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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

The Relationship Between Observations of

Affiliative Behavior Patterns for Parents
and Toddlers and Parental Reports of Care-
giving, Play and Support-Control Behaviors

presented by

Mark 5. Diana

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Fami I! Ecology

“flame/Vicki

Major professor

 

Date November 7, 1983

MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

 

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OBSERVATIONS OF AFFILIATIVE
BEHAVIOR PATTERNS FOR PARENTS AND TODDLERS AND PARENTAL
REPORTS OF CAREGIVING, PLAY, AND SUPPORT-CONTROL BEHAVIORS

By

Mark Steven Diana

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Family and Child Ecology

1983

 

COpyright by
Mark Steven Diana

1983

 
 
 
 

ABSTRACT

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OBSERVATIONS OF
AFFILIATIVE BEHAVIOR PATTERNS FOR PARENTS AND TODDLERS AND
PARENTAL REPORTS OF CAREGIVING, PLAY AND SUPPORT-CONTROL BEHAVIORS

by

Mark Steven Diana

The purpose of this study was to extend understanding of affiliative
interaction between parents and toddlers and to correlate affiliative be-
haviors with frequency and type of caregiving activities, play experiences
and support-control interactions on the part of mothers with toddlers
and fathers with toddlers.

The research was conducted with ten families who had one toddlers
between fifteen and twenty-three months of age. Each mother and father
worked outside the home twenty or more hours per week in occupations such
as minor professionals, small businessmen, clerks, technicians, salesman,
skilled craftsman and factory workers or were students. Parents had
twelve to seventeen years of schooling and ranged in age from twenty-two
to thirty-three years.

Data were gathered using in-home observations and parental self-
report questionnaires. Three two-hour observations of parent-toddler
interactions were scheduled in family homes to assess type and frequency
of parent-toddler affiliative interaction. Questionnaires were used
with mothers and fathers to assess type and frequency of parental care-
giving activities, play experiences and support-control interactions with

their toddlers.

 

 

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No statistically significant differences were found between
mother-toddler and father-toddler affiliative interaction. More
similarities than differences were found between mothers and fathers
in caregiving activities, play experiences and support-control inter-
actions with their toddlers. Frequency of general care, feeding and
rest behaviors were similar for parents while mothers reported doing
more cleaning of the toddler than fathers. Parents exhibited similar
levels of intellectual, arousal, and exploratory play while statistically
significant differences were found between parental reports of verbal
and physical support or positive and negative control behaviors with

their toddlers.

While no relationships were found between parental caregiving
behaviors and parent-toddler affiliative behaviors, relationships were
found between affiliative behavior and parental play experiences, and
affiliative behavior and support and positive control interactions on
the part of parents with toddlers. Increased parental arousal and
exploratory play activities were associated with more affiliative
behaviors between parents and toddlers. For mothers, higher frequencies
of physical support behaviors were correlated with higher frequencies
of affiliative interaction toward their toddlers. Positive control
interactions by fathers with toddlers were highly correlated with fre-
quency of affiliative interaction between father and toddler. Analysis
of the data also suggest that, especially among fathers, higher reported
frequencies of support and positive control behaviors are correlated

with higher frequencies of play activities with toddlers.

To my Daughter

Emily Charlotte Diana

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Appreciation is extended to my guidence committee Dr. Norma
Bobbitt, Dr. Linda Nelson, Dr. Lillian Phenice and Dr. Richard
Featherstone for their direction, support and encouragement during my
doctoral program. I especially wish to thank Dr. Norma Bobbitt,
Chairperson of my committee, for her willingness to share her insights
and expertise with me and for her direction and concern during my
program and while writing the dissertation. I am grateful to Dr. Linda
Nelson and EN. Lillian Phenice for the interest and concern each has
shown in my educational growth and for the constructive suggestions
both made to improve this manuscript. Appreciation is also extended to
Dr. Richard Featherstone for the contributions he made to my committee
and to my understanding of higher education administration.

In particular, I wish to thank Dr. Margaret Bubolz and the late
Dr. Beatrice Paolucci for the contributions each made to my educational
experience at Michigan State University and to my understanding of
family and of family theory. Gratitude is also extended to Dr. Robert
Boger for the contributions he made to my understanding of research
during my internship experience at the Institute for Family and Child
Studies.

Appreciation is extended to those families who gave of their time
and were willing to share their own parenting experience by permitting
me to collect data in their homes.

iii

Special thanks is extended to my parents for their encouragement
and support. It is the support, encouragement and understanding of

family which provides hope.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES ......................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ......................... x
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ....................... 1
Statement of Purpose .................. 1
Research Questions ................. . . 6
Importance of Study .................. 7
Theoretical Framework . . ............. 11
Rationale for Selection of Families .......... 16
Assumptions . . . . . . ................ 17
Definition of Terms .................. 18
Limitations ...................... 20
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................... 22
Conceptualizing Affiliation as a
Reciprocal DevelOpmental Process ........... 22
Measuring Affiliative Behaviors . ...... . . . . . 23
Factors Influencing Affiliation ........... 24
Comparing Parental Caregiving ............. 25
Parent Interaction Styles . . . ........... 25
Frequency of Parental Caregiving
Activities . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . 26
Describing Parent- Toddler Play . . ........... 27
Characteristics of Parent Play ............ 27
Characteristics of Toddler Play ...... . . . . . 28
Identification of Play Categories ..... . . . . . 29
Guiding Toddler Behavior Through
Parental Interaction ................. 30
Parent Support Behaviors with Toddlers . . ...... 30
Parent Control Behaviors with Toddlers . ....... 31
Relating Factors of Affiliation, Caregiving
Play, and Support and Control ............ 32

V

 

5‘1. .

3...

CHAPTER Page

III. METHODOLOGY ....................... 34
Selection of Families ................. 34
Description of Selected Families ............ 38
Development of Assessment Instruments ......... 39

Observational Chart . . . . . ............ 41
Self-Report Questionnaire .............. 42
Procedures for Data Collection ............. 44
Procedures for Analyzing Data ............. 47
IV. FINDINGS ......................... 50
Statement of Research Questions ............ 51
Research Question One . . . .............. 54
Research Question Two ...... . .......... 56
Research Question Three ................ 59
Research Question Four ................. 61
Research Question Five ................. 64
Research Question Six . . ............... 66
Research Question Seven ................ 72
Research Question Eight ................ 74
Research Question Nine ................. 79
Research Question Ten ................. 80
Research Question Eleven ................ 86
Research Question Twelve . ............... 89
Research Question Thirteen ............... 93
Research Question Fourteen ............... 96
V. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS .................. 101
Parent-Toddler Affiliative Behaviors . . ........ 103

Comparisons of Parental Caregiving, Play and

Support-Control Interactions with their Toddlers . . . 104
Relationship Between Parent-Toddler Affiliative

Behavior and Parental Caregiving, Play and

Support-Control Interactions with Toddlers ...... 107
Relationship Between Parental Caregiving,

Play Activities and Support-Control

Interactions with Toddlers . ............. 111
Overview . . . . . . .................. 113

vi

CHAPTER Page

VI. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, IMPLICATIONS ........ 115
Conclusions ...................... 115
Limitations of Study .................. 117
Recommendations .................... 118
Implications ...................... 122

APPENDIX
A. Letters to Families Referred by Minister ......... 126
Family Consent Form ................... 127
B. Observational Chart . . ................. 129
Parental Self-Report Questionnaire ............ 132
C. Revised Parental Self-Report Questionnaire ........ 138
REFERENCES .................. . ........ 144

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Parental Affiliative Behavior ............... 55
2. Toddler Affiliative Behavior ................ 58
3. Frequency of Parental Caregiving .............. 60

4. Frequency of Caregiving Behaviors Correlated
with Frequency of Affiliative Behaviors
Between Parents and Toddlers . . . . ........... 63

5. Differences in Parental Play Activities
with Toddlers According to Gender of Parent ....... 65

6. Relationship Between Frequency of Parental Play
Activities with Toddlers and Frequency of Affiliative
Interaction Between Parents and Toddlers . . ....... 69

7. Relationship Between Frequency of Parental Play
Activities with Toddlers and Frequency of Affiliative
Interaction Between Toddlers and Parents . . . . . . . . . 70

8. Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Verbal and
Physical Support Interactions with Toddlers ....... 73

9. Relationship Between Parental Support Interactions
and the Frequency of Affiliative Behaviors on
the Part of Parents with their Toddlers . . . . . . . . . 77

10. Relationship Between Parental Support Interactions
and Frequency of Affiliative Interactions on
the Part of Toddlers with Parents . . . ......... 78

11. Parental Self-Reports Concerning Frequency of
Positive and Negative Control Behaviors with Toddlers . . . 80

12. Relationship Between Parental Self-Reports
Concerning Frequency of Positive and Negative
Control Behaviors with Toddlers and Parental
Affiliative Behaviors Toward Toddlers .......... 83

viii

 

Table

13. Relationship Between Parental Self-Reports
Concerning Frequency of Positive and Negative
Control Behaviors with Toddlers and Toddler
Affiliative Behaviors with Parents ............

14. Relationship Between Frequency of Parental
Support Behaviors with Toddlers and Frequency
of Parental Caregiving Activities with Toddlers .....

15. Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Positive
Control Behaviors with their Toddlers Related
to Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Caregiving
Activities with their Toddlers ........ . .....

16. Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Negative
Control Behaviors with their Toddlers Related
to Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of
Caregiving Activities with their Toddlers ........

17. Relationship Between Frequency of Parental
Support Behaviors with Toddlers and Frequency
of Parental Play Activities with Toddlers ........

18. Relationship Between Parental Positive Control
Behaviors with their Toddlers and Parental Play
Activities with their Toddlers . . . . . .........

19. Relationship Between Parental Negative Control

Behaviors with their Toddlers and Parental
Play Activities with their Toddlers . ..........

ix

Page

84

88

91

92

94

98

99

I—rv—

Figure

1.

LIST OF FIGURES

Categories of Affiliation and Interaction
Variables Assessed Using Research

Question One Through Fifteen

The Human Ecosystem Model ........... . .....

Selection Criteria for Families
Participating in Study . . .

Descriptive Data for Family Units in the Study

Statement of Research Question with

Statistical Techniques Used . .

Page

14

36
4O

51

-1‘

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Statement of Purpose

Research and literature related to young children have focused on
the first three years of life as a critical time period in a child's
total devel0pment. Growing emphasis has been placed on intervention
and education programs for children and families, recognizing that work
with parents is the most effective way to meet the deveIOpmental needs
of the young child. Researchers, practioners and educators are
focusing on the developmental impact of the family on young children
and on the importance of the home as a center of learning for all
family members (Bobbitt and Paolucci 1975). Realizing the importance
of the family in a cflfild's learning and development, this researcher
will select variables in parent-child interaction which occur in the
home and examine the relationship between these characteristic
activities and interactions on the part of parents and toddlers. The
focus of this study is on affiliation and on factors influencing
parent-toddler interaction, as significant variables in social-
emotional deveIOpment for the child.

Affiliation, as a toddler behavior, just like wariness, curiosity,
and attachment, is frequently studied as a component of emotional
deveIOpment for infants and toddlers (Sroufe (1979). Suggested by the
research on affiliation, attachment, wariness, and curiosity is the

importance of these behaviors in personality formation for the child.

Affiliation and attachment behaviors have been viewed as major
factors in social growth and develOpment for young children (Lamb
1977a, Vandell 1979, Lamb 1977b, Stewart and Burgess 1978, and Fox
1977). As parents and toddlers interact, affiliative behaviors on the

part of mothers and fathers are seen as significant factors in
personality formation for the child. Parental behavior also serves as
a model for the child's own behavior. Frequently, too, parents
in ‘i tiate affiliative and attachment interaction so the child receives
a great deal of unsolicited affiliative behavior from parents (Stewart
and Burgess 1978). By measuring affiliative behaviors of mother,
Father and toddler, emphasis is placed on the reciprocal nature of the
parent-child relationship in this research study (Field 1978, Belsky
1979, and Lamb 1977c).

Multiple variables and reciprocal relationships are included in
this research study in order to consider aSpects of an ecosystems
DQPSpective when examining parent-toddler relationships. A group of
‘Fam‘i lies sharing some common environmental experiences will be studied
with respect to type and frequency of interaction occurring between
parent and toddler. Lamb, reflecting a perspective held by other
researchers studying the young child, has stated that "...the process
o1= personality development depends on our willingness to acknowledge
the multi-dimensionality and complexity of the child's social
environment..." (Lamb 1977a). Devel0pment for toddlers is influenced
by many factors occurring within the family unit and in the larger
ecoSystem with which the family interacts. An ecosystem theoretical
perspective to the study of family recognizes that interactions among

‘F ..
at"‘l ly members, and interactions between the family and its

environment, influence the developmental experiences parents provide

ftyr their children and impact on how parents interact with their
‘t<3<jdlers (Kantor and Lehr 1975, Bubolz, Eicher and Sontag 1979, Bubolz
and Paolucci 1976).

Researchers suggest that differences in affiliative behavior
between toddlers, as well as differences in affiliative behavior
between toddlers and their parents, may be related to the type of
activities parents do with their child, to gender of parent and child,
and to characteristics of those mothers and fathers participating in
the study (Lamb 1977b, Clarke-Stewart 1978, Belsky 1979, Stewart and
Burgess 1978, Waters, Whippman, Sroufe, 1979, Clarke-Stewart, Umeh,
Show, and Pederson 1980). Consideration of similar factors will be
done in this research study. Through a series of three in-home
Observations, assessment will be made of toddler affiliative behaviors
toward mother and father. During these observations assessment of
affiliative behaviors by mother and father toward their toddler will
a1 So be done. A questionnaire will then be administered to mothers and
fathers to determine how frequently parents believe they take part in
specific activities with their toddlers. Parents will also be asked to
provide information related to their education and occupation levels.
From the observational and questionnaire data gathered in this study,
1-:"‘ecluency analysis, t-tests for matched pairs, and correlations will be
”Sec! to better understand characteristics of the parent-toddler
'T‘a“ altionship as reflected by affiliative behaviors of parent and
toddler and activity and interaction patterns between toddlers and
parents. Suggested by this research is an analysis of data emphasizing

h
0‘" often parents engage their toddler in particular activities

including the type and frequency of affiliative behavior observed for
toddlers and parents during the in-home observations.

Measurement of affiliative behaviors took place during a series of

three in-home observations. The measures of affiliative behaviors in
this research are based on typical verbal and physical behaviors used
by other researchers to assess affiliation (Lamb 1977a, Lamb 1977b,
Lamb 1977c, Stewart and Burgess 1978, and Clarke-Stewart 1977). By
coding the type and frequency of affiliative behavior between toddler
and parent, the research emphasis will be on the reciprocal nature of
parent-toddler interaction (Stewart and Burgess 1978). Attachment,
which is often measured along with affiliation, was not assessed in
th ‘1’ 3 study since measurement of attachment, as a dimension of social-
emotional develOpment, is usually based on situations which are anxiety
producing and involve separation of the child from his or her parent
(C1 arke-Stewart 1978, Clarke-Stewart 1977, Fox 1977, Cohen and Campos
1974). In this study, observations focus on typical in-home situations
1:0" toddlers and parents that are not anxiety producing, and instead,
through measurement of affiliation alone, reflect the greater
1.V‘Cieapendence and detachment characteristic of the child's second year
( Lamb 1977a).

Research has suggested that affiliative differences between
toddlers, as well as differences in affiliative behavior on the part of
1:Oddlers toward each of their parents, relate to adult activity and
interaction with the young child (Lamb 1977d, Clarke-Stewart 1978,
Bu"‘Qess 1978, and Belsky 1979). These findings suggest that the nature
or parent-toddler interaction could be further explored using self-

r‘
eport questionnaires to determine how frequently parents take part in

specific activities with their child. Information gathered from
questionnaires on activity and interaction patterns could then be
correlated with affiliative behaviors recorded for parents and toddlers
during the in-home observation sessions. Basic information related to
occupation, education, and parental work time away from home is
assessed with the questionnaire. The questionnaire was also structured
to obtain data on the type and frequency of caregiving activities
parents participate in with their child. Parents are asked in the
questionnaire to report on the type and frequency of play experiences
they do with their child. Information on type and frequency of
support-control techniques used by parents when interacting with their
toddlers, is the third set of questions asked in the questionnaire.
Questionnaire data are used along with data from the observations, to
determine if a positive or negative relationship exists between the
parent-child interaction assessed on the self-report instrument, and
af‘i’i liative behaviors recorded for toddlers and parents during the in-
home observations.

