1 w u MM M! I l l H I i this ‘- r ‘ ~. . .. . . I 4-~-'_2.J_7'~;;4 Q l 0 O} of ’911'."t.~: ‘h -._ L-‘Llél' Lhugtl This is to certify that the . thesis entitled 2mg - neo‘CeQO Plow Scm‘ Uh If 20km at mot/lag ((9 holo/m/‘s in #46 77’M/nb (€9,244 of Mimgcm presented by £4034. BAIZD @7ANTl‘T/‘VM has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for H:5 degree in FISWHCS GnJ/ UJQfi/Q 51 Q P Major professor Date HIM" 8w 0-7639 MS U i: an Mmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution illlll ”1mminimivlnlnlnlmnmmm” t 3 1293 00833 8901 lVISSI_J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to uaaAmEs remove this checkout from .—:—.. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. a pr 7 “"I ~\ . s Rev 0' 2 W engaged. .- _. é.“ .li .-."_J- ‘ it??? 2 3 @995 RING-NECKED PHEASANT UTILIZATION OF MANAGED HABITATS IN THE THUMB REGION OF MICHIGAN BY Laura Baird Grantham A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Fisheries and Wildlife 1986 4/0 5/00 SA ABSTRACT RING-NECKED PHEASANT UTILIZATION OF MANAGED HABITATS IN THE THUMB REGION OF MICHIGAN BY Laura Baird Grantham Populations of ring-necked pheasants (Enagiagug W) in Michigan have decreased since the 1950's. This investigation was designed to compare differences in pheasant numbers, predator abundance, and patterns of land use on 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan. Similar numbers of crowing cocks were heard each spring. Predator numbers and activity varied among areas and years during the summer. During the winter of 1984- 1985, 45 pheasant carcasses were found at 3 state game areas, of which hens represented 91%. Predation was evident in 98% of the carcasses. This resulted in a significant decrease in broods observed and cocks harvested in 1985 on the 5 study areas. Although predation during the winter of 1985 influenced the decline of pheasants on the study areas, this does not explain the long term decrease in productivity. Future research integrating population size, habitat, biocides, predation, and energ- etics is suggested. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project was funded by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources. I would like to thank Bud Jarvis, Glenn Belyea, and the Rose Lake Wildlife Research Center staff for use of their equipment, and their assistance with surveys, pathology and winter field work. I have made many good friends that have been impor- tant influences in the past 2 years. Special thanks to my colleagues in 2C (Dave, Dean, Rique, and Tom) who have not only provided sound statistical advice and laughs, but also reminded me (constantly) that humility is a virtue. A sincere appreciation is felt for my listeners in 2B (Bobbi and Laura), who helped me wrangle through some difficult times with their obvious concern and their sound advice. I am grateful to Dale, who has helped me to realize that sometimes life is much too serious, and that laughter is a necessary reaction to some situations. To Brian, heartfelt thanks to someone whose logic often frustrated me, but whose friendship I never doubted. And to Carolyn, the best of friendships has resulted from shared laughter, pain, anger, and comraderie, and I will never forget all you have done for me. ii I am extremely grateful to several professionals who have provided guidance during the past 2 years. Many thanks are due to Donald Beaver, Glenn Belyea, and Glenn Dudderar for their input on my research and my thesis. .To Carl Bennett, thanks for having the confidence in me to get the job done and for sound advice when requested. To Harold Prince, my sincere gratitude for realizing' my potential, and for giving me the opportunity to realize it as well. To my husband Jeremy, who knew all along I had the ability to achieve my goals, and supported me wholeheart- edly in the pursuit: You pushed when I needed pushing, built my confidence when all seemed shattered, and shared the small triumphs that have led to this. My success is a reflection of your love. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABIJES 0..0.00..0.000000000000000000000... LIST OF FIGURES OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO000......0.0.0.... INTRODUCTION OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0000...O... STUDYAREADESCRImION OOOOOOOCIOOOOOOO0.0.0.0... MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................... Study area selection ....................... Pheasant and predator surveys .............. Data analysis ............................... RESULTS 0.0.0.0...0......OCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO DISCUSSION 0......O0.0.0.000...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCO. APPENDIX O....0...0.00.00.00.00...0.0.0000...0... LITERATURE CITED iv 11 13 19 21 40 47 49 LIST OF TABLES Land use characteristics of 5 mini-game areas (MBA) and the 1/4 townships where each are located, in the thumb region of Michigan, 1980-1985 .................... Soil types found within 5 1/4 township study areas in Huron and Tuscola counties in the thumb region of Michigan ........ Percent of area planted to major crops in 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan, 1980-1985 .... Land use, topography, and winter pheasant numbers on 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan at the start of the investigation ................... Index of relative abundance of 6 species of mammalian predators on 5 1/4 township study areas located in the thumb region of Michigan in 1984 and 1985 ........... Number of ring-necked pheasant broods observed during surveys along a standard route at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan in 1984 and 1985 O0......0..OOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOO Hunting party information from the open- ing 2 days of pheasant season at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan in 1984 and 1985 ........... Hunter harvest data from the opening 2 days of pheasant season at 5 1/4 township study areas located in the thumb region of Michigan in 1984 and 1985 ........... Numbers of pheasants observed during winter roadside surveys at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region in 1985 . 10 12 25 27 29 30 31 10 11 12 13 The number of pheasants flushed and caught during nightlighting efforts at Peters-Kretzschmer mini-game area during the winter of 1985 ..................... Number and species of hawks observed during roadside surveys along a standard route at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan in 1985 ... Pheasant mortalities found during searches of 3 study areas in the thumb region of Michigan during the winter of 1985 0.0.I............OOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOO Mean monthly temperatures and the amount of precipitation for the period January through June 1985 in Bad Axe and Caro, MiChigan O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00....O vi 33 35 36 38 LIST OF FIGURES Location of study areas in relation to the paleo-shoreline in the thumb region or MiChigan ......OOOOOOOOOOIOOI.0...... 5 Number of crows heard during 2 crowing cock surveys at 5 study areas in 1984 and 1985 ......OOOOOOOOO0.00.0.0...OO... 22 Percent of dummy nests with one or more eggs destroyed or missing at 5 study area81n1984and1985 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 23 Percent of dummy nests with one or more eggs destroyed or missing in randomly placed nests, transect nests, and non- checked nests at 5 study areas in 1985 . 