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6 ///”

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF PARTICIPATION
IN TWO EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS IN PERU

By

Mirta de las Mercedes Ghiorzi

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Curriculum

1982

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF PARTICIPATION
IN TWO EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS IN PERU

By

Mirta de las Mercedes Ghiorzi.

A common issue in both Western and Eastern countries
and in more and less industrialized societies is the demand
for "participation" in adult education and work settings.
Such participation is believed to mitigate feelings of frus-
tration and powerlessness in the educatees and workers.

The present research has examined participative and
non-participative Evening Programs (Escuelas Vespertinas
y Nocturnas-EVN) Basic Labor Education Program (Educacion
Basica Laboral-EBL) in Peru. The relationship between
formal and informal participation has been explored, and
the attitudes, motivations, and personal values of the
educators/educatees analyzed in order to understand the
impact of Peru's Educational Reform Law. The conditions
under which participation works have also been identified
as have some of the problems encountered during the trans-
ition from a less participative to a more participative

program.

Mirta de las Mercedes Ghiorzi

The research design proposed by Arnold Tannenbaum to
the National Science Foundation was followed because (1)
Tannenbaum's work represents an invaluable resource on
participation and (2) the research was able to compare the
findings of this study with the work that Tannenbaum and
others have completed on participation in other countries.

Inasmuch as this research has focused on the adjustment
of participants in adult education programs, it has dealt
with questions of ideology, culture, and the political
system. Such questions have implications for planning and
implementing adult education programs.

In general, the study showed that the reality of EBL
programs is consistent with their declared policy, objec—
tives, and goals. This form of adult education enables
educatees to develop skills and capabilities that increase
their control over decision-making and to develop attitudes
that affect their willingness to change. The Tannenbaum
instrument was effective in measuring the level of partici-
pation in adult educational settings and may be of particu-
lar importance to nonformal education. Additional research
in other settings is needed to further validate this method

of assessing participatory adult programs.

COPYRIGHT BY

MIRTA de LAS MERCEDES GHIORZI

I982

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The researcher wishes to express her gratitude to the
InterAmerican Foundation for the fellowship which enabled her
to collect the data for this study. She also would like to
thank all of those in Peru who made this study meaningful
and who helped her to carry out the research.

The researcher is grateful to the members of her doc-
toral committee for their support and encouragement as she
finished this dissertation. They contributed to her profes-
sional and career development as well.

The support and helpfulness of Jim Fritz was invaluable
to completion of this study. Thanks are also due to
Dr. Arnold Tannenbaum who facilitated the adaptation of the
questionnaire so that it could be used in participative
educational settings. His assistance made a special contri-
bution to the researcher's professional growth in the field.

Finally, the researcher would like to especially thank
her advisor, Dr. Kenneth Neff, for guiding her research and
for his trust and faith in her during the time she has worked
in this study. And, thank you to her two sons who provided
the inspiration for making the present research a meaningful

reality.

ii

LIST OF

LIST OF

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES
FIGURES.

INTRODUCTION .

Purpose of the Study .

Definition of Terms.
Participation. . .
Nonformal Education.

Overview of the Study.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Need for Participation . .

Hypothesized Effects of Participation.
Problems Associated with Participation .
Impact of Formal and Nonformal
Participation .

THE RESEARCH DESIGN.

Hypotheses . . .
Selection of the Research Site .
Selection of the Sample.

The Research Instrument.
Analysis of the Data . . .
Limitations of the Study .

ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS .

Decision-Making and Control within Adult
Control . . .
Decision-Making. .
Interpersonal Relationships.
Control. .
Rewards and Punishments. . .
Classmate and Coordinator Control.

iii

Page

vii

\O (”\JO‘O‘UJ 0-4

16
24
28
29

34
41
43

46

46
46
54
56
59
68

Chapter Page

Bases of Power . . . . . . . . . 70
Hierarchical Relationships . . . . . . . 78
Attitudes Toward Advancement . . . . . 80
Perceived Advantages and Requirements

for Promotions . . . . . . . . . 85

Authority and Influence. . . . . . . . 91
The Learning Evnironment . . . . . . . . 96

Learning Opportunities . . . . 97

Physical Environment in EBL Classes. . 102
Recreation and Adjustment in Adult

Education Programs. . . . . . . . . 104

Satisfaction and Attitudes . . . . . . 108

Knowledge Satisfaction . . . . . . . . 112

Motivation . . . . . . . . . 118

Sense of Responsibility. . . . . . . . 121

Initiative . . . . . . . 123

Adjustment in Adult Programs . . . . . 125

Psychological Adjustment . . . . . . . 126

V. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
A. Permission Statement . . . . . . . . . . . 143
B. Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

iv

Table

10.

ll.

12.

LIST OF TABLES

Number and Percentage of EBL Respondents
by Years in Programs and Level in
Hierarchy.

Number of Participants in Adult Programs by
Region and Level in Hierarchy.

Number of EBL and EVN Respondents by
Region and Level in NEC Hierarchy.

Number of EBL and EVN Respondents by NBC
and Level in Hierarchy . . . . .

Summary Data on Educatees' Ratings of
Coordinators' "Participativeness"
and "Supportiveness"

Frequency and Rank of Different Types of
Rewards for Good Assignments as Per-
ceived by Authorities/Educators and
Educatees in EBL and EVN Programs.

Percentage of Respondents' Indicating
Different Types of Punishment
for Poor Assignments .

Summary Data on Respondents' Reactions
to Criticism by Coordinators and
Classmates

Educatee's Perceptions of Coordinators'
Bases of Power .

Coordinators' Perception of their Bases
of Power

Frequency and Rank of Respondents' Willing-
ness to Face Different Obstacles to
Advancement.

Summary Data of ReSpondents' Willingness to
Face Different Obstacles to Advancement.

Page

36

38

40

42

55

62

65

70

74

77

82

83

Tables
13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.
25.

Respondents' Perceptions of Opportunities
for Advancement. . .

Summary Data on Respondents' Perceptions
of Opportunities for Advancement .

Respondents' Perceptions of Advancement
Associated with Promotions

Respondents' Perceptions of Requirements
for Advancement in EBL and EVN Programs.

Respondents' Perceptions of Learning
Opportunities in EBL and EVN Programs.

Summary Data on Satisfaction with Adult
Programs, Knowledge, and Program
Learning . . .

Respondents' Confidence in Ministry of
Education and NEC Authorities and
Participation in Adult Programs.

Summary Data on Respondents' Confidence in
Ministry of Education and NEC Authorit-
ies and Participation in Adult Education

Summary Data of Respondents' Sense of
Responsibility for Different Program
Groups

Summary Data of Respondents' in Improving
Learning . . .

Psychological Adjustments in Adult
Education. . . . . . . .

Alienation.

Summary Data on Perception of Adjustment
and Alienation . . . . . .

vi

Page

86

86

88

90

100

109

119

120

122

124

128
131

131

Figure

10.
11.
12.
13.

14.

LIST OF FIGURES

Elements of Participation and their
Hypothesized Effects

Map of Educational Regions in Peru.

Authoritative and Participative Decision-
Making in EBL and EVN Programs

Actual and Ideal Participation in EBL and
EVN Programs . . . . . . . . . .

Discrepancies Between Actual and Ideal
Participation in EBL and EVN Programs.

Actual Distribution of Control in EBL and
EVN Programs . . . . . . . . . .

Ideal Distribution of Control in EBL and
EVN Programs . . . . . . . . .

Respondents' Reactions to Criticism by
Coordinators and Classmates.

Actual and Ideal Authority and Influence by
Position in Hierarchy. . . .

Ratings of EBL Class Environments
Program Satisfaction by Position in Hierarchy .
Knowledge Satisfaction by Position in Hierarchy

Attitudes Towards Program Leadership by
Position in Hierarchy. . .

Average Alienation Scores for Authorities,

Coordinators, and Educatees in EBL and
EVN Programs

vii

Page

32
35

48

52

53

58

60

71

94
105
110
113

117

132

Chapter I
INTRODUCTION

A principal characteristic of the last generation has
been the increasing gap between the rapid explosion of
technological advancements and efforts to assist individuals
in adapting to the new behavior patterns required by those
advancements. In other words, attitudes and values have
not kept pace with the evolution of behavior patterns that
enable technological innovation to be integrated into
societal development.

In Latin America, there is a growing effort to reduce
this gap by emphasizing human resource development. The
Peruvian government, for example, has implemented a number
of social development programs that take into account the
effect of technological advancements.

Since October 1968, these programs have emphasized
the relevance of psycho-sociological aspects. This is in
contrast to previous programs in which technology was a
more important component. This change of emphasis suggests
that psycho-sociological aspects are now seen as major

determinants of technological growth and increases in output.

2
It is no longer assumed that technological change will
automatically result in desired psycho-sociological changes.

Another characteristic of Peruvian development programs
has been the demand for participation and involvement in
both education and work. This has been a common issue in
both Western and Eastern countries and in more and less
industrialized societies. The work of Freire (1970), Curle
(1973), and Wren (1977) is representative of the call for
learners to participate in developing their own educational
programs, whereas the work of Tannenbaum, Kavcic, Rosner,
Vianello, and Weiser's (1974) represents a landmark study
of worker participation.

Participation has appeared as a major variable in the
institutional changes that have taken place in the primary
(agriculture), secondary (industry), and tertiary (education)
economic sectors of Peru:

0 Agriculture The 1969 Agrarian Reform Law

 

introduced radical institutional change
and assigned priority to cooperatives and
peasant communities.

0 Industry, From 1970 to 1974, four laws were

 

passed to ensure worker participation in
industry: the General Law of Industries,
the Law of Industrial Communities, the
General Law of Fishing, and the Social

Property Firm Law.

O

3

Education The 1972 Educational Reform

 

Law represented an effort to expand the
participation issue beyond the work
setting and to involve the adult working
population in designing educational

programs.

Purpose of the Study

The present study was undertaken to gain a better

understanding of the impact of the 1972 Educational Reform

Law in Peru.

The overall goals of the study were:

0

To analyze the learning settings of the
participative Basic Labor Education Pro—
gram (Educacion Basica Laboral-EBL) and
the non-participative Evening Program
(Escuelas Vespertinas y Nocturnas-EVN)
in Peru as a means of exploring the
relationships between formal and infor-
mal participation and of examining the
attitudes, motivations, and personal
values of educators and educatees in
adult education programs; and,

To provide a means of objectively asses-
sing the impact of the recently implemen-

ted Educational Reform Law in Peru.

The specific objectives of the study were:

0 To identify some of the conditions under
which participation in the EBL adult
education programs may be enhanced; and,

0 To facilitate in the identification of
problems that occur during the trans-
ition from a less participative to a
more participative adult education
program.

The research design used in the study was adapted from
that proposed by Arnold Tannenbaum to the National Science
Foundation (see Appendix A). This design was utilized be-
cause Tannenbaum's work represents an invaluable resource
on participation, and because the findings of the present
study could be compared with the findings of Tannenbaum et
al.,(1974) on worker participation in Yugoslavia, the United
States, Austria, Italy, and Israel. Their research on con-
trol in organizations (participation and small—group
decisionmaking in the context of a given social structure)
is an excellent example of the psycho-sociological approach
to research. Using systems analysis, the researchers iden-
tified a set of variables in organizations and programs
that could be related to psychological processes at the

interpersonal and individual levels.

5
In 1968, Tannenbaum began to develop standardized
scales to measure perceptions of the amount of control
exercised by peers and by those at other levels in the
organizational hierarchy. The average scores of individual
perceptions are used to derive indices of the variables
related to the amount and distribution of power in an

organization. In the foreword to Hierarchy in Organiza-

 

tions, Tannenbaum noted: "These indices could then be re-
lated to measures of communication, motivation, and satis-
faction."

At the time of the present research, there was no
available model on judging whether or not an adult educa-
tion program is participative.

This research, therefore, represents one of the first
attempts to adapt Tannenbaum's model for educational pur-
poses and to explore whether or not participation can be
measured in an adult education program.

The research was carried out in Peru because this
country represented a unique opportunity to examine the
impact of the Educational Reform Law with regard to partici-
pation in EBL programs. The non-participative EVN programs,
which served as the control group in this research, were
scheduled to end during the academic period of 1979 and to

be incorporated into the EBL programs.

Definition of Terms

 

Participation

 

For the purpose of this study, participation is defined
as educators and educatees involvement in the control of the
educational process (i.e., in the decisionmaking system
which regulates learning). In other words, participation
is seen as the means by which all members have some degree
of influence on the decisions of the program in order to
achieve a successful learning process.

Participation is considered to be a means of mitigat-
ing the feelings of frustration and powerlessness of
participants at the lower levels of the organizational
hierarchy (educatees) in that participation can enable them
to develop a greater sense of self-esteem and internal
power. Two types of participation were considered for the
study: formal and informal participation.

Formal participation refers to mechanisms that involve

 

educators/educatees in a participative arrangement in which
explicit rules provide for participation and define the
nature of the relationship between the members of a given
system.1

In Peruvian adult education programs, formal partici-

pation refers to the use of laws and decrees to establish

 

1The term "a given system" is used here as the equiv-
alent to the creation of a program or organization. This
conception is related to attempts by organizational psy-
chologists to examine relationships between group processes
and the structure of an organization.

7
the EBL program. The implicit if not explicit assumption
underlying the EBL program is that all EBL members (educa-
tors and educatees) should and will contribute to program
decisionmaking (i.e., planning, curriculum development,
implementation and evaluation).

InformalAparticipation refers to the receptivity and

 

responsiveness of educators to the ideas and suggestions of
educatees. Whereas formal participation is defined in terms
of legally established structures for decisionmaking,
informal participation is defined in terms of the style of
relationships. This means that participative/non-partici-
pative structures develop as a spontaneous outgrowth of the
values of all members (educators and educatees) within adult
education programs. For example, participation will occur
only if educators are willing to share their leadership with

educatees.

Nonformal Education

 

In this research, nonformal education (NFE) refers
specifically to the EBL approach to adult education. This
new focus promotes the acquisition of knowledge in adults
between 15 and 39 years old by emphasizing the development
problem-solving skills that will enable them to improve
their own life situation. It is assumed that such a program
must be highly participative if it is to achieve these
objectives. It is also assumed that participation will

enhance participants' self-esteem and real individual power.

Overview of the Study

 

The study has been organized into five chapters:
Chapter I provides an introduction to the topic; Chapter II
reviews the literature on participation and discusses its
practical and scholarly significance in education and organ-
izational development; Chapter III describes the research
methodology; Chapter IV presents and analyzes the research
findings; and Chapter V summarizes the conclusions of the

present research.

Chapter 11
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter includes a discussion of the need for par-
ticipation, the hypothesized effects of participation,
problems associated with participation and the impact of

formal and informal participation.

Need for Participation

 

In the Introduction it was mentioned that participa—
tion appears as a major variable in the institutional
changes that have taken place since 1969 in the primary
(agriculture), secondary (industry), and tertiary (education)
sectors of Peruvian society.

Different political systems and ideologies have di-
verse orientations about the role of individuals in society.
However, there is one concern -- the degree of individual
involvement in social decisionmaking about which there is
considerable agreement. For example, the need for partici-
pation has been cited by groups representing a variety of
political approaches. In Western Europe Christian Demo-
crats, Gaullists, and left-wing Socialists have advocated
participation. Industrial managers have also supported the
idea and the practice of participation (Haire, 1974). Adult

9

10
education theorists such as Freire (1970, 1971), Knowles
(1970), Miller (1967), Gagne (1965), Mbilinyi (1972), and
Srinivasan (1977) have identified participation as cru-
cially important in the individual learning process. Given
the interest in these theories, particularly in Freire's
educational philosophy, it is likely that the demand for
participation will increase. The findings from the study by
Tannenbaum et a1 (1974) on participative practices employed
in small groups, also indicate that the demand for partici-
pation will continue and will, in fact, increase in the near
future.

Participation has been related to a broad range of
economic and social variables, particularly to "effective-
ness" and "attitudes." These two variables are of primary
interest due to their individual importance (Korman, 1971)
and the hypothesized relationship between levels of perfor-
mance (i.e., effectiveness) and satisfaction (Schwab &
Cummings, 1973). A less conventional relationship is sug-
gested by Porter and Lawler (1968) who stress the importance
of variations in effort and performance as causes of varia-
tions in satisfaction.

Knowles (1950) held that adult students should par—
ticipate in and accept some responsibility for the learning
process. He maintained that adults learn by doing and that
the more active students are in a learning situation, the

more they will learn. Furthermore, they will learn more

11
if they feel some personal responsibility for the group
process. Groups that are largely self—managing will pro-
duce better learning experiences than those that are depen-
dent upon the teacher. Furthermore, satisfaction will be
increased if they actively participate in and are responsi-
bile for all aspects of the program process. Learners need
to be aware of their progress and to develop a sense of
accomplishment if their interest is to be maintained.
"Effectiveness" and "satisfaction" are necessary in order
to carry out the goals and objectives of the learning
process.

Knowles also identified several assumptions about
group-centered leadership. He noted that individuals have
a fundamental urge to grow and to achieve maturity and self-
direction. This growth is encouraged if there is an atmos-
phere of freedom and mutual responsibility. He assumed that
greater individual growth will take place under conditions
in which the participants are freed from authoritarian
control and maturely accept responsibility for their own
direction. Thus, Knowles believed that participation is
essential to group functioning and effective learning. He
also assumed that individuals who understand and accept
themselves, and who feel that others understand and accept
them, will necessarily show more understanding and accept-
ance of others. He noted that there is mounting clinical

evidence that a real change takes place in one's "attitude"

12
towards other people after an individual has had the experi-
ence of being completely accepted by others.

Freire (1971) viewed participation as one of the best
ways of changing people's attitudes; through their involve-
ment in the participative process they change not only their
perceptions but their actions. Srinivasan (1977) noted that
participation will develop "the learner's confidence, crea-

tivity and communication abilities" (p. 71).

Hypothesized Effects of Participation

 

That participation has the potential for enhancing

 

organizational effectiveness and individual performance has
been shown in the research of Coch and French (1948); Katz,
Maccoby, Gurin, and Floor (1951); Kahn and Katz (1953); Rice
(1953); Campbell (1956); Meltzer (1956); Tannenbaum and
GeorgOpoulos (1957); Tannenbaum and Kahn (1958); and
Tannenbaum (1961).

However, though participation seems to have the

potential to increase effectiveness, Katz et a1 (1951),

 

White (1955), Morse and Reimer (1956), and Seashore and
Bowers (1963) did not find a significant positive relation-
ship between increases in participation and effectiveness.
For example, Morse and Reimer (1956) compared "authoritarian"
and "democratic" groups and found that even though there was

an increase in productivity for both groups, those in the

hierarchically controlled program had the greatest increase

13

in productivity. In American organizations, advancement
within the hierarchy is seen as the path to success. Thus,
hierarchy is considered to be a basic organizational charac-
teristic and position within the hierarchy can have profound
psychological implications for individuals:

Intrapersonal conflict may be associated

with hierarchy in a number of ways. For

example, the exercise of authority may be

a mixed blessing because of the seriousness

of the decisions that are sometimes made by

persons in authority. A "right" decision

can mean important organizational as well

as personal success; a "wrong" decision can

lead to failure. Furthermore, the deeper

involvement and commitment of persons at

upper levels, and their greater stake in

the organization, may lead to worries that

persons at lower levels do not experience.

(Morse and Reimer, 1956, in Tannenbaum et

al., 1974).

Although the findings regarding the relationship between
increases in participation and increases in productivity or
effectiveness are inconclusive, several researchers have
generally supported the hypothesis that participation con-
tributes to favorable employee attitudes. Marrow, Seashore,
and Bowers (1967) reported that a more participative leader-
ship style seemed to increase the satisfaction of employees.
Other specialists such as King (1964), Coch and French
(1948); Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939); Shaw (1964); and

Jacobson (n.d.) also found increases in satisfaction as a

result of a more participative system.

14

When Wickert (1951) and Rose and Zander (1957) examin-
ed the relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism and
turnover, they found that increases in participation were
related to a reduction in absenteeism and turnover.

The favorable attitude changes which result from a
participative approach suggest that participation can be a
useful tool for reducing resistance to change. This find-
ing appears in the research of Lewin (1947); Radke and
Klisurich (1947); Coch and French (1948); Levine and Butler
(1952); Simmons (1954); Likert (1961); Bass and Leavitt
1963); Mair (1963); and Vroom (1964). Knowles (1950)
suggested that people feel more comfortable doing things
in their present way rather than in new ways because, in
general, groups as well as individuals resist change until
new ways are found to be better. Consequently, resistance
to change should be seen as a normal reaction to new situ-
ations and used constructively to help participants grow
into maturity. Since change is most needed when the peak of
individual resistance is reached, a group can be helped to
analyze the causes of its resistance objectively in a cli-
mate of acceptance and freedom and to work out its own
solutions.

At this point it can be concluded that research on
participation has generally supported the hypothesis that
participation is positively correlated with increases in
members' predispositions and attitudes (i.e., higher satis-

faction and a lower resistance to change), but the findings

15
are inconclusive regarding the relationship between
increased participation and effectiveness.
According to Tannenbaum (1961) and Frost, Wakely, and
Ruh (1974), it appears that participation 222 work; that is,

participation has the pgtential for enhancing organizational

 

effectiveness and individual efficiency. The research to
date suggests that it has positive effects on the feelings
of satisfaction of the members of a given system, but that
it does not always lead to higher effectiveness within that
system. This has led some theorists to be pessimistic about
the practical implications of participation.