Assessment of this range of variables using the self-report
instrument may indicate groups of interaction patterns in families.
Correlation of the questionnaire data with information on type and
frequency of parent-toddler affiliative behavior suggest that patterns
of: reciprocal interaction exist between parent and toddler which
Con tribute to social-emotional growth and expression for the toddler.
Based on data recorded during the observation sessions, and on data
Slathered using the self-report instrument with parents, the study will
focu$ on the following research questions in an effort to better

understand the parent-toddler relationship.

 

1()

Research Questions

Determine whether there is a difference in how frequently each
type of affiliative behavior is recorded for mothers toward their
toddlers and fathers toward their toddlers during the in-home
observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference between toddlers and their
mothers and toddlers and their fathers in how frequently
affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward their parents
are recorded during the in-home observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference in how frequently mothers
and fathers report taking part in particular caregiving
activities, i.e. feeding, hygiene, rest, and general care with
their toddlers.

Determine whether the frequency of mother and father caregiving
activities with their toddlers, i.e. feeding, hygiene, rest and
general care has any relationship to the frequency of affiliative
behaviors between parent and toddler recorded during the in-home
observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference between how frequently
mothers and fathers report taking part ‘Hl particular play
activities, i.e. play experiences which are intellectual, social,
arousal, and exploratory with their toddlers.

Determine whether the frequency of mother and father play
activities, i.e. intellectual, social, arousal, and exploratory
play with toddlers is related to how frequently affiliative
behaviors are recorded by' parents toward toddlers and toddlers
toward parents during the in-home observation sessions.

Determine whether mothers and fathers differ in the frequency with
which each parent reports using positive verbal and positive
physical support interactions with their toddlers.

Determine whether there is a relationship between how frequently
mothers and fathers report using positive verbal or positive
physical support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently specific affiliative behaviors are recorded between
parents and toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference between how frequently
mothers and fathers report using positive or negative control
behaviors when interacting with their toddlers.

Determine whether there is a relationship between the reported use
by parents of positive or negative control behaviors with toddlers
and how frequently affiliative behaviors between parents and
toddlers are recorded during the in-home observation sessions.

 

 

11. Determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency of
support behaviors reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency of caregiving activities parents report
participating in with their toddlers.

.122. Determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency of
control behaviors reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency of caregiving activities parents report
participating in with their toddlers.

£123.. Determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency of
support behaviors reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency with which mothers and fathers report
taking part in play activities with their toddlers.

21‘1... Determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency of

control behaviors reported by mothers and fathers with their

toddlers and the frequency of play activities mothers and fathers

report taking part in with their toddlers.

A visual presentation of the relationship between those variables

assessed using the research questions is presented in Figure 1.

Importance of the Study

Naturalistic observations are used in ‘this research along with
”individual questionnaires, to determine what relationship, if any,
ex‘i sts between specific activities parents do with their toddlers and
the affiliative behaviors recorded between toddlers and parents during
the in-home observations. By examining the frequency and type of
parent-toddler activities and interactions using the self-report
i."Strument, and measuring the relationship between those variables and
11flee: affiliative behavior of toddlers and parents, an understanding may
t"3 sJained of how particular activities or experiences contribute to the
pa"‘ent-toddler relationship and, in an indirect manner, to social-
emotional development of the child (Stewart, Umeh, Snow and Pederson

1980, Pastor 1981).

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As a behavior, affiliation is a prosocial activity that includes
proximity seeking and contact maintenance between parent and child
(Hoch 1980, Mussen and Eisenberg 1977). Studies of affiliation focus

on major positive factors in social interaction, placing an emphasis on
measurement of those rewards and reinforcements supporting positive
interaction between parent and toddler. In this research, toddler
affiliation is measured using smiling, vocalizing, looking, laughing,
showing toys and proximity seeking (Lamb 1977a, Lamb 1977b, Lamb 1977c,
Stewart and Burgess 1978, and Clarke-Stewart 1977). These measures are
cormonly used in naturalistic and laboratory settings to assess
affiliative behavior on the part of toddlers toward their parents.

Though parental affiliative behavior is less frequently assessed,

Stewart and Burgess suggest that parents exhibit more affiliative
exchanges than any other parental interaction toward their child, that
many of these interactions are parent initiated, and that parents
display more affiliative behavior than their children do (Stewart and
B'JV‘Qess 1978). Because parental affiliative behaviors are a
$1.Qnificant factor in parent-child interaction, these behaviors are
recorded in this study during the in-home observations. Categories of
sm‘i ‘ling and laughing; touching, hugging and holding; imitative
grimaces; high pitched vocalizations; and grooming are coded as
var“iables frequently used to measure affiliative behavior on the part
or parents toward their toddlers (Field 1978, Stewart and Burgess 1978,
Be‘ sky 1979). Consistent with other research on affiliation, coding of
both frequency and type of behavior is done to determine how often

1:OGICIlers display affiliative behavior toward their mothers and fathers

10

as well as how often mothers and fathers exhibit affiliative behavior
toward their toddlers.

Prosocial activities, identified as affiliative behavior, are the

consequence“...of distinctive socialization experiences that foster
prosocial devel0pment" (Mussen and Eisenberg p. 65, 1977). By using
the parental questionnaires, this research study will examine several
activity and interaction factors involved in toddler socialization.
Type and frequency of parental caregiving activity, type and frequency
of play interaction between parent and toddler, as well as type of
support-control used by parents with their toddler, will be assessed
using the self-report questionnaire mothers and fathers complete.
Information concerning the amount of time parents are away from home,
1legether with information on gender of parent and gender of child, are
1° hc1uded as part of the data gathered in this study.

Traditionally, fathers have been socialized not to participate in
nur‘turing child care, and, therefore, fathers may need additional
experiences or time with their toddlers in order to learn appropriate
behaviors for meeting a child's emotional needs (Smith and Smith 1980).
ReSlearch data on parent-infant and parent-toddler relationships
”i r‘dicates similarities with respect to the competence and
weSmonsiveness of fathers and mothers when caring for their infants and
toddlers (Belsky 1979, Lamb and Lamb 1976, Parke and Sawing 1976, Lamb
1979, Lamb 1976, Vandell 1979, Parke 1979, Field 1978, Weinraub and
Fr‘ankel 1977). In this research, observations of parent-toddler
affiliative behavior, along with self-report measures related to how
often mothers and fathers take part in activities with their toddler,

are designed to provide information regarding similarities and

11

differences in the behavior patterns mothers and fathers use during in-
home observations which are unstructured in terms of activities parents
and toddlers do.

Each research question focuses on one aSpect of the parent-toddler
relationship. Those variables assessed through the research questions
should provide a more detailed understanding of how factors
representing activity and behavior patterns on the part of parents and

toddlers relate to and make up the reciprocal interaction

characteristic of parent-child relationships. Viewed from an
ecosystems perspective, this research stresses the human-behavioral
component of the family environment. The questionnaire examines roles
and patterns of social interaction normally occurring within families.
Gathering information with regard to parental activity with toddlers
1“I"orli the perSpective of activity type and frequency provides two
d “i mensions from which mother-child and father-child interaction may be
Studied. Approaching parent-toddler affiliative interaction from a
per‘Spective which recognizes the multiple variables contributing to
pat"ent-toddler interaction, reflects the varied complex nature of
pat"ent-toddler relationships, and may assist in moving the theoretical
base of research on affiliative behavior from a symbolic interaction

toward an ecosystems perspective in family study.

Theoretical Framework
The research questions in this study focus on dyadic interaction
be‘tV-Meen parent and toddler. These interactions are based on
affiliative behavior recorded during the in-home observations together

“i th activity and interaction patterns reported on the questionnaires

12

parents complete. Common interpretations and meaning have been given
to the verbal and nonverbal acts and symbols toddlers and parents use
when communicating with each other. Controlled observations, in terms
(at: behaviors coded, are used in collecting data on affiliation. From a
theoretical perspective, this research fits within an analytic-
empirical approach to family study. The second method of data
collection is a questionnaire constructed to focus on parenting
behavior and parenting tasks which have shared or common meaning for
parents and their toddlers. The theoretical approach used in
co'llecting data for this part of the study combines an interpretive
theoretical perSpective in family study with an analytic-empirical
perspective in family theory and research (Brown and Paolucci 1978).
Looked at individually, the research questions in this study fit
ei ther a symbolic-interaction perspective or a structural-functional
peY‘Spective in family research based upon the way aspects of parent-
tc>Clciler interaction and activities are studied. The symbolic-
i hteraction perSpective stresses patterns of communication and
i nteraction with emphasis on the role of actor and reactor. The basic
aS’zstcamption of this theoretical perSpective is that meaning is derived
through social interaction, making measurement of that interaction of
pr ‘3 mary importance (Burr, Leigh, Day and Constantine Vol. I). Included
1 n the symbolic-interaction perspective are concepts of parental roles,
with emphasis on how those roles affect patterns of parent-child
~i'1‘teraction. The parental questionnaire tends to examine information
on parent-toddler relationships from a structural-functional

theoretical perspective particularly in the areas of caregiving and

D1 3-3. Viewed together, the research questions in this study fit within

 

13

an ecosystems perSpective in family study. Each question asked of
parents, together with the observation data, stresses reciprocal
exchange between parent and toddler. As a result, the research
(JLlestions focus on the interdependence of parent-toddler activity
patterns in the home with particular emphasis on the relationship
between assessed variables.
An ecosystems perspective focuses on the concept of reciprocal
1i nterdependent parts. This theoretical base for family study views the
Family, or organism, as a unit within a highly structured and intricate
environment and integrated with that environment in such a way that the
Family's relationship to one aspect of that environment is governed by
1' ts relationship to all aspects of its environment (Bubolz and Paolucci
1976). The research questions in this study attempt to consider a
number of environmental factors which could be identified as part of
the Human Ecosystem Model (Bubolz, Eicher and Sontag 1979). An example
01: the Ecosystem Model, conceptualized by Bubolz, Eicher and Sontag, is
‘i "C ‘Iuded in Figure 2.
The research questions in this study focus on aspects of the Human
Beh avioral Environment. The affiliative behaviors recorded for parents
and toddlers during the observation sessions, along with the parental
SL‘l3loort-control measures assessed on the self-report questionnaire,
taj 1 within a social-psychological dimension in an ecosystems model of
the family. The questionnaire section on parental caregiving

act ‘i‘vities with toddlers includes primarily biophysical and social

d i n‘Iensions of the Human Behavioral Environment.

 

14

      

  

NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT

Space-

Physical ”Biological

HUMAN

  
  

Thmi

   

ENVIRONED
UNIT

Biophysical

Social HPsychological ‘-

HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ENVIRONMENT

Socio-physical

I

Socio
biological

‘Socio
cultural

1)

HUMAN CONSTRUCTED_ENVIRONMENT

 

 

Figure 2

The Human Eco
1:
ho"! "The Human Ecosystem: A Model
B. Eicher, and M. Suzanne Sont
Spring 1979. p. 29.

 

system Model

. " by Margaret M. Bubblz,\00anne
ag, Journal 9f_Home Economics,

 

 

15

Components of the Human Constructed Environment are included in
the parental questionnaire and in the sample selection method used to
locate and identify families for this study. Frequency of caregiving
activities, frequency of play activities, and frequency of support-

control interactions are based on socia-physical, socio-cultural, and
Socio-biological factors influencing parent-toddler interaction and the
parent-toddler relationship. Both type and frequency of parent-toddler
"i nteraction are affected by socia-cultural, socia-biological and socio-

physical aspects of parent-toddler interaction. For example, parents

i n the selected families are employed or attend school away from home
twenty or more hours per week. This family configuration involves a
soc io-cultural pattern increasingly common in this society and
impacting on the physical and biological environment in which parents
and toddlers live. At the same time, these factors affect how often
parents engage in caregiving activities, play activities and support
cohtrol interactions with their toddlers. Time, a factor identified as
part of the natural environment, is assessed by determining how
frequently parents take part in specific caregiving tasks with their
ch ‘3 1d, in play activities with their toddler, or make use of support-
Con‘trol behaviors during parent-toddler interaction. Components of the
physical and biological environment are included in the questionnaire.
QL‘estions on caregiving are related to parents meeting the biological
needs and physical care needs of their toddlers. Included as part of
the questions on play are components of the physical environment which
affect play activities for toddler and parent, especially where the
arnc3!..1nt of play space available in the home may limit what activities

pa"‘ents and toddlers do together.

 

16

For families taking part in this study, some aSpects of the
Natural Environment and Human Constructed Environments are similar.
Each family resides within a ten mile radius of an urban industrial
area thus sharing some common environmental experiences geographically
in terms of air, water, climate and land resources. The institutions
and organizations with which families have contact also include
similarities, since each family in the study falls within a common
social status range, as identified by Hollingshead's 1975 four factor
i ndex of social status (Hollingshead 1975).
Approaching this study of parent-toddler affiliative interaction
i n a manner which takes into account the caregiving activities, play
experiences, and support-control interactions of parents with their
toddlers, provides a more wholestic view of affiliative interaction
between parent and toddler. Clustering or grouping this data is
Consistent with an ecosystem perspective to family study reflecting the
interrelationship between parent-toddler affiliative behavior and the

5°C ial-emotional develOpment of the child.

Rationale for Selection of Families

Several criteria were used to select families for this study.
F‘i"‘s.t, all families selected lived within an urban industrial area.
These selection criteria were used to increase the homogeneity of the
families selected for the study. Second, the mother and father in each
ten-.113, Spend a minimum of twenty hours per week working outside the
home. Parents in the study worked as small business Operators, as paid
em!) ‘loyees, or as full time students. Work criteria, along with

etlLIcation level, were used for family selection to limit the diversity

 

 

17

of families in the study, to reflect dual employment and dual career
life styles, and to define family social status.

A third criterion in selection was that each family have one
child, a toddler, between fifteen and twenty-three months of age. One
child families were chosen to facilitate coding during the observation
sessions. Since during each two-minute observation, the researcher

coded twenty-two different behaviors between toddlers and parents,
observations with two children families would have more than doubled
the number of potential affiliative behaviors, making it impossible
For one observer to record all interactions.
It was recognized that each family in the study would make
d i f‘ferent child-care arrangements for their toddlers. However, since
no toddler Spent more than four days per week in care situations
‘3 hvolving regular contact with other children, no attempt was made to
Cohtrol or measure these interactions. It was expected that contact on
the part of toddlers with other children and adults in child care, with

t" ‘i ends or with relatives, varied from family to family in the study.

Assumptions
In selecting families for this research, some assumptions were
made concerning all parents and toddlers, particularly those parents
and toddlers who agreed to participate in the study. Assumptions were
a1 So made with respect to the activities and interactions used by the
researcher on the parental self-report questionnaire. The assumptions
i "c: ‘luded the following:

1‘ All toddlers and parents demonstrate affiliative behaviors with

each other during the course of daily parent-child interaction.

 

 

18

2. Affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers and parents with each
other are a measure of the emotional relationship existing between
parent and toddler.

.3. Affiliative behaviors between toddlers and parents, as observed and
coded by the researcher, approach affiliative interaction patterns
similar to toddler-parent interaction patterns in other situations.

11.. Gender of parent, gender of child, parental caregiving activities,
parental play experiences, and parental support-control
interactions are among the significant variables. contributing ‘to
affiliative interaction between parent and toddler.

.55 .. Individual questionnaires administered to mothers and fathers
reflect parental perceptions and interpretations of interaction
between parent and toddler.

654.. Questions related to caregiving activities, play experiences, and
support-control interactions between parent and toddler reflect

activity and interaction patterns typical of’ parent and toddler
with one another.

Definition of Terms

Throughout this study, common terminology is used. To establish
Common meanings, the following definitions were used during this
I"esearch study:

Affiliative Behaviors. Those words or actions, including physical
proximity seeking and visual contact between toddlers and parents which
Ei‘r‘SE! directed 'h1 friendly interactions with adults and children (Lamb
1976a). Affiliative behaviors are encouraged by the presence of an
El"tl't-iachment figure even though affiliative activities are not
S'DQcifically related to attachment behavior (Lamb 1976a).

