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dissertation entitled

THE EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE TASK STRUCTURES
ON SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT LEARNING

PREDISPOSITIONS AND ABILITY LEVELS
presented by

Steven R. Harrington

has been accepted towards fulfillment
ofthe requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Teacher Education

 

U Major professorww

Date July 21, 1987

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THE

EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE TASK STRUCTURES
ON SIXTHfGRADE STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT LEARNING
PREDISPOSITIONS AND ABILITY LEVELS

By

Steven R. Harrington

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

1987

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE AND COMPETITIVE TASK STRUCTURES
ON SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT LEARNING
PREDISPOSITIONS AND ABILITY LEVELS

By

Steven R. Harrington

This study examined the eftects of task structure on the achieve-
ment and attitudes of middle school social studies students. The pur-
poses of this investigation were (a) to compare the effects of
competitive and cooperative task structures on the achievement of
sixth-grade students who were predisposed toward competitively or
cooperatively structured classrooms. (b) to measure the effects of
these task structures on the achievement of high-ability and low-
ability students. and (c) to determine the effects of these task
structures on the attitudes of students predisposed toward one task
structure or the other.

The review of literature described the crisis in achievement and
socialization facing the schools and indicated how application of
research findings in the areas of language and learning. student
learning styles. the transescent stage of development. and task

structures employed in the classroom could address these problems.

Steven R. Harrington

The sample included l93 sixth-grade students and their social
studies teachers from a middle school located in a suburban mid-
Michigan community. The subjects were exposed to both cooperative and
competitive task structures concerned with content included in that
district's social studies curriculum.

The results of the study indicated that students who were matched
(cooperative students in a cooperative task structure. or competitive
students in a competitive task structure) achieved similar test
scores to students who were not matched to task structure. High-
ability students scored slightly higher on the achievement posttests
when working in a competitive task structure. Low-ability students
scored slightly higher on the achievement posttests when working in a
cooperative task structure. There was little change in student atti-
tudes. regardless of the task structure.

The following conclusions were drawn: (a) Teachers should employ
competitive. individualistic. and cooperative task structures: possess
a variety of teaching strategies: and create opportunities for stu-
dents to use language in the classroom. (b) Methods of assessment are
needed that measure what teachers are trying to teach. that enhance
student engagement. and that evaluate what students have learned.

(c) Researchers investigating instructional methods have a responsi-
bility to provide teachers with information and techniques that are

useful and applicable to their teaching.

This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my mother.
Irene Harrington. and my brother. Doug Harrington. who were

important members of my first cooperative group. our family.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study is a result of the encouragement. leadership. and
c00peration of several individuals. I would like to extend my
appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Sheila Fitzgerald. Dr. Charles
Atkin. and Dr. Peggy Riethmiller for their guidance as members of my
committee. I am especially thankful for the leadership provided by my
committee chairperson. Dr. Janet Alleman. I am indebted to her for
not only her insight and support. but also her positive outlook.
expressing faith and trust in me and inspiring me to strive for
excellence.

Many educators at the university level and in the public schools
provided support toward the completion of this dissertation. Dr.
Donald Freeman was particularly helpful in developing the research
design and evaluation tools. The four teachers who participated in
the study were conscientious. and dedicated to the completion of the
data gathering. Others who reviewed materials. answered questions.
and offered support and encouragement are extended my gratitude.

Thanks is also extended to my two children. Rachel and Rebecca.
who were able to share their dad with his studies for such a long
time. A very loving appreciation goes to my wife. Linda. for her

support. patience. and toleration of the 'piles of papers“ and long

hours of research. writing. and typing. The love. support. and
encouragement of my family were essential ingredients to the

completion of this project.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ...... . ........... . . . . . . . ix

LIST OF FIGURES . ....... . ...... . ........ xi
Chapter

I. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM . ........... . 1

Statement of the Problem ............. . . l

Purposes of the Study . . . . . . .......... 7

Importance of the Study .............. . 7

Delimitations and Limitations of the Study . . . . . . 9

Definition of Terms . . ..... . . . ..... . lO

Research and Statistical Hypotheses ...... . . . 12

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . l3

II. REVIEH OF THE LITERATURE . ........ . ...... 15

The Crisis in Achievement and Socialization . . . . . l5

Language and Learning . . . . . ........... 22

Individual Learning Style ....... . ...... 29

The Middle School Student . . . . . ......... 33

Task Structure . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . 37

III. METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN . ................ 50

Research Questions . . .......... . . . . . . 50

P0pulation and Sample . ............... Sl

Research Design . . . ................ 52

content a o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 52

Training ......... . . ..... . ..... 54

Instructional Methods . .............. 55

Instruments .................... 58

Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Instrumentation ............... . . . 60

The Stanford Achievement Test (SAT) . ....... 60

The Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) ..... . . . 63

Attitudinal Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

vii

Page

Achievement Posttests ............... 69

Interviews . . . ........... . . . . . 74
Data- Analysis Procedures ............... 77
Summary . . . . . ..................

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ................. . 81
Purposes of the Study . ............... 81
Research and Testable Hypotheses ........... 82
Findings of the Study . ............... 84

Identification of Analysis Groups ........ . 84
Two-Sample T-Test . ..... . .......... 9O
Two-Hay Analysis of Variance ............ 93
F-Ratio . ..................... 97
Posttest Item Analysis .............. . 102
Posttest Reliability Coefficients . ........ 106
Teacher Interview Data ............... 110
Student Interview Data . .............. 116
Summary . . . . ................... 119
V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS . ...... 122
Summary ....................... 122
Purposes of the Study . . . . . ..... . . . . . 122
Literature Review ................. 123
Design of the Study ............... 123
Discussion of the Findings ............. . 125
Research Question 1 . . .............. 125
Research Question 2 ................ 126
Research Question 3 . ............... 127
Research Question 4 ............... . 129
Assessment of Variables . ............. 130
Additional Findings ...... . ......... 132
Conclusions . . ................... 134
Recommendations for Further Research ......... 138
APPENDICES
A. DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT. CONSENT LETTERS.
AND CURRICULAR INFORMATION . . ............. 141
B. TRAINING UNIT AND TEACHING-MATERIALS PACKET . . . . . . 155
C. LEARNING STYLES INVENTORY (STUDENT AND TEACHER FORMS).
ACHIEVEMENT POSTTESTS. AND ATTITUDINAL SURVEY ..... 199
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... 218

viii

Table

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Class Mean Scores on the Reading Comprehension and
Social Science Subtests of the Stanford Achievement
Test--Intermediate 2/E. Grade 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . 62

Number of Items in the Nine Subscales of the LSI and
Their Reliabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Kuder-Richardson 20 Reliabilities of the Eight Subscales
of the Slavin Attitudinal Survey: Junior High . . . . 68

Comparative Specifications of the Achievement Posttests . 72
Results of Pilot Test of Achievement Posttests . . . . . 75
Results of the Renzulli-Smith Learning Styles Inventory . 88

Combined Scores for the Reading Comprehension and
Social Studies Subtests of the Stanford Achievement 90
Test 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 00000

Results of the T-Test Based on Achievement Posttest
Scores for Unit 9/10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Results of the T-Test Based on Achievement Posttest
Scores for Unit 11/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Two-Hay ANOVA Based on Ability and Task Structure
(Unit 9/10 Achievement Posttest) . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Two-Hay ANOVA Based on Ability and Task Structure
(Unit 11/12 Achievement Posttest) . . . . . . . . . . 95

F-Ratio for Subscales of the Attitudinal Survey for
Students Matched to Task Structure for Unit 9/10
and Not Matched to Task Structure for Unit 11/12 . . . 99

F-Ratio for Subscales of the Attitudinal Survey for

Students Matched to Task Structure for Unit 11/12
and Not Matched to Task Structure for Unit 9/10 . . . 100

ix

«h#-b-b

.10

.11

.12

.13

.14
.15
.16
.17

Comparison of the Variances and Means on the

Attitudinal Survey . . . . . . . ..........

Item-Analysis Data for 40 Items From the Achievement

Posttest for Unit 9/10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Item-Analysis Data for 40 Items From the Achievement

Posttest for Unit 11/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Data for Calculating the Reliability of a 40-Item

Achievement Posttest Based on Unit 9/10 . .....

Data for Calculating the Reliability of a 40-Item

Achievement Posttest Based on Unit 11/12 . . . . . .

Years of Experience of Teacher Participants . .....

Results of the Renzulli-Smith Teaching Styles Survey

Characteristics of Students Selected for Interviews . . .

Summary of the Results of Hypotheses Investigated

in This Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Results of the LSI Comparing Teaching Methods Most
Frequently Employed by the Teachers and the
Teaching Methods Most Preferred by the Students

104

108

109
111

114
116

121

135

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
3.1 Program Content for the Elementary Grades . . ..... 53
3.2 Outline of Social Studies Unit of Study ...... . . 56
3.3 Order of Treatments . ........... . . . . . . 60
3.4 Student Types . . . ............... . . . 66
3.5 Objectives of Four Units on South America . . . . . . . 71
4.1 Scores for 'C00perative Learners“ on the Independent

Study and Peer Teaching Subscales of the Learning

Styles Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2 Scores for “Competitive Learners“ on the Independent

Study and Peer Teaching Subscales of the Learning

Styles Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 87

4.3 Combined Scores on the Reading Comprehension and
Social Science Subtests of the Stanford Achievement
TEStoooo0.000000000000000...o 89

4.4 Mean Posttest Scores of Students Matched and Not
Matched to Task Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5 Mean Posttest Scores for Low-Ability Students in
Cooperative and Competitive Task Structures . . . . . 96

4.6 Mean Posttest Scores for High-Ability Students in
Competitive and Cooperative Task Structures ..... 97

xi

CHAPTER I

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

This chapter contains the statement of the problem. purposes
of the study. importance of the study. delimitations and limitations.
and definitions of terms. Also included are the research and statis-

tical hypotheses and an overview of the remainder of the dissertation.

Statement of the Problem

Children begin their lives in the family. relating primarily
to adult caregivers. “The child's intellectual growth is contingent
on his mastering the social means of thought. that is. language“
(Vygotsky. 1962. p. 51). Youngsters' social world expands when they
come in contact with other adults and children in the school setting.
As children become older. they have more frequent. intense. and varied
interactions with other children and fewer interactions with adults.
Morine-Dershimer (1985) reported that when children were asked with
whom they spoke the most often at home. 57% mentioned their brother or
sister. 31% named their mother. and 12% mentioned their father.

Until recently. adults in the United States have viewed
interaction between adults and children as the most important vehicle
for ensuring effective socialization and development of young people.

Relationships among children were viewed as unimportant or unhealthy

(Johnson 6 Johnson. 1982). and communication among students in the
classroom was discouraged. “The demise of many families and
communities as socializing agents means that other organized
activities in children's and adolescents' lives [such as education]
assume more importance” (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1983. p. 130).

Schools have considerable influence as socializing agents.
The teacher forms the context for and frames all learning that occurs
in the classroom. The way learning situations are structured has a
major influence on student behavior (Good & Brophy. 1978) and deter-
mines whether interpersonal attraction or rejection results among
students. Constructive peer relationships promote healthy develop-
ment and effective socialization (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1982).

Three types of interaction occur in the classroom: the
interaction between teacher and student. the interaction between
student and curriculum materials. and the interaction between and
among students (Johnson 6 Johnson. 1975). Much attention has been
directed toward the role of the teacher and the curriculum. whereas
interaction among students has been studied less frequently (Van
Sickle. 1982). By determining students' learning goals and
interaction patterns. teachers can improve achievement and affective
outcomes. Likewise. students‘ feelings concerning self-esteem. peer
relationships. particular subjects. teachers. and school in general
can be improved when learning goals are structured appropriately

(Johnson 8 Johnson. 1984).

/' The conventional approaches used to educate students are
usually competitive or individualistic. occurring 80% to 90% of the
school day (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1984). Students work independently to
surpass classmates or work alone to meet a certain criterion. The
teacher. as a classroom manager. determines which instructional method
will be most effective. rarely considering the various learning
styles of the individuals being taught. “Paper and pencil tasks are
used to teach basic skills which could be taught through more approp-
riate. concrete activities and real experiences“ (Charlesworth. 1985.
p. 34). Thus. Lalls (1983) advised that "one of the early steps that
a teacher must take is to discover the ways in which each child learns
best“ (p. 4).

Learning style describes an individual's “personality charac-
teristics that have implications for behavior patterns in learning
situations" (Renzulli & Smith. 1978. p. 2). Numerous researchers have
attempted to ascertain the relationship between the individual stu-
dent's learning style and the teacher's instructional approach.
Research that matches the teaching method with learner characteristics
is referred to as aptitude-treatment-interaction (ATI). Aptitude
relates to general intelligence or scholastic ability and also applies
to previous achievement. special abilities. personality characteris-
tics. and stylistic characteristics (Snow. 1980). ATI research has
been found to be an effective approach to enhancing achievement and
improving attitudes. although the findings of such research have been

inconsistent (Bracht. 1970).

In their book Teaching:§tudents Through Their Individual
Learning Styles. Dunn and Dunn (1978) reported that the student who is
not motivated in a conventional setting may show much more interest if
the task structure is changed. Such a student may learn better in an
individualized program or when allowed to work with peers. After
gathering information on the student's learning style. the teacher can
determine the appropriate task structure. whether the student is able
to make choices. and whether the youngster can evaluate his/her own
progress.

Ideally. the teacher should identify which learners function
best when procedures are outlined clearly and directions are well-
defined. and which students are creative and learn best in classroom
environments in which they can organize their own learning situations.

There is no single way in which to group students for maximum
learning. Students learn in a variety of sociological patterns
that include working alone. with one or two friends. with a small
group or as part of a team. with adults. or. for some. in any
variation thereof. It is important to identify how each student
learns and to then assign to that individual the correct group-
ings. methods. and resources. (Dunn & Dunn. 1978. p. 12)

Three critical components for learning are the content. the
nature of the learner. and the teaching method. Hhen considering the
“what." “who.“ and “how“ of the educational process. teachers usually
emphasize certain task structures (competitive ané individualistic)
and use learning-style information for only a few of their students
(learning disabled. mainstreamed. and gifted). 'Hithout insight into
the psychological structure and activities of the individual. the

educative process will. therefore. be haphazard and arbitrary“ (Dewey.

1959. p. 20). Researchers have indicated that teachers can meet the
needs of more students if they gather and apply learning-style infor-
mation in their teaching. How educators structure students' learning
goals determines the patterns of interaction in the classroom. How
students interact is a major determinant of both the cognitive and the
affective outcomes of the teaching/learning process (Johnson 8
Johnson. 1984).

The study of cooperative. competitive. and individualistic
learning situations “is one of the most developed areas of inquiry
within psychology and education in terms of richness of theory.
quality and quantity of research. and application to educational
settings" (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1983. p. 157). Slavin (1983) evaluated
41 recent studies concerned with cooperative learning and found higher
achievement in the treatment (cooperative learning) than the control
(teacher directed) groups in 63% of the studies and no difference in
34% of them. Johnson and Johnson (1982) reviewed the results of more
than 600 studies and discovered that cooperative learning had a wide
variety of positive effects at various grade levels and in many
different subjects.

Other researchers have found that student participants in
cooperative learning were motivated (Lowry 8 Johnson. 1981) and had a
positive attitude toward learning (Garibaldi. 1979: Gunderson 8
Johnson. 1980) and classmates (Johnson. Johnson. Tiffany. 8 Zaidman.
1983). Individuals in cooperative learning situations developed

improved self-esteem (Slavin 8 Karweit. 1979) while exhibiting both

cognitive and social growth (Johnson. Marayama. Johnson. Nelson. 8
Skon. 1981). Cooperative group members were also likely to understand
the perspective of others. promoting positive intergroup relations and
mainstreaming (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1984: Slavin 8 Oickle. 1981). Hhen
students are allowed more opportunities to practice cooperative learn—
ing. an environment is created that encourages “positive talk“ while
enhancing social skills and achievement.

If cooperative learning groups offer students so many benefits
in affective areas. opportunities for developing interpersonal commu-
nication skills. and practice of higher-level thinking (problem solv-
ing. evaluation. decision making). why is this teaching method
employed so infrequently? It is difficult to think of many adult
activities that do not require cooperation. The family. neighborhood.
workplace. clubs. teams. religious groups. and political organizations
all require cooperative behavior if they are to attain their respec-
tive goals.

One would think that the school. a primary place where
children are socialized into adult roles. would offer opportunities
to engage in cooperative activities. Classroom practice should be
consistent with what research has indicated about teaching methodology
and what students will encounter in the future. “Constructive peer
relationships should be promoted in both the family and school
settings. Fostering such relationships may be the most important
challenge facing parents. educators. and other adults who wish to

promote healthy development and effective socialization“ (Johnson 8

Johnson. 1982. p. 59). Society cannot afford to have students who are
alienated and disconnected from their peer group. are unable to inter-

act effectively. or are not learning as much as they could.

Pgrposes of the Stgdy

The writer had three major purposes in conducting this inves-
tigation. The first purpose was to compare the effects of competi-
tive and cooperative task structures on the achievement of sixth-grade
social studies students who were predisposed toward competitively or
cooperatively structured classrooms. The second purpose was to meas-
ure the effects of competitive and cooperative task structures on the
achievement of high-ability and low-ability social studies students.
The third purpose was to determine the effects of competitive and
cooperative task structures on the attitudes of students predisposed

toward one task structure or the other.

Importance of the Stggy

The findings of this study should be useful to educators and
researchers in a number of ways. Shaver and Nelson (1985) suggested
that little research is applied to classroom practices because it is
difficult to relate research findings to what teachers will use. The
perspective at universities is to advance critical scholarship. This
outlook is often in conflict with what the teacher needs--something
that works in the classroom. The present writer applied research
findings to the classroom. using existing curriculum and content.

Hhile examining the effect task structure had on certain types of

students. teachers participating in the study were using teaching
approaches that could be applied immediately in their classrooms.
Ihe majority of classroom activity is based on competition.
This competitive class structure may be biased against the cooperative
student. possibly damaging self-concept. limiting prosocial develop-
ment. and lowering achievement (Kagan. Zahn. Hidaman. Schwarzwald. 8
Tyrell. 1985). The present study was an extension of Hheeler's (1977)
study. which concerned the interaction between learning style and task
structure. Hheeler attempted to determine whether students who were
prediSposed toward a cooperative or a competitive treatment actually
improved in achievement and attitudes. The small sample size. materi-
als used. length of the treatment. and nature of the subjects limited
the generalizability of his findings. He concluded that
relevant learner entering behaviors need to be assessed before a
classroom goal structure is implemented. Once a learner's
predisposition toward cooperation or competition is known.
instruction strategies can be adjusted to accommodate the two
different modes of learning. (p. 8)
Teachers should possess a variety of teaching strategies and
understand how to use alternative strategies to accommodate learners‘
uniquenesses (Phillips. 1983).
Student interaction normally involving cooperative learning and
discussion is often only hesitantly attempted by teachers. The
fear of noise and the fallacy that only quietness precipitates
learning causes many teachers to balk at this type of instruction.
(Klingele. 1979. p. 35)

In this study. teachers were given a framework for teaching social

studies content using a variety of instructional approaches. They

were also given suggestions for managing and processing activities.

Students learn. not only by passively listening to the teacher or
working alone with curricular materials. but also by actively discuss-
ing. talking a question through. or defending their viewpoints
(Barnes. 1971). In this study. teachers and students were given

opportunities to experience both styles of teaching/learning.

Delimitations and Limitations of the Study

Certain delimitations and limitations were evident in this
study. They are enumerated below.

1. The study was delimited to sixth-grade social studies
classes in a midwestern suburban school district. Therefore. the
findings can be generalized only to that school and others demographi-
cally similar to it.

2. The study was delimited to the social studies curriculum
and objectives of the participating school district and the content
found in the 1983 edition of the Follett social studies textbook
entitled Latin America and Canada. (See Appendix B.)

3. The abilities and characteristics of the teachers partici-
pating in the study were limitations. Variations in experience with
the content and with teaching sixth grade. as well as preferences for
instructional methods. may have affected how teachers interpreted and
used the research materials. The researcher attempted to lessen the
effect of teacher differences by explaining the research materials to

them and by instructing the teachers in their use.

10

4. External motivational factors for students involved in the
study. such as travel experience. interests. mass-media exposure. and
previous assignments. were not controlled.

5. The composition of the individual classes participating in
the research was a further limitation. The influence students within
the class group had on one another could not be controlled.

6. The time of day students participated (morning or after-
noon). the time involved for each session (one 45-minute class out of
the seven-period day). and the duration of the study (seven weeks) were

all limitations.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined in the context in which they
are used in this dissertation.

Achievement. The outcomes of learning: the cognitive develop-
ment of the student (Gardner. Callis. Merwin. 8 Rudman. 1984).

Competitive learners. Students who work against one another
to achieve a goal because of the way a lesson is structured. Competi-
tive learners prefer working alone without teacher supervision or
extensive interaction with peers. A negative interdependence is
created among students because (in most cases) only some of the stu-
dents can be successful (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1984).

Cooperative learners. Students who prefer and usually
succeed in “group participation in a project where the result is the

product of common effort. the goal is shared. and each member's

11

success is linked with every other‘s“ (Kohn. 1986. p. 50). A positive
interdependence is created between group members.

Lgarning_style. The student's consistent response to and use
of stimuli in the context of learning (Claxton 8 Ralston. 1978): the
personally preferred method of interacting with information and
experience (Della-Dora 8 Blanchard. 1979). “The concept of learning
style is relatively new. and apparently evolved from attempts to
synthesize the research findings in the areas of both individual
differences in cognitive styles and the effectiveness of various
instructional methods“ (Blakemore. 1984. p. 31).

Low-gbility learners. Students who scored in the bottom 23%
on the Reading Comprehension and Social Science subtests of the
Stanford Achievement Test (Stanine l. 2. or 3) and were consistently
evaluated by their social studies teacher at the C level or below.

High-ability learners. Students who scored in the tap 23% on
the Reading Comprehension and Social Science subtests of the Stanford
Achievement Test (Stanine 7. 8. or 9) and were consistently evaluated
by their social studies teacher at the A- level or above.

Structural bias. The congruency or incongruency of the task
structure and the student's preferred learning style (Kagan et a1..
1985).

Task structure. “The many ways in which the teacher (or
students themselves) sets up activities designed to result in student
learning“ (Slavin. 1983. p. 1). There are three major forms of group

task structure: cooperative (working with others in a small group).

12

competitive (working alone to see who can perform the best). and
individualistic (working alone without any connection to others).
“The way a teacher structures learning tasks will have a major effect
upon how students behave“ (Good 8 Brophy. 1978. p. 300).
Teaching:style. The range of instructional approaches
employed by a teacher (Renzzulli 8 Smith. 1977) and the abilities.
interests. and characteristics of that teacher (Slavin. 1984).
Transescence. “The period in human develonment which begins
in late childhood. prior to the onset of puberty. and which extends

through the early stages of adolescence“ (Eichhorn. 1966. p. vii).

wtetisticjal "129111322;

Four research hypotheses were developed from the statement of
the problem and the purposes of the study. The first three concerned
the task structure employed and the resulting student achievement. as
measured by content-area posttests. The fourth research hypothesis
concerned the task structure and students' resulting attitudes.

flipothesis 1: The mean posttest scores of competitive and
cooperative learners matched with task structure will exceed the

mean posttest scores of competitive and cooperative learners not
matched with task structure.

Hypothesis 2: The mean posttest scores of low-ability learners
exposed to a cooperative task structure will exceed the mean post-

test scores of low-ability learners exposed to a competitive task
structure.

Hypothesis 3: The mean posttest scores of high-ability learners
exposed to a competitive task structure will exceed the mean

posttest scores of high-ability learners exposed to a cooperative
task structure.

13

Hypothesis 4: The variances on the subscales of the attitudinal
survey for students whose learning-style preferences are matched
with task structure will differ significantly from the variances
on the subscales of the attitudinal survey for those same students
when not matched with task structure.

For testing purposes. these hypotheses were restated in the null

form as follows:

Hypothesis 1: There will be no statistically significant differ-
ence between the mean posttest scores of competitive and coopera-
tive learners matched to task structure and the mean posttest

scores of competitive and cooperative learners not matched to task
structure.

Hypothesis 2: There will be no statistically significant
difference between the mean posttest scores of low-ability learn-
ers exposed to a cooperative task structure and the mean posttest
scores of low-ability learners exposed to a competitive task
structure.

Hypothesis 3: There will be no statistically significant differ-
ence between the mean posttest scores high-ability learners
exposed to a competitive task structure and the mean posttest

scores of high-ability learners exposed to a cooperative task
structure.

Hypothesis 4: There will be no statistically significant differ-
ence in the variance of scores on subscales of the attitudinal
survey for students whose learning-style preferences are matched
to task structure and for those same students whose learning-style
preferences are not matched to task structure.

912mg!

Chapter I established a need for the study. Included were a
statement of the problem and purposes of the study. the importance of
the research. delimitations and limitations of the study. and
definitions of important terms. The hypotheses formulated for the
research were also stated.

Chapter 11 contains a review of literature in five areas that

are relevant to this study: (a) the achievement and socialization

14

crisis facing American schools. (b) the importance of language in the
learning process. (c) individual learning styles. (d) the middle-
school-age student. and (e) the task structure employed and its effect
on the teaching/learning process.

The population and sample. the research design. instrumenta-
tion and instructional materials used in the study. and procedures
used in collecting and analyzing the data are described in Chapter
III.

Chapter IV contains the results of the data analysis and a
review of the study findings,

Chapter V includes a summary of the study. major findings.
conclusions based on the findings. and recommendations for further

research.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter includes a review of literature and research on
the following topics: the crisis in achievement and socialization.
language and learning. individual learning styles. the middle school

student. and task structures.

The Crisis in Achievementgand Socializatigg
Throughout history. a basic tenet of American philosophy has
been competition: it is the essence of the economic system. a focus of
much of American recreation. and the structure of most activity that
occurs in schools. Picture the first-generation American struggling
to establish a business. the frontier farmer contending with the
forces of nature. the championship sports team. and award-winning
performance. and the classroom. in which students generally work
alone. competing against their classmates for recognition and rewards.
Our institutions. especially those in the public sphere. stress
competition. It must be remembered that these institutions were
developed at a time when our resources seemed unlimited. our
population was small. and industrial expansion was booming. The
competitive ethic spurred this expansion. Americans were taught
that the most lasting way to help others was to pursue their own
self-interests. (Hebb. 1981. p. 109)
In modern society. competition has a place and remains

important in some roles: however. more and more activities require

15

 

16

cooperation. The individual's role in the family. neighborhood.
workplace. society. and human race necessitates cooperative under-
standing and behavior to attain a variety of goals.

Most adult activities require cooperation. Society comprises
overlapping groups. which require cooperation if they are to be
successful. Children begin their lives in the family. expand to the
neighborhood. enter school. join clubs and teams. and eventually
pursue a career. As schools are the primary place where children are
socialized into adult roles. one would_expect them to of er opportuni-
ties for practicing cooperative activities. However.\only 7% to 20%
of the time devoted to learning is structured by the teacher for
cooperative learning (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1975). A number of writers
have discussed problems in the education and socialization of young
people and have offered suggestions for the improvement of schooling
in America (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1975). Employing a cooperative task
structure in the classroom may be an important part of that solution.
Lack of instruction and practice in cooperative activities is one
problem facing education: declining achievement is another.

Johnson and Johnson (1984) believed that an achievement
crisis exists in American schools. They cited declining scores on
college entrance examinations for the last 20 years. lower productiv-
ity because of the poorer quality of the work force. less emphasis on
and declining achievement in mathematics and science. and increased

functional illiteracy among those who drop out or sometimes even those

 

17

who finish high school as indicators of some of the challenges facing
education.
A substantial number of children. teenagers. and young adults feel
isolated. disconnected from their parents and peers. unattached to
school and career. without purpose and direction. and lacking any
distinct impression of who and what kind of persons they are.
(Johnson 8 Johnson. 1984. p. 4)
Juvenile crime against property. other students. and teachers has
become commonplace (Bybee 8 Gee. 1982). the suicide rate for children
has increased dramatically in the past 20 years (Bronfenbrenner.
1976). and changes in the family have left children with less time
with parents and more time with peers or on their own.

Johnson and Johnson (1984) suggested that healthy cognitive
and social development can occur in the schools if teachers structure
more learning cooperatively. They stated. “The time has come to
structure life in schools in ways that are (a) congruent with the
future lives of our students. and (b) congruent with the research on
instructional methods“ (p. 10). Students engaged in cooperative
activities achieve the same as or better than their counterparts in
“traditional“ classrooms (teacher-directed activities in which indi-
vidual students work alone on educational tasks) (Johnson 8 Johnson.
1981).

Cooperative approaches to learning not only improve
achievement. but also have been found to have a positive effect on
students' attitudes. Research has indicated that students who par-

ticipate in cooperative learning activities are motivated and like the

teacher. subject. and school more than do their counterparts in

 

18

competitive classrooms (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1981: Slavin. 1985). This
improved desire for learning would help resolve the major problem
facing education. as indicated by both Goodlad. in A Place Called
Sgfiggl (1984). and Boyer. in High School (1983). These authors
believed that students must develop a love for learning and a commit-
ment to their education.

In a study of American education. Goodlad (1984) concluded
that education has changed little in recent years. He noted an
overemphasis on the basic skills. a lack of interpersonal warmth. and
dullness of content and procedures. Students spent the majority of
the school day sitting and listening to the teacher. becoming passive.
and seeking only to “get by" in their classes. Cooperative approaches
would create interest and therefore more effort on the part of the
student and provide more opportunities for higher-level thinking.

Boyer (1983) summarized the purposes of education as training
individuals for a career. developing in students a lifelong love for
learning. and offering equal learning opportunities to all people.
Cooperative learning activities are designed to bring individuals of
different ability levels. races. and backgrounds into contact with
each other. while teaching interpersonal communication and small-group
skills. Students learn from each other in an active learning
environment. If. as Goodlad said. the best way to raise achievement
is to inspire in students an emotional commitment to learning. then
more cooperative learning in the classroom is one way to achieve that

goal.

 

19

Several of the key goals Adler (1982) proposed in ng_£pige1a
Proposal could be achieved if teachers selected the cooperative
learning approach. Adler recommended a one-track system for all
students. which would prepare them for the future by achieving the
following three objectives: (a) personal growth/self-improvement.
(b) effective citizenship. and (c) preparation for a career.
Cooperative learning activities give students the opportunity to
practice and develop skills in speaking. listening. decision making.
and working with others. Students would also acquire knowledge
through two of the three methods Adler suggested (develop skills
through practice and coaching. and enlarge understanding of ideas
through questioning and active involvement) if cooperative techniques
were employed. “All genuine learning is active. not passive. It
involves the use of the mind. not just the memory. It is a process of
discovery. in which the student is the main agent. not the teacher"
(Adler. 1982. p. 50). Cooperative learning provides opportunities for
students to practice skills that are useful throughout life. while
achieving at a level equal to or surpassing that resulting from other
teaching approaches.

In The Hurried Child (1981) and All Grown Up and No Place to
£9 (1984). Elkind examined the problems facing children as they grow
up in American society. Because of weaknesses in family structure.
adult authority. and highly individual living arrangements. many young
people lack a secure home setting. The previous security of a society

with limited options has been replaced by multiple options in

20

religion. the arts. music. food. and entertainment. as well as
cultural. ethnic. and racial diversity. Schools. patterned after
factories. with drab appearances. bells. and short lunch hours.
reflect the values. tensions. and stresses of society. Elkind claimed
that schools fail to provide for students' educational and personal-
identity needs.

According to Elkind. in the last 35 years education has
contributed to the many problems facing young people (lower achieve-
ment. suicide. drug abuse. teen pregnancy. and so on). During this
period. enrollment has increased from approximately 23 million to 40
million students. whereas the number of schools has decreased from
185.000 to 86.000. Elkind suggested that the large school may be
better from a financial perspective and easier to operate than a
smaller school: however. it creates an impersonal environment.
decreasing contact between students and faculty and weakening the
bonds of community. “Mentoring“ (finding an important person to
influence development-~often a teacher) is low. and self-definition
becomes more difficult (it is facilitated by being with people who
know each other well and give useful information about each other).

Elkind (1981) recognized the shortcomings of an educational
system that stresses a competitive task structure: he endorsed the use
of more activities requiring decision making and cooperation. “Chil-
dren who experience repeated school failure are likely to acquire the
orientation of learned helplessness as well as an abiding sense of

inferiority“ (p. 109). he stated. If an individual has difficulty

21

with a competitive situation and efforts to control are ineffectual.
he/she no longer even tries to succeed. The active learning that
gives children an opportunity to practice communication provides situ-
ations in which students can compare their feelings and thoughts with
how others feel and think. “Children get to know one another and the
teacher better. and that promotes constructive growth by comparison
and contrast" (Elkind. 1984. p. 207).

