In recording materials for subse- quent analysis, the researcher was basically interested in collecting data which would permit the assessment of: 1) the habitual pitch of the speaking and reading voice; 2) the rate habitually employed by the subject when reading aloud; 3) the range of the speaking or singing voice; 4) the quality of the voice; and, 5) the use of hard glottal attack.. 27All recordings were made on Scotch brand #203 magnetic recording tape at a speed of 7% I.P.S. 28Audrey Anne Mostoller Lunday, "The Vocal Quality and Pitch of Voices Suspected of Laryngeal Pathology" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1967), p. 33. 91 In addition, materials were needed from which habitual pitch and rate, voice quality, and use of hard glottal attack when the actors read in character could be assessed. The need for such a quantity of data necessitated the recording of materials which could serve for more than one objective measurement whenever possible. After the history had been completed, each subject was asked to read aloud a uniform passage selected from the Grasham and Gooder text, ImprovingeYour Speech.29 Before the recording was made, the subject was instructed to read the passage to himself and to ask about any pronunci- ations with which he was unfamiliar. Each subject read the passage twice; only the second reading in each case was used in the subsequent analyses and evaluations. The Grasham-and Gooder reading was used to ascertain habitual pitch for reading, reading rate, use of hard glottal attack, breathing efficiency, and voice quality. I Each subject was then asked to read the Grasham and Gooder passage a third and fourth time. These times, however, he was asked to read the passage while slowly diminishing his vocal inflections until he was actually chanting the selection on a monotone. This procedure has been described in the literature as another effective means of determining habitual pitch for reading.30 Only each subject's second reading while reducing inflection to a monotone was used to determine his habitual pitch for reading. 29John A. Grasham and G. G. Gooder, Improvipg_Your Speech (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1960), pp. 8-9. The text of this selec- tion can be found in Appendix B-I. 3°Eisenson, The Improvement ofeyoice-and Diction, pp. 91-92. See also Pronovost, "Natural and Habituil Pitch,“ p. 123. 92 In order to evaluate habitual use of pitch during spontaneous speech, two samples of each subject's conversation were obtained. The subjects were told that a sample of their speech was needed for this study and were asked to discuss various subjects related to either their personal interests or to their participation in MaratlSade. If a subject was not particularly talkative about these topics, the researcher inter- jected a short comment or question to insure that the resulting speech sample was at least two minutes in length; if a subject was taking up too much taping time, the investigator interrupted to stop him. Next, each subject was asked to speak while diminishing his inflec- tion to a monotone. If the subject became wrapped up in his t0pic and forgot his task, he was provided with visual cues to remind him to reduce inflection to a monotone as he spoke, The speech samples thus obtained were used to ascertain habitual pitch for speech. Each subject was then asked to read from the script of Marat/Sade in character. Goates stated, in his study of pitch changes in actors: The passages for study were selected in c00peration with the Associ- ate Director of the University Theatre and director of the play. They were selected as being: (a) most nearly representative of the role portrayed by the actor, (b) as most likely to tax his abilities, (c) as offering adequate possibilities for acting, (d) as being located sufficiently within the play and scene as to find the actor completely "in character" at that point. . . , (f) as being long enough to provide an adequate sample.31 With these criteria in mind, the researcher and the play's director selected three passages for each of the eight subjects to read. For the four actors playing major roles in the play, the passages were taken from their speeches at different points in the play° For the four actors 31Goates, "Pitch Changes in Actors," p. 2. 93 playing minor roles as inmates, the passages were uniform, and taken from places in the script where the inmates were speaking alone or in chorus.32 The recordings of each actor reading from the script in character were used to ascertain habitual pitch and rate; the location of major breathing activity; breathing efficiency; the use of hard glottal attack; and the voice quality during characterization. Next, each subject was asked to sing down the musical scale to the lowest note which could be clearly phonated and then up to his highest note including falsetto.33 There is good reason for obtaining such a measure of maximum pitch range: the extent to which the vocal mechanism does not or cannot produce a given range may be the first indication of functional aberration.3“ A few of the subjects had a bit of difficulty providing the necessary data for range analysis. Because they lacked musical training and/or had a poor pitch discrimination ability, a few had some difficulty either locating their lowest and highest notes or moving up the scale in an orderly fashion. However, the experimenter found that by singing along with some, visually cueing others, requesting one subject to imitate a siren, and repeating the test a few times, the necessary data could be obtained in all cases. The data obtained in this manner was used to determine the range of each subject's voice and to calculate his optimum pitch. 32The texts of the selections read for this study can be found in Appendix B-II. 33Darley, Diagnosis and Appraisal of Communication Disorders, p. 52. 3"Michel and Wendahl, "Correlates of Voice Production," p. 470. 94 The last task performed by each subject for purposes of recording involved maximum duration of phonation. The measurement of length of maximum phonation is a standard test for the evaluation of voice; changes in this measurement have often been observed in association with function- al voice disorders.as Maximum duration of phonation is defined as the maximum amount of time for which an individual can sustain phonation on the breath of one deep inhalation. Although this seems like a very simple measurement to take, variables which can affect results obtained include pitch, loudness, vowel identity, physical condition of the subject, and voice training.36 For this study, conditions were structured in such a way as to control as many of these variables as possible. Each subject was instructed to breathe deeply a few times and then to exhale an eh_ sound for as long as possible on a pitch about four or five tones up from the lowest he could comfortably phonate. The loudness of the tone was regulated by having each subject watch the VU meter on the tape recorder as he phonated his sound. The test was repeated twice, so that the longer of the two attempts could be recorded as the maximum. Having completed this phase of the diagnostic interview, each subject was sent to the office of a consulting medical laryngologist on campus to undergo an indirect laryngoscopic examination. Indirect Laryngoscopic Examinations.--In order to determine what rela- tionship existed between other symptoms of functional voice problems and 35N. Yanagihara and H. van Leden, "Respiration and Phonation," Folia Phoniatrica, XIX (1967), 153. 36Michel and Wendahl, "Correlates of Voice Production," pp. 470-471. 95 the presence of any visible laryngeal alterations, a consulting laryn- gologist examined each subject after each interview. The procedure for 7 is a standard one in voice this examination, as described by Levin,3 diagnosis. As previously discussed in the survey of the literature, diffi- culty encountered by the examining physician in viewing a subject's vocal cords may be an immediate indication of functional difficulties (see pp. 52-3). When the laryngologist succeeds in viewing the subject's oral cavity, throat, and larynx, he is concerned with an observation of both appearance and function of the vocal mechanism. He observes the condition of the oral cavity and throat in terms of color, texture, and lubrication. He seeks a total impression of the size, the shape, and the symmetry of the larynx; a sense of its position in the throat; and an assessment of its activity during phonation. The vocal folds are examined for color, shape, position, and symmetry. The patient is cus- tomarily asked to phonate so that the laryngologist may also observe adduction, glottal attack, vibration, and the responsiveness of the intrinsic laryngeal musculature. The movable parts of the larynx should be capable of both coarse and fine adjustments during phonation. The muscles regulating vocal fold tension, shape and adduction should be able to adjust both subtly and precisely during phonation.38 37Nathaniel M. Levin, "Benign and Malignant Lesions of the Larynx," in Voice and Speech Disorders: Medical Aepects, ed. by Nathaniel M. Levin (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962), p. 289. 38Punt, The Singer's and Actor's.Throat, p. 34. 96 The vital importance of a preliminary laryngeal examination when the subject is in a healthy, rested condition has already been discussed (see pp. 53r4). Only if the appearance of the larynx in a state of health is known to the examiner and only if the history he elicits from the patient includes information regarding recent vocal use in the diag- nosis of functional abuse truly reliable. Dr. Y. P. Kapur, a medical laryngologist on the faculty of the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University, performed three indirect laryngoscopic examinations on each of the eight subjects during the course of the present study. The checklist he used to record his observations can be found in Appendix A-V. Procedural Summary for Collection of Data.--In order to facilitate the comprehension of the order in which the data were gathered for this study, a copy of each interview outline has been provided in Appendices A-VI, A-VII, and A~VIII, respectively. Processing_and Analysis of Collected Data When the collection of all data had been completed and with the help of the Instructional Media Center at Michigan State University, the re- searcher made a series of master tapes from the individual tapes recorded at each interview in order to facilitate the analysis of that data. For example, all the subjects' readings of the uniform passage Were recorded on one master tape; all the subjects' conversational samples on another master tape; and all the subjects' readings in character on yet a third. 97 The order in which individual samples were recorded was randomized for all master tapes but one.39 Randomization has been described by Cochran and Cox as somewhat analogous to insurance. Both are precautions against disturbances that may or may not occur and that may or may not be serious if they do occur."0 These authors have advised researchers to take the trouble to randomize even when it is not expected that there will be any serious bias from failure to do so. Accordingly, recorded samples used in the present study were placed in random order as they were recorded onto master tapes. The methodology used for this randomization has been described by Blommers and Lindquist"1 and is quite simple: slips of paper representing each sample were placed into a container, shaken up, and then drawn out to determine order. A summary of the master tapes recorded and randomized will be found in Table l, on the following page. Once the master tapes were completed, the analysis of the collected data was begun. The methodology for each of the analyses is discussed under separate headings. 39The one exception was the tape containing the readings in character from the script of Marat/Sade. Because the selections read by all four ’ inmates were identical, samples were ordered so that the inmates' perform- ances were separated from one another by the major actors' performances. l'°W. G. Cochran and G. M. Cox, Experimental Designs (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950), p. 8. “lPaul Blommers and E. F. Lindquist, Elementary Statistical Methods in Psychology and Education (Bostonz‘ Houghton Mifflin Company, 1960), p. 245. For further excellent discussion of both principles and methods of randomization, see 0. R. Cox, Planningkof Experiments (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958), Chapter V: "Randomization." 98 TABLE 1 MASTER TAPES USED IN THE ANALYSIS OF DATA Tape Number . Contents Used for Analysis Of I 24 readings of uniform habitual pitch--reading passage, random order habitual rate--reading II 24 readings of uniform quality evaluation--Panel A; passage, 8x3 in order A, use of hard glottal attack III 24 readings of uniform quality evaluation-—Pane1 B passage, 8x3 in order 8 IV 16 readings by actors character pitch, character in character* rate, character quality; use of hard glottal attack and breathing efficiency in character V 24 conversational habitual pitch-~speaking samples, random order VI 24 conversational quality evaluation--Panel A samples, 8x3 in order 9 VII 24 conversational quality evaluation--Panel 8 samples, 8x3 in order 0 VIII 48 range samples, bottom and top notes of 8x2x3 in random order range IX 24 reading monotones habitual pitch for reading plus 24 speaking mono- and for speaking tones, random order *The first of the three selections for each major actor; all three selec- tions for the inmate subjects. 99 Habitual Pitch for Reading, Speaking, and Characterization.—-A number of authors have agreed that habitual pitch can be determined by simply listening to a subject read or speak, since this is the pitch level which will recur most frequently. Ordinarily, some variation from this pitch will be observed (e.g. with an increase in loudness); but the most fre- quently occurring pitch used by a reader or speaker is nevertheless usually obvious enough to be identified. The method by Which this was accomplished in the present study was adapted from the procedure described by Van Riper."2 The determination of habitual pitch for each subject for reading, speaking, and characterization was made using Master Tapes I, IV, and V. The most frequently recurring pitch found in each sample was lo- cated on a piano and was indicated as a note on the musical scale. For a few of the voices, this task was a bit difficult because the habitual pitch of a low male voice had to be found using the researcher's alto range. Practice and repetition of this procedure on different occa- sions appeared to eradicate this difficulty, however. Furthermore, two male voice specialists in the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University were asked to conduct the same procedure independently."3 The results obtained by all three researchers were used “ZVan Riper, Speech Correction: Principles and Methods (4th ed.), pp. 468-469. “3The researcher was fortunate enough to obtain the services of Dr. Leo V. Deal, the voice specialist on the faculty in the Department of Audi- ology and Speech Sciences. Dr. Deal has a Ph.D. in Speech (with a specialization in speech science and hearing), has had extensive clinical and teaching experience, and was working closely with the researcher throughout the present study. The second voice specialist was a Ph.D. stu- dent, a graduate assistant in the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences with both clinical and teaching experience. 100 in designating habitual pitch. This incorporation tends to increase both the validity and the reliability of the results by eliminating the ten- dency of any one evaluator to judge either consistently sharp or consis- tently flat. A second procedure was used to determine habitual pitch for reading and speaking but not for characterization. This procedure requires the speaker or reader to diminish his inflections to a monotone and then to sustain the resulting note until it can be located on a pitch pipe or a piano.““ Using Master Tape IX, the researcher located habitual pitch for both reading and speaking for all the samples on two separate occasions. Those samples for which results differed from the first evaluation to the second were rechecked via a third evaluation. The two voice specialists assisting in the study spot-checked the tape independently, and their results were considered in formulating all final designations. Habitual Rate for Readingpand Characterization.--Habitual rate for reading was computed using Master Tape I. The uniform selection read by all the subjects was 300 words in length. The length of time in seconds was determined for each reading, and then the rate was calculated in number of words per minute. In order to determine reading rate for char- acterization, the number of words in each of the three passages read by each subject was counted, and the amount of time taken by the subject to read each passage was determined. The number of words per minute for each passage was computed, and thethree figures were averaged in order to arrive at a habitual rate for a particular characterization. l"'Murphy, Functional Voice Disorders, p. 94. Also, see p. 91 of the present study. 101 Occurrence of Hard Glottal Attack in Reading and Characterization.-- The use of hard glottal attack is one of the most frequent faults in speak- ing and singing. It is common in actors and public speakers and can be very harmful to the vocal cords."5 Hard glottal attack is common during anger or emotional involvement, and often occurs as a result of an in- crease in loudness.“‘ In the present study, a determination of the number of hard glottal attacks used by each subject was made for both reading aloud and charac- terization. In order to make this determination, Master Tapes I and IV were used. By turning the volume control on the tape recorder up higher than necessary, hypervalvular phonation or hard glottal attack could be heard. Copies of the material being read were marked in each place in which a hard glottal attack occurred. This procedure was repeated on a second occasion, and any differences in notation were rechecked via a third listening. BreathingAEfficiency during.Readipgeand Characterization.--The breath- ing efficiency (Hi each subject during reading and characterization was determined in two ways. As each subject read the uniform selection and from the script of Marat/Sade, a Visual determination of the number of breaths he needed was made and notated on a copy of the material. This count was double-checked by listening to Master Tapes I and IV with the “SBrodnitz, Vocal Rehabilitation, p. 19. ."'1. P. Brackett, "Parameters of Voice Quality," in Handbook of Speech Patholo and Audiolo , ed. by Lee Travis (New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1971), p. 447. 102 volume turned up higher than normal. In addition, the location of major muscular activity during inhalation was observed at this time and indi- cated on the proper form (see Appendix A-IV). Vocal Rapge Including_Falsetto.--To.ascertain vocal range for each subject, Master Tape VIII was used. By listening a number of times to each subject singing down to the bottom of his range and then up as high as he could, both extremes of the range could be identified as musical notes on a piano. As was mentioned earlier, a few of the subjects, un- trained vocally, had a bit of difficulty with this task (see page 93). Consequently, the range procedure was repeated at each interview session for each subject, and the results of both trials were combined. The low- est and highest pitches sung by each subject in either of the two trials were noted. To improve the validity and reliability of the results thus obtained, the two consulting voice specialists spot-checked the range tapes independently; final designations were made on the basis of all three listeners' results. Optimum Pitch.--The results of the range determination procedure described above were used to compute optimum pitch for each of the eight subjects. The manner in which these results were used was dictated by earlier research. In 1940, Wentworth did a study of 25 standard speech texts and found a number of methods recommended for determining natural or optimum pitch level. Among them were locating the middle note of the pitch range, locating the pitch one musical third below the middle pitch in the range, 103 finding the note one-third up the range from the lowest tone phonated, finding the tone five notes up from the lowest tone phonated, finding the note easiest for the speaker to produce, or finding the note at which the loudness swelled as the speaker sang up his range."7 In 1949, Thurman demonstrated that the method of locating natural pitch level by finding the pitch at which the intensity of the tone being sung swells was invalid."8 Aside from his research, it has not been proven that any of the remaining methods is demonstrably superior to the others for determin- ing optimum pitch. However, Pronovost's research in 1942 is generally accepted as having established the best methodology for the determination of optimum pitch. In his report on his research, Pronovost listed five different methods for determining natural pitch level. After investigating the accuracy and reliability of these methods, Pronovost concluded that the results of his study afforded no means of selecting the best of the five methods. However, other considerations seemed to indicate that the most convenient method to use was the 25 per cent method, which locates the Optimum pitch 25 per cent of the way up the total singing range including falsetto."9 Thus, l'7E. T. Wentworth, "Survey of Methods for Improvement of Pitch Usage in Speech as Presented in Twenty-Five Current Speech Texts" (unpublished M. A. thesis, University of Iowa, 1940). '"’W. L. Thurman, "An Experimental Investigation of Certain Vocal Frequency-Intensity Relationships Concerning Natural Pitch Level" (unpublished M. A. thesis, University of Iowa, 1949). I”Pronovost, "Natural and Habitual Pitch," p. 121. See also Grant Fairganks, Voice and Articulation Drillbook (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940 , p. 168. 