Sailing. Grinning or smiling without vocalization that indicates
a positive response on the part of the toddler toward mother or father.

Vocalizing. Verbal expressions that include sounds and words

d i "ected toward the toddler's parent.

 

19

Looking. Facing and viewing the parent with attention directed

toward the parent's verbal and physical actions.

Laughing. Verbal and physical displays of happiness and pleasure

0n the part of toddlers toward their parents.

Showing Toys. Offering or handing toys to parents to obtain

attention or encourage play interaction.

Proximity Seeking. Moving within close physical proximity of

mother and/or father to obtain parental attention and interaction.

Smiling and Laughing. Verbal and physical expressions of pleasure

or happiness directed by parents toward their toddlers.

Touching, Hugging and Holding. Physical expressions of affection
or support on the part of parents toward their toddlers.

Imitative Grimaces. Parental facial expressions which Show
reaction to the Speech, play and gestures of toddlers.

High Pitched Vocalizations. Parental speech that includes a
raised tone or voice encouraging toddlers to interact with their
parent.

Grooming. Parental behaviors with toddlers that involve hair
Combing, cleaning, clothes arranging, shoe tieing or other physical
caregiving behaviors demonstrating parental interest and concern about
the toddler's appearance.

Intellectual Play. Those experiences and activities which place
et“Dhasis on language development, visual and auditory stimulation, or
0“ discovery of new spatial and sequential relationships through the

uSe of eye-hand coordination skills.

 

 

20

Social Play. ‘Those activities, with and ‘without pr0ps, which
involve imitation and pretend play modeled on the daily activities
toddlers experience.

Arousal Play. Those experiences and interactions which are
stimulating and help promote excitement and emotional response on the
part of toddlers.

Exploratory' Play. Those experiences which emphasize new

sequences, new order or new spatial relationships between objects.

Independent Play. Those play activities children take part in on

an individual basis.

Cooperative Play. Those play activities children engage in,

S hare, do beside, or along with other children.

Support. Those verbal and physical behaviors initiated by parents
‘t1‘33 make the child feel more comfortable and accepted. Praise,
enCouragement, physical affection, cooperation, and expressions of
er"Clearment are among the reinforcement factors used in support
Ii '7"‘:L<eractions (Rollins and Thomas 1979).

Control. Parental direction of the child's behavior and activity.
TeChniques can be positive or negative and involve verbal as well as

physical means of control (Rollins and Thomas 1979).

Limitations
“ The study is limited to ten families. Each family in the study has
one child between fifteen and twenty-three months of age.
~’ Non-traditional family types were not included in the study. Those
families selected were ones with a nuclear father-mother-child

configuration.

 

 

3.

 

 

21

Each family identified to take part in this research was a family
where mother and father were both employed or attending school away
from home for twenty or more hours per week.

Families selected for this study were identified through contact
with churches, with day care centers, and by referral on the part
of other families already participating in the study.

Both sample size, and method of sample selection, limit the
generalizability of the data on parent-toddler affiliative behavior
and the data on parent-toddler activity and interaction patterns

studied through these research questions.

 

 

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Conceptualizing Affiliation as a Reciprocal
DeveIOpmental Process

Personality formation and emotional develOpment are primary family
goals in socialization of young children (Lamb 1977a, Sroufe 1979,
=E;l1llth and Smith 1980). Research has assessed social-emotional
development of infants and toddlers by studying attachment, wariness,
ial'f’ifiliation, curiosity and exploration (Sroufe 1979). Most research on
s<><:ial-emotional development for infants and toddlers stresses
al‘l'="f’iliation and attachment behaviors exhibited by toddlers toward their
parents.

The literature recognizes parent-toddler affiliation and
a‘tl‘liachment as a reciprocal process with the child receiving a great
(I‘E==ial‘l of affiliative and attachment behavior directed by parents toward
their toddler (Stewart and Burgess 1978). Research studies of
at? iliation and attachment portray the dynamic, and reciprocal nature
01: the parent-toddler relationship with affiliative interaction
tuhctioning as a reinforcement for further affiliative behavior (Lamb
1977c, Field 1978, Belsky 1979, Stewart and Burgess 1978).

Attachment behavior between toddler and parent is usually measured
‘JI’SB‘i ng negative reactions to parent-child separation, together with
positive reactions to parent-child reunion (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Lamb

1976a, Vandell 1979). The tendency in attachment research has been to
22

23

use laboratory or structured in-home situations to assess the stress
related response of infants and toddlers to separation from mother
and/or father. These results, at ,times, represent measures of
dependency and, since stress situations are used, are more accurate
indicators of insecurity than of attachment (Lamb and Lamb 1976, Lamb
1976a). Attachment is a major factor in social devel0pment for infants
and toddlers, with attachment needs strongest during the child's first
year. In contrast, the toddler's second year represents a time of
detachment (Lamb 1977d, Sroufe 1979). Developmental change during the
second year, together with familiar surroundings and low anxiety
characteristic of the home suggest that parent-toddler affiliative
behavior may be a more accurate indicator of positive social-emotional
exchange than is attachment behavior. Studies of affiliation measure
Maj or positive features of family social interaction and attempt to
u hderstand that interaction in terms of the rewards generated for child

and parent (Mehrabian and Ksionghy 1974).

Measuring Affiliative Behaviors

The presence of attachment figures such as mother and father,
e"‘lcourages affiliative behavior. Thus, the frequency with which
a“"“F‘iliative behavior is displayed by toddlers toward parents and
Dahents toward toddlers conveys information concerning the initiation
and flow of parent-child interaction. Studies show parent-toddler
a“F‘Filiative behavior does not imply a preference for, nor is it a
Theasure of, attachment (Lamb 1976a, Lamb 1977b). Instead, affiliation
he‘lates to interaction and activity patterns of parents and toddlers,

with parental behavior a primary factor influencing the frequency and

24

type of affiliative interaction between parent and toddler (Lamb 1976a,
Lamb 1977b, Clarke-Stewart 1977, Field 1978, Belsky 1979). How
frequently parents take part in activities with their child has a
natural impact on the parent-toddler relationship. Gender of parent,
gender of child, parent occupation, and parent education level,
tOgether with the amount of time parents Spend with their child, are
variables that influence parent-toddler affiliative behavior and impact
on the parent-toddler relationship.

Toddler affiliation toward mother and father is measured by

researchers using both verbal and physical behaviors. Smile, vocalize,

1 00k, laugh, proffer or show, and proximity seeking are the behaviors
researchers use to assess parent-toddler affiliation (Lamb 1977c,
C 1 arke-Stewart 1977). Verbal and physical interaction is also used to

measure parental affiliative behavior. Basically, affiliative
behavior, whether initiated by parent or toddler, involves the ability

of mother, father and toddler to engage each other in play and in other

'7 rI‘lzeractions typical of the toddler age.

Factors Influencing Affiliation
Research suggests that personality, or social-emotional
Cle\Ielopment, is related to differences in family affiliative behavior,

reflecting change in the type and frequency of parental interaction

be‘lilween infants and toddlers. Several factors in the family

environment impact on parent-toddler interaction (Lamb 1977c). The
natural environment in which the family lives and works, the family's
economic situation, health of family members, the family's network of

“QTatives and friends, family values and traditions, and family

25

interaction patterns are among the multiple environmental variables

influencing parent-toddler interaction.

Comparing Parental Caregiving
Research also shows that gender of parent and gender of toddler
have direct and indirect effects on parent-toddler interaction.
Mothers are thought to have a more direct influence on personality
formation and devel0pment for their child Since mothers are more
involved in childrearing and daily caregiving activities than fathers.
Recent research shows fathers to be as competent and responsive as
mothers when providing care for their toddlers, with more similarities
than differences in the caregiving and interaction styles of mothers
and fathers (Lamb 1979, Heinraub and Frankel 1977, Vandell 1979).
These similarities in competence and responsiveness are most closely
as sociated with parental ability at engaging toddlers in play and other

7 I"! t eractions.

Parent Interaction Styles

Comparisons have been made between parents who are primary
caretakers, i.e. parents who take major responsibility for their
eh “i ld's daily care, and parents who are secondary caretakers. These
t t I"Idings indicate that primary caretakers, whether they are mothers or
Fathers, display similar levels of competence, similar levels of
e)‘Izberience, and similar patterns of interaction when relating to their
toddlers. Primary caretakers do more smiling, make more imitative
Q"‘irnaces, and use more high-pitched vocalizations than non-primary

Caretakers do. Toddlers in this research showed affection and

s we.

 

26

responded in a similar manner toward primary caretakers regardless of
whether that adult was the child's mother or father (Field 1978). This
suggests that frequency of contact is more significant than gender of

parent in determining interaction style between parent and toddler.

Frequency of Parental Caregiving Activities

In most families, mothers who are primary caretakers assume major
reSponsibility for childrearing of their toddler during the first
several years (Creno and Arnoff 1978, Parke and Sawin 1976). In
Families where the mother is not employed outside the home, she spends
most of her time involved in feeding and cleaning behaviors to meet the
toddler's need for physical care (Belsky 1979). Research by Kotelchuck
Found sixty-four percent of all mothers had full responsibility for
daily caregiving tasks with their toddlers (Kotelchuck 1976). This
3 ame study found twenty-five percent of all fathers regularly involved
i n caregiving activities with their toddler. Parent education level
‘i 71": luences the parent-toddler relationship with fathers who have a high
1 evel of education participating in more shared tasks related to child
c are than less educated parents do (Perrucci, Potter and Rhoades 1978).
Experiences parents share with their toddler are influenced by the

a""‘<) unt of time mothers and fathers have to participate in activities
wt th their child. Parental time at home not only influences the type
()1: activities parents do with their child but also the intensity of
Dar ent-child interaction during the time mother and father are at home
( perrucci, Potter and Rhoades 1978, Pederson and Robinson 1969,
Kotelchuck 1976, Vandell 1979). These findings suggest that where

mother and father work outside the home, there may be more sharing of

 

27

child care tasks by parents, along with more similarity in the type of

play activities parents do with their toddlers.

Describing Parent-Toddler Play
In most families where mother is home during the day, she takes
part in more caregiving tasks than father. However, research shows
that fathers are more involved in play with their toddlers than
mothers, particularly when the amount of time fathers have to interact
with their child is taken into account (Parke 1979). Differences exist
in the reported data. Clarke-Stewart's research found similar results
when play was viewed as toddler initiated behavior toward mother and
“Father (Clarke-Stewart 1977). Clarke-Stewart saw no difference in the
daily play record, the rate of play quality, the frequency of play, or
the proportion of child-parent play interaction recorded on the part of

teddlers toward their mothers and fathers.

Characteristics of Parent Play

Differences do exist in typical play interaction for mothers and
Fathers. Fathers engage in more arousal and exploratory play, with
Social-physical activities that include fewer containing behaviors,
th an are true for mothers (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Belsky 1979, and Field
1979). Studies found toddlers more c00perative, close, involved and
i hterested in play with their fathers than in play with their mothers.
P. 1 ay on the part of mothers with their toddlers tends to be more
Structured and includes play with toys which are intellectual or social

1 h nature (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Zegiob, Arnold and Forehand 1975).

IQ“lihers use more positive verbal behaviors, encourage more independent

1-1

28

play, and seek an optimal level of child participation during play when
compared to fathers (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Weinraub and Frankel 1977,
legiob, Arnold and Forehand 1975). Parke summarizes the differences
between mothers and fathers by stating that "...father's play is likely
to be physical and arousing rather than intellectual, didactic or

mediated by objects as is the case for mothers" (Parke 1979, p. 570).

Characteristics of Toddler Play
Gender of child also influences parent-toddler play. Fathers and
mothers both use more active play behaviors with boys than they do with
s;*ir~ls. As a result, boys demonstrate greater feelings of power with
t11<>r~e aggressive active interactions than girls do. In most situations,
mothers and fathers provide much less reinforcement for active play by
9 i rls and instead reinforce social and intellectual play (Hoffman and
Sa‘ltzstein 1967, Tauber 1979, Lamb and Lamb 1976). Play between
lDar‘ents and toddlers of the same gender also has unique qualities.
Research indicates that parents talk to, sit on the floor with, and
Sh are play more with infants and toddlers of the same gender than with
‘i t""‘lF'ants and toddlers of the opposite gender (Neinraub and Frankel 1977,
Be 1 sky 1979). These findings suggest that differences in the mother-
d athhter and father-son relationship not only reflect the type of play
ac‘liivities parents engage in with toddlers of the same gender but also
1:J'ie frequency and type of affiliative behavior patterns parents and

thdlers express with each other.

29

Identification of Play Categories

Categories of play are best defined by the kind of activities
taking place between parent and toddler. Social play, intellectual
play, arousal play, and exploratory play are among the interaction
categories researchers identify (Belsky 1979, Clarke-Stewart 1978,
Parke 1979). Within each play category, there are a variety of play
activities which can be used to determine the frequency of parent-
toddler interaction. Intellectual play can be assessed using
activities such as puzzle play, block building, and looking at books.
Doll centered play, play with stuffed animals, and songs and rhymes are
used to assess social play. Social play frequently includes modeling
of“ parental caregiving and nurturing behaviors, imitation of animals
and objects, as well as shared interaction with other children and
aCiults. Arousal play experiences tend to be highly stimulating with
t ‘3 ckling, roughhousing, tumbling, bouncing and riding games typical of
th 1’ 5 play style. Exploratory play tends to be more tactile in nature
1. r‘-\rolving eye-hand coordination, with stacking toys, connecting and
1 acting toys, toys for sorting, small mechanical toys and small building
toys all Specific examples of exploratory play (Lowe 1975, Fein 1975,
CO 1 lard 1971). Toddler play can also be studied in terms of how often
chi ldren engage in play which is independent or in play which is

cooperative in nature (Belsky 1979, Clarke-Stewart 1978,Parke 1979).
Play activities between toddler and parent generally include
a 1 ements of parental instruction. These play experiences help
Socialize children and involve sharing objects to increase the amount
Q1: partner play (Weinraub and Frankel 1977, Rheingold, Hay and West

1976). Research shows relationships between parent and toddler gender,

30

affiliative interaction of parent and toddler, and frequency and type
of parent-toddler play interaction (Clarke-Stewart 1978). Active play
by fathers is associated with higher levels of affiliative behavior by
toddlers toward fathers, particularly when the active play style of
fathers is compared with intellectual and social play patterns typical

for mothers and toddlers (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Zegiob 1975).

Guiding Toddler Behavior Through
Parental Interaction

As parents direct their toddler's activities, they use specific
interactions or behaviors on a conscious and subconscious level to
provide support for, as well as control of, their toddler's behavior
and interaction. Support behaviors help toddlers feel a sense of

approval, become more comfortable with parent activities and feel
secure about themselves. Parenting behavior involving warm loving
Contact promotes a sense of toddler trust toward parents (Clarke-
S‘tlewart 1977). High levels of parental affiliative behavior toward
toddlers is consistent with high levels of parental support behaviors.
It is unlikely, however, that an inverse relationship exists between
parental support behaviors toward toddlers and toddler affiliative
lDef‘lavior toward parents when parent and child have already established

a trusting relationship.

Parental Support Behaviors with Toddlers
Encouragement, help, cooperation, expressions of praise and
physical affection are all examples of parental support behaviors with
QP‘I'ildren (Rollins and Thomas 1979). Frequency of parental support

behavior is also an indication of the amount of positive reinforcement,

 

31

or the frequency of positive social sanctions, directed toward toddlers

by their parents (Rollins and Thomas 1979, Schaeffer and Crook 1979).
Support interactions, like other communication within the family,
can be characterized as a reciprocal process. Children receive and
elicit positive parental responses that result in, and reinforce,
positive social and behavioral outcomes (Roberts 1979). Support
interactions are composed of behaviors which have been identified as a
process of verbal and physical giving and receiving (Stewart and

Burgess 1978).

Differences in parental support behavior toward toddlers exist for
a variety of reasons. Gender of parent and gender of child are factors
influencing parental support behavior. Mothers are often more verbal
When interacting with toddlers while fathers engage in more physical
behaviors with their young child (Zegiob 1975, Parke 1979). Both
r"(Dizzhers and fathers use more positive behaviors when interacting with
their daughters then they do when interacting with or relating to their

Sons (Tauber 1979, Hoffman and Saltstein 1967).