Glenn (1982) believed that the crisis of growing up in America
is a result of too many transitions occurring too quickly. Dramatic
changes in the family (smaller size. high frequency of divorce. single
and working parents. greater mobility). technological progress (labor-
saving devices in the home. mass media. rapid transportation). and
changes in education (consolidation of schools. increased knowledge
and skills. isolation in the classroom. student versus student task
structure) require young people to face a world that is different from
the one in which their parents and grandparents grew up. Thirty years
ago. family interaction. intergenerational associations. and a homo-
geneous value system were the norm. Children had consonant role
models and many nonnegotiable tasks. and logical consequences were
experienced as youngsters developed into adults. Glenn contended that
children now have few interpersonal associations. less contact with
relatives. and a heterogeneous value system. Role models are disso-
nant. few tasks are nonnegotiable. and logical consequences of deci-
sions are avoided. Television and other mass media have replaced

people in the lives of many children.

22

According to Glenn. dialogue and collaboration are missing
elements in children's growing process. He suggested that spending
more time in conversation with children at home and providing young-
sters more opportunities to interact at school would help resolve the
socialization crisis. Education should be more than students working
alone in silent classrooms on “rote and recall“ activities. Coopera-
tive tasks require students to engage in dialogue and to develop
interpersonal and small-group skills. Youngsters participate in a
process-oriented activity in written and oral expression that permits
them to practice higher-level thinking (problem solving. analysis.
evaluation. and divergent thinking).

“Students' daily experiences in the classroom of tomorrow
should foster development of those skills and behaviors appropriate
for satisfying interdependent roles and relationships“ (Bowman. 1985.
p. 247). Structuring learning so that students work together to reach
group goals. practice interpersonal communication. and are actively
involved in their education will better prepare them for the future.
As Hebb (1981) wrote.

Both competition and cooperation are found in abundance in
American society. Thus what is being called for here is not an
eradication of all competitive behavior (competition serves many
useful purposes) but rather an extension of our cooperative

capacities and an understanding that cooperation plays a vital
role in our present society. (p. 296)

Lan ua e and Learnin
Infants learn to talk by talking. They are encouraged to

repeat sounds and words. and associate them with people and things.

23

Hhen young children enter preschool. they become part of an active
environment in which learning expands and becomes more diversified
(Britton. 1970). Vygotsky (1962) stated. “Thought development is
determined by language. i.e.. by the linguistic tools of thought and
by the sociocultural experiences of the child“ (p. 51). Children
explore. question. express feelings. and develop language. Upon
entering elementary school. children begin to realize that learning
is something one does while sitting at a desk. that schoolwork is
often done alone. and that to work effectively there must be quiet.
The elementary school student quickly realizes that there is a
distinction between "school learning" and what is learned outside of
school (Britton. 1970).
Language permeates school life. Boys and girls in their attempts
to master the school curriculum and in the process of growing up
have to call upon their language resources. Moreover. they are
expected to increase these resources by making the language
encountered in their school learning a living part of their
thinking and communicating. (Rosen. 1969. p. 160)
The majority of the talk that occurs in the classroom. however.
originates with the teacher (Flanders. 1970). The teacher is
constantly defining and redefining the classroom communication system.
The goal is to maintain control of the social situation while further-
ing pedagogical aims. Teachers spend much time in “metacommunication“
(communicating about communication) as they monitor and control the

activity in the classroom. checking to see that it is functioning

properly (Barnes. 1971).

 

24

A second form of communication initiated by the teacher is
questioning. Barnes (1969) found that teachers used more questions
demanding facts than reasoning. The covert message to students was
that information was more important than original thought. The major-
ity of questions teachers ask can be referred to as “exam questions"--
questions whose answer the teacher already knows. The teacher asks
such questions to determine if the students are operating in his/her
content frame. Accepting this content frame not only indicates
“understanding“ but also acceptance of the teacher's authority and
interaction frame (Barnes. 1977). The criterion for relevance in many
classrooms is the teacher's content frame. “The effect of placing
control in the hands of one person is to emphasize his content frame.
and this will affect profoundly the basis upon which others partici-
pate“ (Barnes. 1977. p. 127).

Rosen (1969) described communication in the classroom as a
“language game“ that incorporates the following four rules:

1. The teacher is the most active player in the game. He makes
the most statements: speaks most frequently: his speeches are

longest. The ratio of his speech to other players is three to
one.

2. The major part of the game is played with substantive meanings
(i.e. the specific concepts of the lesson) specified by the
teacher's structuring.

3. Fact-stating and explaining are used much more frequently than

defining and interpreting. Opinions and the justification of
them are relatively rare.

4. The teacher is primarily a solicitor and the pupil a respond-
ent. (p. 122)
In The Universe of Discgppse. Moffett (1968) advocated
including rich experiences in conversation within the curriculum.

Opportunities to interact should begin in kindergarten and continue

25

throughout one's education. Moffett argued that dialogue is a primary
discourse and offers several advantages for the educational process.
Governed by the setting and the speaker's will. dialogue is nonverbal
and verbal and includes fast feedback. Moffett contended that verbal
collaboration is a form of joint thinking and is a major means of
developing thought and language. Providing opportunities for dialogue
in the classroom promotes the social art of discussing. the intellec-
tual art of qualifying. and the linguistic arts of elaborating. expos-
ing. and arguing. Moffett encouraged the use of small learning groups
in the classroom to facilitate peer interaction and dialogue. An
important aspect of the teacher's role is to create and nurture an
environment in which meaningful dialogue can occur.

The use of small groups that give students opportunities to
talk serves many purposes in the education and development of the
individual (Britton. 1970). The egocentric child must learn the
language of cooperation in order to get along with others. Having
students discuss topics in small groups provides the most efficient
schooling in listening (Lee 8 Rubin. 1979). The smaller the working
group. the greater the amount of relevant talk. Often the group
effort at understanding enables the formulation of conclusions that
could not have been reached by individuals working alone. Joint
exploration through expressive talk gives students opportunities to
develop communication skills. leaving teachers free to observe.
evaluate. and monitor the learning that is occurring in the classroom.

“Any contribution to the talk has. as it were. a value on two scales:

26

its forwarding of the task in hand. and its effect upon interpersonal
relations in the group” (Britton. 1970. p. 223).

Morine-Dershimer (1985) conducted a proceSS*product study in
which she examined the relationship between classroom interaction and
student achievement. She found that. in the traditional teacher-
directed classroom. students had few opportunities to direct or influ-
ence the behavior of others or to practice posing questions. Both of
these skills are “required for effective adult functioning that might
well contribute to a variety of classroom interaction if more lessons
were designed to develop such ability“ (p. 159). Morine-Dershimer
found that peer teaching/learning settings provided opportunities to
use and develop these and other skills. Not only were students able
to practice and develop communication prowess. but use of small-group
learning was associated with better learning outcomes.

Morine-Dershimer identified three types of status available
in the upper elementary classroom: academic status (related to
achievement and status with the teacher). social status (status with
peers). and communication status (a high level of participation. or
being attended by peers). Her study findings suggested that what
counts the most is acquiring a recognized place in the peer-group
social system. Morine-Dershimer proposed that if teachers wish to
“win" in the classroom communication process and to increase the
status of students in all three areas. they should incorporate the

following “winning combinations“ in their classrooms:

27

l. Pupils learn from involvement in class discussions and
listening to the comments of their classmates.

2. Pupil patterns of attending to the different aspects of a
lesson vary according to their acquisition of different types of
classroom status (academic status. social status. or communication
status).

3. Teachers need to provide signals. guide pupil attention.
and share information concerning the communication structure of the
lesson.

4. Teachers need to construct lessons that require the
simultaneous practice of academic skills. communication skills. and
social skills so that different students can succeed by learning
different things within the same lesson.

5. Teachers need to construct lessons that enable students to
acquire information and practice processing information within the
same lesson.

6. Teachers need to construct lessons so that pupils' ideas
and experiences are viewed as important contributions to the develop-
ment of knowledge.

7. Teachers will be winners in the classroom communication
game along with their students because they will have provided varied
opportunities for many of their students to actively participate and
win as well (p. 208).

Barnes and Todd (1977) conducted a study of the cognitive and

communicative functions of speech in small learning groups. They

28

believed that children possess skills and competencies that are rarely

called on in the conventional teacher-directed classroom. The

researchers presented tasks to small groups of 13 year olds and

observed the learning processes and communication that occurred. They

found that small-group work is not ideal for all students on all occa-
sions. but that students usually benefit from exercising control over

what and how they learn. Barnes and Todd concluded.

Our study has made it clear that younger adolescents of average
1.0. can under helpful circumstances carry out collaborative
learning in small groups. and that at times they display
impressive cognitive and social abilities. (p. 127)

Learning that happens in a discussion group composed of peers

will be different in kind as well as content from learning that occurs

as a result of contact with the teacher. Hhen the responsibility for

learning rests in the learners' hands. they are able to negotiate

their own criteria for relevance and truth (Barnes 8 Todd. 1977). As

groups explore alternative meanings. they are engaged in complex.

productive discussion (Barnes 8 Todd. 1977: Stubbs. 1983). rather than

rehearsing the established content frame of the teacher.

Talking and doing should be the major focus in educating young

people.

It is clear that a child will be unable to display his total
verbal competence if he is restricted to a passive response role.
The

sandwiched between the teacher's initiation and feedback.
child must have an opportunity to initiate discussion. (Stubbs.

1983. p. 116)

Children need to practice language. just as a doctor practices

medicine or a lawyer practices law (Britton. 1970). Barnes (1969)

29

believed that children need to use language to wrestle with new ideas

and concepts. or to order old experiences in a new way. Given such

opportunities. children will develop new. different uses of language.

and new patterns of thinking and feeling.

He are saying that it is as talkers. questioners. arguers.
gossips. chatterboxes. that our pupils do much of their most
important learning. Their everyday talking voices are the most
important versatile means they possess for making sense of others.

including their teachers. (Rosen. 1969. p. 127)
Individual Learning Styles
Information the teacher acquires about individual students may
come from test scores. personal anecdotes. family histories. other

teachers' recollections. and observation (Kusler. 1982). To meet

students' needs. teachers often adjust their instructional methods.
probably as a result of these interactions. impressions. and percep-
tions. Yet teachers need to employ a “more explicit systematic method
of assessing learning style preferences that can supplement teachers'
intuitive understanding of students“ (Renzulli 8 Smith. 1978. p. 4).

A learning-styles inventory is a questionnaire designed to
measure students' preferences for various modes of instruction. This
instrument connects the student. teacher. and curriculum so that suc-
cessful learning can take place. According to Torrance (1965). “alert
teachers have always been aware of the fact that when they change
their method of teaching. certain children who had appeared to be slow
learners or even non-learners become outstanding students“ (p. 263).
Educators can improve the quality of their teaching by employing

several approaches in the classroom. Using various task structures

 

30

and teaching methods would enable teachers to reach more students
successfully (Joyce 8 Heil. 1972). “By identifying individual stu-
dents' learning style preferences. it is possible that more teachers
will realize that a variety of paths can and need be provided to reach
common goals“ (Renzulli. 1978. p. 5). The use of learning-styles
instruments offers teachers a quick. efficient means to gather infor-
mation so that form and direction can be given to the selection of
instructional materials and teaching methods (Kusler. 1982). “Hhen
teachers expand their instruction to respond to students' individual
learning styles. it takes as little as six weeks to see increased
achievement and a decrease in discipline problems“ (Dunn 8 Dunn. 1987.
D. 55).

Cafferty (1980) and Dunn (1981) suggested that every effort
should be made to match students and teachers whose learning/teaching
styles are similar. Such matching would necessitate having several
teachers at each grade level for the various types of learners. An
alternative would be to help teachers expand their repertoire of
teaching techniques to complement the diverse learning styles of their
students (Blakemore. 1984).

Several educators have attempted to differentiate and label
the ways students learn. Course content and background experiences
contribute to the manner in which students approach learning
situations. as well. McCarthy (1980) developed a system that
described four learning styles. The “innovative learner“ functions

through social interaction. seeks meaning. perceives information

31

concretely and processes it reflectively. needs to be involved
personally. and learns by listening and sharing ideas. “Analytic
learners“ enjoy traditional classrooms. function by adapting to
experts. seek facts. perceive information abstractly and process it
reflectively. and learn by thinking through ideas. The “common sense
learner“ needs to know how things work and will apply to “real life.“
perceives information abstractly and processes it actively. needs
hands-on experiences. and enjoys problem solving. “Dynamic learners"
function by acting and testing experiences. take risks. like variety.
perceive information concretely and process it actively. learn by
trial and error--self-discovery. and seek hidden possibilities.

Each learning style has advantages and disadvantages.
depending on the situation. Unfortunately. much of the activity in
school is biased in favor of “analytic learners.“ who constitute only
30% of the student population (McCarthy. 1980). McCarthy contended
that educators must incorporate teaching methods for each type of
learner. while continually improving the techniques employed in
gathering learning-styles information. “He should not deny students
the benefits of learning from each other. experiencing the learning
styles of other students. as well as providing them with the
Opportunity to experience shifts in brain functioning“ (McCarthy.
1980. p. 85).

Edwards (1979) viewed education as a hit-and-miss operation:
what teachers teach and what students learn may often differ from what

was intended. The student who comes home and announces he/she has

 

 

 

32

learned a new word may know what the word looks like. being a visual

learner. but may have no idea what the word means. Because what

occurs in school develops the verbal. rational. on-time left

hemisphere of the brain. such a student will try to compensate by

changing from his/her natural learning mode. Edwards believed that

advances in brain research may provide insight into how to teach all

students equally well. Until then. human capabilities will probably

not be fully developed because the educational system trains only half

of the brain (Springer. 1985).

According to Edwards. teachers have three tasks: (a) to offer

training for both hemispheres. (b) to teach students to use the
cognitive style best suited to the task at hand. and (c) to teach

students to bring both styles or hemispheres to bear on a problem in

an integrated manner. Change occurs so rapidly that foreseeing

necessary skills for future generations is becoming more and more

difficult.

Hithout abandoning training in traditional verbal and computa-
tional skills. concerned teachers are looking for teaching tech-
niques that will enhance children's intuitive and creative powers.
thus preparing students to meet the new challenges with flexibil-
ity. inventiveness. and imagination and with the ability to grasp
complex arrays of interconnected ideas and facts. to perceive
underlying patterns of events. and to see old problems in new

ways. (Edwards. 1979. p. 196)
Research has indicated that most students can identify their

own preferred learning style and will achieve better when exposed to

a consonant teaching style. and that it is advantageous to teach and

33

test students in their preferred modes of learning (Dunn 8 Dunn. 1978:

Haring. 1985). Dunn and Dunn commented.

It is important to remember that a student who is not motivated to
learn in a fairly conventional setting may become extremely
interested in achieving in an individualized program. Such
youngsters may become able to function responsibly when given
opportunities to (a) make choices. (b) learn in accordance with
their learning style preference. (c) participate in paired or
teamed peer group studies. and (d) self or peer-test and evaluate

themselves. (p. 9)
Teachers need to become aware of research findings and accept

the fact that students differ in ways other than mental ability. As

educators' perceptions of learning styles advance. so must their
perceptions of the environment that is needed for learning to take
place. Gathering and applying learning-styles information will help
teachers recognize that a wide variety of teaching approaches is

necessary if they are to educate the individual and better prepare

students for the future.

The Middle School Stpgent
During the middle school years. youngsters go through many

changes--physical. social. emotional. and psychological (Eichhorn.

1968: Klingele. 1979: Hiles 8 Bondi. 1981). This transition period

between childhood and adolescence includes a physical growth spurt in
which the child is transformed into a young adult. maturation of the
reproductive organs. a shift from dependence on parents to greater

influence by peers. and a personality structure that often appears

disorganized (Hattenburg. 1968). The individual's intellectual

awareness. which was formerly concrete and immediate. now is capable

 

34

of logical and deductive reasoning. of comparing the actual to the
ideal. of relating the past and the present. and of understanding
one's place in society. in history. and in the universe (Romano.
Hedberg. 8 Lulich. 1973). “Society has created a myth about boys and
girls in transescence. That myth is that those youngsters will
somehow grow up by themselves and that adults should let them alone
until they are mature adolescents“ (Hiles 8 Bondi. 1981. p. 33).

Most tasks that occur in the middle school social studies

classroom require listening to the teacher. reading the textbook.
completing worksheets. viewing audiovisual materials. writing reports.
and taking tests (usually objective). Students become passive absorb-
ers of information. accepting others' conclusions. The endless stream
of information is often removed from the student's life or developmen-
tal level. divorcing learning from thinking or feeling. In planning
instruction for the middle-school-age student. a monolithic approach
will not be effective (Eichhorn. 1966). “The problem is that gener-
ally schools have not offered the kinds of programs which recognize
the needs and characteristics of children in the process of becoming
adolescents“ (Jaquity. 1984. p. 8).

During the transescent and adolescent stages of development. a
child becomes an individual. develops a self-image. and searches for
an ego-identity. It is hoped the person who emerges into adulthood
will be a consistent. integrated individua1--aware of the person
he/she is and the person he/she would like to be (Britton. 1970).

This developmental process is a major preoccupation involving the

35

discovery of differences between oneself and one's family and the
discovery of likenesses and differences between oneself and

fellow members of the peer groups to which one belongs (Hiles 8 Bondi.
1981). As an active participant in the school setting. the student
will discuss. argue. confess. explore. and theorize: as a passive
spectator he/she is more likely to daydream. read. write poetry or
fiction. or engage in inappropriate or disruptive behavior (Grooms.
1967). Interaction is a critical component in the individual's
development. and “anyone who succeeded in outlawing talk in the
classroom would have outlawed life for the adolescent: the web of
human relations must be spun in school as well as out“ (Britton. 1970.
p. 223).

Hiles and Bondi (1981) contended that social development and
refinement is the primary function of the middle school. They
suggested that this objective has four components: (a) to facilitate
the acceptance of new roles and responsibilities. (b) to teach the
interdependence of individuals in society. (c) to explore social
values. and (d) to teach basic communication and human relations

skills. In describing the goals of the middle school. Romano.

Georgiady. and Heald (1973) supported this contention. They believed

that the transescent should be taught active participation processes.

the necessity and value of dialogue. effective methods of elaborating

new ways of thinking. and how to engage in community actions.

Loomis (1964) found that middle-school-age students are

concerned with peer standing and desire group approval. “These

36

children frequently ask for help in learning effective means of group
participation--for example. parliamentary procedure. committee
organization. and discussion techniques“ (Loomis. 1964. p. 46). She
also stated that. during this period. students begin to take more
responsibility for planning and evaluating their work. Through the
implementation of more cooperative group learning. teachers can
present content. teach principles of democratic living. and offer
students opportunities to improve communication skills while taking
advantage of this quest for group activity.

The different developmental levels and learning styles of
transescents require a variety of instructional approaches (Alexander
8 Kealy. 1973: Phillips. 1983: Romano. Hedberg. 8 Lulich. 1973).
“Some middle school and elementary students do their best thinking
alone. Many work better in pairs or in teams. Some like to learn
with adults. whereas others need peers“ (Dunn 8 Dunn. 1987).
Responsibility for learning should shift to the student during the
middle school years. The transescent is ready to use skills and
information to adapt to the surrounding environment(s) and to
understand the how. what. where. and why of the world. The middle-
school-age student wants to share in the decision-making process and
take responsibility for his/her actions. The middle school educator's
task. then. becomes that of supporting the student with a variety of
innovative learning strategies (Eichhorn. 1966). “Teacher-oriented

and teacher-dominated instructional strategies are no longer viable as

 

37

the dominant methods for teaching youngsters in today's middle

schools“ (Klingele. 1979. p. 31).

Igsk Structure

“The ability of all students to learn to work cooperatively
with others is the keystone to building and maintaining stable
marriages. families. careers. and friendships“ (Johnson 8 Johnson.
1983. p. 156). Classrooms in which an emphasis is placed on
competitive and individualistic learning structures offer students
little practice in cooperative situations. Societal needs and
research on instructional methods have indicated that cooperative.
competitive. and individualistic task structures need to be
implemented in the classroom more appropriately (Johnson 8 Johnson.
1983).

In 1949. Deutsch first proposed three types of task struc-
tures. He described a cooperative structure as one containing a pro-
motive interaction pattern in which the goals of individuals are
linked. and there is a positive correlation among group members' goal
attainments. An oppositional interaction pattern exists in a competi-
tive goal structure. In such a situation. an individual attains a
goal only if others do not. The outcome sought is personally benefi-
cial. but it is detrimental to those others who are competitively
linked. Hhen an individualistic goal structure exists. there is no
interaction pattern. The individual's achievement of the goal has no
influence on others (Deutsch. 1949). This theory of goal structure

“has maintained prominence in social psychology. integrated most of

38

the research findings. inspired new research. been confirmed. and
modifications have been proposed to integrate new research findings"
(Johnson 8 Johnson. 1983. p. 123).

A competitive situation. if properly structured. can be
healthy. effective. and motivating to many but not all students
(Kagan. Zahn. Hidaman. Schwarzwald. 8 Tyrrell. 1985). This is the
dominant interaction pattern in school (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1982): it
is fairly widespread when students enter kindergarten and becomes more
prevalent as they progress through the grades. Hith a competitive
task structure. there is a negative correlation with goal attainment.
Students work alone to see who can learn the most or the fastest.
Generally. high achievers succeed and “win.“ whereas low achievers
fail and “lose.“ For the low-achieving student. a competitive situa-
tion is often a poor motivator and psychological torture (Slavin.
1986). Repeated failure may lead to “giving up.“ negative classroom
behavior. or even juvenile delinquency.

According to Johnson and Johnson (1982). competition is an
appropriate task structure when (a) it is relatively unimportant
whether one wins or loses: (b) all students who participate perceive
themselves as having a reasonable chance of winning some recognition:
(c) clear and specific rules. procedures. and answers are evident: and
(d) all children are able to monitor the competitors' progress and
recognize their relative position in the group.

Hhen students participate in an individualistic learning

situation. they are independent of one another and success depends on

39

the relationship of their performance to an established criterion
(Johnson 8 Johnson. 1982). In this goal structure the individual's
success or failure does not depend on one's peers but on the teacher.
who is the primary source of information and materials. The task
should be relevant and worthwhile to the student. Hork is self-paced.
and students require a separate working area and separate materials.

Even in individualistic activities in which students work on
different goals. the presence of other students introduces an element
of competition (Peppitone. 1985). Individuals engage in social
comparison and attempt to determine their relative standing within the
group. Although the degree of competition may be lower than in
competitive learning activities. “it is a mistake to assume that just
because pupils are working on different tasks and are graded on their
own performance rather than a sliding scale. competitive motivations
and besting are absent“ (Peppitone. 1985. pp. 23-24).

One reason children come to school is for social interaction.
Teachers can capitalize on this social need by creating an environment
in which students practice working together while teaching and
learning from each other. The teacher acts not only as an instructor.
but also as an observer. advisor. and evaluator. A cooperative task
structure requires groups of two to six students. Hithin these
learning groups. students share ideas. pool resources and talents. and
help each other learn academic skills and content. The learning teams
are heterogeneous. social skills are taught and practiced. leadership

and responsibilities are shared with the group. and students are

40

evaluated both as individuals and as members of the team (Parker.
1984).

Children are socialized through relationships and interactions
with others. Good-quality relationships are important to all aspects
of development (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1982). Bandura's (1977) social
learning theory characterizes the socialization process as inter-
actions of the individual with the social environment. These interac-
tions are self-regulatory. requiring individuals to be the principal
agents of their own change. Individuals learn to use symbols enabling
them to represent events: analyze conscious experience: communicate
over distance. time. and space: and plan. create. and imagine. Obser-
vation and experience influence thought. feelings. and behavior.
People act as reciprocal determinants through interactions with each
other.

Cooperation is directly related to communication. cohesiveness.
trust. and the development of positive social-interaction skills.
Through cooperative ventures. children learn to share. to empa-
thize with others. to be concerned with others' feelings. and to
work to get along better. (Orlick. 1978. pp. 6-7)

Social learning theory helps in understanding how children
develop social perspective through language use and reciprocal
interactions. Social knowledge is a combination of the child's con-
struction of social phenomena and of observational learning modeled
from others. The classroom environment and the interactions in which

an individual engages with peers and the teacher influence the sociali-

zation process.

41

Parker (1984) described most activity in school as the
development of narrowly defined skills and the mastery of isolated
parts. with little transfer to problem-solving or real-life
situations. Students adapt their thinking to the authority figure.
the teacher. The methods teachers employ in spending their contact
time with students send implicit messages of what is important and
valued. Often the message is “don't talk.“ “work alone.“ “right
answers.“ or “busy work.“ If the teacher can structure learning
activities cooperatively. the message changes to “sharing.“ “working
together.“ “helping.“ and “communicating.“ The tone of the classroom
and the relationship among students and between students and the
teacher becomes more supportive.

The development of a supportive classroom environment in which
students are able to share discoveries. explore ideas. talk through
problems. justify viewpoints. and practice higher-order thinking.
while developing interpersonal communication skills. can benefit both
students and the teacher (Parker. 1984). Members of the group help
one another by working together as a unit. Each participant is a
necessary part of that unit and has a contribution to make: no group
member is left out of the activity.

The fact that children work together toward a common end.
rather than against one another. encourages helpful responses. Group
members believe they are an accepted part of the activity and thus
feel totally involved. Feelings of acceptance are directly related to

heightened self-esteem and overall happiness--just as rejection is

42

directly related to a decline in self-esteem (Orlick. 1982). Teachers
gain an environment that encourages communication among students. and
students are actively involved in their education. a technique that
achieves both humanistic educational goals and basic skills learning
(Slavin. 1986) and is another method for structuring the learning task
that complements competitive and individualistic approaches to
learning. Cooperative learning becomes an attitude that fills the
classroom environment. rather than a specific strategy. Regular work
in groups offers a support system within the class. allowing more
interaction and the development of greater respect for individual
differences. If problems occur. teachers have an established
groundwork for resolving the situation. Cooperative learning has
proven to be a powerful way to learn and has a positive effect on
classroom climate (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1982).

Ryan and Hheeler (1973) examined elementary-school-age
students participating in social studies inquiry. Students were
classified and placed in a cooperative or a competitive class environ-
ment. After children had been exposed to the same content. Ryan and
Hheeler found that

inquiry activities. which are launched in an atmosphere relatively
free from the threat of individual failure and which allow
students to make specific contributions toward a common goal. will
result in more positive student attitudes than inquiry activities
carried out in a competitive environment. (pp. 406-407)

Participants in the cooperative treatment liked social studies class

better. preferred group grades over individual grades. and enjoyed the

43

interaction that cooperative groups required (sharing information.
working together. and talking with one another).

Implementation of a cooperative task structure in the
classroom involves more than having students work in groups. Four
components are necessary before group work can be considered
cooperative (Johnson 8 Johnson. 1984). First. there must be positive
interdependence among group members. They may be connected through
joint rewards (reward interdependence). assignment of various jobs
(role interdependence). division of materials (resource interdepend-
ence). division of labor (task interdependence). or shared goals (goal
interdependence). Face-to-face interaction and verbal exchange are
also necessary for the success of cooperative groups. The third and
fourth components are creating individual accountability for mastery
of the assigned material (making sure that each group member is
responsible for his/her share of the work) and teaching social skills
so that group members can maintain effective working relationships
with each other. The purpose of structuring learning cooperatively is
to create opportunities for the practice and development of interper-
sonal and small-group skills. while maximizing each student's achieve-
ment.

Research has indicated that cooperative task structures
promote achievement. often more successfully than alternative task
structures.

Meta-analysis is especially applicable to the research on goal

structures and achievement. as there is considerable research
that used identical or at least similar variables. which allows

44

reliable application of statistical procedures. (Johnson.

Maruyama. Johnson. Nelson. 8 Skon. 1981. p. 49)
Conclusions from these studies have indicated that a cooperative task
structure was superior to a competitive one in promoting achievement
and productivity. regardless of grade or subject area (Johnson et al..
1981). Cooperative approaches also have been found to be better for
higher-level tasks (concept attainment. problem solving. categorizing.
motor performance. guessing-judging-predicting. and retention and
memory) and at least equal to a competitive approach in correcting and
rote decoding tasks.

Slavin (1986) found cooperative learning methods that incor-
porated group rewards to be consistently effective in increasing
achievement. He examined 35 studies in which classes exposed to
cooperative approaches were compared to those in which traditional
methods were used. Slavin found significantly higher achievement for
86% of the cooperative-treatment classes. Cooperative learning
methods seemed to work equally well in rural. suburban. and urban
schools and in high schools. middle/junior high schools. and
elementary schools.

Research on cooperative learning and peer tutoring has shown that
programs in which students help other students to learn can
enhance their achievement. Furthermore. the social benefits and
the increased self-esteem of students working together are
considerable. and many schools use cooperative learning and peer
tutoring for these reasons. (Slavin. 1986. p. 13)

Self-concept is an awareness and understanding of one's own

characteristics: it establishes individuality based on separation of

self from society and determines an individual's value in the social

45

world. “Children nurtured on cooperation. acceptance. and success
have a much greater chance of developing strong self-concepts. just as
children nurtured on balanced diets have a greater chance of develop-
ing strong and healthy bodies“ (Orlick. 1978. p. 5). Purkey (1970)
found that self-concept is related to school performance. Perception
of self. control of the situation. and academic achievement reinforce
each other (Kanoy 8 Johnson. 1980). Children who share in the
classroom decision-making process have been found to possess more
positive self-concepts than youngsters in classes dominated by the
teacher (Combs. Avila. 8 Purkey. 1971).

Damon and Hart (1982) reported that the social self develops
through the following four stages: (a) infancy. early childhood--
children learn that they belong to groups and begin entering into
social relationships (physical self): (b) middle. later childhood--the
individual considers activities with reference to the reactions of
others (active self): (c) early adolescence--social personality char-
acteristics become of primary importance (social self): and (d) late
adolescence--moral or personal choices. social relationships. and per-
sonality characteristics all are meaningful. An emphasis on active
learning that encourages communication between students is beneficial
and necessary at all of these stages if healthy development is to
occur.

Cooperative learning activities not only promote increased
self-esteem. higher achievement. and the development of interpersonal

skills. but they also address student motivation. In a study of

46

middle-school-age social studies classes. Brophy (1986) described four
deterrents to motivating students to learn:

1. Most activities in the classroom are imposed by the
teacher. Students have little autonomy or intrinsic motivation toward
the task.

2. The two primary roles of the teacher are “helpful
instructor“ and “authority figure.“ Many students. especially
adolescents. resent the latter role.

3. Teacher emphasis on and student concern with the impor-
tance of grades interfere with real learning. The import of a grade
intrudes on the acquisition of skills and knowledge. which is the true
purpose of schooling.

4. The familiarity and predictability of what occurs during
the “daily grind“ of the school day causes the student and the teacher
to focus on what needs to be done. instead of why it should be done
or what benefits can occur from participating in the activity or
completing the task.

Brophy implied that students prefer activities that permit
interaction with one another. manipulation of materials. autonomy and
creativity in organizing time and effort. and an active response in
some way other than reading and listening. He concluded that peer
interactive activities can be useful to instruction and motivation if
they (a) are structured around objectives and are therefore more than
just social experiences and (b) are arranged so that all group members

are involved in completing the task. Including more group activities

47

in the classroom might enable students to be more active and creative

in their response to content. while gaining practice in higher-level

thinking (application. analysis. synthesis. and evaluation). What is

learned would then be more meaningful. understandable. and enjoyable.
Several researchers (Kagan et al.. 1985: Slavin 8 Oickle.
1981: Hheeler. 1977) have investigated the ways in which a particular

task structure might be biased against certain grOUps or types of

individuals. Kagan et a1. (1985) learned that task structures con-

taining competitive elements can lower achievement and negatively
affect classroom climate. self-concept. race relations. and prosocial
development for minority groups and cooperative individuals. They
believed a variety of teaching approaches. including competitive.
individualistic. and cooperative structures. is needed if educators

are to succeed in reaching all individuals and groups. Students

should be taught with methods enabling them to recognize and analyze

situations so that they are able to react with appropriate behavior.

Kagan et a1. wrote.

The choice of task and reward structures has the potential for
either positive or negative academic and social outcomes for
various individuals and cultural groups. and reliance on a single
type of classroom structure can bias educational outcomes in favor
of or against certain individuals and groups. (p. 278)

Slavin and Oickle (1981) conducted an investigation to
determine whether cooperative learning favors one race over another.

Middle school English classes were taught using a “team“ (cooperative

groups) approach or a “nonteam' approach. The results of the study

suggested that cooperative approaches were effective with black

48

students and somewhat more effective with whites. Differences between

whites and blacks in the cooperative learning classes were virtually

nonexistent. The authors commented.

Hhat this study supports is the idea that without holding back
the achievement of whites. cooperative learning strategies
apparently have the capability to significantly reduce the
achievement disparities between blacks and whites. (p. 179)

Hheeler (1977) identified “competitive“ and “cooperative“
learners and attempted to determine the relationship between task

structure and students' achievement and attitudes. The results of the

study favored matching students with task structure. but those results
were never published.

Conclusions concerning the merits of cooperative learning

approaches to the education of youths have been well documented by

research. “Yet the procedures for structuring learning situations

cooperatively are not well known by teachers“ (Johnson 8 Johnson.