After using Freire's participative method in a Chilean
program for community development, Sanders (1972) found that
participants had acquired a range of useful knowledge and
were able to state the following:

So that governments can achieve the plans

for collective welfare they need the support
of the population. The community, therefore,
ought to organize itself and unite its forces
to that of government and thus be able to
better its economic, social, and cultural
conditions. The struggle to elevate the
level of life in the country and permit each
Chilean to enjoy better conditions of life
and a large quantity of goods and essential
services ... is what is called Economic and
Social Development. Chile is engaged in this
great enterprise (p.47).

Freire (1970) saw literacy training as a critical and
active process in which habits of resignation are overcome

and individuals become "conscientized to their social and

l6

economic reality. The critical capacity of the participants
grows out of dialogues about meaningful situations in their
life. Freire's method is participatory in that the educator
as coordinator and the educatees as participants join in the
common purposes of seeking truth about relevant problems
while respecting each other's opinions. The educator serves
as the facilitator of a discussion in which the educatees
mutually try to understand existence in a changing society.

Freire's approach has great potential as a method of
social action. The conscientized individual no longer
accepts the myths that have silenced him, but begins to act
to transform the realities that Oppress him. Freire and
Tannenbaum differ in that Freire focuses on conscientizing
individuals so that they may collectively change an oppres-
sive structure, whereas Tannenbaum studies organizational
structure and the extent to which it can be changed to

encourage participation.

Problems Associated with Participation

 

Different conditions affect the applicability of the
participatory approach to a given situation (Tannenbaum
et al.,l974; Frost et al., 1974). There have also been
questions about the dysfunctional consequences of partici-

pation. These, too, may limit its applicability.

17

Tannenbaum and Allport (1956) found that adjustment
among workers to participative and non-participative systems
was in part a function of the personality of the participants,
while Vroom (1960) found that differences in the performance
of workers were a joint function of personality and percep-
tions of the degree to which superiors encouraged partici-
pation. In a study of locus of control, Lawler (1973) sug-
gested that the locus of control of the reward structure
could moderate the relationship between participation and
performance and attitudes. In another study, Trow (1957)
noted that persons with a strong need for independence
expressed lower satisfaction with roles in which they were
highly dependent than did other persons. Morse and Reimer
(1956) pointed to the importance of the degree of congruence
between individual goals and organizational objectives.
They suggested that non-participative systems can sometimes
be efficient. Strauss (1955) suggested that one of the
dysfunctional effects of participation may be a failure to
look at the "total system." The moderating effects of the
nature of the task are shown in the works of Morse and
Reimer (1956), Argyle et al., (1958), and Dubin (1965).
The importance of the sub-cultural environment as a factor
which influences people's motivation to work is shown in
the research of Turner and Lawrence (1965) as well as in

that of Blood and Hulin (1967).

18

Gagne (1965) has noted that although the importance of
motivation in the educational enterprise is widely recog-
nized, some essential questions still need to be raised.
For example, how does one motivate the individual to under-
take the enterprise of learning? How does one keep the
learner interested in continuing the learning exercise, as
well as in seeking further learning after completing a
given course?

Gagne studied these questions as they relate to moti-
vation in adult education programs. He explained that when
teachers perform in a suitable learning structure they turn
their attention to: (1) the establishment of motivation in
the students; (2) the execution of specific instructional
procedures that will ensure that learning will occur; and
(3) the institution of evaluative procedures to assess the
transference of what students have learned. If students'
motivation to learn means that they decide to do something,
and they believe that they can achieve their goals as a
result of learning, a positive motivation was ensured.

Within a participative setting, the locus of control of
the guidance structure could moderate the relationship be-
tween participation, performance, and attitudes. Gagne
suggested that one of the most important functions of the
teacher is to become a source of guidance for the student.

By assuming such a role, the educator is able to teach and

19
share the principles that make it possible for the educatee
to link the specific achievement goals of a particular theme
with larger and more general goals.

Gagne noted that the establishment of achievement moti-
vation needs to be pursued vigorously and with great frequen-
cy. Once the learner is motivated "to put himself into”
the learner situation, the first part of the problem is
solved. Therefore, if the commitment to learning has been
made and the proper prerequisites met, learning is virtually
an inevitable consequence. Bruner (1961), Schwab (1962) and
other educational theorists have suggested that the discov-
ery method of learning can generate strategies which have a
lasting effect on the learner's motivation to continue
present learning tasks and to undertake new ones.

To motivate people and to involve them in their own
reality (socio-economic conditions), Freire (1970) devel-

oped a method that is active, dialqgical, and critical.

 

 

Freire considered dialogue to be an existential reality.

For Freire, an attempt at liberating dialogue, in educational
settings within less developed societies, presupposes action.
Dialogue must be carried on with the "oppressed" (adult par-
ticipants) at whatever the stage of their struggle for
liberation. Hence, political action on the side of the
oppressed must be "pedagogical action" -- in the authentic
sense of the word -- and therefore, action with the oppres-

sed.

20

Dialogue also means "praxis", so it includes the
historical and dialectical themes that constitute the con-
crete structure of the domination of the oppressed. Praxis
demands the unification of thought and practice -- practice
is to be shaped and informed by thought and thought modeled
and reSponsive to practice. Dialogue requires active par-
ticipation and should be seen as a horizontal relationship
between A where there is oppression and B where there is
love, humanity, hope, faith and confidence. For Freire,
only dialogue can serve as the means of communication.
Dialogue both requires critical thinking and is capable of
generating critical thinking. Without dialogue there is no
communication and without communication there cannot be a
true process of learning.

Grandstaff (1974) noted that Freire's outline of the
teacher's revolutionary role does not place him.within the
basic theory; instead, the teacher relies on two moral pre—
cepts which show the relevance of participation as a means
of reaching "conscientizacao." One of the already mentioned
directives and a moral precept in Freire's approach, is
Lukacs' notion that the revolutionary party must explain
their own actions to the masses. In this way people par-
ticipate and activate their development of experiences. The
second precept is Mao-Tse-Tung's statement: "we must teach
the masses clearly what we have received from them confus-

edly" this "contains an entire dialogical theory of how to

21
construct the program content of education, which cannot be
elaborated according to what the 'educator' thinks best for
'his' student" (Freire, 1970, p. 82). As these precepts
show, the leaders should establish a constant relationship
of dialogue with the participants. Leadership must carry
out the transformation wigh the adult learner rather than
£25 them. Dialogue requires active participation and should
be seen as a horizontal relationship between A where there
is oppression and B where there is love, humanity, hope,
faith and confidence. For Freire, only dialogue can serve
as the means of communication. Dialogue both requires
critical thinking and is capable of generating critical
thinking. Without dialogue there is no communication and
without communication there cannot be a true process of
learning.

In Tanzania, Mbilinyi (1972) found that Freire's method
and Nyerere's ”education for self reliance” have been an
important influence not only for the development of the
ujamaa villages but for the social transformation of the
country as a whole.

Other empirical evidence on the Freire participative
method can be found in Bonilla's (1970) report on the use
of Freirean methods in the Dominican Republic. Bonilla
noted that Freire's method was introduced in Rincon de

Varagua in the late 1960's and that it was very successful.

22

A crisis in Rincon de Varagua was used as a real life
learning experience. Individually and as a group, partici-
pants in the program discovered the existing conflicts
between different power groups and the economic and social
interests that kept peOple living in a permanent struggle.

According to Freire, a non-participative program of
education is education for domestication. In this case,
education systematically encourages man's alienation.
Etzioni (1961) noted that there is a high degree of
alienation within the school system in the United States.
Davies and Iannaccone (1956); Campbell and Gregg (1957);
Griffiths (1959) have also analyzed the organizational
structure of schools with reSpect to alienation and com-

pliance. The Harvard Educational Review has devoted a

 

special issue to the subject. All of these studies have
shown that coercive and non-participative systems of educa-
tion have a high level of alienation and that this is
associated with the degree of applied coercion.

Other research in adult education shows that significant
numbers of men and women seem to develop their own learning
plans, choose their own curricula, and select courses and
educational materials to meet their goals (Johnstone et al.,
1961). Miller (1967) examined motivation and participation
among adults from different socio-economic groups. Using
Maslow's needs analysis and selected criteria of pressure,

Miller studied forces for and against participation in

23

different kinds of adult education programs. Based on his
findings, he recommended various experimental programs to
stimulate greater participation. Knowles' (1970) experiment
in group self-directed learning demonstrated that most of
the teams were able to achieve a highly creative experiment
in participative learning. Knowles suggested that students
can learn to be self-directed learners if they are plunged
into a participative educational environment.

Certain learning conditions are more conducive to adult
growth and development than others. Knowles maintained
that these conditions should be produced by learning/teaching
transactions that are based on a high leve of participation.

LaBelle (1976) offers an additional perspective on
participative adult education. LaBelle recognized adult
education is potential to contribute to change and prOposed
a theoretical framework that may contribute to obtaining
development outcomes. LaBelle studied various adult education
programs in ten Latin American countries. Some of these
programs, particularly NFE programs, have attempted to
be participative. According to LaBelle, most of the programs
were "peOple-oriented" rather than "system-oriented" in
their approach to dealing with change.

LaBelle concluded that participation in adult programs
might enhance one's potential for contributing to social
change. He identified five strategic principles for

adult programs: (1) understanding the needs of client

24

populations; (2) involving clients in their own learning;
(3) facilitating the transfer and application of new behaviors
to the environment; (4) establishing linkages between the
program and the components in the wider system, and (5)
attending to incentives both internal and external to the
program. LaBelle recommended that participatory adult
programs be combined with other inputs (i.e., ideological,
technological, and structural interventions) in order to
achieve social change.

LaBelle's views on the adult learning process are
quite similar to those presented in the Peruvian Education
proform.Law. One can see in the EBL programs a practical

example of LaBelle's approach to education

Impact of Formal and Informal Participation

Frost et al. (1974) and Lowin (1968) suggested that it
is changes in informal participation (e.g., the responsive-
ness of educators to the suggestions of educatees) rather
than the formal adoption of structural changes that contri-
butes to whatever "desirable" effects may occur when a
formal participative approach is adopted. Participation
is informal when it is in accordance with Freire's dialogical
approach. Through dialogue, educatees engage in the process
of speaking "their own words." It is the essence of being,

as well as the context of liberation and freedom.

25

The EBL program represents a formal participative system

 

in the sense that it develops and includes formal mechanisms
to involve educators and educatees in more participative

arrangements. Informal participation in the EBL program

 

occurs during day-to-day Operations and is influenced by
the degree of accessibility of educators to educatees and
educators' responsiveness to the ideas and suggestions

of educatees. Tannenbaum et a1. (1974) found that the
degree of correspondence between "formal and informal
participation" was not great in the organizations they
studied.

The formal-informal issue, as related to measures of
behavior and predisposition in learning settings, is similar
to the objective-perceptual dichotomy identified by March
and Simon (1958). In their discussion of perceptions of
individual participation, March and Simon maintained that
an individual's perception of goal setting is equivalent to
actual participation. In their view, the individual's
actual influence as the specific decision that has been made
is less important to the individual than is acknowledgement
of his or her influential position.

Lowin (1968) noted that the March and Simon position
on tactical versus organic manipulation is a pOpular one.
Black and Mouton (1964), Cantor (1951), Collins et a1. (1946),
Golembiewski (1962), and White (1955) have used this position
to emphasize the organic quality necessary for effective

participative decision-making.

26

However, it is important to recognize that incongruencies
about participation may exist. These incongruencies may be
referred to as "informal and formal" (Tannenbaum et al.,
1974), "actual influence and acknowledgement of the
influential position" (March & Simon, 1958), "espoused theory
and theory in action” (Argyris, 1974), or "perceptual and
actual theory" (Freire, 1970). According to Argyris'
(1974), there are some dysfunctional consequences of the
incongruities between espoused theory (i.e., formal
participation as used in this research) and theory in action
(i.e., informal participation as used in this research).

Freire (1970) pointed to the incongruency between the
perceptual and the actual when he stated that the fear of
freedom is greatest among people "who have been ground down
by the concrete situation of oppression and domesticated
by charity.” (p. 155) Using the example of the "full circle"

instruction from Mary Cole's Summer in the City (1968),

 

Freire noted that an alienated person who is ”conditioned by
a culture of achievement and personal success" cannot
recognize "his situation as objectively unfavorable"

because to do so "seems to hinder his own possibilities

of success. (p. 156) Freire added:

One of the teachers of "Full Circle" which
carried out a valuable educational program

in New York City under the coordination of
Robert Fox, relates the following incident.

A group in a New York ghetto was presented a
coded situation showing a big pile of garbage
on a street corner the very same street where
the group was meeting. One of the participants

27
said at once, "I see a street in Africa or
Latin America.” "And why not in New York?”
asked the teacher "Because we are in the
United States and that can't happen there".
Beyond a doubt this man and some of his
comrades who agreed with him were retreating
from a reality so offensive to them that even
to acknowledge that reality was threatening
...The determining force of the culture which
develops the myths men subsequently internalize
is evident". (pp. 155-156)

In addition to the theoretical considerations regarding
manipulation of formal and informal participation, it is
herein suggested that there are strong policy implications
associated with each kind of participation and their
practical significance within the Peruvian educational
sector. The number of possible combinations and options is
large because the two types of participation can be manipulated
independently, together, in differentiated degress or doses,
and/or in different sequence depending on the priority given
to each form of participation.

For example, in the past decade industrial leaders have
made efforts to introduce participation in the industrial
sector. These efforts may have been intended to undercut
revolutionary change by actively involving members in
organizational decision-making before those who support the

revolution point out organizational inequities (Tannenbaum

et al., 1974).

Chapter III
THE RESEARCH DESIGN

Understanding participation and its effects is as
important for researchers in the United States as for
those who are implementing structural changes to increase
development in less industrialized countries.

The present research examined the general preposition
that formal participative educational programs can be
established. Also studied were questions relating to how
participative conditions can reduce/eliminate unintended
and sometimes dysfunctional authoritarian effects. It
was assumed that these effects can interfere with the
adult learning process.

The research design for this study was an attempt to
expand and adapt Tannenbaum's research on worker participation
for use in educational settings.

Tannenbaum et a1. (1974) found that congruency exists
between formal and informal forms of participation in
Israel, Italy, and Austria; however, formal and informal
participation were incongruent in Yugoslavia and the
United States.

This research adapted Tannenbaum's instrument for a

proposed ”International Study of the Effects of Worker's

28

29
Participation in Industry" (see Appendix A). Tannenbaum
proposed that a sutdy focus on comparing participative
and non-participative systems within Israel, Japan, Sweden,
the United Kingdom, and the United States. The present
study compared participative and non-participative programs

within Peru.

Hypotheses

 

The study was designed to explore questions and

hypotheses concerning control and participation in educational

 

settings.

As noted in Chapter II, research findings suggest that
peOple are more likely to change when they have the
Opportunity of being involved in defining and implementing
the change. Many adult education programs have promoted the
active participation of learners in designing and implement-
ing programs. In these programs, individuals are seen as

"subjects,' not "objects" of any dominant outside
intervention. This implies that members of the program/
organization might exercise some control over the planned
change. However, the scope of this control may be different
in accordance with the amount of participation that peOple
are able to exercise. For example, in a program where there
is an expected high level of participation, members at the

bottom of the hierarchy will achieve a share of power that

is equal to that held by those who have had the power at the

30

top. Furthermore, members would assume complete decision-
making control Over many aspects Of the program and,
consequently, all participants would be in full control Of
that program including human and physical resources, internal
processes, and structure.

The present research explored the congruency-incongruency
in selected units of Peruvian adult education programs
(EBL and EVN). By examining the personal values and
assumptions Of authorities, educators, and participants in
those programs.

The study was based on the following hypotheses:

0 Greater participative decision-making will produce

greater degree Of Open communication and more

favorable mutual attitudes.

0 Greater supportiveness and participativeness in
interpersonal relationships will lead to greater
Open communciation and more favorable mutual

attitudes.

O Greater power equalization (relatively flat
distribution Of control) will increase the level
Of confidence, trust, communication and motivation
to perform (dialogue, individual learning rhythm,

develOpment Of job skills, etc.).

O An increase in mutual influence and control will
produce a higher level Of performance in adult

programs.

31
O The more expanded the educatee's influence
(high total control) in adult programs the

higher the performance (gOOd assignment, etc.).

0 Hierarchical gradients with respect tO satisfaction,
self-esteem, alienation, identification with and
responsibility for the adult education program

(EBL) than in the non-participative one (EVN).

O More participative educational programs will
manifest fewer symptoms of disaffection and con-

flict between members Of differing rank.

Theories Of participation imply relationships among
various elements Of participation. The hypothesized effects
Of participation and the possiblity Of interferences produced
by non-controlled variables (i.e., self-esteem, locus Of
control, and/or a person's learning history) are portrayed
in Figure 1.

Survey research methods were employed to collect data
from adult education participants at all levels in the
selected programs (units). The data were then evaluated

using the above mentioned statistical procedures.

Selection Of the Research Site
Peru was selected as the research site because (1) it
can be characterized as "less modern/industrialized" and

(2) natural experimental conditions allowed the researcher

32

 

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wawcumma Hmnow>wpaw mo zuoumwm nu
.Houucoo mo mDOOA nu

Emmummnmawm un

 

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A.OuO .wcHGHmOH
mo mmmooum Hammmooonm uamE
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coauommmflumm swam nn
mcoaumamn chOm
EMOMHOQ on nowum>wuoz nu unmmumucfi aw mmocm>wumawowuumm un
Cowuchme mcowumamu
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paw unmeuHEEOO mo mack/ma swam nu ‘
Aamumumawa: Ou pmmommo mmv
aflnmuopmma HOHOGOO paw mocmsHmaH Hmaupz nn
paw cowumnwcmwuo\5muwoua
phm3ou mopsuwuum manmuo>mm nu AHOHOOOO
Hmuou nwwzv mucosamcw ompcmaxm nu
mopsuwuum HmSODE manwno>mm nn
AHOHOCOO mo Coausmfiuumfio umam
cowumuwasafioo ammo nu ham>fiumamuv aowuwuwamsum Hozom nu
uwnuu paw moamoflmaoo uu mafixmfi coamwomp m>fiumawowuumm nu
muommmm oONHmO£uomzm GOHOOQWOHuHmm mo mucOEOHm

 

 

33
tO explore the differences between formal and informal
participation in adult educational settings.

The Ministry Of Education in Peru has created a new
Department which is in charge Of implementing a new
educational delivery system for Basic Labor Education
(Educacion Basica Laboral-EBL). This NFE program is for
adults between 15 and 39 years Old who have not been able
tO attend regular schools (Peru, 1972). Quantitatively,
the program has a potential clientele of almost six
million people or more than one third Of the total
Peruvian population. Underlying the EBL program are two
basic assumptions; (1) the need for ”education pp the
jOb and £25 the work", and (l) the need to develop "nonformal
education programs to deal mainly with the marginal sectors”
in the country. (Ballon et al., 1978).

EBL represents an attempt to develOp a "problem-posing”
education within the structure Of a formal participative
program (i.e., a program that was created by the Educational
Reform Law and which must use a participatory approach to
education). The thought Of Salazar Bondy (1970) is
particalarly helpful in understanding the EBL programs.
These programs are seen as a means of training participants
humanistically as well as technically within a socio-cultural
context in which they learn from the community and in which
learning is an ongoing process.

Thus, Peruvians have combined the approaches of

Bondy and Freier.

34

Selection Of the Sample

 

Five locations were chosen for the study: Lima,
Callao, Chaclacayo, Huacho and Arequipa. The first fOur
locations are located in the province Of Lima: Lima,
Callao and Huacho are located on the coast while Chaclacayo
is a small city in the highlands. Arequipa, which is in
the province of Arequipa, is in the southern part Of Peru
and includes both the highlands and the coastal area. Both
educational regions have a 47.9% school attendance rate as
well as a high percentage of population living in urban
areas -- factors that were important in the sampling
procedure. Figure 2 shows the two educational regions that
were chosen, Lima MetrOpOlitana and the IV Region respectively.
Lima, Peru's capital city, began implementing the EBL
program early in 1973. Arequipa, which is the second largest
city in Peru and is economically well developed, also
started the EBL program in 1973. The age Of the programs was
an important factor in selecting the Nucleos Educatvos
Communales (NBC-Community Education Centers) that were chosen
for the study. Table 1 shows the crosstabulation by time Of
all levels of NEC participants. These EBL programs are
formally participative. They Operate according to an
ideology Of equality among all participants, and seek to
expose participants to an environment in which "dialogue"

is the most important means to achieve knowledge.

35

 

  
  
 

COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
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SAN MART BRAZIL

UZLLJ ’I.
R‘ 55.1 'I.

    
 
 

  
  
 
  

U: 32.5%
R: 57.5 'I.

s: 39.8%
MADRE DE DIOS

LIMA \
METROPOLITAHA

  

U: «.001.
R: 1.0.].

s: (1.! 0/.