Parental Control Behaviors with Toddlers

The parent-child relationship is also a power relationship, with
Dar~ents mediating rewards either using positive reinforcement or
through the use of parental pressure and negative sanctions so that
Qh ‘ildren behave according to the desires of their parents (Rollins and
Thomas 1979, Baumrind 1967). Giving instructions and directions,
rflaking and explaining rules, threatening punishment, scolding, and
Dhysical punishment are behavioral examples of power or control

techniques parents use with their toddlers. While more frequent use of

 

32

parental control may be negatively associated with parent affiliative
behavior, it is not clear what association, if any, would be expected
between frequency of parental control behaviors and frequency of
toddler affiliative behavior. Higher frequencies of parental control
may increase toddler trust and dependence on parental figures while
decreasing the toddler's confidence level. As a result, toddlers
demonstrate a greater frequency of affiliative behavior toward parents
who more frequently engage in control interactions (Rollins and Thomas
1979). The type and frequency of parental control behavior varies
according to parental gender. Mothers take part in more structured
activities with their toddlers, are inclined to establish routines,
make rules, and use directions with their toddlers to a greater extent

than fathers (Zegiob and Forehand 1978, Vandell 1979).

Relating Factors of Affiliation, Caregiving,
Play and Support and Control

Whether there is a relationship between parental control behaviors
and parental caregiving and play activities, or between parental
Support behavior and parental caregiving and play activities with
1:chdlers, raises several interesting questions for further study. The
1 iterature previously cited on affiliation, caregiving, and play
r‘esearch, together with a 1982 ethnographic study by the researcher,
S’Klggest that higher frequencies of parental support interactions toward
toddlers may be associated with (1) higher frequencies of parent-
1:Oddler play activities, especially social play, (2) higher frequencies

0": parent-toddler caregiving activities and (3) higher frequencies of
a‘Ffiliative interaction between parents and toddlers. 0n the other

hand, higher levels of parental control interactions may be associated

 

 

 

AI
1‘!

A.

b.

9-.

M
Vi

VD

33

with (1) higher frequencies of toddler affiliative behavior toward
parent, (2) lower levels of parent affiliative behavior toward toddlers
and (3) lower frequencies of parent-toddler play interaction (Lamb and
Lamb 1976, Lamb 1976a, Clarke-Stewart 1977, Field 1978, Weinraub and
Frankel 1977, Kotelchuck 1976, Clarke-Stewart 1978, Belsky 1979, Diana,
Field Notes: Ethnographic Family Study with Father-Mother-Toddler,
1982).

While direct relationships between parental support-control
behaviors and other parent-toddler interaction, i.e. affiliative
behaviors, caregiving activities, and play experiences, are not
established in the research literature, consideration of these

dimensions in parent-child interaction is of value in gaining more
Complete insight into those interaction variables in the family which
8 ‘5 gnificantly effect parent-toddler relationships and impact on social-
emotional develOpment for the child.

In this review of literature, research implications and results
aY‘e cited to focus on findings which influenced the develOpment of this
hesearchers questions and selection of factors appropriate to the study
()1: parent-toddler relationships. Methodologies for research cited in
the literature review have not been analyzed. Since the literature
Q 1‘ ted appears in refereed journals, the focus of this review has been
or. the contribution each work makes to new understandings of
a“Pi-“liative behavior in the parent-toddler reltaionship. Focus has
Q1 so been placed on those concepts in the cited research which relate

to this researcher's study of parent-toddler affiliation, activity and
‘i

"Iteraction patterns.

 

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

This research was conducted to extend understanding of interaction
taking place between parent and toddler. In-home observations of
affiliative behavior between parent and toddler were conducted to
determine whether a relationship exists between parent-toddler
affiliative behavior and the frequency and type of parental caregiving

activities, of parent-toddler play experiences, and of parental
S upport-control interactions.

This chapter on methodology will be divided into five sections:

Se 1 ection of families, description of selected families, development of

assessment instruments: observational chart and questionnaire,

procedures for data collection, and procedures for data analysis.

Selection of Families

The original criteria established to select families for this
StUdy were: 1) each family would have a traditional father-mother-
Qh ‘ild configuration; 2) families would have only one child, a toddler
between twelve and eighteen months of age living at home; 3) each
Family would be Caucasian; 4) families would have a church affiliation
with referrals made by their ministers; 5) each family would fall
within a specific social strata range as defined by Hollingshead using
h ‘i 3 Four Factor Index of Social Strata; 6) both mother and father would

be employed or attend school outside the home twenty or more hours per
34

 

 

35

week; 7) and each family would live within a ten mile radius of an
urban industrial area. These selection criteria were established for
several reasons, with the rationales for making each selection listed
in Figure 3.

Initial efforts to locate families willing to participate in this
study were made through telephone contact with church ministers.
Occasionally, this initial contact also included conversations with
designated church members. When location of families meeting the above

criteria became difficult, additional church groups were contacted and,
at the same time, efforts were made to locate families through referral
by child care center directors and family day care home providers. In
Order to identify a sufficient number of families and, at the same
t ‘ime, maintain a four to six ratio between male and female toddlers in
the study, two selection criteria were modified. 1) A change was made
i n the toddler age range so toddlers in the study fell between fifteen
and twenty-three months of age rather than between twelve and eighteen
"‘0 nths of age; and 2) families referred for participation in the study
were from sources in addition to family ministers.

In all cases, initial referral of families was made by a minister,
was based on the reconmendation of a family friend, or was made by the
d “i rector of a child care program in which the toddler was enrolled.
Those individuals making initial referrals were asked to screen out
families experiencing high levels of stress, marital conflict, health
q i1=ficulties or adjustment problems associated with the parent-toddler
he‘lationship. As a result, families in this study were all at a

S‘il'nilar point in the family life cycle, with at least some conmon

Values and some shared environmental backgrounds.

Criteria

Each family would include a
father, mother, child
configuration with that
child being a toddler.

Toddlers between 15 and
23 months of age.

Mothers and fathers are both
employed or attend school
outside the home for 20 or
more hours per week.

Each family would be
aucasian, would have church
a1:‘~1“iliation, and share a
S‘Imilar social strata as
gefined by Hollingshead's
ndex of Social Status.

U"‘bc‘ln residence.

36

2.

Rationale

To permit the study of mother-
father differences.

To increase the homogeneity of
the selected group of families.
To facilitate recording and
collection of observation data.

To permit proper assessment of
age appr0priate affiliative
behaviors for toddlers.

To increase similarity of
behavior and interaction
patterns by limiting the
toddler age range.

To maintain consistency between
child age range and the type of
activities and experiences
reported on the parental self-
report questionnaire.

To increase the homogeneity of
the selected group of families.
To reflect current trends among
young urban families.

To increase similarity between
mother and father regarding the
amount of time parents and
toddlers have available to
interact with each other.

To increase the homogeneity of
the selected group of families.
To increase the similarity of
toddler life experiences.

To increase the homogeneity of
the selected group of families.
To facilitate data collection.

Figure 3

Selection Criteria for Families Participating in Study

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The first contact the researcher made with each family was by
telephone. At that time, parents were given general information about
the study along with an opportunity to ask questions concerning the
research. A follow-up letter was sent to families who were referred by
their ministers. A copy of that follow-up letter is included in
Appendix A. During the initial telephone conversation, approximately
sixty percent of the families contacted either did not meet all the
selection criteria or did not wish to be part of the research study.
Ten percent of the families contacted said they did not wish to take
part in the study when given the following detailed information during
the initial telephone contact with the family.

During the initial telephone contact with the family, parents were
informed that the research would include four in-home visits scheduled

during a time when both father and mother would be home with their
toddler. Second, parents were advised that the first visit would
include time for parents to become acquainted with the researcher, time
to ask additional questions about the study, and, that during the first
ViSit, both parents would be asked to sign a consent form for their
participation and the toddler's participation in the study. A copy of
the consent form approved for use by Michigan State University is
included as part of Appendix A. Third, each family was informed that
data collection would take place during the second, third and fourth
Visits and that each visit would be two hours in length and would
i "Volve observation of parent-toddler activity and interactions. Also
they were informed that these visits would be scheduled during the
morning, afternoon and evening. Parents and toddlers were encouraged

t
0 take part in activities parents feel are typical for them during the

38

time each observation visit was scheduled. Fourth, parents were
informed that during the final observation visit mother and father
would each be asked to complete an individual self-report questionnaire
regarding activities and interactions with their toddlers. Parents
were assured that these questions had no right or wrong answers, and
that neither the parents nor their toddlers would be evaluated through
the observation or questionnaire process.

During the first get-acquainted interview, additional selection
took place. While no family who kept their initial appointment
declined to take part in the study, the researcher did exclude two
families who, during the course of the initial interview, were found
not to meet the established selection criteria. In one family, the
child was under fifteen months of age and in the second family only one

Parent worked outside the home more than twenty hours per week.

Description of Selected Families

The group of families selected for study included ten Caucasian
families residing within an urban industrial area. Each family
participating in the study had one toddler between fifteen and twenty-
1:hr‘ee months of age. Six of these toddlers were girls, while four of
the children were boys. These families were relatively young with
Dar‘ents ranging between twenty-two and thirty-three years of age. Each
rhother and father participating in the study worked outside the home
thenty or more hours per week so that each family made arrangements for
a 11:ernative child care during the time periods when mother and father
were away from home. Based on Hollingshead's Four Factor Index of

S - . .
091“ Status, which uses the educatlon and occupation level of mother

a"-

39

and father to determine a composite family score, each family in the
study could be classified within two social strata levels. These
levels, two and three, Hollingshead has called medium business, minor
professional, technical, skilled craftsman, clerical and salesworker in
identifying general occupation categories (Hollingshead 1975).
Descriptive information regarding families in this study is
available in Figure 4» These data include the following information
for each family: parent education, parent occupation, parent age, the
number of hours each parent works outside the home, sex of child, and
the age of each toddler. Education levels for participants fell within
a five year range from twelve to seventeen years of schooling.
Occupations of fathers and mothers included factory workers,
teacher, receptionist, photographer, clerks, students, counselors and
salesmen. The number of hours parents worked outside the home included
a range of twenty to fifty-eight hours per week with the majority
falling between forty and forty-five hours per week. Parents taking
part in the study range in age from twenty-two to thirty-three years

‘Vfrile toddlers were between fifteen and twenty-three months of age.

Devel0pment of Assessment Instruments:
Observation Chart and Questionnaire

This section will consider two aspects of the develOpmental
process important in formation of the observational chart and parental
Se‘li-‘-report questionnaire used to gather data for this study. First,
thE rationales used to develop this observation chart and parental
1‘\‘e1i'-‘-report questionnaire will be presented, together with technical

‘F
aCtors significant in organizing each measurement tool.

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Number of Toddler: Age/Education/Occupation/Hours Out of Home
Family Age/Gender Mother: Father:
One: Age 16 mo. Age 31 Age 25
Gender F Educ. 14 yr. Educ. 12 yr.
Occup. Bookkeeper Occup. Truck Driver
Hrs. 40 Hrs. 50
Two: Age 16 mo. Age 24 Age 33
Gender F Educ. 16 yr. Educ. 15 yr.
Occup. Caseworker Occup. Retail Serv.
Hrs. 40 Hrs. 55
Three: Age 23 mo. Age 22 Age 27
Gender F Educ. 13 yr. Educ. 14 yr.
Occup. Receptionist Occup. Photographer
Hrs. 40 Hrs. 40
Four: Age 20 mo. Age 22 Age 23
Gender F Educ. 14 yr. Educ. 14 yr.
Occup. Clerk Occup. Technician
Hrs. 40 Hrs 48
Five: Age 19 mo. Age 25 Age 32
Gender M Educ. 14 yr. Educ. 16 yr.
Occup. Student Occup. Teacher
Hrs. 20 Hrs. 55
Six: Age 15 mo. Age 26 Age 29
Gender M Educ. 16 yr. Educ. 14
Occup. Nurse Occup. Sm. Business
Hrs. 40 Hrs. 45
Seven: Age 22 mo. Age 22 Age 26
Gender F Educ. 12 yr. Educ. 14 yr.
Occup. Student Occup. Painter/mgr
Hrs. 20 Hrs. 54
Eight: Age 19 mo. Age 27 Age 30
Gender M Educ. 13 yr. Educ. 12
Occup. Factory Occup. Factory
Hrs. 50 Hrs. 58
Nine: Age 15 mo. Age 28 Age 29
Gender M Educ. 13 yr. Educ. 12 yr.
Occup. Retail Clerk Occup. Counselor
Hrs. 20 Hrs. 40
'Ten: Age 22 mo. Age 31 Age 33
Gender Educ. 16 yr. Educ. 17
Occup. Program Coor. Occup. Salesman
Hrs. 40 Hrs. 45
Figure 4

Descriptive Data for Family Units in the Study

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41

The methods of data collection used in this study include two
research techniques. Observations, together with parental self-report
questionnaires, were used as combined assessment strategies. This
approach provided more indepth understanding of parent-toddler
interaction and behavior patterns through research observations while
parent-toddler activity and interaction were assessed using self-

perception reports by parents (Parke 1979).

Observational Chart
The observational chart includes space to code twenty-two
different behaviors between mother and toddler and father and toddler.
A c0py of this observation chart is included in Appendix B. These
observational codings were limited for three reasons. First, only
affiliative behavior was included in the coding, since an in-home
Observation format does not involve measurement during separation nor
measurement in stress situations where toddler attachment is generally
assessed (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Lamb and Lamb 1976, Lamb 1976a).
Second, toddler behavior, as well as parental behavior, selected for
Coding during the observations were behaviors other researchers used to
aSsess parent-toddler affiliation (Vandell 1979, Lamb 1977b, Stewart
a”1d Burgess 1978, Clarke-Stewart 1977, Field 1978, Belsky 1979).
Third, results of a pilot study demonstrated that twenty-two behaviors
were the maximum number which could be coded accurately by one

heSearcher during a two minute period of time.
Organization of the observational chart was done with separate
Se<-‘-tions for mother's behavior toward toddler, toddler's behavior

1:
0"Ward mother, father's behavior toward toddler and toddler's behavior

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42

toward father. Behaviors for each parent and toddler were recorded

numerically from one to as many interactions as took place during a two

minute period of time.

Self-Report Questionnaire

self-report questionnaire was used to obtain

A parental
play experiences, and support-

information on caregiving activities,

control interactions parents use with their toddlers. A copy of the

parental self-report questionnaire is included as part of Appendix B.
This questionnaire was also used to gather data on parent education,

parent occupation, parent age, the number of hours parents work outside

the home, gender of child, and toddler age.
The research goal in develOpment of the self-report questionnaire

was to construct a concise, unobtrusive instrument to obtain

information from parents which could be used in conjunction with data

COllected during the three observation visits. The questionnaire was

Written so it would be appropriate for use by mothers and fathers of

Prior research on parent-toddler affiliative behavior, as

tOddlers.
suggests that

Well as research on the parent-child relationship,

caregiving, play, and support-control would be apprOpriate areas of

asSessment using the parental self-report questionnaire. Based on

research literature, it also seemed of value to collect information on
how often parents believe they do particular activities with their
toddlers (Kotelchuck 1976, Weinraub and Frankel 1977, Clarke-Stewart
l977, Clarke-Stewart 1978, Belsky 1979, Zegiob 1975, Rollins and Thomas

1979).

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43

Frequency assessments were made using a five point Lickert scale
on each section of the questionnaire. Parents were asked to identify
the approximate number of times per day or week they engage in
activities with their toddlers. Assessment was done in the following
areas of parental caregiving: feeding, hygiene, rest and general care.
Play was assessed in the following areas: intellectual, social,
arousal, exploratory, independent and cooperative. Research questions
related to play were written to ask parents about daily experiences
such as block building, reading books, doll play, and games or songs.
The questions were organized and written so parents would not be able
to identify specific play experiences with the areas of play
represented by the questions, since that might change the responses.
Parental self-report measures concerning support-control interactions
were also evaluated. This was done using categories of support,
positive control and negative control. Between two and four questions
were used for assessment within each individual area making up the
general categories of caregiving, play and support-control.