24 Cover letter for the hunter harvest ‘ survey in 1984 and 1985 ................ 47 Hunter harvest survey for 1984 and 1985 . 48 vii INTRODUCTION Ring-necked pheasants (Ehggignng gglgniggg) were first successfully introduced to Michigan in 1918 (Allen 1956). This exotic species flourished and huntable numbers were present by 1925 (MacMullen 1957). Their numbers fluctuated until 1935 and then dramatically increased in the 1940's, with a peak harvest of 1,404,076 cocks taken in 1944 (MacMullen 1957, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, unpubl. rep., 1980). Pheasant numbers then began their 3 decade decline which has resulted in hunter harvests of less than 150,000 cocks in recent years (Michigan Department of Natural Resources, unpub. rep., 1984). The decline of the ring-necked pheasant is not unique to Michigan. In fact, the trend is similar throughout the traditional pheasant range of the United States (Pouch 1979, Crawford and Meyers 1980). Many studies have tested a variety of hypotheses that have identified possible limiting factors of ring-neck populations, yet no satis- factory understanding has emerged. A combination of variables that have temporal and geographical dimensions appear to limit pheasant numbers. With. the growth. of agriculture in the ‘United States, recent areas of research have included the effects of changes in land use, in particular, the loss of quality 1 nesting and winter habitat due to the elimination of fencerows, draining of low areas by tiling, and the trend towards row crops rather than small grains (Leedy and Dustman 1947, Labisky 1976, Warner 1979, Warner et a1. 1984) . In addition to land use trends, the increased mechanization and efficiency of agricultural processes (Errington and Hamerstrom 1937, Bklund 1942, Dustman 1950, Kozicky 1951) as well as the negative impact of pesticides and herbicides have also been investigated (Adams and Prince 1972, 1976: Stromborg 1977,1979: Fredrickson et al. 1978, Bennett and Prince 1981). A combination of severe winter weather and the lack of quality winter cover can result in death from starva- tion, exposure, and suffocation (Green 1938, Buss and Swanson 1950, Kopischke and Chesness 1967, Wood and Brotherson 1981) , as well as increasing pheasants' vulnerability to predation (Dumke and Pils 1973). Those birds that survive the winter may suffer from suboptimal body conditions and may be 'more 'vulnerable to pred- ation during the nesting season. Dumke and Pils (1973) found mortality due to predation to be highest during the winter, and that predation was the factor limiting pheasant abundance at Waterloo Wildlife Area, Wisconsin. Similarly, studies in Minnesota and South Dakota designed to control predators have demonstrated increases in pheasant populations during times of control (Chesness et a1. 1968, Trautman et a1. 1973). Although there is evidence that habitat changes, biocides and predation are dominant factors in the population decline of the pheasant, an understanding of the mechanisms is still lacking. This has resulted in management practices, developed by responsible agencies under strong public pressure, that are not cohesive and have a low probability of success until more data are available. At this point, it is uncertain that it is possible to arrest or reverse the current population trends. This investigation was designed to develop hypothes- es centering around habitat and predator' interactions based on population surveys of pheasants and predators (avian and mammalian) on 5 1/4 township study areas containing state-owned pheasant management areas. Pheasant management areas, despite similar agricultural use that. provides food, nesting' and.'winter’ cover for pheasants, have experienced varying degrees of success not‘ only between areas, but within areas over several years. The game areas within each 1/4 township differ in the amount of agricultural land available, as well as differ- ing in pheasant numbers, yet no correlation between land use and pheasant abundance is evident. This project was designed to compare and contrast differences in pheasant numbers, predator abundance, and patterns of land use. STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION The investigation took place on 5 areas in Huron and Tuscola counties in Michigan's thumb region (Fig 1). Each study area is comprised of a section containing state owned land and the surrounding 8 sections. The parcels of state land were purchased from area farmers and carry their family name. Such parcels are managed primarily for pheasants and because of their relatively small size are designated by the state as mini-game areas. In Tuscola county, the study areas are: Bell-Seed, in Elkland township (Sec 13-15,22-27, T14N, RllB), Winchester-O'Dell, in Elmwood township (Sec 13-15,22-27, T14N, R9B), Rieck- Lehman-Scharf, in Columbia township (Sec 16-21,28-30, T13N, R92), and Findlay, in Almer township (Sec 16-21,28- 30, T13N, R9E) . Peters-Kretzschmer is located in Brook- field (Sec 12, 13,24, T15N, R108) and Grant townships (Sec 7,8,17-20, T15N, RllE) in Huron county. The number of frost free days averages 134 for the thumb region. Yearly precipitation is approximately 78.8 cm rain and 123.7 cm snow, with a relative humidity of 61% (Deeter and Matthews 1926, Linsemier 1980). The topography of the region ranges from nearly level lowlands in the western portion of the thumb, where the 4 ‘\ -I\ SAGINAW say «e HURON COUNTY§ SANILAC COUNTY ~ Tuscou couurv 1‘: 5 Ml ; Fig. 1. Location of study areas in relation to the paleo- shoreline in the thumb region of Michigan. ancient lake bed is evident, to gently rolling and hilly country beyond the lake terrace (Fig. 1) . Three of the study areas , Findlay (F), Rieck-Lehman-Scharf (RLS), and Peters-Kretzschmer (PK), are located within the old lake bed zone (Fig. 1) and their topography is characterist- ically level. Land use of the areas within the lake bed zone is predominantly agricultural, averaging 65%, while woodlands comprise an average of only 6% (Table l) . For the most part, the mini-game areas within each 1/4 township reflect the patterns of land use noted for the study area, although they are generally less intensively farmed. Bell-Seed (BS) and Winchester-O'Dell (W0) study areas lie east of the paleo-shoreline, and are characterized by nearly level to gently rolling topography (Fig. 1)(Deeter and Matthews 1926) . Land is less intensively farmed in the 1/4 townships in this area (53%), compared with the lake bed zone. Although agriculture represents the majority of the land use, woodlots do account for about 18% of the area (Table 1). Soils for the region were formed in glacial drift or lacustrine sediments, and range from light colored, well drained sandy loans to dark, poorly drained muck and peat (Table 2)(Deeter and Matthews 1926, Linsemier 1980). Cash crops grown on these soils consist primarily of row crops such as corn (Zea mars). navy beans (Enemies W). Table 1. Land use characteristics of 5 mini-game areas (MGA) and the 1/4 townships where each are located, in the thumb region of Michigan, lead-1985.3 Land use (% of total area) Agriculture Woodland Other5 Area 1/4 twn MBA 1/4 tun MBA 1/4 twn MGA Bell-Seed 46 68 23 32 31 - Winchester- 61 81 13 19 26 - O'Dell Rieck-Lehman- 69 69 4 31 27 - Scharf Findlay 70 100 6 - 24 - Peters- 56 99 9 <1 35 - Kretzschmer MEAN 6O 83 ll 17 29 - a Data from U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service and Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources. 