104 in the present study, the 25 per cent method was utilized to calculate Optimum pitch for each of the eight subjects. Voice Quality in Reading, Conversational Speech,.and Characteriza- tflpn,--Despite the fact that the evaluation of voice quality is described in the literature as being a somewhat complicated and imprecise procedure (see pp. 24-5), the decision was made to incorporate a quality evaluation into the analysis of the collected data. Many authors who know the limi- tations have nevertheless recommended that such an evaluation should be incorporated into any standard voice diagnosis.5° In her study of the vocal quality and pitch of voices suspected of laryngeal pathology, Lunday recorded a number of patients reading identi- cal materials and had the resulting tapes judged by graduate students majoring in speech science. The tapes were presented to these judges in random order, and the panel was asked to rate vocal quality and pitch via a nine-point equal-interval scale.‘1 In his study of the reliability of certain testing procedures, Young used twelve graduate students in speech pathology without appreciable clinical experience and without training in psychological scaling methods. He found that, even without the benefit of practice tapes, his judges could somewhat reliably evaluate severity of stuttering on a nine-point equal-appearing interval scale.$2 On the soSee, for example, Van Riper, Speech Correction: Principles and Methods (3rd ed.), p. 311. 51Lunday, "The Vocal Quality and Pitch of Voices Suspected of Laryngeal Pathology," pp. 21ff. 52Martin A. Young, "Observer Agreement: Cumulative Effects of Rating Many Samples," Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, XII (1969), 137. 105 basis of their research on methods of audience evaluation of vocal devi- ation, Lewis and Tiffin concluded that the method least open to objection made use of the psychophysical law of comparative judgment.53 The metho- dology used or recommended in these experiments formed a basis for the quality evaluation procedure employed in the present study. When using a panel of judges to evaluate voice quality, it is im- portant to consider the weaknesses inherent in the methodology itself. For example, it is a rather well-known fact that whether judges are highly trained or not, they can agree only about the very good and the very bad. Evaluations tend to be less reliable in the middle areas where events are of almost equal quality.5“ Although perceivable variation may indeed occur in the voice of a subject, there are variables contributed by each individual evaluator as well. A group of students or even experienced therapists listening to a recorded voice sample will not evaluate it con- sistently; opinions of the same sample may range from too low in pitch to too high in pitch and from denasal to hypernasal. Personal tastes and differences in background or training reveal themselves constantly in group evaluations. Among the available research and discussions document- ing the inability of even highly qualified judges to agree consistently in evaluating voice quality, those of Perkins,SS Black,56 and 53Don Lewis and Joseph Tiffin, "A Psychophysical Study of Individual Differences in Speaking Ability," Archives ofeSpeech, I (January, 1934), 44. 5"Ernest G. Bormann, Theopy and Research in the Communicative Arts (New York: Holt, Rinehart anleinston, 1965), p. 291. 55Perkins, "Vocal Function: A Behavioral Analysis," pp. 496-497. 56J. W. Black, "A Study of Voice Merit," Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXVIII (1942), 67-74. 106 ThurmanS7 are particularly noteworthy. On the basis of this research, quality evaluation by a panel of judges are undertaken in the present study with the following reservation: agreement among panel members regarding quality deterioration or improve- ment in the voices being evaluated would be considered significant only when there was ample supportive evidence offered on the basis of more reliable tests performed at the same time. Such an approach seems par- ticularly necessary when the voices being judged are not clinically deviant to begin with, and when these voices are being compared with themselves rather than with the voices of other speakers. In the present study, a panel of twenty judges was convened to evalu- ate voice quality on the basis of tape recordings of the eight subjects reading a uniform selection, speaking conversationally, and reading from the script of Marat/Sade. The panel was composed of one undergraduate senior majoring in speech pathology and eighteen M. A. and Ph. 0. students in speech pathology enrolled in a graduate course in voice disorders at the time the study was in progress, and the teacher of that voice course-- a faculty member in the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University. Seven of the twenty had less than one year of clinical experience, nine had between 150 and 500 hours of clinical experience, and four had five years or more of clinical experience. Judging sessions were held on two consecutive nights, in a quiet classroom. 57W.L. Thurman, "The Construction and Acoustic Analysis of Recorded Scales of Severity for Six Voice Quality Disorders" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Purdue University, 1954). 107 Each judge was requested to attend one of the two sessions scheduled. On the first night, one panel of ten judges listened to Master Tapes 11, IV, and VI; on the second night, the other panel of ten judges listened to Master Tapes III, IV, and VII. When the judges were assembled, each was given a packet of materi- als containing: 1) a questionnaire concerning the judge's background and training; 2) definitions of terms and instructions for evaluating the tapes to be heard; and 3) a number of evaluation forms to make his evaluations more methodical. The basic outline for the evening's procedure was presented. The quality definitions to be used by the judges in making their evaluations were presented both orally and in writing. Any questions the judges had re- garding these definitions were answered before the tapes were played. Two types of evaluative tasks were required of each judge. While listening to the same subject do the same reading three times consecu- tively or to three samples of each subject speaking conversationally about various topics, each judge was requested to evaluate pitch, loudness, rate, and quality for each sample. After listening to each series of three, the judges were asked to rank order the samples: I for best voice quality, 11 for average voice quality, and III for worst voice quality. After a short break, the judges listened to the eight actors reading in character from MaratlSade and described (with the help of a checklist) the rate, loudness, pitch, and quality used by each actor in his particular characterization. In other words, the judges were requested to rate the readings and conversational speeches on a relative scale and to describe 108 the reading in character in terms of an absolute scale. For the uniform readings and conversational samples, each subject was being compared with himself; for the readings from Marat/Sade, each voice was being described by the judges without comparison to other samples. The forms used for these quality evaluations were adapted from that found in the Johnson, Darley and Spriestersbach text, Diagnostic Methods in Speech Patholpgy.58 Copies of these forms can be found in Appendix A-IX. An Overview of the Methodology_ A descriptive study was conducted to investigate the relationship between the demands of a characterization and the occurrence of functional voice problems in the male actor. A list of criteria was created which would meet the needs of such a study, and on its basis, the 1969 Performing Arts Company production of Marat/Sade at Michigan State University, directed by Dr. Sidney Berger, was selected as the focal point around which the data collection would be organized. Eight actors cast in this production were selected as subjects for the study, and divided into two groups, designated as the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group consisted of the four actors cast in the most vocallyédemanding roles in the play. The control group consisted of four actors with relatively little training or experi- ence cast as inmates in thisproduction. The study was constructed around a series of interviews and laryngeal examinations held at the beginning of rehearsals, during the week of 5"Johnson, Darley, and Spriestersbach, Diagnostic Methods in Speech Pathology, p. 78. 109 production, and following the close of MaratLSade (see Appendix C-I). Data collected at each interview included: 1) familial, medical, educational, and vocal history; 2) information obtained on the basis of spectator observation; 3) recorded samples of each subject's voice during reading, conver- sation, and characterization; and, 4) physical examination of the vocal mechanism. In addition, a production log was compiled, in which were entered the comments made by the director to the actors regarding use of voice (see Appendix C-II). In recording materials for subsequent analysis, the researcher col- lected data which would permit the assessment of: l) habitual pitch for reading and speech; 2) habitual rate for reading; 3) maximum pitch range; 4) maximum duration of phonation; 5) use of hard glottal attack during reading; and 6) voice quality during reading and speech. In addition, materials were recorded from which pitch, rate, quality, and use of hard glottal attack during characterization could be determined. Data collected at all interviews were processed with the assistance of the Instructional Media Center at Michigan State University. In order to facilitate subsequent analysis, nine master tapes were made from the individual tapes recorded at each interview (see Table 1, page 98). The order in which individual samples were recorded onto each master tape was randomized to avoid any bias during the analysis of data. 110 Data were analyzed by the researcher with the assistance of two voice specialists in the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University. A panel of judges was also convened to evaluate voice quality during reading and speech and to describe voice quality during characterization. Data obtained at all interviews on pitch, range, rate, breathing location and efficiency, level of tension, maximum duration of phonation, use of hard glottal attack, and voice quality were then tabu- lated and compared in order to ascertain the effects of production demands on the vocal characteristics and laryngeal condition of the male actor during the course of a production of a full-length play. CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The compilation and analysis of the data obtained according to the methodology discussed in Chapter III yielded results in a number of dif- ferent areas. After a preliminary identification of each of the eight subjects participating in the study, this chapter reports the results obtained and provides a discussion of these results and their implica- tions. In order to simplify the comparisons of collected data, Subjects 1, II, III, and IV were designated as the experimental group and Subjects V, VI, VII, and VIII were designated as the control group on the basis of the size of their roles in Marat/Sade (see pp. 80-81). General informa- tion about each subject is summarized in Table 2 on the following page. Before summarizing, comparing, and discussing the data compiled from each of the tests and analyses performed on the voices and vocal mechanisms of each subject, it is of value to briefly discuss additional relevant infor- mation provided by the initial case history completed at the first inter- view. 111 112 .mpumwnzm m>wuumammu as» an umnwcumwu m<« ooow "chmw: we opapm z mezzo; com apnoea: .2 .m .2 ea =m.o "agave: omecH Luggage cm unweowms Lovczw pm HHH> no to“. "5:8: .8 395 0 3:38 o: 3.333 .2 .m .2 pm 523.5 N =N_m "agave: mumEcH mecca: cw mc_eowme Lowcaq om HH> It 88 2:8: .3 8.8% w M muczoa cup "ecmwmz .3 .m .2 pm cowpmu_=:e 1. =m.m apnoea: mumEcH -Eou cw mcweowms Lowczc om H> uoow "gupmmz we mpoum mvcaoa mpp ”geomoz .2 .m .2 pm smwpmcezoc eww.m ”agave: cmpormaz.mumEcH cw m:_aowme cascmmem m_ > uoow n;»_mm: mo mumpm Acmanu mpe< mcwELoeeom as mueeoa om. "oem_a3 e? aoeo< ".3 .m .2 on v. .N.m no;m_o= xsom maaaoae eoeaoee ea beoeeum .o .ea mm >H .a voow "nppmm: eo mpmum . acmano mpe<.m:_ELowgma no meeaoa m_F "agape: e? eoeoe ".3 .m .z pa do =w¢.m up;m_w: page: anmucmma gmpmmce :_ ucmuzpm .o .5; mm HHH rt coco ”nupam: mo mpmum xcmanu mpg< maveLoecma m” 858 mg 33.8: E 232 T: .m .2 on N =~.m "agave: ovum on mpzcgmz gmumocp :_ “cocaum .< .z um HH .t eooo snee_ao= co ooapm ow meeeoa oe_ no;m_o3 .2 .m .2 ea eoeaoee 1. =m.m "u;m_w: emeemazo cw mchOnme Lowczc mm H moza zH om><4a mesa onewm ummp ms» cwgppz umpmou mcwemm; we; we; aFszpum on; muumnnsm as» mo ago apnea 114 memo op zmewppm on one: . mzozcwucou mac: uoom HHH> m_pw=oe=mmmmwupou MW 233: 88>. amen N exp Low mwuwnocoen It :85 6525mm 3:25 B o: < w b «no: mm_coE=oca mo aeoumw; voou HH> no any Lou gown ago one: one: use: coca H> 1. 3mm; 8,8 22.3: - o: < a b one: we xgowmw; szcwpcou uoow > upwgo amp new mass“ .1 Awmempv a we mgmsemme eo meme cmozpmn assemm on o: < w e on uwmgmppm woo;u__;u umemmeam coca >H .a 1. mocmummpoum :4 may 8ch L33 .3; 8 sea xuag mpacnoco mcoc pocommmm we; we; mcoc. swam HHH rt Loki H Ame Log Ammmpv xm; pmcommmm nu monumgmawo zme m < a H was mxmzpm we; mac: uoom HH 1; 33: $2 v Ann awn some one < w p mcoc c_ m_:oE=oca umemeesm uoom H 1. >mucm=m , . ._ meHmmoeH VA 32.3 m 2.30 H 3333 c H U Esowpumen cw mcmxmmqm magma N .1 .xusum mcwum meow» wH msomcosoQEmpxm ”Hoogom ”w .vmo:a>um Homo—Hoe mmmmeunm uHHnaq saw; cH :. mcoc .mchchmn msgop N «:0: Hmmguwmqm mcmeE Ego“ H HHH nu 39% I 32696 V Eauwuomea .Eew» H Hampmzm mmmHHou 1. xuoum :H .masmm venous“ momeHoo ommmmgv wuHo> a? meme LmEE=m H .mexum memo» N m:_xmmqm one -mmEmm m uoHHon memHHou .xuzum mcmum HHoozum mmmHHou mchHoLp HmoHumc HHoocum mmucmu :H .umu:m>um gov; :H acoanHw>mu :H -ozq .gumoam op cmH; :H wepmwsu Esau H .mHoucmsmcczm Ego“ H muHo> mcmmx N :oHuozuochH msemu N HH mucov NNmn cHuum a .umHHmn ommHHou mo mexpm.w Hoozom .oucmu _ cH .uwucm>um .mgmuz saw; cH :Lmuoe memo» e .mchchmn mH ace: mmmeuum oHHasa ..,Eemp r. H llmn>e zmzz mm>e zmzz mm>F zuzz ma>e zmzz one¢u2am Hxa oz< muz uuHo> oz< :ummmm Humqmzm ¢szHk oz< Hzmhxm no >m me. we opapHHmcH ngE=m Hoocum uHmzs um mcHgau wmmHHoo zmH; :H mchngp mxmoz coHumumgacmucH :H mcHHasau Ego» H mcoc ouHo> me Hugo sump H HH> umuHHou saw» H . momeaoo HHoocum mchom use Hoogum xvspm zmH; :H ono> cmcHnsou :mH; :H mac: mcmum zuoa seep H «co: msummqm Hmemcmm gum» H H> lwchum mcucos ucm meueozu Hoogum Hoogom ova“ new me Ho xeonH; cmH; :H gmH; cH mumgmx usonm coHumcHnEou goo» H mcoc mcmewam uHang sew» H > 1 O U l N O 0 118 TABLE 5 WARM-UP PROCEDURES UTILIZED BY SUBJECTS SUBJECTS TYPE or WARM-UP ”ll-L'LA'XA—TI'O'N—WD LI BE ING up VOICE AND SPEECH I concentration exercises, pitch range exercises dance exercises, loosening of jaws, lips, and tongue, deep breathing. II extensions, knee-bends, singing nine-note scales; -4 twists; massaging larynx warming up the register ‘I while rolling head until in which the character *- larynx can be moved easily; would be played. 2 shaking out arms and hands. LIJ =5 111 calisthenics, tension- duration exercises, pitch ~* release exercises, breathing levels, intensity, in- “: and limbering up tongue and flectional changes; hum- “” facial muscles; shaking out. ming, singing, recitation 9- the head and legs. of lines from the play. X L” IV mental relaxation exercises; "guttural noises" simple physical exercises-- push-ups, toe touches, jumping jacks. v none none VI emptying mind and mental none concentration and improvisa- _J tion exercises; bendover c, loosening exercises. a: L. VII concentration on specific none 2 location and production. 0 g, VIII touching toes, trunk rolls, humming different tones shaking all the tension out of the body, jumping. 119 completely on at least two occasions in his recent past by screaming and misusing his voice. Because patterns of functional misuse are so easily and frequently habituated (see p. 40), it seemed conceivable that Subjects II, III, IV, and VIII as a group might suffer a greater number or more serious symp- toms of functional problems in the present study than the other four subjects. An analysis of data collected during the course of the study, however, indicated that this was not the case (see p. 168). To summarize, information obtained via the initial case history con- cerned both medical and experiential data for each subject. Although the experimental group was not separated distinctly from the control group in terms of noticeable differences in medical history (see Table 3), the groups were different from one another with regard to vocational experi- ence, acting experience, type and extent of training, and employment of pre-performance warm-up techniques. The experimental group had relatively extensive vocational experience-in theatre, whereas the control group had none. The control group had played fewer, less important roles in past productions than had members of the experimental group. The experimental group had more acting training than did the control group. Differences in speech and voice, vocal music, and dance and physical education training were very minor (see Table 4). Finally, the experimental group was some- what more knowledgeable in the use of pre-performance warm-up techniques than was the control group (see Table 5). At least half the subjects reported that they had, some time in their past, felt as if they were losing their voices. These subjects as a group, 120 however, did not fare worse under the conditions of the present study than those who did not report such a history (see p. 168). Discussion.--The use of the orally-administered case history ques— tionnaire at all preliminary interviews proved to be a valuable tool in this study. Medical and experiential history provided by each subject enabled the results of objective voice tests to be interpreted contextual- ly. A relatively accurate and complete picture could be obtained of the background and condition of each subject as he entered into the study. However, a number of relevant questions were not answered or answered inadequately by using the case history questionnaire. For example, it proved exceedingly difficult to assess the quality of any training the subjects had had in the past. The ultimate test of voice training, for example, most probably lies 1) in the flexibility and durability of a subject's Voice under the pressures of rehearsal and performance, and 2) in the absence of functional voice problems. However, for the actors coming into this study, no reliable way was built into the methodology by which to evaluate their voice training; a determination was never made of the relative value of a one-term speech course in high school, a one-term oral interpretation course in college, a year of public speaking courses in college, or one semester of glee club. The performance of each subject during the course of the study therefore became the only possible gauge of the value of voice training he had undergone in the past. 121 Breathing_Efficiencye_Use of Hard Glottal Attack, and Habitual Rate Results.