The self report instrument was written so mothers and fathers
Could complete the questionnaire within twenty to thirty minutes. The
k‘irld of caregiving activities, play experiences, and support-control
interactions assessed were based on those activities, experiences and
i "teractions believed to have comnon meaning for families and assessed

120' toddlers and parents using a variety of other methods in previous

h
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44

Procedures for Data Collection
Observations were scheduled with families during a three month
period in the winter and spring of 1983. Data on parent-toddler
affiliative behavior were recorded during the second, third and fourth
visit with each family. These observations were scheduled for the
morning, afternoon and evening at times when both parents would be
home. These three observations were arranged following an initial
introductory visit. Three observations were based on Baumrind's
caution that a minimum of two observation visits are needed for
behaviors recorded in a natural setting if parent-toddler behavior is
to stabilize and approach typical patterns of interaction (Baumrind and
Block 1967). The objective during these in-home observations was to
record parent-toddler affiliative behaviors in a more natural
situation. Two hour blocks of time were scheduled for each observation
session. The researcher did engage parents in conversation before and
after those visits to promote rapport, diminish parental anxiety, and
f“acilitate more natural parent-toddler interaction patterns during the
Observations.

Selection of parent and toddler activities was left open to the
1ramily. Parents were encouraged to go about those daily chores they
Would usually do within their home. Parents were not expected, nor
“Ere they asked, to play with their toddlers. Families ate, put
children to sleep, cleaned, cooked, worked outdoors, watched
te1evision, received drop-in guests, talked, and argued in addition to
Djaying with their child during the observation sessions. Activity

Q“(Dice was left open to the family so that collected data would reflect

jhteraction patterns typical of the home. Coding of affiliative

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45

interaction for parents and toddlers was stopped only when children
fell asleep, when a parent needed to leave because of an emergency
situation, or when company arrived. Interrupted observation sessions
were either resumed or rescheduled, depending on the nature and length
of the interruption.

Consistent coding procedures were used during each observation
visit. Coding was done by pencil, with parent and toddler behaviors
numbered sequentially from one through the number of behaviors taking
place during a two-minute period of time. After two minutes of coding,
the researcher paused for a two-minute break. These breaks were used
to correct recording errors, fill out time and room location on each
new observation sheet, and rest. During each observation visit,
thirty-two sheets of coding were completed. However, in tabulating
frequencies for each affiliative behavior (hi the part of parents and
toddlers, only thirty sheets of coded behaviors were used for each
observation visit. Generally, the first two sheets of coded behaviors
were not used. These sheets were eliminated for two reasons. First,
parent-toddler interaction showed more strange presence effects during
the first several minutes. Second, during most observation visits, the
researcher found the first sheet or two helpful in reorienting himself
to the coding process. However, in four observation visits, when
children fell asleep for the night or for an afternoon nap earlier than
anticipated, the last two observation sheets were eliminated and the
first two sheets used in their place to determine the frequency of

parent-toddler affiliative behavior for that visit.

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Throughout each two hour observation, the researcher avoided
interaction with parents and toddlers. In most families, there were
times when talking seemed important during the two ininute break to
facilitate comfort of family members and to promote the observation
process. For the most part, comfort with the research process was high
among parents and toddlers in the study. Every family permitted the
researcher to follow their toddler throughout their home while
conducting the observation visit. While most coding was done in the
living room, family room, kitchen, and toddler's bedroom, coding was
also done outdoors, in the basement, in other bedrooms and in bathrooms
depending on the activities in which toddlers and parents were engaged.
The location of the researcher in terms (Hi parent-toddler interaction
and activity varied depending (Ml several factors. When possible, the
researcher sat in the room where activity occurred. However, room
size, location of family members in a room, and comfort of those being
observed were factors resulting in the researcher standing to code,
moving to the room entry way or positioning himself in an adjacent room
with an unobstructed view of parent-toddler interaction.

Administration of the parental self-report questionnaire was a
simple procedure. These questionnaires were given to each parent at
the end of the fourth observation visit. Administration of the
questionnaire took place after all observation visits were complete so
that choice of activities by parent and toddler during the observation
visit would not be influenced by questions on the self-report

instrument.

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Mothers and fathers were given separate copies of the
questionnaire and asked to complete them individually. The researcher
sat with parents while the questionnaires were completed. Parents were
encouraged to ask questions if particular items were not clear.
Clarification was sought by parents on a few items. Based on parental
questions, the researcher determined that, despite rewording after the
(pilot study, the last two questions regarding independent and
cooperative play were not interpreted in a consistent manner by
parents. For this reason, the results from these two questions have
not been included in the chapter on findings.

Procedures for Analyzing Data

Several steps were involved in the process of data analysis.
First, there was hand tabulation of the coding sheets used during each
observation visit“ 'Totals for the twenty-two affiliative behaviors
were computed for every observation visit with each family. These sub-
totals were then used to determine a score for each of the twenty-two
affiliative behaviors on the part of each family in the study.

The second step in this analysis involved recording data from the
questionnaire and observations for computer analysis. Batch entry
terminals at Michigan State University, using SPSS language, were used
for computer analysis. Data were submitted by individual families with
separate numerical scores recorded for affiliative behavior of mother
with toddler, toddler with mother, father with toddler, toddler with

father, self-report data by mother and self-report by father.

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Initial computer analysis involved tabulation for each category of
interaction across the ten families in the study. Totals were derived
for the ten fathers in the study, the ten mothers in the study and the
ten toddlers in the study. Data were presented regarding the total
number of responses in each cell for every question on the
questionnaire. Observational data.‘were presented according to the
total number of affiliative behavior interactions in each category for
the ten families in this study. Thus, frequency comparisons could be
made between mothers and fathers with reSpect to the activities and
interactions they do with their toddlers and assessed in this study to
determine what differences exist between fathers and mothers in the
relationship they have with their toddlers.

Statistical techniques were then used to determine 1) the
significance of those differences, and 2) the direction of
relationships between variables. For each statistical computation a
.05 level of significance was used. A .05 level of significance was
chosen as appropriate to the group size and statistical techniques
used.

A matched pairs t-test was used to assess the significance and
direction of differences between mothers and fathers in their
affiliative behaviors toward toddlers. This same test was used to
assess differences in toddler affiliative behavior toward each of their
parents. The matched pairs t-test was also used to assess the
significance and direction of difference between mothers and fathers
with reSpect to caregiving activities, play activities, support
behaviors and control behaviors with their toddlers. TA matched pairs

t-test was chosen since the n for each group being compared was ten.

49

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used, at a .05 level of
significance, to determine if a significant relationship exists between
the type or frequency of parent-toddler affiliative behavior and the
type or frequency of parental caregiving activities, parental play
activities, parental support behaviors (n: parental control behaviors
with toddlers. This correlation technique was used since the data
compared were rank order data from the parental self-report
questionnaire with data on a frequency continuum from the observational
visits.

The Spearman Rho Correlation Coefficient, computed at a .05 level
of significance, was used to determine if a significant relationship
exists between the frequency of parental support behaviors or the
frequency of parental control behaviors and the type and frequency of
parental caregiving and play activities with their toddlers. This
correlation technique was selected in order to compare rank order data
from the parental self-report questionnaire with other rank order data
from the parental self-report questionnaire.

The findings using the three statistical techniques described
above are reported in Chapter IV. Results for each research question
are reported separately. A summary which includes all the

statistically significant data is presented in Chapter V.

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CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS

This chapter contains a report of findings for each research
question in this study. A statement of the research question together
with statistical techniques used to answer the question are contained
in Figure 4. Each hypothesis devel0ped from a specific research
question was tested at a .05 level of statistical significance.

The research findings for those hypotheses which use a t-test for
matched pairs are reported as scores showing no difference and as
scores approaching a level of statistical significance. The research
findings, for the Pearson Product Moment Correlation and the Spearman
Rho Correlation are reported as scores showing no relationship, as
scores showing a relationship which is statistically significant at a
.05 level, and as scores which fall between a .10 and a .05 level of
statistical significance. Where appropriate, tables reporting
relationships between two variables include information (N1 whether the
variables increase in the same direction with a positive relationship,
or move in opposite directions showing a negative relationship.

Presentation of the research data is done using tables constructed
to present the hypotheses and pertinent data for each research
question. The chapter is organized so that each research question

represents a separate section.

50

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51

Research Question

 

Determine whether there is a difference
in how frequently each type of
affiliative behavior is recorded for
mothers toward their toddlers and fathers
toward their toddlers during the in-home
observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference
between toddlers and their mothers and
toddlers and their fathers in how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the
part of toddlers toward their parents
are recorded during the in-home
observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference

in how frequently mothers and fathers
report taking part in particular caregiving
activities, i.e. feeding, hygiene, rest,
and general care with their toddlers.

Determine whether the frequency of mother
and father caregiving activities with
their toddlers, i.e. feeding, hygiene,
rest and general care has any relationship
to the frequency of affiliative behaviors
between parent and toddler recorded during
the in-home observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference
between how frequently mothers and fathers
report taking part in particular play
activities, i.e. play experiences which
are intellectual, social, arousal, and
exploratory with their toddlers.

Determine whether the frequency of mother
and father play activities, i.e.
intellectual, social, arousal, and
exploratory play with toddlers is related
to how frequently affiliative behaviors are
recorded by parents toward toddlers and
toddlers toward parents during the in-home
observation sessions.

Figure 4

Statement of Research Question with
Technique Used

Statistical Technique

 

T-test for
Matched-Pairs

T-test for
Matched-Pairs

T-test for
Matched-Pairs

Pearson Product
Moment Correlation

T-test for
Matched-Pairs

Pearson Product
Moment Correlation

Statistical

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10.

11.

12.

52

Figure 4 (continued)

Research Question

 

Determine whether mothers and fathers
differ in the frequency with which each
parent reports using positive verbal
and positive physical support inter-
actions with their toddlers.

Determine whether there is a relation-
ship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report using positive verbal and
positive physical support interactions
with their toddlers and how frequently
Specific affiliative behaviors are
recorded between parents and toddlers
during the in-home observation sessions.

Determine whether there is a difference
between how frequently mothers and fathers
report using positive or negative control
behaviors when interacting with their
toddlers.

Determine whether there is a relationship
between the reported use by parents of
positive or negative control behaviors with
toddlers and how frequently affiliative
behaviors between parents and toddlers are
recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

Determine whether there is a relationship
between the frequency of support behaviors
reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency of caregiving
activities parents report participating

in with their toddlers.

Determine whether there is a relationship
between the frequency of control behaviors
reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency of caregiving
activities parents report participating

in with their toddlers.

Statistical Technique

 

T-test for
Matched-Pairs

Pearson Product
Moment Correlation

T-test for
Matched-Pairs

Pearson Product
Moment Correlation

Spearman Rho
Correlation

Spearman Rho
Correlation

13.

14.

53

Figure 4 (continued)
Research Question

Determine whether there is a relationship
between the frequency of support behaviors
reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency with which
mothers and fathers report taking part in
play activities with their toddlers.

Determine whether there is a relationship
between the frequency of control behaviors
by mothers and fathers with their toddlers
and the frequency of play activities
mothers and fathers report taking part in
with their toddlers.

Statistical Technique

 

Spearman Rho
Correlation

Spearman Rho
Correlation

 

54

Research Question One
Parental Affiliative Behaviors

1. Determine whether there is a difference in how frequently each type

of affiliative behavior is recorded for mothers toward toddlers and

fathers toward toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.
Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were
develOped and tested using a t-test for matched pairs at a .05 level of
statistical dignificance.

Hl There is TH) difference “hi how frequently mothers and fathers
exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their toddlers during the
in-home observation sessions.

H2 There is TN) difference 'hl how frequently mothers and fathers
exhibit affiliative behaviors in each specific category of

smiling and laughing; touching, hugging, and holding; imitative
grimaces; lrufil pitched vocalizations; or grooming during the
in-home observation sessions.

There is ru) difference 'hl how frequently mothers and fathers
exhibit physical affiliative behaviors of touching, hugging,
and holding; imitative grimaces; and grooming when interacting
with their toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.

H4 There is in) difference “hi how frequently mothers and fathers
exhibit verbal affiliative behaviors of smiling and laughing;
and high-pitched vocalizations when interacting with their
toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.

The findings for Research Question One, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3, and
H4 are included in Table 1. Affiliative behavior was computed as mean
frequency scores for mothers and fathers. The alpha level is reported
for differences between mothers and fathers for each hypothesis.

No statistically significant differences were found between
mothers and fathers in the frequency of their affiliative interactions
toward toddlers for behavior categories of: smiling and laughing;
touching, hugging, and holding; imitative grimaces; or high pitched

vocalizations so that, for these behavior categories, the null

hypothesis is accepted for Hypothesis H2. The null hypotheses are also

55

Table 1

Parental Affiliative Behavior

Hypothesis Mean Score Mean Score Significance

Mothers Fathers Level

 

All affiliative behaviors
of mothers and fathers
toward toddlers 567.50 512.50 .613

Individual affiliative
behavior categories

1) Smiling and laughing 107.10 137.40 .432
2) Touching, hugging

and holding 49.50 52.40 .819
3) Imitative grimaces 34.20 28.00 .456
4) High pitched

vocalizations 362.60 289.00 .227
5) Grooming behaviors 14.1 5.4 .013*

Physical affiliative
behavior categories 97.80 85.80 .55

Verbal affiliative
behavior categories 469.70 426.40 .49

 

*A statistically significant difference
Mean Difference 8.70
Standard Deviation 8.97
Standard Error 2.836

56

accepted for Hypotheses H1, H3 and H4 with findings of no statistical
difference between mothers and fathers in total parental affiliative
behaviors toward toddlers, in physical affiliative behaviors toward
toddlers or in verbal affiliative behaviors toward toddlers. A
statistically significant difference was found between mothers and
fathers for the individual affiliative behavior category of parental
grooming within Hypothesis *2? The mean score for mothers was 14.10
with the mean score for fathers 5.40. The difference between these two

groups was statistically significant at a .013 alpha level.

Research Question Two
Toddler Affiliative Behavior

2. Determine whether there is a difference between toddlers and their
mothers and toddlers and their fathers in how frequently
affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward their parents
are recorded during the in-home observation sessions.

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were
deveTOped using a t-test for matched pairs and tested using a .05 level
of statistical significance.

H1 There is in) difference between how frequently toddlers exhibit
affiliative behaviors toward their mothers and how frequently
toddlers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their fathers.

H2 There is in) difference between how frequently toddlers exhibit
Specific affiliative behaviors in the categories of smiling,
vocalizing, looking, laughing, showing toys and proximity
seeking toward their mothers and how frequently toddlers
exhibit these same behaviors toward their fathers.

3 There is in) difference between how frequently toddlers exhibit
physical affiliative behaviors of smiling, looking, Showing
toys and proximity seeking toward their mothers and how
frequently toddlers exhibit these same behaviors toward their
fathers.

57

4 There is in) difference between how frequently toddlers exhibit
verbal afflllatlve behaVlors of vocallZlng and laughlng toward
their mothers and how frequently toddlers exhibit these same
behaviors toward their fathers.

The findings for Research Question Two, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3, and
H4 are reported in Table 2. Toddler affiliative behavior was computed
as mean frequency scores with mothers and mean frequency scores with
fathers. Using the t-test for matched pairs, levels of significance
were computed for the chferences in the frequency of interaction on
the part of toddler with mother and toddler with father for each
hypotheses.

No statistically significant differences were found between
toddler affiliative behaviors with mothers and toddler affiliative
behaviors with fathers in any of the following interaction categories:
all affiliative behaviors, physical affiliative behaviors, vebal
affiliative behaviors and individual affiliative behavior categories of
smiling, looking, laughing, showing toys and proximity seeking. Based
on these findings, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3 and H4 from Research Question
Two are accepted. The individual behavior category of vocalization did
approach statistical significance reaching an alpha level of .078 with
mean scores of 245.10 interactions recorded for toddlers toward their

mothers and 168.20 interactions recorded on the part of toddlers toward

their fathers.

58
Table 2

Toddler Affiliative Behavior

Hypothesis Mean Score Mean Score Significance
Mothers Fathers Level

 

H1 Total of all
affiliative behaviors 526.10 399.10 .165

H2 Individual affiliative
behavior categories

1) Smiling 95.30 82.50 .456
2) Vocalizing 245.10 168.20 .078**
3) Looking 32.70 27.30 .387
4) Laughing 44.40 43.00 .901
5) Showing toys 15.90 10.70 .321
6) Proximity seeking 92.70 67.30 .143

3 All physical
affiliative behaviors 236.60 187.80 .223

H4 All verbal affiliative
behaviors 289.50 211.20 .136

 

**Approaches statistical significance
Mean Difference 76.90
Standard Deviation 122.157
Standard Error 38.629

59

Research Question Three
Parental Caregiving Activities with Toddlers
3. Determine whether there is a difference in how frequently mothers
and fathers report taking part in particular caregiving activities,

i.e. feeding, hygiene, rest and general care with their toddlers.