  
 
 

 

BOLIVIA

 

PERU

EDUCATIONAL REGIONS ‘
umemmuonnuuu.

REGIONS _

'1. URBAN POPULATION u

'1. RURAL popuunnonn n

'1. POPULAYION m scnnoou s

nesuncnu neonous m CHILE

 

 

Figure 2. Map Of Educational Regions in Peru.

36

 

 

 

 

 

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m.mm GGH m.N N m.N HN N.a NN H.HH Hm m.HH Nm m.cH Ns mmumosem
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muoumcapuooo
mmmHo
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Emuwoum
N.m a H.H m s.o H H.H m q.o H «.0 H u- .. muouoaoum
N.N o u- .. N.o N N.o N N.o N u- -u u- .. HmHHO Nesum
m.o NH H.H m m.N N H.H m H.H N u- uu N.o N nouoman amumoum
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.N z . z N z N z N z N z N z Hm>mH
Hmuoe mmco mom Oz +m O m N H

 

Emuwonm cw mummy

 

Hm>OA paw mEmeOHm CH mummw kn mucmpaommmm 4mm mo mmmucmopmm new HOAEDZ

knoumumwm SN
.H manmh

37

Five evening program were selected from other (NEC's).
These latter programs were formally non-participative at the
time Of the study but were to have been converted to
participative programs in 1979 (Peru, 1976).

Of the 1,950 authorities/educators in Lima Metropoli-
tana, only 1,215 are involved in the new reformed programs
(including the EBL). In Arequipa, 280 Of a total Of 396
authorities/educators have adopted the reformed programs.
However, almost all of the participants seem to be already
incorporated into the reformed adult programs. This
contradiction may be due to the lack of recent statistics on
the total number Of students attending EBL programs in each
region? The figures presented in Table 2 considered
participants to be involved only in reformed programs because
they are already exposed tO new topics such as social and
political science and Peruvian reality. These subjects
emprasize the humanist formation Of the student and did
not exist in adult programs before the reform.

The sampling procedure used within each NEC was
addressed to the following two Objectives:

O TO maintain the integrity Of hierarchical chains

from the tOp of the program (The NEC Director) to its
bottom (The participants);
*The Educational Planning Office of the Ministry Of Education
is presently updating EBL statistics. The figures in

Modelo Eduperu (Peru, 1976) only represent projection for
after 19721

 

38

Table 2. Number Of Participants in Adult Programs by
Region and Level in Hierarchy

 

 

 

 

Luna Metippolitana Arequipa
Reformed Reformed
Programs All Programs All
Level Only* Programs Only* Programs
Authorities/
Educators 1,215 1,950 280 396
Educatees 53,254 53,254 11,825 11,827

 

NOTE: *Number of participants in EBL and other reformed programs
These data are teaken from Planes de Tabulacion Zonal:
Directiva 17 DS/OSPE - UD, Peruvian Ministry Of Education,
Luna, 1976}

 

0 TO equalize the number Of persons from each

hierarchical level.

The sampling rate was prOportional, when possible, to
an individual's rank in the "total organization" (e.g., each
selected NBC and the EBL and EVN programs). An effort was made
to keep the rate uniform for those at the top Of the formal
hierarchy (i.e., authorities/educators) and those at the
bottom (i.e., educatees). In some cases, it was not possible
tO maintain this procedure due to the failure Of some
respondents to answer the questionnaire.

The use Of a sampling rate that is proportional tO rank
was justified on the grounds that participants at the top Of

the formal hierarchy were relateively few in mumber. Nonethe-

39
less, these individuals played a very important role and
provided important information for the study.

Following Tannenbaum's research design, the sampling
was arranged so that, lines Of authority were kept intact.
Thus, the selection Of a NEC Director (Director del NEC)
determined the inclusion Of the Study chief Of EBL or EVN
programs (Jefes de las Unidades de EBL y/O EVN). The selection
of the latter determined in turn the possible inclusion Of
Promotors, (Promotores), Coordinators Of EBL and/or EVN
(Coordinadores de DEB y/O EVN) and ultimately Of the educatees.
The line Of authority were identified using the Guis para la
Aplicacion de Programas Desescolarizados de Educacion
Basica Laboral (EBL), (Peru, 1973).

Each respondent in the sample was paired with Others
in a direct hierarchical line with the respondent. This
feature Of the design, when coordinated with questionnaire
items on perceptions of the authorities'/ educators/ practices
and Of interpersonal relations between the respondent and
the educator/educatee, permitted the analysis Of participative
practices and their implications for individuals involved in
face-to-face relationships.

During the course Of the research, several problems
prevented the complete achievement Of the above Objectives.
The most important Of these was the refusal Of various NEC
authorities to be interviewed even though they had previously

agreed to participate in the research. They also refused to

40

allow interviews tO be made in the selected programs. This
complicated the study to some extent since educatees were
eligible for the sample only if their superiors were selected.

A total of 542 respondents were included in the study.
As shown in Table 3, 378 respondents were from Lima
Metiopolitana region, while 164 respondents were from Areqiupa
region. Of the total, 279 respondents were from EBL programs
and 263 respondents were from EVN programs. These totals are
quite close to the planned sample which ideally would have

included 300 respondents for each Of the two programs.

Table 3. Number Of EBL and EVN Respondents by Region
and Level in NEC Hierarchy

 

 

 

 

EBL Programs EVN Prggrams
Lima Lima
Meti- Meti-
Level OpOlitana Arequipa Total OpOlitana Arequipa Total
NEC Director 6 3 9 8 2 10
Program
Director 13 5 18 15 7 22
Study Chief 4 2 6 6 l 7
Promotor 6 3 9 -- -- --
Program
Coordinator 2 -- 2 10 2 12
Class
Coordinator
(Educators) 35 34 69 36 37 63
Educatees 130 36 166 107 42 149

Total 196 83 279 183 81 263

 

41

The number of respondents at different levels in the
EBL and EVN programs is shown in Table 4. Level 1 includes
those at the top of the hierarchy (i.e., the NEC Director)
while Level 7 includes those at the bottom of the Hierarchy
(i.e. participants). The traditional EVN programs do not have
promotors; therefore, Level 4 in these programs was skipped
for sampling purposes.

The differences in the number of respondents from each
NEC reflect in part differences in the way the programs are
organized hierarchically. Some programs have study chiefs/
promotors and some do not have these levels. Ballon et al
(1978) have suggested that this may be due to budget restrict-
ions. Differences in response rate as well as some omissions
in carrying out the sampling procedure may also account for
these differences. As mentioned previously some of the
reSpondents did not complete the questionnaire. The failure
to complete the questionnaire was most prevalent among the
authorities. However, the above omissions were relative
infrequent and apparently do not vitiate the comparability of

the data.

The Research Instrument

 

The data for this study were Obtained ’primarily from a
questionnaire administered to a selected number of participants,
educators, and authorities in the 10 NECs. A number of
persons interviewed in each NEC ranged from 21 to 29 persons

at all levels.

42

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pom >Hco popDHOcH mum mam mGOHumameom

 

 

 

 

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moN ma Nm Nm an mN NNN NN so NN mN mm Hmuoe
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mo oH NH 0 0H HH mm m MN 0 NN mH Amuoumonomv
HoumaHpuooo
mmmHo
NH 0 N nn nn H N nn nn H nn H uOumGHoHOOU
Emuwoum
nn nn nu nn nn nu o nu m H m N Houoaoum
N u- H m H N o u- N H N H HmHnu Nesum
NN a o m a m NH N m H m m nouomuHo
Smuwoum
OH N H N N m o H m N H N nouoman
Hmuoe m a O N < Hmuoa m a u m < Hm>mH
msmnwoum z>m :HHs mumz msmuonm Hmm nHHs mumz

 

znOHMHOHm CH Ho>oH pom umz >9 muCOfiCOQwom z>m paw Hmm mo Honaoz

.s mHHmH

43

The questionnaire items are drawn largely from previous
studies by Tannenbaum. The questionnaire was apprOpriately
modified for use in educational participatory settings in
Peruvian adult programs. All questions were in Spanish
(see Appendix B). A pretest of the instrument was carried
out in each educational region (Lima MetrOpOlitana and the IV
Region in Arequipa). A number of questions were improved
or eliminated as a result of the pretest.

Each respondent was interviewed briefly before
administering the questionnaire. The interview helped to
establish rapport with the respondent and provided an
opportunity to explain the scientific purpose of the research.
Each reSpondent was assured that his/her anonymity would be
maintained. In spite of this explanation some members
believed that it was intended to evaluate their performance
through this interview which could be officially reported
to the Ministry of Education.

The questionnaire was filled out by the reSpondent
while the interviewer was present. Interviewers were trained
to help the respondent if necessary and to answer questions

that might arise.

Analysis of the Data

 

The level of formal and informal participation was
analyzed using interpersonal dyads, educational groups, and

each program as a whole. A t-test analysis was used to

44
validate the significance of the comparisons between the

EBL and EVN programs.

Limitations of the Study

The data may be subjected to some errors, both random
and systematic. As the questionnaire was an adaptation from
Tannenbaum's questionnaire for cross-national studies in
participation, some questions may differ subtly in meaning
for Peru. Culture may also predispose persons to answer
questions in certain ways. In as much as possible these
errors were prevented by selecting and formulating questions
that have comparable meaning. Some questions were rejected
because they did not meet this test. Nevertheless, the
possibility of bias cannot be ruled out.

It also should be remembered that this research is the
first attempt to analyze the effects of participation
in an adult porcess of learning where participants are
exposed to a problem-solving educational program within a
less modern/industrialized society as Peru. Furthermore,
the selected units Of analysis were relatively small in
all cases. This permitted each unit to be studied in depth
and helped the researcher obtain a more adequate sample of
the members of a particular unit. The EBL programs in the
sample should be seen as illustrations of programs which
Operate on the basis Of different ideological assumptions

and educational authority structures. Some of these

45
programs are reasonably successful and viable programs, but
they should not be seen as representative Of adult education

programs in Peru.

Chapter IV
ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS

Decision-Making and Control within Adult Programs

This chapter has been divided into four major sections:
Decision-Making and Control within Adult Programs;
Hierarchical Relationships; The Learning Environment and
Reaction and Adjustment in Adult Education Programs.

The ideological differences between EBL and EVN programs
in this research have clear implications regarding the way
they are controlled. For example, a problem-posing method
of learning implies that educatees as well as educators
have a great deal of control.

Some of the programs studied were more participative
than Others in the learning methodology. The data in
this section describe participation and related aSpects of
control from the perspective of educatees and educators in
EBL and EVN programs as well as of NEC authorities (e.g.,

The Director, Program Director, Study Chief, etc.)

Decision Making
Figure 3 presents data Obtained in response to five

items adapted from Tannenbaum's use of Lickert's study of

46

47
educational programs. These items measure the participating
nature of organizations and represent a continuum from a
"authoritiative" to a "participative" system. Questions
25 and 22 are directly concerned with decision-making
aspects of class participation, and Question 21, 23, and
24, deal with some of the predicted effects of participation
on attitudes and communication. Tannenbaum noted that
Likert found a high degree of correlation between these
items. The following questions were used in the present
Study:
21. In the Ministry of Education, are decisions
made by the persons who have the most adequate
and accurate information? (1 = Rarely .... 4 =

Always.)

22. When decisions are being made, are the peOple
affected asked for their opinions and suggestions?
(1 = They are almost never asked for their opinions
and suggestions ..... 4 = They are almost always

asked for their Opinions and suggestions

23. What are the attitudes of participants toward
authorities (NEC Director and other high positions)
of the nonformal education programs? (1 =
Attitudes that are strongly opposed to them...

4 = Attitudes that strongly support them.)

48

 

 

 

 

 

 

25 ~-
EBL Programs
24 ~~
H
o
u§ 23 ~-
2:
S
-H 22 "
4.)
U)
o
a
O" 21 1-
: : e -
l 2 3 4
Authoritative Participative
Average Score
25 -b
EVN Programs
24 IS
H
.8
5 23 1*
2:
8
W4 22 «In
4..)
U)
o
s
or
21 4-
1 J 4
l 1 l
l 2 3 4
Authoritative Participative

Average Score

Figure 3. Authorigative and Participative Decision-
Making in EBL agd EVN Programs

49
24. What do participants communicate to their
coordinators in class? (1 = They communicate
all relevant infomration accurately ... 4 = They

distort "dialogue".)

25. Do educatees participate in making important
decisions related to their program (needs
assessment, curriculum develOpment, evaluation
criteria, etc.)? (1 = Not at all.... 4 = They
jointly decide about all important things
concerning their study program.)

The data in Figure 3, show that there is an inconsistent
relationship between the items concerning participative
decision making (22, 25 and the items that concern attitude
and communication (21, 23, 24). Programs that rank high
on the former scale do not necessarily rank high on the
latter. Nonetheless, when the decision-making items are
treated as a group, the EBL program was seen to be more
participative than the EVN program. The differences between
programs are clearly shown in Figure 3.

To learn about their views on whether or not educational
programs should provide for participation, participants
were asked two questions that parallel the decision-making

questions in Tannenbaum's questionnaire:

26. Should educatees participate in making important

decisiOns related to their programs in study

50
(needs assessment, curriculum development,
evaluation criteria, etc.)? (1 = Not at all
4 = They should jointly decide about all

important things concerning their program.)

27. In your Opnion, when decisions are being made
should the people affected be asked for their
Opinions and suggestions? (1 = They should never
be asked for their Opinions and suggestions....
4 = They should almost always be asked for
their Opinions and suggestions).

Taken as a whole, the level of aspirations expressed
by EBL program respondents was higher than that expressed
by the EVN respondents. However, only 26.2% of the
authorities (N = 42) indicated that students/participants
should almost always be asked for their opinions and
suggestions and that they should jointly decide about all
important things concerning their programs. Hence, there
is a discrepancy between the formal ideological requirements
for participation in the ideal system and the kind of
participative system authorities might develOp in accordance
with the philosophy of the new Peruvian educational law.

At the educatee level, all groups showed a discrepancy
between their perceived level of participation and their
ideal level of participation. The group average indicates
that educatees would have preferred that the program be

more participative than they judged it to be.

51

Data showing the differences between participants perceptions
of actual and ideal participation are shown in Figure 4.
These results are consistent in many respects with some
of Tannenbaum's prior research findings, "including a
study of managers in fourteen countries by Haire and Others
(1966)" (1975, p. 55).

Figure 5 indicates the discrepancies between "ideal"
and ”actual" participation in EBL and EVN programs.
These data were obtained by subtracting the results for each
question concerning participation-from the corresponding
question concerning the ideal.

Although EBL and EVN programs differ substantially in
their "actual” and "ideal" levels of participation, they

are almost identical with respect to the discrepancy between

 

the ideal and actual levels. For both authorities and
educatees the actual level of participation, whether low,
medium, or high, corresponds relatively well to the ideal
type. These results are consistent with Argyris' (1974)
concepts on incongruities between espoused theory and theory
in action and Freire's (1973) approach on perceptual theory
versus actual practice. Furthermore, the inconsistencies
between the "actual" and "ideal" in both programs may be
interpreted as supporting the hypothesis that these incon-
sistencies may be the course of the dysfunctional consequences

of both programs

52

 

 

 

 

Actual

EBL Programs Ideal ...---

m 22-27 ' '

E "’ P-T-"m-I

5 n

z I

‘3 + k H + ,

5’ 25-26 n j

m q- F--.L—--4

o

:

c>

 

 

774. H1 : e 4
l 2 3 4 5
Authoritative Participative

 

 

 

 

 

EVN Programs

g 22 27 V ‘r I

g - q. h‘r----*

z \\

5 n

‘6; “I II ‘I' 4

<9 25-26 .L.

a up P”- ’---‘*
L1 1 j I j
rw U I I I

2 3 4 5
Authoritative Participative

Note: Horizontal lines indicate range of scores;
vertical lines connect the average scores.

Figure 4. Acutal and Ideal Participation in EBL and
EVN Programs

 

53

 

 

 

 

 

 

EBL Programs
3 22 .
a, 27 P
E
z:
c
o
'3 25
(0.226 du-
CY
J l J ..
#T j I
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Discrepancy
EVN Programs
22 ‘_
a 27
o
E
z:
I:
.3
t; 25 HI.
q;26
5
c7
1 l l A
I l 1
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Discrepancy

Figure 5. Discrgpancies Between Actual and Ideal Participation
in EBL and EVN Programs.

 

54

Integpersonal Relationships

 

Aspects of participation can also be gauged by
questions on educatees perceptions of the educators and
authorities. Tannenbaum's items on informal participation

were adOpted as follows:

28. Does your coordinator ask your Opinion when
a problem comes up that involves the courses
or program work? (1 = He never asks my Opinion...

5 = He always asks my Opinion.)

29. Is your coordinator inclined to take into
account your Opinions and suggestions? (1 =

Not at all... 5 = Very much.)

30. Does your coordinator make people under him
feel free to take their complaints to him?
(1 = He makes them feel completely free....

5 = Not at all free.)

31. Do you have trust in your coordinator? (1 =
Never.... 5 = Always.)
As shown in Table 5, EBL coordinators as a group
were consistenlty rated higher on "participation" and
"supportiveness" than were EVN coordinators. However,
some EBL programs received low socres in these areas.
The responses to questions 28, 29, 30 and 31,
reflect some aspects of informal participation, whereas the

previous decision—making items (see Figure 3) represent

55
some aspects of formalyparticipation. Consequently, the
EBL program as a whole is both formally and informally
participative. But, given the data in Table 5, some

EBL programs are still only formally participative.

Table 5. Summary Data on Educatee's Ratings of Coordinators'
"Participativeness" and "Supportiveness"

 

EBL Programs EVN Programs t-Test

 

 

 

 

 

Question i S N i S N t df p
Participat-
iveness
28 3.11 1.42 158 1.87 1.33 128 7.75 284 .001
29 3.27 1.17 157 1.34 1.09 135 16.08 290 .001
Average P 3.19 1.60
Support-
iveness
30 3.66 1.27 161 1.44 1.12 147 15.85 306 .001
31 3.83 1.18 150 1.49 1.01 126 23.40 274 .001
Average S 3.74 1.46

 

Note: Based on a 5 point scale.

The EVN program is neither formally nor informally
participative. Some respondents showed a very low ideal
participation and Others a medium average on the scale
(Figure 4).

Finally, the data in Table 5 suggest that the teaching
approach of some EVN educators is close to Freire's concept

of the banking method of education. EVN coordinators are

56
not perceived as being either participative (score average
1.60) or supportive (score average 1.46) in their inter-

personal relationship with educatees.

Control
Question 16 focused on the distribution of control
within the program:
16. How much influence do the following groups
or persons actually have on what happens in the
adult programs? (circle one number on each
line across)

Quite A very

Little Little Some a lot great deal
in- in- in- of in- of in-
fluence fluence fluence fluence fluence
a. NEC
Director
Control 1 2 3 4 5
b. All other
Program
Authorities l 2 3 4 5
c. The partici-
pant/educatee
as a group 1 2 3 4 5

As shown in Figure 6, the slope of the NBL curve is
less than that of the EVN curve. This suggests that there
is more power equalization among all participants than in
the EVN programs where power is concentrated in the hands of
the NEC Directors and Coordinators. The SIOpe of the EVN
curve shows that educatees are seen as having the least

influence consequently are the least in control.

57

In this study, ”control" means that participants must
be in full charge of the program, and this includes processes,
structure and human and physical resources. Freire (1973)
assumes that participative programs (problem-posing education)
may be more highly controlled be educatees than less
participative counterparts. The EBL programs appear
moderately high according to this measure. In Tannenbaum's
(1974) view, this approach differes from "the permissiveness
theory of participation that assumes participation to be a
system of very little control".

Control in an adult education program is probably viewed
pragmatically by respondents in terms Of issues that are
important to them. Furthermore, adult learning theory stands
on the idea that educatees' control of their class life has
meaning only if there is control over the things they need
to learn as well as in the way the process of learning
occurs (Tannenbaum, 1974; Gagne, 1965; Freire, 1970; and
Knowles, 1975) (e.g., respecting individual learning rhythm,
using an active, dialogal and critical method, being able to
do practical things as a result of learning, seeing their
improvement in develOping job skills, and so forth.)

In general terms, the data in Figure 6 are consistant
with the differences in control between formally participative

EBL and the non-participative EVN programs.

 

 

5
EBL

Programs
'3 3

H

U

mt:

Lao

8c:
c044 2

O

o

:9:
1

<5
5

EVN

Programs
4

H

o
3 3

ms:

Luo

OLD

O

"”3
o 2

amp

mt:

H5

gc:
<5 1
Figure 6.

58

 

 

unh-
-b
V \\
n.
.I.
: 4. r‘ I
NBC Coordi- Educatees

Directors nators

 

 

«L
T-
4r
q-
n I J_
I I I
NEC Coord1 Educatees

Directors nators

Actual Distribution of Control in EBL and EVN
Programs

59

Question 17 dealt with the amount of influence that
should be given to each group:

17. In your Opinion, how much influence should

the following groups or persons have on what
happens in the adult programs?

Participants were asked to rate NEC Directors, all
other program authorities, and educatees using the same
scale as for Question 16.