--Table 6 indicates the number of breaths taken by each subject during his reading of a uniform passage at each of three inter- views. In addition, it indicates the number of hard glottal attacks used by each subject and his rate in words per minute during reading. An examination of Table 6 (on the following page) reveals that six out of the eight subjects needed a slightly greater number of breaths to read the same passage at the second interview than they did at the first inter— view. Furthermore, five out of the eight subjects needed their smallest number of breaths to get through the uniform selection at the final interview. This mey be due to a decrease in the breathing efficiency of Subjects I, II, III, V, VI, and VII between the first and second inter- views and to an increase in breathing efficiency in Subjects, I, III, IV, V, and VII between the second and third interviews. However, this pattern might also be attributable to: 1) the corresponding change in habitual reading rate; 2) increasing familiarity with the passage being read; or 3) simple chance occurrence. It also seems that some of the subjects may have been more efficient breathers during reading than others. A count of the number of breaths needed by each subject to get through the same reading selection indicates that although the differences among subjects are not always great, Subjects II, V, and VI seem to be noticeably more efficient breathers than Subjects III, VII, and VIII. The number of hard glottal attacks did not seem to follow any clearly discernible pattern. The least efficient breathers did not exhibit the greatest number of hard glottal attacks, nor did the most efficient 122 TABLE 6 BREATHING EFFICIENCY, HARD GLOTTAL ATTACK, AND RATE FOR UNIFORM READINGS SUBJECT INTERVIEW NUMBER OF NUMBER OF HARD RATE IN WORDS BREATHS GLOTTAL ATTACKS PER MINUTE 1 23 1 1 183.7 I 2 24 2 182.6 3 18 2 182.2 ._I < 1 19 4 192.7 H II 2 20 3 183.7 2 3 20 0 200.7 m _ z 1 28 7 160.7 ._. III 2 29 3 178.2 a: 3 20 3 192.1 14.1 n. 1 23 0 195.7 x IV 2 23 3 188.3 u. 3 22 1 192.7 1 20 1 189.5 v 2 22 1 184.0 3 18 0 205.2 _J 1 16 0 212.5 0 v1 2 20 1 205.4 3 21 3 200.9 a: '— 1 25 2 191.9 : VII 2 28 2 196.4 3 21 2 194.4 0 1 29 1 169.1 VIII 2 25 6 168.8 3 27 5 170.8 123 breathers exhibit the smallest number. The actual number of hard glottal attacks did not uniformly rise or fall between any two sets of interviews. Similarly, fluctuations in rate did not appear to follow a clearly dis- cernible pattern from interview to interview. Although Six of eight habitual rates were lower at the second interview than they were at the first and although five of eight habitual rates were higher at the third interview than they were at the second, these differences could be attributed to Simple chance. However, a comparison of these measurements for reading a uniform selection with the same measurements taken for characterization does reveal a number of differences. Measurements of the breathing efficiency, number of hard glottal attacks, and habitual rate for the eight subjects reading in character from the script of Marat/Sade are summarized in Table 7 on the following page. For the measurements relating to reading in character, each subject read three different selections from the script. Members Of the experimental group read individualized selections, whereas members of the control group read the same three selections. Examination of the results summarized in Table 7 do not indicate any behavioral differences between the experi- mental group and the control group. This might indicate that the actual size of a role in number of lines was not a determinant of vocal perform- ance during tests of breathing efficiency, use of hard glottal attack, and habitual rate. However, the results do reveal some discernible trends in the eight subjects as a group. In sixteen out of twenty-three selections read (and in at least one selection for each subject), the subjects needed a greater number of breaths at the second interview than they did at the first to get through 124 .mwocoumcH meow :H «N we vomumcH MN emosoc mgommewzu mHHzmoe umpeoamg uco .Hownosm mng HoH :oHuumHHou moon on“ we mHHzme mcHwooEoo :H umcmuHmcou no: mo; HH .aHpcwocwmcou .coHH -oHHHcH Houpon oco .muog .mcHzpowHo muumHHo mmeoou me goch .Hzogm on“ :H mm; pH mov zmH>Hmch ucoumm on» yo mcom mo: coHHomem chu .coHHHouo cH .xooeou mHHoHHonu uco EH; cmmZHmn coHpomm was» a: cmuH>Hu to; HouumLHu any mmooomo .coHuumem ocoumm mH; Ho HHo; AHco uwscowema H pummoom .3mH>HmH:H ucoumm on“ H n. o NoH e.HHH H H o o H 1. o.oNH o.ooH o o H o o N.omH o.oHH o.moH o.oHH H H NH H N > o.moH H.HoH o o m o H H.HoH o.mHH o o o o m 1. o.HeH o.oHH o.ooH N.HHH o o oH oH N >H v. o.ooH o.ooH H H HH oH H .d H.oHH m.HmH N m oH o o 1. o.ooH o.ooH o.NoH H.omH o o mm no N HHH no o.HoH o.ooH H HH om Ho H .. o.oo o.No m H oH H o “w H.oHH H.oHH o.oNH m.ooH o o oH oH N HH .3 H.8H :2 S o om mm H N o.ooH o.ooH H o oH H m .. o.ooH ~.ooH .H.oNH o.NHH so m 3H o N H u. o.oHH .H.ooH H o oH mH H .1 H H N H N H H H 3oH>monH oHosz moo momoz MHosz moo m¥ouzmHuHumm wszhooa oaHe o :oHI o>ooe o o :oHI osooo Ho o :oHI o>ooo o HHHH a go o 304 u 204 onmo w u so; 3ono H. u so; :onmlm mo:oo HHa: om moeoo HHa: mo moeoo HHH: mo .3 o 33 o :3: 268 o o :3: 96:: a o :on 25% H H; m m>ono uon m u zoo zormm o u 20H onmo u u zoo onmo a mu mo:oo oHa: No moeoo HHe: em moeoo HHa: om mm o :oo onoo o oHooH: osooa < o :oH: o :oH: osooa eo H> o :8 HaHH o o 38H ono: ow o zoo onoo HaHH o o 38: onoo o mo:oo HHo: om mocop HHo: mm mocou HHo: mm o 38: Ho:oH: o>ooa HaHH o o :oH: o>ooa o Ho:oHI osooa HaHH o > o>ooa ooHH o .o.zoo on elm o 383 onoo o o 283 soHo: H so:oo HHe: Ho 88:8» HHa: so mo:oo oHa: Ho o go: o :oH: o>ooa H: o :oH: o>ooa Ho o :oH: o>ooa o HH .3 o 23 32...: t o 33 some o o :3 :28: o a 8:3 to: Ho 8:3 to: 8 8:8 to: on m. o :3 o :2: 26:: o o :3: 2,8: o o :2: 2.8: o H: m o>ooa HoHa o o :oo ono: o o 384 ono: o o 28: so: H.H, mm 3:8. .225? 3:3 to; mm 3:3 .22 Ne W. 8 38: o>ooa o :oH: o>ooe o o :oH: o>ooa o Ho:oH: o>ooa HaHH o HH .. HaHH o :o o o 384 onoo o o 38: ono: a o go: ono: : mo:oo oHa: Ho mo:oo oHa: om mo:oo HHa: oo o 28: soHo: o :oH: o oHoon osooa <. o :oH: osooa Ho H < :o oeHH < so 38: onoo o so 383 soHoo.o so 283 ono: o ooHoazoo . :oHH: zozHH:o :oHommHzH oonH on>oonH ozoomm 3oH>mmHzH HoaH: Homooom (i111. IQHHm Zaszmo omhamzou az< wwzooa oaHs < o mHuqu u zoo m>mmm m o 3:3 o>ooa oaHo < :u.3oo_m>ooo u o zoo o>ooo H u zoo o>ooo H u 304 o>ooo m >H u zoo o>ooo m 0' u wHuUHz o.zoo a>ooo oaHH o mco u zoo m>ooo m o zoo o>ooo oaHH o o zoo o>ooo m woo o zoo o>ooo o o oHoon 8:: u 304 o>oom a HHH o 363 o>ooa oaHo o u zoo m>ono a IIHIT u 30; o zoo m>o o uoHH m o 383 o>ooa oaHo o o zoo o>ooa oeHo o u zoo o>ooo N HH o 3:3 ono: o o 283 ono: a o zoo ono: o E o :oo :oHo: o o 3:3 ono: o so 3:3 ono: H: 1 V l N 3 N I U 3 d X 3 onHHocH oocHo -Eoo HHogu Ho o>HooocomoHooH omoe ooeooncoo zuoHo ogo mocomoeooe gueooo ozo one momoan HoaoH>Ho=H on oo>HooHoo mogouHo oz» ouooHocH ooggp HmHHH ogy .HHoo oco oco :H ooumHH ooo monopHo Loo» ogogzs 140 o 383 o :oo o>ooa H o 363 ono: oaHH o o zoo o 3:3 osooa a o 3oo onoo oaHo o o zoo u 304 o>oao w u 304 u so; HHH> u zoo o>ooo m o zoo 3oHoo uoHH m o zoo o>ooo m o :oo o>ooo a u zoo o>ooolu. m zoo o>ono a u zoo o>ooo w o zoo o>ooo o o zoo u zoo o>ooo a o zoo o>ooo a u zoo o>ooo o u zoo o>ooo o HH> u zoo o>ooo w u zoo o>ooo m u zoo o>ooo u 3 o :3 o 8%on 0 o>ooa oaHo < ooooa oaHH.o .o.ooo o>ooa oaHH.m, o.zoo o>ooa ooHo a "n u oHusz .3 o>ooo HoHH o u zoo o>ooo HoHH m 0 Zoo o>ooo < N. u 22on 0 o>ooa oaHo o o 383 o>ooa oaHH o o :oo osooo o Ho .. o oHoon o>ooa o o 383 o>ooa H o zoo osooa oaHH < o zoo u zoo o>ooo a o>oanHoHH m .wrzoo o>ono were a o zoo o>ooo p o.oHnqu. u 304 o 304 o>ono uon o 0.304 o>ooo HoHH m o zoo o>ooo HoHH o o zoo o>ooo a > o 104 o>ooo HoHH m o :oo o>ooo m u Zoo o>ooo m 141 habitual pitch during reading, Speaking, and characterization. Table 13 represents a summary of this comparison. Optimum pitches were deter- mined on the basis of data obtained at the first interview for each sub- ject (see Table 9, page 133). Habitual pitches for reading, speaking, and characterization were determined on the basis of data obtained at the second interview for each subject (see Tables 10, 11, and 12). The comparison of pitches summarized in Table 13, on the following page, reveals a number of different relationships. To begin with, every subject had a habitual pitch for both reading and speaking which was lower than his optimum pitch. This was not true, however, of habitual pitch for characterization. Two of the subjects (II and VIII) had habitual pitches for characterization which were the same as their optimum pitches, and three others (I, V, and VII) deviated from optimum pitch when reading in Character by no more than one full tone. The three remaining subjects (III, IV, and VI) deviated far more substantially from their optimum pitches while reading in character, all in an upward direction. Discussion.--There are a number of possible explanations for the rela- tionship revealed between optimum pitch and habitual pitch for character- ization. It could be conjectured, for example, that the five subjects exhibiting a strong similarity between optimum pitch and habitual pitch_ for characterization had either an instinctive or a learned concept of what their best voice pitches felt or sounded like. This conjecture might explain their employment of that pitch when ”acting" but not when reading a uniform passage or when speaking conversationally. These subjects might have been using their voices more efficiently than the others. However, 142 u 3o._ :23 o 33 o :3 o>ooo o 35: oaH: < :o o ono: oaH: < oaH: o :o o :53 HHHH u 33 :28 u ,3o._ :38 u 33. 3 o 33 858 n. 8: o 5 o 8: o 5 < 858 8: o H; m o :3 o 5.. 58: o 33 .58: w o :3 858 8: < 58: 8: HH, . 8: a .5 < o 5 8: o H: 1 u 33 333 u :3 onoo o 33 o 353 o>ooa o o :5 oaH: o oaH: o :o o :53 o>ooa oaH: o > o :3 u 33 323 . o :3 858 8: < ono: 8: o 8: o 5 8: < o :3 a u o 33 onoo o 3o._ :33 o 33 M o 5.. 258 o 8: o 5 8: < 8: < 5 < 258 8: o H: m u 33 onoo o 33 onoo o 33 o>ooo m o :3 258 8: o 8: < .5 < 8: o 5 < 8: o 5 o HH m u 3o._ :23 u 33 323 u 33 onoo o :3 58: o 8: o 5 8: o 8: o 5 8: o < .5 8: < H onHHHHHooHoéHHzo mzHofiam ozHoHHo: Hoo oazooo IoHH: oHo ogor momoow .HHoo oEom ocp :H gooooo mo>Hpoonoo ozp ogogzs «moocop - -ocoev :mH; HuHcoggooHHgomv Homocgoo»; op EoHooe ssHooE EoHooe oposcH HHH> no gmH: op poo: op «uHcopopoo ogo>omv nu Hgmgo; 533.: 2.2 2:59: 3ch HH> N I. .93: «NH “Ho ode Hopcwa do pogzoEom smoongo Hooogopog HHogo>omV nu .pngomooco: HHHoHocom smH; EoHoos. poo: opoEcH H> 1. Homoogomx: - pogzosom smoocpHo some op HcoHonos omHov .pngomooco: HHHogooom EoHooE EzHooa. EzHooE oposcH > Homoeoo oooH op 1~o>Hmmogaoo-oH=oav a: poczosom oco :mgo; EzHooE EzHooe EoHoos xoom moaoooo >H vs ~o>Hpoo:HoH ad oooH op poo: op HooHocogoov s: Homocgoo»; :aH; soHooE EoHooe pogo: Homo-cooo HHH no ll Hgocomng W Ho>Hpoo:Hov Ho>Hpoomwov Ho>Hpoom:ov HooHpHHoo Hocomv as HHo: oco :ng EaHooE sopooe soHooE ooom oo mpoogoz HH “N paHgUmoococ «EzHooE dooHcoEopoguM. .s gogpog zmzongo .Hgmoc op on EoHooE EoHoos.o poggoooo H uv 1. HHHH<=o IUHHo mmuzo=OH mH 0H mpm xcxgoH Hoago: HHopoHoEoo xczgoH Hosgo: aHopoHoeoo co mpHmoooo moooos osom HHH> ,. cHogpm op 1o 26 mogou Hooo> omHoaH 3o 0 . -Hoopooo poczosom go: poooxo N ngo Homo=-pmoo .poogcp oog ngo Homoc-pmoo xczgoH HoEgo: HHopoHoEoo HH> .I mooaopooo mogoo 8 omHo: Hcpogpm op ozo mogoo no mogoo Hooo> Hooo> :o oHonH> mHommo> 1. ozp :o :oHpozooo poo: HcHogpm coHpocogo oooHo .ngo Homo:-pmoo op ooo mHommo> oooHo oHonH> coo: mogoo :poo :o mcHzoo .oopopHggH x:>gogo-omoc H> ngo Homoc-pmoo «pooggp oog xczgoH Hosgoc.»HopoHneoo xcxgoH Hosgoc.xHoponmEoo > xcxgoH Hosgoc xHopoHano xcxgoH Hosgoc.NHopqueoo opgo Homoc-pmoo. >H coHpoo: .3 moosopooo pox: -cH HgopogHomog o go :Hogpm on -osom ogoo pgmHg HmpHmoooo mooo oHHE op o:o--xcxgo;o oopoH: .a xoxgoH Hosgo: HHopoHoEoo -os oeom .opHsz-H:o ogoo pgmHg -cogm .oog sngo Homo:-pmoo HHH a: Hogoo pon Ho coHpomcoaaou 1 U 1go>o ocomogou Ho oHooHE =H mcH 1. -38 35.3 mogoo :o momoo .85 W :oHpocoso mcHgao ocHH -Eopooo mogoo :poo .mpHmoooo :oHpocoso H: -oHE pmoo mopomcoosoogo>o ogoo mooozs .coHpuoooo opoHo mcHgoo ocHHoHs go>o mommogo on pon “mogoo Hooo> oomoo-pc=Ho -EoocH .goHoo cH xcHo mogoo ogoo p:oH .ngo Homo: 1: :o oeooo oHHE .xcxgozo oog .ngo Homo:-pmoo .xcxgogo oog -pmoo .xcxgoco oopoHocogm HH . uv mogoo moosopooo HHpgmHHm moosopooo 1. .ngo Homoc-pmoo .pooggp oog aHpanHm oco opng-::o mogou opgo Homoc-pmoo H onHm

m. H «I «I «I L E on In“ Ouuuc Lute U 0 In In 0.3"” In- Q0 i W00 36!- L 0 U In 003;» :5: u-u ca .40 eat-ms“ 8n. 4» s. c 01 555 550 o: u—q o; L 031-}!!! W 8 C Q) c 01 -.- PF-v-W' ‘v-O w-U -0 “P O 0 -LD 0 Lu g u— w- - c.—-..—>tE-.-u>u- o u c we uuu r—O —1 L c ~r-.o>..os. >uLu> E Ic- om m>owmou>wmov G W ' U ‘0- COLOOOLL‘JJQJDL 50 UL 5U I— UULOJU'OEKC < a. Q «I W-LQJLHLU «'00 UL o: a: .—c-:os.c:: m H o m x L mauacmuocou uu— .I'o obo— 3ooEc» C! H 0 Lu I— L C H C L—s L c -v- $5 g ‘I—g U c H < ‘J K D—o—Hr— r—HO- h.~ D. ' '0 ° 0 WW >5“ 85"” > m O"! 01 a can 13 9- 0.: t: 0H1: - ‘UL . a s 5 32325323532 a: e: s: asacz=§==2 fl 3 3 3 zeheeezeeez 2e 22 .2 =§eeggzegc u z: < < >£u£mfhbmbh um um 83 & m308438-v- 169 in the initiation of new and better studies in this field. However, the purposes of the present study can best be served by a discussion of the relationships revealed which grg_of direct import to the vocal perform- ance of the actor during production. In order to discuss these relation- ships in an orderly manner, the most important of them will be presented individually and sequentially. Previous Voice and Music Training.+-Since.only Subject II had voice and music training worthy of serious consideration, it is somewhat unfair to compare results obtained in his tests with those obtained for all other subjects. However, it is worthy to note that he had what was by far the most extensive pitch range of all the subjects. Furthermore, he used a habitual pitch for characterization which corresponded precisely with his optimum pitch. In addition, he was able to produce voice quality described as "rich and full" by a panel of judges even when he was suffering acute myasthenia laryngis. However, other test results revealed that his considerable training did not prevent his maximum duration of phonation from decreasing, his pitch range from sharply decreasing, his conversational voice quality from worsening, or the physical condition of his larynx from deteriorating when his voice was under its heaviest usage. A number of these factors might serve as valid indications of the relative merit of various systems of voice training in future studies. This study also revealed that the subjects using vocal warm-ups dur- ing rehearsals and before performances of Marat/Sade nevertheless~ developed functional voice problems during times of heaviest voice usage 170 (see Table 5). Therefore, it would seem that the actual warm-up tech- niques employed by these subjects were either incorrect or inadequate. Indirect Laryngoscopic Examination.--Seven out of the eight subjects had vocal symptoms of functional problems-édecrease in pitch range or in maximum duration of phonation or in breathing efficiency, etc.--at the same time they had physical symptoms. Furthermore, four out of the five subjects showing relatively serious organic involvement at some point or points in the study evidenced correspondingly serious vocal symptoms such as a comparatively large reduction in range, a decrease in duration of phonation, lessening of breathing efficiency, or a deterioration of vocal quality used for speaking. Case histories compiled at all three interviews indicated some in- consistencies between subjects' descriptions of the condition of their throats and larynges and actual physical condition as determined by in- direct laryngoscopic examination. Three of the four members of the ex- perimental group had fairly accurate ideas of the actual condition of the throat and larynx at the time of each examination, and the fourth (Subject IV) evidenced organic change far too minimal to make his failure to do so important. However, all four members of the control group were unable to assess the condition of their throats and larynges accurately at the time of all three examinations. This inability may be a reflection of the fact that laryngologists have frequently observed differences be- tween the condition of a larynx and the patient's description of his problem or the sound of his voice (see p. Sl). 0n the other hand, failure in this group might be a function of its comparative lack of both acting 171 training and acting experience, with the self-knowledge which they can bring to an individual actor. Location of Major Breathing Activity.--Results obtained in the pres— ent study seem to indicate that the fact that an actor changes his major location of muscular breathing activity for purposes of characterization may be a result of previous acting experience or training and a contribut- ing factor to the occurrence of functional voice problems. The three subjects showing no change in breathing location were all playing minor roles in Marat/Sade, had only minimal changes in vocal range during the course of the data collection, and used habitual pitches for character- ization which were either the same or deviated by no more than one full tone from their optimum pitches. The five subjects showing some change in location of major breathing activity included all four members of the experimental group. This group had greater changes in extent of pitch range during the course of the data collection than the other group, and included all three subjects whose habitual pitch for characterization deviated sharply in an upward direction from their respective optimum pitches. A majority of these subjects also showed a decrease in the dura- tion of phonation and a deterioration in laryngeal condition under heaviest vocal usage. Conceivably then, a tendency to change major location of muscular activity during breathing for purposes of characterization could be an indication of a tendency to functionally misuse the voice. 0n the other hand, treating the locating of major breathing activity as a vari- . able for purposes of characterization may be the result of more extensive acting experience on the part of these five subjects. 172 BreathingAEfficiency, Hard Glottal Attack, and Habitual Rate.--More often than not, an increase in the number of breaths needed by each sub- ject to get through a uniform reading selection accompanied other symptoms of functional voice problems in the actor. Most often, the difference in the number of breaths was a very small one. However, there was an in- crease in the number of breaths needed and a worsening in the condition of the vocal mechanism as vocal demands increased--and a decrease in the number of breaths was observed as conditions improved--in seven out of the eight subjects. Subject IV, who was the only one to deviate from this pattern, remained generally consistent throughout the course of the data collection. This occurrence may be a function of more hygienic voice usage on his part (see pp. 155-l56). The use of hard glottal attack in both reading and characterization did not prove a consistent indication of the presence or the absence of a functional voice problem. No pattern emerged to indicate that the use of hard glottal attack is anything more than a function of habit unaf- fected by the presence or absence of voice problems. Existing literature has already revealed that excessive use of glottal attack is frequently observed in individuals evidencing hypertense phonation patterns (see p. 101). However, results obtained in this study did not indicate that the number of hard glottal attacks increases as the resglt_of the acquisition of a functional voice difficulty. Reading rate at different interviews did not fluctuate with enough consistency or to a great enough extent to be considered a factor which could indicate the presence or absence of functional voice problems. However, habitual rate for characterization was considerably lower in all 173 subjects than their habitual reading rates. Furthermore, there was a decrease in habitual rate for characterization in seven out of the eight subjects between the beginning of the rehearsal period and the week of production . These observations would seem to indicate both a difference between the dynamics contributing to each of these rates and a contribu- tion made by the process of rehearsal which serves to decrease habitual rate for characterization in the actor. Pitch Range and Habitual Pitch.--In seven out of the eight subjects, a reduction in range accompanied an increase in demands made on the voice by participation in MaratLSade or in other productions and activities necessitating other than conversational use of the voice (acting classes, singing in chorus, etc.). The other subject (V) was involved in Marat/Sade more as a musician than as a vocal participant and even his range in- creased after the demands placed on his voice by the producti0n ceased. Therefore, range appears to be an extremely good indicator of the relative condition of the vocal mechanism of the actor. Furthermore, the extent of change in pitch range may very well be an indication of the extent of change in the condition of the vocal mechanism; three of the four sub- jects showing a loss of three half-tones or more at the second interview had concurrently pathological larynges. The ability of a subject to use a habitual pitch for characteriza- tion which is the same as or within one full tone of his optimum pitch does not seem to insure against the occurrence of functional voice problems. Five of the eight subjects were found to be using a habitual pitch for characterization which was the same as or corresponded very closely to 174 their Optimum pitches. Nevertheless, at least two of these subjects encountered functional difficulties. Furthermore, although two of the three actors using a habitual pitch for characterization which deviated greatly from their optimum pitch did encounter some vocal problems, the third subject did not. Therefore, use of a pitch for characterization which is the same as or extremely close to optimum pitch does not seem to be able to insure the male actor against the occurrence of functional voice problems. Changes in Voice Quality.—-In this study, deterioration of voice qual- ity as perceived by a panel of judges did not consistently indicate functional voice problems. The judges identified voice quality as being worst when a laryngologist evaluated the condition of the vocal mechanism as worst for only three out of the eight subjects. Because three other subjects experienced so little change in physical condition of the larynx during the course of the study, however, only Subjects III and VIII need be considered notable exceptions to this trend. However, lack of con- sistency between quality evaluations made for reading and for conversa- tional speech was evident for seven out of eight subjects. Furthermore, some subjects showed only minimal quality differences between interviews. Therefore, results obtained in this particular area were very inconclu- sive. The way in which an actor alters his vocal characteristics for pur- poses of characterization does not seem to be related to the occurrence of functional problems. For example, Subject I made his voice husky for purposes of characterization, whereas Subject III made his voice fast in 175 rate, loud in volume, high in pitch, and nasal in quality; yet, both of them exhibited somewhat similar physical and vocal symptoms of abuse at the time of the second interview--a decrease in the maximum duration of phonation, a reduction in pitch range, a decrease in breathing efficiency, a deterioration in habitual quality for conversational speech, and a discoloration of the vocal folds. 