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were
develOped and tested using t-tests for matched pairs with a .05 level
of statistical significance.

H1 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in how
frequently each parent takes part in caregiving activities with
their toddlers.

H2 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in how
frequently each parent takes part in caregiving activities
involving feeding with their toddlers.

H3 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in how
frequently each parent takes part in caregiving activities
involving hygiene with their toddlers.

H4 There is TK) difference between mothers and fathers ‘hl how
frequently each parent takes part in caregiving activities
involving rest with their toddlers.

H5 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in how
frequently each parent takes part in caregiving activities
involving general care with their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Three, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3,
H4, and H5 are reported in Table 3. Mean frequency scores for mothers
with toddlers and fathers with toddlers were computed for each
hypotheses. The level of significance for the difference between
groups was then calculated for each hypotheses.

AS a result of the findings reported in Table 3, null Hypotheses
H

H4, and H5 are accepted for Research Question Three. No

2’
statistically significant differences were found between mothers and
fathers in how often they took part in caregiving behaviors with their

toddlers involving feeding, rest or general care.

60

Table 3

Frequency of Parental Caregiving

Hypothesis Mean-Score Mean-Score
Mother and Father and
Toddler Toddler

Significance
Level

 

Total maternal caregiving

behaviors with toddlers

compared with total

paternal caregiving

behaviors with toddlers 45.10 39.40

Total maternal feeding

behaviors with toddlers

compared with total

paternal feeding

behaviors with toddlers 12.30 11.20

Total maternal cleaning

behaviors with toddlers

compared with total

paternal cleaning

behaviors with toddlers 14.80 12.30

Total maternal resting

behaviors with toddlers

compared with total

paternal resting

behaviors with toddlers 9.00 8.10

Total maternal general

care behaviors with

toddlers compared with

total paternal general

care behaviors with

toddlers 9.00 7.80

.083**

.240

.030*

.475

.211

 

* Statistically Significant
Mean Difference 2.500
Standard Deviation 3.064
Standard Error .969

** Approaches Statistical Significance
Mean Difference 5.700
Standard Deviation 9.238
Standard Error 2.921

AL:

(it.

61

The findings indicate a significant difference between mothers and
fathers in caregiving behaviors with toddlers involving cleaning. The
mean score for these behaviors on the part of mothers toward toddlers
was 14.80 while the mean score for fathers in this area of caregiving
was 12.30. The difference between these two groups of parents was
significant at a .030 level. Based on these findings, null hypothesis
H3 for Research Question Three is rejected.

While no statistically significant difference was found between
mothers and fathers for Research Question Three, Hypothesis H1,
concerning total maternal and paternal caregiving behaviors with
toddlers, the difference did approach statistical significance falling
between a .05 and a .10 alpha level. Mothers took part in more
caregiving behaviors than fathers with a frequency' of 45.10
interactions reported for mothers with their toddlers and a frequency
of 39.40 interactions reported for fathers with their toddlers. The
difference between groups reached a .083 level of statistical
significance so null hypothesis H1 from Research Question Three is

accepted.

Research Question Four

Frequency of Caregiving Behaviors Correlated with
Frequency of Affiliative Behaviors Between Parents and Toddlers

4. Determine whether the frequency of mother and father caregiving
activities. with their toddlers, i.e. feeding, hygiene, rest and
general care has any relationship to the frequency of affiliative
behaviors between parent and toddler recorded during the in-home
observation sessions.

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were

developed and tested using a Pearson Product Moment Correlation with a

.05 level of statistical Significance.

62

H1 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers take
part in caregiving activities with their toddlers and how
frequently toddlers engage 'hl affiliative interactions toward
their mothers.

H2 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers take
part in caregiving activities with their toddlers and how

frequently toddlers engage 'hl affiliative interactions toward
their fathers.

3 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers take
part in caregiving activities with their toddlers and how
frequently' mothers engage in affiliative interactions toward
their toddlers.

H4 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers take
part in caregiving activities with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers engage in affiliative interactions toward
their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Four, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3, and H4
are reported in Table 4. The relationship between frequency of
caregiving activity and frequency of affiliative behavior on the part
of toddler with each parent and each parent with toddler was computed
to determine if the relationships between variables was positive or
negative. A level of significance for each relationship was also
computed.

As reported in Table 4, no significant relationship was found
between how frequently parents take part in caregiving behaviors with
their toddlers and how frequently parents and toddlers exhibit
affiliative behaviors with each other during the in-home observation
sessions. Thus, for Research Question Four, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3, and
H4 were each accepted. The research did show negative correlations
between the frequency of maternal caregiving behaviors and the
frequency with which affiliative behaviors were initiated by mothers
and by toddlers. In contrast, positive correlations were found between
the frequency of paternal caregiving behaviors and the frequency with

which affiliative behaviors were initiated by fathers and by toddlers.

63

Table 4

Frequency of Caregiving Behaviors Correlated with Frequency
of Affiliative Behaviors between Parents and Toddlers

Hypothesis

Direction of
Correlation

Significance
evel

 

Frequency of maternal
caregiving with frequency
of toddler affiliative
behavior toward mother

Frequency of paternal
caregiving with frequency
of toddler affiliative
behavior toward father

Frequency of maternal
caregiving with frequency
of maternal affiliative
behavior toward toddler

Frequency of paternal
caregiving with frequency
of paternal affiliative
behavior toward toddler

+

+

.2636

.2169

.3141

.0651

.231

.274

.188

.429

 

64

Research Question Five

Differences in Parental Play Activities
with Toddlers According to Sex of Parent

5. Determine whether there is a difference between how frequently
mothers and fathers report taking part 'hl particular play
activities, i.e. play experiences which are intellectual, social,
arousal, and exploratory with their toddlers.

Based on this research question the following hypotheses were developed

and tested using a t-test for matched pairs at a .05 level of

statistical significance.

H1 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in the
frequency with which parents report taking part in play
activities with their toddlers.

H2 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in the
frequency with which parents report taking part in intellectual
play activities with their toddlers.

H3 There is TK) difference between mothers and fathers “hi the
frequency with which parents report taking part in social play

activities with their toddlers.

4 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in the
frequency with which parents report taking part in arousal play
activities with their toddlers.

5 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in the
frequency with which parents report taking part in exploratory
play activities with their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Five, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3,

H4, and H5 are reported in Table 5. Comparisons are made between the

frequency of parental play activities with toddlers by looking at mean

frequency scores for mothers with toddlers and mean frequency scores
for fathers with toddlers. A level of significance was then computed

for the difference between groups.

65

Table 5

Differences in Parental Play Activities with
Toddlers According to Gender of Parent

Mean Score Mean Score Significance
Hypothesis Mother-Toddler Father-Toddler Level

 

H1 Total play activi-
ties of mother with
toddler compared to
father with toddler 99.00 28.90 .O39*

H2 Intellectual play of
mother with toddler
compared to father
with toddler 7.10 7.30 .780

H3 Social play of mother
with toddler compared
to father with
toddler 78.70 7.90 .O39**

H4 Arousal play of
mother with toddler
compared to father
with toddler 5.90 6.50 .483

H5 Exploratory play of
mother with toddler
compared to father
with toddler 7.30 7.20 .927

 

*Statistically Significant Difference
Mean Difference 70.10
Standard Deviation 91.704
Standard Error 28.999

**Statistically Significant Difference
Mean Difference 70.80
Standard Deviation 92.630
Standard Error 29.292

66

No differences were found in parental self-reports by mothers and
fathers regarding the frequency of their intellectual, arousal and
exploratory play with their toddlers. Based on these findings, null
hypotheses H2, H4, and H5 for Research Question Five are accepted.
Statistically significant differences were found between mothers and
fathers in the frequency of their social play with toddlers and in the
frequency of their total play activities with toddlers. Mothers took
part in more social play activities with their toddlers than fathers,
with the mean score for mothers play interactions with their toddlers
78.70 and the mean score for fathers play interactions with their
toddlers 7.90. This frequency difference between mothers and fathers
was significant at a .039 level. Based on these findings, null
Hypothesis H3 with Research Question Five is rejected. The frequency
difference for total play interactions on the part of mothers and
fathers with their toddlers was also significant at a .039 level. The
mean score for mothers' total play interactions with toddlers was 99.00
while the mean score for fathers' total play interactions with toddlers
was 28.90. Based on these findings, null Hypothesis H1 with Research

Question Five is also rejected.

Research Question Six

Relationship between Frequency of Parental Play
Activities with Toddlers and Frequency of
Affiliative Interactions between Parent and Toddler

6. Determine whether the frequency of mother and father play
activities, i.e. intellectual, social, arousal, and exploratory
play with toddlers is related to how frequently affiliative
behaviors are recorded by parents toward toddlers and toddlers
toward parents during the in-home observation sessions.

67

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were
develOped and tested at a .05 level of statistical significance using a
Pearson Product Moment Correlation to determine whether the
relationship between tested variables was significant.

H1 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in play activities with their
toddlers and how frequently affiliative behaviors are recorded
on the part of parents toward their toddlers during the in-home
observation sessions.

H2 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in play activities with their
toddlers and how frequently affiliative behaviors are recorded
on the part of toddlers toward their parents during the in-home
observation sessions.

H3 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in intellectual play activities with
their toddlers and how ‘frequently affiliative behaviors are
recorded on the part of parents toward their toddlers during
the in-home observation sessions.

H4 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in intellectual play activities with
their toddlers and how ‘frequently affiliative behaviors are
recorded on the part of toddlers toward their parents during
the in-home observation sessions.

H5 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in social play activities with their
toddlers and how frequently affiliative behaviors are recorded
on the part of parents toward their toddlers during the in-home
observation sessions.

H6 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in social play activities with their
toddlers and how frequently affiliative behaviors are recorded
on the part of toddlers toward their parents during the in-home
observation sessions.

H7 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in arousal play activities with
their toddlers and how ‘frequently affiliative behaviors are
recorded on the part of parents toward their toddlers during
the in-home observation sessions.

 

(II

J

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I—u

68

H8 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in arousal play activities with
their toddlers and how ‘frequently affiliative behaviors are
recorded on the part of toddlers toward their parents during
the in-home observation sessions.

H9 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in exploratory play activities with
their toddlers and how frequently affiliative behaviors are
recorded on the part of parents toward their toddlers during
the in-home observation sessions.

H10 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers and
fathers report taking part in exploratory play activities with
their toddlers and how 'frequently affiliative behaviors are
recorded on the part of the toddlers toward their parents
during the in-home observation sessions.

The findings for Research Question Six, Hypotheses H1, H3, H5, H7,
and H9 are reported in Table 6 with correlations made between parental
play activities with toddlers and affiliative behaviors on the part of
each parent with their toddlers. The positive or negative direction of
the relationship together with the level of significance is reported
for each hypotheses. The findings for Research Question Seven,
Hypotheses H2, H4, H6, H8’ and H10 are reported in Table 7 with
correlations made between parental play activities with toddlers and
affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers with each of their
parents. As in Table 6, direction of relationship together with
significance level is reported for each hypotheses.

For each set of results reported in Table 6, the positive and
negative signs indicate whether frequency of parental play activities
with toddlers is asociated with frequency of affiliative behaviors on
the part of parents toward their toddlers. The frequency of fathers'
arousal play activities with toddlers was positively correlated with
frequency of fathers' affiliative behavior toward their toddlers. The

correlation was .5511 which was significant at a .049 level. Based on

11:8

69

Table 6

Relationship Between Frequency of Parental Play
Activities with Toddlers and Frequency of
Affiliative Interaction between Parents and Toddlers

Hypothesis Number
Type of Play

Correlated with Affiliative Behavior
Mother-Toddler Father-Toddler

 

Total play activities
of parent with toddler

Intellectual play
activities of parent
with toddler

Social play activities
of parent with toddler

Arousal Play
activities of parent
with toddler

Exploratory play
activities of parent
with toddler

-.0410 +.4752
P=.455 P=.083 *
+.0747 -.2632
P=.419 P=.231
-.0396 +.2882
P=.457 P=.21O
+.0066 +.5511
P=.493 P=.O49 **
-.O827 +.5346
P=.410 P=.056 ***

 

Correlation +.4752

Significance Level =.083

* Approaches a Statistically Significant Relationship

** Statistically Significant Relationship

Correlation +.5511

Significance Level =.O49

*** Statistically Significant Relationship

Correlation +.5346

Significance Level =.056

70

Table 7

Relationship between Frequency of Parental Play
Activities with Toddlers and Frequency of
Affiliative Interaction between Toddlers and Parents

 

Hypothesis Number Correlated with Affiliative Behavior
Type of Parental Play Toddler-Mother Toddler-Father

H2 Total play activities of -.5032 * +.370l
mother/father with toddler P=.O69 P=.146

H4 Intellectual play
activities of mother/ +.1202 +.0035
father with toddler P=.37O P=.496

H6 Social play activities of -.5046 ** +.3172
mother/father with toddler P=.O68 P=.186

H8 Arousal play activities of +.2450 +.3048
mother/father with toddler P=.248 P=.196

H10 Exploratory play
activities of mother/ -.O783 +.2475
father with toddler P=.415 P=.245

 

* Approaches a Significant Relationship
Correlation -.5032
Significance Level .069

** Approaches a Significant Relationship
Correlation -.5046
Significance level .068

A.

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A\O

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i.»

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+19

3F-

[RAH

71

these results, null hypothesis H7 with Research Question Seven is
rejected. Null hypotheses H1, H3, H5, and H9 are accepted. While null
hypotheses H1 and H9 are accepted, the relationships represented by
these hypotheses did fall between a .10 and a .05 alpha level. Total
play activities on the part of fathers with toddlers had a positive
.4952 correlation with fathers' affiliative behavior toward their
toddlers. This correlation approached significance at a .083 level.
Exploratory' play’ behaviors of fathers with toddlers were positively
correlated, +.5346, with fathers' affiliative behaviors toward their
toddlers. The relationship between these two variables approached
significance at a .056 level.

While null hypotheses H2, H4, H6, H8, and H10 were all accepted
for Research Question Seven, two relationships reported in Table 7
approached significance falling between a .10 and a .05 alpha level.
In both cases, the correlations were negative, indicating that as play
interactions increase, affiliative behaviors decrease. Total maternal
play activities with toddlers were negatively correlated, -.5032, with
toddler affiliative behaviors toward mother. This relationship
approached Significance at a .069 level. Maternal social play
activities with toddlers were also negatively correlated, -.5046, with
toddler affiliative behavior toward mother. This correlation also
approached significance at a .068 level. However, relationships
between toddler affiliative interaction with parents and intellectual
play, arousal play and exploratory play of mother and father with their
toddlers did not approach significance when correlated with affiliative

behavior on the part of toddlers with their mothers and fathers.

72

Research Question Seven

Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Verbal
and Physical Support Interactions with their Toddlers

7. Determine whether mothers and fathers differ in the frequency with
which each parent reports using positive verbal and positive
physical support interactions with their toddlers.

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were

developed and tested at a .05 level of statistical significance using a

t-test for matched pairs.

H1 There is in) difference “hi how frequently mothers and fathers
report taking part in support interactions with their toddlers.

H2 There is no difference in how frequently mothers and fathers
report taking part in verbal support interactions with their
toddlers.

H3 There is in) difference 'hr how frequently mothers and fathers
report taking part in phySical support interactions with their
toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Seven, Hypothesis H1, H2, and

H3 are reported in Table 8. Frequency of parental self-reported
support interactions were compared for each hypotheses with mean scores
reported for mother toward toddler and father toward toddler. For each
hypothesis a significance level was also computed for the frequency
comparisons between mothers and fathers.