1982). There is a need to educate teachers in the benefits of

cooperative learning and to develop effective training methods so that

they will employ this instructional approach (Slavin. 1983). The most

effective impetus for implementing cooperative learning occurs when

individual teachers. with the support of their administrators. learn
of the success of this approach. apply it to their curriculum. and

experience the effect on the students (Pritchard. 1986).

A primary function of the teacher is to determine the

interaction patterns for students in the classroom. The teacher must

decide how students will interact with materials. the teacher. and

49

each other. More cooperative learning is needed in the classroom

because it is

inexpensive. relatively easy to implement. and fun for teachers as
well as students. In a time of increasing expectations and
diminishing resources for education. we cannot afford to ignore a
powerful. free instructional resource available in any school:
the students themselves! (Slavin. 1986. p. 13)
Teachers should employ all three task structures. competitive.
individualistic. and cooperative. thus providing students with the
skills to function successfully in all three types of situations.
Throughout life. students will face circumstances in which all three
interaction patterns occur. and school experience can make selection

of appropriate interaction patterns more likely.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN

This chapter includes the research questions. a description of
the study population and sample. and a discussion of the research
design. instructional materials and procedures. instrumentation. and

statistical-analysis methods.

Resepgchpgpestions

The following four research questions were derived from the
statement of the problem and the review of related literature. The
first three questions concern achievement. and the fourth is related
to attitude.

1. Is there a difference in the achievement levels of
competitive and cooperative learners matched to task structure and
competitive and cooperative learners not matched to task structure?

2. Is there a difference in the achievement levels of low-
ability learners exposed to a cooperative task structure and low-
ability learners exposed to a competitive task structure?

3. Is there a difference in the achievement levels of high-
ability learners exposed to a competitive task structure and high-

ability learners exposed to a cooperative task structure?

50

51

4. Is there a difference between student attitudes when task
structure is matched to learning style preferences and when task

structure is not matched to learning style preferences?

Population_gpd Sample

Participants in this study included 193 sixth-grade students
and their social studies teachers from a middle school located in a
suburban mid*Michigan community (see Appendix A). This school was
selected for study because of accessibility offered the researcher.
The total enrollment of this middle school was 748 sixth. seventh. and
eighth graders. The racial and ethnic breakdown of the student
enrollment was 91% Hhite. 5% Asian or Pacific Islander. 2.5% Black.
and less than 1% (2) Native American.

' The majority of the students came from families in the middle
and upper-middle income levels. The community's adult population was
largely professional and college educated. Most residents were
employed in state government. at a neighboring major university. at a
nearby automobile manufacturing company. or in the legal or medical
professions.

Student and teacher participants in this study represented
eight of the ten sections of social studies offered at the sixth-grade
level in this middle school. Four teachers volunteered to have their

two social studies sections participate in the study. The remaining

52

two social studies teachers. representing two sections. were excluded
from the study because they expressed no interest in participating.

At the beginning of the school year. counselors formed class
groups for the sixth-grade academic sections (language arts. math.
science. and social studies). An effort was made to create classes
that had similar numbers of students and were heterogeneous in terms
of students' ability levels. Using information gathered from fifth-
grade teachers. parents. and students. counselors attempted to devel0p

the "right mix" in each sixth-grade section.

Research Design
The basic design of the study included five components:
content. training. instructional methods. instruments. and the two

treatments. These components are discussed in the following sections.

Content

The social studies content that was included in this study was
taken from the textbook used at the sixth-grade level in this middle
school (see Appendix A). This textbook. Latin America and gagggg
(Coffman & Joyce. 1983). was adopted for use in l985. The purpose of
this textbook is 'to help students understand their physical and human
world so they may become better citizens“ (Buggey. l983. p. T23). A
committee of sixth-grade social studies teachers selected this text-
book because it reflected the objectives and goals of the school
system (see Appendix A).

The goals of the social studies program at the middle school

level were threefold: (a) to help students learn factual information

53

about history and different cultures. (b) to develoo students' geo-
graphic skills. and (c) to teach students how to relate facts and
manipulate ideas. Developing and practicing skills in reading.
comprehension. organizing information. interpreting graphics. citizen-
ship. decision making. social participation. and thinking helped stu-
dents reach these goals (School District Curriculum Guide. 1985).

The four units concerned with South America were selected as
the social studies content for the study. These units (Unit 9--'The
Andean Highlands.“ Unit lD--'The Tropical Lowlands.“ Unit ll--'The
Eastern Highlands.’. and Unit lZ--“The Subtropical Plains”) of the
textbook were chosen because sixth-grade students had had no previous
exposure to this content in social studies. Figure 3.l shows the
social studies content areas for kindergarten through fifth grade in
this school district. The first instruction students encountered on

South America occurred during this study.

Grade Social Studies Topic

Myself and Others at Home and School

People: The Individual. School. and Family

Communities: The Individual. Neighborhoods

Cities: The Individual. Urban. Suburban. Rural

The Individual in His Region (Michigan and Midwest)

American History: The Individual. United States.
and Canada

(fi-wa—‘K

Figure 3.l.--Program content for the elementary grades.

54

Training

During the three-month period preceding the research. teachers
were provided with background information concerning student learning
styles. structuring learning tasks in the classroom. and the role they
would play in the study. The researcher met with the four teachers
individually (three times) and as a group (once) and explained the
teaching-materials packet and the instruments to be used in the study.
As a consequence of these meetings. the researcher determined that
teaching/learning in these four classes was usually structured com-
petitively and that most assignments were completed individually. (A
description of each teacher's “teaching style“ is included in Chapter
IV.) The teachers and students had had no experience with cooperative
learning groups.

Because of this overemphasis on competitive tasks. the
researcher developed training materials that gave teachers an
opportunity to teach using cooperative groups and gave students an
opportunity to experience working in this task structure. These
training materials included instructions on how to form groups. an
explanation of the situation (each group was stranded on an island).
assignments. and means for processing group functioning. The
training packet was included in the teaching-materials packet (see
Appendix B). The textbook was not used as a resource during this
exercise. Students brainstormed for ideas and tried to devise methods
for solving problems and listing information.

Because of the nature of the content and format of this train-

ing exercise (it was designed to be different from the content and

55

format of the research study. which focused on the textbook and
answering questions) and the timing of this activity (it occurred more
than a month before the research study). it had little effect on the
research. It did. however. give teachers and students an experience

in a learning environment centered on small groups.

Instructional Methods

Teachers were provided with a teaching-materials packet that
included rationales. descriptions. and procedures for the instruc-
tional methods they would be using during the study. Teachers began
each social studies class period with a presentation intended to
engage the learner. followed by an explanation of related assignments.
Students were given opportunities to read. listen to. and view content
related to South America: to complete assignments varying from work-
sheets to projects: and to practice writing. note taking. and study
skills. The last few minutes of each hour were devoted to feedback
and review. Each of the four units encompassed nine class periods.
and the instructional procedures for each unit were identical. Figure
3.2 shows the sequence of activities for each unit. A more detailed
description is included in the teaching-materials packet (see Appen-

dix B).

Day

2.3.4

56

Activities

The teacher introduced unit content to the class by guid-
ing students through the material in the textbook. high-
lighting key vocabulary. concepts. illustrations. maps.
charts. main headings. and subheadings.

The teacher explained the assignments. reviewed effective
work habits. answered questions. and provided students
with time to work.

Students were given an assignment that would enable them
to use what they had been learning in the development of a
project.

The teacher gave a lecture on supplemental information
contained in the teacher's edition of the textbook. Note-
taking sheets were provided. and the teacher reviewed
important facts from the filmstrip.

The students viewed a filmstrip to supplement the
information contained in the textbook. Note-taking sheets
were provided. and the teacher reviewed important facts
from the filmstrip.

The teacher conducted a review of important vocabulary.
concepts. facts. and other information pertaining to the
unit. Students used the remaining time to review notes.
assignments. and the textbook.

The teacher administered the unit test.

Figure 3.2.--0utline of social studies unit of study.

After the researcher had developed the teaching packet. it was

examined by three teaching professionals: a public school teacher

with 25 years of experience at the middle school level and two

professors of education at a major university. The public school

teacher was employed in the school system where the research took

place and was familiar with the textbook used in the study. One of

the professors taught social studies teaching methods and had

57

co-written the textbook used in the study. The second professor was
involved in a program that recognized cooperative learning as a com-
ponent of the education of young people.

The panel of experts was asked to evaluate the teaching
packet. using the following criteria:

1. Are the training materials clear. understandable. and
appropriate?

2. Does the teaching packet accurately reflect the content of
the four units in the Follett textbook?

3. Do the teaching methods represent effective instructional
techniques?

4. Are the unit posttests well-written? Do they require
higher-level thinking? Do they accurately reflect the content?

The panel members agreed unanimously that the teaching packet
provided clear. understandable instructions for the teacher partici-
pants. They recognized the importance of presenting the content
through a variety of channels (reading. lecture. media. questioning)
in an effort to reach more students. Specific comments that were
incorporated into the final version of the teaching-materials packet
included: IIdentifying roles for group members. and teaching social
behaviors may help groups be more effective.” 'The textbook is only
one component of the student's education.‘' “The content is organized
clearly. and the respective treatments are appropriate.‘. All three

members of the panel of experts believed that the instructional

58

methods and materials in the teaching-materials packet contained the

essential ingredients of effective instruction.

Instrgments

A learning styles inventony (LSI) was administered to students
before they were exposed to the experimental treatments. The purpose
of administering the LSI was to determine which students were predis-
posed toward working individually (competitive learners) and which
students were predisposed toward working with others (c00perative
learners).

Students completed an attitudinal survey before exposure to
the experimental treatments. after exposure to one of the treatments.
and after exposure to both treatments. The attitudinal survey was
used to determine students' attitudes before exposure to the
treatments and to discover whether attitudes changed during the
course of the study.

Achievement posttests were administered at the conclusion of
each of the four units on South America. These tests were designed to
measure the students' achievement.

The researcher interviewed teachers and selected students at
the conclusion of the study. These interviews gave the researcher an
opportunity to gather participants' reactions to the research project.

the two treatments. the teaching methods. and the instruments.

59

Treatments

The effects that two treatments had on achievement and
attitude were compared in this study. These two treatments involved
the way in which 'learning tasks'I were structured. Treatment A
employed a cooperative task structure. Students completed assignments
and prepared for unit tests in small groups (four or five members).
Treatment B employed a competitive task structure in which students
individually completed assignments and prepared for unit tests. Each
treatment comprised l8 consecutive class periods (45 minutes per
period) and included the content from two units on South America. All
students were exposed to both treatments.

All subjects were treated according to the same design proce-
dures. which were as follows:

l. Teachers were given background information and materials.
Students and teachers participated in the training exercise.

2. The LSI and the attitudinal survey were administered to
the students.

3. All students studied the regions of South America.
Students completed assignments working in small groups for 18 class
periods (Treatment A) and working individually for l8 class periods
(Treatment B). Achievement posttests were administered at the end of
each of the four units. and attitudinal surveys were administered at
the conclusion of Units l0 and l2. (See Figure 3.3.)

4. At the conclusion of the study. the investigator inter-

viewed participating teachers concerning teaching methods and

60

materials. the teacher's role in the classroom. individual students'
responses to instructional methods. and their reactions to the study.
Selected students representing each social studies class. high and low
ability. and cooperative and competitive predispositions toward learn-
ing were also interviewed in an attempt to gain further insight into

their reSponses to the two task structures.

Unit 9 Unit 10 Unit ll Unit l2
Teacher C A A B 8
Teacher M A A B B
Teacher S B B A A
Teacher Y B B A A

Figure 3.3.--Order of treatments.

Instrumentation
The instruments used in collecting the data were the Stanford
Achievement Test. a learning styles inventory. an attitudinal survey.

four achievement posttests. and personal interviews.

The Stagford Achievement Test (SAT)

All sixth-grade students at the middle school completed the SAT
three months before the research project began. The Intermediate 2
level of the l982 edition of the test included 12 subtests and was
appropriate for use with students in grades 5.5 to 7.9. The school
district in which the study was conducted administered the SAT to

measure learning outcomes. to evaluate students' progress. and to

61

improve instructional effectiveness. The test employed a multiple-
choice format. with four possible responses to each test item.

Scores from the Reading Comprehension and Social Science sub-
tests of the SAT were used in this study. The Reading Comprehension
subtest was selected because the textbook was the focal point for the
content in these units on South America: the ability to understand
what was read was determined to be an important skill. The Social
Science subtest was selected because familiarity with social science
concepts. vocabulary. content. and inquiry skills also was an impor-
tant measure of success in this content.

The Reading Comprehension subtest included three types of
passages: (a) textual reading. (b) functional reading. and (c)
recreational reading. This section of the achievement test involved
both inferential and literal comprehension: it contained nine passages
and 60 items. The subtest took 30 minutes to administer. The Kuder-
Richardson 20 reliability for this subtest of the SAT was .94.

The Social Science subtest focused on the level of understand-
ing students exhibited in the six social science disciplines: anthro-
pology. economics. geography. history. political science. and
sociology. In this section students had to use their inquiry skills
as they explored different situations involving these disciplines.
Students interpreted maps. charts. graphs. posters. and signs. They
also responded to questions that required understanding of social

science vocabulary. The Social Science subtest included 60 items and

62

took 30 minutes to administer. The Kuder-Richardson 20 reliability
for this subtest was .92.

Scores on the Reading Comprehension and Social Science sub-
tests served two purposes in this research. The scores provided
evidence that the classes participating in the study were similar in
ability (see Table 3.l). The class mean scores on the Reading Compre-
hension subtest ranged from 43.9 to 47.5 (there were 60 items on this
subtest) for the eight classes participating in the study. The class
means on the Social Science subtest ranged from 40.2 to 45.3 (this

subtest also contained 60 items).

Table 3.l.--Class mean scores on the Reading Comprehension and Social
Science subtests of the Stanford Achievement Test--
Intermediate 2/E. Grade 6.l.

 

 

Reading Social

N Comprehension Science

Teacher C (a.m.) 23 43.9a 40.2a
Teacher C (p.m.) 24 47.l 45.3
Teacher M (a.m.) 25 47.0 44.8
teacher M (p.m.) 25 45.9 45.2
Teacher S (a.m.) 20 44.6 44.l
Teacher S (p.m.) 24 47.5 45.0
Teacher Y (a.m.) 26 45.3 44.6
Teacher Y (p.m.) 24 46.6 44.8

 

aNumbers in these columns represent the mean score for that class
on the two subtests. Each subtest contained 60 questions.

63

SAT subtest scores were also used in determining ability level
of individual students. Students who achieved a score in the top 23%
(stanine 7. 8. or 9) on both subtests and were consistently evaluated
at the A- level or higher by their social studies teachers were
labeled 'high-ability learners." Students who achieved a score in the
bottom 23% (stanine l. 2. or 3) on both subtests and were consistently

evaluated at the C level or lower were labeled “low-ability learners.‘'

The Learning Styles Inventory (LSI)

The Learning Styles Inventory: A Measure of Student Prefer-
ence for Instructional Techniques was developed by Joseph Renzulli
and Linda Smith. The LSI contains 65 items and was designed to
determine students' attitudes toward nine general methods of instruc-
tion (Projects. Drill and Recitation. Peer Teaching. Discussion.
Teaching Games. Independent Study. Programmed Instruction. Lecture.
and Simulation). Students indicate their responses to descriptions of
various classroom situations on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging
from ”very pleasant“ to ”very unpleasant.“ The LSI requires 30
minutes to administer and is appropriate for students in grades 4
through 12. A similar form (the 5-point scale ranges from 'very fre-
quent" to “very infrequent") enabling teachers to analyze the methods
they employ in their teaching is also included (see Appendix C).

Renzulli and Smith established the content validity of the LSI
by using 23 ‘expert' judges. These judges were professors of educa-
tion. teachers. administrators. and advanced graduate students. Using

their extensive background in the areas of learning and instruction.

64

the judges reviewed all of the proposed items. indicated the categony
of instruction to which each item best applied. and recommended dis-
carding or rewording poor items. After extensive field testing. the
nine subscales of the final form of the LSI had internal consistency
reliabilities ranging from .66 to .77 (using the Spearman-Brown
formula). Table 3.2 shows the number of items in each subscale and

its respective reliability.

Table 3.2.--Number of items in the nine subscales of the LSI and their

 

 

reliabilities.

Subscale Number of Items Reliability
Projects 9 .77
Drill and Recitation 8 .74
Peer Teaching 6 .73
Discussion 8 .75
Teaching Games 5 .72
Independent Study 9 .66
Programmed Instruction 7 .72
Lecture 7 .72
Simulation 6 .7l

 

The Renzulli-Smith LSI was selected as an instrument for
determining students' predisposition toward learning cooperatively
with other students or learning competitively by working alone for
the following reasons. The inventory was suitable for the sixth-grade
level. could be completed by students in 30 minutes. and focused on
teaching methods that emphasize interaction (peer teaching. projects.

discussion). as well as those that require students to work

65

individually (independent study. programmed instruction. lecture).
The remaining teaching methods included in the LSI (drill and recita-
tion. simulation. teaching games) combine features that require work-
ing with others and working individually.

The purpose of administering the LSI was to identify students
who were predisposed toward working in groups (cooperative learners)
and those who were predisposed toward working independently (competi-
tive learners). The Peer Teaching subscale includes six items that
assess the degree to which students enjoy being taught school-related
material by a classmate. and the pursuit of school-related activities
with a group of fellow students. The Independent Study subscale con-
tains nine items and identifies students who enjoy working alone on
activities without teacher supervision or extensive interaction with
peers. In this study. students who scored in the “pleasant--very
pleasant" range (3.00 and higher) on the Peer Teaching subscale and
received a score at least l.00 lower on the Independent Study subscale
were tentatively labeled "cooperative learners." Students who scored
in the ”pleasant--very pleasant" range (3.00 and higher) on the Inde-
pendent Study subscale and had a score at least l.00 lower on the
Peer Teaching subscale were tentatively classified as "competitive
learners."

Subjective input by social studies teachers was employed in
the final formation of these two groups. Teachers were asked to

classify their students into the categories described in Figure

 

 

66

3.4. These "student types" were devised by Good and Power (l976) so

that teachers could plan instruction to meet their pupils' needs.

I. Success Students: These students are task-oriented and
academically capable. They are cooperative in class and tend to

be well liked by both teachers and peers.

2. Social Students: These students are more person- than task-
oriented. They have ability but value friendship more than
achievement. Hhile popular and possessing many friends. some
social students are not well liked by their teachers because of

their numerous "buzz-saw" social interactions.

3. Dependent Students: These students consistently look for teacher
direction. support. and encouragement. They tend to achieve at a
low level. Teachers generally express concern for dependent
students (and some subtly reinforce their dependency). Peers tend

to reject them.

4. Alienated Students: These are the reluctant learners. At the
extreme. they reject school completely (some with open hostility:
others by total withdrawal). Some become aggressive and create
serious behavior problems. Other sit at the fringes of the class-
room and refuse to participate. Teachers tend to reject those
students who express alienation openly and to be indifferent

toward those who express alienation passively.

5. Phantom Students: In most cases. these students are seldom seen
or heard in the classroom. Some are the shy. mousy type fearful
of contact with teachers and peers. but others are quiet. inde-
pendent workers of average ability who desire and need little
social interaction. These students seldom volunteer or create
problems. Teachers have trouble remembering who they are. and
express attitudes of indifference toward them (as do peers).

Figure 3.4.--Student types. (From T. L. Good & C. Power. "Designing
Successful Classroom Environments for Different Types
of Students." Journal of Cgrriculum Studies 8 (1976):

1-16.)

 

Individuals who were labeled "Social Students." "Success and

Social Students." or "Dependent and Social Students” by their social

I_fl—

 

 

 

 

 

67

studies teachers and identified as "cooperative learners" by the LSI

became the members of the cooperative learners group for purposes of

 

this study. Individuals identified as "Success Students" or "Phantom
Students" by their social studies teachers and labeled "competitive
learners" by the LS1 became the members of the competitive learners

group. i

Attitudinal Survey

 

Students' feelings during exposure to the two treatments were
determined by means of an attitudinal survey developed by Slavin
(l978). This instrument was a self-report questionnaire containing 37
Likert-type items (see Appendix C). The four possible responses to the
statements were: SA (Strongly Agree). A (Agree). 0 (Disagree). and SD
(Strongly Disagree). The survey included eight attitude subscales that
Slavin adapted from the Learning Environment Inventory (Nallberg &
Anderson. l968). Slavin's instrument was designed to discern "per-
ceived probability of success. motivation. satisfaction with school.
and the degree to which students feel that academic success depends on
their own performance (rather than luck)" (p. 533). The eight sub-
scales and their respective reliabilities are shown in Table 3.3.

The authors of the Learning Environment Inventory indicated
that their instrument was appropriate for describing the classroom
climate as perceived by a student within the class (Nallberg &
Anderson. l968). Slavin adapted the instrument for use with younger
students because the developers of the survey suggested that "it seems

to determine the learning of individuals with different perceptions of

 

68

classroom climate rather than the mean perceptions of the entire

classes" (Nallberg & Anderson. l968. p. 4l5). The present researcher

 

decided to use Slavin's attitudinal survey because it includes
subscales relevant to the study and is appropriate for use at the

sixth-grade level.

Table 3.3.--Kuder-Richardson 20 reliabilities of the eight subscales
of the Slavin attitudinal survey: junior high.

 

 

Subscale Reliability
Satisfaction .78
Feeling of Being Liked .60
Liking of Others .49
Mutual Concern .53
Probability of Success .56
Incentive Value of Success .39
Peer Pressure .74
Motivation .52

 

Social studies teachers administered the attitudinal survey to
their students. First. students were given the survey to determine
their attitudes before the research study. Students next responded to
the survey after they had been exposed to one task structure. The
attitudinal survey was administered a final time after students had
been exposed to the second task structure. An identical version of
this instrument was administered each time. to determine whether

attitudinal changes had occurred during the research study.

 

69

Achievement Posttests

The researcher developed posttests to determine the
achievement level of students after each of the four content units
(see Appendix C). Each test was designed to be similar to the unit
tests administered in sixth-grade social studies. The unit posttests
contained 20 multiple-choice items. each of which had four possible E
responses. Half of the items were taken directly from the unit tests
included in the Follett social studies program. and half were devel-

oped by the researcher.

mud'H-‘i-wafi 4"“.

The researcher constructed these content-area posttests with
the guidance of Donald Freeman. an expert on evaluation and testing at

Michigan State University. The unit tests provided by the book

 

publisher included test items that required primarily recall/
knowledge-level thinking. After reviewing the objectives and content
of each section of the four units covering South America. the
researcher generated additional test items. Proposed forms of the
achievement posttests were created from these two "sets" of ques-
tions (from the publisher and from the researcher). These proposed
forms included an equal number of recall/knowledge and higher-level
items (questions that require the development of skills and abilities
necessary for using knowledge of content. i.e.. comprehension. appli-
cation. analysis. synthesis. evaluation). using Bloom's taxonomy as
the classification criterion.

. The researcher attempted to match the tests for vocabu-

lary and reading level. Using the Fry Readability Graph and the

 

70

Raygor Readability Estimate. it was determined that the tests had a
reading level appropriate for sixth graders. A middle school reading
consultant and the middle school librarian examined the tests and con-

firmed that the vocabulary and format were appropriate for sixth

 

graders.
The four units concerned with South America included

information on the land and climate. the people. and the economy and

"sh-(.2.- m

resources. Similarities between the four units are evident upon

examining the unit objectives (Figure 3.5). The textbook authors

 

presented the content in various ways. The first two units (Units 9
and 10) concentrated on how the environment and climate affect the
people who live in the Andes Mountains or the Amazon Basin. The

remaining two units (Units ll and 12) emphasized what the people have

 

done to develop the resources and solve the problems of the Eastern
Highlands and the Subtropical Plains.

The best guarantee of development of parallel test forms is
compliance with a detailed set of specifications. including the
distribution of items according to objectives and content. "If each
test form is then built to conform to the outline. while at the same
time care is taken to avoid identical or detailed overlapping of
content. the two [achievement posttests] should be truly comparable“

(Stanley. 197l. p. 405).

 

71

UNIT 9 OBJECTIVES To understand the climate and landforms of the
Andean Highlands region.
To understand the region's two major cultural
groups of people.
To understand agriculture. mining. and tourism
in this region.

UNIT 10 OBJECTIVES To understand the characteristic features and
variety within the Tropical Lowlands region.
To understand resources and challenges on the
Amazon Basin.
To understand people and products of the Orinoco
Basin and the Coastal Plains.

UNIT 11 OBJECTIVES To understand the two parts of the Eastern
Highlands region.
To understand the people and resources of the
region.
To understand the major industries of the
region.

UNIT 12 OBJECTIVES To understand the five land areas of the
Subtropical Plains.
To understand the people living in the region.

To understand the recent history of Argentina.
Uruguay. and Paraguay.

Figure 3.5.--0bjectives of four units on South America. (From Coffman
and Joyce. Latin America and Canada [Boston. Mass.:
Allyn and Bacon. l983l.)

Table 3.4 illustrates the similarities and parallel natures of
the Unit 9/l0 and the Unit ll/l2 achievement posttests. Approximately
one-third of the items on each test required the student to recall
factual information (35% of the items on the Unit 9/l0 and 30% of the
items on the Unit ll/l2 test evaluated knowledge of vocabulary and
facts). The remaining items (65% of the Unit 9/l0 test and 70% of the
Unit ll/l2 test) necessitated the use of higher-level thought pro-

cesses. such as interpreting. categorizing. or applying what had been

 

 

 

 

 

 

I

 

72

learned. Variation in the number of items in each of the content

categories reflects the different emphases the textbook authors placed

on the information included in each unit of the textbook.

Table 3.4.--Comparative specifications of the achievement posttests.

 

 

Objective Unit 9/lO Unit ll/lZ
Recall of factual content .20 .l75
Understanding vocabulary .l5 .l25
Interpreting maps. graphs. or charts .30 .40
Categorizing information .lO .20
Applying information .25 .lO

Content Categories

Land and Climate l7a 8
People ll 17
Economy and Resources l2 l5

 

aNumbers represent number of items from each content area.

The achievement posttests were given to judges acknowledged
to be experts in the field of teaching social studies. This expert
panel included a co-author of the textbook used in the study. two
social studies methods professors. and a public school teacher who had
used this textbook series for the preceding five years. They were
asked to evaluate the items and response options. using the following
criteria:

l. Do the test questions require the student to RECALL

information?

73

2. Do the test questions require the use of HIGHER-LEVEL
(beyond recall) thought processes?

3. Are the items and responses CLEAR and UNDERSTANDABLE?

4. Are the incorrect responses reasonable? Do they have a
chance of being selected? (PLAUSIBILITY)

5. Are the correct responses the best answer? (AMBIGUITY)

6. Do the questions cover all the topics to be taught during
each of the four units on South America?

7. Do the four tests seem similar in format and parallel in
construction?

The consensus of the expert panel was that the four tests
would be appropriate for use with sixth-grade students. The judges
were unanimous in their opinion that the test had content validity
with the textbook objectives. Specific references were made to
questions and responses that were unclear. ambiguous. or implausible.
All comments regarding the formulation of specific questions in the
unit posttests were incorporated into the final unit posttests.

The achievement posttests for this study were pilot tested
with 20 seventh graders. These students were members of an advanced
mathematics class at the school where the study took place. They had
been instructed in the social studies content the previous school
year. Ten students completed posttests concerned with Units 9 and 10.
and 10 completed posttests concerned with Units ll and l2. The pilot
test of the achievement posttests served two purposes: (a) it

subjected the posttests to a trial run to identify any special

74

problems. and (b) it provided data indicating that the tests were
similar in form and level of difficulty. The distribution of scores
obtained by students in the pilot test of the achievement posttests is
shown in Table 3.5.

The data generated from the pilot testing added support to
the parallel structure of the achievement posttests. The mean scores
for the pilot test ranged from 12.3 (Unit 12) to 13.4 (Unit 9) on the
20-item posttests. Each test included 10 items taken from the Follett
unit tests (provided by the textbook publisher) and 10 items devel-
oped by the researcher. The mean scores for items taken from the
Follett unit tests were 14.6 (Units 11 and 12) and 15.7 (Units 9 and
10). The mean scores for items developed by the researcher were lO.l
(Units 11 and 12) and 10.5 (Units 9 and 10). These results confirmed
that the "textbook questions." which required recall of information.
were less difficult than the “researcher questions." which required
comprehension. application. or analysis of information. After examin-
ing the results of the pilot test. the researcher revised several

items for purposes of clarification and precision.

Interviews

The researcher formulated questions to clarify and verify
information obtained during the research study. These questions were
developed into an interview format intended for the four teachers and
12 student participants. A panel that included the reading consult-

ant. the school librarian. and a sixth-grade teacher from the school

75

Table 3.5.~~Results of pilot test of achievement posttests.

 

 

 

 

Unit 9 Unit 10 Total Textbooka Researchera
18 15 33 19 14
15 16 31 18 13
15 14 29 18 11
16 12 28 18 10
13 14 27 15 12
13 13 26 14 12
13 11 24 15 9
11 12 23 13 10
10 12 22 14 8
10 9 19 13 6
Mean: 13.4 12.8 26.2 15.7 10.5
Range: 10-18 9-16
Unit ll Unit 12 Total Textbooka Researchera
14 16 30 17 13
13 14 27 17 10
15 12 27 17 10
12 15 27 15 12
14 12 26 15 11
11 13 24 12 12
10 12 22 14 8
11 11 22 13 9
12 10 22 12 10
12 8 20 14 6
Mean: 12.4 12.3 24.7 14.6 10.1
Range: 10-15 8'16

 

aScores in these columns represent correct responses to items
taken directly from the unit tests developed by the textbook publisher
and correct responses to items developed by the researcher.

76

where the study took place examined the two sets of interview ques-
tions. They evaluated whether questions were understandable. approp-
riate. and impersonal. They also categorized the questions under the
headings: Achievement. Attitude. Student Learning Style. Teaching
Style. and Teaching Experience. Questions that were inconsistently
categorized by the review panel were discarded or reworded.

The researcher interviewed the four teachers who participated
in the study. The purpose of these interviews was to gather informa-
tion concerning teaching experience. teaching style. and reactions to
the task structures (competitive and cooperative) that they had
recently employed in their classrooms. Teachers were given a copy of
the interview questions before the interview. Each interview lasted
approximately 25 minutes.

Twelve students were also interviewed at the conclusion of the
study. They were selected randomly as representatives of the follow-
ing groups: high ability. low ability. cooperative learner. competi-
tive learner. male. female. Teacher C's class. Teacher M's class.
Teacher S's class. and Teacher Y's class. The purpose of the student
interviews was to gather information about their attitudes toward
social studies and the two task structures (competitive and coopera-

tive). Each student interview lasted approximately 20 minutes.

77

Qa5g3Anglysis Procedgges

The data analyses were aimed at analyzing the effects of
task structure on the achievement levels and attitudes of various
types of students. Three data-analysis procedures were used in this
study: (a) t-test comparing the means of competitive and cooperative
learners who were either matched or not matched to task structure. (b)
analysis of variance investigating the joint effects of ability level
and task structure. and (c) F-ratio comparing the variance of scores
on the attitudinal survey for competitive and cooperative students
who were either matched or not matched to task structure.

"The primary statistic used to determine whether or not means
from two different samples are different beyond what would be
expected due to sample-to-sample variation is called a t-test"
(Slavin. 1984. p. 176). Because the students were involved in both
conditions. it is possible to compare the differences between means
when students were matched and not matched to task structure for each
of the achievement posttests. When using the t-test. the distribution
of scores should be normal (although modest deviations from normal
distributions are allowable). the variance of the two groups must be
similar or homogeneous. and the variables must be interval or ratio
scales.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the strength
of the effect of one or more independent variables on a dependent
variable. Hhen the analysis includes two or more independent vari-

ables. it divides the overall effect on the dependent variable into

78

several sources: the main effect of each independent variable by
itself and the joint (interaction) effects of the various combinations
of independent variables. In this study. ANOVA was used to determine
the effect of ability level and task structure (the independent vari-
ables) on student performance on the achievement posttests (the
dependent variable).

An F-test can be used to determine the relationship between
the variances of two groups. A significant difference in variances is
indicative of a dual effect of the experimental conditions. A large
variance indicates extreme scores at both ends of the distribution.

In this study. the F-test was employed to compare the variances in
scores on the subscales of the attitudinal survey for students identi-
fied as cooperative or competitive learners. It was hypothesized that
scores on the survey would differ when students were not matched

with task structure than when students were matched with task struc-
ture.

For all statistical analyses performed in this study. the .05
alpha level was established as the criterion for statistical signifi-

cance.

Summar
A sample of 193 sixth-grade students and their social studies
teachers participated in this study. which was concerned with indi-
vidual learner characteristics and task structure. Teachers were

trained in cooperative and competitive task structures. The

79

researcher developed a teaching-materials packet describing instruc-
tional methods employed in the study. This packet was designed to
represent effective teaching methods and to provide consistency in the
instruction of each of the four units included in the study. Students
and teachers participated in a training exercise that exposed them to
cooperative learning. This exercise occurred more than a month before
data gathering began.