0n the other hand, Subject IV made his voice loud, harsh, and denasal for purposes of characterization, whereas Subject V simply relied on his habitually high-pitched and nasal voice; nevertheless, these subjects shared an absence of a number of symptoms of functional voice problems (Neither suffered a decrease in breathing efficiency or in duration of phonation. Neither suffered a deterioration in voice quality for reading or speaking. Neither showed physical symp- toms of abnormality at the time of the second interview on the basis of an indirect laryngoscopy.). Therefore, the type of alterations which an actor induces in his voice for purposes of characterization does not seemito have any direct relationship to the type or extent of voice problems which he may encounter. Size and Demands of Roles Portraygd.--The actual size of the role in number of lines and the extent of vocal and physical demands seem to contribute to the presence or absence of vocal problems in a number of different ways. The presence of major problems in Subjects I, II, and III and the absence of major problems in Subjects V, VII, and VIII would sup- port a relationship between actual size of role and extent of vocal and physical demands and the occurrence of functional problems. However, the reversal of this pattern in Subjects IV and VI indicates that type of voice 176 usage by the actor is also a contributor the presence or absence of voice problems. In any case, it is worthy to note that the major actors play- ing the mp§£_vocally demanding parts and the two inmates playing somewhat vocally demanding parts consistently showed more symptoms of functional voice problems than did the other members of their respective sub-groups. However, the lack of clearly discernible and consistent differences be- tween the experimental group and the control group would tend to indi- cate one of two things: either the differences in vocal demands made on the sub-groups themselves were not great enough to cause a difference in results obtained, or the amount or extent of vocal demands was not instru- mental in precipitating the occurrence of vocal problems. Production Log.--The director of this production was not particularly "vocally-oriented." As a result, he did not provide voice coaching for the actors which would prevent them from forcing their voices or yelling, nor did he make them aware of personal vocal deficiencies or possible hygienic measures. Therefore, the production log turned out to be more valuable as a documentation of voice difficulties encountered by the sub- jects during the process of rehearsal than as a record of directorial contributions to the presence or absence of functional voice difficulties in the actors. Selective Analysis of Combined Results Thus far, Chapter IV has presented specific results obtained through the analysis of large groups of data. Within this body of results, certain findings emerge as being of primary importance to the overall 177 purpose of this study. These findings tend to group themselves into four basic areas: Causes of Functional Voice Problems in the Male Actor, Symptoms of Functional Voice Problems in the Male Actor, The Actor's Use of Voice for Characterization, and The Relation of Vocal Hygiene to Func- tional Problems in the Male Actor. Causes of Functional Voice Problems in the Male.Actor.--The present study seems to indicate that there are at least four factors which may contribute to the occurrence of functional voice problems in the male actor: l) a change (usually to high chest or clavicular)in the location of major muscular activity for breathing during characterization; 2) an upward deviation of the habitual pitch used for characteriza- tion from the actor's computed optimum pitch; 3) the extent of performance demands upon the actor's voice; 4) the use of voice in rehearsals and performances during respira- tory infections. Symptoms of Functional Voice Problems in the Male Actor.--In this study, the presence of functional voice problems in the male actor seems to be most consistently symptomized by: l) a reduction in breathing efficiency; 2) a reduction in maximum duration of phonation; 3) a reduction of pitch range; 4) a deterioration in the physical condition of the larynx. However, the presence of functional voice problems in the male actor seems Mto be symptomized by eithera lowering of habitual pitch for reading or 178 conversational speech or a deterioration of voice quality as evaluated by a panel of judges. Actor's Use of Voice for Characterization.--A number of findings revealed the specific nature of the actor's use of voice for purposes of characterization: l) Habitual rate for characterization in all eight subjects was consistently lower than habitual rate for reading; 2) Habitual rate for characterization decreased in seven out of the eight subjects from the beginning of the rehearsal period to the time of production; 3) Habitual pitch for reading and Speaking was lower than computed optimum pitch for all eight subjects. 4) Habitual pitch for characterization was the same as or within one full tone of computed optimum pitch for five subjects, and noticeably higher' than computed optimum pitch for the other three. 5) The ability of an actor to use a habitual pitch for characteri- zation which is the same as or within one full note of his optimum pitch does not seem to insure against the occurrence of functional voice problems. 6) The particular way in which an actor alters his vocal characteris- tics for purposes of characterization does not seem to be related in a consistent manner to the occurrence of functional voice problems. 7) The fact that an actor changes his location of major muscular activity during breathing for purposes of characterization may be a function of his acting training or acting experience. Relation of Vocal Hygiene to Functional Problems in the Male Actor.-- An examination of a number of principles of vocal hygiene and the effects of performance on the actors voice revealed that: l) The smokers experienced more vocal difficulties as a group because of the performance demands made on their voices than did the non- smokers; 179 2) The use of individually styled warm-ups did not seem to provide consistent insurance against the occurrence of functional voice problems in the male actor; 3) Vocal rest seems to be effective in eliminating a number of the symptoms of functional problems in the male actor. Many of the findings outlined here seem worthy of further research and investigation. More specific discussion of implications for such research follows in the final chapter of this study. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Up to the time of this study, research and opinions offered by specialists in speech pathology, medicine, music, psychology, and theatre were available only through a number of different sources and had not, in the vast majority of cases, been organized with the actor in focal point. Although the need for information regarding the actor's voice was and is still great, such research and qualified opinion were scattered, contra- dictory, and incomplete. The present study was undertaken in the hope of beginning to fill some important gaps. Perhaps it has been even more successful in its direction than in its actual content. Although, as a descriptive study, it has not provided any empirically validated answers, it may have succeeded in asking many of the right questions. Therefore, its chief value may very well be heuristic: it has 1) shown that research can be focussed around the actor's voice in relation to performance, 2) indicated how much further research is needed, and 3) hopefully begun to lay the foundation for some of that research. The purpose of this final chapter has been briefly stated as an over- all summary of the study itself, an interpretation of the results obtained, and a discussion of the implications of both the actual study and its results for future voice research. 180 181 Summar An investigation of the actor's voice in relation to his participa— tion in production was conducted in order to serve two basic purposes. Its primary purpose was to answer a number of basic questions relating to vocal characterization, namely: 1) In what respects and to what extent does an actor alter his vocal characteristics for purposes of public performance or characterization? 2) What effects do such voice alterations have on the condition of the actor's throat, larynx, and voice? 3) Is there a relationship among: vocal training, acting experience, the demands of a particular characterization; and the nature and severity of any voice problems occurring during the course of the preparation and production of a full-length show? Its secondary purpose was to investigate the possibility of extablishing a basis and a methodology which could be applied in future research on the actor's voice. Methodology.--The methodology for the present study centered around a series of examinations and interviews conducted in conjunction with the Michigan State University Performing Arts Company production of Marat[Sade. Eight actors in this production, four of whom were playing the most demanding roles and four of whom were cast as inmates, were ques- tioned, tested, and physically examined at the beginning of the rehearsal period, during the week of production, and two weeks after the show had closed. At each interview, data were collected which were subsequently analyzed to determine medical, educational, and vocational history for each subject. In addition, the physical condition of the throat and larynx was ascertained, and an evaluation of the following vocal characteristics was 182 made: breathing efficiency, use of hard glottal attack, habitual reading rate and pitch, voice quality, loCation of major breathing activity, extent of tension or relaxation, maximum duration of phonation, and pitch range. Readings from the script of Marat/Sade were also analyzed in order to determine breathing efficiency, use of hard glottal attack, habitual reading rate and pitch, voice quality, and location of major breathing activity for each actor during characterization. Data obtained at all twenty-four interviews were tabulated and compared by the researcher with the help of two voice specialists and a panel of twenty judges from the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University. Master tapes were made in order to facilitate various analyses of data; individual samples on each tape were randomized in order to maximize objectivity in various analyses (see Table 1). Because this was conceived as a descriptive study, the empirical validity and reliability of its hypotheses were never fully ascertained. However, analysis of collected data did enable the researcher to obtain a number of results. Results.--Results obtained in the present study have been individually discussed in Chapter IV. In this summary, for purposes of greater clarity, they have been divided into three general areas: 1) the ways in which the actor alters his voice during characterization; 2) possible causes of functional voice problems in the male actor; and, 3) symptoms of functional voice problems in the male actor. The present study succeeded in revealing a number of differences be- tween the habitual speaking voices of the actors and the voices which they 183 used during characterization: 1) All of the actors altered their voices in one or more of the following ways during characterization: change in habitual pitch, rate, or loudness; change in voice quality; and change in location of major breathing activity. 2) All eight subjects used a habitual pitch for reading and speaking 3) throughout the study which was lower than their computed optimum pitches, seven considerably so. However, during characterization, two subjects used habitual pitches which were the same as their optimum pitches and three more deviated from their optimum pitches by no more than one full tone. The three remaining subjects devi- ated more substantially from their optimum pitches during charac- terization, all in an upward direction. The process of rehearsal was related to a noticeable decrease in the habitual rate for characterization, regardless of the size of type of role being played, in all but one subject. No direct relationship could be established between the extent and type of voice alterations made by the actor during characterization and the extent and type of functional voice problems encountered. At least one actor whose voice was under heavy usage did not develop serious symp- toms of functional voice misuse, whereas one actor whose voice was under far less performance usage did develop such symptoms. This fact would seem to indicate that the relationship was dependent upon more factors than the size of the role portrayed. Such factors appear to include: 1) 2) Possible Predisposing Factors: the majority of subjects showing organic symptoms of functional misuse as early as the first inter- view encountered further difficulties during the course of the study. The majority of subjects showing few or no organic symp— toms during the first interview encountered fewer symptoms during the course of the data collection. The smokers experienced more vocal difficulties during the time of heavy production demands on their voices than did the non-smokers in the present study. Location of Major Breathing Activity: three of the four subjects switching into clavicular breathing during characterization had a high incidence of symptoms of functional voice problems when their voices were getting maximum performance usage. 184 3) Vocal Misuse During Performance: three subjects showed improve- ment in both the physical condition of the larynx and vocal per- formance when they had an opportunity to rest their voices following the close of Marat/Sade. Another subject was in rela- tively serious vocal trouble at the time of production but got no voice rest between that time and the third set of interviews two weeks later. This subject showed a further deterioration in the physical condition of the throat and larynx and exhibited vocal symptoms of functional misuse as well. These results tend to indicate a relationship between misuse of the voice during performance and the occurrence of functional voice problems in the male actor. Finally, this study revealed that a number of occurrences may be symp- tomatic of the beginnings or the presence of functional voice problems in the male actor: l) A small but observable decrease in breathing efficiency as meas- ured in number of breaths needed to get through the oral reading of a uniform selection was directly related to other symptoms of functional voice problems in five of the eight subjects. 2) In four out of the eight subjects, a decrease in maximum duration of phonation accompanied other symptoms of functional voice prob- lems. Only minor differences in duration occurred in most of these cases, however. 3) Although the difference was only one-half tone in some instances, gll_of the subjects evidenced some change in pitch range during the course of the data collection—~a decrease as demands made on their performing voices increased, or an increase as demands made on their performing voices decreased. In addition, three of the four actors having the greatest demands made on their voices evi- denced a greater extent of change in range than did the members of the control group. 4) This study revealed no measurable alteration in either habitual pitch or voice quality for reading or speaking as the demands made on the performing voice increased or decreased or in the presence or absence of other symptoms of functional voice problems. Conclusions Analysis of results obtained led to a number of conclusions related to the original questions and hypotheses which were the basis of this study. These conclusions might conceivably be validated by future 185 empirical research. They are selectively discussed here according to the order in which the questions and hypotheses were originally stated in Chapter I. Questions.--The three questions originally stated in Chapter I have been answered by the present study as follows: 1) It seems quite possible to determine both quantitatively and qual- itatively in what respects and to what extent the actor alters his vocal characteristics for purposes of performing publically or creating a particular characterization. 2) Voice alterations induced for purposes of characterization may affect both the physical condition of the actor's vocal mechanism and the characteristics of his voice. 3) If there j§_a relationship between previous vocal training, previ- ous acting experience, the demands of a particular characterization, and the presence, the nature, and the severity of any objectively measurable voice problems occurring during the course of the. preparation and production of a full-length show; then this rela- tionship is a very complex one, which was not made explicit by the methodology of the present study. Hypotheses.--Most of the hypotheses as originally stated in Chapter I proved to be generally sound. However, some of them must now be qualified somewhat on the basis of the results obtained in this study. For example, this study succeeded in showing that there is a demon- strable relationship between the demands of a specific characterization and the possibility of functional voice problems in the male actor and that this relationship was directly affected by the basic physical condi- tion of the actor's vocal mechanism. However, the efficiency or lack of efficiency with which an actor habitually uses his voice proved more 186 difficult to assess than was originally anticipated.1 Therefore, a rela- tionship could not be demonstrated between such efficiency and the occur- rence of functional voice problems as a result of the demands of charac- terization. The type and extent of vocal alterations induced for purposes of characterization seems to be related to the occurrence of functional voice problems in the male actor. This relationship is a complex one and varies from one individual to another. A number of factors which might affect such a relationship were revealed in the present study, including a change (usually to high chest or clavicular) in the location of major muscular activity for breathing during characterization and the use of voice in rehearsals and performances during respiratory infection. The use of a pitch for characterization which differed greatly from the optimum pitch did not consistently foster the occurrence of functional voice problems, nor did the use of pitch for characterization close to or the same as optimum pitch insure against their occurrence. The kind and extent of quality alteration induced by the actor did not seem to have a direct relationship to the type and extent of functional voice difficulties he encountered either; once more, individual differences seemed more instru- mental than particular artistic choice. An actor's history of voice or music training and his previous acting training and experience,did not prove to be directly related to the 1Neither the more efficient breathers nor those in the group using habitual pitches for characterization closer to their computed optimum pitches fared noticeably better than the other subjects in the avoidance of functional voice problems, for example. 187 presence, the nature, and the severity of any functional voice problems. Because of differences in constitutional factors, personal habits, and involvement in other performance activities, the occurrence of functional voice problems in the participants could not be predicted with absolute certainty but only recorded as having occurred. On the basis of this study, it could be further concluded that generally, the greater the demands of a particular characterization on the voice of an actor who is untrained or inadequately trained vocally, the greater will be the likelihood of potential functional voice problems. However, the relationship is more complicated than a simple matter of quantity; the mgppgr in which the actor employs his voice for characteriza- tion is also an important factor in his acquisition or avoidance of func- tional voice problems. If and when the performance demands placed on the actor's voice are lessened or eliminated, it seems as if both the physical condition of his vocal mechanism and the characteristics of his own voice improve (i.e., return toward normalcy). Finally, certain symptoms of functional voice problems seemed to be more directly related than others to the male actor. The presence of functional voice problems in the male actor seemed to be most consistently symptomized by a reduction in maximum duration of phonation, a decrease in the number of half tones comprising the vocal pitch range, and a de- terioration in the physical condition of the larynx. However, the presence of functional voice problems in the male actor seemed pgt_to be symptomized by a lowering of habitual pitch for reading or conversational speech, a deterioration of voice quality as evaluated by a panel of judges, or a change in the number of hard glottal attacks used by the actor when reading aloud. 