9 Land incorporating towns, dwellings, outbuildings, roads and drains. Table 2. Soil types found within 5 1/4 township study areas in Huron and Tuscola counties in the thumb region of Michigan. Area Soil type‘ Bell-Seed Miami loan, Brookston loam, Macomb loam, Rifle peat Winchester- Gagetown loam, Fox sandy loam, Granby loam O'Dell Rieck-Lehman- Brookston loan, Gilford fine sandy loam, Scharf Berrein loamy fine sand, burned muck over clay . Findlay Brookston loam, Oshtemo loamy sand, Conover loan, Allendale fine sandy loam, Gilford sandy loam Peters- Avoca-Pipestone-Covert, Guelph-Londo-Parkhill Kretzschmer ‘7 Information from soil survey of Tuscola County (Deeter and Matthews 1926) and Huron County (Linsemier 1980). soybeans (glycine max), sugar beets (Egg; yulgarig); and small grains such as wheat (m M) , barley (Handgun; mum). oats (m satire) and rye (5.9.9312 cerealg). Other important crops include alfalfa (Mgdigagg gatiya), livestock and dairy products (Deeter and Matthews 1926, Linsemier 1980). Within each 1/4 township study area, row crops constitute the majority of the agriculture (Table 3) . Small grains average 20% of the cash crops produced and forage crops, primarily alfalfa, represents 5%. Set-aside acreage, tillable land left with undisturbed cover for the production year, comprises 3% of the cropland (Table 3). 10 'Table 3. Percent of area planted to major crops in 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan, 1980-1985. Crops planted (% of area under cultivation)a Area under row small set- Area cultivation (ha) crops grains forage aside Bell-Seed 857 54 31 9 6 Winchester- 1141 70 20 6 ° 4 O'Dell Rieck-Lehman- 1191 79 16 2 3 Scharf Findlay 1284 80 17 1 2 Peters-Kretzschmer 1188 76 16 6 2 TOTAL 5661 MEAN 72 20 5 3 3 Data from 0.3. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area selection Mini-game areas were chosen on the basis of variation in pheasant numbers and available habitat (Table 4). Two areas, Peters-Kretzschmer and Findlay, are intensively farmed with little or no woody cover. Although both areas had high wintering populations of pheasants in the late 1970's (>100 birds), Peters-Kretzschmer is the only area where numbers remained high up to 1984 (C. Jarvis, pers. comm.). Bell-Seed and Rieck-Lehman-Scharf mini-game areas have extensive woodland areas. A wintering population of 40-60 birds has been noted at Rieck-Lehman-Scharf, while Bell-Seed has never attracted many pheasants during the ‘winter (C. Jarvis, pers. comm.). Winchester-O'Dell has moderate woodland area, although land use is predomin- antly agricultural. This area has had increasing numbers of pheasants in the past, with >100 wintering there in 1984 (C. Jarvis, pers. comm.). The relationship between pheasant numbers on the mini-game and surrounding areas and land use provided a design for comparison. Implicit in this was the potent- ial for differences in numbers of predators that could affect pheasant numbers. This resulted in a series of 11 12 Table 4. Land use, topography, and winter pheasant numbers on 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan at the start of the investigation. Description Agricultural Woody Topography Winter pheasant Area use cover population Bell-Seed low high rolling low Winchester- med med rolling high O'Dell Rieck-Lehman- med med flat med Scharf ‘ Findlay high low flat low Peters- high low flat high Kretzschmer 13 surveys designed to observe pheasant and predator use of the study areas throughout the year. Pheasant and predator surveys Spring crowing cock counts were initiated on 7 May in 1984 and 1985. A standardized route of 19.2 km was established through each 9 section study area, with stops every 1.6 km. Surveys began 40 min before sunrise. The initial weather conditions, such as temperature, wind speed, cloud cover, and amount of precipitation during the previous 24 h, were recorded. Any change in weather conditions during the survey was noted. At each stop, all pheasant crows heard during 2 minutes were counted. There was no attempt to count individual birds. All pheasants seen along the route were also recorded. The survey was run twice each year. An evaluation of numbers of predators and their possible impact on pheasants in each study area began in May 1984. Dummy nest transects were established in a nesting meadow on each area to establish an index of the number of eggs destroyed over a 40 day period. Forty days represents the length of time for laying and incubation of a successful nest. Nesting meadows consisted of wheat stubble fields that had been sown to alfalfa and sweet clover (Melilgtgg spp.). Meadows were left for 3-5 years without disturbance of any kind, except periodic burning 14 in early spring to control perennial weeds and rejuvenate alfalfa and clover growth. In 1984, two eggs, one each of a domestic chicken (9.111119. gangs) and mallard (m: W), were set out 25 m apart along a line that bisected the nesting meadow on each mini-game area. Since the meadows varied in size between areas, the total number of nests estab- lished varied as well. Rubber gloves were worn to handle the eggs to avoid human scent on them. No attempt was made to make a nest or to cover the eggs. Nests were marked by flags set 10 m away in a consistent direction. The eggs were checked between day 2 and day 5 after establishment, and every 7 days thereafter for a total of 37-40 days, A nest was considered destroyed if one or both eggs were broken or missing. Einarsen (1956) provided guidelines for identification of predators, although definitive identification was not attempted. In 1985, pheasant eggs were obtained from the Michigan Department of Natural Resources' Mason Wildlife Facility. In addition to nests established along a transect, as in 1984, several nests were set out randomly to see if placement in a regular pattern increased the rate of destruction. The number of nests per meadow totaled 35 for each area. To check whether weekly visitation had any effect on the number of nests destroy- ed, eighteen of the total number of nests were randomly 15 selected to be checked weekly. The remaining nests were not checked until the end of the 37-40 day trial. Scent post stations were constructed to determine the species and relative abundance of mammalian predators in 1984 and 1985. A transect of 46-48 stations, each 0.4 km apart, was established along the roadsides for each 1/4 township study areas For' each station, all roadside vegetation and some topsoil was cleared with a scythe and shovel, creating a circle 1 m in diameter. The remaining topsoil was packed down. Sand was sifted through aluminum screening to cover the topsoil with a depth of approx- imately 2 cm. The fine sand was smoothed with a small brush and one scent wafer was placed in the middle of the station. Scent wafers, purchased from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service's Pocatella Supply Depot, Pocatella ID, consisted of plaster disks impregnated with a fatty acid scent. The transect was checked for 4 consecutive mmrnings. If tracks were present, they were identified and recorded. Any disturbance was smoothed over and the scent wafer replaced if destroyed or missing. Stations that had been disturbed so as to destroy tracks, such as by livestock, human interference or machinery, were designated as