A learning styles inventory was administered. and students
were classified into two groups. based on their predisposition toward
working with others (cooperative) or working individually (competi-
tive). Students were also categorized by ability (high or low). based
on Stanford Achievement Test scores and social studies teacher evalua-
tions. All students were exposed to a cooperative task structure
(students completed all assignments working with others in small
groups) and a competitive task structure (students individually com-
pleted all assignments working against others).

Two achievement posttests were the primary instruments used in
this study. Each posttest included 40 multiple-choice items and
conformed to the same structural specifications. The tests were
validated by a panel of experts and pilot tested by students who had
been exposed to the content the previous school year. Identical forms
of an attitudinal survey were administered to students at the begin-
ning of the study (before exposure to either task structure). midpoint
(after exposure to one task structure). and at the conclusion of the

study (after exposure to both task structures).

80

Three data-analysis procedures were used in this study. A
t-test was employed to compare the means of competitive and coopera-
tive learners who were either matched or not matched to task struc-
ture. ANOVA was used to examine the relationship between student
ability and task structure. and its effect on student performance on
the achievement posttests. An F-test was used to compare the variance
in scores on the attitudinal survey for cooperative and competitive
learners who were either matched or not matched to task structure.

The .05 alpha level was the criterion for statistical significance.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

This chapter includes a restatement of the purposes of the
study and the research and testable hypotheses. Findings of the data
analysis are presented. and results of the hypothesis tests are
discussed. Responses to the teacher and student interviews are also
examined. An interpretation of the findings and conclusions drawn

from the findings are presented in Chapter V.

Eggposes of the Study

The writer had three purposes in conducting this investiga-
tion. The first purpose was to compare the effects of competitive and
cooperative task structures on the achievement of sixth-grade social
studies students who were predisposed toward competitively or
cooperatively structured classroom environments. The second purpose
was to measure the effects of competitive and cooperative task
structures on the achievement of high-ability and low-ability social
studies students. The third purpose was to determine the effects of
competitive and cooperative task structures on the attitudes of

students predisposed toward one task structure or the other.

81

82

Researchtgnd Testable Hypotheses
Four research hypotheses were formulated to guide the analysis
of data gathered in the study. The first three concerned the task
structure employed and the resulting student achievement. as measured
by content-area posttests. The fourth hypothesis concerned the task

structure and the resulting student attitudes. The hypotheses are as

follows:

Hypothesis 1: The mean posttest scores of competitive and
cooperative learners matched with task structure will exceed the
mean posttest scores of competitive and cooperative learners not
matched with task structure.

Hypothesis 2: The mean posttest scores of low-ability learners
exposed to a cooperative task structure will exceed the mean post-
test scores of low-ability learners exposed to a competitive task
structure.

Hypothesis 3: The mean posttest scores of high-ability learners
exposed to a competitive task structure will exceed the mean
posttest scores of high-ability learners exposed to a cooperative
task structure.

 

flipothesis 4: The variances on the subscales of the attitudinal
survey for students whose learning-style preferences are matched
with task structure will differ significantly from the variances
on the subscales of the attitudinal survey for those same students
when not matched with task structure.

 

For testing purposes. the hypotheses were restated in the null and
alternate forms as follows:

The first null hypothesis stated that there would be no
statistically significant difference in the mean posttest scores of
competitive and cooperative learners matched to task structure (X) and
the mean posttest scores of competitive and cooperative learners not
matched to task structure (Y).

H01: 11x = ”Y

83

The first alternate hypothesis stated that the mean posttest
scores of competitive and cooperative learners matched to task
structure (X) would exceed the mean posttest scores of competitive and
cooperative learners not matched to task structure (Y).

* Ha1=llx>lly

The second null hypothesis stated that there would be no
statistically significant difference in the mean posttest scores of
low-ability learners exposed to a cooperative task structure (L-Coop)
and the mean posttest scores of low-ability learners exposed to a
competitive task structure (L-Comp).

Ho2 = uL-C00p = uL-Comp

The second alternate hypothesis stated that the mean posttest
scores of low-ability learners exposed to a cooperative task structure
(L-Coop) would exceed the mean posttest scores of low-ability learners
exposed to a competitive task structure (L-Comp).

Haz g uL-Coop > uL-Comp

The third null hypothesis stated that there would be no
statistically significant difference in the mean posttest scores of
high-ability learners exposed to a competitive task structure (H-Comp)
and the mean posttest scores of high-ability learners exposed to a
cooperative task structure (H-Coop).

Ho3 3 uH-Comp = uH-Coop
The third alternate hypothesis stated that the mean posttest

scores of high-ability learners exposed to a competitive task

84

structure (H-Comp) would exceed the mean posttest scores of high-
ability learners exposed to a cooperative task structure (H-Coop).
Ha = uH-Comp > uH-Coop

The fourth null hypothesis stated that there would be no
statistically significant difference in the variance of scores on
subscales of the attitudinal survey (AS) for students whose learning-
style preferences are matched to task structure (X) and for those same
students whose learning-style preferences are not matched to task
structure (Z).

Ho4 = uX(AS) = “2(AS)

The fourth alternate hypothesis stated that the variance of
scores on subscales of the attitudinal survey (AS) for students whose
learning-style preferences are matched to task structure (X) will
differ from the variance of scores for those same students not matched

to task structure (2).

”a4 ‘ uMAS) * “2(A5)

Finding§_of the Stggy

Identifigation of Analysis Groggg

"Cooperative learners" and "competitive learners" were
identified by using students' scores on a standardized instrument (a
learning-styles inventory [LSI] developed by Renzulli & Smith. 1978)
and the social studies teachers' categorization of their students
(using a list of student types developed by Good & Power. 1976).

Seventy-one students labeled "social students." "success and

social students." or "dependent and social students" by their teachers

85

had an average score of 4.21 (out of 5.00) on the Peer Teaching sub-
scale of the LSI. The same 71 students had a mean score of 2.55 on
the Independent Study subscale. These students were identified as
cooperative learners.

Sixteen students labeled by their teachers as "success
students" or "phantom students" had an average score of 4.24 (out of
5.00) on the Independent Study subscale of the LSI. Their mean score
on the Peer Teaching subscale was 2.46. These 16 students were
identified as competitive learners (see Figure 4.1).

Table 4.1 shows the class profiles for the students comprising
the social studies classes included in the study. Scores and rankings
were similar for students of all four teachers regarding all nine
teaching methods. Drill and Recitation. Independent Study. and
Lecture were ranked ninth. eighth. or seventh by all four teachers'
learning groups. Teaching Games and Peer Teaching were ranked first.
second. or third by all four teachers' learning groups. Overall. stu-
dents seemed to be attracted to working with others and having some
input into directing their own learning (see Figure 4.2).

The researcher used scores from the Stanford Achievement Test
(SAT) and information provided by teacher participants in developing
the groups labeled high-ability and low-ability learners. Forty
students met the specifications for the high-ability group. Their
scores on the Reading Comprehension and Social Science subtests of the
SAT ranged from 103 to 116 (out of a possible 120). These students

were also evaluated at the A- (or higher) level by their social

86

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learners. Their scores on the SAT ranged from 34 to 77 on the same

88

Thirty-four students were identified as low-ability

subtests. and their social studies grades were consistently at the

C level or lower (see Figure 4.3).

Table 4.l.--Results of the Renzulli-Smith Learning Styles Inventory.

 

 

 

Teaching Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Total

Method C M S Y
Projects 3.85(1) 3.72(2) 3.45(5) 3.69(3) 3.67(3)
Simulation 3.70(4) 3.59(6) 3.67(2) 3.66(4) 3.66(4)
Drill & Recitation 2.81(9) 2.88(9) 2.6l(9) 2.89(9) 2.80(9)
Peer Teaching 3.84(2) 3.7l(3) 3.61(3) 3.80(2) 3.74(2)
Discussion 3.56(6) 3.60(5) 3.34(6) 3.55(6) 3.51(6)
Teaching Games 3.81(3) 3.77(l) 3.79(1) 3.98(1) 3.83(l)
Independent Study 3.15(7) 3.29(8) 3.00(8) 3.l7(8) 3.15(8)
Programmed Instr. 3.64(5) 3.66(4) 3.52(4) 3.61(5) 3.60(5)
Lecture 3.10(8) 3.50(7) 3.09(7) 3.3l(7) 3.25(7)
Scale: 4.00-5.00 = Very Pleasant. 3.00-4.00 = Pleasant. 2.00-3.00 =

Note:

Neither. 1.00-2.00 = Rather Unpleasant. 0.00-1.00 = Very
Unpleasant

Numbers in parentheses represent the rank order of learning
preferences for the nine teaching methods.

89

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90

Table 4.2 shows the mean scores on the Reading Comprehension
and Social Science subtests of the SAT for each teacher's two social

studies sections. Students' performance on these subtests was con-

sistent from class to class. Teacher C's students achieved a slightly

lower mean on each subtest. and Teacher M's students achieved a

slightly higher mean on each subtest.

Table 4.2.--Combined scores for the Reading Comprehension and Social
Studies subtests of the Stanford Achievement Test.

 

 

Reading Social
Classes Comprehension Science Total
Teacher C's 45.50 42.75 88.25
Teacher M's 46.45 45.00 91.45
Teacher S's 46.05 44.55 90.60
Teacher Y's 45.95 44.70 90.65

 

Two-Sample T-Test

Null Hypothesis 1: There will be no statistically significant
difference in the mean posttest scores of competitive and
cooperative learners matched to task structure and the mean
posttest scores of competitive and cooperative learners not

matched to task structure.

Hypothesis-testing procedures. using a t-test with the approp-
riate degrees of freedom. were employed to determine if the mean
posttest scores of students matched to task structure differed sig-
nificantly from those of students not matched to task structure. The
dependent variables were the Unit 9/10 and Unit ll/12 achievement

posttests. The independent variables were the learning predisposition

91

of students (either competitive or cooperative) and the task structure

employed by the teacher (competitive or cooperative). All students

identified as competitive learners or cooperative learners were
exposed to a matching task structure and to a task structure that did
not match their learning style.

Forty-one students were matched to task structure for the Unit
9/10 posttest. This group included 5 students identified as competi-
tive learners and 36 students identified as cooperative learners.

This group had a mean score of 90.3 on the Reading Comprehension and

Social Science subtests of the SAT. Forty students were not matched

to task structure for the Unit 9/10 posttest. Sixteen competitive

learners and 34 cooperative learners constituted this group. The

group's mean score on the same SAT subtests was 90.5. Hence the
researcher concluded that the two groups were similar in social
studies ability.

Table 4.3 reveals the results of the first t-test. concerning

the Unit 9/10 posttest. A statistically significant difference was

found between the mean score of students matched to task structure
(26.5854) and the mean score of students not matched to task structure
(28.85). Therefore. Null Hypothesis 1 was rejected for Unit 9/10.
However. as the difference was in the direction opposite what was

expected by the researcher. the alternate hypothesis (Hal) could not

be accepted.

92

Table 4.3.--Resu1ts of the t-test based on achievement posttest scores
for Unit 9/10.

 

 

No. of Std.
Group Cases Mean 5.0. Error p-Value
Group 1
(Matched) 41 26.5854 5.450 .851
.05*
Group 2
(Not Matched) 40 28.8500 5.056 .799

 

*Significant at the .05 level.

Table 4.4 reveals the results of the second t-test. concerning
the Unit ll/12 posttest. The mean score of students matched to task
structure (31.15) differed from the mean score of students who were not

matched to task structure (30.1463). This difference was in the

direction hypothesized by the researcher. However. the difference was

not statistically significant at the .05 level or below. Therefore.

Null Hypothesis 1 was not rejected for Unit ll/12.

Table 4.4.--Resu1ts of the t-test based on achievement posttest scores
for Unit ll/12.

 

 

No. of Std.
Group Cases Mean 5.0. Error p-Value
Group 1
(Matched) 40 31.1500 4.918 .778
.13
Group 2
5.552 .867

(Not Matched) 41 30.1463

93

Figure 4.4 is a graphic representation of the mean scores

recorded in Tables 4.3 and 4.4. The scores of students matched to

task structure and students not matched to task structure improved on

the Unit ll/12 posttest. suggesting a "practice effect." The mean

combined score for students matched to task structure was 29.0. and
the mean combined score for students not matched to task structure

was 29.6. These results are discussed further in Chapter V.

 

 

32 1
Sc.) 3] ‘" -—1—0.-o— Ul'l'it 9/10
13 3O ., ‘- ‘H’. ----~0verall
§ 29 -- .— - " " " .»
(I) x.’
no- 28 " ‘I".
1% /°’:/
g 27 " .l."

26 -

—4_. 4
Matched Not Matched

Figure 4.4.--Mean posttest scores of students matched
and not matched to task structure.

Two-Hay Analysis of Variance

Null Hypothesis 2: There will be no statistically significant
difference in the mean posttest scores of low-ability learners
exposed to a cooperative task structure and the mean posttest
scores of low-ability learners exposed to a competitive task

structure.

94

NullyHypothesis 3: There will be no statistically significant
difference in the mean posttest scores of high-ability learners
exposed to a competitive task structure and the mean posttest
scores of high-ability learners exposed to a cooperative task
structure.

A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the
posttest data from students identified as having high or low ability
in social studies. The dependent variables were the Unit 9/10 and
Unit 11/12 achievement posttests. The independent variables were the
ability level of the student and the task structure employed by the
teacher (cooperative or competitive). Tables 4.5 and 4.6 show the
results of the ANOVA for Unit 9/10 and Unit ll/12 achievement post-
test scores. respectively.

Table 4.5 reveals that a statistically significant difference
(.001) was found between the scores of high-ability students and the
scores of low-ability students on the Unit 9/10 posttest. A statis-
tically significant difference (.01) was also found in the scores from
cooperative and competitive task structures. The F-value associated
with the ability and task structure interaction was 59.838. There-
fore. it appears that there was an interaction between the two vari-
ables (significance of F = .001). Null Hypotheses 2 and 3 were
rejected using the scores on the Unit 9/10 posttest.

Table 4.6 reveals that a statistically significant difference

(.001) was found between the scores of high-ability students and the

scores of low-ability students on the Unit 11/12 posttest. The

F-value associated with the task structures employed by the teacher

was 2.325. which was not statistically significant. Null Hypotheses 2

95

and 3 concerning the interaction between ability level and task struc-
ture were rejected for the scores of high- and low-ability students on
the Unit 11/12 posttest (significance of F = .001). The scores of
low- and high-ability students were affected by the task structure

employed in the classroom.

Table 4.5.--Two-way ANOVA based on ability and task structure
(Unit 9/10 achievement posttest).

 

 

Source of Sum of Mean Signif.

Variation df Squares Squares F of F
High/low ability 1 1569.378 1569.378 112.557 .001
Task structure 1 99.248 99.248 7.118 .01
Explained 2 1668.626 834.313 59.838 .001
Residual 63 878.405 13.943

Total 65 2547.030 39.185

 

Table 4.6.--Two-way ANOVA based on ability and task structure
(Unit 11/12 achievement posttest).

 

 

Source of Sum of Mean Signif.

Variation df Squares Squares F of F
High/low ability 1 1191.699 1191.699 85.799 .001
Task structure 1 32.295 32.295 2.325 .132
Explained 2 1223.995 611.997 44.062 .001
Residual 63 875.036 13.889

Total 65 2099.030 32.293

 

Figures 4.5 and 4.6 provide graphic representations of the

mean scores of low- and high-ability learners. respectively. on the

96

Unit 9/10 and Unit 11/12 posttests. Both figures illustrate the effect
of familiarity and practice on test performance. The test scores of
both low- and high-ability students improved on the Unit 11/12
posttest. regardless of task structure. The overall mean for low-
ability learners in a cooperative task structure was 25.57. This mean
score did exceed the overall mean for low-ability learners exposed to
a competitive task structure (25.11). but not enough to accept the
alternate hypothesis (Ha2). The overall mean for high-ability learn-
ers in the competitive task structure was 35.47. This mean score also
exceeded the mean for those same learners exposed to a cooperative

task structure (34.84). but not enough to accept the alternate hypoth-
esis (Ha3)°

29 -r -'-°-'-Un1't 9/10
-—---Unlt 11/12

28 1’ - - - -Overall

27 1

26 j
25 1

Mean Posttest Score

24 4

 

23 .11

 

Cooperative Competitive
Task Structure Task Structure

Figure 4.5.--Mean posttest scores for low-ability students
in cooperative and competitive task structures.

97

 

 

83 37 -* -°--'~-~Unit 9/10
8 -————-— Unit 11/12
“1 36 1 -- -- - Overall
44 g.
:13 35 l M
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m \h‘
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2
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Figure 4.6.--Mean posttest scores for high-ability students
in competitive and cooperative task structures.

F-Ratio
Null Hypothesis 4: There will be no statistically significant
difference in the variance of scores on subscales of the attitu-
dinal survey for students whose learning-style preferences are
matched to task structure and for those same students whose
learning-style preferences are not matched to task structure.
Students either matched or not matched to task structure
represented a combination of cooperative learners and competitive
learners. Certain subscales on the attitudinal survey (Feeling of
Being Liked. Liking of Others. and Peer Pressure) might have elicited
varied responses. depending on learner predisposition. Therefore.
using the F-ratio and determining differences in the variances of
students matched or not matched to task structure has more power than
comparing means on the subscales of the attitudinal survey.

The attitudinal survey was administered to students after the
Unit 9/10 posttest (at the halfway point in the study) and after the

98

Unit ll/12 posttest (at the conclusion of the study). In compiling
the data for computer analysis. the numbers of the responses to
Questions 2. 4. 6-7. 11.13. 16-17. 20. 23-24. 26-27. 29-30. 32. and 35
were reversed because of the wording of the questions. This assured
that the response totals were not improperly skewed.

Table 4.7 includes data compiled for students identified as
cooperative and competitive learners who were matched to task
structure for Unit 9/10 and were not matched to task structure for
Unit ll/12. Null Hypothesis 4 could not be rejected for any of the
subscales of the attitudinal survey. As shown in the table. the
variances of scores on the subscales differed. but not significantly.

Table 4.8 contains data compiled for students identified as
cooperative and competitive learners who were matched to task struc-
ture for Unit 11/12 and were not matched to task structure for Unit
9/10. The null hypothesis could not be rejected for any of the sub-
scales of the attitudinal survey. Again. there were differences. but
these differences did not exceed the critical value for F.

Table 4.9 contains additional information concerning variances
and means for the two administrations of the attitudinal survey. The
variances were greater for students not matched to task structure than
for those matched to task structure for the subscales Feeling of Being
Liked. Incentive Value of Success. and Peer Pressure. The researcher
concluded that. for these three subscales. students matched to task
structure had more consistent responses than those not matched to task

structure.

99

 

 

 

 

 

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101

Table 4.9.--Comparison of the variances and means on the attitudinal

 

 

survey.
Variance Mean
Subscale
Matched Not Matched Matched Not Matched
Satisfaction P M M P
Feeling of
Being Liked M.P M P
Liking of Others M P P M
Probability of
Success M.P M P
Incentive Value
of Success M.P P M
Peer Pressure M.P M.P

Dependence of Out-
come on Performance P M M.P

Motivation M.P M P

 

Note: The letters indicate the greater variance or mean.
M = the attitudinal survey scores collected midpoint in the
survey.
P = the attitudinal survey scores collected at the conclusion
of the study (post-attitudinal survey).

Students matched to task structure had greater variances for
Probability of Success and Motivation than did those not matched to
task structure. Unfamiliarity with the teaching methods or task
structures employed may have affected the confidence level or initia-
tive of some students. causing a greater spread of scores on these

subscales despite being matched to task structure. Students matched

102

to task structure had higher means on the Dependence of Outcome on
Performance subscale. and students not matched to task structure had
higher means on the Peer Pressure subscale. These mean scores may
reflect the novelty (and possible threat) of working with peers and
greater control over performance for students operating in a matching

task structure.

Posttest Item Agglysis

Item analysis provides researchers with "techniques for sum-
marizing the results of each item on a test" (Scannell & Tracy. 1975.
p. 214). The researcher can use item analysis to determine the
reliability of individual items. by considering quantitative informa-
tion regarding the difficulty and discriminatory power of each test
item. By calculating the difficulty level and determining how well
the test items discriminate between students who achieved high scores
and those who achieved low scores. one can confirm whether the test
serves the purpose for which it was designed. "The goal of an
achievement test is not to separate 'smart' students from others. but
rather to reliably separate students who have learned something from
those who have not" (Slavin. 1984. p. 86).

Tables 4.10 and 4.11 present the item-analysis data for the
two achievement posttests on South America. The data for each
posttest were based on a sample of 193 students. The researcher

selected the 53 highest scores for the upper group and the 53 lowest

103

scores for the lower group. Each group constituted 27% of the total

sample.

Table 4.10.--Item-ana1ysis data for 40 items from the achievement
posttest for Unit 9710.

 

 

Item Index of Index of Item Index of Index of
No. Difficulty Discrimination No. Difficulty Discrimination
1* .95 .07 21* .85 .21
2* .80 .31 22* .89 .21
3* .83 .21 23* .77 .37
4* .58 .58 24* .83 .25
5* .71 .41 25* .68 .37
6* .71 .56 26 .73 .47
7 .75 .37 27* .75 .49
8* .66 .50 28 .87 .25
9 .82 .23 29 .76 .35
10 .74 .15 30 .50 .51
11* .94 .07 31 .79 .37
12 .64 .47 32 .53 .41
13 .49 .47 33 .54 .78
14 .63 .72 34 .52 .55
15 .41 .54 35 .56 .66
16 .75 .29 36 .57 .65
17* .63 .37 37* .79 .41
18* .94 .ll 38* .93 .14
19 .70 .35 39* .45 .39
20 .68 .47 40* .61 .61

 

Mean index of difficulty for 40 items = .70
Mean index of discrimination for 40 items = .39
Difficulty desirability: Middle-range items (about .40 to .60)

Discrimination ratings: Reasonably good items (.30 to .39)
Very good items (.40 and up)

*Indicates test items taken from the unit tests (Alleman, Buggey,
& Joyce, Latin America and Canada, 1983, Allyn & Bacon).

 

104

Table 4.ll.--Item-analysis data for 40 items from the achievement
posttest for Unit 11/12.

 

 

Item Index of Index of Item Index of Index of
No. Difficulty Discrimination No. Difficulty Discrimination
1* .99 .01 21 .85 .29
2* .97 .06 22 .83 .29
3* .98 .02 23 .58 .50
4* .82 .27 24 .69 .56
5* .90 .20 25 .58 .62
6* .78 .39 26* .99 .01
7 .61 .51 27 .64 .58
8 .65 .59 28 .56 .74
9 .62 .62 29 .70 .58
10 .76 .47 30 .46 .61
ll .55 .43 31 .63 .49
12 .65 .41 32* .85 .29
13* .53 .57 33* .67 .56
14* .81 .25 34* .74 .39
15* .87 .18 35 .75 .41
16* .78 .35 36 .96 .07
17* .78 .16 37 .86 .19
18* .68 .27 38 .60 .58
19* .80 .39 39* .91 .13
20* .90 .20 40* .94 .11

Mean index of difficulty for 40 items = .75.
Mean index of discrimination for 40 items = .355.
Difficulty desirability: Middle-range items (about .40 to .60)

Discrimination ratings: Reasonably good items (.30 to .39)
Very good items (.40 and up)

*Indicates test items taken from the unit tests (Alleman, Buggey,
& Joyce, Latin America and Canada, 1983, Allyn & Bacon).

 

The 40 items on the Unit 9/10 posttest had a mean index of
difficulty of .70 (Table 4.10). The 40 items on the Unit 11/12
posttest had a mean index of difficulty of .75 (Table 4.11). Ebel

105

(1979) suggested that items in the middle range of difficulty should
be the goal when constructing achievement tests. The higher
difficulty level (indicating that the test included easier items)
resulted from the inclusion of items from the Follett unit tests
provided by the publisher. These items (indicated by the asterisks in
Tables 4.10 and 4.11) had mean indices of difficulty of .765 for the
Unit 9/10 posttest and .834 for the Unit 11/12 posttest. The mean
indices of difficulty for questions developed by the researcher were
.649 for the Unit 9/10 posttest and .676 for the Unit 11/12 posttest.

The 40 items on the Unit 9/10 posttest had a mean index of
discrimination of .39: those on the Unit 11/12 posttest had a mean
index of discrimination of .355. According to Ebel (1979). if two
tests are similar. the test with the higher mean index of discrimina-
tion will be more reliable. Therefore. the posttest on Unit 9/10
seemed to have somewhat higher reliability. This difference in dis-
crimination can be explained by the order in which the tests were
given. When the Unit 11/12 posttest was administered. students had
already taken the Unit 9/10 posttest. Familiarity with test format.
types of questions. and difficulty level (a practice effect) may have
increased the number of correct responses and overall test scores.

In constructing the two unit posttests. the researcher wanted
to measure achievement. while developing tests that were parallel to
each other and similar to tests the students were accustomed to taking
in their social studies classes (the unit tests provided by Follett).

The tests did include maps. charts. tables. vocabulary questions. and

106

items requiring factual knowledge. The primary difference in the
posttests employed in the research study and the unit tests from the
textbook publisher was that items written by the researcher demanded
the use of higher-level thought processes (analyzing. categorizing.
and applying information learned in the units). The Follett unit
tests were primarily recall-knowledge items. Therefore. the questions
developed by the researcher discriminated better (.47 to .287) and
were more difficult (.65 to .80) than the questions taken from the

Follett unit tests.

Posttest Reliability Coefficients

"Reliability may be defined as the extent to which measure-
ments reflect true individual differences among examinees" (Sax. 1979.
p. 206). Hhen constructing tests. the goal is to create measures that
will consistently show differences between individuals who are really
different and show the same scores for individuals who are the same.
Some common methods for computing test reliabilities include internal
consistency measures such as split half. coefficient alpha. and the
Kuder-Richardson 20. Internal consistency measures indicate the level
of random variation within a test and compare that to the level of
variation between the total scores of individuals who take the test
(Slavin. 1984).

The Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR 20) was appropriate for
calculating the reliabilities of the four achievement posttests used
in this study for several reasons. The KR 20 requires only a single

administration of an examination to determine test reliability. It is

107

designed for tests that measure knowledge rather than the speed with
which an individual can respond to the items. The KR 20 assumes that
correct responses are accorded one point. and incorrect or omitted
items. zero points. "Unlike the split-half technique. which involves
correlating the scores on half of a test (i.e.. the odd- versus even-
numbered items). KR 20 provides an estimate of reliability for an
entire test" (Sax. 1979. p. 214).

To calculate the KR 20 reliability of a test. the number of
items. the variation of the total test. and the pr0portion of students
passing each item are necessary. Tables 4.12 and 4.13 present data
used in determining the reliability of the achievement posttests
employed in this study. The first two columns include the distribu-
tion of scores and the frequency (F) of each score. The number of
students who took the test (n) equals the total frequency for each
test. The proportions of right (R) and wrong (H) answers are given as
fractions and as decimals [p(R) and p(H)J. A frequency (F) column
indicating the number of items for each proportion is located to the
right of the proportion columns. Item variances (pq) were computed by
multiplying the proportion of right answers p(R) by the proportion of
wrong answers p(N) by the frequency of items (F). The number of exam-
inees (n). the sum of test scores (x). the sum of squares (x2). and
the sum of the item variances (pq) are included at the bottom of each
table. The formula for figuring the KR 20 reliability and the compu-
tation of the variance (52) and reliability (r) are also included

below each table.

108

Table 4.12.--Data for calculating the reliability of a 40-item
achievement posttest based on Unit 9/10.

 

 

 

 

Score
Distribution Response Proportions Item Variances
Score F R H p(R) p(H) F pq
38 1 179/186 77186 .962 .038 2 .073
38 3 174 12 .935 .065 2 .121
37 10 171 15 .920 .080 l .073
36 8 162 24 .870 .130 2 .226
35 8 159 27 .854 .146 1 .124
34 15 156 30 .838 .162 l .135
33 10 152 34 .817 .183 1 .149
32 5 149 37 .800 .200 4 .640
31 19 144 42 .774 .226 3 .525
30 8 139 47 .747 .253 2 .189
29 12 136 50 .731 .269 1 .196
28 10 134 52 .720 .280 l .201
27 9 131 55 .704 .296 2 .416
26 12 126 60 .677 .323 1 .218
25 13 123 63 .661 .339 1 .224
24 3 121 65 .650 .350 3 .682
23 7 116 70 .623 .377 l .234
22 7 110 76 .591 .409 1 .241
21 11 106 80 .569 .431 l .245
20 6 103 83 .553 .447 3 .742
19 l 98 88 .526 .473 2 .498
18 l 91 95 .489 .511 l .250
17 2 87 99 .467 .533 l .249
16 2 83 103 .446 .554 1 .247
14 1 75 111 .403 .597 1 .240
13 l
K 2
n=186 KR20=R:T[l-§§3] K=40
2
2 memo-(3%,??—

sz = 5291 S = 186 = 31.99

Ex = 156460

qu = 7.138

(KR 20) r = 1%} [l - 51%? == .80 (.7995)

109

Table 4.13.--Data for calculating the reliability of a 40-item
achievement posttest based on Unit 11/12.

 

 

 

Score
Distribution Response Pr0portions Item Variances
Score F R H p(R) p(H) F pq
4O 2 182/183 1/183 .994 .006 l .0059
39 6 180 3 .983 .017 4 .066
38 9 176 7 .961 .039 l .037
37 10 170 13 .929 .071 l .066
36 15 165 18 .900 .100 l .090
35 13 163 20 .890 .110 2 .195
34 8 161 22 .880 .120 l .105
33 14 159 24 .868 .132 3 .344
32 12 150 33 .820 .180 2 .295
31 12 147 36 .803 .197 l .158
30 14 145 38 .792 .208 3 .494
29 9 142 41 .776 .224 2 .347
28 12 140 43 .765 .235 1 .179
27 8 136 47 .743 .257 2 .381
26 10 131 52 .715 .285 l .204
25 8 127 56 .694 .306 1 .212
24 3 122 61 .667 .333 l .222
23 4 115 68 .628 .372 1 .233
22 2 112 71 .612 .388 l .237
21 2 109 74 .595 .405 3 .723
19 6 106 77 .579 .421 2 .487
18 2 100 83 .546 .454 2 .496
17 1 98 85 .535 .465 1 .249
16 l 88 95 .480 .520 1 .250
15 80 103 .437 .563 1 .246
n = 183 KR 20 = EéT-[1 - €591 K = 40
_ 178913 - $§§§Zl§
52 ' 183 = 28 825
2x = 5637 183 '
2x2 = 178913
qu = 7.2489
(KR 20) r = 3%97-[1 - §§%§§§1 = .77 (.7687)

110

As indicated in Tables 4.12 and 4.13. the reliability coeffi-
cients for the two 40-item achievement posttests were .795 (Unit 9/10)
and .7687 (Unit 11/12). The difference in the reliability of the two
tests may be explained by the order in which the tests were given or
by slight variations in the content evaluated or the format for each
test. Further discussion of the KR 20 reliability results is included
in Chapter V.

Iaacher Interview Data

The four teachers involved in this study were interviewed
immediately after they had taught the four units on South America.
The questions focused on four topics: (a) teaching experience. (b)
teaching style. (c) reactions to the teaching methods and materials.
and (d) responses to the task structures (competitive and coopera-
tive). The teacher interview questions are listed below. followed by
a discussion of the responses concerning each of the four major
topics.

1. Experience. How many years have you been teaching? In
the Okemos schools? At the middle school level? Sixth-grade social
studies?

2. Teaching style. Briefly explain your teaching style in
social studies. How often do students in your class work independ-
ently on assignments? In groups? Describe the social studies assign-
ments you give your students. Describe any tests you employ and the

criteria you use for evaluation of progress in social studies.

111

3. Teaching methods and materials. What were your reactions
to the teaching-materials packet and the teaching methods you were
asked to employ during the research study?

4. Task structures. Hhat were the reactions of students to
the cooperative and competitive task structures in effect during the
study? Are these task structures appropriate for this age level?

Hill you use either or both of these task structures in your future
teaching?

Experience. All four teacher participants had had extensive
experience in teaching and specifically in teaching at the middle
school level. They had accumulated a total of 74 years of teaching in
the public schools. Table 4.14 illustrates the teaching experience of
the four teachers. Three of the teachers had spent a majority of
their careers teaching sixth-grade social studies in the community in
which the study was conducted. The fourth (Teacher 5) was an art
teacher who was relatively new to the school system and was teaching

sixth-grade social studies for the first time.

Table 4.14.--Years of experience of teacher participants.