188 Implications for Future Research Hopefully, future research in this area will resolve some of the questions left unanswered by the present study. In this regard, repeti- tion of a study similar to this one on another production or with female subjects would be quite valuable. If such a study were to be undertaken, the following methodological changes might improve the accuracy or reli- ability of the results: 1) 2) 3) 4) loudness might be made a variable rather than controlled through- out the data collection, in order to ascertain whether force is a key determinant in the presence or absence of the occurrence of functional voice difficulties; participation in all productions except for the one in which all the subjects have been cast in common should be strictly for- bidden, so that positive findings could be attributed definitely to an actor's extent and type of participation in the development of one specific characterization; a production should be selected in which there is as striking a difference in the size of the roles and vocal demands as possible between the experimental group and the control group in order to determine as precisely as possible the effects of both role size and vocal demands on the voice of the actor; more effective methodology is needed for evaluating quality changes in the non-clinical voice. It would also be useful to ascertain whether judges can more accurately evaluate voice quality in actors from spontaneous conversational speech samples than from reading samples; the present methodology should be modified into an empirical study in order to scientifically validate the relationship between a decrease in breathing efficiency, a decrease in maximum duration of phonation, and the presence of functional voice problems in the male actor. Empirical methodology might also reveal certain other relationships which the present study did not succeed in identi- fying. Further research is also indicated by some of the results obtained in the present study. Firstly, the difference between the rate results 189 achieved in Goates' study2 and this one would seem to necessitate further research in order to resolve the seeming disparity. Secondly, a study is needed of the actor's use of breathing for dramatic effect; it is important to his future training to ascertain the relationship between breathing location and efficiency and the occurrence of functional voice problems. Thirdly, an investigation is needed of the relationship between a director's knowledge of and insistence upon good voice production and a lack of functional voice problems in the male actor. This study has also raised a number of questions worthy of research in future studies. The most important of these questions may be the most general: What are the essential ingredients of a good voice training program for the actor? and What are the most effective methods of achiev- ing maximum flexibility, durability, and creativity in the actor's use of voice? In a very important article about retraining the damaged voice, Briess has stated that vocal abuse is virtually unavoidable today, especially for professional voice users. He therefore concluded that no therapy can be considered complete without a phase designed to widen abuse tolerance. In his opinion, all muscles must be overtreated so that they can withstand abuse. The patient must also learn to feel hyperfunction in laryngeal muscles due to abuse or emotional factors, so that he can prevent serious damage from occurring.3 Future research relating to the use of 2Goates, "Pitch Changes in Actors," p. 49. Goates reported that actors' rates for characterization increased during the process of rehear- sal, whereas in the present study there was a considerable decrease in the rates of seven out of eight subjects. 3F. Bertram Briess, "Voice Therapy, Part II: Essential Treatment Phases of Specific Laryngeal Muscle Disfunction," A.M.A. Archives of Otolaryngology, LXIX (January, 1959), 68. 190 such overtreatment with special regard to the actor could be invaluable to the success of his professional work. It would be equally useful to determine whether a reliable way could be found to assess the relative merits of various systems presently used to train the actor's voice.“ The set of criteria eventually evolved for such an assessment must include the absence of organic evidence of func- tional misuse of the voice and the lack of deterioration in range, breath- ing efficiency, and quality even under the strain of heavy performance usage of the actor's voice. It might also prove valuable to ascertain whether gpy_training, even if it were in some ways deficient, is of greater benefit to the performing actor than no voice training at all. More specific questions relating to voice training include the following: 1) Can specialized training prepare an actor for the demands of a particular role or theatre? Can intensive general training prepare an actor for the vocal demands of gpy role he may be asked to play in any theatre? Lessac believes so; it would be of great value to establish a solid scientific basis for his opinion that artificial or even unnatural use of the voice can be practiced without fear of damaging the vocal mechanism once basic kinesthetic controls are established.5 2) A number of practicing voice Specialists believe strongly in the value of a vocal warm-up before performance. Further research is needed in order to determine whether the use of such a warm-up would indeed enable the actor's voice to function more efficiently. If this proves to be the case, the basic ingredients of such a performance warm-up would then have to be determined. 3) Is the location of major breathing activity important? Most specialists are of the opinion that any breathing location is acceptable except for clavicular breathing. If this is true, “The Warren Method and the Lessac System are two major examples. 5Lessac, The Use and Traininggof the Human Voice, pp. xvii-xviii. 191 must the actor avoid clavicular breathing during characterization at the risk of damaging his own vocal mechanism? 4) Are there techniques of physical relaxation which can be used effectively by the actor while in performance in order to improve his voice production or to avoid hypertense phonation? In other words, can the actor be trained to channel his tensions or to eliminate harmful tension which could otherwise interfere with effective voice usage? 5) Is the relationship between voice and emotion an immutable one, or can it be controlled by the actor so that he in turn can retain control over his voice and vocal characteristics without sacrific- ing believability? 6) What constitutes projection? Can the actor be trained to project his voice in such a way as to bypass or eliminate any need for force in the process? 7) Are there cues the actor can use to monitor his voice which are reliable even during colds, fatigue, or respiratory infections? The Need for More Complete Understanding In order for these questions to be answered, intensive research is needed. And yet, voice training in this country is treated as if the answers to many of these questions were proven fact rather than "folklore" or educated conjecture. Voice research is still in its embryonic stages with regard to the Special problems of the actor; yet, the need for special pre-professional and in-service voice training are very great right now. Despite a widespread and immediate critical need for answers to both philosophic and curricular questions, more experimentation is needed on functional voice problems and on relationships between them and the demands of performance on the voice of the actor before an "ideal" voice training sequence for actors can be evolved. To isolate just one example, a practice which medical specialists have emphasized quite strongly, the pre-professional voice 1 9'2 analysis,6 is by no means common practice in our training institutions. An actor must be fully prepared torely on his voice in order to earn his living for the rest of hisfprofessional life; yet, most young actors never consult a medical throat specialist until something has gone seriously wrong with that voice, by which time it is often too late. The thought of how many young actors could be better trained or even directed into different areas of performance because of potentially serious voice problems is staggering. So often, training--because it is in some way deficient or too taxing on an inadequate mechanism--is responsible for serious voice difficulties which could have been minimized or perhaps even prevented by an initial screening and examination. A final area of direct importance to future voice training for the actor in this country is the training of specialists to handle this multi- faceted responsibility. At the present time, there is a paucity of well- trained and qualified theatre voice specialists. Although there are a number of excellent exceptions to be found, many teachers of theatre Speech and voice "fell into" their jobs in order to fill a need, rather than being systematically trained for a profeSsion° Some are retired actors, having no specific training in voice other than their own experi- ence, whereas others are simply speech teachers who have decided to specialize by working with young actors in university theatre programs. Speech pathologists who work with actors tend to minimize the importance of sub-clinical vocal symptoms and lack the theatre background and knowl- edge to provide the actor with sound, professionally useful advice. 6Brodnitz, Keep_Your Voice Healthy, pp. 64-65. 193 On the other hand, many theatre people specializing in voice have invalu— able knowledge of the actor's professional needs but lack good clinical background and therefore frequently fail to recognize or diagnose symp- toms of functional misuse. Speech clinicians approach their classwork with actors as a matter of retraining the damaged voice rather than crea- tively training the good voice, whereas theatre specialists regard many voices as normal which actually need corrective retraining before crea- tive training should be undertaken. The training of theatre voice and speech Specialists is of vital importance to the future of actor training in this country. The voice therapist who decides to specialize in work with actors must have solid artistic training and background, a real understanding of the profes- sional vocal needs and working conditions of the actor. The professional actor will strenuously object to advice which may be quite sound clinical- ly but which is contradictory to the style or needs of a Specific role or production. The voice specialist also needs a better than average speaking voice which is virtually free of substandardisms or regional- isms. This may seem an overstatement of the obvious at first glance, but actors are frequently quite dismayed at the voice and diction of the specialists whom they have consulted for professional assistance. The voice Specialist must also have an accurate idea of the standards which the actor is seeking to attain. If, as a speech pathologist, his vocal frame of reference is limited to a group of abnormal voices, com- munication with an actor seeking to improve or eliminate what seem like non-problems in an already attractive and somewhat flexible voice will be difficult and non-productive. 194 The theatre specialist seeking to train the actor vocally must com- bine the best of his artistic and creative abilities with a solid foun- dation in anatomy and physiology, principles of dynamic relaxation and balanced activity, and clinical voice pathology. Once a voice has succumbed to bad treatment, it cannot be restored by either rest alone or conventional voice teaching. To expect those who have been trained solely in theatre or music to be able to diagnose and treat complicated mechanical malfunction in a highly complex vocal apparatus is unreason- able. On the other hand, the attempt to diagnose and treat malfunction in tone production by observing the action of the vocal cords via in- direct laryngosc0py is also quite inadequate.7 Ideally then, the train- ing of specialists for work with actors would incorporate contributions from voice pathology, laryngeal medicine, psychology, music, and theatre. A synthesis of these contributions, so rare in voice teachers cur- rently practicing, is not difficult once two things have been accomplished: l) the scientific foundation must be laid and the preliminary organization completed; and, 2) interested and qualified individuals who are willing to train their gyp_voices, bodies, and intellects before teaching others to do so must be located and brought together for that purpose. Murphy, in an excellent text on functional voice disorders, has described what he believes to be the ideal voice clinician; his definition needs be expanded and amended ever so slightly in order to make it an ideal definition of the teacher of voice technique for actors as well: The voice clinician then, may be a speech pathologist certified by the American Speech and Hearing Association, a laryngologist with 7Zerffi, "Voice Reeducation," p. 526. 195 a special interest and training in vocal rehabilitation, or a Specially trained singing teacher. Perhaps the ideal voice clin- ician would be a speech pathologist with training in psychiatry who was also a competent otolaryngologist with a good musical ear and background. Yet even this wouldn't be quite enough unless he were also something special as a human being. He would have to be inquisitive, acceptant and creative, vital, honest with self and others, and not opinionated. He would be devoted to the process rather than the act, to the person rather than the part-function. He would have to be authoritative when the situation demanded and permissive at other times. He would need to be attentive without being overaffectionate, sociable without being unduly familiar, professionally committed but personally interested. There would have to be love in him but no need for the case's love. He would need to be objectively problem-oriented but subjectively person- oriented. Holding up hope, he must also point out limitations. He would keep studying the developments in his field and he would keep working at his own evolution toward becoming something more than he is, both as a clinician and as a person. As a professional individual he exists for the patient. And to the patient, without ever verbalizing it, or perhaps without ever realizing it, he con- veys thig thought: "I have in my mind an image of what you can become." aMurphy, Functional Voice Disorders, pp. 123-124. APPENDICES A-I. A-III. A-IV. A-V. A-VI. A-VII. A-VIII. A-IX. APPENDIX A FORMS USED IN COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Case History Questionnaire--First Interview Case History Questionnaire-~Second Interview Case History Questionnaire-~Third Interview Examiner's Checklist-~Breathing Location and Physical Tension Physician's Checklist--Indirect Laryngosc0pic Examinations Procedural Outline--First Interview Procedural Outline--Second Interview Procedural Outline--Third Interview Judges' Information and Voice Evaluation Forms 196 197 A-I. Case History Questionnaire--First Interview* I. General Information Name: y’_ Address: Phone Number: Date of Examination: Time:______ Date of Birth: Age: Sex: Marital State: Occupation: II. Family_History Father Mother Sibling Sibling Sibling Grand- Spouse parents Name: ,Age: Nationality: Education: Occupation: Health: Speech Defects: Physical Defects: Nervous Disorders: Smoking: Marital Historyg, *All case history questionnaires were completed by the examiner while inter- viewing the subjects. The questionnaires were adapted from Van Riper, Speech Correction: Principles and Methods (4th ed.), pp. 492ff; and 'Lu'chsingerand Arnold, Voice--§peech--Language, pp. 163-164, 309. ‘ i *..ll. l 198 A-l. Case History Questionnaire--First Interview (continued) III. Medical History Place of Birth: Where have you lived since then? Illnesses: Measles: Mumps: Chicken Pox: Mononucleosis: Scarlet Fever: Pneumonia: Asthma: Other Respiratory Diseases: History of Serious Injury: History of Surgery: Allergies: Continuous or Fluctuating? Hearing: Tonsils: Adenoids: Whooping Cough: Other: Orthodontia: V 7 Present Condition: Present State of Health: Height and Weight: Presently on Any Medication? Smoking: IV. Educational Develgpment.and'TraininggiActing,Experience and Training School History: School ' Location Dates Attended Elementary: Junior High: High_School: College: Graduate School: Other Schools: 199 A-I. Case History Questionnaire--First Interview (continued) Extra-Curricular Activities: Vocational Experience: Hobbies and Interests: Speech and Voice Training: Where: Length of Course(s): Description of Course(s): What method of voice was taught? Were you taught a warm-up regimen? Subjective Evaluation of Course(s): Vocal Music Training: Where: Length of Course(s): Description of Course(s): What method was taught? Did your teacher have a preference for open or covered tone? Was your pitch range increased as a result of this training? Subjective Evaluation of Course(s): Acting Training: Where: Length of Course(s): Description of Course(s): Subjective Evaluation of Course(s): 200 A-I. Case History Questionnaire--First Interview (continued) Dance and/or Physical Education Training: Where: Length of Course(s): Description of Course(s): Subjective Evaluation of Course(s): Acting Experience: Show Type Role ‘ Location. Length of Run Have you ever used specific vocal, physical, or relaxation exerCISes as a warm-up for rehearsals or performance? If so, please describe your usual regimen. A-I. VI. 201 Case History Questionnaire--First Interview (continued) History of Vocal Development and Voice Problems: Have you ever felt as though you were losing your voice? How often? Have you ever lost your voice completely? When? For how long? Describe the circumstances surrounding the loss of‘VEice: Have you ever consulted a throat specialist? Why? When? Have you ever taken medication for a voice problem? Have you had any surgery on your throat? Does your voice fluctuate By the time of day? . Certain days of the week? Certain times of the year?T . When you are tired? . When you are nervous? . When you are ill? 9. With amount of normal—use? mm an on» When you wake up in the morning, does it take a while for your throat to clear up? If so, how long must you wait? Do you sing? Do you notice more problems after Singing than after talkihg? Do you notice more problems after acting than after talking? Do you clear your throat often? Do you cough often? Does coughing or clearing the throat help to alleviate the symptoms? Does your throat get dry? When? Does your voice have a tendency to tire eaSiiy? Psycholpgical Evaluation‘ How would you describe your personality? What problems cause you the most worry or tension (draft, money, grades, social life, etc.)? Nervous Habits: Sleeping Habits: How much sleep do you get per night, on the average? How long does it take you to fall asleep? Any difference during the run of a show? How much and what type of exercise do you normally get? A-II. 202 Case History Questionnaire--Second Interview Name: Date of Interview: Time of Interview: Condition of Health Since Last Interview: Good: Fair: Poor: If poor, specify the difficulty. Have you seen a doctor since our last interview? If yes, diagnosis: Extend of Other Voice-Involved Activities: Other Productions: Show and Type Rehearsal Schedule, Performances Times, and Routine Are you taking any classes involving voice this quarter? Employment: Present Condition of the Voice: Subjective Description: A-II. 203 Case History Questionnaire--Second Interview (continued) Have you felt lately as though you were losing your voice? Do you now feel that way? How often has this happened? HaS it happened on and off, or consistently? In your opinion, is this voice loss related ih’any way to the de- mands of the rehearsals for Marat/Sade? Any other contributing factors? Have you taken any medication or cough drops or throat lozenges because of a throat or voice problem in the last month? Has your voice been fluctuating with Time of Day Day of Week Particular Difficulty in Early Morning Particular Difficulty Late at Night Particular Difficulty during or after rehearsals Does the singing you do in this Show cause you any more trouble than the speaking? Have you had any trouble keeping the throat clear of phlegm, or due to a tickle in the throat or a cough? If yes, specify. Has your throat been dry? If so, what makes it get dry? Has your throat been sore? If so, when? Has your throat been tiring easily? What are your plans once Marat/Sade has closed? 