inoperative and were not included in the analysis. An index of relative abundance, as described by Linhart and Knowlton (1975) , was determined for each species as follows: 16 to v t X 1000 total operative station-nights Brood surveys to evaluate pheasant production began in July 1984 and 1935. Initiation of the surveys depended on the harvesting of small grains on each study area, which increased the range of observer visibility from the vehicle. Standardized routes of 56-59.2 km were repeated 3 times through each area. Surveys started 30 minutes after sunrise. All broods observed from the vehicle were recorded, as well as any adult pheasants seen along the route. In the fall, a hunter harvest survey provided information on pheasant recruitment and hunter effort. For the opening 2 days of pheasant season in 1984 and 1985, workers distributed a survey packet consisting of a short cover letter and a business-reply card questionnaire in zip closure bags on the windshields of all vehicles parked along the roads of each study. area. Hunting parties were interviewed directly whenever possible to obtain information about their hunt. Workers drove a standard route through each study area to ensure that surveys were issued to parties hunting on private lands as well as state lands. Roadside counts of pheasant numbers in the winter began on 9 February 1985, after heavy snow was present. 17 The standard route devised for brood surveys was repeated twice, covering each 9 section area. At the start of each survey, wind speed, cloud cover, and amount of precipita- tion during the previous 24 h were recorded. All pheas- ants observed from the vehicle were sexed, counted and recorded. In preparation to estimate spring dispersal distance of wintering pheasants, trapping on 3 mini-game areas was initiated in late December 1984 and continued through March 1985. The areas chosen were Bell-Seed and Winches- ter-O'Dell in Tuscola county and Peters-Kretzschmer in Huron county. Three methods were used for trapping pheasants. Cloverleaf traps, modified from Leedy and Hicks' design (1945), were constructed at each area. Trap sides were 72 cm high turkey wire. Nylon netting was used for the trap tops to reduce the potential for scalping or other injury to trapped birds. Initially, the tops and ends of . the traps were left open for a pro-baiting period of 17 days. Ear corn from the mini-game areas provided the bait. Once set, the traps were checked daily. Captured hens were ‘weighed, banded, fitted with radio transmitters and released immediately. Radio transmitters, purchased from Telonics, Inc., Mesa, AZ, were attached to the hen in the manner described by Brander (1968) and successfully used by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. l8 Mist nets, purchased from Bleitz Wildlife Foundation, Hollywood, CA, were set in cover known to be used by pheasants at Peters-Kretzschmer in February 1985. Workers walked slowly through fields, driving pheasants towards the net. When approximately 3-5 m away, workers converged toward the net to flush pheasants into the trap. Nightlighting was the third. method used to trap pheasants. Weather conditions, terrain, and vegetation made it impossible to use a vehicle for nightlighting. However, a backpack frame was used to carry a battery to power a 100,000 candle power hand held lamp and a crew of workers systematically covered roosting areas on foot to capture pheasants similar to the method described by Labisky (1959). Two techniques were used to evaluate the relative abundance of avian predators on the study areas. For hawks, a roadside survey was conducted along the standard route devised for brood surveys. Surveys were repeated at each area. All hawks observed from the vehicle were identified and recorded. A recording of calls was broadcast to survey owls on each area. All woodlots on an area were sampled from stops along the road. The number of stops varied according to the size of the woodlot and its location in relation to the road. The tape, recorded from Peterson's Field Guide to Bird Songs, included calls of screech owls (ths 19 3319) , great horned owls (m W) , and barred owls (Strix ygxia). The tape was amplified and broadcast from a loudspeaker out of the vehicle. For each call heard, the species was identified and the direction of the call noted in order to avoid duplicating counts at successive stops. Each survey started at dusk and continued until all woodlots were sampled at one area. In addition to predator surveys, a record of all pheasant mortalities discovered on the mini-game areas was maintained during the 1984-1985 winter field work. The record includes not only those birds found incidentally during trapping activities, but includes mortalities discovered during systematic searches of the mini-game areas as well. For each kill, the location and sex, if discernable, was recorded and the site was marked with flagging tape in order to prevent duplication of counts by various workers. Any intact bird was collected for necropsy. Necropsies were performed. by the Wildlife Disease Laboratory, Rose Lake Wildlife Research Center. Data Analysis Randomization test for matched pairs (Siegel 1956) was used to test whether differences in the number of crowing cocks heard and the number of broods observed occurred between 1984 and 1985. Chi-square for indepen- dent samples (Siegel 1956) tested whether the total number 20 of nests destroyed in 1985 was significantly different from 1984, and whether a difference in the number of nests destroyed occurred between randomly placed nests, transect nests, and nests not checked until the end of the trial. Scent post data were analyzed by chi-square for independent samples to test if the rate of visitation to scent stations was significantly different between 1984 and 1985. Spearman rank correlation (Siegel 1956) was used to determine whether a correlation between numbers of broods observed and relative abundance of mammalian predators existed. Hunter harvest data were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U test (Siegel 1956) to determine whether differences between numbers of hunters, hours hunted, cocks bagged, and birds flushed existed between 1984 and 1985. RESULTS The total number of crowing cocks heard during 2 surveys was 289 and 287 in 1984 and 1985, respectively. Although there are differences among areas (Fig. 2), yearly differences in the total number of crowing cocks heard at all areas was not significant (p>.05). Destruction of eggs in dummy nests was greater than 50% on 4 of 5 areas in 1984 (Fig. 3). At Bell-Seed, 16 of 22 nests, or 73%, were destroyed 2 days after nest establishment. The lowest number of nests were destroyed at Winchester-O'Dell, where the first depredation was not detected until 21 days after nest establishment. Although the percent of nests destroyed was similar to 1984, depredation was highest at Findlay mini-game area in 1985. A significantly lower number of nests were destroy- ed on all areas in 1985 compared to 1984 (p<.05). The rate of egg destruction was not significantly different between nests placed along a transect and those placed randomly (Fig. 4), as well as nests not checked until the end of the trial (p>.05). Tracks of species identified at scent post stations were raccoon (Erggygn .lgtgr), striped skunk. (Meghitis meshing). red fox (17211291 mines). and opossum mission; 21 NUMBER OF CROWING COCKS loo-- ”‘1 70‘ 60" 50-1 22 [] me4 Ilisms mew Bel-Seed Rieck-Lehmm- Palm- O'DOI Scheri Kreizschmer AREA Fig. 2 . Number of crows heard during 2 crowing cock surveys at 5 study areas in l984 and l985. % DESTROYED 23 . I Bel-Seed flied-Leno? Peters- Sehct Kretzsetlner AREA I Fig. 3. Percent oi dummy nests with one or more eggs destroyed or missing at 5 study areas in l984 and l985. % DESTROYED 70" 60- 50‘ 40“ 30" 20‘ lO-i 24 D random nests I transect nests non-checked nests /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////A \‘ A s A A A A Findlay Peters- Risa-Lehm- gaps... Winchester- Kretzsctlner 3M O'Del AREA Fig. 4. Percent of dummy nests with one or more eggs destroyed or missing in randomly placed nests, transect nests, and non-checked nests at 5 study areas in l985. 