 

 

This Middle Sixth-Grade
Teaching District School Social Studies
Teacher C 21 21 21 12
Teacher M 16 16 16 14
Teacher S 14 2 7 1

Teacher Y 23 17 23 19

‘5‘

112

Igachipgstyle. "The most comfortable way for me to teach is
to be mostly in charge and directive." Teacher C stated that she was
somewhat uncomfortable with sixth-grade students having too much con-
trol over what or how they learn. She said that. in her classroom.
assignments were taken primarily from the textbook materials. Stu-
dents completed dittos. answered most questions in the text. and took
the unit tests provided by the publisher. Teacher C described the
peer teaching that occurred in her class as students checking over
assignments or reviewing for a unit test. She stated that students'
grades in social studies were based on tests (two-thirds) and assign-
ments (credit/no credit).

Teacher M described the learning environment in his classroom
as being "laissez-faire rigidity." He indicated that there was a
clear structure and sequence to what occurred in the classroom. but
students were offered some freedom in how they completed assignments
and interacted with the content. Teacher M stated that lecture was
his primary method of teaching because it supplemented the content in
the text and stimulated the students' interest. Hhen describing
assignments. he included dittos. questions from the text. and
preparation for the unit tests provided by the publisher. Teacher M
indicated that he had not used small-group learning with his students
before this study. He mentioned that students were given grades in
social studies based on test scores. assignments (credit/no credit).
and the teacher's subjective assessment (ability. effort. and

potential).

113

Teacher 5 was an art teacher who was teaching social studies
for the first time. Having had no previous experience in that sub-
ject. she stated that she applied her background in teaching art to
the methods she used in her social studies classes. Teacher S
believed that students could benefit from working in small groups and
completing hands-on projects. "Kids usually get more or at least as
much from listening to each other than from a lecture. which can turn
off a lot of kids in this age group." Grades in Teacher S's classes
were based on unit tests (provided by the publisher). assignments
(dittos and questions from the text). and projects.

"In social studies. I think. like everything else. you have to
use a lot of variety." Teacher Y indicated that she provided opportu-
nities for students to complete projects. work independently. work in
small groups. and make presentations. She stated that if you offer
many instructional approaches. you not only "hit more students' learn-
ing styles." but also maintain the interest of both students and the
teacher. Teacher Y stated that she used scores on the tests provided
by the publisher (students begin the school year using the text or
notes while taking tests. and by March are on their own). participa-
tion. and assignments (primarily from the textbook materials) when
determining students' social studies grades.

The four teachers completed the Teaching Styles Survey
(Renzulli & Smith. 1978) at the outset of the study. This instrument

measured how often teachers employed different methods in their

114

classrooms. Table 4.15 illustrates the results of the survey and

supports the four teachers' analyses of their own teaching styles.

Table 4.15.--Results of the Renzulli-Smith Teaching Styles Survey.

 

 

Teaching Method Teacher C Teacher M Teacher S Teacher Y
Projects 3.00(5)a 1.78(7) 4.22(l) 3.44(3)
Simulation 1.00(9) 2.17(6) l.l7(9) 1.67(9)
Drill & Recitation 4.00(l) 4.63(l) 2.63(6) 3.l3(7)
Peer Teaching 3.33(3) l.l7(9) 4.l7(2) 3.50(2)
Discussion 3.25(4) 3.63(5) 3.25(4) 3.25(4)
Teaching Games 1.20(8) 1.60(8) 1.60(8) 2.60(8)
Independent Study 2.67(7) 3.89(3) 3.22(5) 3.22(6)
Programmed Instruction 2.86(6) 3.86(4) 2.29(7) 3.29(5)
Lecture 3.86(2) 4.00(2) 3.7l(3) 3.57(l)

 

Note: 4.00-5.00 = Very Frequent. 3.00-4.00 = Frequent. 2.00-3.00 =
Neither. 1.00-2.00 = Rather Infrequent. 0.00-l.00 Infrequent

aNumbers in parentheses represent the rank order of the nine
teaching methods.

Teachers C and M identified themselves as more structured and
teacher directed. and less likely to give students control over what
and how they learn. These two teachers rated drill and recitation and
lecture as the teaching methods they used most frequently. Teachers
S and Y placed more value on students working in small groups and on
projects. They ranked peer teaching (Teacher S--2nd. Teacher Y--2nd)
and projects (Teacher S--1st. Teacher Y--3rd) as frequently employed

teaching methods.
Iaaching_pgthodsyand_materiala. The four teachers agreed that

the teaching packet was clear and concise and included teaching

115

methods that were effective with a variety of student learning styles.
They recognized a consistent pattern for content presentation and
assignments for all four units on South America. They did mention
that adjustments were required initially as they adapted their
teaching styles to the methods and materials outlined in the teaching
packet. Teachers C and M indicated that they had experienced some
frustration in employing the small-group (cooperative) approach at the
outset of the study but stated that they had been more comfortable
each time they had completed subsequent units. Teacher S remarked
that her students were not accustomed to learning in the competitive
task structure and that the approach was new to her as well. Teacher
Y mentioned that the adjustment for her students was minor. She
stated. "I thought it [the materials packet] was clear and it did fit
my style. You had media. you had maps. you had straightforward
questions. I-learn-facts. all the things I employ."

Task structgpa. Teachers reacted in various ways when
describing students' responses to the cooperative and competitive task
structures. Teachers mentioned that students who were not independent
starters. who desired social acceptance. who were not motivated. and
who rarely performed in the competitive task structure were most
likely to benefit from small-group activities. Teacher C stated.
"Lots of times they had a talent that the group could make use of so
it really gave them some prestige. to be able to contribute."

Teachers agreed that the competitive task structure was most effective

with self-starters. those who were motivated to work. students who

116

were bright. and those who were responsible. They said frustration
was evident because some individuals felt they were being held back by
the group. that their grade would be lowered because of the group. or
that group members would not do their share of the work.

Teacher 5 stated that her classes were ready to change to the
cooperative task structure and that interest and performance had
improved during the second half of the study. Teacher C mentioned
that the individual work (competitive task structure) went faster for
her students when they began the second half of the study. "and they

were ready to be done with the group work. and so was I."

Student Interview Dapa

Twelve students were interviewed at the conclusion of the
study. These students represented high- and low-ability. cooperative
and competitive learning-style preferences. and classes of each of the
teachers who participated in the study. Table 4.16 illustrates the
gender. ability. and learning-style predispositions of the students

who were randomly selected to be interviewed.

Table 4.16.--Characteristics of students selected for interviews.

 

 

Gender Ability Predisposition

Classroom N

M F High Low Coop. Comp. Unclass.

Teacher C 2 1 1 l l 1
Teacher M 2 2 2 l 1
Teacher S 3 1 2 1 1 2 1
Teacher Y 5 2 3 1 2 l 2
Total 12 6 6 5 1 4 3 5

117

Students were asked to answer ten questions concerning working

in small groups and working independently on school work. The

questions and students' responses are summarized below.

1.

Hith which of the two approaches. working alone on assignments or
working in groups on assignments. did you learn more in this
social studies class?

Groups 4 Alone 8

Which of the two approaches. working alone on assignments or
working in groups on assignments. did you enjoy more?

GrOUps 10 Alone 2

Prior to this unit on South America. how often did your class
participate in units employing small groups?

Never 5 Occasionally (1-3 times) 7 Often (+3 times) 0

Hhat school subjects would be taught best using small groups?
Hhat school subjects would be taught best when students work
alone?

 

Groups Alone
Science 7 Language Arts 5
Math 3 Math 4
Shop Project 1 Computer 2
Learning Games 1 Reading 2

What do you like most about social studies this year? Hhat do you
like least about social studies class this year?

 

 

+ Socja1,Studies - Social Stadies
Teacher 4 Content 4
Media 2 Assignments 4
Projects 2 Tests 2
Interaction 1 Teacher 1
Content 2 Reading 1

Assignments 1

118

6. What percentage of the time in social studies class should be used

for work in small groups. and what percentage of the time should
be used for individual work?

Group Individual
-- 1 100%
75% 2 25%
50% 2 50%
67% 3 33%
25% 2 75%

7. Hhat problems can occur when a student is working in a small
group? What problems can occur when a student is working alone?

 

Small Group Alone
Arguments 4 Questions 5
Goofing off 4 No interaction 3
Distraction 3 Insufficient work time 2
Unfinished work 1 Less feedback 2

8. What benefits does working in small groups offer the student?
The teacher?

Student Teacher
Sharing the task 6 More time 5
More interaction 4 Improved management 4
Student control of learning 2 Role in the classroom 3

9. What benefits does working alone offer the student? The teacher?

Student Teacher
Fairer grades 4 Quiet 9
Quiet 3 More control 3

Fewer distractions 2

Avoid inferior classmates 1
More time to work 1

Better access to materials 1

119

10. Why is it important to learn to work in small groups? Why is it
important to learn to work alone?

Alone Groups
You won't always have Careers that require
someone to depend on 7 interaction 5
To learn responsibility 3 Family/friends 3
Careers 2 Communication skills 2

Control emotions 2

In reviewing the student interviews. the researcher noted that
the students had had limited exposure to working in small groups.
despite enjoying tasks structured in that way and recognizing the
importance of learning in small groups. The majority of student
interviewees stated that tasks requiring independent work facilitated
an orderly. quiet learning environment. with few distractions. The
majority (8) of students believed they learned more when tasks were
structured in this way. However. almost every interviewee indicated
that providing opportunities for students to work and learn together
was important in several school subjects and gave them opportunities

to practice skills that would be useful throughout their lives.

Summar
A two-sample t-test was performed on the posttest data from 81
subjects. The dependent variables were the Unit 9/10 and Unit 11/12
achievement posttests. The independent variables were learner
predisposition (cooperative or competitive) and task structure.
Students were exposed to a task structure that matched their learning

style and a task structure that did not match their learning style.

120

Null Hypothesis 1 was rejected for the Unit 9/10 posttest
scores: however. the difference in scores was in the direction
opposite what the researcher hypothesized. Null Hypothesis 1 for
the Unit 11/12 posttest scores was not rejected.

A two-way ANOVA was conducted to determine if there was an
interaction between the ability of the learner and the task structure
employed by the teacher. The results of the ANOVA suggested that
there was an interaction between the two variables. Null Hypotheses 2
and 3 were rejected. The differences in the test scores did not meet
the criterion for significance (alpha = .05).

An F-ratio was calculated to determine if there were statis-
tically significant differences in the variances of scores on the
attitudinal survey. Null Hypothesis 4 was not rejected. There were
differences in the variances. but they were not statistically signifi-
cant.

An analysis of the data concerning the Unit 9/10 and Unit
11/12 achievement posttests indicated that the two tests had
appropriate indices of difficulty and discrimination (item analysis)
and reliability (Kuder-Richardson 20). Both tests were also similar
in types of questions and general format.

Data gathered from interviews with teachers and students were
reported. Although they lacked experience in employing the task
structures. teachers recognized the value of using both cooperative

and competitive approaches in their teaching. Students also

121

recognized the benefits of being exposed to both task structures in

their social studies classes.

Table 4.17.--Summary of the results of hypotheses investigated in
this study.

 

Null Hypothesis 1

Null Hypothesis 2

Null Hypothesis 3

Null Hypothesis 4

(Matching Learner Predisposi-
tion and Task Structure)

(Low-Ability Students in Coop-
erative Task Structure)

(High-Ability Students in Com-
petitive Task Structure)

(Differences in Attitudes for
the Two Task Structures)

Not Rejected

Rejected

Rejected

Not Rejected

 

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter begins with a summary of the information con-
tained in the preceding four chapters. Also included are a discussion
of the findings. conclusions drawn from the findings. and recommenda-

tions for further research.

Summary
Purposes of the Study

This study was undertaken to examine the effects of task
structure on the achievement and attitudes of various types of
students. The writer had three major purposes in conducting this
investigation. The first purpose was to compare the effects of com-
petitive and cooperative task structures on the achievement of
sixth-grade social studies students who were predisposed toward
competitively or cooperatively structured classrooms. The second
purpose was to measure the effects of competitive and cooperative task
structures on the achievement of high-ability and low-ability social
studies students. The third purpose was to determine the effects of
competitive and cooperative task structures on the attitudes of stu-

dents predisposed toward one task structure or the other.

122

 

123

Literature Review

The review of literature described the crisis in achievement
and socialization facing the schools and indicated how application of
research findings in the areas of language and learning. student
learning styles. the transescent stage of development. and task struc-
tures employed in the classroom could address these problems.

Literature regarding the specific effects of structuring
student talk into learning situations: teaching to a variety of
student learning styles: and employing competitive. individualistic.
and cooperative task structures was reported. A section on the devel-
opmental needs of the middle-school-age student was also included.

The literature review made it clear that teachers control who
learns and how much is learned by the ways they choose to teach. With
the changes in the structure of the family. schools now play a more
important role than before. not only in teaching knowledge of content.
but also in providing students with opportunities to develop and prac-
tice skills that will be useful and important throughout their lives.
Teachers should recognize what research findings have suggested con-

cerning the learner. the teaching process. and student needs.

Qaaign of the Study

The effects of task structure on students of different learn-
ing predispositions and ability levels were examined in this study.
The sample included 193 sixth-grade students and their social studies
teachers from a middle school located in a suburban mid-Michigan com-

munity. The subjects were exposed to both cooperative and competitive

 

124

task structures concerned with content from the textbook Latin America
and Canada (Coffman & Joyce. 1983).

From the results of a learning-styles inventory (Renzulli &
Smith. 1978) and classification of students by classroom teachers
(Good & Power. 1978). 87 students were identified as either competi-
tive learners (n = 16) or cooperative learners (n = 71). Scores from
the Reading Comprehension and Social Science subscales of the Stanford
Achievement Test and student-evaluation information provided by teach-
ers were employed in formulating the groups of low-ability (n = 34)
and high-ability (n = 40) students. The remaining students partici-
pated in the study. but the data pertaining to those students were not
used in answering the research questions.

Student achievement was measured through the use of posttests
developed by the researcher. These tests included both recall and
higher-level questions and were similar in difficulty (Unit 9/10 =
.70. Unit 11/12 = .75). discrimination (Unit 9/10 = .39. Unit 11/12 =
.36). and reliability (Unit 9/10 = .80. Unit 11/12 = .77). Student
attitudes were determined by administering an attitudinal survey
developed by Slavin (1978).

The statistical treatments used in analyzing the data were the
t-test (Research Question 1). two-way analysis of variance (Research
Questions 2 and 3). and F-ratio (Research Question 4). The data gen-
erated from the achievement posttests and the attitudinal survey were

entered into the Michigan State University computer. The statistical

125

procedures used in analyzing the data were part of the Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

Discaasion of the Findings
This section includes a discussion of the findings pertaining

to the research questions. as well as additional data gathered in the

study.

Resaarch Question 1

Is there a difference in the achievement levels of competitive
and cooperative learners matched to task structure and competi-
tive and cooperative learners not matched to task structure?

The results of the t-tests performed on the achievement data
indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean scores

of students matched to task structure and students not matched to task

structure. The teachers and students with the least experience work-

ing in a cooperative task structure were randomly assigned to that

classroom environment at the beginning of the study. Energy was

diverted from learning the content to adjusting to a unique teaching/
learning setting (a novelty effect). Therefore. this group (which

contained 40 of the 45 students matched to task structure) had a mean

score of 27.2 on the Unit 9/10 posttest. The teachers and students

assigned to the competitive task structure were required to adjust to

only slight changes in teaching methods. These class groups contained

the majority of students who were not matched to task structure (34 of

45 students). The mean score on the Unit 9/10 posttest was 30.2 for

students working in a competitive task structure. The resulting

126

comparison of mean scores on this posttest favored the students who
were not matched to task structure (28.8 to 26.5).

The mean scores for the Unit 11/12 achievement posttest were
higher for both students matched to task structure (31.1) and students
not matched to task structure (30.1). These improved scores can be
explained by familiarity with the teaching methods and test format (a
practice effect). The mean scores of the matched group did exceed
those of the unmatched group. suggesting that the novelty of different
teaching methods or task structures was diminished or absent and that
the difference in the mean scores was reflected in the teachers' expe-
rience in using the cooperative task structure.

The combined score for students matched to task structure was
nearly the same as the combined score for students not matched to task
structure (overall mean of matched students = 29.0: overall mean of
not-matched students = 29.6). Nhat if the teachers participating in
the study had had similar exposure to and experience in using both
task structures before the study? Hhat would the results have been if
the random assignment of class groups had been different? The effects
of matching task structure and student predisposition toward coopera-
tive or competitive classroom activities might have been in the
direction hypothesized by the researcher if either of the above cir-

cumstances had occurred in this study.

Research Question 2

Is there a difference in the achievement levels of low-ability
learners exposed to a cooperative task structure and low-ability
learners exposed to a competitive task structure?

127

The results of the two-way ANOVA and other data indicated that
there was an interaction between the ability of the student and the
task structure employed in the classroom. Students identified as low-
ability learners did achieve a higher mean score when working in a
cooperative task structure (25.57 to 25.10). Fifty-four percent of
the low-ability learners had a higher test score after exposure to a
cooperative task structure. 36% had a higher test score after exposure
to a competitive task structure. and 10% had the same score after
exposure to each task structure. The mean scores for this group of
students also increased from the Unit 9/10 posttest (23.37 cooperative
task structure. 25.1 competitive task structure. 24.24 overall mean)
to the Unit 11/12 posttest (28.5 cooperative task structure. 25.12
competitive task structure. 26.81 overall mean).

These data suggest that frequently exposing low-ability learn-
ers to coOperative task structures would enhance their achievement.
Participating often in small-group work would place low-ability stu-
dents in contact with students of varying abilities. permitting them
to observe how others study and learn. encouraging interaction and
sharing among students. and creating an opportunity for success for
those who have consistently failed (and possibly given up) in other

task structures.

Research Question 3

Is there a difference in the achievement levels of high-ability
learners exposed to a competitive task structure and high-ability
learners exposed to a cooperative task structure?

 

h'l

128

As indicated in the discussion for Research Question 2. there
was an interaction between the ability level of the student and the
task structure employed in the classroom. High-ability learners
achieved higher mean scores when exposed to competitive task struc-
tures (35.47) than when exposed to cooperative task structures
(34.84). This difference in achievement was primarily because of the
low mean score of the high-ability students when first exposed to a
cooperative task structure. Their mean score on the Unit 9/10 post-
test was 34.1. The lack of experience working in small heterogeneous
groups. and the initial encounter with a difficult posttest. probably
caused the lower score. Students and teachers interviewed by the
researcher indicated that the posttests for this study included
questions that required understanding the content and applying what
had been learned. The unit tests from the publisher emphasized recall
of information.

In contrast. the highest mean score for high-ability learners
was on the Unit Il/12 posttest for those learners exposed to a
cooperative task structure (35.76). This score can be explained by
the students' previous exposure to the Unit 9/10 posttest and their
increased familiarity with working in groups (these students had more
experiences working in groups in their social studies classes).
Fifty-five percent of the students identified as having high ability
in social studies achieved a higher test score after exposure to a

competitive task structure. 34% of them achieved a higher test score

129

after exposure to the cooperative task structure. and 11% received the
same score on both posttests.

The data relating high-ability students to task structure
suggested that students exposed to cooperative task structures did
nearly as well on the social studies posttests as those exposed to
competitive task structures. Since high-ability students did not
suffer from working with students of lower ability. using cooperative
task structures would provide additional benefits to high-ability

students in the areas of communication and leadership.

Research Question 4
Is there a difference between student attitudes when task struc-
ture is matched to learning style preferences and when task
structure is not matched to learning style preferences?

Results indicated that there was a difference in the attitudes
of cooperative and competitive learners matched to task structure and
those same learners not matched to task structure: however. this dif-
ference was not statistically significant. There were several reasons
for this lack of significance. The attitudinal survey was adminis-
tered at the beginning of data collection. after exposure to the first
task structure. and after exposure to the second task structure. The
time devoted to each task structure (18 to 20 class periods) may have
been insufficient to influence a change in attitude. One-third of the
students participating in the study identified social studies as their

least favorite subject. Teacher S stated during her interview. "To be

honest. most of them [the sixth-grade students] could care less about

130

South America." Focusing on the text and related materials contrib-
uted to this negative attitude toward social studies. Altering task
structure over a short period of time may not have been enough to

overcome low student interest in the subject matter.

Assessment of the Variables

The researcher attempted to limit the variations in teaching
style through training and the use of a teaching-materials packet.

The training included providing teachers with information concerning
task structures and student learning styles and having teachers and
their classes participate in an activity employing cooperative groups.
The teaching-materials packet was developed to guide teachers through
the content. explain the assignments. and describe the two task struc-
tures. This materials packet was not a script: therefore. individual
interpretations and teaching styles could not be completely controlled
(as indicated in Chapter 1. Limitation 3). "When you ask teachers to
learn and implement a method new to them. you are asking them to
unlearn and learn" (Sarason. 1984. p. x). The 74 years of cumulative
teaching experience and the individual biases of the teachers were
evident from the students' resulting test scores and from the inter-
views conducted with both students and the teachers.

When the two task structures were randomly assigned to the
class groups. the two teachers who had had little experience with
cooperative learning groups were to employ that task structure first.
The other teachers. who were accustomed to using small-group teaching

in their social studies classes. were to employ a competitive task

131

structure first. The change in "management style" for the teacher and
in classroom environment for the students was greater for individuals
engaged in the cooperative task structure than for those involved in
the competitive task structure. Teacher Y stated that she was com-
fortable teaching in either task structure. but the other three teach-
ers expressed relief and exhibited increased confidence in using the
task structure that corresponded to their teaching style for Units 11
and 12. Students also achieved the highest test scores when the task
structure was consistent with that employed by their social studies
teacher before the study. If the random assignment of classes to task
structure had been reversed. the four teachers would have become
accustomed to the demands of the study while employing task structures
more familiar to them. This would have diminished the effects of
variations in experience and teaching styles.

In assessing other variables that may have influenced the
results. the validity of the instruments and treatments must be
weighed. Both posttests conformed to the same structural specifica-
tions: that is. both tests had the same number of items and the same
reading level. contained similar formats. and covered related content
(different regions of South America). In addition to their parallel
specifications. the validity of the tests was strengthened by their
high and similar reliability coefficients and mean indices of dis-
crimination. Therefore. it seems probable that the higher scores on
the Unit 11/12 posttest were a result of a "practice effect" and not

structural inequalities between the two tests.

 

132

The two treatments were designed to be identical in terms of
teaching methods. types of assignments. and overall format. The only
differences were that the content involved various geographical
regions of South America. and the students completed assignments and
prepared for tests in the two task structures. Changes in methods or
work settings. however. can affect student behavior. Students may
require time to adjust to differences in classroom routines. If one
treatment had required time for novelty to become ineffective. the
diminished exposure time to the content might have influenced posttest

results and subsequently the conclusions drawn from the data. Teacher

 

C mentioned after completing Unit 10 in cooperative groups. "The
groups were much more efficient [in the second unit]. There was less
frustration on the part of the groups if individuals did not get their
work done. Less assertive kids were more involved. I've certainly
learned that keeping the same group is important. at least for a
period of time." It appears that mean scores were lower on the Unit
9/10 posttest due to the adjustment period necessary for students and

teachers.

Additional Findings
In this study. 87 students were identified as either coopera-

tive or competitive learners. However. all 193 subjects were exposed
to a cooperative and a competitive task structure. Hhen examining the
achievement posttest results for the entire sample. only a slight

difference was noted in the performance of students after exposure to

133

a cooperative task structure (mean score

29.6) and after exposure to

a competitive task structure (mean score 30.0). This was the case.

even though half of the teachers and students lacked experience in
working in small groups before the study. This finding offers con-
vincing support for the use of cooperative learning groups. Such a
task structure enables students to achieve at a level comparable to
their achievement in a competitive task structure. while developing
communication skill and learning from each other. The cooperative
task structure offers teachers another approach to "work in the class-

room setting." providing more variety. involving more students in the

 

learning process. and creating greater interest in the content.
Because of the nature of the community in which the study was
conducted (upper middle class. educated. professionals with emphasis
on the importance of education. high achievement. and winning
programs--i.e.. winning athletic teams. award-winning music groups.
National Merit Scholars).the researcher expected to identify numerous
competitive-independent learners. This was not the case. The devel-
opmental level of the middle-school-age student seemed to have a
greater effect on learning-style preferences than did the home envi-
ronment. The increased influence of the peer group. desire for
interaction. and emerging self-confidence and independence greatly
influenced how these students felt they learned best. Responses to
the Learning Styles Inventory indicated that students preferred
learning activities in which they worked with their peers (Teaching

Games--3.83. Peer Teaching--3.74) or had control over what they

134

learned (Projects-~3.67). They scored lowest on teaching/learning
approaches that were teacher directed (Drill and Recitation--2.80.
Independent Study--3.15. and Lecture--3.25). One characteristic of
the community that was supported by the results of the LS1 was the
value of education. The majority of these students liked school and
had a positive response to almost every teaching method.

Another finding that emerged from the results of the LSI was
the mismatch between the methods teachers employed most frequently and
the preferred modes of learning identified by students. Table 5.1
indicates that students of the teacher who had the closest match to
student interests had the highest means for both posttests. Students
of the teacher who had the poorest match to student interests had the
lowest scores on both posttests. These findings suggest that teachers
need to be aware of the learning-style preferences of their students

and should use that information when planning instruction.

Conclgsions
Based on the findings of this study. as well as the review of
literature and research. the following conclusions are offered to per-
sons concerned with social studies teaching and curriculum.
1. Teachers should employ competitive. individualistic. and
cooperative task structures in the classroom. Students need to be
taught to engage productively in structured activities guided by the

teacher. in independent projects that require decision making. and in

135

Table 5.l.--Results of the LSI comparing teaching methods most
frequently employed by the teachers and the teaching
methods most preferred by the students.

 

Unit 9/10 Unit 11/12
Teaching Method Mean Mean

 

Teacher Y: Lecture/Peer Teaching/Projects
Students: Teaching Games/Peer Teaching/ 31.0 33.6
Projects

Teacher 5: Projects/Peer Teaching/Lecture
Students: Teaching Games/Simulation/ 29.4 30.2
Peer Teaching

Teacher C: Drill & Recitation/Lecture/
Peer Teaching

Students: Projects/Peer Teaching/ 28.0 31.5
Teaching Games

Teacher M: Drill & Recitation/Lecture/
Independent Study

Student: Projects/Peer Teaching/ 26.5 27.9
Teaching Games

 

small-group activities that depend on communication and problem solv-
ing. Using a variety of task structures provides opportunities for
more students to experience success. while maintaining greater inter-
est on the part of both students and the teacher. "A benefit of
including a diversity of classroom structures within the educational
experience of all students would be that such diverse experiences
would better prepare students for the rapidly changing world that they
will encounter as adults" (Kagan et al.. 1985. p. 309).

2. Teachers should possess a variety of teaching strategies

and understand how to use diverse strategies to accommodate the

136

developmental level of the class group and the learning style of each
student. There is a lack of fit between what is known about young
adolescents and what is done with them five days a week in school.
Hhen planning instruction. teachers need to recognize the developmen-
tal level of their students. gather learning-styles information. and
consider individual differences. Students become engaged when they
devote substantial time and effort to a task. when they care about the
quality of their work. and when they commit themselves because the
work is meaningful to them. This engagement is more likely to occur
if educators work to escape the routine. the regimentation. and the
sameness that make school an unstimulating environment for many stu-
dents. Teachers can match the varied abilities and interests of stu-
dents with an equally diverse educational environment by using a
variety of teaching styles. methods. and materials.

3. Schools appear to position students in essentially depend-
ent roles and relationships. The majority of "talk" that occurs in
the classroom comes from the teacher. and students complete most tasks
by working alone in a quiet environment. Teachers need to create
opportunities for students to use language in the classroom and to
engage in interdependent problem solving and decision making. "Lan-
guage experiences in social studies not only foster a more precise
understanding of language but help pupils develop skill in their own
use of language" (Davis. 1967. p. 239). Students working together in
social studies practice effective discussion. benefit from the help

and insight of classmates. and observe how others study and learn.

137

Instead of struggling to maintain a quiet learning environment in the
classroom. teachers should direct students' verbal energy into con-
structive. positive interaction.

4. Methods of assessment are needed that measure what
teachers are trying to teach. that enhance student engagement. and
that celebrate what students have learned. Students learn what is
valued by the ways educators choose to evaluate. If the emphasis is
on paper-and-pencil achievement tests. what is measured and reported
is what is taught in the classroom. Where does this leave skills that
are crucial for successful existence in our culture. such as effective
communication. working with other people. and ability to think crea-
tively? Educators need to expand the ways they judge students' abili-
ties. Valid measures of what was taught should be developed. and
these measures should include rapid feedback. Creative approaches to
evaluation. such as written responses. interviews. monitoring and
observation. and combinations of various evaluative techniques. could
overcome the limitations of objective tests. If the purpose of teach-
ing is for students to learn tremendous amounts of information and
content. then standardized instruments and objective achievement tests
are appropriate methods of evaluating progress. However. if the
purpose of teaching is to help students develop skills in written and
oral communication. decision making. problem solving. evaluation.
analysis. working independently. and working with others. it is neces-
sary to develop and implement new and varied methods of evaluating

progress.

 

138

5. One component of this study was developing materials and
training teachers involved in the research project. The researcher
attempted to provide teachers with information regarding the various
types of learners in a typical social studies classroom and the ways
tasks could be structured to meet the needs of more learners and lend
variety to the learning environment. without requiring a major change
in teaching style. This effort to provide something that was immedi-
ately applicable in the classroom and was demonstrably successful for
some students had a positive effect on all four teachers participating
in the study. “Increased opportunities to serve and discuss one
another's teaching and to work cooperatively in planning can provide
solutions to specific problems. emotional support and general profes-
sional stimulation likely to improve teaching'I (Newman. l986. p. 245).
The collegiality (improvement of teaching through the interaction and
sharing of teachers (Newman. l986J) that developed among the partici-
pants in the research project overturned the adage. I'You can't teach
an old dog new tricks.‘I These teachers. with 74 years of cumulative
experience in educating young people. stated that they saw the value
of using cooperative groups in their social studies classes and would
incorporate that task structure into their teaching repertoire in the

future.

ggggmmggggtions for Further Research
Future researchers examining the relationship between learner
predisposition and task structure should consider the following design

recommendations:

139

l. Conduct the study early in the school year. before
students become accustomed to teaching styles and classroom routines.

2. Vary the presentation of the two task structures. Using
a counterbalanced design (Treatment A/Treatment B/Treatment B/Treat-
ment A to outweigh unfair practice effects) or including a unit of
work that is not a part of the experiment between the two treatments
could diminish the effect of multiple-treatment interference.

3. Use additional evaluation techniques. such as observation
or interviews. to assess development of communication skills. small-
group effectiveness. and c00perative behaviors.

The limitations and delimitations of the study. enumerated in
Chapter I. included the restricted nature of the research setting
(suburban. midwestern school district). the grade level of the student
participants (sixth grade). and the content (South America). Future
investigators should examine various types 0f schools. possibly com-
paring the effects of matching task structure and learner predisposi-
tion in rural. suburban. and inner-city school districts.

Additional insights would also be gained by replicating this
study with students at different grade levels. Elementary school
pupils have been less affected by the emphasis on individual work in a
competitive environment than have older students. Grades are not
stressed by elementary teachers or pupils. and there is some famili-
arity with group work. However. these groups are not structured
copperatively: they tend to be composed of students with similar

abilities and to be teacher directed. In high school. where the

 

 

140

competition is fierce. students usually are aware of their academic
and social standing. A study in which students are given
opportunities to participate in diverse task structures would bring
students of different abilities and interests into contact with each
other. while demonstrating to high school teachers that there are
other ways to structure work in their classes.

The content for this study was based on the textbook Latin
America and Canada. Teacher S reported. 'In my opinion. the book
seems to hit very heavily on the geography and climate of South
America but doesn't make anything very exciting or interesting. There
is so much that is really relevant and exciting that is missed by the
book." A replication of this study using content that requires
problem-solving. higher-level thinking or is more interesting to

students might have different results.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT. CONSENT LETTERS.
AND CURRICULAR INFORMATION

 

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HL \HN 5L BJECTS ll'CRIHSl
238 \DMINISTRATION BL’ILDING
til'l “£2286

January 6, 1987

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.m. Steven R. harrington
3165 Rolling Brook 53;: g :f' .;”‘=m,’":; ,7, ‘LiIC
.tv.., .\.M\ -- -"'~
East Lansing, Michigan 48823 gaaagegn.=fff$fiQfL3

Dear Mr. Warrington:

Subject: Proposal Entitled, "How Students Respond to Different
Methods of Instruction"

UCRIHS' review of the above referenced proiect has now been completed. I am
pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to
be adequately protected and the Committee, therefore, approved this project
at its meeting on January 5, 1987.

You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you
plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for
obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to January 5, 1988.

A“? Changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the
UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified

Promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.)
involving human subjects during the course of the work.

Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any
future help, please do not hesitate to let us know.

Sincerely,

éz<£,é>t{(-l.
enry E. Bredeck, Ph.D.
Chairman, UCRIHS

jms

cc:' Dr. Janet E. Alleman

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l42

Leading Educational Publishers since l868

 

Allyn and Bacon, lnc. 9%

7 Wells Avenue, Newton, MA 02159
61 7," 964 5530

 

November 24, 1986

Steven R. Harrington
2165 Rolling Brook Lane
Eastlansing, Michigan 48823

Dear Mr. Harrington:

Alhnland Bacon is pleased to grant permission, as per your November 5 request
mkhessed to Laura Peluso, to include the specified material from LATIN AMERICA
AMDCANADA in your doctoral study for Michigan State UniverSIty.