204 A-III. Case History Questionnaire--Third Interview Name: Date of InterView: Time of Interview: Condition of Health Since Last Interview: Good: Fair: Poor: If poor, specify the difficulty. Have you seen a doctor since our last interview? If yes, diagnosis: RECORD OF OTHER CURRENT PRODUCTIONS: Show and Type Role and Type Period of Rehearsal Performances Subjective description of Use of Voice during the Past Two Weeks: Subjective Description of Present Condition of the Voice: 205 A-III. Case History Questionnaire-~Third Interview (continued) Have you had any trouble with your voice in the past two weeks? Have you felt lately as though you were losing your voice? When and how often has this happened? In your opinion, has your voice improved since the close of Marat/Sade? If so, in what way? Has the condition of your throat improved—Sihce the close of Marat/Sade? If so, in what way? Have you taken any medication or cough drops or throat lozenges because of a throat or voice problem in the last two weeks? Has your voice been fluctuating with Time of Day Day of Week Particular Difficulty in Early—Morning Particular Difficulty Late at Night Have you had any colds in the last two weeks? Have you had any allergy problems in the last two weeks? Have you had any trouble keeping the throat clear of phlegm? Have you had a tickle in your throat? Have you been coughing? Has your throat been dry? What makes it get dry? Has your voice been tiring easily? How much sleep have you been averaging per night, in the last two weeks? A-IV. 206 Name of Subject: Date of Observation: I. II. III. Location of Major Breathing Activity: Examiner's Checklist—-Breathing Location and Physical Tension* Diaphragmatic, Clavicular, or Central or Shoulder First Check Second Check Third Check Diaphragmatic, or Central General State of Tension or Relaxation: Direct Observation: Location of Major Breathing Activity During Characterization: Clavicular, or Shoulder First Check Second Check Very Tense (constant hyperactivity, figiting, stiff posture, dryness, etc.) Occasionally Tense (intermittent nervous symptoms) Average Generally Relaxed (easy posture, absence of tightness or hyperactivity) Extremely Relaxed (subject appears lethargic or fatigued) Limp Hand Test: Initially Very Tense. ConsciousTy (hand resists coming up, or stays up when released) Somewhat Tense (some resistance to manipulation) Relaxed (passive response to manipulation) Extremely Relaxed (hand responds like totally dead weight) *This form was completed by the researcher at each interview. 207 A-V. Physician's Checklist--Indirect Laryngoscopic Examinations* Subject's Name: Date of Laryngeal Examination: Examining Physician: Condition of Oral Cavity: Condition of Naso-Pharynx: Condition of Pharyngeal Area: redness: roughness: swelling: post-nasal drip: Condition of Larynx and Vocal Folds: Was the subject difficult to examine with the laryngeal mirror? Color of Vocal Folds: Position of Vocal Folds: Visible Blood Vessels: Mucous Deposits: Scar Tissue: Swelling: Appearance of Vibrating Edges: smooth: irregular (please describe): Adduction of Vibrating Edges: Evidence of Pathology: vocal nodes: contact ulcers: other: Comments, Diagrams, Etc.: *This form was completed by the consulting laryngologist at each examina- tion. 208 A-VI. Procedural Outline--First Interview EXAMINER CHORES TAPE SUBJECT CHORES -fill out questionnaire no 1. Case History--oral -observe location of major breathing activity -prepare equipment for vocal testing_ -note breathing pauses via yes 2. Vocal Testing Slash marks on script a. Read Grasham and Gooder pas- sage (2x) -observe general state of yes b. Read same passage while dimin- tension or relaxation ishin inflection to a mono- tone 2x) -get minimum of two minutes yes c. Discuss your feelings about of conversation the play, your own character, or your feelings about the trip to Ypsilanti State Mental Hospital -recheck state of tension yes d. Discuss the courses you will or relaxation be taking this quarter while diminishing vocal inflections to a monotone -check character breathing yes e. Read the following passages in efficiency and breathing character: location Marat: 39-40, 47-49, 109* De Sade: 43-45, 74, 128-129 Roux: 66-67, 100-101, 114 Duperret: 60, 80-81, 123 Inmates: 26-27,_47,_ll4 -recheck location of major yes f. Sing up the scale, from the breathing activity lowest note phonated to the highest note including falsetto (2x) -check VU meter to keep yes 9. Breathe deeply a few times; loudness relatively then phonate an gp_sound at a constant pitch four tones up from your lowest, holding it for as long as_possible ' -determine extent of no h. (Second part) Sit and relax relaxation via the completely limp hand test -make appointment no 3. Go for indirect laryngoscopic (immediately) examination *All page numbers refer to Peter Weiss, Marat/Sade (New York: Pocket Books, 1966). 209 A-VII. Procedural Outline--Second Interview EXAMINER CHORES TAPE SUBJECT CHORES -recorder no 1. Medical and Subjective Question- -observe location of major naire-~oral breathing activity -prepare equipment for vocal testing -note breathing pauses via yes 2. Vocal Testing slash marks on script a. Read Grasham and Gooder pas- sage (2x) -observe general state of yes b. Read same passage while dimin- tension or relaxation ishing inflection to a mono- toneg(2x) -get minimum of two minutes yes c. Discuss your own feelings of conversation about the character as they have evolved, and your tech- niques of portrayal or your preparation -recheck state of tension yes d. Discuss your feelings about or relaxation the play or this production while diminishing inflection to a monotone -check character breathing yes e. Read the following passages in efficiency and breathing character (take as much time location as you need to prepare): Marat: 39-40, 47-49, 109* de Sade: 43-45, 74, 128-129 Roux: 66-67, lOO-lOl, ll4 Duperret: 60, 80-8l, 123 Inmates: 26-27, 47,,114 —recheck location of yes f. Sing up the scale, from the major breathing activity lowest note phonated to the highest note including falset- to (2x) -check VU meter to keep yes 9. Breathe deeply a few times; loudness relatively exhale on an gp_sound at a constant pitch four tones up from your lowest, holding it for as long A_‘ as ppssible -determine extent of no h. (second part) Sit and relax relaxation via the limp completely hand test no 3. Indirect Laryngoscopic Examina- tion *All page numbers refer to Peter Weiss, Marat/Sade (New York: Books, 1966). Pocket 210 A-VIII° Procedural Outline--Third Interview EXAMINER CHORES TAPE SUBJECT CHORES -recorder no 1. Medical and Subjective Question- -observe location of major naire--oral breathing activity ~prepare equipment for vocal testing_ -note breathing pauses via yes 2. Vocal Testing slash marks on script a. Read Grasham and Gooder pas- sage (2x)y_ ~observe general state of yes b. Read same passage while di-. tension or relaxation minishing inflection to a monotone (2x) -get minimum of two minutes yes c. Discuss either what you have of conversation learned from working on this production, or your appraisal of its critical acceptance -recheck state of tension yes d. Discuss any benefits you or relaxation think you may have obtained from participating in this study, or discuss your plans for this summer while dimin- ishing inflection to a mono- tone -recheck location of yes e. Sing up the scale, from the major breathing activity lowest note phonated to the highest note including fal- setto(2x) -check VU meter to keep yes f. Breath deeply a few times; loudness relatively exhale on an pp sound at a constant pitch four tones up from your lowest, holding it for as long as pgssible -determine extent of no 9. (second part) Sit and relax relaxation via the limp completely hand test no 3. Indirect Laryngoscopic Examina- tion A-IX. I. II. 211 Judges' Information and Voice Evaluation Forms EvaluatinggJudge Information Name: Date: Educational Record: Date (or anticipated Degree Major College date) of Completion l. B.A. or 8.5. (circle one) 2. 3. Experiential Record: Number of years professional clinical experience: Number of years professional teaching experience: Teaching Certification: Yes No A.S.H.A. Certification: Yes No Instructions for Evaluations For the first set of evaluations, you will be listening to eight male subjects reading a uniform selection. Each subject will read the selection three times in succession. You as evaluator will have two major tasks: III. make A. Using the forms provided, evaluate each reading in terms of rate, loudness, pitch and quality as soon as you have heard it. B. After the third reading in each set, please rank them 1 (Best Voice Quality), 2 (Average), 3 (Worst Voice Quality). If you find it im- possible to make this judgment, you may rank them accordingly, e.g., 3-2-2 or l-l-2, etc. Definitions In order to make the quality evaluations as exact as possible, please use of the following definitions (adapted from Van Riper and Irwin, Voice and Articulation): harsh (or strident--tense, strained voice, low in pitch, hard in attack, a bit monotonous in inflection, and characterized by a glottal fry--raspy, rough. husky (or breathy)--characterized by a great deal of air wastage accom- panying phonation; often low in intensity or weak-sounding. hoarse--combination of husky and harsh (glottal fry, low-pitched, tense and strained, wasting air). hypernasal--excessively nasal or "whiny" voice characterized by too much nasal resonance. denasal--"stuffy" voice characterized by little or no nasal resona- tion. 212 A-IX. Judges' Information and Voice Evaluation Forms (continued) RATING FORM NUMBER 1* SPEAKER NUMBER Rating Instructions: On the scales below, l=Poor, 3=Average, and 5= Excellent. Please circle one numerical evaluation and, if applicable (low), checE one explanatory comment. FIRST READING SECOND READING THIRD READING RATE y), 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 .‘1_ 2 3 4 5 Too Slow: Too Slow: Too Slow: Too Fast: Too Fast: Too Fast: Monotonous: Monotonous: Monotonous: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: tOUDNESS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Too Irregular: Too Soft: Too Soft: Too Soft: Too Loud: Too Loud: Too Loud: Monotonous: Monotonous: Monotonous: Too Irregular: ~Too Irregular: Too Irregular: PITCH l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 Too High: Too High: Too High: Too Low: Too Low: Too Low: Monotonous: Monotonous: Monotonous: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: — fl — QUALITY 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Harsh: Harsh: Harsh: Husky: Husky: Husky: Hoarse: Hoarse: Hoarse: Hypernasal: Hypernasal: Hypernasal: ‘ Denasal: Denasal: Denasal: ;RANKING THE READINGS: l=Best Voice Quality 2=Average Voice Quality 3=Worst Voice Quality First Reading: Second Reading: Third Reading: Additional Comments: *Adapted from Johnson, Darley, and Spriestersbach, Diagnostic Methods in Speech Pathology, p. 78. *— #51.“ 213 A-IX. Judges' Information and Voice Evaluation Forms (continued) RATING FORM NUMBER 2 SPEAKER NUMBER Rating Instructions: On the scales below, l=Poor, 3=Average, and 5=Excellent. Please circle one numerical evaluation and, if applicable (low), check one explanatory comment. FIRST DISCUSSION SECOND DISCUSSION THIRD DISCUSSION RATE 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Too Slow: Too Slow: . Too Slow: Ibo Fast: Too Fast: Too Fast: Monotonous: Monotonous: Monotonous: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: LOUDNESS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Too Soft: Too Soft: Too Soft: Too Loud: Too Loud: Too Loud: Monotonous: Monotonous: Monotonous: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: PITCH 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Too High: Too High: Too High: Too Low: Too Low: Too Low: Monotonous: Monotonous: Monotonous: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: Too Irregular: # — — QUALITY l 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Harsh: Harsh: Harsh: Husky: Husky: Husky: Hoarse: Hoarse: Hoarse: Hypernasal: Hypernasai: Hypernasal: Denasal: Denasal: Denasal: RANKING THE DISCUSSIONS: l=Best Voice Quality 2=Average Voice Quality 3=Worst Voice Quality First Sample: Second Sample: Third Sample: Additional Comments: 214 A-IX. Judges' Information and Voice Evaluation Forms (continued) RATING FORM NUMBER 3 SPEAKER NUMBER Instructions: In this evaluation, you will hear eight actors read their lines in character from Marat/Sade. For each selection, please describe as accurately as you can, the voice you hear, by checking gll_labels which apply (at least one in each cate- gory), and by adding whatever descriptive comments you wish. RATE: Slow: Medium: Fast: Monotonous: Irregular: Other: (Please describe) LOUDNESS: Soft: Medium: Loud: Monotonous: Irregular: Other: (Please describe) PITCH: Low: Medium: High: Monotonous: Irregular: Other: (Please describe) QUALITY: Harsh: Husky: Hoarse: Hypernasal: Nondescript: Rich, Full: ADDITIONAL COMMENTS: APPENDIX 8 MATERIALS RECORDED DURING COLLECTION OF DATA B-I. Uniform Reading Selection B-II. Selections from MaratlSade Read by the Actors l. Jean-Paul Marat --pages 39-40: "Now it's happening. . ." --pages 47-49: "They settled down among their treasures . . ." --page 109: "Our country is in danger . . ." 2. Marquis de Sade --pages 43-45: “Remember how Damiens died . . ." --page 74: "In September when I saw . . ." --pages 128-129: "Marat, what are all your pamphlets . . ." 3. Jacques Roux --pages 66-67: "Pick up your arms . . ." --pages 100-101: "Woe to the man who is different. --page ll4: "Look what's happening. . ." 4. Duperret --page 60: "Dearest Charlotte you must return . . ." --pages 80-81: "One day it will come . . ." —-page 123: "Charlotte awaken from your nightmare . . . 5. Inmates --pages 26-27: "We've got rights the right to starve . . ." --page 47: "The kings are our dear fathers . . ." --page ll4: Marat Marat Marat Marat . . ." 215 216 B-I. Uniform Reading Selection George Bernard Shaw's successful play, Pygmalion, has been produced in legitimate theater and motion pictures, and asiMy Fair Lady in musical comedy. In his preface, Shaw said: "The English have no respect for their language, and will not teach their children to speak it. They spell it so abominably that no man can teach himself what it sounds like. It is impossible for an Englishman to open his mouth without making some “JR "'F.u:3, 'I. .a-Illm' ..‘ other Englishman hate or despise him. German and Spanish are accessible to foreigners: English is not accessible even to Englishmen. The re- former England needs today is an energetic phonetic enthusiast: that is why I have made such a one the hero of a popular play. There have been heroes of that kind crying in the wilderness for many years past. . . . Finally, and for the encouragement of people troubled with accents that cut them off from all high employment, I may add that the change wrought by Professor Higgens in the flower-girl is neither impossible nor uncommon. The modern concierge's daughter who fulfills her ambition by playing the Queen of Spain in Ruy Blas at the Theatre Francais is only one of the many thousands of men and women who have Sloughed off their native dialects and acquired a new tongue. But the thing has to be done scientifically, or the last state of the aspirant may be worse than the first. An honest and natural slum dialect is more tolerable than the attempt of a phonetical- ly untaught person to imitate the vulgar dialect of the golf club; and I am sorry to say that in spite of the efforts of our Royal Academy of Dram- atic Art, there is still too much sham golfing English on our stage and too little of the noble English of Forbes Robertson."' *Grasham and Gooder, Improving_Your Speech, pp. 8-9. 217 B-II. Selections from Marat[Sade Read by the Actors l. Jean-Paul Marat --pages 39-40:* Now it's happening and you can't stop it happening The people used to suffer everything now they take their revenge You are watching that revenge and you don't remember that you drove the people to it Now you protest but it's too late to start crying over spilt blood What is the blood of these aristocrats compared with the blood the people Shed for you Many of them had their throats slit by your gangs Many of them died more slowly in your workshops So what is this sacrifice compared with the sacrifices the people made to keep you fat What are a few looted mansions compared with their looted lives You don't care if the foreign armies with whom you're making secret deals march in and massacre the people You hope the people will be wiped out so you can flourish and when they are wiped out not a muscle will twitch-in your puffy bourgeois faces which are now all twisted up with anger and disgust --pages 47-49: They settled down among their treasures and ate and drank with princes and to the starving they said Suffer Suffer as he suffered on the cross for it is the will of God And anyone believes what they hear over and over again so the poor instead of bread made do with a picture of the bleeding scourged and nailed-up Christ and prayed to that image of their helplessness ‘ *All page numbers refer to Peter Weiss, Marat/Sade (New York: Books, 1966). Pocket 218 B-II. Selections from Marat/Sade Read by the Actors (continued) 1. Jean-Paul Marat --pages 47-49 (continued): And the priests said Raise your hands to heaven bend your knees and bear your suffering without complaint Pray for those who torture you for prayer and blessing are the only stairways which you can climb to Paradise And so they chained down the poor in their ignorance so that they wouldn't stand up and fight their bosses who ruled in the name of the lie of divine right --page 109: Our country is in danger We talk about France but who is France for We talk about freedom but who's this freedom for Members of the National Assembly you will never shake off the past you'll never understand the great upheaval in which you find yourselves Why aren't there thousands of public seats in this assembly so anyone who wants can hear what's being discussed 2. Marquis de Sade --pages 43-45: Remember how Damiens died How gentle the guillotine is compared with his torture It lasted four hours while the crowd goggled and Casanova at an upper window felt under the skirts of the ladies watching His chest arms thighs and calves were Slit open Molten lead was poured into each slit boiling oil they poured over him burning tar wax sulphur 219 B-II. Selections from Marat/Sade Read by the Actors (continued) 2. Marquis de Sade --pages 43-45 (continued): They burnt off his hands tied ropes to his arms and legs harnessed four horses to him and geed them up They pulled at him for an hour but they'd never done it before and he wouldn't come apart until they sawed through his shoulders and hips So he lost the first arm then the second and he watched what they did to him and then turned to us and shouted so everyone could understand And then they tore off the first leg and then the second leg he still lived though his voice was getting weak and at the end he hung there a bloody torso with a nodding head just groaning and staring at the crucifix which the father confessor was holding up to him That . was a festival with which today's festivals can't compete Even our inquisition gives us no pleasure nowadays Although we've only just started there's no passion in our post-revolutionary murders Now they are all official We condemn to death without emotion and there's no signular personal death to be had only an anonymous cheapened death which we could dole out to entire nations on a mathematical basis until the time comes for all life to be extinguished --page 74: In September when I saw the official sacking of the Carmelite Convent I had to bend over in the courtyard and vomit as I saw my own prophecies coming true and women running by holding in their dripping hands the severed genitals of men 220 B-II. Selections from Marat[Sade Read by the Actors (continued) 2. Marquis de Sade --page 74 (continued): And then in the next few months . as the tumbrels ran regularly to the scaffolds and the blade dropped and was winched up and dropped again all the meaning drained out of this revenge It had become mechanical It was inhuman it was dull and curiously technocratic And now Marat now I see where this Revolution is leading --pages 128-129: Marat what are all your pamphlets and speeches compared with her she stands there and will come to you to kiss you and embrace you Marat an untouched virgin stands before you and offers herself to you See how she smiles how her teeth shine how she shakes her auburn hair aside Marat forget the rest there's nothing else beyond the body Look she stands there her breast naked under the thin cloth and perhaps she carries a knife to intensify the love-play 3. Jacques Roux --pages 66-67: Pick up your arms Fight for your rights Grab what you need and grab it now or wait a hundred years and see what the authorities arrange 221 B-II. Selections from Marat/Sade Read by the Actors (continued) 3. Jacques Roux --pages 66-67 (continued) Up there they despise you because you never had the cash to learn to read and write You're good enough for the dirty work of the Revolution . but they screw their noses up at you because your sweat stinks You have to sit way down there so they won't have to see you And down there in ignorance and stink you're allowed to do your bit towards bringing in the golden age in which you'll all do the same old dirty work Up there in the sunlight their poets sing about the power of life and the expensive rooms in which they scheme are hung with exquisite paintings So stand up Defend yourselves from their whips Stand up stand in front of them and let them see how many of you there are --pages 100-101: Woe to the man who is different who tries to break down all the barriers Woe to the man who tries to stretch the imagination of man He shall be mocked he shall be scourged by the blinkered guardians of morality You wanted enlightenment and warmth and so you studied light and heat You wondered how forces can be controlled so you studied electricity You wanted to know what man is for so you asked yourself What is this soul this dump for hollow ideals and mangled morals You decided that the soul is in thelbrain and that it can learn to think For to you the soul is a practical thing a tool for