25 Table 5. Index‘ of relative abundance of 6 species of mammalian predators on 5 1/4 township study areas located in the thumb region of Michigan in 1964 and 1985. Bell-Seed Peters- Findlay Rieck-Lehman- Winchester- Avg tretsschaer Scharf O'Dell (2) Raccoon 1984 89 75 17 11 5 39 1985 111 21 15 . 33 22 40 Skunk 1984 83 0 11 0 22 23 1985 61 28 38 22 7 31 Red for 1984 17 27 6 16 5 14 1935 39 21 e 11 0 ° 15 Opossum 1984 17 43 17 22 27 25 1985 17 7 7 0 7 8 1984 33 123 68 33 54 62 1985 83 85 128 33 126 91 Cat 1984 56 59 34 66 38 51 1985 17 63 45 16 15 31 TOTAL 1984 295 327 153 148 151 214 1985 328 225 241 115 177 217 ‘ Ind-x - __Tsral_aniaal_ziaits__ x 1000 Total operative station nights 26 17W) . Other species visiting scent post stations were domestic dogs and cats. Domestic animals constituted the majority of visitors to scent post stations, represen- ting a combined index of 113 and 122 for 1984 and 1985, respectively (Table 5) . Of the native species, raccoons were the most numerous visitor to scent posts, followed by skunks, opossums and red fox. Tracks were evident in less than 35% of scent post stations for both 1984 and 1985. There was no significant difference in the rate of visitation to scent posts between years ( p>.05) A total of 22 broods, 10 hens and 10 cocks were observed during surveys in 1984 (Table 6) . During the 1985 surveys, only 5 broods, 5 hens and 6 cocks were seen. ‘This is a significant decrease of 77% from the previous year for broods (p<.05) , while the total number of chicks observed decreased by 61% in 1985 (Table 6). In addition, the number of adult pheasants seen along the route declined by 44% in 1985. Three of the study areas had fewer numbers of chicks observed in 1985 compared to 1984. These areas correspon- ded to the areas having a higher total index for mammal- ian predators visiting scent post stations in 1985. The two areas with higher numbers of chicks observed in 1985 showed a lower index of mammalian predators compared to 1984. Although there may be a trend for an inverse relationship between numbers of chicks observed and the 27 Table 6. Number of ring-necked pheasant broods observed during surveys along instandard route at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb area of Michigan 1964 and 1965. Distance Traveled (km) Breeds Chicks lens Cocks Area 1984 1985 1984 1985 1984 1985 1984 1985 1984 1985 Rieck-Lehaan- 173 173 6 2 19 27 0 3 1 1 Scharf Bell-Seed 188 168 5 O 59 0 2 0 3 0 Peters- 173 178 4 2 10 16 3 1 1 2 Iretsschaer Winchester- 173 173 4 1 19 7 2 1 3 2 O'Dell Findlay 173 173 3 0 22 0 3 0 2 1 TOTAL 859 864 22 5 129 50 10 5 10 6 28 index of relative abundance, the relationship is not significant (rs- -0;8). Information regarding hunter effort and success from the opening 2 days of pheasant season was received from 157 hunters in 1984 and 120 hunters in 1985, which represents a return of 50% and 42% of the surveys issued (Table 7). Although the total number of hunters declined in 1985, there was not a significant difference in the average hours hunted per party between 1984 and 1985 (p>.05). A reported total of 23 cocks were harvested during the first 2 days of the hunting season on 5 areas in 1984 (Table 8). Twelve cocks were taken in 1985, a decrease of 48%. The total birds shot decreased by 62%. The number of hours per bird flushed increased from 4.7 in 1984 to 10 in 1985 for cocks, and from 3.4 to 12.6 for hens. This is a 2 and 3 fold increase for cocks and hens, respectively. The difference between 1984 and 1985 for hens is signifi- cant (p<.05). A total of 60 pheasants were observed during the 560 km survey route traveled in February of 1985. The highest number of pheasants noted was at Peters-Kretzschmer, where 19 hens and 26 cocks were observed on the state owned land (Table 9). All pheasants observed on the other study areas were on private land. The observed sex ratio of cockszhens was 1.6:1.0. 29 Table 7. Hunting party information from the opening 2 days of pheasant season at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan in 1984 and 1985. Surveys Surveys Percent No. Hunters/ Hrs. hunted/ issued returned returned hunters party (2) party (x35.8.) Bell-Seed 1984 20 6 4o 23 3 3 3.6 1985 22 11 so 31 3 3 3.6 Peters- Kretzschmer 1964 19 9 47 23 3 4 3.6 1985 27 9 33 22 2 3 3.7 Winchester- O'Dell 1984 27 14 52 29 2 3 3.5 1985 30 8 27 27 3 4 3.9 Findlay 1964 21 13 62 39 3 3 3.7 1985 19 11 58 26 2 2 3.3 Rieck-Lehman- Scharf 1984 25 12 48 43 4 4 3.8 1985 8 6 75 ' 14 2 2 3 1 TOTAL 1984 112 56 ‘ 50 157 3 3 3.3 1985 106 45 42 120 2 3 3.3 30 Table 8. Hunter harvest data from the opening 2 days of pheasant season at 5 1/4 township study areas located in the thumb region of Michigan in 1984 and 1985. cocks cocks gun- gun-hr/ gun-hr] gun-hr/ 869666 was hours” cock bagged cock flushed hen flushed Bell-Seed 1984 3 1 73 24.3 3.3 2.8 1985 0 1 92 0 23.0 8.4 Peters- Kretzschmer 1984 5 10 86 17.2 2.9 2.7 1985 3 1 46 15.3 3.5 7.7 winchester- O'Dell 1984 8 3 80 10.0 2.2 1.5 1985 6 1 174 29.0 10.9 17.4 Findlay 1984 3 o 148 49.3 11.4 5.3 1985 2 0 41 20.5 8.2 20.5 Rieck-Lehman- Scharf 1984 4 0 174 43.5 9.2 6.9 1985 1 0 37 37.0 37.0 18.5 TOTAL 1984 23 14 561 24.4 4.7 3.4 1985 12 3 390 32.5 10.0 12.6 ‘ Hit but not retrieved ‘3 No. hunters/party 1: hrs. hunted/party .31 Table 9. Numbers of pheasants observed during winter roadside surveys at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan in 1985. Distance Total pheasants Area Traveled (km) Hens Cocks observed Peters- 110 19 26 45 Kretzschmer Winchester- 115 1 4 5 O'Dell Bell-Seed 104 5 0 5 Rieck-Lehman- 115 1 2 3 Scharf Findlay 115 2 0 2 TOTAL 560 23 37 60 32 For 242 trap nights, 6 hens were captured and fitted with radio transmitters. Problems encountered in bait trapping included persistent snow that continually covered the bait and eventually drifted over many of the traps. At Bell-Seed, white-tail deer' (QQQQQiLgug,jyigginigngg) tore the nylon net tops in repeatedly successful attempts to feed on the bait. In addition, drifting snow precluded travel to the areas at one point, resulting in 2 hens lost to exposure in one trap at Bell-Seed. On 24 January 1985, all traps were closed to prevent further mortality in traps. No pheasants were captured in mist nets. Although the pheasants that were driven toward the not by workers did not flush until close to the net, birds were able to avoid the net. Pheasants that had entered the cover containing the mist nets before the drivers were close apparently avoided the net, running around the ends. One hen did flush into the not, yet was able to escape before workers converged on the net. One female Cooper's hawk (Aggipigg; Eggpgrii) was trapped and released during this