Based on the research findings reported in Table 8, null
hypotheses H1, H2, and H3 for Research Question Seven are accepted.
While no differences were found between parental self-reports by
mothers and fathers on the frequency of verbal support behaviors with
toddlers, differences approaching statistical significance were found
between parents on the frequency of their physical support behaviors

with toddlers and on the frequency of their total support behaviors

with toddlers. The difference between total support behaviors by

73

Table 8

Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Verbal and
Physical Support Interactions with Toddlers

Hypothesis Mother- Father- Significance
Toddler Toddler Level

L

H1 Frequency of parental
verbal and physical
support toward toddlers 17.10 15.40 .082*

H2 Frequency of parental
physical support
toward toddlers 8.80 7.90 .054**

3 Frequency of parental
verbal support
toward toddlers 8.30 7.50 .210

 

* Approaches Significance
Mean Difference 1.70
Standard Deviation 2.751
Standard Error .870

** Approaches Significance
Mean Difference .900
Standard Deviation 1.287
Standard Error .407

LU

74

mothers toward toddlers and total support behaviors by fathers toward
toddlers, hypothesis H1, approaches a level of statistically
significant difference with mothers showing more support behaviors than
fathers. The mean difference between groups was 1.70 with that
difference reaching a .082 alpha level. The difference between
mothers' and fathers' physical support behaviors, hypothesis H2,
approached a .05 alpha level. Mothers showed more physical support
behaviors toward toddlers than fathers with the mean difference between
groups .900 and the difference approaching statistical Significance at

a .054 alpha level.

Research Question Eight

Relationship Between Parental Positive Verbal and Positive
Physical Support Interactions and the Frequency of
Affiliative Interactions Between Parents and Toddlers

8. Determine whether there is a relationship between how frequently
mothers and fathers report using positive verbal or positive
physical support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently specific affiliative behaviors are recorded between
parents and toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.

Based on this research question the following hypotheses were devel0ped
and the relationship between variables tested using a Pearson Product
Moment Correlation at a .05 level of statistical significance.

H There is in) relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of mothers toward
their toddlers are recorded during the in-home observation
seSSions.

2 There is in) relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward
their mothers are recorded during the in-home observation
seSSlons.

10

11

75

There is TH) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of fathers toward
their toddlers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is lu) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward
their fathers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is in) relationship between how frequently mothers report
using verbal support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of mothers toward
their toddlers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is TH) relationship between how frequently mothers report
using verbal support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward
their mothers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is TH) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using verbal support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of fathers toward
their toddlers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using verbal support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward
their fathers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using physical support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of mothers toward
their toddlers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is TN) relationship between how frequently mothers report
using physical support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward
their mothers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using physical support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of fathers toward
their toddlers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

I.

.

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4

tr ’ ha |
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n' ‘5

Cat

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76

H There is TH) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using physical support interactions with their toddlers and how
frequently affiliative behaviors on the part of toddlers toward
their fathers are recorded during the in-home observation
sessions.

The findings fin: Research Question Eight, Hypotheses H1, 11 H

3’ 5’
H7, H9, and H11 are reported in Table 9 with correlations made between
parental support interactions toward toddlers and affiliative behaviors
on the part of parents with their toddlers. The findings for Research
Question Eight, Hypotheses H2, H4, H6’ H8’ and H10 are reported in
Table 10. In this report of data, correlations were made between
parental support interactions toward toddlers and affiliative behavior
on the part of toddlers with their parents. For both Table 9 and Table
10, the direction of the relationship between variables is indicated as
positive or negative together with the level of statistical
significance for the relationship.

Null Hypothesis lb; for Research Question Eight was rejected with
the relationship between variables statistically significant at ii .042
level. The frequency of mothers' self-reported physical support
behaviors toward toddlers reached a positive .5706 correlation with the
frequency of mothers' affiliative behaviors toward toddlers. Two
relationships reported (Ml Table 59 approached statistical significance,
falling between a .10 enui a .05 level. Frequency of fathers' support
interactions had a +.4503 correlation with frequency of fathers'
affiliative behaviors toward toddlers. This correlation reached a .096
alpha level. Frequency of fathers' physical support interactions had a
+.4835 correlation with frequency of fathers' affiliative behaviors
toward toddlers. This correlation approached statistical Significance

at a .078 alpha level.

77

Table 9

Relationship Between Parental Support Interactions and the Frequency
of Affiliative Behaviors on the Part of Parents with their Toddlers

Hypothesis Correlated with: Correlated with:
Type of Affiliative Behavior of Affiliative Behavior of
Parental Support Mother toward Toddler Father toward Toddler

 

H1 Total positive
support interactions +.386O
of mother with toddler P=.135

H3 Total positive
support interactions +.4503
of father with toddler P=.O96 *

H5 Verbal support
interactions of +.386O
mother with toddler P=.135

H7 Verbal suport
interactions of +.2957
father with toddler P=.203

H9 Physical support
interactions of +.5706
mother with toddler P=.O42 **

11 Physical support
interactions of +.4835
father with toddler P=.O78 ***

 

* Approaches a Significant Relationship
Correlation +.4503
Significance level .083

** Significant Relationship
Correlation +.5706
Significance level .042

*** Approaches a Significant Relationship
Correlation +.4835
Significance level .078

Reiatl'
Aff'

‘i’yplt
Type
Pa'ental

 

H Tote
inte
ilott

'\‘

c;
I!) (1.

(‘V’ ¢+

i

:3

“h
(M

ii“

1],, L.
‘ Icy.»
inte

mn‘t

(D

ri-
L

i

:3

('f ("0'
~r“ 'i

—+‘ _l-

a

oh.5
inti
mob

H ' l
‘12 p.11
int
fat

78

Table 10

Relationship Between Parental Support Interactions and Frequency of
Affililative Interactions on the Part of Toddlers with Parents

Parental Support

Hypothesis

Correlated with: Correlated with:

Type of Affiliative Behavior of Affiliative Behavior of

Toddler toward Mother Toddler with Father

 

H2

10

12

Total support
interactions of
mothers with toddlers

Total support
interactions of
fathers with toddlers

Verbal support
interactions of
mothers with toddlers

Verbal support
interactions of
fathers with toddlers

Physical support
interactions of
mothers with toddlers

Physical support
interactions of
fathers with toddlers

+.0291
P=.468
+.4124
P=.118
-.0274
P=.47O
+.3863
P=.135
P=.386
+.2778

P=.219

 

'0

+
Fit)-

in .
behe

Vb

dd
3. De

N0

,.
,‘3r reS'

a, are

:‘l
u

tied

a
I
U

5""!

'VJ
.

r

79

No statistically significant relationships were found between the
self-reported frequency of parental support behaviors toward toddlers
and the frequency of toddler affiliative behaviors with mothers and/or
fathers. In addition, none of the relationships reported in Table 10,
approached a level of statistical significance. Based on the findings
for research Question Eight, null Hypotheses H2, H4, H6, H8, H10, and

H12 are accepted.

Research Question Nine

Parental Self-Reports Concerning Frequency of Positive
and Negative Control Behaviors by Parents Toward Toddlers

9. Determine whether there is a difference between how frequently
mothers and fathers report using positive or negative control
behaviors when interacting with their toddlers.

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were

develOped and tested using a t-test for matched pairs at a .05 level of

statistical significance.

H1 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in how
frequently each parent reports using positive control behaviors
with their toddlers.

H2 There is no difference between mothers and fathers in how
frequently each parent reports using negative control behaviors
with their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Nine, Hypotheses H1 and H2 are
reported in Table 11. Frequency of parental self-reported positive and
negative control behaviors were compared for each hypothesis, with mean
scores reported for mother toward toddler and father toward toddler.
For both hypotheses a significance level was computed for the frequency

comparison between parents.

No

itihfli‘s

negative

80

Table 11

Parental Self-Reports Concerning Frequency of Positive
and Negative Control Behaviors with Toddlers

Hypothesis Mean Score for Mean Score for Significance
Mothers with Fathers with Level
Toddlers Toddlers

 

H1 Frequency of
positive control
behaviors 13.30 12.10 .147

H2 Frequency of
negative control
behaviors 6.80 6.00 .196

 

No statistically significant differences were found between
mothers and fathers in how frequently they reported using positive or
negative control interactions with their toddlers. Based on the
findings, null Hypotheses H1 and H2 are accepted for Research Question

Nine.

Research Question Ten
Parental Self-Reports Concerning Frequency of Positive
and Negative Control Behaviors Correlated with
Frequency of Affiliative Behaviors Between Parents and Toddlers
10. Determine whether there is a relationship between the reported use
by parents of positive or negative control behaviors with toddlers
and how frequently affiliative behaviors between parents and
toddlers are recored during the in-home observation sessions.
Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were
developed and tested using a Pearson Product Moment Correlation at a

.05 level of statistical significance.

H7 GTE

Want

1

d

T5‘2t-
ilt‘

81

H1 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.

H2 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently toddlers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
mothers during the in-home observation sessions.

H3 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.

H4 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently toddlers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
fathers during the in-home observation sessions.

H5 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.

6 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently toddlers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
mothers during the in-home observation sessions.
There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
toddlers during the in-home observation sessions.
There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently toddlers exhibit affiliative behaviors toward their
fathers during the in-home observation sessions.
The findings for Research Question Ten, Hypotheses H1, H3, H5, and
H7 are reported in Table 12 with a comparison made between frequency of
parental self-reported positive and negative control behaviors with
toddlers and frequency of parental affiliative behaviors toward
toddlers. The positive or negative direction of each relationship was
determined together with level of statistical significance for each

relationship. The findings for Research Question Ten, Hypotheses H2,

82

H H and H8 are reported in Table 13 with a comparison made between

4, 6,
the frequency of parental self-reported positive and negative control
behaviors with toddlers and the frequency of toddler affiliative
behaviors toward parents. As in Table 12, the positive or negative

direction of each relationship was determined together with the

statistical Significance level for each relationship.

-n

Hypo
Tneof
Sohtrol
H, Pan“
1 int-3'

mm

1 POST
3 intET
fath:

i5 lega‘
iHIEl
mothe

71' Necai
IHIEl
fathe

\

* in".
C01

i .
l

83

Table 12

Relationship Between Parental Self-Reports Concerning
Frequency of Positive and Negative Control Behaviors with
Toddlers and Parental Affiliative Behaviors Toward Toddlers

Hypothesis Correlated with: Correlated with:
Type of Parental Affiliative Behavior of Affiliative Behavior of
Control Behavior Mother toward Toddler Father toward Toddler

 

H1 Positive control
interactions of -.5378
mother with toddler P=.054 *

H3 Positive control
interactions of +.7909
father with toddler P=.OO3 **

H5 Negative control
interactions of -.5181
mother with toddler P=.063 ***

H7 Negative control
interactions of +.2607
father with toddler P=.283

 

* Approaches a Significant Relationship
Correlation -.5378
Significance Level .054

** Significant Relationship
Correlation +.7907
Significance Level .003

*** Approaches a Significant Relationship
Correlation -.5181
Significance Level .063

Fre

Hypot
hmofP
introl 8

'h'
32 .DSlt

iHIEr
mothe

a, Posii
iltei
fathe

« Neza‘
5 . .

inte'
math

'8 I:th
iath

\
*Statls
Corr
Slgr

84

Table 13

Relationship Between Parental Self-Reports Concerning
Frequency of Positive and Negative Control Behaviors with
Toddlers and Toddler Affiliative Behavior with Parents

Hypothesis Correlated with: Correlated with:
Type of Parental Affiliative Behavior of Affiliative Behavior of
Control Behaviors Toddler toward Mother Toddler toward Father

 

H2 Positive control

interactions of -.4208

mother with toddler P=.113
H4 Positive control

interactions of +.7510

father with toddler P=.OO6 *
H6 Negative control

interactions of -.3020

mother with toddler P=.198

H8 Negative control
interactions of +.2067
father with toddler P=.263

 

 

* Statistically Significant Relationship
Correlation +.7510
Significance Leval .OO6

r1 o... P rel. mu
nU P» .n. N”
r... .G -i o . .

f; .o . ll

«P» :4 Ln .H.

O v VI . ,0 u I

P Aye aiv nui-

F . ”NJ ‘l

r5
i:
N”
l
M.
T)»
‘AAA‘
‘v‘JulCi

li‘l'fi
i
i

{TIT

'l;
“T
"2

P
'PfiQrA

Kicf‘:i

H» t

a."

2hr ‘b

9r

I

p...

oh
uv"b'
it
n "l

85

For the two nmternal relationships reported in Table 12, control
interactions by mothers with toddlers approached 21 significant
relationship with maternal affiliative interactions toward toddlers.
Both behavioral categories for mothers fell between a .10 and a .05
level of statistical significance with increased maternal control
behaviors associated with fewer affiliative behaviors on inn: part of
mothers toward toddlers. Mothers' positive control behaviors toward
their toddlers showed a -.5378 correlation with mothers' affiliative
behavior toward their toddlers. The relationship approached
statistical significance at a .054 alpha level. Mothers' negative
control behaviors toward their toddlers showed a -.5181 correlation
with mothers' affiliative behavior toward their toddlers. This
relationship approached significance at a .063 alpha level. As a
result of the above findings, Hypotheses H1 and H5 for Research
Question Ten are accepted.

The frequency of fathers' positive control interactions with their
toddlers was highly correlated with the frequency of fathers'
affiliative behavior toward toddlers. The correlation was +.7909 with
increased affiliative behavior on the part of father toward toddler.
This relationship was statistically significant at a .003 level. No
relationship was f0und between fathers' negative control interactions
toward toddlers and the frequency of affiliative behavior on the part
of fathers toward their toddlers. It; a result of these findings,
Hypothesis H7 for Research Question Ten is accepted while Hypothesis H3

for Research Question Ten is rejected.

 

[A

Mi.

S»
.OHU
I! .8

iv

n
0A

A
n!
in! d

l i

A AN
.. fr»
Iv but

..
L.“

n u it
1|: are
6.» rue \. .i
.v r:
.0 v To - fr»
PM A...-
niu rid A e
P v hi- 0

.n
r‘
:E

P
“J'UU

Q
A
a

113‘
\- In,

R

,5

'I

P.) a. ¢ r /~
.Vli Hi “h.
4. »
!.I.
6 .-
9\v

86

No statistically Significant relationships were found between
parental self-reports. of negative control interactions with toddlers
and the frequency of toddler affiliative behavior toward either mother
or father. In addition, no statistically significant relationship was
found between mothers' positive control interactions with toddlers and
the frequency of toddler affiliative behaviors toward mothers. Thus,
null hypotheses H2, H6 and H8 for Research Question Ten are accepted.

However, a high positive correlation was found between positive
control interactions by fathers with toddlers and affiliative behaviors
on the part of toddlers with fathers. The correlation was .7510 at a
.006 level of statistical significance. Based on these results, null

hypothesis H4 for Research Question Ten is rejected.

Research Question Eleven

Relationship Between Frequency of Parental Support
Behaviors with Toddlers and Frequency of
Parental Caregiving Activities with Toddlers

11. Determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency of
support behaviors reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency of caregiving activities parents report
participating in with their toddlers.

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were
developed and tested using Spearman Rho Correlations at a .05 level of
statistical significance.

H1 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using support behaviors with their toddlers and how frequently
mothers report participating in caregiving activities with
their toddlers.

There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using support behaviors with their toddlers and how frequently
mothers report taking part in specific caregiving activities of
feeding, hygiene, rest and personal care with their toddlers.

 

.j

I

(4;;

L1 '7
('1
l.
L
i
i
1’}..-

87

3 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using support behaviors with their toddlers and how frequently
fathers report participating in caregiving activities with
their toddlers.

4 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using support behaviors with their toddlers and how frequently
fathers report taking part in specific caregiving activities of
feeding, hygiene, rest and personal care with their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Eleven, Hypothese H1, H H

2’ 3’
and H4 are reported in Table 14 with correlations made between the
frequency of parental self-reported caregiving activities with their
toddlers and the frequency of parental self-reported support
interactions with their toddlers. The positive or negative direction
of the correlation is reported together with the statistical
significance level of the relationship for each hypothesis.

A statistically significant relationship of positive .6564 was
found between frequency of fathers' support behaviors with toddlers and
frequency of caregiving activities by fathers, which included general
care of their toddlers. The relationship between these variables was a
positive .6564 at a .020 level of statistical significance. Thus, for
the individual category of general care, null hypothesis H4 from
Research Question Eleven is rejected. However, for each (Hi the other
individual caregiving behaviors of ‘feeding, hygiene, and rest, null
hypothesis H4 is accepted. Null Hypotheses H1, H2, and H3 for Research
Question Eleven are also accepted. While ony one individual
relationship was statistically significant, the data reported in Table
14 show a negative relationship between frequency of self—reported
support behaviors by mothers and toddlers so that increased maternal
SUDport was associated with a decrease in maternal caregiving

activities.