As shown in Figure 7, the perceptions of EBL and EVN
respondents are not very different regarding the "ideal"
amount of control that participants should exercise in
educational programs. This finding is similar to Smith
and Tannenbaum's (1963) findings. After researching a
variety of organizations, they found that the "ideal"
control curve roughly parallels the "actual", but in
each case it is higher and more nearly horizontal than
the "actual". Nonetheless, it should be noted that EBL
respondents rated educatees slightly higher in "ideal"
influence than did EVN respondents. This is consistent with
the formal participative ideology of EBL programs. It also
corresponds with Smith and Tannenbaum's (1963) findings

on participatory research.

Rewards and Punishments

 

Two questions were asked about the rewards dispensed

for completing a good assignment and the punishment or

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

60
51’
EBL Programs
'3 4-1- \ 4‘
H .__
4.)
a
8
34-
H
m
cum
*5:
o 2.-
UNH
O
o
392’
I38 11*
«E
J J L I
I V l .
NEC Coordi-
Directors nators Educatees
Hirearchical Scale
EVN Programs 51-
3 4" \\
H
4.)
a
O
L)
F! 34.
m
020
H13
8P4
m. 2»
O
o
:9:
$8 1
-r
3:5
: 4. : 4
NEC Coord1- Educatees

Directors nators

Figure 7. Ideal Distribution of Control in EBL and
EVN Programs

 

61

sanctions imposed for poor assignments. The purpose of

these questions was to better understand how control is

exercised in adult programs.

Question 11 asked about rewards:

11. What happens if a participant in your group

does an especially good assignment in your

class?

1. His coordinator will praise him.

2. His classmates will praise him.

3. His classmates will criticise him.

4. He may be Offered to become coordinator's
ass1stant.

5. He will be given better grades and
certificates.

6. His classmates will have a high opinion of him.

7. He will have a better opportunity for
advancement in the program.

8. His coordinator will have a high Opinion of him.

9. Nothing will happen.

Respondents were asked to check as many alternative

responses as were apprOpriate.

Table 6 shows the percentage of respondents who checked

each answer.

Item 7,

"He will have a better opportunity for advance-

ment in the program” was the most frequently cited item by

EBL educatees, (48.5 percent) EVN authorities/educators

(57.0 percent), and educatees (69.9 percent and the second

62

 

N N.NN NN N N.NN NN N N.N HH N N.N H .amaawn HHH3 NaHNHoz .N
N N.NN NN N N.NN NH N N.NN NN N N.NH N .sHN No
GOHGHQO smHs m o>m£

HHHB HoumcHoHOOO mam .w
H N.NN NNH H N.NN NN H N.NN HN N H.NN NH .smuNoua

o£u CH ucoaoocw>
now How huchuHomao
Houumn m o>m£ HHN3 om .N

m n.m «H m o.~ mm m m.¢m mm m o.oH w .EN: mo
cOHcNaO swwn m o>m£

HHN3 moumENNMHO mfim .o

.mq mH .moumOHmwuHoo
paw moomuw Houuon
cm>HN up HHHs mm .N

w w.m mH N w.m n q w.mm mm m m.m q .ucmumwmmm
m.HOumaHpHOOO oaooon

Ou pouommo on has om .q

N H.Nq on m n.mq NN o m.om cm H

N

 

 

 

 

 

N N.NN NN N N.NN NH N H.N NH N N.N H .sHH muHoHano
HHN3_moqummmHO mam .m

N N.HH NH N N.N N N N.NN NN N N.HH N .sHN mmHmHa
HHH3 moumfimmmHo mam .N

N N.NN NN N H.NH N N N.NN NN N H.NN NH EH: mmHmua
HHH3 HouchpHOOO mHm .H
xcmN N z NNNN N z xcmm N z xaNN N z Numaom

ANNHqu NHNuzv .wawnzv NNNuzv
mooumopwm muoumoopmxnuSNI mooumospm muouwostNmuON
mEmumoum z>m mEmeOHm Hmm

 

.OHwom ucHon n so oommm ”ouoz
mEmeOHm
z>m paw Hmm SH mooumonpm paw whoumoooMNNOHuHuOSus< up oo>Hoouom mm
mucoEGNNmm< @000 How moum3om mo wonky ucoHoMMHn mo xcmm pom NOGOSUOHM .0 OHan

63

most frequently cited item by EBL authorities/educators
(38.1 percent). This finding is congruent with the
expectations of any educational process; good assignments
usually lead to class progress. However, the data also
indicate that there are some incongruencies in the perceptions
of authorities/educators and those of educatees in both the
EBL and the EVN programs. For example, Item 5, "He will
be given better grades and certificates" was the most
freqently cited item by EBL authorities/educators (45.2
percent) but was the sixth most frequently cited item by
EBL educatees (30.3 percent).

There were also differences between the two programs.
"His coordinator will praise him" was the second most
frequently cited item by both EBL authorities/educators
(38.1 percent) and educatees (45.5 percent) but was the
sixth most frequently cited item by EVN authorities/
educators (16.1 percent) and educatees (29.0 percent).
"Nothing will happen" was chosen by only 2.4 percent of EBL
authorities/educators and only 6.7 percent of EBL
educatees, but by 50.3 percent of EVN authorities/educators
and 42.6 percent of EVN educatees.

As shown in Table 7, EBL authorities/educators most
frequently cited "his classmates will have a low opinion
of him" (48.8 percent), "he will have less Opportunity for
advancement in the program" (33.3 percent), "his classmates

will support him against criticism" (33.3 percent), and

64
”his coordinator will criticize him” (21.4 percent)
respectively. EBL educatees most frequently cited "he
will have less opportunity for advancement in the program”
(37.6 percent), "his classmates will support him against
criticism (36.4 percent), and "he will receive bad gardes”
(33.3 percent).

None of the EBL authorities/educators selected "he
will be sent to an inferior group" and only 12.7 percent of
the EBL educatees selected this item. Among the least
frequently cited items by the EBL authorities/educators
were "his classmates will criticize him" (14.3 percent),
"he will receive bad grades” (14.3 percent), and "nothing
will happen" (14.3 percent).

EBL authorities/educators and educatees had sharply
different perceptions about Item 6: 48.8 percent of the
authorities/educators selected "his classmates will have
a low Opinion of him" whereas only 18.2 percent of educatees
slected-this item.

The perceptions of EVN authorities/educators and
educatees were markedly similar regarding punishment for
poor assignments. Both groups most frequently cited "he
will receive bad grades," "he will have less opportunity for

H

advancement, and "his classmates will criticize him" in
that order. The percentages of respondents were also
quite high for these items: 66.7 percent of the authorities/

educators and 72.3 percent of the educatees selected ”he

.onOm uaHom m m no woman "ouoz

 

65

w m.N NH m o.¢ MN m H.¢ mH N N.NH o .conmmn HHHB mafisuoz .m

o N.NN mN o o.NN NH N «.0H NN m N.N H saw: no
cOHcho 30H m m>m£

HHN3 Houmawpuooo mam .w

N N.NN NN N N.NN NN H N.NN NN N N.NN NH .aNuNouN NNH :H
“GOEQUSNPUm .HOM

Nuwfifiuhoamo poow
mmoH o>m£ HHHB om .N

m N.mN No N H.NN HN o N.NH on H N.NN 0N .EHH mo
GONGHQO BOH m o>m£

HHH3 moumammmHo mwm .o

H N.NN NNH H N.NN NN N N.NN NN N N.NH N .NNNNHN NNN
m>Nooon HHH3 o: .m

N N.N HH N N.N NNH N N.NH HN N N.NN o .NsouN uoHumNaH cm
Ou uaom on HHN3 o: .N

N N.HH NH N N.N NN N N.NN NN N N.NN NH .amHoHuHuo

umcwmwm 8N5 uuommom
HHNB moumammmHO mam .m

 

 

 

 

 

 

m ©.Hm NN m m.NN NN m N.NN Nm N N.NH c .BHH ONHONuNMO
HHN? moumENNMHO mam .N

N N.NN NN m N.NN NH N N.NN NN m N.HN N .EHH mNHOHuHHO
HHN3 Houmcwpuooo mHm .H
NaNN N z xcmm N z Naam N z NamN N z NNNENNchm

.nwpwwmmwn AHmuzN nNNNHuzNw NmNuzv
mooumoawm muoumoflmm\£us< mooumospm wuoumuspm\£u3<
mEmHNOHm z>m mfimuwoum Hmm

 

mucoecmem< Hoom
you unoafimHsnm mo NOQNH ucouomem wcwumOHpaH quopaoamom mo owmucoouom .N oHan

66
will receive bad grades;" 56.3 percent of the authorities/
educators and 62.9 percent of the educatees selected "he
will have less opportunity for advancement," and 42.9
percent of the authorities/educators and 51.6 percent of
the educatees selected "his classmates will criticize

him. The least frequently cited items by the EVN
respondents were "nothing will happen" and "he will be
sent to an inferior group."

That a relatively large proportion of EBL respondents
indicated that classmates will support participants
against criticism in consistent with the participative
mode of Operation as discussed by Tannenbaum (1974) and
Knowles (1975).

The data in Tables 6 and 7 suggest that participants
in EBL programs are more likely to be praised when they
do a good assignment than to be criticized when they
do poor class work. This situation may reflect the amount
of supportiveness by coordinators (see previous section).

EVN programs on the contrary, show that participants
are more likely to be criticized for poor assignments than
praised for good assignments. These results are consistent
with the expected low level of control ascribed to these
programs by respondents in Figure 7.

In EBL and EVN programs more respondents indicated

that coordinators will criticize educatees than indicated

that coordinators merely will have a low Opinion Of educatees.

67

The likelihood that "nothing will happen" when one
does well than when one does poorly is greater for the EVN
program than for the EBL program. This suggests that
something is more likely to happen in response to a poor
EVN assignment than in response to a good assignment.
Skinner (1971) provides a partial explanation of the
preeminence of punishment. According to Skinner's theories
punishment could be a reaction to the manifest threat to
the schooling system that is created by substandard class
performance. At the same time, punishment is also related
to an individual's learning history. Learning history
is treated as an intervening variable in this research
(see Figure 2).

In contrast, the percentage of EBL respondents who
indicated that "nothing will happen" in response to a good
or poor assignment was very low.

The explanation for the differences between the EBL
and EVN programs may be connected to their educational
philOSOphies. Tannenbaum et a1. (1979) showed that
there is a greater tendency to give sanctions for mis-
behavior than to give praise to people as a reward when
they behave well. Since EBL programs are trying to develOp
a problem-posing education, they are part of an effort to
change the traditional pattern or system of rewards and
sanctions. Nevertheless, EBL authorities/educators are

still somewhat traditional in their approach to participat-

68

ive learning. For example, a very low percentage of the
authorities/educators selected "his classmates will praise
him" as a reward. This means that directors, promotors,
chiefs Of studies, and other authorities do not expect
those in the participant's own group to reward their
classmates. This is also indicated by the responses to
the reward, "his classmates will have a high Opinion of
him" and to the punishment, "his classmates will criticize
him."

Finally, there is a different approach to grading
in the two programs. In EBL programs, grades are not
supposed to be as important as they are in EVN programs.
This could explain why only 33.3 percent of EBL educatees

selected bad grades as a means of punishment as compared

with 72.3 percent of EVN educatees.

Classmate and Coordinator Control

 

Punishment can be seen as a means of class control.
Nevertheless, participants may find that punishment is an
"adversive stimulus" or a "negative reinforcement"
(Skinner, 1971). For example, the effectiveness of
criticism, as a technique Of control depends to some extent
on the educatee's sensitivity to the criticism. In the
development of problem-posing education, educators will not
be able to give feedback to educatees if the educatees

are "indifferent" toward the teacher's criticism.

69
Questions 19 and 20 were designed to gain information
about educatee's reactions to criticism by coordinators and
classmates:
19. Suppose your coordinator told you that
you did some assignment very badly. How

much would it bother you?

20. Suppose some of your classmates told you
that you did some assignment very badly.
How much would this bother you?
Responses to both questions were to be checked on a scale
ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much).

As shown in Table 8, the average scores for both
programs were relatively low suggesting that criticism by
classmates or coordinators did not "bother" respondents
in either program to any great extent. It does appear,
however, that criticism by coordinators and classmates
bothered EBL respondents slightly more than EVN respondents.
As can be seen in Figure 8, more EBL respondents chose
higher scores on the effects scale than did EVN respondents.

The participative model for the EBL programs call for
the extence of peer-generated influence and sensitivity
to criticism by classmates. Although EBL participants are
aparently more sensitive to criticism than are those in
EVN programs, the average for the group as a whole was
low. Since criticism is not the only means of control in a

learning setting, these results cannot be interpreted as

70

Table 8. Summary Data on Respondents' Reactions to
Criticism by Coordinators and Classmates.

 

 

 

 

 

EBL Programs EVN Programs t-Test

Questions i S N i S N t df p
Coordinators'
Criticism

19. 2.61 4.92 89 1.84 3.18 81 1.192 168 (.10
Average 2.51
Classmates
Criticism

20. 2.42 4.37 109 1.09 3.92 93 2.252 200.(,05
Average 1.46

 

Note: Based on a 5 point scale

incongruencies within the program. Additional evidence

is needed to draw conclusions in that regard.

Bases of Power

 

The exercise of power as well as the acceptance Of
authority are important theoretical concerns in the study
of participation. Thus a major emphasis of this study was
whether or not participants in EBL programs, which must
be formally participative, differ from those in non-
participative programs in their reason for accepting authority.

Question 32 focused on the power of coordinators;

32. When you do what your coordinator asks you
to do in your classes or as homework, why do

you do it?

71

 

 

 

 

 

 

gm ——
30" ....m
Coordinators

U)

4.)

a

.3; 20'-

c

O

n.

03

o

a:

'3 10 d-

o

no

N

I.)

G

o

8

g: j I d ‘u I
l 2 3 4 5

Not at all Very MUch
Effect of Criticism
Average Score
30 w-
Classmates

U)

I.)

8

.0 20 '1'-

a

O

a.

U)

o

a:

u...

O 101’

o

an

m

U

c

o

O

S u H N u u

g, F r T T I l4
l 2 3 4 5

Not at all Very Much

Figure 8.

Effect of Criticism
Average Score

Respondents' Reactions to Criticismypy Coordinators
and Classmates

 

72

H

I respect his competence and judgment.
2. He can give special help and benefits.

3. He can give bad grades or otherwise dis-
advantage me.

4. He is a nice person.
5. It is my duty.

6. It is necessary if the program is to function
prOperly.

Respondents were asked to rate each item on a scale
ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (to a very great extent).
The six items were designed to clarify why an individual
may accede to the influence Of another during regular
class development.
The items included in Question 32 were adapted
from Tannenbaum et al. (1974b). Tannenbaum and his colleagues
noted that the "accession to influence based on personal
commitment is called by theorists the '1aw of the setvation.'"
Drawing upon models by Likert and by French and Raven,
they then identified reasons why individuals would accede
to personal influence:
these reasons include the belief that the
person exercising control: (1) has superior
knowledge relevant to the task; (2) can dispense
rewards or (3) punishment; (4) is attractive
as an individual; or (5) has the ri ht to
exercise control. .... To these we ave added
a sixth which implies accession to influence

out of a sense of commitment to a large
purpose served by the organization.

73

As shown in Table 9, EBL respondents most frequently
cited "it is my duty" (89.8 percent), "it is necessary if
the program is to function properly," (80.7 percent), and
"he is a nice person" (72.9 percent). The average scores
for these items were 4.5, 4.2, and 3.7 respectively. EVN
respondents, on the other hand, most frequently cited "he
can give bad grades or otherwise disadvantage me" (87.2
percent), "it is necessary if the program is to function
prOperly" (79.9 percent), and "it is my duty" (77.8 per-
cent). The average scores for these items were 4.4, 4.0,
and 3.8 respectively.

"He can give special help and benefits" was the least
frequently cited item by EBL respondents. Only 46.4
percent of EBL participants selected this item. This item
also received the lowest average scores (2.3) of any of
the EBL items. The coordinators ability to give special
favors and benefits was the second least frequently cited
item by EVN respodents; 55.7 percent of the respondents
selected this item and the average score was 2.7.

Whereas "he is a nice person” was the third most
frequently chosen item by EBL respondents, it was the least
frequently cited item by EVN respondents. Only 47.6
percent of the EVN respondents selected this item in
contrast to 72.9 percent of EBL respondents. This item also

had the lowest average (2.4) of the EVN scores.

74

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NNH u z z>mo
NNH u z HNNH

H "onOm uaHoa m N GO vOmmmm "mouoz

 

 

 

 

 

 

N o.N N N.N N N.NN NHH N N.ow NmH .NHHomoum GOHansm
ou mH Smumoum «no
HH Nummmoooc mH HH .0
N N.N H N.N N N.NN NHH H N.NN NNH .NusN NE NH NH .N
o N.N m N.m o N.NN HN m N.NN HNH nomuom oOHc M NH om .N
H N.N m N.N H N.Nm omH N N.Nm No .08 owmucw>wmmHn
omHBHoSHO HO movmuw
pan o>Hw amo mm .m
N N.N N N.N N N.NN NN N N.NN NN .NHHNmsoN Nam NH»:
HMHooam m>Hw cmo om .N
N N.N N N.N N H.HN 00H m o.om mm .ucma
nwpsn cum mucouom
nEOO NH: uooamou H .H
xcmm mwmuo>< wcmm mwmuoww xcmm INF z ,wmmm .NI 2 commom
Oz>m Hmm Oz>m nHmm
mohoom NoGOSUOHm

 

Hozom mo mommm .muoumchuooo mo mGOHumoouom m.oouwospm .m oHHMH

75

In EBL programs, priority was given to "it is my duty,"
while the EVN programs gave priority to punishment, (i.e.,
"he can give bad grades or otherwise disadvantage me" (item
3). Nevertheless, both programs show that their bases of
power are primarily centered with respondents perceptions
of duty and the need to assure that the program functions
prOperly. This pattern of responses is similar to those
reported by Tannenbaum's studies of organizations such as
colleges, factories, and utility companies. This suggests
that these findings can be generalized to other settings.

The lack of emphasis on the EBL coordinators' ability
provide special help and benefits and to give had grades
suggests that EBL participants may have internalized the
philosophy of problem-posing education.

The findings in this section could be seen as
contradictory to those in the previous sections. However,
the previous section emphasized rewards and punishment
whereas the present data refer mostly to educatees'
acceptance Of a coordinators' control.

One explanation for these results may be that
coordinators could behave in a coercive way, but that EBL
participants may not respond to that coercion. This is seen
in the low priority assigned to the EBL coordinators ability
to give educatees bad grades. Hence, coercion scores low
as an effective basis of control in EBL programs. This

finding is similar to those found by Bachman and others

(Tannenbaum,

76

1974) in their 1968 research on modern

organizations in different countries. They found that

coercion was a relatively ineffective basis of power.

Furthermore,

there is a cultural pattern of "passive

resistance" in Peru. Various social scientists have noted

that Peruvians can choose to not perceive coercion. Cotler

(1976) explained:

The mestizo group is free to act in accordance
with its own initiatives, even reinterpreting
dispositions which could reduce the range of its
attributions.

Question 42 asked coordinators' to indicate their

perceptions of their own power in class.

42. When your students do what you as them to

do in your classes or as homework, why do

you think they do it?

1.
2.

I respect his competence and judgment.
He can give special help and benefits.

He can give bad grades or otherwise dis-
advantage me.

He is a nice person.
It is my duty.

It is necessary if the program is to function
properly.

Respondents were also asked to rate each item on a

scale of 1 (not at all) to 5 (to a very great extent). The

data in Table 10 show that both EBL and EVN coordinators most

frequently selected "it is necessary if the program is to

77

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HN u z Hmmn
ucouxo umohw Nuo> m OH H m .HHm um uoc u H "onom ucHom m N no pommmm “mmuoz
H N.N H N.N H N.NN HN H N.NN NN .NHHNNOHN :oHHo::N
OH NH Emuwoum onu
HH thmmmooc mH uH .o
N N.H N N.N N N.NN NH N N.NN NN .NusN “Hosp NH NH .N
m o.H N m.H m m.Nm HN N N.Nm wN .cOmHoa mOHc m Em H .N
N N.N N N.N N N.NN NN N N.HH N NNNNHNN>NNNHN
omHshosuO no movmuw
wwn.fim£u o>Hw cwo H .m
N N.N N N.N N N.NN HN N N.NN NN .NHHHmaNN Nam NH»:
HmHoomm m>Hw cmo H .N
N N.N N N.N N N.NN mN N N.NN mm .ucoE
umpdm wow mucouma.
nEOO NE Hoommon NoHH .H
Noam mwmuo>< mamm owmuo>< ,wcmm NI 2 5mm 0 z Commom
Oz>m nHmm Oz>m HHmm
mwouoom NocoSUOHm

 

Hozom HO mommm HHmau HO cOHuaoOHom m.HOumchHoou .OH oHan

78

function properly" place, and second most frequently
chose "they respect my competence and judgment".