effort. Nightlighting crews operated 5 times during the winter of 1985, for a total effort of 41 man-hours (Table 10). One hen was captured. Most of the pheasants flushed wildly, out of range of crew members with nets. Three species of hawks were observed wintering on 33 Table 10. The number of pheasants flushed and caught during nightlighting efforts at Peters-Rretzschmer mini-game area during the winter of 1985. Nightlighting Flushes/ effort Pheasants Pheasants effort Date (h) flushed caught (h) 1-8-85 9 30 - 3.3 1-9-85 6 5 - 0.8 2-20-85 3 4 1 1.3 2-28-85 8 2 - 0.3 3-20-85 15 3 - 0.2 TOTAL 41 44 1 1.1 34 some of the mini-game areas (Table 11). The most numerous species observed during the 560 km survey was the red- tailed hawk (33339 11133152311515) . Other species observed were the rough-legged hawk (33593 W) and Cooper's hawk. The playback recording of owls was unsuccessful in 1985, due to the severe weather that characterized that winter. In particular, high winds distorted the sound and direction of the recording and caused the detection of responses to be extremely poor. A systematic search for pheasant carcasses was conducted on 3 mini-game areas during the winter of 1985 (Table 12) . Hens constituted 41 out of 45 birds found during searches. In addition, 44 of those mortalities were either partially (some or most of the body discover- ed) or completely (only feathers or appendages left) consumed by a predator. Positive identification of predators from the carcasses was not possible in most cases. However, at Peters-Kretzschmer, 5 hens were found in an apparent cache in a brush pile on successive visits. One additional hen was found nearby, with numerous red fox tracks around it. Also at Peters-Kretzschmer, a complete pheasant skeleton was discovered in a tree, approximately 3 m above ground. A pair of red-tailed hawks was frequen- tly observed perched in trees on this game area, partic- ularly at dusk when pheasants were traveling to their 35 Table 11. lumber and species of hawks observed during roadside surveys along a standard route at 5 1/4 township study areas in the thumb region of Michigan in 1985. Species Distance Area traveled (km) Red-tailed Rough-legged Cooper's Unident. Winchester- 115 6 - - - O'Dell Peters- 110 5 1 - - Rretzschmer Findlay 115 3 - - - Rieck-Lehman- 115 2 - - 1 Scharf Bell-Seed 104 1 - 1 - TOTAL 560 17 1 1 1 36 Table 12. Pheasant mortalities found during searches of 3 study areas in the thumb area of Michigan, during the winter of 1985. L Pheasants Found Search Search time/ Area time (h) Hens Cocks Total Pheasant (h) Peters- 151 27 2 29 5 Kretzschmer Winchester- 47 11 2 13 4 O'Dell Bell-Seed 33 3 0 3 11 TOTAL 231 41 4 45a 5 :7 44 of 45 birds located were either partially or completely consumed by a predator. 37 roosting sites. This pair of red-tails nested 1 km away, successfully fledging 2 young this past summer. - The determination of the cause of death is subject to bias because there exists the likelihood that predators may have taken advantage of a pheasant found dead. Other causes of death for wintering pheasants include starvation and exposure (McClure 1948, Kopischke and Chesness 1967), yet it is unlikely that either was the initial cause of death. The 5 birds collected for necropsy were determined to have good body conditions, with fat deposits present. Predation was diagnosed as the cause of death for 2 of the 5 birds; 2 died as a result of self-inflicted trauma while in bait traps. A diagnosis was not made for the cause of death in the final bird collected. In order to evaluate winter severity, data was collected from the Michigan Weather Service for January through June 1985. Temperatures and amount of precipita- tion (rain and snow) were compiled from Bad Axe (Huron County) and Caro (Tuscola County), and compared with the means of these measurements from the period 1940-1969 (Michigan ‘Weather Service 1975). Temperatures during January and February were lower than the long term average (departure from the norm - -1.36 C°), while rain and snowfall were greater (Table 13). Spring in 1985, however, showed higher temperatures in April and May, with precipitation near the long term mean. In January 1985, 38 Table 13. Mean monthly temperatures and amount of precipitation for the period January through June 1985 in Bad Axe and Caro, Michigan. Days with >15 cm Temp. (’0) Rain (cm) Snowfall (cm) snow cover Month Bad Axe Caro Bad Axe Caro Bad Axe Caro Bad Axe Caro Jan 19:3 -7.7 -7.6 10.3 3.8 87.6 45.9 31 18 -50. -505 ‘0‘ 3.7 32.0 22., Feb 1985 -6.1 -5.1 10.5 6.1 57.7 35.3 24 22 X -503 -‘O. ‘07 3.3 32.3 190‘ Mar 1985 0.7 2.6 14.8 8.9 43.7 10.4 5 0 g -006 003 ‘09 ‘09 1.68 13.7 Apr 1985 9.2 10.8 8.8 6.9 6.4 T 0 0 M 6.8 7.7 6.3 6.1 4.6 2.5 May 1985 13.4 15.4 6.6 8.4 0 0 0 0 1 12.4 13.3 7.2 7.0 .3 T :un 1985 16.3 16.9 4.4 4.9 0 0 0 0 2 18.3 19.2 7.6 7.7 0 0 ,3 can from the Michigan Weather Service (1985) . 9 Long term average for 1940-1969 (Michigan Weather Service 1975). 39 there were 31 days with greater than 15 cm of snow in Bad Axe, while Caro had 18. In February, Bad Axe and Caro were similar, with 24 and 22 days of snow cover, respectively. DISCUSSION Pheasant numbers in the thumb region of Michigan were known to be low, but not to the extent the data collected have illustrated. The continued decrease in pheasant numbers has now reached an all-time low. The study was designed to compare and contrast pheasant numbers on 5 study areas which incorporated pheasant management areas within each. Mini-game areas were designed to provide habitat for the basic needs of pheasants since the surrounding private lands are intens- ively farmed. Although agricultural crops such as small grains and forage crops (alfalfa) are preferred nesting and brood rearing cover (Gates and Hale 1975, Warner 1979, Snyder 1982,1984) , mortality from agricultural practices is well documented (Kozicky 1951, Linder et a1. 1960, Gates and Halo 1975) . The economy of Michigan's thumb region. is based on agriculture, and recent trends of large, more efficient farm machinery have resulted in the elimination of fence rows and roadside strip cover while increasing field size. Intensive farming practices such as fall plowing have reduced the amount of residual cover and waste grains available for pheasants during the fall and winter. Mini-game areas are managed to provide secure 40 41 nesting cover and brood rearing cover as well as winter foods and cover in close proximity to counteract the lack of quality habitat on surrounding lands (C. Jarvis, pers. comm.) . Pheasants have responded to management on game areas, but there has been no stability in pheasant numbers. Numbers of breeding and wintering ring-necks have been variable, suggesting that habitat management on parcels of land covering 64 to 113 ha is not sufficient to maintain stable numbers of ring-necks and that other factors are affecting populations. Frank and Woehler (1969) monitored the response of pheasants to habitat manipulations designed to provide food and cover in Wisconsin. They found no measurable increase in pheasant density. on management areas relative to regional popula- tion trends. Data collected from 2 years in the thumb region suggest that this may be occurring in Michigan as well. This investigation occurred during a period with an exceptionally harsh winter, with snow depths ranging 23 to 55 cm greater than the long term average. Drifting snow severely reduced the amount of quality winter cover and foods on the :mini-game areaso This resulted in documented mortality of pheasant hens that was substantial enough to reduce productivity to even lower levels than observed in 1984. This ‘was reflected in. the dramatic decrease in broods observed during brood surveys in 1985. 