ruling and-mastering life And you came one day to the Revolution because you saw the most important vision That Our circumstances must be changed fundamentally and without these changes everything we try to do must fail 222 B-II. Selections from Marat/Sade Read by the Actors (continued) 3. Jacques Roux (continued) --page 114: Look what's happening Join together Cast down your enemies disarm them For if they win they will spare not one of you and all that you have won so far will be lost 4. Duperret --page 60: Dearest Charlotte you must return return to your friends the pious nuns and live in prayer and contemplation You cannot fight the hard-faced enemies surrounding us You talk about Marat but WhO's this Marat A street salesman a funfair barker a layabout from Corsica sorry I mean Sardinia Marat the name sounds Jewish to me perhaps derived from the waters of Marah in the Bible But who listens to him Only the mob down in the streets Up here Marat can be no danger to us --pages 80-81 One day it will come a society which will pool its energy to defend and protect each person for the possession of each person and in which each individual although united with all the others only obeys himself and so stays free One day it will come a constitution in which the natural inequalities of man are subject to a higher order so that all however varied their physical and mental powers may be by agreement legally get their fair share 223 B-II. Selections from Marat/Sade Read by the Actors (continued) 4. Duperret (continued) -—page 123: Charlotte awaken from your nightmare Wake up Charlotte and look at the trees look at the rose-colored evening sky in which your lovely bosom heaves Forget y0ur worries abandon each care and breathe in the warmth of the summertime air What are you hiding A dagger throw it away 5. Inmates --pages 26-27: We've got rights the right to starve We've got jobs waiting for work We're all brothers lousy and dirty We're all free and equal to die like dogs And now our lovely new leaders come and give us banknotes which we're told are money just as good as gold but they're only good for wiping your bum --page 47: The kings are our dear fathers under whose care we live in peace The kings are our dear fathers under whose care we live in peace And the children repeated the lesson they believed it as anyone believes what they hear over and over again The kings are our dear fathers under whose care we live in peace The kings are our dear fathers under Whose care we live in peace And over and over again the priests said Our love embraces all mankind of every,colour race and creed Our love is international universal we are all brothers every one 224 B-II. Selections from Marat/Sade Read by the Actors (continued) 5. Inmates (continued) --page ll4: Marat Marat Marat Marat Boo A laurel wreath foriMarat Down with Marat A victory parade for Marat Down with him Long live the streets Long live the lamp-posts Long live the bakers' shops Long live freedom APPENDIX C MATERIALS RELEVANT TO THE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY PERFORMING ARTS COMPANY PRODUCTION OF MARAT/SADE C-I. Production Calendar and Schedule of Subject Interviews C-II. Production Log 225 226 C-I. Production Calendar and Schedule of Subject Interviews WEEK DATE TIME PRODUCTION ACTIVITY INTERVIEW EXAMINATION I 3/24/69 7:30-11 Block pages 17-38 3/25/69 7:30-11 Block pages 39-71 3/26/69 7:30-11 Block pages 71-102 * * * * 3/27/69 7:30-11 Block second act * * * * 3/28/69 7:30-11 Review Blocking 3/29/69 all day Trip to Ypsilanti 3/30/69 1-4 Music Rehearsal II 3/31/69 7:30-11 Work through I 4/1/69 7:30-11 Work through I 4/2/69 7:30-11 Work through II 4/3/69 7:30-ll Run through I 4/4/69 7:30-ll Work through I 4/5/69 l-4 Run and Work II 5/6/69 1-4 Run through I III 4/7/69 7:30-11 Work first half of I 4/8/69 7:30-11 Work 2nd half of I 4/9/69 7:30-11 Work through II 4/10/69 7:30-ll Music Rehearsal 4/11/69 7:30-ll Work I with music 4/12/69 1-4 Work through I 4/13/69 1-4 Work through II IV 4/14/69 7:30-11 Run through Show 4/15/69 7:30-11 Run through Show 4/16/69 7:30-11 Run through onstage 4/l7/69 7:30-11 Run through onstage 4/18/69 7:30-ll First Technical 4/19/69 1-5? First Dress 4/20/69 6-10? Second Dress V 4/21/69 6-11 Final Dress 4/22/69 Evening PERFORMANCE 4/23/69 Evening PERFORMANCE * * * * 4/24/69 Evening PERFORMANCE * * * * 4/25/69 Evening PERFORMANCE 4/26/69 Evening PERFORMANCE 4/21169 Evening, PERFORMANCE VI 4/28-5/4/69 ‘ VII 5/§:5/11/69 VIII 5/12/69 * * * * **** 5/13/69 C-II. 227 Production Log General Note: Because of the director's particular style of actor 3/7 coaching (i.e., nose to pose intimate conferences with his actors off in corners), it was somewhat difficult for the investigator to record everything the director told individual actors during the course of the rehearsal period. Full Cast Readthrough: no vocal notes. 3/24 First Blocking Rehearsal: 3/25 3/26 3/27 The director discussed the necessity for each inmate-player to experiment, and to evolve one "specific and total behavior" for his particular character, justifiable both in terms of the play and in terms of the psychological problem. In personal conferences with individual actors regarding characterization, he made no direct refer- ence to vocal technique, but used adjectives like "possessed,'I "sleepy," and "spastic" to describe the qualities he wanted. The in- mates as a group were asked for noise or screams or howls or laughs, but only very generally. Second Blocking Rehearsal: In blocking the second third of the first act, the director asked cast members for vocal responses by talking of "building the noise to a crescendo," or saying, "Let's have some sound here." He guided the inmates away from an initial, aggressive and loud response to his requests for noise by discussing "reacting not always in terms of violence. Interest, not aggression. Child reactions--not screaming." Third Blocking Rehearsal: In blocking the last third of the first act, the director touched incidentally and briefly on types of crowd reactions he desired: "Something more than 'uh, uh, uh,'--see how many sounds you can make . . . murmuring, small noises--aimless . . add a loud, long sound here . . . sounds of trouble, concern . . not ”oooh' but noises . . . shrill laughter . . . low-pitched laughter . . . low noises." Fourth Blocking Rehearsal: In Blocking the second act, general con- sideration was given to sound. Most comments were of a corrective rather than a directive nature, e.g., "Not all the same sounds, now . . . low enough for Marat to be heard . . . every time you make sounds, don't vomit. . . . Keep the murmur up . .”." In a personal conference with Marat, the director made specific reference to vocal technique: "I want you to relax a bit--your pitch is too high; use your chest register." C-II. 3/28 3/29 3/30 3/31 4/1 4/2 4/3 228 Production Log (continued) Blocking Review and Working through the First Section: References to vocal technique were made incidentally and were often of a correc- tive nature, e.g., to the inmates, "You can't just go 'uuhhh'--say things. Remember you're not at a political rally (beginning of Act II), you're inmates in an asylum. . . . Take down the cheers and jeers." Regarding the opening of the play, "I don't want a low roar-- you're not a subway train, but crazy people--each with your own interest. Individual noises . . . I want the audience to have con- stantly in mind the possibility that something can happen at any moment--if you yell and shout, nothing can happen." Trip for cast to Ypsilanti State Mental Hospital Music Rehearsal-~musicians and singers only Working Rehearsal: This was a very psychologically-oriented rehearsal, due largely to the powerful effect on all of Saturday's trip. When the runthrough began, the director conducted many of the crowd re- sponses almost in the manner of an orchestra leader, basically in terms of volume levels. Later, he told Marat, "Throw your voice at the sound being made by the inmates, not at Simonne." He also had a number of private talks with various actors during the rehearsal; because of the inti- mate nature of his actor coaching techniques, they could not be re- corded in this log. Working Rehearsal: The director continued his practice of conducting speeches non-verbally as the actors read them. He made specific reference to voice when talking to Marat and Simonne; he instructed Marat to strengthen his "stacatto voice quality" and Simonne to work towards a "cooing--long, drawnout sounds in opposition to Marat." Working Rehearsal for Act II: The director gave some specific but non- technical vocal coaching to Marat in reference to his Speech to the National Assembly. He instructed the actor to take far more time-~to build to a peak, break, take a while to compose himself, and begin another build. "Don't yell your way through." He wanted more of a "rhetorical quality."e Because of technical problems with the inmates, the sequence had to be run three times. Marat must have been ob- viously straining vocally, because the director asked, "Do you have enough voice to do it again?" Runthrough of Act I: Most of the rehearsal tonight was devoted to a non-stop runthrough of Act I, so there were fewer than the usual number of conferences. A partial workthrough followed, however, and incidental actor-coaching sometimes included vocal skills, e.g., to Marat, "Your first 'Simonne' Should be a question--as if you're say- ing, 'Are you there?‘ . . . You're building too high on this Speech, and then staying on one pitch. Try building, stopping in the middle, and calling for Simonne like a little boy in the dark." C-II. 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7 4/8 229 Production Log (continued) Workthrough Second Half of Act I: To Marat ("Now you see it happen- ing. . .), "Don't fight the noise around you; become aware of it, let it annoy and stop you . . . Speak with triumph." To Marat ("Wrong, Sade, wrong . . .) "Catch him vocally--you're not going to get away with that!" Later, the director conducted de Sade's speech--“Bui1d . . give it to him!" The director discussed with the inmates the effect he wanted to achieve in Marat's Liturgy ("The kings are our dear fathers . . .") "Say it with halos, absolute reverence, and enunciate! ("Ours is the kingdom of heaven . . .") "Give it a pedantic quality; imitate priests." (Suffer! Suffer as he . . .") "Strong and hard." Running and Working through Act II: To Marat, regarding his address of the National Assembly, "Don't fight the noise; enjoy the cheering and then continue your Speech . . . Wait for silence and then take it way under." The director also instructed the inmates regarding their responses to Marat's denunciations of Necker, Tallyrand, etc.: "Not yelling and screaming; think of love, sex, pleasure." Regarding the inmates chant to Charlotte Corday ("Corday, Corday, Corday. . ."), "No sound; just whispered." Runthrough of Act I: ~With one minor exception, the director made no comments on vocal technique to the actors today. He did comment to Jacques Roux that he was playing too strongly right now and should seek a "more imploring" quality. Working First Half of Act I: To the inmates, regarding the first song, "When you join in, do so as children would, all full, every- thing you've got." To Roux, regarding his first long (granaries) speech, "Don't yell; whine, complain." To the inmates, regarding "Corday, Corday, Corday . . .," “No sound, unvoiced "Corday.'" To Marat, "The first 'Simonne' should ask, 'Are you there?!" To Marat, regarding the bloodbath speech, "Take far more time internally; use more pure sound before the first 'Simonne!‘" To de Sade, “you're getting into a pattern; you're not exploring all the different images." To the inmates regarding Marat's Liturgy, "Your responses must begin as rote recitation and move into hellfire and damnation." Workthrough Second Half of the First Act: To Roux, regarding the rabble rousing, "Take more time; not so strong on rabble rousing." Throughout the evening, the director conducted speeches non-verbally for Marat, de Sade, etc. To the inmates, regarding the end of the first act, "No periods at the ends of the lines; someone must pick it up. Give it to him; more accusing." To Roux, regarding his "Woe to the man. . ." speech, "React to what precedes it; take your time." C-II. 4/9 4/10 4/11 4/12 4/13 230 Production Log (continued) Workthrough of Act II: To Marat, regarding his address to the National Assembly, "Avoid using your top pitch all the time . . . When you speak of Dumouriez, etc., use a more sardonic quality . . . Use the crowd--work on them as a rabble rouser would . . . Enjoy their attention-—take lots of time, and make use of the quiet by speaking softly . . . You're on one vocal level; change it. Also, get out of that high pitch." To the inmates, during the address, "Don't build to shouts too fast; use a low, excited murmur . . . Keep the reactions low, not too bit. During the "Marat, Marat, .", "Keep it low . . . you've got to grow and build; let the ideas happen! To the inmates, regarding the end of the play, "keep the noise all the way through; as wild vocally as possible." General note to de Sade, "Reach out vocally." Music Rehearsal: work done exclusively on learning melodies, cues and rhythms. Workthrough of Act I: Because of difficulties encountered last night, concentration was mainly on music once again; consequently there were no specific vocal coaching notes given. Workthrough of Act I: The actor playing de Sade (Subject II) did not attend rehearsal today. A cast member reported to the director that, "He feels o'. k. but his voice is gone ." The director read his lines in; the rest of the cast worked around him. ‘ Because of room conflicts, the rehearsal was held outside, on‘ the steps of the theatre building. This added a number of interesting dimensions to the rehearsal Situation. The inability of the cast members to monitor their own voices due to the absence of familiar acoustical reference points caused people, in the opinion of the researcher, to really push and strain their voices in an attempt to sound to themselves the same as they did when working inside. To the inmates, regarding responses, "When you have cries, don't cut them off; let them come down . . . keep it going. " There was a general orchestration of crowd responses by the director throughout today's rehearsal. Workthrough of Act II: Subject II came this morning only to walk through his blocking, as the director read his lines in for him; his voice is still too weak to get through both today's rehearsal and his performance of Staircase tonight. To Duperret, “Watch your articulation a little." To the inmates, "Noise! C'mon, where's the cheers?" The director orchestrated Corday's speeches manually, and coached the Corday-Duperret scene. "Take your time. .1. . Crowd, let's have more reaction on that." The director worked on the individualization of reactions from the in- mates in the shower stalls. To Subject V, "Squeal--like you've been caught nude." C-II. 4/14 4/15 4/16 4/17 231 Production Log (continued) Runthrough of Entire Show: Although this was a non-stop runthrough, the director was close at-hand, coaching the cast through the rough spots, with lots of hand motions (i.e., conducting) and interjec- tions, such as, "C'mon . . . What's wrong? . . . Noise, noise, noise!. . ." After the runthrough, the director sent the inmates home and gave individual notes to the principals, including the fol- lowing: To Marat, regarding the Citizen Marquis speech, "Catch de Sade vocally! As if you're saying, 'Just a minute!'" To de Sade, regarding the whipping speech, "Don't anticipate vocally, when She is going to whip you . . ." To Marat, regarding the denunciation sequence, "You must build it, so Coulmier must interrupt." Runthrough of the Entire Show: Before the runthrough began, the director gave the inmates notes from last night. "Clean up the vocal reactions during the assembly speech . . . Don't cut any vocal reac- tion; filter it out.‘I During the runthrough, the director orchestrated or coached in placed: "C'mon, no silence . . . c'mon! . . . sshhh . . noises . . . c'mon." After the runthrough, the director gave specific notes to the principals: To Marat, "You're aspirating a hell of a lot; out it down--it's distracting." To Marat, regarding the denunciation speech, "Takes too much time; start the build earlier." To Marat, regarding "Beggars, villains, gutter rats. . .", "All these sounds are too elongated; you Sound like a hawker." To Roux, "Roux is not a happy man; . . . he needs a quality of tears . . Moses on the mountain . . . embrace the whole town vocally . there is a difference between being loud and being angry." First Runthrough Onstage: Before rehearsal, the director gave the inmates their notes: To Subject VI, regarding the "Long Live Napoleon and the nation!" line, "Hit the cue harder and faster; right now it's too slow and light.“ To all, "Last night the levels were right; this,enables Marat to give the Assembly speech far more variety than he has been." To Marat, regarding, "Beggars, villains, gutter rats. . .", "better than last night, but it needs more volume--same for 'I am the Revolution.'" To de Sade, "You're having a problem with your first and second speeches. You need more intensity and a slower rate." (De Sade countered one critical note with the comment: "That's where I got my throat stuck.") To de Sade, "You tend to come in on a fairly low level of intensity and then work your way up. You must start stronger." To Marat, "You tend to take a beat before responding to Simonne and Sade verbally--it's not immediate enough." The director gave the cast general notes on last night's runthrough. "The noises were never there! The vocal balance of the whole th1ng was way off." During tonight's partial workthrough, the director conducted and coached many of the speeches from the first row of the house while they were being delivered. Occasionally, he would interrupt with Specific comments: "Everytime you have a reaction like a yell, don't C-II. 4/17 4/18 4/19 4/20 232 Production Log (continued) continued cut it, fade it out . . . C'mon; where are you? . . . Noise! . . . Sound! . . . There's a nice big crowd reaction at the end of this-- remember? Whenever there's a pause, I want sound . . . C'mon, C'mon! . . . If you don't make noise, this play will never work! . Ssshhh! . . ." During the runthrough portion, he conducted crowd laughter and other crowd reactions. The runthrough didn't end until 11:20 P.M., and the director sent the cast home without notes. First Technical Runthrough:- Before beginning the runthrough, the director gave the cast two general notes: "I can't conduct you dur- ing performance; it's got to be alive. . . . Don't mimic people who are speaking onstage.” During the runthrough, he remained pretty much audience, but once in a while, he called, "Noise! . Reaction! . . . C'mon . . . Sshh!" There were no notes given after rehearsal. First Dress Rehearsal: Before the rehearsal began, the director gave notes stemming from yesterday's rehearsal to the inmates: "A number of reactions are good now, but a number of them are gone again. . . . Remember all the sounds on Corday's arrival in Paris. Let's have a real strong reaction after the tumbrel song. . . . By the way, the monster is much too loud much too soon. . . . Let's have a nice crowd reaction on 'God, like man, moves in mysterious ways!" To Duperret, "You need much better articulation. . . ." To all, "Under Roux's 'Pick up your arms . . .' speech, there must be a great undercurrent of sound--create a real potential for danger. . . . The sound under the duckboards must be more controlled-- whispers under Marat; laughing under Simonne; light snickery laughter under Duperret's song. . . . To Subject V, "Much stronger reactions behind the curtains." To all, "There should be a crowd reaction to Corday's listing of the names . . . a murmur of anticipation, for the guillotining of all these men. . . . The reaction during the black cloth thing is much too loud; it Upsets the vocal balance. Don't take the noise up until after Marat's lines. The director did not interrupt at all during the runthrough itself, nor did he give any notes afterwards. Second Dress Rehearsal: The director circulated among the actors as they put on their make-up before rehearsal to give notes from last night. The investigator was unable to listen in on them all, but did record the following: To Marat, "Beggars, villains, gutter rats is still too low in volume--take it out to the house, not to the side.“ Before beginning the runthrough, he gave the inmates their general notes: "On 'Who controls the market . . .' let's have varied reactions; right now you sound like a bunch of owls--who, who, who. . . . During the circles, we must have inmate reactions . . . C-II. 4/20 4/21 4/22 233 Production Log (continued) continued fill those musical interludes! . . . Watch the specific ad libs; keep them general." To Subject V, "When Corday opens your booth, yell out, 'Leave me alonel'" To all, "At the end, simmer down the riot noise until it becomes silent." After the runthrough, the director kept the principals for notes: To Marat, "Reach out vocally for de Sade on the compassion dialogue; pick up each other's cues faster." To Marat again, "On the divine right Speech, the sound is wrong; don't draw it out." To Roux, "You were using an awful lot of falsetto tonight; cut it out! Get back into that nice guttural quality." To Marat, "You went into a falsetto after the whipping scene--no good. Pick up de Sade's 1evel--you're too far under. (Marat replied, "Yeah, I know, but I'm so tired by then!