Dmecredit line must include the author, title, copyright year, and Allyn and
Bacon, Inc. as publisher.

Hus permission does not apply to material which appears in our book with credit
hianother source. Permission for such material must be obtained from the original
source.

If at a future date you decide to have your work published, you must reapply for

[Ermission and indicate the exact passages and page numbers of the material you
lush to use, the name of your publisher, and other pertinent information.

Sincerely,

WMA/Mm

Michele A. Sullivan
Permissions Superv1sor

MAS/rlt

""ll,'

QM \,

 

143

OKEMOS PUBLIC SCHOOLS ' 4406 North Okemos Road, Okemos, Michigan 48864

 

LEE GERARD. ASSISTANT SL'PERINTENDENT FOR CURRICULUM AND PERSONNEL - (517) 349-9440

January 6, 1987

Dear Parent:

This is to advise parents of a research project which will soon be conducted in
the Okemos Public Schools that could involve your child. A description of the
project follows. Additional information regarding the project, as well as a copy
of any measuring instrument which might be used, will be available in the office
of your child's school. Please sign either the Consent To Prg'ect Participation or
Refusal For Pr_oject Participation and return to the office of your child‘s school.
If you agree to have your child participate in the research described here but
later change your mind, you have the option of withdrawing your child from the
project by signing the Withdrawal From Project Form, which also accompanies
the project description, and returning the signed form promptly to the school
principal.

if you have further questions please feel free to contact your school principal or
me.

Sincerely,

Lee Gerard
Assistant Superintendent
for Curriculum and Personnel

LG/mq

DESI

one

144

Dear Parent:

My name is Steve Harrington and I have been employed as a teacher

in the Okemos school system for the past 15 years. After teaching

5 years at the elementary level (grades 3,4 and 5 at Edgewood). I
transferred to Kinawa. My position until this school year has

been teaching social studies in the 7th Grade Bloc. and teaching

one section of 6th grade language arts/social studies.

Inning the current school year (1986/87) I have been on sabbatical
leave, working to complete the dissertation requirement for a P.H.D.
in Elementary Social Studies. The following information is a
description of the research study I will be conducting with

the help of several 6th grade social studies teachers and their
students. Before this study can begin I must have signed ansgng
1.29..fl?.i§¢.l;-£§.rllg_i_12§,ti_gr.l forms, or Refusal. .-£Q£_I’£QJ_§§£__P8F§_1§_1L3LILQQ
forms from each student in the classes chosen for the study. I
would appreciate a prompt reSponse. If there are any questions
regarding the purpose of the study. the instruments that will be
used, or any other issues that need clarification. please contact

me (351—9568).

Sincerely,

Steven R. Harrington

Jamie

Pro,

?r3

Res

5.?

ll

145

REQUEST FOR RESEARCH OKEMOS PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Project Applicant: Steven R. Warrington. 2165 Rolling Brook Lane.
East Lansing. Michigan 48823 (351-9568)
Project Title: How Students Respond to Different
Methods of Instruction
Research to be conducted under the auspices of Michigan State
University
Major Project Advisor-~Dr. Janet E. Alleman
Date Project Submitted-~January 6. 1987
Proposed Project Beginning Date—-January 9. 1987
Proposed Project Conclusion Date--March 13. 1987
Eu;pose_gf Research: To investigate the interaction between in-
dividual learning style and task structure. Students will be given
a learning styles inventory. Then, they will be instructed in
social studies content, working on assignments and preparing for
tests alone. or working on assignments and preparing for tests in
small groups. This study will demonstrate that students need
opportunities to complete schoolwork working by themselves. and
opportunities to work with others on assignments. Both teaching
approaches need to be employed in the classroom because there are
students who learn more effectively working alone and competing
for grades. and there are others who learn better when they are
working and learning in cooperation with their classmates.
MetamologLandmInsttumeutaLion: All students will be given a
learning styles inventory (Rezulli-Smith, 1978) at the outset of
the study. This LSI determines how individual students respond
to different teaching methods. Students will also be given an
attitudinal survey (Slavin. 1978) at the beginning. midpoint. and
conclusion of the study. This survey will be employed to identify
student attitudes toward subject. peers, success. and motivation.
Content area posttests will be administered at the end of each of
the four units covered during the study. These posttests were
constructed from questions taken from the textbook unit exams, and
questions generated by the researcher.
Teachers will be required to complete weekly feedback sheets. and
interviews will be conducted with teachers and selected student

participants at the conclusion of the study.

146

t. Administer LSI. and pre-attitudinal survey.

2. Half of the classes complete two units on Latin America where
students complete assignments and prepare for tests working
alone. Remaining classes complete the same two units where
completion of assignments. and preparation for tests occurs
in small groups.

3. Students take unit tests. At the end of the second unit
students take attitudinal survey.

4. The two treatments are reversed, using different. but similar
content on other parts of Latin America.

Students take unit tests and final attitudinal survey.
Researcher conducts interviews with selected students and all
teachers involved in the research study.

All students will be exposed to both treatments.

Proposed.-_inyol yementlof -_s taiffi.-studeritsl- are! E aci 1 it 1 es : TM 5

study will involve four sixth grade social studies teachers and

their social studies classes (approximately 200 students). Teach—
ers will be required to participate in training. conduct classes
following lesson plans provided by the researcher, and provide
feedback concerning the two treatments. Students will partici—
pate in the social studies units. and complete tests and
questionnaires.

Q§§.Q£t3§§29n§es and Obgervations: Identities of all participants

_.———. w.— —- .——.._ ...— -————

 

in this study will be kept in strict confidence. Teacher partici-
pants will be given access to information concerning their classes,
so that efforts can be made to improve effectiveness in the
teaching/learning process. The researcher will use all data
generated from this study for completion of the dissertation
requirement for a P.H.D. in Elementary Social Studies. Teachers
will use data for their respective classes in evaluating student
Progress. and planning future instruction.

Eseacrcherjs_perceived_bene_fits—curd ect to the Okemos_Pnti1_ic

 

SEQQQL§Y§L§EI1__§_§L1Q,§QL§L_E§£§QL§LQIlard1an§ : This research project
offers a variety of benefits to the Okemos school community.
Teachers who participate will experience the insight learning

StYIes information can offer them. will engage in staff deve10pment

the
wool
PFC:
com

Adm

147
activities. and enlarge their repetoire of teaching methods avail-
able for use in their classroom. Student participants will be
offered greater variety in teaching methods. information on how
they learn most effectively. and opportunities to engage in "con-
structive talk" as they learn social studies skills and content.
Etomsed_pi:esentatign_9_f_find Lugs. . t.-9..the.scthsxst.em: Upon com -
pletion of this study. the findings could be presented to the
Cmemos school system in a number of ways. Teacher participants,
the building principal. and the Director of Curriculum and Personnel
would be given copies of information summarizing the research
project. Presentations concerning the purpose. procedures. and
conclusions of the study could occur before the Board of Education.

Administration, Staff. or Parents.

148

CONSENT TO PROJECT PARTICIPATION
Okemos Public Schools

I hereby give my consent to the participation of

(Child's name) in the research
project described above. I understand that neither the researcher
and/or his/her approved assistants nor any other group or individual
will use the material gathered in any way that would invade the
privacy of this child or his/her family. I understand that the rights
of this child with regard to confidentiality will be paramount.

 

 

(Parent/Legal Guardian Signature)

 

(Date)

 

REFUSAL FOR PROJECT PARTICIPATION
Okemos Public Schools

I do not consent to the participation of
(Child's name) in any way in

 

the research project described above.

 

(Parent/Legal Guardian Signature)

 

(Date)

WITHDRAWAL FROM PROJECT

I wish to withdraw my ch11d_fi
from the
I do not want him/her to participate in

Project.
any way in this project.

 

(Parent/Legal Guardian Signature)

_,. (Date)

149

PROJECT TITLE: How Students Respond to Different Methods of Instruction
PROJECT RESEARCH APPLICANT: Steven R. Warrington

MAJOR PROJECT ADVISOR: Dr. Janet E. Alleman

ALL PERSONS WORKING WITH STUDENT(S): The researcher will be providing
training and instructional information to the sixth-grade social
studies teachers participating in the study.

INCLUSIVE DATES RESEARCH WILL BE CONDUCTED: January through March 1987.

SPECIFIC PLACE WHERE RESEARCH WILL BE CONDUCTED: In sixth-grade social
studies classrooms at Kinawa Middle School.

TIME (MINUTES, DAYS, WEEKS, ETC.) TO BE SPENT WITH CHILD(REN): The
research study will involve two 3-week units, during the social
studies class period (45 minutes per day).

WHY IS THE RESEARCH BEING DONE? So that the researcher can complete
the dissertation requirement for a Ph.D. in Elementary Social
Studies.

WHO WILL BENEFIT FROM THE RESEARCH? The researcher, the Okemos school
system, teacher participants, and students.

WHAT EXACTLY WILL THE CHILD(REN) BE DOING? Participating in social
studies units that will require them to complete assignments work-
ing alone, or complete assignments while working in small groups.
Students will be working in their current social studies classes,
taught by their social studies teacher, in content required by the
sixth-grade curriculum. The material they will be studying is The
Andean Highlands (Unit 9), The Tropical Lowlands (Unit l0), The
Eastern Highlands (Unit ll), and The Subtropical Plains (Unit 12)
from the textbook, Latin America and Canada.

WILL THERE BE QUESTIONING, SURVEYING OR ADDITIONAL INSTRUMENTS USED

THAT ARE NOT DESCRIBED?

Students will take a learning styles inventory (Renzulli-Smith,
1978) to determine how they respond Undifferent teaching methods,
an attitudinal survey (Slavin, 1978) to indicate feelings concern-
ing subject, motivation, success, and peers, and content-area
posttests. Capies of all instruments are available from the
researcher or from the office of the Director of Curriculum and
Personnel.

ARE YOU SEEKING INFORMATION REGARDING PERSONAL AND/OR INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS INVOLVING THE CHILD(REN) PARTICIPATING?

No.
ARE THERE ASPECTS OF THIS RESEARCH WHICH COULD CAUSE 0R LEAD TO
EMOTIONAL UPSET FOR THE CHILD(REN) PARTICIPATING?

No.

SPECIFICALLY, HOW WILL THE RESULTS AND INFORMATION BE USED?

Results and information from this study will be used for the com-
pletion of my dissertation. All participants will remain anony-

mous .

l50

WHO WILL HAVE ACCESS TO THE INFORMATION GATHERED IN THE RESEARCH UPON
ITS COMPLETION? IN THE FUTURE?
Teachers will have access to information involving their own
classes. This would include learning styles information for
individual students, and test scores.
WILL THERE BE WAYS OF IDENTIFYING A CHILD BY BIRTHDATE, RESPONSE,
ETC.?
No.

151

OKENOS PUBLIC SCHOOLS
PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL STUDIES

The social studies are the school subjects concerned with human relationships.
The content is derived principally from the scholarly disciplines of history,
anthronology, sociology, political science, economics, geography and psychology.

The goals of social studies emphasize the application of rational thinking to
the consideration of societal problems and the grasp by pupils of the knowledge and
skills that are basic to rational thought. But the ultimate and broadest goal of
education in the social studies is the development of socio-civic and personal
behavior, consistent with democratic principles.

Man's behavior is affected by his understanding of pertinent knowledge about
his society and the issues with which it must deal, and by his ability to use that
knowledge effectively. Consequently, the knowledge included in the social studies
program will be related to important generalizations about human relationships,
institutions and problems. Students should be helped to use the specific facts
they study so as to develop significant generalizations. As they do so, students
should be introduced, at a level appropriate to their maturity, to methods of inquiry
used by social scientists in their search for understanding. Knowledge of and prac-
tice in the methods of scholarly inquiry should prepare youth to better evaluate
evidence in order to teach rational conclusions concerning societal issues.

To use knowledge effectively, the student must develop a variety of skills and
abilities. To obtain knowledge, one needs skill in locating and evaluating sources
of information, in observing, in listening and in reading. To make knowledge social-
ly useful, one must be able to think reflectively about data and conclusions derived
from them. One must also be able to express his views orally and in writing, and have
the will and ability to work effectively in groups.

The goals of social studies should be to help the student behave in a manner
consistent with the beliefs gained through knowledge acquired by use of skills and
whillties. Tc achieve this goal a comprehensive program of instruction in the social
studies is required for all children and youth through elementary and secondary school.
In addition to this required program, elective subjects in the social studies should

be provided to encourage students to pursue and develop their special interests and

aptitudes in social science areas.

1":

152

SIXTH GRADE CURRICULUM - SOCIAL STUDIES
Kinawa Middle School

Reading skills

1. Building social studies vocabulary
2. Determining meaning from context

Comprehension

Previewing a reading selection
Skimming for information
Recognizing main ideas

Seeing relationships

Recognizing time order
Identifying point of view
Discovering cause and effect
Recognizing the author's purpose
Reading for details

10. Using details to support main ideas
ll. Distinguishing fact from opinion
12. Interpreting facts

13. Distinguishing fact from fantasy
M. Drawing conclusions

l5. Paraphrasing

16. Following directions

N—
a

\OOOVO\\II&UJ
O O

O

Organizing information

Alphabetizing

Note taking

Outlining

Listing

Summarizing

Constructing charts, graphs, time lines, etc.

Shkn-PWNF-

merpreting graphics

Maps
Photographs and illustrations
Graphs

Charts

Forms

Diagrams

Tables

Captions
Cartoons

Symbols and signs
Satellite imagery

KNOWN—-
ea a

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153

Citizenship skills
Decision making skills

I
2
3
a
5

Identifying choices

Considering alternatives

Making decisions

Considering the consequences of alternatives
Following through once decisions are made

Social participation skills

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Consider self and others
Work in groups

Accept responsibilities
Receive feedback

Examine stereotypes

Utilize community resources

Thinking skills

Knowing

Observing

Classifying

Comparing

Analyzing
Synthesizing
Predicting
Hypothesizing
Evaluating
Generalizing-in ferring

Learning outcomes

History

l.

2.

3.

Learning the history of Latin America and Canada from their exploration
and colonization through their struggles for independence to the present

day
Understanding the chronology of key historical events in Latin America

and Canada .
Analyzing the future prospects of Latin America and Canada In relation

to the world community

154

Geography and economics

1. Understanding a comprehensive overview of the geography of Latin
America and Canada

2. Strengthening globe and map skills in terms of location, scale, distance,
symbolization, and projection

3. Understanding the economy of each regional unit and the work its people
do in relation to its resources and technology

Political science, sociology, and anthropolcmy

1. Learning about the origins and forms of government in Latin America and
Canada

2. Examining the culture and way of life of the indigenous people of Latin
America and Canada, including the Olmecs, Mayas, Aztecs, Incas, and
Eskimo

3. Interpreting the population patterns of Latin America and Canada in
relation to regional lands, climates, and cultures

APPENDIX B

TRAINING UNIT AND TEACHING-MATERIALS PACKET

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l55

Definition of Cooperative Learning
Positive Interdependence
Individual Accountability
Interpersonal Interaction

Group Social Skills are taught. Task Skills help the group reach

its goals and get the task done. Mainggnagcg Skills help maintain

group stability and meet the needs of individual group members.

The ways teachers structure tasks in the classroom determine who
learns and who goes through the motions of learning.

individual students put into their learning.

how much effort

and how the individual
feels about school, subject. the teacher. their peers.
selves.

and them-

Competitive Task Structure-~Students work against one another to
achieve a goal. NEGATIVE INTERDEPENDENCE

Individualistic Task Structure-vStudents work to reach learning
goals where their performance is unrelated to the perfor-
mance of classmates. NO INTERDEPENDENCE

Cooperative Task Structure--Students work together in groups on
academic tasks while learning effective, 9051tive inter-

personal skills. POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCE

TEACHER'S ROLE

1. Specify Academic and Collaborative Skills OBJECTIVES.

2 Make GROUPING DECISIONS.

3 Explain TASK, GOAL STRUCTURE. and LEARNING ACTIVITY.

4. OBSERVE and MONITOR learning groups.

5 PROCESS and EVALUATE performance (both academic achievement,

and social skills development).

I56
"ssurrezarat>£a£>"

You are the surviving members of a disastor at sea. You were
iflfle to swim to safety and are now stranded on-an island that can
be described as follow:
The island is three miles long and one mile wide.
The highest point on the island is 350 feet and is located at
the top of a hill on the south end.
There is a cave halfway up this hill. and you are able to
store 500 pounds of wheat that floated ashore in this cave.
here is a freshwater spring on the island.
The island is located somewhere in a warm-water ocean.
One/third of the island is covered with tropical vegetation.
One/third of the island is covered with grassland.
One/third of the island (the end where the hill is located)
is rocky. I
The island is not on any air or sea navigation chart. Under normal
cnrcumstances. ships or planes do not pass within sight of the
island. If you were on a ship. the Ship has sunk to a depth of
three miles in the open sea. The ship nad no contact with port
amtnority. or any other ship prior to the accident. If you traveled
byiair. all contact with air traffic control was lost 1.000 miles
from your present location. No SOS or MAYDAY was sent. Your
physical condition on the island is exactly as it is at this moment.
Your Assignment:
Brainstorm for ideas on how your group will SURVIVE.
remain HAPPY while stranded on the island. and what you
will do to improve the chance that you will be RESCUED.
Construct a detailed. accurate MAP of the island.
Write a STORY that explains how you became stranded.
Write a STORY that tells what finally happens to your
group (Are you rescued? Do you perish?” Does your group
decide to remain on the island?)
Your goal is to work together as a group. attempting to produce the
best possible project. You may use drawings. lists. paragraphs.
or any other means of presenting information. as long as you in-
clude: HOW YOU WILL SURVIVE? WHAT YOU WILL DO TO REMAIN HAPPY AND
FREE or BOREDOM? WHAT YOU WILL DO To TRY TO BE Rescues? TELL HOW

YOU GOT INTO THIS PREDICAMENT & WHAT FINALLY HAPPENS To you.

51:11:
Base 1
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157
Before starting. . .

Invide students into groups with 4 or 5 members. These groups

should be mixed (girls and boys). and have members of all ability

levels. I would suggest also spreading out close friends. When
students look at the make-up of the groups around the room. they
should recognize that all the groups are nearly equal in ability.
Have necessary materials available. Make copies of the explana-

tion ditto (2 per group). and provide what students will need for
their map.

DAY 1

Explain to the class that for the next 5 days they will be working

in groups. Tell them that their goal is to work within their groups

in efforts to create the best project they can. Have them break

into the groups and select one person to act as RECORDER. The
Recorder's job is to write down all information for that day.

Pass out 2 "Stranded" sheets to each group and a folder (where they

keep their work). Read through the sheet with the class,
questions as they come up.

answer ing

When you get to the words Your Assign:
ment. have the Recorder take these notes:

Primary Needs: what human beings need to survive. (food,

water, clothing. shelter, air. rest. exercise)

Secondary (emotional) needs: what human beings need to

be happy. (friendship. variety. recognition, safety)
You may want your students to try to come up with these needs or
any others that they can justify. Just make sure that they recog-
nize that Primary \first) needs are necessary or the person will
die. and Secondary needs may vary from individual to ihdiVidual.
Finish reading through the "Stranded" sheet and when everyone in
each group seems to understand the assignment. the groups should
begin BRAINSTORMING for ideas, with the Recorder writing down the
information. You should remind them of the climate. warm water
ocean. etc. to help focus their efforts.

PROCESSING—~Last five minutes...

Collect all folders. Then have students think about how they would
answer the following questions. 1. Did I contribute to my group
today? 2.

Did I help people focus on the aSSIgnment? 3. Was I an

effective listener to other members of my group? 4. Did I look at

the person Who was speaking? 5. Was our group organized?

158
DAY 2

Have students form into groups. Briefly review the assignment.
Have each group select a new Recorder. Suggest to them that they
may want to divide up the jobs required for this aSSignment. Make
sure that they recognize that anything that is done by an individual
nmst be approved by the group. Each group should select someone
to be their CHECKER. This person's job is to check the progress
cw individual's and of the group as a whole. The Checker makes
sure all the jobs are being done. and everything seems to make
sense.
Before they begin working. briefly provide these hints to help them
focus their energies. without providing them with answers.
How might they get food? (gather. fish. hunt. grow, trap)
What tools/weapons will they need to make?
What type of shelter and clothing will be necessary in
a tropical climate?
What materials will be available for making these neces-
sities?
Tell them that they may use lists, drawings. paragraphs. any
approach that their group agrees on, for presenting their ideas.
Tell them to begin working.
PROCESSING--Last 5 minutes...
Pass out the short processing sheet and have group members fill
it out individually. When they have finished, allow them to briefly
report their responses to the other members of the group. and put

all of the sheets in the folder.

?.'DCE

159

’

Processing Sheet for DAY 4 of "Stranded"

1.

(1"

NAME

What one word would you use to describe how the group was today?

*- —o»o——- -4- .

 

—.___..— .a.-._—-—-— n_. -——-_———._

What one word would describe the way you would like the group

to be?

—- *—._._—-_-——— ——-—

What will you do to improve the way you perform in the group

tomorrow?

.o--

 

—.—--———-- .—- -—-—.—-—

 

- --- fl-..-

 

What does the Recorder do in your group?

_———-.-—_-——-—

 

 

What does the Checker do in your group?

 

160
DAY 3

Have students get into their groups. Briefly discuss the roles of
RECORDER (the person or people in the group who will be writing the
information). the CHECKER (the person in the group who checks the
progress. and makes sure things are done). and add the third role
cf OBSERVER (a person in the group who will observe the way
individuals and the group as a whole function. and provides feed—
back). Have groups decide who will be the RECORDER (this role
should be taken by individuals who are neat and have good writing
skills. groups may want to have two recorders). and CHECKER for
the remainder of the week. Have them select an observer for Day 3.
Before they begin working, briefly provide these hints to help them
focus their energies. without providing them with answers.
What games or activities might your group devise to make
time go more quickly. and limit boredom and homesickness?
What kinds of things might you do to attract attention
to your group in case that a search plane or boat happen
to come near the island?
Tell groups to begin working. and ask the Observers to meet with
you for a few minutes.
Briefly explain to observers that they will be watching how effec—
tively their group works on the project. Provide them with the
observation sheet.
PROCESSING-—Last 5 minutes...

Observers report their findings to the group.

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161
Observer Processing Sheet for DAY 3 of "Stranded"

Observer's NANE____

 

 

Write the names of group members who demonstrate the following.

Use tally marks next to their names if they demonStrate the behaVior
more than once.

1. Show they are listening.

2. Suggest how to do something.

3. Ask someone for his or her ideas.

4. Questions for observers. Answer these toward the end of the
hour.

1. Did everyone talk? Explain?

2. Which students participated the most?

3. Did everyone understand what he or she was supposed

to do? Explain?

4. How would you rate the group's work?
a. Very Good
b. Good

c 0.x.
d. Not so good
e. Poor

5. Give a reason for your rating.

162

DAY 4
Ybu should remind the students that they only have today and to-

nmmrow to finish the project. Groups should select an observer

for the day. The CHECKER should examine all of the work to see
what needs to be written in final form by the RECORDER(S). and what
areas need more work. Review what they need to have finished for
tomorrow. Tell them to begin working. and call the observers to
you for briefing.

PROCESSING--Last 5 minutes...

Observers report their findings to the group.

'f.

”a .
491

 

163
Observer Processing Sheet for DAY 4 of "Stranded"

Observer's NAME

-——-._.o——_._ _

 

 

~-_

write the names of group members who demonstrate the following
Use tally marks next to their names if they demonscrate the behavior
more than once.

1. Show they are listening.

2. Suggest how to do something.

3. Ask someone for his or her ideas.

4. Questions for observers. Answer these toward the end of the
hour.

1. Did everyone talk? Explain?

2. Which students participated the most?

3. Did everyone understand what he or she was supposed

to do? Explain?

4. How would you rate the group's work?
a. Very Good
Good
c. 0.x.
d. Not so good

Poor

(D

5. Give a reason for your rating.

 

164
DAY 5

This is it! The project will be due at the end of this hour. Tell
each group to decide on a symbol that represents them. They will
use the symbol for an activity that will take place while they are
finishing their project (instead of their names). The symbol
should only be known by members of their group. Explain that while
they are working you will be giV1ng them questions that they must
answer concerning problems they encounter on the island. Tell them
they will be graded on their responses.

As the hour progresses. have each group respond to 3 of the situ-
ations and put their answer (with their symbol on the card) into
the envelope. They will be disqualified if they look at the answers
that are in the envelope. When all groups have answered 3 questions.
Give each group an envelope. and have them rank the answers.

giving a 5 for the best answer. a 3 for second best answer. and a

2 for the third best answer. When this is done. have each evalu-
ating group read the question and the best response. After all
questions and best responses have been read. answers should be re—
turned to the groups that wrote them (based on the symbol). so that
scores can be totaled. The high score would receive an A. the next
score an A- or 8+ or B (depending on the way you choose to grade).
etc. Have groups hand in final project.

PROCESSING--Last 5 minutes...

Have all group members fill out Peer Evaluation Sheet.

 

165

These problem questions go with the activity on DAY 5 that is

concerned with decision-making. Cut out the strips and attach each

to an envelope .

om: GROUP MEMBER IS BULLYING some or THE OTHERS. HOW WOULD you
SOLVE THIS PROBLEM?

YOU DISCOVER LARGE GREEN WORMS ARE EATING THE VEGETATION ON THE
ISLAND. HOW ARE YOU GOING TO DEAL WITH THIS PROBLEM?

ONE MEMBER OF YOUR GROUP REFUSES TO DO THEIR SHARE OF THE WORK.
WHAT WILL YOU DO TO DEAL WITH THIS PROBLEM?

YOUR GROUP HAS CONSTRUCTED A RAFT SO THAT YOU CAN ATTEMPT TO LEAVE
THE ISLAND. THERE IS ONLY ENOUGH ROOM FOR HALF OF YOU TO LEAVE ON
THIS RAFT. HOW WILL YOU DECIDE WHO GOES AND WHO STAYS?

A MEMBER OF YOUR GROUP HAS WASHED THEIR CLOTHES IN THE SPRING.
WHAT WOULD YOU DO TO INSURE THAT THIS WOULD NOI‘ HAPPEN AGAIN?

SOMEONE IN YOUR GROUP HAS BEEN STEALING THE WHEAT. HOW WOULD YOU
FIND OUT WHO IT IS. AND WHAT WOULD YOU D) TO MAKE SURE THIS DOES

NOT HAPPEN AGA I N?

I."

166

PEER EVALUATION SHEET NAME

 

Answer the following questions conserning your group. You may not

use your name when answering these questions.
1. What person did the most work in your group?
2. What person did the second most work in your group?
3. What person did the most to make your group work well together?
4. If you could change anything about this assignment. what
would you change? Explain your answer...

5. What was your favorite part of this assignment?

6. If you could grade the other members of your group. what grade
would you give each of them. List the names of group members

and the grade you believe each of them deserves.

167

TEACHING MATERIALS PACKET

168
OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT

Administer Learning Styles Inventory and Attitudinal Survey

TREATMENT A (Cooperative Groups) TREATMENT B (INDIVIDUAL)

In this treatment students will In this treatment Students
complete all of the assignments will complete all of the
and prepare for tests in groups. assignments and prepare for

tests working alone.

DAY 1: UNIT PREVIEW
Assignment: Read the entire unit.

DAY 2. 3 & 4

Jigsaw Activity IndiVidual Worktime

Day 2: The teacher sets up Day 2: The teacher explains
groups/explains the assignment/ the assignment. Students
students begin work in "expert" work individually.

groups.

Day 3: Students continue in Day 3: Students continue to
"expert" groups. work alone on the unit,

Day 4: Students return to "home” requesting help from the
group for teaching and learning teacher when necessary.

from each other. Day 4: Same as previous day.

Assignment: Write answers to the Checking Up questions at the end of
each section of the unit. Checking Up answers must be in COMPLETE
SENTENCES. List the 10 MOST IMPORTANT FACTS for each section of the
Wilt .

DAY 5: PROJECT EXPLANATION AND WORKTIME
Assignment: Begin work on Application Project. Answer "What Have
You Learned?" section of Unit Review in COMPLETE SENTENCES.

DAY 6: LECTURE
Assignment: Notetaking and Workbook Pages.

DAY 7: MEDIA
Assignment: Notetaking and workbook pages.

DAY 8: REVIEW
Assignment: Complete all work for the unit. reView materials for
the exam. hand in Application Project.

DAY 9: UNIT TEST and ATTITUDlNAL SURVEY
Assignment: Hand in all work for the unit.

The treatments will be repeated twice with each group. All student
participants will be exposed to both treatments. (Example: Units 9
and 10-«Cooperative Groups and Units 11 and 12 Individual)

II.

III.

169
IDEALEILEZ' IAIEESESCJIJ EVCJIQP41XOF

TEACHER PRESENIA_ O 5 to 20 minutes

~—.. _.

 

Unit Preview. Lecture. Media. Explanation of Assignments.
Review of good work habits and how to use the book effec—
tively.

TREATMENT A ONLY: Preview PROCESSING that will be used
later that hour. remind students of characteristics of an

effective group.

Student Worktime 15 to 35 minutes

Students work alone or in groups on assignments.

it: ALL '33:

INDIVIDUALS may keep assignments until the end of the unit.
or hand them in as they complete them (this is up to the
teacher).

GROUPS keep all assignments in their folders until the end

of the unit.

 

Students should save all notes. so that they can prepare
for the tests.

CLOSING THE HOUR 5 to 15 minutes

This time is devoted to collecting materials. folders, or
assignments. Students should be reminded of what they
should have accomplished, and what will be occuring the

next day.

This is the time for GROUPS in TREATMENT A to do their
PROCESSING. Make sure enough time is allowed for responding
to the sheets. and reporting to the other group members,
This PROCESSING time helps students recognize that an
important part of this class is to make an effort to

improve their group's effectiveness.

170

[Ditar ‘1

IJIGXEEF‘ I?IZIE\I]EE390
Whenever the teacher is introducing new content to the class, it
is important that he/she leads students through the material that
will be studied. highlighting important information, while famil-
iarizing them with what will be studied. This is especially impor—
tant when the focus of the content is the textbook. Donald 0.
Schneider and Mary McGee Brown suggest that if students are to ef-
fectively use and understand textbook materials. instruction should
involve a Pre-Reading Phase (Assessing, Diagnosing, and Setting the
Stage). a Reading Phase (Guided Reading. Interaction. and Compre-
hension). and a Post-Reading Phase (Providing for Reinforcement.
and Application). As a pre-reading activity for the materials in
this study (Latin America and Canada). the teacher will use inspec-

tional reading. This technique requires the teacher and class to

 

skim and scan the units of study. examining main headings. subhead—
ings. pictures. maps. charts. graphs. and answering questions.

"As with any other aspect of teaching. the development of an in—
structional strategy for helping students make effective use of
their textbooks is likely to pay dividends in learning outcomes."
(page 9. taken from "Helping Students Study and UnderStand Their
Social Studies Textbooks" by Donald 0. Schneider and Mary Jo McGee
Brown. in ImprOVing the Use of Social_§tudies Textbooks. BulletigEfis

William E. Patton. NCSS. Washington D.C. 1980. pp. 9-20)

 

 

171

LJTQIETF IDPREE\IJIEEVJ

Unit 9 The Andean Highlands

Read orally title and caption pg. 210 briefly discuss objectives.
the climate and landforms of the Andean Highlands region

the region's two major cultural groups of people

agriculture. mining. and tourism in this region

LOOK at map (pg. 213). locating all four regions. noting especially ;h
the Andean Highlands. 2
Pp. 214—217 1F}{EE Izrscsi:c>r1 2%

Note 3 vocabulary words (214). map of region (214). chart of World's

tallest maountains and picture of mountain (215). identify the 6

 

 

countries that have land in the Andean Highlands (216~217. Colombia. ‘i

 

Ecuador, Peru. Bolivia. Chile & Argentina). and have students skim in
for conteXt definitions for HEADWATERS. LANDLOCKED 8 ALTIPLANO.
Pp. 218-220 1?}if: EDEE<>E=1sEE

Note 3 vocabulary words (218). graph (219). picture of Hacienda and
housing development (220). and have students skim for context
definitions for ILLITERACY & ADOBE (219). & MlGRATE (220).

Pp. 221-223 WHAT THE: PEOPLE: DO

NOte vocabulary words (221), bar graph (222). picture of copper
mine (223). and have students skim for context definitions for
ARABLE (221). PASTORIALISM (222) & SMELTERS (223). Read orally

the Unit 9 Summary (223).

ASSIGNMENT: Read the entire unit (PP. 210-223).