The reSponses of educatees and coordinators were
marked different. While EBL educatees did their work
because "it is their duty", coordinators believe they work
because of the need to have a good functioning program. In
EVN programs, educatees were mainly concerned with bad
grades while coordinators chose the need to have a properly
functioning program. In summary, educatees and coordinators'
perceptions differed regarding the bases of power in both
kinds of programs (formally participative and non participat-
ive). Nevertheless, coercion (i.e., bad grades) scored low
in coordinators' perceptions and received the lowest average

score (0.5) in the EBL programs.

Hierarchical Relationships

Hierarchy in educational programs for adults implies
that there are differences in the authority and influence
of participants as well as in the rewards associated with
their work.

All educational programs are structured hierarchically,
but some are less hierarchical than others. The participative
educational program deemphasizes hierarchy because of its
equalitarian philosophy of dialogue and cultural action.
Therefore, formal distinctions of rank are less important

than informal distinctions may be' participants in the program.

79

The teacher is no longer merely the one-who-teaches,

but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the

students, who in turn while being taught also teach.

They become jointly reSponsible for a process in

which all row. In this process, arguments based on

"authority' are no longer valid; in order to function,

authority must be on the side of freedom, not against

it. (Freire, 1973).

....the role of the teacher is that of professional

technician and guide as well as a subject-matter

resource. Teachers ensure that the learning environ-
ment is rich enough for the group to extract signifi-
cant learning....

The learning design must be planned as a sequence

of activities that involve the whole group in

decision making about learning gaps, contents, and

strategies. The group decides which techniques

and materials are most apprOpriate and effective

for achieving specified goals. (Srinivasan, 1977).

One of the main objectives of the EBL programs is to
establish a method that invalidates the traditional concepts
of authority and hierarchy. This method should reinforce
EBL develOpment as a participative program.

The decision-making process for areas such as curriculum
develOpment, instructional techniques, and evaluation is
largely distributed among the NCE Director, Program Director,
Study Chief, Promotors, Coordinators and Educatees. The
evaluation and control of the EBL program, as well as the
character Of interpersonal relationships, are quite
distinctive from that seen in non-participative programs.

The following data attempt to assess the importance of
hierarchy in adult education programs and to show whether
and how authority and reward associated with hierarchy might

differ between EBL and EVN programs.

80

Attitude Toward Advancement

 

Organizational theorists agree that hierarchy has a
potential impact on pe0ple. This can be explained because
individuals see hierarchy as means of achieving personal
success. Consequently, they want to advance in the
hierarchy to meet their needs and desire for success. The
EBL and the EVN programs were created to help those who
did not have the Opportunity to obtain schooling during
infancy and adolescence. Furthermore, EBL is the only
program in the country that will continue this educational
service.

To measure the mobility aspirations of respondents,
the following question was asked:

33. Imagine that, because of your training in this

program, you were offered the following positions
in your work. Would you accept them or not?

(Circle one number on each line).

Yes NO
1. Move to a higher level position
that has considerably more
obligations and responsibilities
for you. 1 2

2. Move to a higher level position
that requires training than entails

many sacrifices on your part. 1 2

81
Yes NO
3. Move to a higher level position
where you may be frequently
criticized. l 2
4. Move to a higher level position
in which you would have a group of
”problem" employees working for you. 1 2
5. MOve to a higher level position in
which there are more worries than
you now have connected with your
present work. 1 2
It is know that hierarchy has different meaning for
peOple in different systems. In general, the re3ponses from
both programs' were similar. As shown in Table 11, re-
spondents expressed a relatively high motivation to advance
in their work positions. Authorities in the EVN programs
seen to have more mobility needs than other respondents.
This is probably because these programs are scheduled to end
by 1979. As a consequence, it is likely that all of the EVN
authorities are feeling a greater need for mobility than are
those whose programs are scheduled to continue. Neverthe-
less, tOp members in EBL programs also showed some interest
in higher positions. Table 12 shows that there is no
significant difference in EBL and EVN participants' willing-

ness to face Obstacles to advancement.

82

 

 

 

 

 

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nn N.NN nu n N.Nm nn H.HN nn nn 0.0m nn nn o.mN nn nu N.mN nn ucOOHom
wwmum><
m N.HN No N.HN 0N N.Nm mH m N.Hm mm m o.m N N N.NN NN .mOHHH03
who: .m
N H.NN NN H.NN NH N.HN NH N N.NN NN N N.NH N N.NN NH .NNNNOHHHEN
SOHHOHA .N
m H.NH NN N.NN NN N.NN ON m N.HN mm m N.NH mH N.NN HH .ENHOHHHHU
uaosvonm .m
N o.HN Hm N.Nm HN N.Nm NH N o.om mm N m.mN mH o.Hm NH .mOOHHHHOmm
mouHDU
non umsu
wchHmHH .N
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nHmcommou
paw chHumw
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Mmooumospm omuoumchuooommoHuHhonua< Omoouwoopm anoumaHpuooo mNOHuHHonu5<
z>m Hmm

 

unoaoocm>p< Ou
NOHOmumno uaouommHQ ovum ou mmocwcHHHHB .mucovcommom HO xcmm pcw mucouwoum

.HH mHNmH

83

Table 12. Summary Data of Respondents Willingness to
Face Different Obstacles to Advancement

 

EBL Programs EVN Programs t-test
Question i S N X S N t df p

 

 

33 (1-5) 2.36 4.72 195 2.17 4.52 198 0.19 391 ns

 

Note: Based on a 5 point scale.
One cultural element of Peruvian society is the tendency
to see mobility in the hierarchy as being representative
of achievement. This may explain why hierarchical advancement
was important to respondents in both adult programs. In
spite of this, coordinators in EBL programs seem to have
less aspirations for mobility than authorities, although
coordinators in EVN programs had lesser aspirations.
Question 4 and 5 were designed to determine participants'
perceptions of their opportunities for job advancement:
4. Are there real possibilities for people like
you to be promoted in those courses that you are
attending? (1 = no possibilities at all ... 5 =
very many possibilities.)
5. Do you think that at some short period of time
in the near future you will have the Opportunity
to be promoted to an advanced cycle in this
program. (1 = not at all probable ... 5 = almost

certain.)

84

The responses to these questions suggest that there are
minor significant differences between the programs.

However, both programs had low percentages in reference to
the question on real reSponsibilities for advancement.
Consequently, there is an incongruency between the reality
of the EBL program and its policy of individual promotion

in accordance with each student's needs and progress. These
results revealparticipants perceptions of opportunities to
be promoted are lower than whqt would be expected given

the Educational Reform Law.

As shown in Table 13 and Table 14, only 21.0
percent of EBL educatees believed that they had any "real
possibilities for advancement". An even smaller percentage
of coordinators (15.5 percent) felt that they had any real
possibilities for advancement. In contrast, 38.0 percent
of EBL authorities saw a real possibility of advancement.

In all cases, EVN respondents had lower scores than
their EBL counterparts; only 13.7 percent of the authorities,
7.9 percent of the coordinators and 18.8 percent of the
participants saw any real possibilities of advancement.

This is not surprising as EVN participants are promoted
according to the traditional system.

With the exception of EBL authorities, more respondents
in all categories saw Opportunities to be promoted in the
near future, than saw real possibilities for advancement in

their current courses. However, the percentages were still

85
relatively low. Thus, 30.9 percent of EBL authorities,
36.6 percent of EBL coordinators, and 46.9 percent of
EBL educatees expected to be promoted to an advanced cycle
in the near future. In the EVN program, 31.4 percent of
authorities, 47.6 percent of coordinators, and 24.2
percent of edcuatees expected to be promoted.

In general, the findings suggest that respondents are
pessimistic about their opportunities for advancement. This
finding in congruent with those of DESCO studies on teachers'
attitudes in Peru. In studies on educators' conditions in
adult education, DESCO (1976) found that teachers felt
very frustrated and laced aspirations. These attitudes
can be related to the teachers' low socio-economic level.
Furthermore, teachers used to perceive their jobs as good
channels for social mobility; however, economic conditions
in Peru have aggravated their situation and their possibilit-

ies of getting promotions are quite restricted.

Perceived Advantages and Requirements for Promotions
Question 37 was designed to analyze participants'

attitudes towards advancement:

37. What do you think are the main advantages
to being promoted into a superior cycle or
position in this kind of programs?

1. Prestige or esteem.

2. MOre variety of tasks.

86

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me om.q No.m

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mmwumodwm muoumanHooo meuHHosuD<

 

mamnwOHm z>m

mamuwoum Hmm

 

unmEoocm>U< How moHuHcfiuHoaao mo mGOHummoumm .muaopcommmm .MH mNQflw

 

87
Independence.
. More number of social contacts.
Opportunity to make decisions.
. Opportunity to enlarge one's skills.
Opportunity to enlarge one's knowledge.

Influence with people from outside.

©m\lO\U14-\UJ

. More certificates to teach better wages at work.
10. There are no advantages.
Respondents were asked to select three of the 10 items in
Question 37. As none of the respondents selected "there
are no advantages", this item was omitted from the analysis
The results of Question 37 are shown in Table 15.
As a group EBL participants perceived "independence,"

I

"Opportunity to enlarge their knowledge,’ and ”variety of

tasks,‘ as important rewards of advancement. ”Prestige and
esteem” received the lowest ranking and "opportunities for
making decision" received a relatively low ranking. When
each level was treated individually, the rankings were quite
different. Most EBL authorities selected "certificates

for reaching better wages,‘ coordinators selected "independ-
ence" and educatees selected "influence with peOple from
outside."

EVN participants most frequently selected with pe0ple
15rom.outside." "Independence" and "opportunity to enlarge
tileir knowledge" were least frequently selected by the

Eglfioups as a whole. Within the individual levels, authorities

“10 st frequently selected "prestige and esteem,‘ coordinators

 

88

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umuuon comma cu
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Eouw oHnooa
nuHa oucoaHmcH .w
m N.NH an e c.NH 0N N H.HH N m m.o o H N.NN NN N 0.0N an N N.NN cN N o.wN NH owquzocx
n.uco owucho
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u.o:o omucho
ou NuHcsuuonno .o
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oxwa ou NuHcauuoaao .n
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mo noses: who: .¢
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_ mo huoHun> ouoz .N
m H.Hn cm a N.N NH N N.Hm 0N H N.Nn on w N.HH Hm o m.¢H «N m m.a N n n.a c aoouao no owHuuoum .H
cm . cm . cm . cm . cam . cm . cm . cm . z acoHuoaoum
a: u 2 N9: . z” HS . 2” HR u 2W. 9: .. 2% 3H . z HN . 2 S .. a mo «83533
0.9392 «mouse—Hum mucus—56.300 33:05.3 ammuoaq 33.333. 332.3600 uoHuHuofiHE

 

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.nH oHLMH

89

selected "influence with people from outside," and educatees

selected "more certificates to reach better wages."

The pattern of requirements for advancement in the

 

hierarchy was analyzed next. Question 14 asked:

14. How important are each of the following

factors for getting ahead in your NEC

or program?

(D

10.
11.
12.

13.

Respondents

point scale.

\lO‘U‘l-L‘UJNH

. Quality of assignment done.

Quantity of assignment done.

. His coordinator's opinion of him.

. Dependability.

Creativeness,inventiveness.

Seniority in the program.

. Having friends in the NEC and Program

Directorate.

. Having good professional knowledge.

. Taking initiative.

Having outstanding ability to work with people.
Trusting the educational program.

Recommendations of political or religious
nature.

Working hard to achieve learning.

were asked to check their answers on a five

As shown in Table 16, EBL respondents most frequently

selected "working hard to achieve learning” (84.9 percent),

while the majority of EVN respondents selected "quality of

9O

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HmHoz

 

 

 

 

 

c N.H H N.N N m.Hm Nw H m.qw NNN .wchHmoH o>mH£om
on Numn wcquoz .NH
HH N.H HH N.o w o.NN HN NH N.NH 0N .munum: mDOH
awHHmH no HmoHuHHom
mo maOHumpaoEEoomm .NH
N H.N N N.N N H.NN NNH N N.NN NON .smumoua HmaoHHm
nonwm mfiu wcHumDHH .HH
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91

the assignment done” (67.7 percent). The average scores
for these two items were 4.3 and 3.8 reSpectively.

"Having good professional knowledge” (78.1 percent)
and ”taking initiative" (74.9 percent) were the second
and third most frequently cited items in EBL programs.
EVN respondents chose "dependability" (63.9 percent),
"having good professional knowledge" (63.1 percent).
"Having friends in the NBC and Program Directorate"
received a low ranking in both programs. Only 19.7 percent
of the EBL respondents and 19.0 percent of the EVN
respondents chose this item which received an average
score of 1.0 in EBL programs and .09 in EVN programs.
"Recommendations of political or religious nature" also
received a low score in both programs: the average EBL
score was 0.7 and the average EVN score was 1.2.

Tannenbaum et al. (1974b) found that the pattern of
requirements for advancement is quite universal, even in
social systems that have completely different ideologies.

This was also true for this study "working hard to

achieve learning, the quality of the assignment, good
professional knowledge and dependability" appear to be the

most important requirements for both programs.

Authority and Influence
As mentioned previously, the distribution of authroity

and influence in developing the EBL program (e.g., curriculum,

92
instructional techniques, and evaluation criteria), served
as one of the bases for the gradients in reaction and
adjustment that are being analyzed in this study.
Differentials in authority and influence are always present
when there are differences in hierarchical positions. Two
questions were designed to examine these differences:

1(g) In reference to the program you are attending,
to what extent can you... have authority over
other people?

16(d) How much influence do ... you personally
actually have on what happens in this
program or classes?

Another pair of questions was used to inquire about
the amount of authority and influence the respondents
prefer to have:

2(g) In relation to your program and classes, to

what exten should you ... have authority over
other people?
17(d) How much influence ... should you personally
have on what happens in this program or classes?
These questions were answered on a five-point scale ranging
from "very little" to "a great deal."

The responses to the above questions were analyzied
with respect to position in hierarchy (i.e., authorities,
coordinators, and educatees). Each position was given a

numerical ranking; thus authorities at the top of the NEC

93
hierarchy were assigned a score of l, coordinators a 2, and
educatees a 3. The finding were then charted in Figure 9.
The solid lines in this figure represent the average scores
for the questions on actual authority and influence. The
broken lines represent the average scores for the questions
on preferred or "ideal” authority and influence.

The amount of authority and influence can then be
c0mpared with a general hierarchical pattern. As can be
seen in Figure 9, members at top positions had higher
scores than members in lower positions.

The differences between the actual influence and
authority in EBL and EVN programs suggest that EBL program
have a better distribution of influence.

Discrepancies between the ideal and actual amount
of authority and influence in EBL and EVN programs show
the same pattern that has been found in the research of
Porter and Lawler (1968) and of Tannenbaum (1974). These
researchers found that differences between the ideal and
acutal are much greater near the bottom than near the tOp
of the hierarchy.

The level of expected authority and influrnce for EBL
programs shown in Figure 9 suggest that there is a great
deal of congruency between the ideal and the problem-
solving method. However, the acutal level of authority
and influence seems to be more hierarchical than was expected.

Comparing these findings with those on participativeness

94

EBL Actual )(—-——)(
Ideal X- — ...x

EVN Actual o—o

 

 

 

Ideal .._,__‘
5 "
4 ..
m
U
c:
o
s
a: .-
a 3
H
'o
c
m
>5 2 up
4...)
-H
u
o
.c
‘5
< l -’
_l a I
U 1 fl
1 2 3
Authori- Coordi-
ties nators Educatees

Position in Hierarchy

Note: Average scores of responses to Q 1(g) and Q 16 (d) on
acutal authority and influence and to Q 2(g) and Q 17
(d) on ideal authority and influence. 1 = ”very little;"
5 = "a good deal."

Figure 9. Actual and Ideal Authroity and Influence by
Position in Hierarchy

95
(see Figure 8) than it appears that EBL programs are not
yet totally participatory.

The straight line in the EVN curve in Figure 9
represents a two level hierarchy. This suggests that
there is a relatively strong association between position
and authority and influence. These aspects are congruent
with EVN adult program philosophy. By company the EBL and
EVN curves, we can better understand the EBL program
improvement, because the comparison shows that there
are distinct differences between the two parograms.

Figure 9 also suggests that, in general, authority and
influence have a clear and sharp hierarchical distribution
even in programs where there are some participative
conditions. One explanation for this might be that the
slope of the "ideal” curve in EBL is flatter than that of
the "acutal" curve. This may be because individuals at
the bottom of the hierarchy probably desire a greater
increase in their authority and influende than do
individuals at upper levels. These findings are similar
to those of earlier research on organizations and part-
icipatory adult education programs.

Just as the problem-posing method of learning implies
that there is a better distribution of control and influence
between educators and educatees, so too do coordinators
desire to have more influence in their programs. The

differences in the level of aspirations of EBL and EVN

96
coordinators are very distinctive. The same differences
can also be found in the asperators of educatees in both
kinds of programs. The differences between the actual and
ideal levels for both programs suggest that the two
programs are more congruent ideally than in their day—to-day
Operations. In spite of this the levels in both programs

are consistent with their philosophies.

The Learning Environment

 

It is well known that in many different types of
organizations members at higher levels generally have better
opportunities to use their own ideas, to learn a variety of
new things, and to utilize their skills and abilities than
do those at lower levels. Traditional programs of
education, which Freire called "banking systems" also have
these characteristics. In these systems, educators believe
that they have the knowledge and that educatees are like
empty containers which need to be filled with information.
Freire (1973) commented:

The more completely he fills the receptacles,

the better a teacher is. The more meekly the

receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the

better students they are.

Education thus becomes an act of depositing, in

which the students are the depositories and the

teacher is the depositor. Instead of communicating,

the teacher issues communiques and makes deposits

which the students patiently receive, memorize, and
repeat.

97

Opportunities for achieving a better way of learning
have been explored in earlier research on educational and
work organizations. These Opportunities are highly related
to peOple's satisfaction, involvement, and the use of a
dialogue approach during the development of class programs.
Some of these methods represent an implicit reward in
the work being undertaken Argyris (1974), Bruner (1961),
Tannenbaum (1974) and others. The differences in rewards
given to persons with different positions explains to some
extent "the impact of hierarchy on the reactions and
adjustments of members" (Tannenbaum, 1974).

Freire maintained that Opportunities for satisfaction
can be intrinsic in the method of learning. For example,
problem-posing education implies a reward; people can say
their "own words” and learn from each other. Freire (1973)
described such learning as follows:

They must abandon the educational goal of deposit-

making and replace it with the posing of the

problems of men in their relations with the world.

'Problem-posing' education, responding to the essence

of consciousness - intentionality - rejects communiques

and embodies communication. ... It is a learning
situation in which the cognizable object ... Inter-

mediates the cognitive actors - teacher on the one
hand and students on the other.

LearningiOpportunities
Questions 1 and 2 were designed to help understand

EBL and EVN educatees perceptions of learning Opportunities:

1. In
(a.
(b.
(c.
(d.
(e.

(f.

(8-
2. In

98

your classes, to what extent can you:

)

)
)
)
)

)
)

Learn new things?

Use your own ideas?

Do interesting work?

Use your skills, knowledge, and abilities?

Talk with other peOple during your class
sections? (dialogue, discussion, communication)

Decide your own rhythm of learning?

Have authority over other peOple?*

your classes, to what extent wouldAyou

 

like to: ... (The response categories to this

question were the same as to number 1.)

Question 41 asked coordinators about participants'

Opportunities for learning:

41. In your opinion, to what extent can your students/

participants:

(a.) Learn new things?

(b.) Use your own ideas?

(c.) DO interesting work?

(d.) Use your skills, knowledge, and abilities?

(e.) Talk with other peOple during your class
sections? (dialogue, discussion, communication)

(f.) Decide your own rhythm of learning?

Responses to each item.were checked on a scale ranging from

(1 = not at all ... to 5 = very much).

 

*Item (g.) was not analyzed in this section because it forms
part of the authority-influence index.

99

Thus, the questions provide information on perceptions
of the classes‘ tendency to provide participants with learning
opportunities, on participants' aspirations regarding what
they would like to learn and in which sort of learning
environment, and on hgw_coordinators perceive learning
Opportunities in their classes.

These data have demonstrated some of the features of
hierarchy which were inferred from Figure 9: the steepness
of the actual curve in EVN programs, and the relative
curvelinearity of those in EBL, also at the actual level.

As shown in TablelfiEBL programs scored highly in
almost all these characteristics. The Opportunities to
"discuss and talk with your groups during class" has cited
by 59.0 percent of the educatees and by 56.4 percent of the
coordinators. "The Opportunity for learning new things"
was cited by 51.2 percent of the educatees while 67.6
percent of the coordinators cited this item.

The lowest percentage (33.1) of EBL educatees selected
the Opportunity to "use your own ideas." However, this was
the most frequently cited items by coordinators (74.7 percent).
There is alos a relevant difference in the perceptions about
the opportunity to "do interesting assignments: only 46.9
percent of the educatees selected this item.whereas 71.8
percent of the coordinators chose the item. Coordinators
also cited the opportunity to "use your skills, knowledge,
and ability" more frequently than did educatees (63.4

percent vs 41.3 percent). Both coordinators and educatees

1130

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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101
gave relatively low ratings to "decide your own rhythm
of learning." Only 42.3 percent of the coordinators and
47.6 percent of the educatees selected this item. It seems
that this is the only weak aspect in reference to the
development of the problem-posing method in EBL programs.
However, there is a great deal of congruency between the
data in Figure 3, on attitudes and communication, and the
data on learning opportunities particularly with respect
to the opportunity to "discuss and talk with your group
during classes.