42 Spring crowing cock counts have been used as an index for breeding populations of pheasants (Kimball 1949, Gates 1966). Crowing cock counts in 1985 were not affected by the large mortality of hens noted over the winter field season. Although past counts by Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) personnel are not directly comparable to the surveys in 1984 and 1985, counts the past 2 years on the study areas are lower than surveys conducted in past years by the MDNR on 2 of the mini-game areas. Crowing counts appear to reflect the availablity of territorial habitat for males. The number of crowing sites on the areas between years was constant, with a population of males large enough to fill the territories. Mortality of pheasants during the nesting and brood rearing period did not appear to be significant. Dummy nest transects did not show a consistent trend between years, as only Findlay showed a rate of egg destruction >40% in 1985. Areas having the highest rate of depreda- tion, in 1984 and 1985 had mammalian predators known to inhabit the mini-game areas. In 1984, Bell-Seed had a red fox with kits donning near the meadow where the dummy nest transect was set out, while a striped skunk was encounter- ed when checking nests at Findlay in 1985. The lower rate of egg destruction in 1985 can be attributed to the mild spring weather (Michigan Weather Service 1985), which promoted early vegetative growth. In 1985, new herbaceous 43 growth covered the eggs when they were set out. In 1984, residual vegetation offered little or no cover until late May, and dummy nests were often quite visible. Scent post surveys did not indicate an abundance of predators within each 1/4 township study area, although those species that have been identified as predators of pheasants did visit scent post stations. The rate of visitation was always under 10% for each species. This is a low’ value compared. with Conner' et a1. (1983), who reported a 27%, 48%, 9.9% visitation rate for raccoon, grey fox, and opossum, respectively. Although hunter effort was intensive on most areas, success was limited. in. both 1984 and 1985. Hunters removed few cocks and the decline in pheasants in 1985 resulted in a decrease of 31% in hunter effort. Comments received from hunters on the 1984 and 1985 harvest surveys indicate their increasing discouragement for pheasant hunting in the thumb region. This discouragement is reflected not only in the lower numbers of hunters, but also in the decreased hours spent hunting in 1985. Numbers of pheasants wintering on mini-game areas have declined for all areas. In 1978, Findlay had 200-300 pheasants wintering on the area, while 150 birds were observed at Peters-Ketzschmer (MDNR, unpubl. rep., 1978). Winchester-O'Dell had steadily increasing numbers of wintering pheasants, with >100 birds noted in 1984 44 (C.Jarvis, pers.comm4), yet in 1985, no ‘more than 45 pheasants were observed on any 9 section study area. Predation had a notable effect on pheasant numbers during the winter of 1984-1985 on the three study areas where mortalities were monitored. The most significant impact was the number of hens removed from the population. This is reflected by the sex ratio of flocks wintering on the study areas in 1985. Normally, because of the gregarious behavior of hens in the winter, any type of count that tends to seek out concentrations of birds would be biased towards hens (Wagner et al. 1965) . The observed sex ratio of flocks in 1985 was skewed to cocks, indicating poor reproductive potential for a polygynous species. Snyder (1985) reported. high losses of’ hens during the early spring in Colorado, especially in the spring of 1980 when snow cover was extensive. Cocks did not appear to experience the same degree of late winter mortality as ring-necked hens. Einarsen (1956) stated that hens show poor defensive habits against predators. Dumke and Pils (1973) noted that predators are opportun- ists, and have been observed testing prey to detect an easy kill. Mammalian and avian predation has been documen- ted to be significant during the winter period of snow cover (Dumke and Pils 1973, Petersen 1979, Snyder 1985). At the Waterloo Wildlife Area, Wisconsin, red fox were implicated in 64% of pheasant losses to mammalian predat- 45 ors, while the red-tailed hawk and great horned owl were felt to be responsible for the majority of the avian mortalities (Dumke and Pils 1973). In Colorado, Snyder (1985) found that predation was the only documented source of natural mortality among radio-marked hens. Great horned owls, Cooper's hawks, and prairie falcons (£3199 M) were believed to be responsible for 51% of predator caused deaths (Snyder 1985). Snyder (1985) found that survival of ring-necked hens was lowest in April, primarily as a result of avian predation. At the Waterloo Wildlife Area, Wisconsin, Dumke and Pils (1973) dicovered that predation was the only cause of death in radio- collared hens during the brood rearing, . post-brood rearing, 'and late winter periods. Although the study at Waterloo did not include a demographic analysis, predation appeared to be the factor limiting pheasant abundance (Dumke and Pils 1973). In a follow-up investi- gation, Petersen (1979) determined that great horned owls and red-tailed hawks, along with other pheasant predators, depress the pheasant population below the carrying capacity of the habitat at Waterloo. Raptor predation, therefore, appeared to be an additive, rather than a compensatory form of mortality (Petersen 1979). The decline of pheasant populations is an intricate matter, with a complex of factors responsible. Severe winter weather and the impact of predators during the 46 winter of 1985 clearly influenced the decline of pheasants on the 5 study areas. This, however, does not explain the lack of productivity on the long term basis. Populations of pheasants have been declining over the past 3 decades and more work needs to be done to explain the decrease in productivity. A series of experiments integrating populations sizes, habitat, predation, biocides, and energetics is needed before this perplexing decline of the ring-necked pheasant can be resolved. APPENDIX 47 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY rmnunmmnrornmmmmsamoInumms ournuemmiomxmmm34nmmeuo: lunumuummmnmmlmmumno anisnaar ATTENTION RING-NEIHHD PHEASANT HUNTERS Researchers in the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife at Michigan State University, in cooperation with Michigan Department of Natural Resources Wildlife biologists, are collecting data on the status of ring-necked pheasants in the "Thumb" region. we need to obtain harvest information for ' Tuscola and Huron counties. .g;gggg_gggp;ggg MSW WWW lgcatiog, . Your contributionnwill be very helpful as we evaluate the response of the birds to current patterns of land use. Fig. 5. Cover letter for the hunter harvest survey in 1984 and 1985. 48 No. Area. Loc. PHEASANT HUNT RECORD Record total for each car. Date of hunt: Number of hunters: Length of hunt (hrs.): Number of pheasants seen: cocks: hens: Number of pheasants shot: retrieved: not retrieved: Comments: 71-3418 IIIHI BUSINESS REPLY MAIL ”a. MR” emu-amen terrace we; I PM 8' MS!!! Pheasant Survey Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Michigan State University East Lansing. MI 48824 Fig. 6. Hunter harvest survey for 1984 and 1985. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED Adams, W.J. and H.H. Prince. 1972. Survival and reproduc- tion of ring-necked pheasants consuming two mercurial fungicides. Pages 307-317 in R. Hartung and B.D. Dinman, eds., Environmental. Mercury’ Contamination. Ann Arbor Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI. Adams, W.J. and H.H. Prince. 1976. Mercury levels in the tissues of ring-necked pheasants fed two mercurial fungicides. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 15: 316-323. Allen, D.L. 1956. Pheasants in North America. The Stackpole Company, Harrisburg, PA and The Wildlife Management Institute, washington, D.c. 490 pp. Bennett, R.S. and H.H. Prince. 1981. Influence of agricultural pesticides on food preferences and consumption. by ring-necked pheasants. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 74-82. Brander, R.B. 1968. A radio-package harness for game birds. J. Wildl. Manage. 32:630-632. Buss, 1.0. and C.V. Swanson. 1950. Some effects of weather on pheasant reproduction in southeastern Washington. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 15:364-377. Chesness, R.A., M.M. Nelson, and W.H. Longely. 1968. The effect of predator removal on pheasant reproductive success. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 683-697. Conner, M.C., R.F. Labisky, D.R. Progulske. 1983. Scent-station indices as measures of population abundance for bobcats, raccoons, gray foxes and opossums. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 11: 146-152. Crawford, J.A. and S.M. Meyers. 1980. Survival of ring-necked pheasant hens in the Williamette Valley, Oregon. Selected Literature Review, Oregon Dept. Fish and Wildlife Deeter, E.B. and A.E. Matthews. 1926. Soil survey of Tuscola County, Michigan. U.S.D.A., Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, in coop. with Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. 40pp. 49 50 Dumke, R.T. and C.M. Pils. 1973. Mortality of radio- tagged pheasants on the Waterloo Wildlife Area. Wisconsin Dept. Nat. Res. Tech. Bull. 72. 52pp. Dustman, E.H. 1950. Effects of alfalfa mill cutting on pheasants and other wildlife in Wood county, Ohio, Einarsen, A.S. 1956. Determination of some predator species by field signs. Oregon State Monographs, Oregon State College, Corvallis. Stud. in Zool. No. 10, pp. 1-34. Eklund, C.R. 1942. Ecological and mortality factors affecting nesting of the Chinese pheasant in the Williamette Valley, Oregon. J. Wildl. Manage. 6: 225-230. Errington, P.L. and F.N. Hamerstrom, Jr. 1937. The evaluation of nesting losses and juvenile losses of the ring-necked pheasant. ‘J. Wildl. Manage. 1:3-20. Fouch, W.R. 1979. Proc. annual meeting of Midwest Pheasant Council. On file with the Association of Midwest Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 3pp. Frank, E.G. and E.E. Woehler. 1969. Production of nesting and winter cover for pheasants in Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 802-810. Fredrickson, L.F., R.L. Linder, R.B. Dahlgren, and C.G. Trautman. 1978 . Pheasant reproduction and survival as related to agricultural fertilizer use. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 40-45. Gates, J.M. 1966. Crowing counts as indices to cock pheasant populations in Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 735-744. Gates, J.M. and J.B. Hale. 1975. Reproduction of an east-central Wisconsin pheasant population. Wiscon- sin Dept. Nat. Res. Tech. Bull. 85. 70pp. Green, W.E. 1938. The food and cover relationships in the winter survival of the ring-necked pheasant. Iowa St. Coll. J. Science 12: 285-314. Kimball, J. W. 1949. The crowing cock census. J. Wildl. Manage. 13:.101-120. 51 Kopischke, E.D. and R. A. Chesness. 1967. Effects of a severe winter . winter blizzard on pheasants. Loon 39: 82-85. Kozicky, E.L. 1951. Juvenile ring-necked pheasant mortality and cover utilization in Iowa, 1949. Iowa St. J. Science 29: 39-60. Labisky, R.F. 1959. Nightlighting: a technique for capturing birds and mammals. Illinois Nat. Hist. Survey Div., Biological Notes No. 40. llpp. Labisky, R.F. 1976. Midwest pheasant abundance declines. Leedy, D.L. amd L.E. Hicks. 1945 The pheasant in Ohio. Pages 112-119 in W.L. Mc Atee, ed., The ring-necked pheasant. The American Wildlife Inst. , Washington, D.C. Leedy, D.L. and E.H. Dustman. 1947. The pheasant decline and land-use trends, 1941-1946., Trans. N. Am. Linder, R.L., D.L. Lyon, and C.P. Ages. 1960. An analysis of pheasant nesting in south central Nebraska. Linhart, S.B. and F.F. Knowlton. 1975. Determining the relative abundance of coyotes by scent station lines. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 3: 119-124. Linsemier, L.H. 1980. Soil survey of Huron County, Michigan. U.S.D.A., in coop. with Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. 145pp. MacMullen, R.A. 1957. The life and times of Michigan pheasants. Mich. Dept. Conserv., Game Div. 63pp. Michigan Weather Service. 1975. Climate of Michigan by stations. Mich. Dept. Agric. cooperating with NOAA - National Weather Serv. U.S. Dept. Commerce, East Lansing. Michigan Weather Service. 1985. Climatalogical data of Michigan, 1985. Vol. 100, No. 1. Mich. Dept. Agric. cooperating with NOAA - National Weather Serv. U.S. Dept. Commerce, East Lansing. Mc Clure, H.E. 1948. Factors in the winter starvation of pheasants. J. Wildl. Manage. 12: 267-271. 52 Petersen, L. 1979. Ecology of great horned owls and red-tail hawks in southwestern Wisconsin. Wisconsin Dept. Nat. Res. Tech. Bull. 111. 63pp. Siegel, S. 1956. Nonparametric statistics for the biological sciences. Mc Graw - Hill Book Company, New York. 312pp. Snyder, W.D. 1982. Evaluation of nesting cover preferen- ces for pheasants in relation to wheat farming methods. Oregon State Job Final Report. Project No. Snyder, W.D. 1984. Pheasant nesting ecology and wheat farming on the high plains. J. Wildl. Manage. 48: 878-889. Snyder, W.D. 1985. Survival of radio-marked hen ring- necked pheasants in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 49: 1044-1050. Stromborg, R.L. 1977. Seed treatment pesticide effects on pheasant reproduction at sublethal doses. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 632-642. Stromborg, R.L. 1979. Pheasant food habits in spring and consumption of seed treatment pesticides. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 214-219. Trautman, C.G., L.F. Fredrickson, and A.V. Carter. 1973. Relationship of red foxes and other predators to populations of ring-necked pheasants and other prey, S. Dakota. Trans N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 39: 241-255. Wagner, F.H., C.D. Besadny, and C. Rabat. 1965. Popula- tion ecology and management of Wisconsin pheasants. Wisconsin Conserv. Dept., Tech. Bull. 34. 168pp. Warner, R.E. 1979. Use of cover by pheasant broods in east-central Illinois. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 334-346. Warner, R.F., S.L. Etter, G.B. Joselyn, J.A. Ellis. 1984. Declining survival of ring-necked pheasant chicks in Illinois agricultural ecosystems. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:82-88. Wood, A. K. and J. D. Brotherson. 1981. Overwinter survival of ring-necked pheasants in Utah. Great Basin Naturalist 41: 247-250.