172

Unit 10 The Tropical Lowlands
Read orally title and caption pg. 226 briefly discuss objectives:

the characteristic features and variety within the TrOpical Lowlands

region
resources and challenges of the Amazon Basin
peeple and products of the Orinoco Basin and the Coastal Plains
PP. 228-232 THE AMAZON BASIN
Note 3 vocabulary words (228). map of region (228). The Tropical
Rain Cycle (229). Levels of Life in the Amazon Rain Forest (231).
pictures of the Amazon (230 8 232). and have students skim for
context definitions for LATIFUNDIA a. MINIFUNDIA (229). a. CANOPY
(230).

PP. 233-235 RESOURCES OF--~'-’THE AMAZON
EBZXESJEDJ
Note 2 vocabulary words (233). pictures (233. 234. 235). and have

students skim for context definitions for FLOODPLAIN (234) & HYDRO-
ELECTRIC POWER (235).

PP. 235-239 THE ORINOCO BASIN AND THE
C2C)!\E§1Fl\1. E31.Z§]ZPJES

Note 2 vocabulary words (236). pictures (237 3 239). Citizenship
Map (238). and have students skim for conteXt definitions for

LLANOS (236) & GASOHOL (237). Read orally the Unit 10 Summary (239).

Pp. 240-241 ESLJCBIKIRCZIXPJEE

Discuss map (240) and pictured steps in growing sugarcane (241).

ASSIGNMENT: Read the entire unit (pp. 226-241).

 

 

173

Unit 11 The Eastern Highlands

Read orally title and caption pg. 244 briefly discuss obiectives:

the two parts of the Eastern Highlands region

the people and resources of the region

the major industries of the region

Pp. 246-247 THE REGION

Note vocabulary word (246). map of region (247). picture (247).

and have students skim for context definition for MESA (246).

PP. 248-252 THE PEOPLE AND THE RESOURCES
Note vocabulary word (248). pictures (249.250.252). pie graph (251).
and have students skim for context definition for INDUSTRIALIZE (250).
Pp. 253-257 WHAT THE PEOPLE DO

Note vocabulary words (253). pictures (254.256). have students

skim for context definitions for FRONTIER (253) & INFLATION (256).
Read orally Unit 11 Summary (257).

PP. 258-259 CZCDI’IPIEIE
Discuss bar graph 3 picture (258) and the map (259).

ASSIGNMENT: Read the entire unit (Pp. 244-259).

174

Unit 12 The Subtropical Plains
Read orally title and caption pg.262 briefly discuss objectives:

the five land areas of the Subtropical Plains

the people living in the region
the recent history of Argentina. Uruguay and Paraguay
Pp. 264-267 TFIIEE IslerID

Note vocabulary words (264).
regions (264-267). pictures (264. 266 a 267).
skim for contexn definitions for DROUGHT (266) & TEXTILE MILL (266).

map of region (265). the names of the 5
and have students

Pg. 268-269 [JIQIJCBIJIKSZ

Briefly discuss bar graphs. pie graphs. and map of Uruguay.

Pp. 270-272 1PPIEE IDEEC>I31.EE

Note vocabulary words (270). pictures (270. 271 & 272). chart
(272). and have students skim for context definitions for LITERACY

RATE (272) 8 METROPOLITAN AREA (272).

273-275 THE HISTORY OF ARGENTINA,
LJIRIJCSLJZXSK IKPJI) EDZKIQIKCSIJZXSK

Note vocabulary words (273). pictures (273. 274 a 275). have stu-
dents skim for context definitions for EXILE (274). STRIKE (274),
CIVIL WAR (274). 8 COUP (275). Read orally Unit 12 Summary (275).

Pp.

ASSIGNMENT: Read the entire unit (pp. 262-275).

 

DI

Sh

Ur.

175

IDIXSF 23..:3..41 (Ljrffilfllkfirhdlfillqr 13:,

.JCECSESZKVJ IXCZ1TJTVVJT1TEV

4 or 5 members in each "home group"
"home groups" (the c00perative group they will be
us on

Students meet in

mrking in throughout Treatment A) and decide who will foc

which section of the unit. Students who have more ability may chose

a section that seems more difficult. and those who are absent often

should "double up" on the section they study.
THE ASSIGNMENT

Become- an e._p,e_1:i._o on the part_9_1__.the.i1_n_1_t__ entailed"
Unit 9 The Region (214-217)

The People (218*220)

What the People Do (221-223)
Unit 10 The Amazon Basin (228-232)
Resources of the Amazon BaSin (233-235)
The Orinoco Basin and the Coastal Plains (236-239)
The Region (246-247) 8 Maps and Graphs Tell the Story

of Coffee (258—259)
The People and the Resources (248—252)

 

Unit 11

What the People Do (253-257)

Unit 12 The Land (264~247)

A Map and Graphs Tell the Story of Uruguay {268—269) a

The People (270-272)

The History of Argentina. Uruguay.

Mahemsure_thatflyouwhaye_ complete well written_answeis to the

' at the_ end of yours segtioan). DeCide and

Checkinglle 311.128.1191.».
1.1.5.t_._thi-:-.1.Q.-MQ§T IMRQRLLA 31 115915” from you; se§.ti__g.nisl_.-__xg_u_shpu_ld

0 through the ,materjEL in your. see.t1_gn_anci__§iiere_eany

be-,_ahl_e-_t.o._ .g _.__ _. _-
1.111911011111911 you_ haze_e a_11§_,_w_1.§h__._ otheL_I,n_e_l_nD.e_r_s_-g.1: 10%.;th group"

and Paraguay (273-275)

 

:31”

EXPERT GROUPS

1199.111 1 1_- bgwiorhi 1.13.1.1; Uresentatives EACOMhELmSEgLffiorts
tg_dev.el.0p_.e1:p_ei t1.s_e,_in you; sumlfl... of. .the_11.n_i_t____13.;e_m_em_.ber. that
is_ counting_ on_ you to_ helpntnem_learn_§bout_xg_r
"Expert groups" must have a minimum of 3,
After working on assignments in "expert

' and teach each other

Lou.t:...'.'h_qme-_g_r9up'f-
sec; iqnls. 1-9.1, the. -9311 t .
and no more than 5 members.

. . v
grouns". students return to their ”home groups

the content from their section.

176

IAESESIECSIGIEIQCB ESTFIJIDIEIQTFES TFID CSIQCDLJEDES

Students were assigned to "home groups" by the researcher. Teach-
ers were asked to list students in their classes by ability. The
researcher used this list to develop teams that represented a cross—
section of the class in past performance, race or ethnicity, and sex.
Each team would include at least one high performer, two middle per-
formers. and at least one low performer. Teachers then examined

the "home groups" and recommended changes if serious personality
conflicts eXisted. Teams were heterogenous so that students could
tutor and learn from each other. and balanced so that no single

team had an advantage in academic performance. (taken from "Using

Student Team Learning" by R. E. Slavin. 1980. pp 16-17)

I?()I.I§E§ (DI? CEIQCDIJI? IGIEDdIBIQIiES

Recorder: This is a shared role by all group members. The recorder
is any person who writes down information that is assigned. taken as

notes. or enhances the chance of group success.

Checker‘: The checker is a very important group member. This person
is responsible for making sure that all work is being completed and
is handed in at the right place. at the right time.

The checker is also responsible for ensuring that all group members
know the material so that they can do as well as they possibly can on

the unit test.
In addition to helping on all assignments and parti-
the noise monitor is responsible for

controlling the noise level in the group. It is important to keep
the noise level down for several reasons. If your group is too loud
you might be giVing free information and answers to other groups.
The much talk. or loud talk can also interfere with the quality and

quantity of work a group completes.

Noise Monitor:
cipating in group activities.

The observer is a role that an individual in each group
will assume for DAY 6 and DAY 7. The observer's job is to watch the
group and fill out the Observer Recording Sheet. At the end of

the period the observer provides feedback on group functioning.

Observer:

IDIKSK 23 IDIQCDCZIEESESJEDUCS

GROUP Processing (Teacher Directed)
Have students think to themselves about how they would respond to

the following questions.

1. Did I contribute to my group today?

2 Did I help people focus on the assignment?
3. Was I an effeCtive listener to other group members?-
4 Did I look at the person who was speaking?
Did I ask questions of other group members?

U1

Was our group well organized?

0‘

177

1315\( :3 I?I?C)(2£SSSES:EIQ(3
GROUP ProceSSing Sheet

 

NAME-.- -_.-_ _..- _._._ .-_.._ ——

i. What one word would you use to describe how the group was today?

 

-.—_ .. --.-_ .-_. _..__. ___-__—.._..—_i

would describe the way you would like the group

. .é- _..-—— —.—.—

What one word

b)

to be?

.v—-—.

 

-.—.————-o ——.—.

 

.-—..p .-p-—

3. What will you do to improve the way you perform in the group

 

 

tomorrow? ,w _______,-__._________--_,-,-

 

.-— . ————-_—._.—._———--—mm———p__- -—.——.— -.——.-.¢

IDIXSI 41 I?TQCDCZIEESESZEIWCS
GROUP RATING

Scale I Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(low) (high)

1. There is trust and openness in the group. Members feel free

to say what they think. ____
2. Members of the group pay attention to what is being discussed.

_~1._~

3. The group

4. The group budgets its time wisely.
It does not skim over discussions just to get them

is well-organized. It gets things done.

a)

over with. ____

b) It does not spend too much time on irrelevant

(unimportant) discussion.
It does not spend too little time on relevant

 

c)
discussion. ____
Every member of the group has the opportunity and encouragement

to use his or her talents.
There is a sense of belonging in the group.._

7. The group is serious in its efforts. ,”__
There is respect for each individual's opinions in the group.

--——.—

The group does not give up when there is lack of participation

or disagreement within the group. ____

 

En

178

13183? 22,.23.111 {CWFIQEEIX1FDGIBIQ1P E3)

IEIWIDuE‘JCLIDIJiXIs OQCDIQICUFJEPJIQ

Students are to work alone on the following assignments.

 

 

m;_tbe_ Che.cking_.1m_gues_tiqnsi_and 1.1;; ten the 10 MOST IMPORTAHJ.‘
Makwremx-

 

E5515“: roiitlie- following ,sectithoLthe ma 1 t .
answers; .are___-el 1..er ttenend. _i__Ii_C_QM_E.11_E.7.l‘E_ MHCLL
Unit 9 The Region (214—217)
The People (218-220)
What the People Do (221-223)
Unit 10 The Amazon Basin (228-232)
Resources of the Amazon Basin (233-235)
The Orinoco Bassn and the Coastal Plains (236»239) i

Unit 11 The Region (246~247)
Maps and Graphs Tell the Story of Coffee (258-259)

The People and the Resources (248-252)

What the People Do (253-257)
Unit 12 The Land (264-267)

A Map and Graphs Tell the Story of Uruguay (268-263)

The People (270-272)

The History of Argentina. Uruguay. and Paraguay (273—275)
At the concluSion of each class period. the teacher will describe
methods helpful in writing complete answers to questions. and locat~

Students will also be notified of where they

ing important fasts.
and encouraged to take work home

should be concerning assignments.

if they seem to be falling behind.

 

179

IDIXSI £5
ZKIDIDILCECZJ§CFTICDJQ IDIQCDLIIE(21F

Explain assignment. provide examples and suggestions.

Unit 9 The Andean Highlands

Create a MAP that represents the following information.
Countries. Capital Cities. Main Port Cities. surrounding
Countries and Bodies of Water. Landmarks. and the
ELEVATION of the Andes Countries. This map should be
NEAT. CLEAR. COMPLETE. and have a KEY.

Uhit 10 The Tropical Lowlands

Have students pretend they are writing advertisements trying to
persuade families to move to Venezuela. They should
write about the possible advantages. such as climate,
government. and availability of jobs.

Unit 11 The Eastern Highlands

Construct a CHART that includes information about the three most
important cities in Brazil. Brasilia. Sao Paulo. and
Rio de Janeiro. Place information you learn about each

city under the categories; History. Location. Advantages.

Resources. and Problems.

Unit 12 The Subtropical Plains

Have students use the APPENDIX to make graphs showing as much
information as possible about ethnic makeups of the
populations of Argentina, Uruguay. ParaguaY. Chile. and
Bolivia. Let them decide which types of graphs would

be appropriate.

 

 

.
I,..
‘I

no.

..
pp

.-
u:

“I

 

180

L.EBC11?LJP<EZ
Andes Highlands~--Uhit 9

The Andean Highlands region of South America is located along the
western (Pacific) Side of the continent.

Colombia. Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia. Chile, and Argentina are included
in this region.

Two cultures. European influence in cities/ Indians in rural areas.
Many subs is tence farmers.

Mining makes money/few jobs.

Problems-—Illiteracy, hunger, poverty.

Bodies of Indians adapted to high altitudes.
Large lungs~-lack of oxygen .

Hearts

 

Short arms and legs, small hands and feet 1
less strain on heart, less exposed to cold
Incas and Spanish restricted travel between lowlands and highlands.
(devastating effects of altitude change.)
Today. Indians perform incredible feats. work long hours in high

altitudes. a lowlander would need an oxygen tank.

Hacienda--se1f-sufficient. self-contained farm or ranch. huge,
best land in the area. Owned by the Spanish or their descendants.
Worked by local people for small plots of land. kept ignorant. de»
pendent, no reason to modernize.

Reforms of hacienda system in Bolivia and Chile.

Hardships facing the Indians
High altitudes/extreme cold requiring indians to wear

heavy clothing year round. Homes are adobe brick. grass roofs. No
electricity. central heating. running water. No wood. fuel is
Grass, reeds. or llama dung. Clothing made by hand. Style and
decoration of a hat identifies village of the wearer.

~ , “ . . . e_ _
Farm small plots, grow potatoes, corn. beans uSing primitive t oh

niques.

l8l

IDIKXI ES
1.!3C21PIJIQIE

Conducting a lecture can be an efficient method of dispensing lots
of information in a short period of time. This teaching approach
should be well-organized and effectively presented. "Lecturing may
be useful in teaching social studies to elementary school children
if it gives them interesting and useful information on a level

they can understand." (leaghing Elementary School Social Studies.

by J.B. Moffet, Little Brown and Co. Boston, Mass. 1977. pg. 229)

 

Teachers will be giving short (15 minute) lectures that provide i

background and supplementary information for each of the four units.
Students will be provided with notetaking sheets to help them focus
on the important content within the lectures.

Teachers will consider the following when preparing and conducting

the lecture segment of the research project.

 

Do not exceed time limit children are able to listen with

good comprehension.

Make sure children have some background on the content of the
lecture.

Begin by capturing attention and interest.

Make lecture interesting. concise and informative.

Plan some kind of follow-up activity.

Use media whenever possible.

Use the chalkboard (colored chalk). or an overhead to illus-
trate the main points of the lecture.

Check for signs of poor understanding during the lecture.
rephrase. elaborate. and clarify when necessary.

(taken from leaching Elementary‘SthQl_§QQl§l_§LQQl§§ by
Moffet)

The content or the lectures is taken from the Teacner's Edition of

the textDOok. Latin America--and--Canaua.

late

 

PIT

182
Notetaking Sheet-~THE ANDEAN HIGHLANDS-~Un1t 9 NAME_____

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Location ____________ __ __.,__ ._____-__~_ _____,____,____,___________,_,___-
Countries________ -.___ _. __,___-___..--,,_._______._ __.____ __
Problems 1) ”n._ _“__ , _d____I____“
2)______ __ _ _ _
3). _ _______ _________..__
The Hacienda_________ _ ,-___

 

 

INDIANS of the ANDES

Hardships__ __ ._ _

 

Bodiesuwguh , .___ ,__-_

 

Miscellaneous Information

 

 

LEAM ...

_ ,;‘.'.

 

183

Unit 10 The Tropical Lowlands

Made up of Amazon Basin. Orinoco Basin. and Coastal Plains

Mainly Amazon Basin in Brazil, although few people live there.

Amazon River-~carries more water than any Other river, 2nd long-

est in world (Nile is longer) 3.315 miles.

Rubber
Early explorers discovered Indians uSing a milky white liquid that
dripped from a tree for Shoes, bottles. balls. English named
rubber in 1770 (it rubbed out penCil marks). British took seeds
for rubber trees to Ceylon and flalaya. established plantations

in Central America a: other parts of South America. Today replaced

id
by SYntnetic rubber, developed during WWII.

Gasohol

blend of petroleum and alcohol used to run cars and machines.
Energy crisis in 1970"s made gasohol profitable.

Use for Brazilian sugar and manioc surplus, create jobs in agri—
culture. expand economy.

Some cars in Brazil run entirely on Alcohol but they do not sell

well.

Orinoco Basin and Coastal Plains small part of this region. where
most of population and economic activity. Population clusters at
transportation centers on rivers and coastlines. Orinoco-~cattle
and minerals. Coastal Plains-—farming. mining, fisning. ranching,

induatry.

Amazon Basin--wealth of natural resources. minerals. wood. land.
Vegetation. climate discourage development. Brazil is attempting
to tap these resources without upsetting the balance of nature.
Wet plain. low elevation. direCt sunlight~—tropical grOWth, low
POpulatlon except at river trading cities, Indians liVIng as an-

cestors lived.

a " "" -.’.".0f 11%;;

 

 

Nate

3853

Tie

184
Notetaking Sheet-~THE TROPICAL LOWLANDS--Unit 10 NAME

Description of the Region______ _.

__,_____‘__._,._

 

The Amazon River____

 

._..___._———__—u—

Rubber__

._‘—~_-- - _.—.--‘—————..———-- —.————._.——

 

 

Gasohol

 

—~-—-—.— M_'—.~— ._. _..—_. —— — ‘_._ ._..- _. -——-_.—._ -——.._.—_——..- .—.--___—._ .—.———_--._-_..

The Orinoco Basin and the Coastal P1ains__

_— —-—..- -—-————__
‘—
“.____.

The Amazon Basin___,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘ .
a"

o.-

~
\
u

"-\
tv'

l1

‘1

Ԥ

'-

V
1..

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185

Unit 11 The Eastern Highlands

Composed of two areas separated by the Tropical Lowlands. Elevations

1,500 to 3.000 feet.

Guiana Highlands——means "land surrounded by water” includes three
small countries (Guyana. Surinam. and French Guiana) and part of
Venezuela. ense tropical resources. untapped resources. and few

people. One of the worlds last frontiers. Poor transportation

Brazilian Highlands--ccntain most of Brazil's population. mixture
of ethnic backgrounds, religions. Catholicism main religion,
Protestants. Jews. other faiths enjoy religious freedom. Macumba
is a religion that combineghristian ty and African beliefs. (hyp—
notic states. magic. becoming possessed by good or eVil spirits.
Brazil major Agricultural and industrial force.

(Icoifffeeee

Rich soil, mild climate. hign eleVation makes Sao Paulo the coffee
center. Frosts have damaged crops several times. it takes 5 years
for a damaged tree to become productive again. Other countries have
increased coffee production. Farmers have been encourage to produce
other crops for export. (soybeans. sugarcane, tobacco. fruit).
agriculture could be modernized. Still number 1 in coffee and num

ber 2 in soybeans.

 

 

 

 

 

 

186
Notetaking Sheet—-THE EASTERN HIGHLANDS-«unit 11 NAME

--—.__-_.- _- —~._ ___._

Description of the Region,“

--‘_—-—

 

_-'_~_—-—-q --- »———-— .—_‘.._- .o—‘-__..._--___ - ..~

(nuana Highlands ”h_mumm____.__________lu_%_“hn__ .....
Meaning

Countries

Resources

Brazi 1 Jan Highlands__ _---..

. A__-._—_ — —-_..-.._-_.——— ._-_-.—_ .._._- ._—__ ....-

Form 1 at i on

Religion

Miscel l aneous Informal: ion

Coffee

Requirements for growing coffee

Problems facing coffee growers

Other crops

 

 

 

Unit 12 The Subtropical Plains

Steppes. forests. dry plains. rocky deserts, fertile river valleys.
Argentina. Paraguay. Uruguay. Most people descended from Europeans.
work in ranching. mining and industry.

All are in subtropics. all part of a plain. Very different in

climate and vegetation.

Gaucho--Argentine cowboy. admired. legendary figure. Fought
gallantly in war for independence. worked on ranches. slept under
the stars. Today some ranchhands stil

dd
nay wear gaucho clothing. however modern day customs show that

they are different from their ancestors.

Buenos Aires--modern buildings. taxis. subways. art gallerles. few

very old Structures at the city's centers.

Located on the Pampa and the Rio de la Plata. 1/3rd of Argentina's

population. portenos "port dwellers".

People are Indians. Mestizos. and descendants of Europeans.

Uruguay/Argentina--European Urban. high literacy rate

Paraguay/Chile--Mestizo
Bolivia-~Indian
Paraguay low literacy. most of population in capital--Asunc1on

Uruguay's Constitution-—mode1 for modern day democracy. Freedom of
Speech. religion. free medical care. education. protection Of human
rights. Military dictatorship in 1970, suppression of opp05ition

assassinations. torture by the

human rights violations (bombings.

government).

1800's. internal struggles since then.

Fr‘eeciom from Spain in the . .
icted human rights (espeCially in

Military governments with restr

Uruguay and Paraguay}-

 

 

 
  

 
 

991 J its-21"..
. --.‘ ‘24: angst-c: , ~

  

 

188

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Notetaking Sheet-—THE SUBTROPICAL PLAINS-~Unit 12 Name
Description__#_M______Wi__ a.“ -- -#Ms-—
1 .
2.
3.
4.
5.
Countries 1._“_._-z_,_ _
2 ____________ _~,-_,______gg,____ ___ 3. __
People_~ “___w ,__g _,._ __
Gaucher __ ‘_ _“_ ._-__._,___,_-_,.._- _ _____,_ __.__, _.
Buenos A1res____*,_-_u”_,_ .,__-.-____.__._.- ..
Uruguay's Constitution_“n",- .—

 

Miscel laneous Information _

'o

 

 

 

 

13153! (5 {a
GROUP Processing

189

'7 I?IQC)CIIEESSSJEIJC3
(Observer Recording Sheet;

Observer's NAME __

Write the names of group members who demonstrate the following.

Use tally marks next to their names if they demonstrate the behavior

more than once.

1.

to

(.J

Suggest how

the hour.
A. Did everyone talk? Explain

Questions for observers.

Show they are liscening.

to do something.

Ask someone for his or her ideas.

Answer these toward the end of

 

 

——.———-—————~—- _——-—.—-

B. Rank group members from those who contribUted the

the

 

lea5t*_ - _

 

everyone understand what he or she was supposed

Explain‘

 

 

 

would you rate the group's work today?

a.
b.
c.
d.

e.

E. Explain

VERY GOOD
Good

OK

not so good

poor
why you rated your group the way you did.

 

 

 

-.——_.._-——..

- _—_.~- -.— . _

 

 

 

 

'33?

E

190

IDIKHI '7
thEIDJIZX

Students will be exposed to audiovisual materials as an intro-

r units on Latin America.

(taken from AyalDSLLQQ:

R.B. Lewis.

ductory activity during each of the fou
Teachers will follow a three step procedure
tion; TechnologyL,Media_and,Methods. by J.w. Brown.
and F.F. Harcleroad, McGraw-Hill. N.Y. 1983. pp 69-70):

1. prepare yourself. prepare the environment. prepare
the class
2. use the item
3. follow up
gned to

Teachers should decide what objectives the item is desi

attain. preview the item. develop questions and actiVities related

to it. and make arrangements for the showing.

When introducing the AV materials to the class. the teacher should

and show how it relates to the unit being studied.
u expect them to

Give an overview.
"The students should have a clear idea of what yo
understand from a film or filmstrip." (leaching_§trategies_for

£D§_§2§l§l_5tudies. by J.A. Banks. Longman Inc. N.Y. 1985, pg. 234)

Teachers will provide students with a list of key questions to help

them focus while viewing the AV materials.
discuss major points in the media. how it

and evaluate the AV experience.

After Viewing. the co—

operative groups will
relates to the unit being studied.
The teacher will lead a similar discussion in the individual--

competitive treatment.
Possible Media:

South America: A Unit of Study
Films: Indians of the Andes; Amazon Family:

(filmstrips on The Land & The People)
Argentina. Paraguay and

Uruguay; Bolivia. Peru and Ecuador; Brazil; Chile and Argentina;

Highland Indians of Peru; Life in the Grass-
Miners of Bolivia: North Brazil;

Countries of the Andes;
lands; Life in the Hot Rainforest:
Peru: Filberto of the High Valley; R

Brazil; South American Andean Indians

ancheros and Gauchos; South
and Five Northern Countries.
Films used in the research study will be selected if available,
appropriate. and up-to-date. One media activity will be used with

each unit.

 

   

 
 

.. T‘
J- AOK—

‘ ' he: :94 '
‘. {lipuré‘t ;‘;._-,;.H. .L‘ ‘ ’01") “I “ .
39"“? '39!“ Odd: -‘

 

- mun—z.

        
 

I

  

19]

DGEEIDJCZX

 

Media Notetaking Sheet UNIT 9 Name

Country Cities People

Ecuador

Peru

Bolivia

Chile

Resources

 

———-— - -_ .

 

Central Highlands (Sierra)

Llamas

Farming

Problems

Products

Coastal Lowl ands

Climate
aocation
Problems

Products
What resources come from the Atacama desert?

- —

Rainforests

Climate
Transportation
Problems

Products fl .
What is unusual about Lake Titicaca?

 

~

 

-

Nhyido most people choose to live in the Andes Mountains?

 

 

 

 

 

192

b4IEIJJEI§

 

Notetaking Sheet Unit 10 The Amazon Basin Name“ __

Describe the QLIMTE. and the £fi¥$.I.JAL_..I-21V_JL£QISME_LVLI .

Take notes on SHELTEB- 495;. and TOOL§ of the peeple who live in
this region of South America.

List PRQDUCIS that people get from the Amazon Region.

What are three ways the river lS useful to these people?
1.

2.

 

 

 

 

193
h4£§l>JEZK

Notetaking Sheet Unit 11 The Eascern Highlands Name

 

Brazil The Area The Population

The Language

The North The Amazon River Basin
Population
Resources
Climate

The Northeast Coastal Lowlands Plateau
Climate Climate
Recife Problems 1
Sugar A .

3.

The East Population

Rio de Janeiro Sao Paulo

Favelas Coffee

Cariocas Paulistas

Tourism industry

Santos

The Interior Population

1960

Brasilia

The South Forests. Farms. & Ranches
Population

Ten facts about the Land, Cities, and People of Brazil...

1.

WWNO‘L’I-bL-JN

—e
O

 

-..";'
31A!
1112)

up)!

 

5'31

3

 

194

hdkSIDJLZX
Media Notetaking Sheet Unit 12 Name

 

Vocabulary (Define the follow1ng)

Campesino Favella

Land Reform Minimum Wage

 

 

———-—- ———~_.——- —— __ _ . -—.. _. _ .---

South America is a beautiful, fertile land with many resources.
There are also many problems. Give an example for each of the
problems mentioned in the filmstrip.

Problem #1 POVERTY--

Problem #2 POOR HEALTH CARE--

Problem #3 LACK OF EDUCATION--

Problem #4 RISING POPULATION--

Problem #5 WEAK ECONOMIES—-

—-
.——.—-

 

_.
_—--.——-~———-_ .— _— .. -

Three major forces are blamed by many for these problems. What
are these forces?

 

 

1 2 ____....____3——

on.-- _, -—
—-———.——_—_-.—..—_—._.—-.— -

Facts about South American Governments

 

 

“5|;
l.l‘u
J. ‘n
l
1 .
" I$

1
E - A .' sawfl'

 

195

IDZKSK £3
[JIQZE7F' I?IE\IZ[IEVQ

Teachers will conduct a review of the content for each of the four
units. This review will include a brief examination and discussion
of all assignments, leading students through the chapter noting
nmin headings, illustrations, maps and charts, a summary of vocab-
ulary words, important people, and important facts, and examples

of effective study skills.

Students will use time remaining in the hour to complete unfinished
assignments, or prepare for the unit test. Students in TREATMENT

A may chose to quiz each other, review together, read sections oral-
ly, or compare notes. Students in TREATMENT B may chose to reread
the chapter, review notes or other assignments?rfinish work that

is incomplete.

 

 

 

 

196

IJIKSK £3 E3F2CDCZIE£SESJEIUC;
PEER EVALUATION SHEET NAME

 

Answer the following questions concerning your group. You may no:

use your name wnen answering these questions.

 

1. What person did the most work in your group?
2. Who was the next best worker? ____”_w”__

3. What person did the most to help your group work together?

 

Who had the best ideas?
What was your favorite part of this assignment?___ ___

 

 

 

-— --___ -.__-.—

_—_—- — ---..—. ‘H— -—

6. If you were able to change anything about this assignment,

what would you cnange? (Explain your answer)

 

 

 

——-— ——_.—.-. . .—.———.—- __

7. If you could grade the other members of your group. what grade

would you give each of them. (A=Excellent. B=Good Job. C=Fair,

DzPoor) List the names of the other members of your group and

the grade you believe each person deserves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
 

m

i ’

..: 0M4 4'

I

a?» PI
2'3 :12 H

L ‘fi'd! ‘ I I:

 

 

 

197
£21£C2LJJEIEIEID IXESES:[<31¢DGIEIJUPES [Ibllfilf S)
Page 217 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 220 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 223 Checking Up 10 most important facts
APPLICATION PROJECT (MAP)
Unit 9 Review "What Have You Learned?"
workbook Pages 63. 63, 66, 67 a 68
Lecture Notes
Media Notes
Treatment A (Cooperative Groups) will require one copy of each
assignment and a copy of Lecture Notes and Media notes for each
person in the group. Groups will also have to hand in all PROCESSING
sheets.

Treatment B (Individual) will be required to hand in a copy of all
assignments and Notes listed above.

EQISCIIJJEIQIZI) ZXESESIECSIUBGIEDGTFES LIDIJTTP 1 C)

Page 232 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 235 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 239 Checking Up 10 most important facts

APPLICATION PROJECT (ADVERTISEMENT)
Wbrkbook Pages 69, 70, 71, 73 a 74
Lecture Notes

Media Notes

Treatment A (Cooperative Groups) will require on copy of eaChCh
assignment and a c0py of Lecture Notes and Media Notes for ea ‘ ‘_ ‘
Person in the group. Groups will also have to hand in all PROCESSING

sheets. . _
Treatment B (Individual) will be required to hand in a copy of all

assignments and Notes listed above.

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198

REQUIRED ASSIGNMENTS UNI'I‘ 1 1

Page 247 8. Page 259 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 252 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 257 Checking Up 10 mOSt important facts

APPL I CAT I ON PROJ ECT ( CHART )

Unit 11 Review "What have You Learned?"
Workbook Pages '75, '76, 77, 79 8. 80

Lecture Notes
Media Notes

Treatment A (Cooperative Groups) will require one copy of eacn
assignment and a copy of Lecture Notes and Media Notes for each
person in the group. Groups will also have to hand in all PROCESSING
sheets.

Treatment B (Individual) will be required to hand in a copy of all
assignments and NOtes listed above.

REQUIRED ASSIGNMENTS UNIT 12

Page 267 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 269 8. Page 2'12 Checking Up 10 most important facts
Page 275 Checking Up 10 most important facts

APPL I CAT I ON PROJECT ( GRAPHS )

Unit 12 Review "What Have You Learned?"
Workbook Pages 81, 83, 84, 85 8- 86

Lecture Notes
Media Notes

T ' s will require one copy of each
Peatment A (Cooperative Group ) for each

‘ ' ’ Notes
ass1gnment and a copy of Lecture Notes and Media . ’
person in the group. Groups will also have to hand in all PROCESSING

sheets. .
Treatment B (Individual) will be required to hand in a copy of all

assignments and Notes listed above.

 

 

 

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APPENDIX C

LEARNING STYLES INVENTORY (STUDENT AND TEACHER FORMS).
ACHIEVEMENT POSTTESTS. AND ATTITUDINAL SURVEY

 

 

 

 

 

PLEASE NOTE:

Copyrighted materials in this document
have not been filmed at the request of
the author. They are available for
consultation, however, in the author’s
university library.