The EVN programs data are consistent with the
traditional method of learning. The highest percentage of
educatees (41.6 percent) selected the opportunity to "learn
new things." Only a low percentage of the educatees
selected the rest of the opportunities. Furthermore, the
percentages for "ideal" learning opportunities are also
lower than those in the EBL programs.

When these results are compared with the scores in
Figure 3, it is apparent that there is an incongruency between
the low percentage of educatees and coordinators who
selected the opportunity to "discuss and talk with your
group during class" and the higher rating given to
communication in Figure 3.

Finally, the data in Table 17 helps to demonstrate
that EBL programs are formally as well as informally

participative in reference to learning opportunities, and,

102
That EVN programs are formally and informally non-participa-

tive.

Physical Enviornment in EBL Classes
In some NECs, EBL programs have already established
workshops and laboratories where participants can practice
and be trained in useful new skills. These EBL programs
have obtained various kinds of "modules" and workshop
equipment, but the equipment differs from one NEC to another.*
The quality of the work environment was seen as an
important factor in understanding how the selected NECs
have carried out EBL programs.
All respondents in EBL programs were asked the
following question.
3. Mark with a check along the following lines
more or less near to the end that most closely
describes your class work environment at the
workshOp or laboratory.
(a.) boring ... not boring

(b.) unhealthful ... not unhealthful

 

9?During 1973 and 1974 the Ministry of Education randomly
delivered modules and workshop equipment to NECs all over
the country. Equipment and materials were not assigned in
accordance with communities and programs needs, consequently,
there are that differences in the physical resources of
programs. This information was obtained from sources in the
field and verified by Officials at the Ministry of Education.

103

(c.) physical ... mental
(d.) dirty ... clean
(e.) heavy ... light
(f.) same tasks during ... different tasks during
the day the day
(g.) dangerous ... safe
(h.)alone (individually)... together in group
(i.) independent ... Interconnected with others

of others

The left end of each scale indicates that the environ-
ment and equipment conditions are of poor quality.- The
right end, on the other hand, indicates a desirable learn-
ing setting. The items were coded in terms of a three-point
scale ranging from "negative" to "neutral" to "positive."

"Different tasks during the day" and "interconnected
with others" were excluded from the index. The scores for
these items were similar at all points on the scale.
Different tasks scored 32.3 percent at the positive point,
34.2 percent at neutral, and 33.3 percent at the negative
point. Interconnected scored 32.7 percent at the positive
point, 29.3 percent at neutral, and 32.9 percent at negative.

Responses shown in Figure 10 demonstrate that an
average of about a 62.8 percent of the characteristics
received positive ratings. "Clean environment" received
the highest percentage (76.8) of positive scores while

”not boring" received the lowest percentage (50.0).

104
These data conform reasonably well with the research
expectations regarding formally participative programs.
Nevertheless, the data suggest that the quality of these
programs could be improved to better meet the objectives of
problem-posing education. Ideally and in accordance with
EBL philosophy, all items in this index should receive

ratings higher than 75.0 percent.

Reaction and Adjustment in Adult Education Programs

Differences in participativeness and in the emphasis
placed on hierarchy have been seen in both EBL and EVN
programs. In general, the latter is in many respects less
participative and more hierarchical than the former.

One of the assumptions of problem-posing education is
that participative decisions are more important than
hierarchical ones for such decisions consider the real needs
and interests of all participants.

Participation has been justified on moral as well

as pragamtic grounds. Morally, participation is

associated with democratic and equalitarian values;

participation is therefore valued where democracy

and equality are valued. Pragmatically, participative-

ness is believed (by some) to be a highly effective

system of organization. Among other things,
participation reduces conflict and mitigates,...many
of the unintended and dysfunctional results Of
hierarchy (Tannenbaum et al., 1974b).

A participative problem-posing approach students can
influence program decisions and affect class methodology in

ways that are consistent with participant self-interest.

105

00
l
I

(D
I
I

O
I
U

Environment and Characteristics
0‘ o.
L 1‘
j l

 

 

H; .L : s i : a
40 so 60 70 so 90 100

Percentage of Positive Ratings

Note: a. Not boring; b. Not unhealthful; c. Mental;
d. Clean; E. Light; F. Different tasks during day;

g. Safe; h. together in group; and i. Interconnected
with others.

Figure 10. Ratings of EBL Class Environments

106
Such decisions and consequent new policies will be less
arbitrary and disadvantageous for all educatees. Therefore,
it is assumed that participants will identify more with
their programs and classes and that their increased motivation
will contribute to the development of a better program.
Tannenbaum et a1. (1974) noted that individuals who
participate in decisions feel some responsibility for carry-
ing out these decisions.

Interpersonal relations, dialogue, and communication in
the participative system of problem-posing education differ
greatly from what is found in traditional or banking education.
In participative systems, educators are supportive of their
educatees and receptive of their ideas and suggestions. By
contributing to the personal growth of educatees, educators
help them to feel a sense of personal worth.

According to Freire (1973), in problem-posing education
human beings are able to develop their power to critically
perceive how they exist in the world and where they find
themselves. Citing his experiences in Chile, Freire
explained:

In one of our culture circles in Chile, the group

was discussing (...) the anthropological concept

of culture. In the midst of the discussion, a

peasant who by banking standards was completely

ignorant said: 'Now I see that without man there

is no world'. When the educator responded: 'Let's

say, for the sake of argument, that all men on the

earth were to die, but that the earth itself remained,
together with trees, birds, animals, rivers, seas,

the stars... wouldn't all this be a world? 'On no",

the peasant replied emphatically. 'There would be
no one to say: 'This is a world'.

107

Thus, in problem-posing education, the teacher-student
and the students-teachers reflect simultaneously on them-
selves and the world without dichotomizing this reflection
from action, and thus establish an authentic form of
thought and action.

Advocates of the problem-posing method and participative
theory maintain that educators and/or supervisors should not
transmit communiques and orders unilaterally because their
role is to be facilitators who work wigh students rather than
against them.

Theoretically, participation encourages the exchange
of feelings and ideas. It may reduce discrepancies in
perceptions, trust, and ideals. Discrepancies in the
perceptions of individuals with different levels or ranks
may lead to conflict. Participation can mitigate some of
the effects of hierarchy by encouraging interaction between
educators and educatees.

In this section, two hypotheses will be tested:

0 Hierarchical gradients with respect to
satisfaction, self-esteem, alienation,
identification with and responsibility for
the adult education program should be less
steep in EBL, the participative program, than
in EVN, the non-participative program; and

o Participative education programs will manifest

fewer symptoms of disaffection and conflict

108
between persons whose ranks differ.
Reactions and adjustment are examined in relationship
to the perceptions of respondents regarding satisfaction
with and attitudes toward the program, motivation, and

psychological adjustment including feelings of alienation.

Satisfaction and Attitudes

A major assumption of participative theory is that
persons at higher levels are more advantaged in terms of
the values they share. Consequently, they should be more
satisfied and have more favorable attitudes towards their
organization than do members at lower levels. To be
consistent with this theory, satisfaction and favorable
attitudes should receive high socres in a participative
system.

Three questions were used to analyze the level of
satisfaction in both types of adult education programs:

8. How much satisfaction do you get from your study
program compared with what you can do after
leaving your classes?

9. Do you like belonging to this adult education
program?

10. Do you like the kind of class work you are doing
in this program?
Each question was answered on a five-point scale. High

scores indicate a high level of satisfaction.

109
As can be seen in Table 18, the average score for the
three questions was relatively low for both programs
(2.53 for EBL and 2.46 for EVN). Figure 11 shows the
distribution of program satisfaction by position in

hierarchy.

Table 18. Summary data on Satisfaction with Adult Programs,
Knowledge, and Program Leadership.

 

 

 

 

 

EBL EVN
Program Program t-test

Question i S N i S N t df p

8 and 10
Satisfact-
ion with
program 2.53 4.64 153 2.46 4.26 112 0 163 ns
36 and 36a
Satisfact-
ion with

knowledge 2.23 2.89 116 2.33 4.16 108 0 222 ns

13, 15 and

18. Average

for Satis-

faction

with program

leadership 2.36 3.97 120 1.30 3.92 64 3.07 182 .01

 

NOTE: Based on a 5 point scale: 5'= a high leve of
satisfaction.

The predicted hierarchical tendency is not present in

Figure 11. On the contrary, members at the tOp of the

EBL program were less satisfied with the program.than were
members at the middle and lower levels of the program. Thus,
the findings from this research suggest that there is an

inverted hierarchical situation in EBL. This is contrary

110

 

 

EBL
5 EVN -u—-u-
4---

C“
.3 N
U 3 "" \ \
U ‘\
.‘3 \
m \
~H \
4; \
a: 2 -- \.\
E ‘N
m
N
8°
H 1 a-
a.

I L I

1 I ‘1

Authori- Coordi-
ties nators Educatees

Position in Hierarchy

Note: Average Score for Questions 8, 9, and 10. Based on
a 6 point scale: 5 = a high level of satisfaction.

Figure 11. Prggram Satisfaction by Position in Hierarchy

111
to the hypothesized universal gradient of satisfaction in
organizations (see Tannenbaum et al., 1974b).

However, position can make more of a difference in
some programs than in others. Hence, the low level of
program satisfaction in EBL can be explained because of the
low satisfaction perceived by the authorities in the NEC
compared to the other program: EVN. In EBL programs,
the member's position seems to be important in determing
the features of his work condition as, for example, the
opportunity for retraining to improve the self-actualiza-
tion of teachers and other educational personnel.

As shown in Figure 11 it appears that hierarchy
affects EVN members' satisfaction with the program.
Authorities and coordinators had the highest level of
satisfaction; they even ranked higher than those in EBL
programs. EVN educatees, on the other hand, had a much
lower level of satisfaction than did EBL educatees. The
low level of satisfaction expressed by EVN educatees may
be linked with the lack of learning Opportunities (see
Table 16). EBL educatees, on the hand, gave their program's
learning Opportunities relatively high scores. It should
alos be noted that EVN coordinators and educatees had
different perceptions regardingtfluzlearning opportunities
in their programs.

The findings on EVN program satisfaction are Congruent

with other research findings (Tannenbaum et al., 1974)

112
regarding the relationship between authority-influence and
opportunities in work development. In these cases, it is
expected that more advantages will be found at the top of
the program organization than at the bottom of the
hierarchy. Even so, the scores showing distribution of

satisfaction are still low.

Knowledge Satisfaction

It is generally assumed that members at the bottom of
an organization probably know less about tasks that relate
to the functioning of the whole organization than do members
at the top. Questions 36 and 36a asked respondents about
their knowledge of their program's place in the educational
reform movement:

36. Do you know how your present involvement with

this program fits into the functioning of the
reform of education in the country? (1 = No, I
do not know ... 5 = Yes, I know completely).

36a. Are you satisfied with your level of knOwledge?

(l = No ... 5 = Yes, a great deal)

The average scores for both program are presented in
Table 17. Each question was answered on a five-point
scale. High scores imply a high level of satisfaction.

EBL programs had an average score of 2.23 whereas EVN

programs had an average score of 2.33.

113
EBL

EVN ---—-

Knowledge Satisfaction
N
i
\
\
I
I

 

 

4 i 4.
Authori- Coordi-
ties nators Educatees

Position in Hierarchy

Note: Average Score for Questions 36 and 36a. Based on
a 5 point scale: 5 = a high level of satisfaction.

Figure 12. Knowledge Satisfaction by Position in Hierarchy

114
Figure 12 shows the distribution of scores by position
in the hierarchy. In both programs coordinators reported
more knowledge than educatees and authorities. However,
EVN coordinators appear to be more satisfied with their
knowledge than EBL coordinators. EVN educatees were less
satisfied with their knowledge than EBL educatees and EBL

authorities were less satisfied than those in EVN programs.

Attitude toward Program Leadership

The following questions were used to analyze

respondents' attitudes towards program leadership:

13. Do you think the responsible people (authorities
at the Ministry of Education) have a real inter-
est in facilitating the process of learning
of all participants in these programs? (1. =
No, they do not have any interest ... 5 = Yes,
they have a great interest).

15. Do you think that officials at the Ministry of
Education and authorities in these programs
try to improve the quality of the programs
(curriculum, instruction techniques, training,
etc.) only when they are forced to? (l = Yes,
only when they are forced to ... 5. = No,

they always improve the program quality).

115
18. When a participant in this program makes a
complaint about something such as lack of
dialogue, authoritarianism, etc. is it taken
care of? /(l = Never ... 5 = Always).
As shown in Table 17, the average score for EBL programs
was 2.36 whereas it was only 1.30 for EVN programs.

Although there is more than a one point difference in
the EBL and difference in EVN scores, both programs received
relatively low scores. Given the formal mechanisms for
participation in EBL programs, one would expect a higher
degree of satisfaction with program leadership. The
relatively low average score of 2.36 suggests that these
expectations are incongruent with the program reality and
that EBL participants do not have strong positive attitudes
towards the program leadership. In contrast, the low
average score of the EVN program is consistent with what
would expect from a program that is not formally particip-
ative.

The distribution of attitudes towards program
leadership by position in hierarchy is shown in Figure 13.
Authorities in EBL and EVN programs tended to have quite
different attitudes towards program leadership with EVN
authorities perceiving their program leaders less favorably
than did EBL authorities. Educatees also had quite different

attitudes towards program leadership. Again, EVN educatees

116
had less favorable perceptions of their leaders than did
EBL educatees. Interestingly, the average scores of
coordinators are not very different, although EVN coord-
inators had slightly more positive attitudes towards
program leadership.

Furthermore, the data in Figure 13 suggest that, in
general, attitudes towards program leadership are different
in the two programs. In EBL, it appears that authorities
and educatees have similar attitudes towards program
leadership and that both groups have more favorable
attitudes than coordinators. EVN scores on the other had,
suggest that coordinators and participants have similar
attitudes and that their attitudes are more favorable
than those of authorities. This finding is similar to some
of Tannenbaum's findings (1974) about attitudes in
Yugoslav plants:

The Yugoslav plant(s) ... have a flat gradient of

attitude; workers do not differ very much from

managers in their attitude towards the company
leadership. This desired outcome, however, is
accompained by some unintended consequences.

Yugoslav tOp managers are last among managers

of the five countries in favorableness of

attitudes (p. 140).

Tables 19 and 20 show the percentage of members
with positive attitudes toward officials at the Ministry
of Education, NBC and both kinds of programs, and the
percent tendency is very low for the three levels in EVN.

Comparing summary responses in Table 19, the EBL

members have more favorable attitudes toward officials at

117

 

 

 

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Position in Hierarchy

Note: Average Scores for Question 13, 15, and 18. Based
on a 5 point scale: 5 = a high level of satisfaction.

Figure 13. Attitudes Towards Program Leadership by
Position in Hierarchy

118

the Ministry of Education, NEC's authorities and the
level of participation in the adult programs. However,
Figure 13 clearly shows coordinators have the lowest
average confidence scores in the EBL program.

Differences between EBL and EVN programs related to
items 1., 2. and 3., in Table 19 were significant to the
.001 level (item 1. and 3.) and to the .01 level (item

2.).

Motivation

 

Organizational theory considers that an organization
requires at least three kind of behaviors for its members

to be effective: (1) members must join and stay in the

 

system; (2) they must behave dependably while meeting all

 

requirements of their roles; and (3) members must

contribute in spontaneous and innovative ways beyond formal

 

 

 

requirements (Kahn and Kahn, 1966).

A positive attitude of members and level of satisfact-
ion with the different aspects of the adult program might
be combined to meet the first requirement. Persons who
like the program and who are satisfied with their goals
and objectives will join and stay. The second and third
requirements, including high standards of performance and
innovativeness, are not likely to be met just because
members are satisfied with their roles and duties or

because they like the program. ApprOpriate behavior will

119

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121

depend on the motivation of persons in the programs,
including a sense of reSponsibility for the success of
their immediate task group if not for the program as a
whole. Prior research in adult education suggests that
such motivation is not felt in the traditional programs
(Knowles, 1970). Participative programs, on the other
hand, are designed to instill motivation and responsibility

on the part of all members.

Sense of Responsibility
Respondents were asked about their sense of respons-
ibility to different groups within the program:
16. To what extent do you feel really responsible
for the success of:
1. your own work/study group
2. your class or section group
3. the whole program (even the NEC).
Answers were checked on a five-point scale ranging from
”not at all" to "very much." Table 21 shows the average
scores of respondents in EBL and EVN programs. The data
suggest that members feel more responsible for their own
work/study group and for their own class or section than
for the whole program and the NBC. The average scores
ranged from 3.4 for the work/study group to 3.2 for the
class or section suggesting that there is little difference

in member's sense of responsibility for the two groups.

122

Table 21. Summary Data of Respondents' Sense of
Responsibility for Different Program Groups

 

 

 

 

 

EBL Programs EVN Programs t-test

Question 2 s N X s N t df p
1. Own work/

study

group 3.0 4.04 207 2.1 2.49 184 3.70 389 .001
2. Their class

or section

group 3.2 4.98 207 1.2 1.93 184 5.83 389 .001
3. The whole

program

including ‘

NEC 2.6 4.37 207 1.0 2.03 184 5.71 389 .001

Average 2.93 1.43

 

NOTE: Based on 5 point scale

However, the average score for responsibility to the program
is 2.6, which indicates that members have a lower sense of
responsibility to the whole program and/or to their
respective NEC.

Furthermore, Table 21 presents data that are consistent
with the hypothesis that participants in formally partici-
pative programs of adult education will feel more reSpon-
sible than members in nonparticipative ones. Therefore, EVN
members score very low with reference to the three items of
responsibility. Their "own work/study group" had an
average score of 2.1, while "the whole program including

the NCE" had an average score of 1.0.

123
The difference between the two programs is congruent
with expected differences between participatory and
traditional programs: EBL had an overall score of 2.93

whereas EVN had an overall score of 1.43.

Initiative

 

Responses to the following two questions were used
to interpret more accurately members' sense of reSponsibility
based on their initiative in trying out new learning
methods:

6. In relation with your course's methodology,
it is usually better to let your coordinator
worry about introducing better or new ways of
improving the process of learning? (1 =
Totally agree... 5 = Totally disagree).

7. How often do you on your own, try out, a better
way to improve the process of learning?
(1 = Very frequently ... 5 = It is impossible
in my classes).

Table 22 shows that in the EBL program, "let the
coordinator worry about innovations" had an average score
of 3.4, while "try out better ways to improve the process
of learning" had a score of 2.2. These results are lower
than expected.

Members in EVN programs are also included to let their

coordinators worry about introducing better or new ways

124
to improve the process of learning; their average score
for this question was 4.6 and the average for the second
question was 1.7. These results are consistent with the
expectation for EVN programs. In other words, the low level
of initiative is congruent with what would be expected
in a non-participative structure.

Table 22. Summary Data of Respondents' Initiative in
Improving Learning

 

EBL Programs EVN Programs t-test

 

Question K S N K S N t df p

 

1. Let coord-
inator worry
about innovr
ations 3.4 4.66 259 4.6 3.11 193 4.24 450 .001

2. Try out better
ways to im—
prove the

process of
learning. 2.2 4.75 259 1.7 2.74 193 1.32 450 ns

 

NOTE: Based on a 5 point scale.

However, the results in EBL programs were unexpected.
The level of initiative is incongruent with the expectations
from the formally participative system of the EBL.

When the data in Table 21 are compared with those in
Table 20, it is apparent that the EBL responses point out
inconsistencies in the formal and informal Operations of
the program. Although EBL participants feel quite
responsible for their "own work/study group" and for "their

class or section group" as indicated by average scores of

125
3.0 and 3.2 respectively, their average score for taking
initiative is only 2.2. On the other hand, they scored
higher in letting the coordinatory worry about innovations.

Theoretically, EBL participants should rank higher
than EVN participants with regard to self-learning and
their sense of reSponsibility.

The t-test results suggest that both kinds of program
motivate participation in learning innovations quite
differently. There is also an apparent lack of motivation
and initiative in participants in both programs'. This is

inconsistent with EBL's participatory appraoch.

Adjustment in Adult Programs

 

Research suggests that the psychological impact of
work activities (studies, jobs, and so forth) may go
beyond a sense of satisfaction or dissatisfaction to include
despair, depression, alienation, and lack of self-esteem.
Particularly those with lower status could have these feel-
ings as a result of their task involvement. All these
reactions can be a natural consequence of members' living
conditions that may imply failure and also frustrate their
need to express individually and to control their own fate
(Allport, 1933; Argyris, 1974; Freire, 1971; and
Tannenbaum et al., 1974).

It may be expected that general reactions of this type
are affected by many different conditions. These conditions

may originate from outside or inside of the program.

126

When program conditions have differential effects
with regard to level/position, the mental adjustment of
participants/educatees is likely to be poorer than that of
coordinators and authorities.

According to current theory in participative adult
education programs, the mental adjustment of all members
should be relatively favorable. Consequently, differences
between individuals of different level/rank should be

minimized (Tannenbaum, 1974).