“) Final Dress Rehearsal: NOTE: During the afternoon, Subject II came to report to me that he had been screaming during an improvisation in acting practicum, and that his "whole.voice went." Subject VII was absent from the final dress rehearsal due to what was described as strep throat. Before the final runthrough began, the director gave the in- mates general notes stemming from last night's rehearsal: "Let's have a reaction from the inmates on 'take out the still-beating heart and swallow it' and on 'anarchy and confusion.'" To all, "React to Roux on 'Pick up your arms'-. . . React on 'Monsieur de Sade is whipped.‘ Also react to the whipping itself . . . I need a reaction to, "I am the Revolution,’ and to 'I will find out what he has got to say to me.’ Also, what happened at the end of the tumbrel driver's song? Oh yes, and let's have some reaction to 'Beggars! Villains! Gutter rats!'. . . 'Marat, we're poor . . .' must have a nice hushed quality--lots of air escaping.‘ To Subject V, The 'Leave me alone' must be much louder. Give it a nice, long yell!" After the rehearsal, the director kept the principals back for their notes: To de Sade, regarding "Your feelings were never petty . . . ," "Much too falsetto!" (De Sade answered, "I know; my voice is creaking.") To Marat, "On your 'manipulate' speech, improve the articulation." To Roux, "Your last speech of Act I was off tonight; it must have more carrying power." Opening Night Performance: Before curtain, the director assembled the cast for a few notes: "Now remember--I want sound at the begin- ning, during your warm-up. . . . Give the 'freedoms' under Marat's speech a yearning quality; they're too dead right now. . . . Build the laugh under Duperret's song. . . . For the final curtain, small sounds, light laughter." 4/23 4/24 4/25 4/26 4/27 234 NOTE: Subject VII reported for make-up on time tonight, took sick, and virtually passed out. He was rushed to the health service, where he was admitted immediately, the tentative diagnosis being emphysema resulting as a complication of strep throat. Subject II has been having a great deal of trouble with his throat. He reported that he "gagged for about an hour before coming to the theatre" and had a rather lengthy coughing bout onstage tonight during the whipping sequence. The director was out of town tonight, but left notes from last night's performance with the assistant director, who gave them to the cast before curtain. To all, "The noise levels under almost every speech was too loud." The director did not attend last night's performance; his assistant director took notes for him and gave them to the cast members, but there were no vocal references included. Tonight, before performance, the director assembled the cast for notes on last night's Show, which he felt was tight but too slick and too relaxed to him. To Marat, "You swallowed the line, '. . . pretext of giving them freedom' . . . The monster speech must reach a climax by the end; it was weak last night.” To Roux, "Last night, you were losing the tearful quality we talked about before." To all, "The reactions of the crowd were way down and out . . . Fire out your lines, 'We've got jobs,‘ etc. React to "Beggars, villains, gutter rats!'" To de Sade, "Your 'hook and twine' line was too fast. . . . Your 'Of course!I was a bit weak last night." The director gave personal notes to individual principals tonight during make-up. He was pleased with last night's performance, and all of the notes were of the "Make it just as good as it was last night" variety. Before curtain tonight, the cast was assembled for final notes: To Marat, regarding the '. . . rioting mob inside me' speech, “Don't make it exhausted but pain-filled. Don't swallow '. . . but we don't know how to run it." To the inmates, "Your reactions were too even during the first part of the first act." SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Appelman, D. R. The Science of Vocal Pedagogy. Bloomington, Indiana: University Press, 1967. Artaud, Antonin. The Theatre and Its Double. Translated by Mary Caroline Richards. New York: Grove Phess, Inc., 1958. Ayers, Richard G., ed. Directory of American College Theatre. 2nd ed. Dallas, Texas: American Educational Theatre Association, Inc., 1967. Blommers, Paul, and Lindquist, E. F. Elementary Statistical Methods in ngchology_and Education. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Miffiin Company, 1960. Bormann, Ernest G. Theory and Research in the Communicative Arts. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. Brackett, I. P. "Parameters of Voice Quality." Handbook of Speech Pathology and Audiology. 'Edited by Lee Travis. Neinork: Appleton:Century-Crofts, 1971, pp. 441-463. Brodnitz, Friedrich S. "Functional Disorders of the Voice." Voice and Speech Disorders--Medical Aspects. Edited by Nathaniel M. Eevin. Springfieid, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962, pp. 453-481. Keep Your Voice Healthy. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953. Vocal Rehabilitation.. NEW'YOFK: American Academy of Optha- mologists and Otolaryngologists, 1959. . "The Voice of the Speaker and Singer." Voice and Speech Dis- orders--Medical Aspectg, Edited by Nathaniel MTILevih. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962, pp. 429-452. Cochran, W. G., and Cox, G. M. Experimental Designs. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950. Cooper, Morton. "Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation for Functional and Organic Dysphonias." Handbook of Speech Pathology and Audiolggy_ Edited by Lee Travis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971, pp. 585-616. 235 236 Cox, D. R. Plannihgyof Experiments. New.York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1958. Darley, Frederic L. Diagnosis and Appraisal of Communication Disorders. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: rentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. Diehl, Charles F. "Voice and Personality." Psychologjpal and Psychiatric As ects of S eech and Hearin . Edited by DominiCk A. Barbara. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1960, pp. 171-203. Eisenson, Jon. The Improvement of Voice and Diction. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1958. Fairbanks, Grant. Voice and Articulation Drillbook. New York: Harper and Brother, 1940. Froeschels, Emil.‘ "Hygiene of the Voice." Selected Papers of Emil Froeschels 1940-1964.. Amsterdam: North‘Holland'Publishing Company, lggza pp- Izg'l57- . "Laws in the Appearance and the Development of Voice Hyper- functions." Selected Pa rs of Emil Froeschels, 1940-1964. Amsterdam: North Hollanh Publishing'Company, 1964, pp. 139-142. , and Jellinek, A. Practice of Voice and Speech Therapy. Boston: Expression Company, 1941. Grasham, John A., and Gooder, G. G. Im roving Your Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 60. Gray, G. W. Studies in Experimental Phonetics. Baton Rouge: State University of LouiSiana Studies, Number 27, 1936. ' Greene, Margaret C. L. The Voice and_Its.Disorders.. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1964. Hoops, Richard A. Speech Science:;§gousti S in Speech. 2nd ed. Springfield, Illinois: *Charles C. Thomas, 1969: Jackson, Chevalier, and Jackson, Chevalier L. Diseases and Injuries of the Larynx. New York:. Macmillan, 1942. . .Qiseases of the Nose, Throat,,and Ear. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Cbmpany, 1959. Jacobson, Edmund. Prqgressive Relaxation...Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1938. Johnson, Wendell; Darley, F. L.; and Spriestersbach, D. C. Diagnostic Methods in Speech Pathology,. New York: Harper and Row, 1963. 237 Lessac, Arthur. The_yse and Trainin of the Human Voice. 2nd ed. . New York: DBS Publications, 19' . Levin, Nathaniel M. "Benign and Malignant Lesions of the Larynx." Voice and Speech DisorderS--Medical Aspects.. Edited by Nathaniel M. Levin. Springfield, Iilinois: *Cherles C. Thomas, 1962. pp. 289-303. * . "The Professional Singer." Voice and Speech Disorders-- Medical Aspects. Edited by Nathaniel M. Levih. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962, pp. 482-497. , ed. Voice andySpeech Disorders--Medical.ASpects.- Springfield, Illinois: Charies C. Thomas, 1962. Litto, Frederic M. American Dissertations on the Drama and the Theatre: A Bibliogra h . Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1969. Luchsinger, R., and Arnold, G. E. Voice--Speech--Langhage. Translated by Godfrey E. Arnold and E. R. Finkbeiner. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1965. Machlin, Evangeline. Speech for the Stage.- New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1966. Michel, John F., and Wendahl, Ronald. "Correlates of Voice Production." Handbook ofySpeech Pathology and Audiology. .Edited by Lee Travis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, i971, pp. 465-479. Moore, G. Paul. "Voice Disorders Organically Based." Handbook of Speech Pathology. Edited by Lee Travis. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1971, pp. 535-569. Moses, Paul J. The Voice of Neurosis.. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1954. Murphy, Albert T. Functional Voice Disorders. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. Perkins, W. H. "Vocal Function: Assessment and Therapy." Handbook of Speech Pathology and Audiology.. Edited by Lee Travis. New YorR’ Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971, pp. 505-534. . "VocalFunction: A Behavioral Analysis." Handbook of Speech Egthology and Audiology...Edited by Lee Travis. New York: AppTeton- Century-Crofts, 1971, pp. 481-503. Punt, Normal A. The Singer's apg_Actoris.Throat. 2nd ed." London: William Heinemann Medical Bodks Ltdi} 1967. 238 Ryan, Robert E.; Thornell, W. C.; and von Leden, Hans. Synopsis of Ear, Nose, and Throat Diseases.- 2nd.ed. St. Louis: C.'V. MoSBy Company, 1963. Simpson, John F.; Robin, Ian G.; Ballantyne, John C.; and Groves, John. A Synopsis of Otolaryngology. -Bristol: John Wright and Sons, Ltd., 1967. Tiffin, J. "Phonophotographic Apparatus." University_of Iowa Studies in the Ps cholo of Music..iVolume.I.. Iowa City, Iowa: Iowa University Press, 1932, pp. 118-133. Travis, Lee Edward, ed. Handbook_gf SpeegpiPathology and.Audiology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,i1971. Turner, C. J. Voice and Speech in the Theatre. -London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1950. Van Riper, Charles. Speech Correction:; Principles and Methods. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954. . Speech Correctjgn: .Principles.and Methods.. 4th ed.. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hail, Inc., 1963. , and Irwin, John. Voice and Articulation. .Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958. Weiss, Peter, Marat/Sade. Pocket Books. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966. West, Robert W., and Ansberry, M. The Rehabilitation ofiSpeech. .4th ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1968. Wyatt, Gertrud Lasch. "The Application of Froeschels' Chewing Method in the Treatment of Disorders of the Speaking Voice." The Chewing Approach in Speechand Voice;Therapy. Edited by Deso A. Weiss and Helen H. Beebe. Basal: Friedrich Reinhardt A. G., n.d. pp. 70-99. Published Reports. Briess, F. Bertram.y "Voice Diagnosis and Therapy." Research Potentials in Voice Physiology.. Edited by David W. Brewer. Report of an Inter- national Conference held at State University of New York, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse University, May 29-June 3, 1961. New York: State University of New York: 1964. 239 Articles and Periodicals Allen B., and Peterson, G. E. "Laryngeal Inflammation in a Case of Falsetto." Journal of Speech Disorders, VII.(1942), 175-178. Arnold, Godfrey E. "Vocal Nodules and Polyps: Laryngeal Tissue Reaction to Habitual Hyperkinetic Dysphonia." Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, XXVII, No. 3 (August, 1962), 205-217. Aronson, Arnold E.; Peterson, H. W.; and Litin, Edward M. "Voice Symp- tomatology in Functional Dysphonia and Aphonia." Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, XXIX, No. 4 (November, 1964), 367-380. Black, J. W. “A Study of Voice Merit." Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXVIII (1942), 67-74. Briess, F. Bertram. "Voice Therapy, Part 11: Essential Treatment Phases of Specific Laryngeal Muscle Disfunction." A. M. A. Archives of Otolaryngology, LXIX (January, 1969), 61-69. Brodnitz, F. S. "Voice Problems of the Actor and Singer." Journal of Speech Disorders, XIX (September, 1954), 322-326. Brustein, Robert. "Embarrassment of Riches." New Republic, CLIV (January 22, 1966), pp. 23-28. Clevenger, Theodore, Jr. "A Synthesis of Experimental Research in Stage Fright." Quarterly Journal of Speech, XLV (April, 1959), 134-145. , and King, Thomas R. "A Factor Analysis of the Visible Symptoms of Stage Fright." Speech Monographs, XXVIII (November, 1961), 296-298. Cowan, Milton. "Pitch and Intensity Characteristics of Stage Speech." Archives of_Speech, Supplement (1936), 7-92. Drake, O. J. "Toward an Improved Vocal Quality." Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXIII (1937), 620-626. Fairbanks, Grant, and Hoaglin, L. "An Experimental Study of the Dura- tional Characteristics of the Voice During the Expression of Emotion." Speech Monographs, VIII.(1941), 85-90. , and Pronovost, W. ''An Experimental Study of the Pitch Character- istics of the Voice During the Expression of Emotion." Speech Mono- graphs, VI (1939), 87-104. . "Vocal Pitch During Simulated Emotion." Science, LXXXVIII (I938), 382-383. 240 Greenleaf, Floyd. "An Exploratory Study of Speech Fright. " Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXXVIII (November, 1952), 326- 330. Harris, C. M., and Weiss, M. R. "Effects of Speaking Condition on Pitch." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, XXXVI (1964), 933. Hayashi, Y. “Unilateral Inflamed Vocal Cords in Singers. " Oto-Rhino- Laryngologica, IX (Tokyo, 1936), 250- 254. Hewes, Henry. "Broadway Postscript: The Weiss/Brook." Saturday Review, XLIX (January 15, 1966), 45, 56. Huttar, George L. "An Experimental Study of Some Relations Between the Emotions and Prosodic Parameters of Speech" (Abstract) Dissertation Abstracts, XXVIII, Part 3 (1968), 2665A. Huyck, E. M., and Allen, K. D. A. "Diaphragmatic Action of Good and Poor Speaking Voices." Speech Monographs, IV (1937), 101-109. Kelly, J. C., and Steer, M. D. "Revised Concept of Rate." Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, XIV (1949), 222-226. Lewis, Don, and Tiffin, Joseph. "A Psychophysical Study of Individual Differences in Speaking Ability. " Archives of Speech, I, No. 1 (January, 1934), 43- 60. Lindsley, C. F. "An Objective Study of the Respiration Accompanying Speech." Quarterly Journal ofySpeech,;XXV (1929), 45-48. LomaS, Charles W. "The Psychology of Stage Fright." QuarterTnyournal of Speech, XXIII (February, 1937), 35-45. Low, Gordon M., and Sheets, Boyd V. "The Relation of Psychometric Factors to Stage Fright." Speech Monographs, XVIII (November, 1951), 266-271. Lynch, Gladys E. "A Phonophotographic Study of Trained and Untrained Voices Reading Factual and Dramatic Material." Archives of Speech, I, No. 1 (January, 1934), 9-25. Moses, Paul J. "Vocal Analysis.“ Archives of Otolaryngology, XLVIII, No. 8 (August, 1948), 171-186. . "The Vocal Expression of Emotional Disturbances. " Kaiser Foundation Medical Bulletin, VII, No 2 (April -June, 1959), 107 7111 Pronovost, W. "An Experimental Study of Methods for Determining Natural and Habitual Pitch." Speech Monographs, IX (December, 1942), 111- 123. 241 Schmitz-Svevo, Federica. "Chewing Method Applied in Cases of Pharyn- geal Dryness of Organic or Psychogenic Origin." Journal of Speech Disorders, VI (December, 1941), 185-186. Sherman, Dorothy, and Jensen, Paul. "Harshness and Oral Reading Time." Journal of Speech and Hearing_Disorders, XXVII (1962), 172-177. Shipp. Thomas, and Huntington, Dorothy A. "Some Acoustic and Perceptual Factors in Acute-Laryngitic Hoarseness." Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, XXX, No. 4 (November, 1965), 350-359. Snidecor, John. "A Comparative Study of the Pitch and Duration Character- istics of Impromptu Speaking and Oral Reading." Speech Monographs, X (1943), 50-56. Talley, C. Horton. "A Comparison of Conversational and Audience Speech." Archives of Speech, II, No. 1 (July, 1937), 28-40. Wagoner, L. 5. "Speech as an Indication of Temperamental Traits." Quarterly Journal of Speech-Education,.II (1925), 237-242. Wyatt, Frederick. "The Psychological Diagnosis of Psychosomatic Dis- turbances." (Abstract) American Psychologist (1946), 46. Yanagihara, N., and H. von Leden. "Respiration and Phonation." Folia Phoniatrica, XIX, No. 3 (1967), 153ff. Young, Martin A. "Observer Agreement: Cumulative Effects of Rating Many Samples." Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, XII, No. 1 (1969), 135ff. Zerffi, William A. C. "Voice Reeducation." Archives of Otolaryngology, LXVIII (1948), 521—526. Newspaper Articles Zolotow, Sam. "5 Tonys Awards to 'La Mancha'--"Marat/Sade' Wins 4-- Lansbury and Holbrook Cited." New York Times, June 17, 1966, p. 37. Zolotow, Sam. "'Marat' is Named by Drama Critics." New York Times, May 27, 1966, p. 33. Unpublished Materials Brackett, Isaac Parsons. "A Study of the Growth of Inflammation on the Vocal Folds Accompanying Easy and Harsh Production of the Voice." Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Northwestern University, 1940. 242 Cowan, Milton J. "Pitch, Intensity, and Rhythmic Movement in American Dramatic Speech." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, 1935. Darley, F. L. "A Normative Study of Oral Reading Rate." Unpublished M. A. Thesis, State University of Iowa, 1940. Franke, P. "A Preliminary Study Validating the Measurement of Oral Reading Rate in Words Per Minute." Unpublished M. A. Thesis, State University of Iowa, 1939. Goates, Wallace Albert. "Pitch Changes in the Voices of Actors in Rehearsal." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1937. Lunday, Audrey Anne Mostoller. "The Vocal Quality and Pitch of Voices Suspected of Laryngeal Pathology." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1967. Park, Marie. "Diagnostic Study of Development in Rehearsal and Perform- ance of Students in Dramatic Interpretation." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1938. Thurman, W. L. "The Construction and Acoustic Analysis of Recorded Scales of Severity for Six Voice Quality Disorders." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Purdue University, 1954. "An Experimental Investigation of Certain Vocal Frequency- Intensity Relationships Concerning Natural Pitch Level." Unpublished M. A. thesis, University of Iowa, 1949. Wentworth, E. T. "Survey of Methods for Improvement of Pitch Usage in Speech as Presented in Twenty-Five Current Speech Texts." Unpub- lished M. A. thesis, State University of Iowa, 1940. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX: GENERAL REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX: GENERAL REFERENCES 592's: Fields, V. A., and Bender, J. F. Voice and Diction. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1949. Heaton, Wallace, and Hargens, C. W. An Interdisciplinary Index of Studies inflfhysics,_MedicineaandTMuSicIRelatetho the HumaniVoice. Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania: Theodore Presser Company,19 8. Jacobson, Edmund. You Must Relax. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1957. Judson, Lyman S. V., and Weaver, A. T. Voice Science. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965. Rieber, R. W., and Brubaker, R. S., eds. Speech Pathology: An Inter- national Study of the Science. Amsterdam: North-H611and Publishing Company, 1966. Schmitz-Svevo, Federica. "The Chewing Approach in the Treatment of the Singing Voice." The Chewigg Approachrin.Speegh and Voice Therapy. Edited by Deso.A. Weiss and Helen H. Beehe2 Basel: *FriedriCh Reinhardt A. G., n.d., 108-116. Vennard, William. "Building Correct Singing Habits." Voice and Speech DisorderS--Medical Aspects. .Edited by Nathaniel M. Leiih. Spring- field, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962. Articles and Periodicals. 1 Moore, G. Paul and von Leden, H. "Dynamic Variations in the Vibratory Pattern in the Normal Larynx." Folia Phoniatrica, X (1958), 205-238. Murray, Elwood, and Tiffin, Joseph. "An Analysis of Some Basic Aspects of Effective Speech." Archives of Speech, I, No. 1 (January, 1934), 61-83. Rubin, H. J., and Lehrhoff. "Pathogenesis and Treatment of Vocal Nodules."' Journal of Speech and.Hearing;Disorders, XXVII (1962), 150-161. 243 244 Rumsey, H. St. John. "Voice Strain." Journal of Laryngology and Otology, LXIV (1950), 708-713. Sherman, Dorothy. "The Merits of Backward Playing of Connected Speech in the Scaling of Voice Quality Disorders." Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, XIX (1954), 312-321. Steer, M. D. "Modern Instrumentation for Dia nosis, Therapy, and Research." Folia Phoniatrica, XII (1960), 196-204. Tiffin, Joseph. "Introduction to Volume II." Archives of Speech, II, No. 1 (July, 1937). Young, Martin A., and Downs, Tom D. "Testing the Significance of the Agreement Among Observers." Journal ofySpeech and Hearinngesearch, XI, No. 1 (March, 1968), 5-16. Unpublished Materials McIntosh, Carl Weston. "A Study of the Relationship between Pitch Level and Pitch Variability in the Voices of Superior Speakers." Unpub- lished Ph. D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1939. HICH GR STATE UN V lllllllllll ll lllllllllllillillallis 3 2930080055