These consist of pages:

Learning Styles Inventory . 199-202

 

 

 

 

 

University
Mic rofilms

International
300 N Zeeb Rd, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 (313) 761.4700

 

 

 

 

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199

LEARNING STYLES INVENTORY:
a measure 0! student prelorence [or instructional techniqm

by

JOSEPH 5 RENZULLI LINDA H SMITH

TEACHER FORM

 

FIRST NAME

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DIRECTIONS
Deuce how ollen v0u have sxudems part-Clbaling in each class activlly listed below

Danie" A II II l5 v:ry lnlroguonlly.‘

 

 

 

 

 

DaI-en n8 IIIS orinlroque
Dav-e"C‘ I quuonlllyy-norinlroquonlly.
Da'he'u D ‘ -I rs "rather Iroquo nll
Damien E I :. smy Inquonly
k
1 Have 51; aeni 5 ~; a'e 91:9'15 Cnaloaic 2 'L T I .” 1C ”a“? 5' Me Is discuss class malena: 3 | 2' E F
DIESD'H Inev- ned as: I'It: c ass ‘ ‘ L ‘ “”m 3 gm”: 0' may ““5"“ U " " "
2 Sen nc com— ' (e :' S‘use’vls In the I I, ' ' T 1' Explain newinlormanontothe Class 2 3 'c' E I
Ilbl'asltloob .: ";""4' r r ‘ ' “ u .. .., _
3 Haxe my“ My ea :1. _ ,5” .. a'v- I 7. ’ _" ‘ ‘2 Have 2 :‘ass a scussvo’ c- a 1001: you 1' I. C ?
naIIna‘Ine. a-e ‘ "an: 3 “ . '1' u we: ‘ ‘ SUQG‘E' ” " ' '
let;
I Have static-its 51:. car-tr. r.-."I“r.av' : I 'I' .' fl ‘3 Have “USN” "N“ 0" "‘POWI "'3 9'94 2‘ = 7 t :-
newin-m-v-ec . ~ ~ ~ - pare mate'vaitc Denvesemecm In e:-ass “ “ “ ~
7 V a I u . I F ’
5 Assoc' anane'I: elect-55' "'£-'?e~r‘"': ' ' I n ‘4 Ha“— 5.1-09mg ‘eam ano Ia he d5” r ‘ T ' D '
_ ., .. . asm os.;-v ;otthe De: lavaho; so'lnoe " ' ‘ ‘
.. .. .- ,.. _ penaence b» act. .n; It Out In :a
6 Hawsmaerm'a r'cv: 's!’a""-. .- ‘ ' ’~ ' I
“on”: a}; a "H; d V‘ """
u I . ~r-. _: V ASK 'heras saueshonsonac‘n naIMs A I I: ' r
7 .’ r» - - BESIC'IPC" no sItdIec " “ ' "
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"JCT”S raie'e ad " " "
e .9. 7 ' ’ f ' '7 Ha.- n 5 Jews war: so not» n oicei 1c 1' l ? .7 I
~ - ~ ~ lea'"a as: Isame v u - .
'6 Have: ode-.tsustenicme- -:easo‘ may 5 'i E ' I
9 m. (5. "w: M | r, , ‘7. ::~ .7 sun r~:.~c.r~m classaiscuss-onciucm " “ " ~
. - . - - . .
.,— ,.. .. _. .. . ' ‘ ‘ “ ..
w Lany -.. .- haWEC‘JE SJD'CIIIQIQcatua‘WOZS [:22:
t, r a, “g a game Seth as PassnoI. - “ V v ..

Copyright if 1978 by CreaIive Learning Press

 

 

 

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23.

24.

27.

28.

31.

37.

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3n.- tC— 5c: ‘9 'ht‘i . ‘49

i the, lead

cw: side:

Std“: 3 :IJ'I
Hate smoenb no“ 'C’JCV'e’ on a were“
:Iiat yOu 50999“

P'ese It to the class all bacnground fila-
matior. 3". a l‘Ew loom

Hate Stufic"!i teacr‘ eath other atou
things they do espeCIall, well

Give assumenls wtiei-J students It'? i-
the "US$419 «arc to complete sentences

Ask quesihgns and have students give 3"-
swers out Out!

Have Students discuss Issues on whicn
classmates disagree

Have students work together to develop
protects related to topics they are studying

Have students play the role or a memoe'
ot a campaign team competing with an-
other team to win votes tor their candidate.

Give specific instructions on how to do
things

Have students go 0" on their own to study
a subiect of their Choice.

Give assignments where students tind
but atter each question whether their an-
swers are correct

Have students share their ideas with
other students during class discussion ol
some IODIC.

Have students learn new intormation Or
how to solve a problem trom another stu-
dent in the class.

Have a guest speaker talk about a subiect
being studied in class.

Have students go over homework assign-
ments with classmates.

Have students do research in the library
tor papers they want to write.

Have students in the same grade work to-
gether to renew material tor a test.

Have a class drill where y0u ask tor spe~
cltic intorrnation trom members or the
c ass.

Give assignments that have many ques-
tions but ones that students are likely to
get right

Teach about possible careers by hairing
students play the roles at job counselors
and job applicants.

Have students listen to classmates give
their opinions on a subiect.

Make it clear what you expect trom the
class.

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A a Very intrequently
I 8 Rather intrequently
C 3 Neither trequentiy nor intnquentty .

g - Rather IMWMIY

E .- Very trequentlv

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new new government works by haying
studerts play the role of ollicials who
must deal with a crISIs Situation.

Have students take notes as you talk to
the class

Have students use tlash cards to practice
what they have learned.

Have students talk with classmates about
topics in which they are interested.

grave students work in committees to
repare lessons that will be

the class presented to
Call on individual students to recite intor-
mation such as multiplication tables or
the names or past presidents oi the United
States

Have students work together to plan and
complete a protect.

Present a lesson to the entire class.

Have a spelling bee where one team tries
to out-spell another team.

Hairs students work independently on
protects they select to pursue.

HIV! attract!!! work in committees IO 9'.-
pare written reports.

Have students work I ther on school.
work in the back at yowclassroorn.

Call on individual students he
answer questions. by me ‘0
Present intormation to the class.

Have contests to see which team can -
rectly answer the most questions ab‘tzsuo't
topics being studied in class.

Have students work by themselves to
loot intormation on topics or interested-

Lead a discussion on a new topic.
Have students talk
. I. over Ideas about a

Test students out
M” bum. loud to see what they

Preasrnyariouspointsotviawonaauuact,

Have students work on their
gas. reports that will be shamwttgi tn:

Hatreapeneldlsc i
c .'grononhowtosom

OOIO

Have students
tomatlon on a

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201

LEARNING STYLES INVENTORY:

a measure of student

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(nuowuux-qa.il OKOB-ni-a bx>ul BIZ °—~n~

DeClde how yOu teel about participating in each class aetivity listed below.

Darken A it it is very unpleasant.

Darken s it it is rather un leasant.
Darken C it It is Mlthor
Darken D it it is rather

Darkeh E if it is VON pleasant.

p easant nor unpleasant.
pleasant.

 

Havmg other students who are experts on a
topic present their Ideas to the class

Gomg to the library with a committee to
lOOk up information

Havmg a friend help you learn material yOu
are lindlng ditticult to understand

Studying on yOur own to learn new inlorma-
tion.

Being a member at a panel that is discuss
ing Current events

Planning a protect yOu wit: work on b)
yoursel

Working on assignments where the dues-
tions are arranged in an order that helps y0u
get them right.

Playing a board game that helps you prac»

tice one ot your schOOl subiects (An exam»
le or a “bee rd game" is Scrabble ov
onopoly.)

Working with other students on a menu
with little he.p trom the teacher.

Cogyright

U) (’3 C), 03 O) D) 0'!

C)

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DisCussing ctass material with a group or
Other students

tHearing the leacner explain new intorma.
IO".

Hatiing a class discussion on a to ic su -
gested by the teacher p 9

Working on your Own to prepare material
VOU will present to the class.

Learning ab0ut an event such as the signing
at the Declaration ol Independence by aet-
ing it but in class.

Hatiing the teacher ask the class questions
on work that was assigned to be studied

Answering Questions in writing on material
that yOu have iusl read

Reading a book in order to learn all
some IODIC. mm

Hearing the ideas of other students during
class discussion at some topic.

Practicmg vocabulary words b l
game such as Passtr y p aying .

1978 by Creative Learning Press

 

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20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26

27.

28

29

30

31.

32

33

35.

36

37.

38

39.

40

41.

42

 

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Being owned by the teacher to see it you
understand a Story you read

WOrking with other students on a protect
the teacher suggests

Learning new things by havmg the teacher
present ali the information

Having a classmate teach you how to do
something he or She does espeCiai‘iy wei.

Working on aSSignments where you fill in
the missing word to complete a sentence

Giving answers but l0ud to Questions asked
by the teacher

Discussmg an issue because you disagree
with what anothe' student has said

Working With other students to plan a pro-
tect aDOul a topic you are Studying

Learning about the eiection process by
plavng the role of a membe' o‘ a campaign
team comcetih; wit?” af‘tOthe' team to Wm
votes for you candioa'e

Havmg the teacne- give specrfic msrruc-
tinhs on thA‘ tri rfn th "C5

Gem 0“ on yOu' ow" to study a subject
yoi; choose

Deing assignments where you can find out
after eacn oueStion whether your answer is
correCt

Sharing ideas with othe' Students during
Class discussion of some too:

Learning nevi infcrmaiion or learning how
to solve a propiem frcrr another student in
yOu' ctass

Hearing 3 guest speaker ta'lr about a Sub-
]931 yOu are Stuoyiog in class

Meeting with a classmate to go over
homework assignments

Doing. research in the ibrary tor a paoe' you
want to write

Havrng a student in your grade work with
y0u to review material for a test

PartiCipating in a class drill where the
teacher asks ior specific iniormation from
members of the class.

Working on assignments that have many
Questions but ones that you are likely to get
right

Learning about possmle careers by playing
the roie o‘ a iob counselor and mien/revving
other students who are acting as lob ap~
plicants,

Listening to classmates give their oplmons
On a subiect

Haylng the teacher make clear what is ex-
Decreo of the class

 

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43.

44.

45,

46.

47.

48

49

51.

52

53.

55.

57.

59

61.

62.

63.

65.

nplea|sant ‘
r unp easan
Neither pleasant nor unpleasant
Rather pleasant
Very pleasant

Learning how government works by playing
the rote of an official who must deal with a
CrlSlS Situation.

Taking notes as the teacher talks to the
class

Playing a game usmg tIaSh cards in order to
practice what y0u have learned.

Talking with others in your class about a
topic of interest.

Working with a committee to prepare a
lesson to present to the class.

Having the teaCher call on indiVidual
students to mate such things as multiplica.
tion tables or the names of past presidents
of the United States.

Working with other students in planning
and completing 3 protect.

Listening as the teacher presents a lesson.

Having a spelling bee where your team is
trying to out-spell another team.

Working independently On a protect you
Choose yOurself.

Preparing a written report with a committee.

Working in the back of yOur classroom with
another student who is helping you with
schoolwork.

HaVing the teacher call on individual
students by name to answer questions.

Hearing the teacher present information to
the class.

Having a contest to see if your team can
correctly answer the most Questions about
a topic you are studying in class.

Working by oursell to collect information
On a topic 0 interest.

Having the teacher lead a discussion on a
new topic.

Hearing students talk over ideas about a
subiect.

Having the teacher test you out loud to see
what you have learned.

Listenin to the teacher present variOus
points 0 view on a subiect.

Working on your own to prepare a report
you will share With y0ur class.

Being a member of a panel that dissusses
how to solve classroom problems.

Gomg to the library by yourself to find more
ihlormation about a topic.

(D) ()3 (’3 CF)

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203 _*flflfl,fl,c.sws—flv*"'*"”'
'NAME_,.

UNIT 9 TEST
ons 1—5-

USe the QBAEE below to answer questi

lghland Countries
Millions ot U.S. Dollars
an a» rat 1a”

Major Exports ol the Andean H
1250 1500

 

0

Colombia

Collee
Textllos

 

0"

Ecuador
Bananas

 

Minerals and metals

Peru
Fish and fish product.

 

‘rln
Crude oil

—
Chile “’9"
Paper and pulp I

Bolivia

 

 

 

 

Argentina Grain and cereals

Meat and meat products

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. What kind of graph is this?

3' line D. dot

2. Chile's most important export is--

A. coffee. C. tin
3' 011° D. copper.

3. Which product
. exported by an Andean Highland count
hlghest value in U.S. dollars? rv has the

2' t§XtileS C. capper
- t1“ D. coffee

4. The Andean country for which two minerals are major exports is-—

A. Colombia C. Bolivia

B. Argentina D. Chile

5- Which is the best estimate of the value of Argentina's meat
and meat products exports in U.S. dollars?

~ 00
A. 250,000,000 c. 7so,ooo,o
B. 500,000,000 9. 900,000,000 ,N. --M #

____.-——-—’-_-
hat is landlocked 15——

~-___._———
_._ ——_——’.‘_

_ _'—-._—-—— -'-—

 

fins—.—
.-.-——.--.- _--.-,-

- t
6. The only country in the Andean nghlands

c. Argentina.

A. Peru. D. Ecuador. .
B. Bolivia. . b.»

 

  
 
         

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10.

11.

12.

13.

204

e that the Andes are

What evidence do geologists hav

young mountains?

requent earthquakeed ks
re tall with round pea .

5 tell of times before the mountains.
Hemisphere are young.

5 and many volcanoes-

A. There are f
B. The Andes a
C. Ancient Indian storie
D. All mountains in the Western

The climate of the Andean Highlands is-—

A. hot. because the Andes are near the equator.

B. hot or cold, depending on the season.
c. cool, because of the elevation and the Peru Current.

D. very cool in the eastern part. and very warm in the
western part.

Why do Indians of the Andes often have large families?

A. Because food is abundant.
g. #:rge families mean more workers.
. e government gives financial su
. _ . . pport to large f ' '
D Families with more than 5 children get extra farmlgndles.

m 1

A. Buil '
B. The zigzag; Egetizegg. rocky Bacific coastline is difficult
C. Transportatio . un ains is more beautiful. .
n is ea51er in the '
D. The mountain valleys.
elevated areas offer a cooler. more comfortable climate

What is illiteracy?

A. the inability to read or write
B. the stage before starvation

C. the inability to hear or speak
D. the lack of money

No -

Neig of the people in the Andes countries work in agriculture.

gr rtheless, mining, oil wells. and the sea provide the
eatest share of income for each country. How can this be

explained?

9 conditions encourage farming.
ugh food to survive.

products are above average.

0 train people to farm.

A. Fertile land and good growin
B. Most farmers grow barely eno
C. Prices and profits for food

D. It is easier for the government t

rent flowing from the

s of Chile and Peru.

The Peru Current is a cold water cur
hese countries

Ant«’fil‘Ctic region along the coastline
What impact would occur on the climate ofvt
1f this current originated at the equator-

A. The climate would
B. The climate would be dry a
C. The climate would be warmer-

D. There would be no difference- ' AeLJ

ta

  
   
 

 

  

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known- 22.545 n. (6,872 m)
Use the IA BLE V“ "W
to answer 7mg”) Amman-cull. 22.31011. (5.300 m)
questions 1 4-1 6 .
. Emu Mom Blane France 15.771 n. (4.007 m)
14 . Host of the m Em Nepal-Chm- 29.028 a. (8.648 m)
wor d's tallest m mm
. T
mountains are in (He-m?» .3213, 19.340 "' (5395 m)
which continent? -
Nam Amelloe McKmley Unlted States 20.320 ll. (6.194 m)
A. Asia C. North America
B. South America D. Africa
15. What is the name of the tallest mountain in the
Western Hemisphere?
A. Everest C. 0105 del Salado
B. Mckinley D. Aconcagua
16. Which two mountains are the nearest to being the same elevation?
A. 0505 del Salado and Bonete C. Tupungato and Bonete
B. Kilimanjaro and McKinley D. Alconcagua and Tupungato
17. Adobe. which is important to highland Indians. is a--
A. a kind of hut. C. building material.
B. crop of the Andes. D. tool used for farming.
18. Titicaca is the name of South America's--
A. steepest plateau. C. largest lake.
B. highest city. D. broadest plain.
19. Which of these tools would most likely be used by
Indians of the Andean Highlands?
A. a saw C. a bow and arrow
B. a machete 0- a hoe
20. Mineral wealth is good for the economy of a country. What is

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a disadvantage facing a country with an economy based mainly
on mineral resources?

A. When the minerals are gone. the mines must close.
Producing too much of a mineral can raise the price.
Minerals are often replaced by manmade materials.-
Training mine workers can be difficult and expenSive.

one

 

 

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206
UNIT 10 TEST
NAME

-——-—— --—_——_— -u -. ..... - —-_— . .

Use the 5A2 to answer
questions 1-4.

1. The map shows—- ' c2flrt:

   

A. the four major regions of
South America.

B. the location of the
Tropical Lowlands.

C. the location of the
Andean Highlands.

D. the two major regions of
Latin America.

. Tropical
Lowlands

2. The Tropical Lowlands region extends as far south as the--

A. equator. C. Orinoco Basin.
B. Amazon Basin. D. Tropic of Capricorn.

3. What is the largest area of the Tropical Lowlands?

A. the lowland around Lake Maracaibo
B. the Orinoco Basin

C. the Coastal Plains

D. the Amazon Basin

4. Which statement best describes the location of the
Tropical Lowlands region?

A. It covers the entire northern coast of South America.
B. It covers much of the southern half of South America.

including the coastline. .
C. It covers the northwest corner of South America.

D. It covers much of the northern half of South America.
including the coastline.

 

“up—

5. What two factors make the Tropical Lowlands one geographical
region?

A. low elevation and a tropical climate
8. mountains and rain forests

C. humidity and lack of farmland

D. the Amazon River and Lake Maracaibo

5. During the early afternoon. it usually rains in the Tropics.
This occurs because——

A. winds blowing over the Peru Current cool the warm air.

causing rain to fall.
B. there are frequent hur .
C. warm. moist air rises in the morning. cools.

as rain in the afternoon. .
D. the Tropics are a warm. wet. swampy. lowland region.

ricanes in this part of the world.
and falls

 

 

 

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207

7. Which statement best describes the Amazon Basin?

A.
B.

C.

D.

It is a highland region where the Amazon River begins.
It is the lowland region around the Amazon River and
its tributaries.

It is the area where the Amazon River cuts through the
Andes Mountains. '

It is a large body of water.

8. Plants and animals are plentiful in the Amazon area. However.
few people live there. Why is this so?

A.
B.
C.

D.

9. The

A.
B.
C.
D.

10. WhY

Humans choose to live in areas that have many natural
resources. the Amazon area has little of value.

The danger of attack from animals discourages humans from
living in the Amazon area.

The government limits the number of humans allowed in this
area. so that animals and plants will not be threatened.
The hot, humid climate and poor farming conditions make
life difficult for humans.

headwaters of a river are--

the beginnings of a river.
the direction opposite the river's flow.

the mouth of the river.
the deepest part of the waterway.

do most Blacks liv1ng in South America. live in the

Tropical Lowlands region?

A.
B.

C.

D.

11. How

The best paying jobs are located in the Tropical Lowlands.
Racism and discrimination discourages Blacks from moving
from the Tropical Lowlands to the cities.

Their ancestors were slaves who worked the sugar

plantations of the Tropical Lowlands.
When Blacks first came to South America. they chose to

live in areas most like their homeland. Africa.

does a "minifundia" differ from a "latifundia"?

A minifundia is a--

U0 U)

12. "Slash and Burn" agriculture
region.

:10er

part of a latifundia used for grazing animals.
small subsistence farm and a latifundia is a large

plantation or ranch. .
part of a latifundia used for growing crops. '
mountain ranch and a latifundia is a large plantation.

is used by Indians in the Amazon
A problem with this farming technique is that it-~

leaves a layer of ash on the surface of the soil.
is dangerous, leading to many forest fires.

is hard to start fires in the wet, swampy Jungle.
uses up the nutrients in the soil.

 

 

 
 
   
   

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208

Per questions 13-16. read the quotation and tell if the speaker--

A. lives in an urban area in the Tropical Lowlands.
B. lives in an urban area in the Andes Highlands.
C. lives in a rural area in the Tropical Lowlands.
D. lives in a rural area in the Andes Highlands.

13. "Poverty and hunger are my constant companions. I work hard
growing barely enough beans. corn. and potatoes to survive.
I am exhausted by day's end when I return to my adobe house."

14. "We are fortunate to be surrounded by valuable natural
resources. Many people bring products here and the river
acts as a highway for transporting forest materials. mineral
resources. and foods."

15. "Few people come in contact with our village. When a trader
visits we exchange skins. rubber. Brazil nuts. wood. and
plants for steel tools. These tools help in clearing the
areas we use for farming."

16. "I thought that life would improve when I came here. It is no
better. and possibly even worse. I live in a crowded.
unhealthy slum, without work, and I barely have enough food
to survive."

 

* —— —-..-—-——— --—-.—————--_—._-
_—.—-——.- -- - . - -

17. The five levels of life in the Amazon rain forest are the
river, the forest floor. the shrub. in the trees. and-—

A. the sea level. C. the forest level.
B. atop the highest trees. D. atop the mountains.

18. Hydroelectric power is electricity produced by the power of——

A. strong winds. C. rushing water.
B. the sun. D. petroleum.

19. Two important resources of the Amazon Basin are--

A. petroleum and gold. C. sugar and coffee.
B. bauxite and sugar. D. cattle and petroleum.

20. Some companies hope to help satisfy world food needs b --

growing fruit trees in the rain forest.
fishing in the Amazon River.

cattle ranching in the rain forest. .
growing rice on the Amazon 5 floodplains.

Until)

 

 

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209
UNIT 11 TEST

 

 

NAME .___-

Use the aim to 3.3% and"! Expom 2 3%

answer questions 1—5. sex.” "d 5.1-498'“!
Mme

1. The graph shows the exports of-- q 5:3:

A. the Eastern Highlands.
B. Latin America.

C. Brazil.

D. Mexico.

    

6.4%

T'lfispoflation
NMWmm

 

    
 

2. Just over 15 percent of Brazil's
exports are made up of—-

A. cocoa. C. shoes.
8. machines. D. coffee.

Machinery

 
 

3. Vegetable oil products make up what
percent of Brazil's exports?

A. 29.3 B. 15.3 C. 11.4 D. 9.5

4. Two categories on the graph that total just under 18 percent
of Brazil's exports are—-

. iron ore and machinery.

machinery and coffee.

vegetable oil products.

. coffee and transportation equipment.

U15U13

5. Any product that makes up less than 2.3 percent of Brazil's
exports is put into the category "other". What percent of
Brazil's exports does this category make up?

A. 2.3 B. 5.0 C. 15.3 D. 29.3

 

 

6. Between the two parts of the Eastern Highlands lie the—-

A. Andean Highlands. C. Subtropical Plains.
B. Tropical Lowlands. D. Eastern Lowlands.

7. Few people live in the Guiana Highlands. Most of Brazil's
population lives in the Brazilian Highlands. How could these

two similar areas have developed so differently?

A. Portugal encouraged colonization while other European

countries did not. . . ‘ ' d
B. More people live in Brazil than in Surinam. Guyana. an

French Guiana combined. . d
C. The Brazilian Highlands have more natural resources an

are along the Atlantic coast.
D. The Brazilian Highlands are a much larger area.

 

 

 

 

210

Questions 8-11

The three most important cities in Brazil are Brasilia. Sao Paulo.
and Rio de Janiero. Imagine that you are a Brazilian leader in
charge of improving these cities. Which city would benefit from
the following policies?

8.

10.

11.

Create and enforce anti-pollution laws so that the quality
of air and water can be improved.

A. Brasilia C. Sao Paulo
B. Rio de Janeiro D. none of these

Build low income housing. in efforts to eliminate the slums
on the hillsides.

A. Brasilia C. Sao Paulo
B. Rio de Janeiro D. none of these answers

Provide money for the improvement of a poor natural harbor.

A. Brasilia C. Sao Paulo
B. Rio de Janeiro D. none of these answers

Further improve transportation, so that this city becomes
less isolated. and the resources nearby are developed.

A. Brasilia C. Sao Paulo
B. Rio de Janeiro D. none of these answers

 

 

12.

13.

14.

15.

Brazilian farmers are moving to the cities because—-

A. poor soil and weather conditions make farming difficult.
B. the government will not give aid to farmers.

C. severe frosts regularly destroy crops. .
D. they seek better jobs in the expanding factories.

What is the fastest-growing industry in Brazil?

A. food processing C. car and truck manufacturing
B. steelmaking D. coal refining

A country with a high rate of inflation has—-

A. high demand for supplies. C. rapidly increasing prices.
B. growing industry. D. a high rate of employment.

Bauxite ore is made into--

A. iron. C. carnauba.
B. steel. D. aluminum.

 

     

 

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16. A landform with a flat top and steep sides is--

A. a savanna. C. an escarpment.
B. a mesa. C. a highland.

 

Use

17.

18.

19.

20.

 

 

 

—.-
¥

the table to answer questions 17-20.

Latin America's third largest
metropolitan area is--

A. Sao Paulo C. Los Angeles.
B. Buenos Aires. D. Santiago.

The metropolitan area with the
largest population on the list is--

A. Mexico City. C. Sao Paulo.
B. New York. D. Buenos Aires.

Largest Metropolitan Areas
in Latin America and the United States

 

 

 

Mummmun

area Population
Mexico City 13,994,000
830 Paulo 10.041.000
Buenos Aires 9.749.000
Rio de Janiero 8.329.000
Santiago 3.692.000
Uma :umimm
mama :iuadm
New York 15,589,000
Los Angeles 9.478.000
Chicago 6.71 1.000

 

How many metropolitan areas in Latin America have larger
populations than the Los Angeles metropolitan area?

A. none C. two
B. one D. three

About how many more people live in the Chicago metropolitan
area than in the Santiago metropolitan area?

A. 1 million C. 5 million
B. 3 million D. 7 million

 

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212

UNIT 12

NAMEHN-_

Use the MAP to answer questions 1-3.
1. The map shows-—

A. the four major regions
of South America.

B. the location of the
Subtropical Plains.

C. the location of the
Eastern Highlands.

D. the two major regions of
South America.

 

2. The Subtropical Plains region extends from the
southern tip of South America northward~~

. to the equator.

. to the Central Valley.

just above the Tropic of Capricorn.
to the northern edge of the Pampa.

comp

3. Which statement best describes the location of the Subtropical
Plains region?

A. It covers much of the southern half of South america.
except for the Andes.

. It covers much of the northern half of South America.

except for the Andes.

It covers the entire southern coast of South America.

. It includes all of Chile. eno Argentina. and parts of

Uruguay and Paraguay.

DC In

4. Why do military leaders rule many Latin American countries?

A. The people elect strong leaders who will improve conditions.
B. Most of the people are uneducated and will not vote.

C. When problems become too great. military leaders take over.
D. Military leaders improve chances for freedom and justice.

5. Why did many people leave Europe to come to Uruguay
and Argentina?

A. They were exiled from their European countries.

B. They came to get an education. . ‘
C. They came to start businesses and work .n agriculture.

D. They came for freedom and a democratic government.

'6" Grain dies ano rivers dry up during"-

A. storms. C. earthquakes.
B . floods . D . droughts .

3 7:1: L‘ ‘

 

J . (can

”ff'mlfeih five; are.

 

 

213
Questions 7-10 .

Read the following quotations and identify the speaker.

7. "We have shown that democracy can work. Uruguay has the
highest standard of living in all of Latin America. The
civil war is over and we are united."

A. Jose Ordonez C. Juan Peron
B. Domingo Sarmiento D. Alfredo Stroessner

8. "To improve the economy we must follow these policies.
Eliminate all opposition. Control the press. Encourage
foreign investment. Paraguay can survive and prosper. even
without the support of the United States."

A. Jose Ordonez C. Juan Peron
B. Domingo Sarmiento D. Alfredo Stroessner

9. "I helped Argentina by raising wages, creating jobs. and
building schools and hospitals. and my thanks is exile from
the country. Now. you invite me to return and become your
leader again."

A. Jose Ordonez C. Juan Peron
B. Domingo Sarmiento D. Alfredo Stroessner

10. "I wish to thank you for this Nobel Prize. Writing. teaching,
and children are my life. My poems will live on after 1 die."

A. Gabriella Mistral C. Evita Peron
B. Isabel Peron D. Mary 0. Graham

 

 

—--—‘—.._ - -.__-.-_

11. Why are sheep ranches in Patagonia so large?

A. Sheep need open space and exercise to be healthy.

B. Wool and mutton are products people use.

C. Grass grows sparsely. requiring large grazing areas.
D. Large ranches provide more jobs for farm workers.

12. The Argentine Pampa is a--

A. prairie. C. rocky desert.
B. plateau. D. forest.

13. Lumbering and cattle raising are the two most important
ways of making a living in--

A. the Atacama Desert. C. the Gran Chaco.
B. Patagonia. D. the Pampa.

14. Which of the following is not found on the
Subtropical Plains?

C. a rocky desert

A. a prairie .
D. a mountain range

8. a river valley

 

  
     
     
      
  

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214
Use the GRAPH to answer questions 15-18.

 

 

. . Qt .’ao‘sb a l8WiM?§-3Atu.b» 1w.“-

 

15. What kind of graph this?

16.

17.

18.

19.

A.

B.

'\

D.

A bar graph that shows Uruguay's farming products that
will be sent to other countries.
A line graph that shows Uruguay's farming pludUCtS that
will be sent to Other countries.

t. A bar graph that shows what farm products Uruguay

receives from other countries.
A line graph that shows what farm products Uruguay
receives from other countries.

What is Uruguay's most important export?

A.
B.

Textile fibers C. Fish and fish products
Wool D. Meat and meat products

Which is the best estimate for the value of Uruguay's Cereal
and cereal products?

A.
B.

$50,000,000 c. $20,000,000
$60,000,000 D. $80,000,000

Which is the best estimate for the total value of Uruguay's
agricultural exports?

A.
B.

$7UO.UOU.UUO
$900.000.000

$300,000,000
$500,000,000

or»

What happens during a strike?

Uffitfip

The government is overthrown by a small group of people.
The leader of a country is forced to leaVe that country.
The government takes over large industry and plantations.

Workers stop working. in hopes of winning higher pay
and better conditions.

A Country's literacy rate tells what percent or the people--

A.
b.

do not have jobs. C. buy newspapers.
. . ., . 1
can read and write. 1). are gong to school.

 

 

215
ANSWER SHEET FINAL TEST FOR UNIT __w. SCORE __flfi

TEACHER'S NAME -i-mo- um- NAMEW

 

»— —-— -.—.--— - -._..a..

DIRECTIONS: BLACKEN OVER THE LETTER FOR THE BEST ANSWER. MAKE

SURE YOU ERASE MISTAKES COMPLETELY.

1. A B C D 10. A B C D
2. A B C D 11. A B C D
3 A B C D 12. A B C D
4. A B C D 13. A B C D
5. A B C D 14. A B C D
6 A B C D 15. A B C D
7 A B c D In A b v D
8 A B C D 17 A B C D
9 A B C D i8 A B C D

19. A B C D

20. A B C D

 

 

216
ATTITUDINAL SURVEY

 

Circle the BEST answer. NAME --~—

SA=StrOhgly Agree A=Agree TEACHER._HWmmm_H_"____"_-

D=Disagree SD=Strongly Disagree

1. I enjoy this class. SA A D SD

2. The other students in this class SA A D SD
do not like me.

3. I like the other students in SA A D SD
this class.

4. It is hard to do well in this SA A D SD
class.

5. It is important to me to do well SA A D SD
in this class.

6. Other students do not care how SA A D SD
well I do in this class '

7. Doing well in this class is SA A D SD
mostly luck. '

8. I am usually eager to go to SA A 0 SD
this class.

9. This class is a lot of fun. 5A A D SD

10. Almost all the students in this SA A D SD
class are friendly toward me.

11. I do not like some of the SA A D SD
students in this class.

12. I always have a good chance of SA A D SD
doing well in this class.

13. I do not care very much if I do SA A D SD
well or poorly in this class.

14. Other students want me to work SA A D SD

hard in this class.

15. If someone does well in this class, SA A D SD
it is because they worked hard.

16. 1 often give up too easily in SA A D so
this class.

17. I do not like this class. SA A D SD

18. Most of the students in this SA A D 59

class like me.

19. Some of the students in this SA A D SD
class are my best friends.

 

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SA=Strongly Agree AzAgree D=Disagree SD=Strongly Disagree

20. It seems that I cannot do well in SA A D SD

Y

this class no matter what i do.

21. Doing well in this class always SA A D
makes me happy.

22. Other students care whether I do SA A D so
well or not in this class.

--—-—_.

23. Studying does not help you very SA A D SD
much to do well in this class.

24. I only do the minimum work I SA A D so
need to get by in this class;
I never do extra work.

25. This class is one of the best SA A D so
I have ever had.

26. I feel left out of things in SA A D so
this class.

27. Some of the students in this SA A D so
class are not very friendly.

28. It is easy to do well in this SA A D so
class.

29. Doing well in this class is nfi; SA A D SD

very important to me.

30. Other students do not care if I SA A 0 SD
work hard or not in this class.

31. The only way you can do well in SA A D SD
this class is to work hard and

learn the material.

32. I become discouraged eaSily in SA A D so
this class.

33. I like the work in this class. SA A D SD

34. I get along well with the other SA A D so

students in this class.

35. I am not interested in what the SA A D SD

other students in this class do.

SD

:1
D

36. Students in this class want me SA
to come to class every day.

37. I like to start work on new SA A D SD
things in this class. '

 

 

              

 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adler. M. J. The Pgideia Proposal. New York: Macmillan. l984.

Alexander. N. M.. and Kealy. R. P. 'From Junior High School to Middle
School.“ In The Middle School: Selected Readings on an Emerging
School Progra . pp. l5-27. Edited by L. G. Romano. N. P.
Georgiady. and J. E. Heald. Chicago: Nelson Hall. l973.

Aronson. E.: Blaney. N.: Stephen. S.: Sykes. J.: and Snapp. M. The

Jigsaw Classroom. Beverly Hills. Calif.: Sage. l978.

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