Psycholggical Adjustment

 

Tannenbaums' questionnaire includes measures of
adjustment that explore members' degree of depression,
resentment, and self-esteem. Question 34 asked respondents:

34. How true are the following statements?

a. I feel depressed,

b. Other people are always more lucky than I,
c. I usually do a good job,

d. I often feel bored,

e. I seem not to get what is coming to me,

f. Usually everything I try seems to fail,

g. Things seem hopeless,

h. I feel resentful,

i. Almost every week I see someone I dislike,

j. I sometimes feel that my life is not very
useful,

127
k. It seems to me that I am a failure,
1. When I do a job, I do it well.
Answers were checked on a point-five scale ranging from
1 = very true to 5 = very untrue. These twelve items
comprise an index of psychological adjustments.

Table 22 presents the average responses to items in
the index as well as the index as a whole for each
educational program. These scores indicate that
significant differences exist between both prOgrams. EBL
respondents appear to be better adjusted than EVN respond-
ents.

The results also show differences between member's
psychological adjustment and the low level of satisifaction
as presented in Table 18 and in Figure 11. The concept of
an "external locus of control" (Tannenbaum et al., 1974)
may account for these discrepancies. Furthermore,

Mbilinyi (1972), Cotler (1976) and Tannenbaum et a1. (1974)
suggest that alienation is related to individual adjustment
in work and study. In general, alienation implies
maladjustment and powerlessness; persons believe they
cannot determine the outcomes they are seeking.

In order to measure the components of alienation,
Question 29 asked:

29. How true or untrue are the following statements?

a. It is not possible to rely on others.

128

Table 23. Psychological Adjustment in Adult Programs

 

EBL Programs EVN Programs

 

 

Question Average Rank Average Rank
a. I feel depressed 3.4 6 1.6 10
b. Other people are always

more lucky than I 2.7 9 2.3 6
c. I usually do a good gob 2.2 11 2.0 7
d. I Often feel bored 4.5 2 2.9 2
e. I seem not to get what

is coming to me 3.3 7 1.9 9
f. Usually everything I

try seems to fail 2.6 10 3.5 l
g. Things seem hOpeless 3.6 5 2.5 5
h. I feel resentful 2.7 9 1.8 8

i. Almost every week I see
someone I dislike 3.8 4 1.3 11

j. I sometimes feel that my
life is not very useful 4.8 l 2.0 7

k. It seems to me that I am
a failure 4.0 3 2.8 3

1. When I do a job, I do it
well 2.9 8 2.7 4

 

NOTE: Based on a 5 point scale.

b. Today it is practically impossible to find
real friends because everyone thinks only of
himself.

c. Men like me cannot influence the course of
events; only men in high positions can have

such influence.

129
d. I have never had the influence over others
that I would have liked.
e. Public affairs are so complicated that it
is impossible to orient oneself in them.
f. Despite the many advantages science has
made, life today is too complicated.
g. I can never do what I really like because
circumstances require that I do otherwise.
h. Life is so routinized that I do not have a
chance to use my true abilities.
i. Life seems to be moving on without rules or
order.
j. Nowadays it is hard to know right from.wrong.
Items a and b addressed social isolation (i.e., a sense
of apartness or detachment from others or from a group
norms.), while items c and d addressed participants' sense
of powerlessness. Items e and f addressed the concept of
meaninglessness (i.e., a sense of confusion or lack of
clarity about what people ought to believe). Items g and h
deal with self-estrangement, which implies that an
individual's behavior is a means toward some end with which
the person does not identify. It is as if he were separated
from himself, behaving on behalf of some external force.
Items i and j are concerned with normlessness. The alienated
individual sees his or her world in disarray, without

effective norms or rules to regulate their life. This

130
concept is related to Durkheim's notion of "anomie", a
lack of norms (tannenbaum et al., 1974).

Question number 29 has been answered by checking
responses on a scale ranging from 1 = true to 5 - untrue.
Table 24 presents the average scores on alienation for
both adult programs, and the average index. High scores
in this table imply a high degree of alienation. The level
of difference between the EBL and EVN programs is highly
significant.

The average alienation scores for EBL and EVN --
authorities, coordinators, and educatees are shown in
Figure 14. The scores are quite different between and
within the programs. Authroities seem to be less alienated
than coordinators and educatees within each program, while
educatee's scores reflect the highest level of alienation
within both program. The average (index) adjustment and
alienation socres for both programs are compared in
Table 25.

Differences between EBL and EVN are also high. These
results are congruent with the expectation that persons in
the lower part of an organization/program feel more
alienated than those near the tOp. Tannenbaum et al., (1974)
found similar types of inequality in the countries they
studies. They found more alienated members in Italy,
Australia and Yugoslavia than in the Kibbutz programs of

Israel.

 

 

 

 

 

131
Table 24. Alienation

EBL Programs EVN Programs
Question Average Rank Average Rank
1. Isolation 2.8 l 3.9 2
2. Powerlessness 1.2 5 4.3 l
3. Meaninglessness 2.4 2 3.2 3
4. Self-estrangement 2.3 3 3.1 4
5. Normlessness 1.9 4 3.0 5
NOTE: Based on a 5 point scale.

 

 

 

 

 

Table 25. Summary Data on Perception of Adjustment and
Alienation
EBL Programs EVN Programs t-test
Question 2 S N K S N t df p
Adjustment 3.4 4.51 248 2.3 2.48 227 3.65 473 .001
Alienation 2.1 4.58 206 3.5 2.74 183 5.38 445 .001
NOTE: Based on a 5 point scale.

132

 

 

 

EBL
l EVN ----
5‘.
’4’
4 .. r
c ./
o
«4
13’
c: 3'1”
o
«4
1—4
<1
w:
0 2 ..
H
o
>
o
A
1 .1»
1 1 n
I 1 l
Authori- Coordi-
ties nators Educatees

Figure 14. Average Alienation Scores for Authorities,
Coordinators, afidiEducatees in EBL and EVN

Programs

133

The findings from this section suggest that gradients
of phychological adjustment, reaction, satisfaction, and
attitudes towards a program, knowledge, leadership, motiva-
tion, and responsibility are associated to some extent
with position in the program's hierarchy.

EBL and EVN authorities and coordinators were more
satisfied with their positions than were the educatees.

Furthermore, authorities and coordinators seemed
to be more motivated and quite responsible in their work.
This implies that they are better adjusted. Authorities
perceive EBL programs functioning in accordance with the
new educational law. EBL programs have a participatory
ideological basis and are "formally" more participative
than are EVN programs.

Members' reactions and adjustments are less sharply
graded according to hierarchy in EBL than in EVN where they
present the sharpest gradients. Both programs differ
not only in gradient but also in average level of reaction
and adjustment. In EVN programs that are non-participative,
members feel dissatisfied with the program and have little
sense of motivation, initiative, and responsibility. This
represents a poor psychological adjustment. The relatively
poor adjustment of EVN participants validates the
hypothesis that "conflict and frustration will be greater
in the non-participative system than in the formally

participative system. EBL participants, in contrast,

134
had more positive responses to questions on psychological

adjustment and reaction.

Chapter V

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are not intended to
summarize all of the findings from this research. Rather,
one of the primary purposes of this section is to construct
a theoretical framework that may explain some of the
principal dimensions of educators, educatee, and
authorities' views regarding the participatory approach
in educational programs and some of the implications of
their beliefs and Opinions.

The results of this study indicate that EBL programs
are not always as congruent with the participatory
philosophy of the program as one might wish.

For example, it was found that even though there is an
effort to change the traditional pattern of rewards and
sanctions, authorities in EBL programs still adopt a
traditional approach in these areas. Administrators and
designers who work on improving the technical and method-
ological capabilities of EBM programs must recognize that
they have a responsibility to improve the quality of the
program at all levels so that program results are con-
gruent with the program philosophy. Educators/coordinators

must also provide their students/participants with the

135

136
necessary training to effectively interact with each other
and with those in the rest of the NEC. In this way, the
true potential of problem-posing education can be realized
in the near future.

EBL programs are good illustrations of adult programs
which operate on the basis of a participatory philosophy,
and some of the programs are reasonably successful. In
some aspects at least, it appears that the prosletying
efforts of participatory education advocates have been
successful. Typically, modern educators/coordinators
broadly endorse participation and reject traditional
autocratic concepts about the role of teachers and
directors/administrators. Autocratic control is seen
as being no longer acceptable or legitimate in EBL programs.

However, although the rhetoric of participation has
apparently been widely disseminated and accepted, there
seems to be a great deal of confusion about what has been
exposed and what has been internalized. EBL teachers
have generally adopted two different models of participation
one for themselves and one for their students.

The findings regarding the hypothesis on decision-
making, "Greater participative decision-making will
produce greater degree of open communication and more

' were inconsistent with the

favorable mutual attitudes,‘
expected results. These inconsistencies were related to

the position/rank of EBL reSpondents in EBL. The

137
responses of EVN participants were more consistent with
the non-participative approach used in that program.

EBL respondents had more participative, aspirations,
however, than did EVN participants. EBL authorities a
discrepancy related to the formal requirements. Thus,

EBL participants are more consistent with expectations in
terms of their ideals than in terms of their perceptions
of formal practice. Both programs contrast well with each
other in their informally participative aspects on
communication and mutual attitudes. The above hypothesis
has been validated only in some extent.

Two factors appear to be crucial in determining
whether participation will lead to improved decision-
making. The amount and kind of information that educatees
have and the types of decisions to be made. Often, students
simply do not have the information they need in order to
make high quality decisions. If the work of the study
group conflicts with that of the program, participants are
unlikely to make what the program or even the NBC would
consider high quality decisions. In EBL, as in other
programs, individual egos become involved in decision-
making.

Regarding the hypothesis that "Greater supportiveness
and participativeness in interpersonal relationship will
lead to greater Open communication and more favorable

mutual attitudes,‘ the researcher found significant

138
differences between EBL and EVN programs. EBL programs
are participative both formally and informally, while
EVN are non-participative in both cases. Consequently, this
hypothesis was validated.

The hypothesis, that "Greater power equalization
Irelatively flat distribution of control) will increase the
level of confidence, trust, communication and motivation
to perform (dialogue, individual learning rhythm, develop-
ment of job skills, etc.)," was validated in EBL program.
Participants in these programs had more significant
influence and control than did those in EVN programs.

Educators who combine high initiative with high con-
sideration for their educatees would seem to concentrate
on defining their relationshps with educatees in addition
to getting the work and/or study done. Thus, to a large
extent, approval and acceptance might depend on the
educator's performance as well. Consequently, reward for
advancement may be related to identification with EBL's
philosophy. In this way, educators will feel gratified
because their performance allows those attending adult
programs to meet their educational needs.

The relationship between participation and motivation
may be linked with changes in individual beliefts. When
participation is encouraged, group members reward behavior
that is supportive of the group decision and punish behavior

that is not. .However, participation does not always lead

139

to increased motivation. Members' perceptions of
opportunities to advance or to get promotions in EBL and in
EVN programs were quite low, particularly with regard to
authorities. NEC authorities are engaged in long
hierarchical chains from the Ministry of Education throug
the NEC to the programs, (EBL or EVN). Therefore, they
may not perceive as great an opportunity for advancement
as those in short chais (e.g., coordinators). However,
authorities who hold relatively high positions do not
believe they have real chances for advancement.

Nevertheless, both programs have shown a pattern of
requirements for advancement that can be considered universal.
In a study of five social systems with a completely different
ideology, Tannenbaum et al., (1974) found that respondents
emphasized (a) working hard to achieve learning,
(b) the quality of the completed assignment, (c) good
professional knowledge, and (d) dependability.

In spite of the above, there is some evidence that
EBL programs are in transition to become more participative
with regard to some informal aspects of participation,
(e.g., learning Opportunities, Open communication) than are
other adult education programs. Coordinators' and
participants' perceptions about learning Opportunities
illustrate that EBL programs are formally as well as in-

formally participative.

140

These findings reflect Knowles' (1970) beliefs about
adult education. The learning Opportunities provided by
EBL attempt to promote "active participation." Educatees
are able to exercise some control over the things they learn
and the way in which they approach the process of learning.

Two hypothesis about the level of adjustment and
reactions in adult programs were also tested: "Hierarchial
gradients with respect to satisfaction, self-esteem,
alienation, identification with an responsibility for the
adult education program (EBL) than in the non-participative
one (EVN)," and ”More participative educational programs
will manifest fewer symptoms of disaffection and conflict
between members of differing rank."

The present finding have validated the above hypotheses.
Reaction and adjustment were not associated with hierarchy
in EBL; EBL members felt more satisfied with their own
program, more responsible, and socially "better adjusted"
than did those in EVN programs. EVN participants felt
dissatisfied with their programs and had a very low sens
of responsibility, motivation, and initiative. EVN
participants also ranked higher than EBL participants in
their level of alienation and seemed to have a poor
psychological adjustment. There was also less disaffection
and conflict: between members of different ranks in EBL
programs than in EVN programs. Consequently, EBL partici-

pants had a high level of commitment and identification

141
with the program and a low leveluofalienation.

In general, the two educational programs are Clearly
distinguishable at the formal level; informally,
they do not differ as greatly. This is probably due to
their internal inconsistencies and the different conditions
which interfere in both programs. Such conditions provide
reactions that sometimes deviate from the program purpose.
Furthermore, ideological, societal, and economic variables
may modify attitudes toward participation, supportiveness,
satisfaction, and control.

Variables not included in this study may also have
influenced the EBL model. In short, many situations not
included in this reaearch may well have intervened and
affected authorities', coordinators', and participants'
attitudes and behavior towards the EBL program.

Despite itsliudtations,EBL seems to be on the
appropriate path. MOre research is needed to explore the
EBL model and its use of problem-posing education.

The questionnaire worked quite well as a tool in
measuring how well a participatory approach to adult educ-
ation is able to reach its objectives and goals. More
refinement of the questionnaire is needed, but it is hoped
that this study has contributed to the development of a
methodology for assessing participation in adult education
programs and for comparing participatory and non-participa-

tory approaches to adult education.

APPENDICES

142

APPENDIX A

PERMISSION STATEMENT

143

Name ago Address of Institution
The Regents of the University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Michigan
Title of Proposed Research
An International Study of the Effects of Workers' Participation
in Industry
Desired Starting Date
December 1, 1974

Time Period for Which Support is Reguested
December 1, 1974 to November 30. 1976

This proposal has not been submitted to any other sponsoring agency.
There are no present sponsors of any portion of the program discussed
in the proposal.

 

 

Submitted by: Approved by:
Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Program Robert L. Kahn, Director
Director, Survey Research Survey Research Center

Center and Professor.
Department of Psychology

SS# 155-18-2282

Official Authorized to Sign for Institution:

 

144

145

Research Design

This research will be undertaken in five countries: England,
Israel, Japan, Sweden and the United States. Within each country we
shall select five pairs of industrial plants, each pair consisting
of plants that are comparable in size, technology, character of
community and work force, but differing in their formal structure
of control, implying difference in participativeness. Five plants
within each country will be selected to illustrate relatively
participative, and five will illustrate relatively non-participative
plants.

Each of thaselected countries contains plants that employ some
variant of participation. In England a number of plants employ the
Scanlon plan. The Scott Bader company and the John Lewis partnership
in Britain also illustrate systems of participation in which workers'
and managers have an established procedure of joint decision making.
The industrial plants of kibbutzim in Israel are a remarkable form
of participation and such plants can be compared to others in that
country. (Melman, 1971, has already made such a comparison with
respect to economic indices.) In Japan, organizations such as the
Atsugi and Ichinomiya plants of Sony, the Ashigara plant of Fuji Photo
and the Ohji plant of Nihon Kayaku have introduced special procedures

that permit workers to enter into decisions that affect them in the

146

plant. A number of Swedish companies have introduced participative
procedures (in addition to those required by law.) Some of these
like the Oranges-Essem foundry, the Katfors paper mill, the Atlas
Copco rockdrill plant, and the Scania Division of Saab have "socio-
technical" arrangements that permit groups of workers to exercise
substantial control over the work process. (Rubenowitz, 1974).

The United States contains a variety of participative schemes
including the Scanlon Plan, the cooperative committee system of

the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the so-called system of "work
simplification" in which teams of workers develop improved work
methods. There are also in the United States a number of companies
that have employed behavioral science models as a basisfbr developing
a participative format, and some of these would be accessible to
research.

Each of the collaborating researchers in the respective
countries has extensive contacts in industry and has had experience
in gaining entry into companies for purposes of research. We are
therefore confident that we will have access to plants appropriate
to the design of the research.

We shall select relatively small plants because they are
simpler to study and because we can obtain a mOre adequate sample

Of members.

147

Questionnaires patterned after those developed in previous
industrial studies, but appropriately modified, will be pretested
and then personally administered to about 50 workers, supervisors and
managers in each plant. The sampling rate that applies to each
member will be proportional to his rank in the plant, with the rate
being unity for the top manager and the rate being lowest among
workers. A sampling rate proportional to rank is justified on the
grounds that upper level personnel are relatively few in number,
but nonetheless are very important in the role they play in the plant
and in the information they can provide in the survey. Furthermore,
the sampling will be arranged so that lines of authority are kept
intact. The selection into the sample of a department manager, for
example, will determine the possible inclusion of supervisors within
that department. The selection of a supervisor in turn will determine
the possible inclusion of workers, i.e., workers will be selected
from among the subordinates of the selected supervisor. Each
respondent in the sample will therefore be paired with others in the
sample who stand in a direct hierarchical line with the respondent
in question. This feature of the design, coordinated with question-

naire items concerning perceptions of the superior's practices and

of interpersonal relations between the respondent and his superior

148

and/Or subordinates, will permit analyses of participative practice
and its implications for individuals in face-to-face relationships.
We will thus undertake analyses at the interpersonal level that will

parallel analyses at the department and plant-wide levels.

Analyses

Analyses of data will be designed to explore a number of
questions and hypotheses concerning control and participation in
industrial organizations. One analysis will examine the relationship
between "formal" and "informal" participativeness. The former is
defined in terms of the formal decision making structure, including
the councils, committees, and other mechanisms that have been
established. Informal participativeness is defines in terms of
leadership practices (e.g., supervisors vis a vis workers; department
managers vis a vis supervisors; plant managers vis a vis department
nnagers) that imply the accessibility of leaders to subordinates and
their responsiveness to the ideas and suggestions of subordinates.

FigureAlillustrates features of the proposed analysis.

149

Plants that
are

Formally

Part i c ipa tive Nan-Participative

 

 

 

a b
Plants that
are
Informally
c d

 

 

 

 

Nm-Barticipat ive Participative

Figure A 1

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE

150

QUESTIONNAIRE *

Spanish Version:

Entrevista

. Regién, zona, NEC

 

. Programa, ciclo :

 

. Tiempo en el programa :

 

. Sexo: Femenino Nasculino

. Trabajo :

 

. Salario : Quincenal Nensual

 

. Puesto que ocupa :

 

. Trabajos anteriores :

 

. I
Durac1on :

 

. Lugar y fecha :

 

. Nombre del Entrevistador :

 

* All questions presented in this Appendix numbered from 1 to 43
are found along the text between Chapter III and Chapter V
respectively. Each question keeps the same questionnaire's
number like in the present Spanish version.

151

152

1. En relacion a los curses que esta llevando en qué medida puede
Ud.: (sefiale un numero para cada respuestaf

 

En
Ninguna Un Alguna Bastante Kuoho
Medida__Poco Nedida mas
a. aprender nuevas cosas? 1 2 3 4 5
b. hacer uso de sus ideas? 1 2 3 a 5
c. realizar trabajos inte-
resantes? 1 2 3 4 5

d. hacer uso de sus habili-
dades, conocimientos y
aptitudes? 1 2 3 a 5

e. comunicarse, dialogar con
los otros participantes
durante e1 desarrollo de

los cursos? 1 2 3 ' h 5
f. decidir su prOpio ritmo

de aprendizaje? 1 2 3 h 5
g. tener autoridad sobre las

otras personas? 1 2 3 a 5

Las preguntas arriba mencionadas se relacionan con caracteristicas
del rabago en los cursos. Ahora quisieramos saber en ouanto a

sus aspiraciones respeoto a los cursos. 0 sea, respecto a este
tipo de eduoacion.

2. En relacién a los cursos,éen qué medida a Ud. 1e gustaria?
(sefiale un numero por cada respuesta)

 

En
Ninguna Un Alguna Mucho
Nedida Poco Nedida Bastante mas
a. aprender nuevas cosas? 1 2 3 4 5
b. hacer uso de sus ideas? 1 2 3 4 5
c. realizar trabajos intere-
santes? 1 2 3 4 5

d. hacer uso de sus habilida-
des, conocimientos y
aptitudes? 1 2 3 4 5

e. comunicarse, dialogar, con
los otros participantes
durante e1 desarrollo de

los cursos? 1 2 ‘ 3 4 5
f. decidir su propio ritmo de
aprendizaje. 1 2 3 u 5

g. tener autoridad sobre las
otras personas? 1 2 3 4 5

153

3. Marque con un aspa (X) a lo largo de las lineas que’estén mas
o menos cerca del punto que equivaldria a la pOSicion que Ud.
entiende es la que mejor describe su trabaJo educativo, en
los cursos y en sus clases.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cansador I I I I I I Descansado
Insalubre I I I I I I Salubre
Fisico I I I I I I Mental

Sucio I__ I I I I I Limpio

Pesado I I I I I I Liviano
Tareas Tareas no
repetitivas I I I I I I repetitivas
Peligroso I I I I I I No peligroso
Individual i_, I I I I I Grupal

(solo) (junto con otros)
Dependiente I I I I I I Independiente
de otros de otros

u. éCree Ud. que las personas como Ud. tienen posibilidades reales
de ser promocionados en los cursos que les brinda este estilo
de educacion? (senale con un Circulo una sola respuesta)

1. Ninguna posibilidad
2. Pocas posibilidades
3. Algunasposibilidades
h. Varias posibilidades
5. Nuchas posibilidades

5. oCree Ud. que en poco tiempo podré ser promocionado a los otros
ciclos superiores de educacion desescolarizada? (senale con
un Circulo una sola respuesta)

1. No es posible

2. Existe una muy pequefia posibilidad
3. Es algo posible

4. Es muy posible

5. Es casi seguro

6.

7.

8.

9.

154

En relacion a los métodos de los cursos.é cree Ud. que es mejor
que los coordinadores se preocupen respecto a introducir formas
mas adecuadas que favorezcan el proceso de aprendizaje?

(senale con un circulo una sola respuesta)

1. totalmente de acuerdo

2. de acuerdo

3. incierto (no sé)

4. en desacuerdo

5. totalmente de desacuerdo

Cuén a menudo por su propia cuenta intenta Ud. poner en prac-
tica una forma mas adecuada para favorecer el proceso de
aprendizaje? (senale con un circulo una sola respuesta)

1. muy a menudo

2. a menudo

3. a veces

4. muy ocasionalmente

5. nunca

6. en mis clases no es posible

éCuanta- satisfaccién obtiene Ud. de lo que aprende en las

clases comparado con lo que Ud. puede aprender fuera de las
clases? (senale con un circulo una sola respuesta)

1. Obtengo mayor satisfaccién de lo que aprendo en mis
clases que de lo que puedo aprender fuera de ellas.
2. Obtengo muy poca satisfaccidn de mis clases.

3. Obtengo un poco mas de satisfaccidn de mis clases
que de lo que aprendo fuera de ellas.

4. Obtengo un poco mas de satisfaccion de lo que aprendo
fuera de mis clases.

5. Obtengo muchas mas satisfacciones de lo que aprendo
fuera de mis clases.

éLe gusta pertenecer y trabajar en este programa de educacion

descolarizada? (senale con un circulo una sola respuesta)
1. No es un programa muy bueno para pertenecer

2. Todo esta bien

3. Es un programa mas o menos bueno

4. Es un buen programa

5. Es un programa muy bueno

155

10. éLe gusta a Ud. el programa que esta desarnfllando en este
ciclo? (senale con un circulo una sola respuesta)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Me gusta mucho

Me gusta un poco

Me gusta solo algo

Me gusta muy poco

No me gusta en absoluto

11. éQué sucede si un participante de su grupo realiza muy bien
una tarea especial en sus secciones de c1rculos de cultura?
(senale con un Circulo todas las respuestas que sean

necesarias)
. . . O . ’
1. Su coordinador o animador lo fe11c1tarian elogiandolo
2. Sus compafieros lo elogiarian
3. Sus compafieros lo cirticarian
4. Le ofrecerian ayudar en sus tareas a los coordinadores
o animadores de su mismo programa
5. Recibiria mejores calificaciones/notas, 0 un certificado
distintivo por su actuacidn
6. Sus oompafieros tendrian una opini6n mucho mas alta de él
7. Tendria una mejor oportunidad para su progreso en el
programa
8. Su coordinador o animador tendria una Opinién mucho més
alta de él
9. Nada sucederia
10. Otra (escribala)

 

12. -Qué pasa si un participante de su grupo realiza una asignacidn
muy pobre o deficiente? (senale con un circulo todas las
respuestas que sean neoesarias)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Su coordinador o animador lo criticaria

Sus compafieros lo criticarian

Sus compafieros lo defenderian contra las criticas

Lo pasarian a un grupo inferior, 0 con las mas rezagados
Recibiria una amonestacidn o mala calificaci6n/nota

Sus compafieros tendrian una baja opinion de él

Tendria menos oportunidades para progresar en el programa
Su coordinador o animador tendria una baja Opinion de él
Nada pasaria
Otra (escribala)

 

156

13. Piensa Ud. que la gente responsable (los directivos en el
Hinisterio de Educacion) tienen un real interés por facilitar
el proceso de aprendizaje de todos los articipantes de este
programa de educacién desescolarizada? senale una sola

respuesta)

1. No tienen ningun interés
2. Tienen muy poco interés
3. Tienen algo de interes
4. Tienen bastante interes
5. Tienen un gran interes

14. 'Cuén im ortante son cada uno de estos factores ara avanzar
a P . .
en el pro rama de educacion desescolarizada al que Ud.
pertenece. (sefiale un numero para cada una de las respuestas)

 

No del Apenas Noderada- Bastante Kuy
todo im impor- mente im- impor- impor-
'portante tante portante tante tante
a. calidad en las asigna-
ciones hechas 1 2 3 _ 4 5
b. cantidad de asigna-
ciones 1 2 3 4 5
c. la Opinion de su coor-
dinador o animador 1 2 3 4 5
d. confiabilidad (segu-
ridad) 1 2 3 4 5
e. creatividad, inventiva 1 2 3 4 5

f. antigfiedad en el pro-
grama 1 2 3 4 5

g. tener amigos en la
direccién del NEC
respectivo 1 2 3 4 5

h. tener buenos conoci-
mientos de lo que se
estudia 1 2 3 4 5

i. tomar iniciativas, hacer
inferencias, relacionar
lo que se aprende 1 2 3 4 5

j. tener una sobresaliente
habilidad gara trabajar
en grupo a riéndose al

diélogo 1 2 3 4 5

k. tener confianza (lealtad)
en el tipo de’educacién
al que se esta expuesto 1 2 3 4 5

l. tener recomendaciones de
naturaleza politica o \
religiosa 1 2 3 4 5

m. abrirse camino luchando
por aprender 1 2 3 4 5

157

15. -Piensa Ud. que los funcionarios del Ninisterio de Educacion,
do sea la gente responsable de estos programas, trata de
mejorar la calidad de los mismos (curriculum, tecnicas edu-
cativas, capacitacion y reentrenamiento docente) solo cuando
se ven forzados a ello. (senale una sola respuesta)
1. Ellos mejoran la calidad de los programas solo cuando
se les fuerza

2. Ellos tratan de mejorar la calidad de los programas muy
rara vez si no se los fuerza

3. Ellos tratan de mejorar la calidad de los programas
solo a veces si no se los fuerza

4. Ellos tratan de mejorar la calidad de los programas
a menudo sin ser forzados a ello

5. Ellos siempre tratan de mejorar la calidad de los
programas sin ser forzados a ello

16. -Cuénta influencia tienen actualmente sobre lo que sucede
en los programas de educacion desescolarizada los siguientes
grupos o personas? (senale un numero para cada una de las

 

 

respuestas)
Muy Alguna Bastan- Una gran
poca in- Poca in- influ- te in- influ-
fluencia fluencia encia fluencia encia
a. El director del NEG 1 2 3 4 5

b. Todos los otros
directores, promo-

tores y animadores 1 2 3 4 5
c. Los participantes

(eduandos) como gruga 1 2 3 4 5
d. Ud. personalmente 1 2 3 4 5

17. En su opinion,écuanta influencia deberian tener sobre lo que
sucede en los programas de educacion desescolarizada los
siguientes grupos o personas? (senale un numero para cada
una de las respuestas)

Nuy Alguna Bastan- Una gran
Poca in— Poca in- influ- te in- influ-
fluencia fluencia encia fluencia encia

a. El director del NBC 1 2 3 4 5

b. Todos los otros
directores, promo-

tores y animadores 1 2 3 4 5
c. Los participantes ‘
(educmdos) como grupo 1 2 3 4 5

d. Ud. personalmente 1 2 3 4 5

158

18. éCuéndo un participante de este programa se queja acerca de

19.

20.

21.

22.

, ' o o
algo, por ejemplo, falta de dialogo, autoritarismo, etc.
se toman las medidas para solu01onar el caso? (senale una
sola respuesta)
1. nunca se toman las medidas para solucionar el caso
2. muy rara vez se toman las medidas para solucionar el caso
3. algunas veces se toman Es medidas para solucionar el caso
4. muchas veces se toman las medidas para solucionar el caso
5. siempre se toman las medidas para solucionar el caso

Supongase que su coordinador 1e diga que Ud. ha hecho su
asignacion muy deficientemente. éCuanto le molestaria a
Ud. eso? (senale una sola respuesta)

1. Nada

2. Un poco

3. Nedianamente

4. Bastante

5. Nuchisimo

Supdngase que alguno de sus compafieros le dijera que Ud. ha
hecho su asignacion muy deficientemente. eCuénto le molestaria
a Ud. eso?

1. Nada

2. Un poco

3. Medianamente
4. Bastante

5. Muchisimo

En el Ministerio de Educacion, quienes toman las decisiones
son aquellas personas que poseen la mas certera y adecuada
informacion? (senale una sola respuesta)

1. raramente 3. bastante a menudo
2. a veces 4. siempre

O O /
Cuando se hace una toma de deC181on,ése 1e pregunta a la gente
1nvolucrada sobre sus opiniones y sugerencias? (senale una

sola respuesta)

1. casi nunca se les pregunta por sus opiniones y sugerencias
2. se les pregunta muy de vez en cuando

3. usualmente se les pregunta

4. casi siempre se les pregunta por sus opiniones y sugerencias

159

23. éCuéles son las actitudes de los participantes del programa
para con los funcionarios y directivos de la educaC1on
desescolarizada? (senale una sola respuesta)

1. las actitudes son fuertemente opuestas a ellos
2. las actitudes son en algo opuestas a ellos

3. las actitudes son favorables a ellos

4. las actitudes son fuertemente favorables a ellos

24. En relacidn al diélogo,équé es lo que los participantes comu-
nican en sus clases a sus coordinadores? (senale una sola
respuesta)

1. todo lo que consideran relevante de lo que se discuta o
trate en forma precisa

2. comunican principalmente lo que sus coordinadores
quieren escuchar

3. comunican solamente lo que sus coordinadores quieren
escuchar

4. distorsionan todo el diélogo, la comunicacién

25.léParticipan los educandos en tomar decisiones importantes en
relacion a sus programas de estudio, (identificacién de
necesidades, elaboracidn del respectivo curriculum, criterios
de evaluacidn, etc.? (senale una sola respuesta)

1. nunca

2. ellos nunca participan pero a veces se les pide opiniones
y sugerencias

3. ellos deciden en grupo, conjuntamente, acerca de algunas
cosas importantes concerniente a sus programas de estudio

4. ellos deciden en grupo, conjuntamente, acerca de todas
las cosas importantes concerniente a sus programas de
estudio

26.‘éDeberian los educados participar en la toma de decisiones im-
portantes en relacidn a sus respectivos programas de estudio
(identificacién de necesidades, elaboracion del curriculum,
criterios de evaluacidn, etc.? (senale una sola respuesta)

1. nunca

2. ellos’nunca deberian participar pero a veces se les
deberia pedir opiniones y sugerencias

3. ellos deberian decidir en grupo, conjuntamente, acerca de
algunas cosas importantes concerniente a sus programas de
estudio

4. ellos deberian decidir en grupo, conjuntamente, acerca de
todas las cosas importantes concerniente a sus programas
de estudio

27.

28.

29.

30.

L
a
o

1

d

U‘I-PKJJN

0
l4

S

1
2

3

4.
5

t.

160

1-1 0 o ’
En su opinion, cuando se hace una toma de decision, debe
preguntarse a 1a gente involucrada sobre sus opiniones y
sugerencias? (senale una sola respuesta)
I O I O
1. nunca deberia preguntarseles sus Opiriones y sugeren01as
2. deberia preguntarseles muy de vez en cuando
3. usualmente deberia preguntarseles
4. deberia preguntérseles casi siempre por sus Opiniones
y sugerencias

..I .

e pide a Ud. su opinion su coord1nador cuando aparece
lgun problema relacionado con el desarrollo de los cursos
el programa en general? (senale una sola respuesta)

. siempre pide mi opinion

. bastante a menudo pide mi opinion

. a veces pide mi opinion

. muy de vez en cuando me pregunta

. nunca pide mi opinion

Qe orienta su coordinador a tomar en cuenta sus opiniones y

ugerencias? (senale una sola respuesta)
. nunca
. muy de vez en cuando

. algunas veces

bastante a menudo

muchas veces

Le parece a Ud. que en la forma en que se comporta su
coordinador hace que los participantes se sientan libres
para entregarse al dialogo y manifestar todo lo que
realmente sientan, inclusive quejas si las hubiere?
(senale una sola respuesta)

1. si, 105 hace sentir completamente libres a1 respecto
2. 103 hace sentir bastante libres

3. 105 hace sentir relativamente libres

4. no demasiado libres

5. en ninguna medida los hace sentir libres

161

31. hConfia Ud. en su coordinador, lo ve realmente como un
recurso en su proceso de aprendizaJe? (senale una sola
respuesta)

. I
1. Jamas
2. raramente
3. algunas veces
4. casi siempre
5. siempre
32. Cuando Ud. realiza las asignaciones que su coordinador o

animador le han requerido para sus clases, porque’ es que lo
hace? (senale un numero para cada respuesta)

 

De nin- En muy En al- Egan
guna pequefia guna Bastante gedida
manera medida medida ‘
a. yo respeto sus conoci-
mientos y juicios 1 2 3 a 5
b. 61 puede ayudarme muCho
y beneficiarme 1 2 3 4 5
c. 61 es una persona sim-
pética 1 2 3 4 5
d. 61 podria ponerme malas
notas y en desventaja
frente a mi grupo y ohms 1 2 3 4 5
e. es mi obligacién 1 2 3 4 5
f. es necesario si queremos
aprender y que el progra
ma funcione correctamafiw 1 2 3 4 5

33. Imaginese que debido a su capacitaci6n en estos cursos de
educacion desescolarizada, le ofrecen en su trabajo las
siguientes oportunidades.‘;Las aceptaria Ud. ?

(marque una sola respuesta para cada posibilidad) Si Yo

a. moverse a un nivel mas alto en su posicién, que cuente

con mayores obligaciones y responsabilidades para Ud. 1 2
b. moverse a una posicion més alta que requiera un entre-

namiento que le ocasionaria muchos sacrificiosde szpnfifi 1 2
c. moverse a una posicion mas alta en donde Ud. podria

ser criticado frecuentemente 1 2
d. moverse a una posicidn mas alta donde Ud. podria tener

un grupo de gente "dificil" a su cargo 1 2

e. moverse a una posicion més alta en donde haya mayores
preocupaciones que las que Ud. tiene ahora en relacidn
a su trabajo 1 2

162

34. 'Cuan verdaderas son las siguientes proposiciones?
d(senale un numero para cada una de las respuestas)

 

 

Completa- Ki ver- Completa-
mente Algo dadero Bastante mentc
cierto cierVJnififlso false false

a. me siento deprimido 1 2 3 4 5

b. otra gente tiene
siempre mas suerte 1 2 3 4 5

c. usualmente yo hago un
buen trabajo en lo que

estoy involucrado 1 2 3 4 5
d. a menudo me siento

aburrido 1 2 3 4 5
e. siento que no consigo

lo que deberia 1 2 3 4 5

f. generalmente todas las
cosas que trato parecen
fracasar 1 2 3 4 5

g. no tengo ninguna espe-
ranza en las cosas que

suceden 1 2 3 4 5
h. me siento resentido,
ofendido 1 2 3 4 5

i. casi todas las semanas
me encuentro con alguien

que no me gusta 1 2 3 4 5
j. a veces siento ue mi

vida no es muy util 1 2 3 4 5
k. siento que soy un tramso 1 2 3 4 5
l. cuando hago un trabajo.

lo hago bien 1 2 3 4 5

I O O O .
35. éCuan verdaderas son las 51gu1entes propOS1C1ones?
(senale un numero para cada una de las respuestas)

Ni verb En cierta

Verda- Algo dadero forma
dero cierto Nifalso falso Falso
a. no es posible confiarse
de otros 1 2 3 4 5

b. hoy en dia es practica-
mente imposible encontrar
verdaderas amigos orque
cada uno piensa so 0 ensi
mismo 1 2 3 4 5

163

Verda- algo

dero

personas como yo no pueden
influenciar sobre la mar-
cha de las cosas, solo
aquellos que ocupan posi-
ciones altas pueden tener
gran influen01a

nunca pude tener influen-
cia sobre otros como me
hubiese gustado tener

I .
los asuntos ublicos son
tan compl1ca os que solo
lo confunden a uno

a pesar de los muchos
avances de la cienciaq la
vida de hoy es demasiado
complicada

nunca puedo hacer lo que

realmente quiero por ue k5
circunstancias me ob iganza
hacer otras cosas

la vida esta tan rutinizada
que no tengo la oportunidad
de hacer uso de todas mis
habilidades

me parece que la vida (el
mundo) se esta yendo hacia
un desorden total

hoy por hoy, es dificil
saber qué es lo correcto y
qué es lo incorrecto

1

hi wau- En cier-
dadero ta forma

 

 

cierto ni falso falso Falso
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5

36. éSabe usted c6mo su involucramiento en estos programas de educa-
cion desescolarizada se ajusta a1 funcionamiento general de la
reforma educativa en el pais entero?

1. No 10 se

2. Apenas si lo 56

3. Lo 56 en alguna medida
4. Lo sé bastante bien

5. Lo 56 completamente

(senale una sola respuesta)

164

37. -Esté Ud. satisfecho con su nivel de conocimientos?

d

1.

No

(senale una sola respuesta)

2. Un poco

3.

Algo

4. Bastante
5. Muchisimo

I g 0 I
38. aCuales piensa Ud. son las mayores ventagas de ser promov1do
a los otros ciclos superiores en estos programas de estudios?

(Por favor elija las 3 més importantes y coloque el numero 1
delante de la que es mas importante para Ud.. luego el numero
2 en la que le seguir1a en importancia. y despues el numero 3
en la que seria su tercera respuesta en importancia. Si Ud.
piensa que no hay ventajas en ser Eromovido a ciclos superio-

res en estos programas, marque el

lista)

mayor
mayor
mayor
mayor
mayor
mayor
mayor
mayor

ltimo item al final de la

prestigio o estima
variedad en el tipo de estudios

independencia

numero de contactos sociales

oportunidad para tomar decisiones

oportunidad para aumentar las habilidades de uno
oportunidad para aumentar los conocimientos de uno
influencia con la gente de afuera de los programas

de estudio

mayor

O O O I I
numero de cert1f1cados de estudios y tecnicas, que

podrian influir para un salario mas alto en el trabajo

no hay ventajas

39.&Esté Ud. satisfecho con todo lo que obtiene de estos programas
educacién desescolarizada? (sefiale una respuesta)

Muy insatisfecho
Insatisfecho
Ni satisfecho ni insatisfecho

Satisfecho
Nuy satisfecho

de

1.
2.
3.
4.

50

40.

41.

42.

a.
b.
c.

165

~Permite Ud. que sus alumnos/participantes se sientan libres

de comunicarle sus ideas, inquietudes, roblemas o incluso
sus quejas? (senale una sola respuesta

1. Completamente libres

2. Bastante libres

3. Regularmente libres

4. No demasiado libres

5. No, en absoluto
En relacidn al método de ensefianza que Ud. aplica,;es mejor
o no que sus educandos/participantes le dejen a Ud. preocu-

parse por introducir nuevas tecnicas pedagdgicas que facili-
ten e1 proceso de aprendizaje? (senale una sola respuesta)

1. Completamente de acuerdo

2. De acuerdo

3. En dudas
4. En desacuerdo

5. Completamente en desacuerdo

 

 

 

En su opini6n,éen qué medida sus educandos/participantes
pueden: (senale un numero para cada respuesta)
En Muy En
ninguna poco alguna Bastante Nucho
medida medida mas
aprender nuevas cosas? 1 2 3 4 5
hacer uso de sus ideas? 1 2 3 4 5
realizar trabajos inte-
resantes? 1 2 3 4 5
hacer uso de sus habilida-
des, conocimientos, y
aptitudes? 1 2 3 4 5
comunicarse con los otros
participantes durante el
desarrollo de los cursos? 1 2 3 4 5
decidir su propio ritmo de
aprendizaje? 1 2 3 4 5
tener autoridad sobre las
otras personas? 1 2 3 4 5

43.

e.
f.

166

Cuando los educandos/participantes a su cargo realizan las

tareas o asignaciones que Ud. les solicitara,é

lo hacen? (senale un numero para cada respues a)

fig
respetan mis conocimi-
entos y juicios 1
les puedo ayudar mucho
y beneficiarlos 1

. I
soy una persona 51mpa-
tica 1

podria ponerles malas
notas y dejarlos en
desventaja frente a su
grupo y otros

. . I
es su obl1gac1on
es necesario si quieren
aprender y que el pro-

rama funcione correc-
amente

Raramente

or que es que

 

 

Algunas
veces Bastante siempre
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5

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167

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