 

ifllOthE‘.
Tyne of
Activlt.

7 '4
3:019"

 

H1 and

Total 0
activit
if pare

H2 and

iii car
llialvl
parents

HZ ani

involv
D&*Eit

H2 and

511 ca

quglv

93*ent

88

Table 14

Relationship Between Frequency of Parental Support
Behaviors with Toddlers and Frequency of
Parental Caregiving Activities with Toddlers

Hypothesis Number
Type of Caregiving
Activity with
Toddlers

Correlated with:
Total of Mother's
Support Behaviors
with Toddlers

Correlated with:
Total of Father's
Support Behaviors
with Toddlers

 

H1 and H3

Total of all caregiving
activities on the part
of parents with toddlers

H2 and H4

All caregiving activities
involving feeding by
parents with toddlers

H and H

2 4

All caregiving activities
involving hygiene by
parents with toddlers

H2 and H4

All caregiving activities
involving rest by
parents with toddlers

H2 and H4
All caregiving activities

involving general care
by parents with toddlers

-.O787
Sig. .415
-.0194
Sig. .479
-.1614
Sig. .328
-.O912
Sig. .402
+.1618
Sig. .328

+.2178
Sig. .273

+.1728
Sig. .317

+.3138
Sig. .189

-.3519
Sig. .160

+.6564 *
Sig. .020

 

 

* Significant Relationship

Correlation +.6564

Significance Level .020

r\_')

C

89

Research Question Twelve

Relationship Between Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of
Control Behaviors with Toddlers and Parental Self-Reports
on Frequency of Caregiving Activities with Their Toddlers

12 Determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency of
control behavors reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency of caregiving activities parents report
participating in with their toddlers.

Based on this research question the following hypotheses were devel0ped
and tested using Spearman Rho Correlations at a .05 level of
statistical significance.
H1 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
US‘lng pOSltlve control behaViors with their toddlers and how

frequently mothers report participating in caregiving
activities with their toddlers.

2 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in specific caregiving
activities of feeding, hygiene, rest and general care with
their toddlers.

H3 There is iul relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in caregiving
activities with their toddlers.

H4 There is TH) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in specific caregiving
activities of feeding, hygiene, rest and general care with their
toddlers.

H5 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using negative control behavors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in caregiving activities
with their toddlers.

H6 There is in) relationship between how frequently mothers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in specific caregiving
activities of ‘feeding, hygiene, rest, and general care with
their toddlers.

H7 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in caregiving
activities with their toddlers.

 

frequen:
and the
with to:
is, H6’
'Etdéen
and the
with th
Cfir'ela‘.
hr eaci

Ne

90

H8 There is in) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in specific caregiving
activities of feeding, hygiene, rest and general care with
their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Twelve, Hypotheses H1, H2, H3,
and H4 are reported in Table 19 with correlations made between the
frequency of parental self-reported caregiving activities with toddlers
and the frequency of parental self-reported positive control behaviors
with toddlers. The findings for Research Question Thirteen, Hypotheses
H H and ii

H are reported in Table 20 with correlations made

5’ 6’ 7’ 8
between the frequency of parental self-reported caregiving activities
and the frequency of parental self-reported negative control behaviors
with their toddlers. The positive or negative direction of the
correlation is reported tOgether with statistical significance level
for each hypothesis in Tables 15 and 16.

No statistically significant correlations, in either a positive or
a negative direction, were found between parental self-reports on the
frequency of parental caregiving activities with toddlers and parental
self-reports on the frequency of parental positive control behaviors
with toddlers. Based on these findings, null Hypotheses H1, H2, H3,
and H4 are accepted, Table 16 also showed no statistically significant
relationships between parental self-reports concerning frequency of
their caregiving activities with toddlers and parental self-reports
regarding frequency of their negative control behaviors with their
toddlers. The frequency of fathers' general caregiving activities with
toddlers did approach a Significant correlation with fathers' negative
control behaviors with toddlers. The correlation was a -.4920 at a

.075 level of statistical significance. However, the findings indicate

that null Hypotheses H5, H6’ H7, and H8 are accepted.

 

 

Beha
0.

Hypothes
Type of.
CaregiVi

H1 and 1
Total 0'
activit'
of pare:

H2 and I

All cari
lnvoTvl
parents

i2 and
All Cdr

lniOTvi
parents

H2 and

i1) cal
involv
Parent

H ,i
2 an,

All ca
Tnvglv
ldren:

\

91

Table 15

Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Positive Control
Behaviors with Their Toddlers Related to Parental Self-Reports
on Frequency of Caregiving Activities with Their Toddlers

Hypothesis Number
Type of Parental
Caregiving Activity

Correlated with:
Positive Control
Behavior of Mothers
with Toddlers

Correlated with:
Positive Control
Behavior of Fathers
with Toddlers

 

H1 and H3
Total of all caregiving
activities on the part
of parents with toddlers

H2 and H4

All caregiving activities
involving feeding by
parents with toddlers

H2 and H4

All caregiving activities
involving hygiene by
parents with toddlers

H and H

2 4

All caregiving activities
involving rest by

parents with toddlers

H2 and H4

All caregiving activities
involving general care by
parents with toddlers

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

+.3951
.130

+.2410
.252

+.3811
.139

+.2637
.231

+.000
.500

 

+.0677 l
Sig. .427 :7
+.2322
Sig. .260
+.3796
Sig. .140
-.0805
Sig. .413
-0025].
Sig. .473

 

Hypothe
Type of

A 0
(.3039 H

'1', and
J

Tital c
activit

with It

7: and

(I)

All car
iniolvi

Wants
7’18 and

HT car
iniOIVI
Gd'e'its

l
ii. and
C

All Car
Wall"
DCTEQtS

is and

ii
”'1 Cal
THIDIV‘

Darentl
\
* ADV:
Cur
Sig

 

92

Table 16

Parental Self-Reports on Frequency of Negative Control
Behaviors with Their Toddlers Related to Parental Self-Reports
on Frequency of Caregiving Activities with Their Toddlers

Hypothesis Number
Type of Parental
Caregiving Activity

Correlated with:
Negative Control
Behaviors of Mothers
with Toddlers

Correlated with:
Negative Control
Behaviors of Fathers
with Toddlers

 

H5 and H7

Total caregiving
activities of parents
with toddlers

H8 and H9

All caregiving activities
involving feeding by
parents with toddlers

H8 and H9 ,

All caregiving activiites
involving hygiene by
parents with toddlers

H8 and H9

All caregiving activities
involving rest by
parents with toddlers

H8 and H9
All caregiving activities

involving general care by
parents with toddlers

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

Sig.

-.1673
.323

-.O453
.451

-.2064
.284

-.3856
.136

-.0682
.426

-.2255 ;_
Sig. .266 f

 

+.3407
Sig. .168
-.O755
Sig. .418
-.2177
Sig. .273
-.4920
Sig. .075 *

 

* Approached a Statistically Significant Relationship

Correlation -.4920

Significance Level .075

-—4

93

Research Question Thirteen

Relationship Between Parental Self-Reports on Frequency
of Support Behaviors with Toddlers and Parental Self-Reports
on Frequency of Play Activities with Toddlers

13. Determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency of
support behaviors reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and the frequency with which mothers and fathers report
taking part in play activities with their toddlers.

Based on this research question, the following hypotheses were
developed and tested using Spearman Rho Correlations at a .05 level of
statistical significance.

H1 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive support behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in play activities with
their toddlers.

H2 There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive support behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in specific play
activities of intellectual, social, arousal, and exploratory
play with their toddlers.

H3 There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive support behaviors with their toddlers and how

frequently fathers report participating in play activities with
their toddlers.

4 There is in) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive support behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in Specific play
activities of intellectual, social, arousal and exploratory
play with their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Thirteen, Hypotheses H1, H2,

H3, and H4 are reported in Table 17 with correlations made between

parent self-reports concerning frequency of parental support

interactions with toddlers and parental self-reports concerning
frequency of play activities with their toddlers. The positive or
negative direction of the correlation is reported for each hypothesis

along with the statistical significance level.

 

Relati
Toddle

llplthesi
Type of F
liay Acti
liti Tod:

l1 and H,
i l

Total of
ittlvitii
parents l

H2 and H1

Total of
play act'
if parent

l. .
Z and HI

Tctal of
activiti.
0i Daren

H. u
a and H

Total of
itilviti
pi’EHES

H2 and }

Total 0.

Dial aC'
0f Darei
\

* Sta

Ci
3

** Sta‘
Ca
3.

(x) (3

94

Table 17

Relationship Between Frequency of Parental Support Behaviors with
Toddlers and Frequency of Parental Play Activities with Toddlers

Hypothesis Number
Type of Parental
Play Activities
with Toddlers

Correlated with:
Positive Support
Behaviors of
Mothers with

Correlated with:
Positive Support
Behaviors of
Fathers with

 

Toddlers Toddlers
H1 and H2
Total of all play
activities on the part of +.O627 +.5877
parents with toddlers Sig. .432 Sig. .037 *
H2 and H4
Total of all intellectual
play activities on the part +.0393 +.0314
of parents with toddlers Sig. .458 Sig. .466
H2 and H4
Total of all social play
activities on the part -.107O +.64OO
of parents with toddlers Sig. .385 Sig. .024 **
H2 and H4
Total of all arousal play
activities on the part of +.O314 +.6980 ***
parents with toddlers Sig. .466 Sig. .013
H2 and H4
Total of all exploratory
play activities on the part +.2437 +.O781
of parents with toddlers Sig. .249 Sig. .416

 

* Statistically Significant Relationship

Correlation +.5877
Significance Level

** statisticallly Significant Relationship

Correlation +.64OO
Significance Level

*** Statistically Significant Relationship.

Correlation +.698O
Significance Level

 

For
statistic
correlati'
iatlars
inte*act
activiti
i'equanc
“e7ati0n
i’EluEOC
HUB"

v‘JUu 1.,l

“elo'te:
betiean
at a .0

F0

diiil a

iitig

95

For the data reported in Table 17, three relationships were found
statistically significant. Each relationship involved a positive
correlation between fathers' self-reports regarding play activities
fathers do with their toddlers and frequency of fathers' support
interactions with toddlers. The frequency of fathers' total play
activities with toddlers had a positive .5877 correlation with
frequency of fathers' support behaviors with their toddlers. The
relationship was statistically Significant at a .037 level. The
frequency of fathers' self-reported social play activities with
toddlers had a high positive correlation of +.64OO with fathers' self-
reported support behaviors with their toddlers. The relationship
between these two variables was found to txa statistically Significant
at a .024 level.

For the data reported in Table 17, the strongest relationship,
with a +.6980 correlation, was found between fathers' self-reports
concerning positive support behaviors with their toddlers and fathers'
self-reports concerning frequency of arousal play activities with their
toddlers. This relationship was statistically significant at a .013
alpha level.

Based on these findings, null hypotheses for the individual
categories of social and arousal play in Hypothesis H4 Research
Question Thirteen, and Hypothesis H2 Research Question Thirteen are
rejected. For the individual categories of intellectual and
exploratory play, null Hypothesis H4 is accepted.

No statistically significant relationships were found between
mothers' self-reports regarding play activites mothers do with their

toddlers and frequency of mothers' support interactions with their

 

 

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96

toddlers. Thus, the null hypotheses are accepted for Hypotheses H1 and

H3 from Research Question Thirteen.

Research Question Fourteen

The Relationship Between Parental Self-Reports Concerning

Parent Control Behaviors with Their Toddlers and Parental Self-Reports

Concerning Parent Play Activities with Their Toddlers

14. Determine whether there is a relationship between frequency of
control behaviors reported by mothers and fathers with their
toddlers and frequency of play activities mothers and fathers
report taking part in with their toddlers.

Based on Research Question Fourteen, the following hypotheses were

developed and tested using Spearman Rho Correlations at a .05 level of

statistical significance.

H1

There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in play activities with
their toddlers.

There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in particular play
activites, i.e. intellectual, social, arousal, and exploratory
play with their toddlers.

There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in play activities with
their toddlers.

There is no relationship between how frequently mothers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently mothers report participating in particular play
activities, i.e. intellectual, social, arousal, and exploratory
play with their toddlers.

There is in) relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in play activites with
their toddlers.

There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using positive control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in particular play
activites, i.e. intellectual, social, arousal, and exploratory
play with their toddlers.

 

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97

H There is no relationship between how frequently fathers report
using negative control behaviors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in play activites with
their toddlers.

8 There is noorelationship between how frequently fathers report
usmg negative control behaVlors with their toddlers and how
frequently fathers report participating in particular play
activites, i.e. intellectual, social, arousal, and exploratory
play with their toddlers.

The findings for Research Question Fourteen, Hypotheses H1, H2,
H5 , and H6 are reported in Table 18 with correlations made between the

Frequency of parental self-reported play activities with toddlers and
the frequency of parental self-reported positive control behaviors with
toddlers. The findings for Research Question Fourteen, Hypotheses H3,

H4 g. H7, and H8 are reported in Table 19 comparing the frequency of

parental self-reported play activities with toddlers and the frequency

01: parental self-reported negative control behaviors with toddlers.

The positive or negative direction of the correlation is reported,

together with the level of statistical signficance for each hypothesis

i h Tables 18 and 19.

A statistically significant relationship was found between
Fa“lill'iers' self-reported positive control behaviors with their toddlers
and the total of all play activities reported on the part of fathers
wi th their toddlers. The correlation between these variables was a
DcDS-‘itive .6327 with a .025 level of statistical significance. A
St atistically significant relationship was also found between frequency
01> fathers' self-reported positive control behaviors with their
1:OCidlers and frequency of fathers' self-reported exploratory play
a(:1-7—‘ivities with their toddlers. This correlation was high at a

DQSitive .7047 with a .012 level of statistical significance.

lpothesi
Type of F
Play Act‘
nth lodc

1-11 and Hi
Total of

activitii
with the

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2 0H
litellec

actlvlti
with the

H2 and l

Social ;
Of War

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12 and l

Ariusal
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infin‘.
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Exllare
ifitlvj‘.
with ti
““-.

* St.

98

Table 18

Relationship Between Parental Positive Control
Behaviors with Their Toddlers and Parental
Play Activities with Their Toddlers

 

Hypothesis Number Correlated with: Correlated with:
Type of Parental Positive Control Positive Control
Play Activities Behaviors of Behaviors of
witfli Toddlers Mothers with Fathers with
Toddlers Toddlers
H1 and H5
Total of all play
activities of parents +.2213 +.6327
with their toddlers Sig. .270 Sig. .025 *
H2 and H6
Intellectual play
activities of parents +.3232 +.2587
with their toddlers Sig. .182 Sig. .235
Hz andlk
Social play activities
01" parents with their +.2213 +.4846
toddlers Sig. .270 Sig. .078 **
Arousal play activities
of parents with their -.0531 +.3389
toddlers Sig. .443 Sig. .170
“2 and H6
EXP 1oratory play
:9tiVities of parents +.3646 +.7047
1th their toddlers Sig. .151 Sig. .012 ***
\

 

Statistically Significant Relationship
Correlation +.6327 Significance Level .025

l\pproaches a Statistically Significant Relationship
Correlation +.4846 Significance Level .078

*-
** Statistically Significant Relationship
Correlation +.7047 Significance Level .012

99

Table 19

Relationship Between Parental Negative Control Behaviors with
Their Toddlers and Parental Play Activities with Their Toddlers

Hypothesis Number
Type of Parental
Play Activities

with Toddlers

Correlated with:
Negative Control
Behaviors of
Mothers with

Correlated with:
Negative Control
Behaviors of
Fathers with

 

Toddlers Toddlers
H3 and H4
Total of all play
activities of parents +.0126 +.3271
With their toddlers Sig. .487 Sig. .179
H4 and H8
Intel ‘Iectual play
activities of parents +.1415 +.2412
With their toddlers Sig. .349 Sig. .252
H4 and H8
Social play activities
of parents with their -.0378 +.0094
toddlers Sig. .459 Sig. .490
AT‘Ousal play activities
parents with their +.0321 +.3325
teddlers Sig. .456 Sig. .182
H4 and H8
EXD]Oratory play
WCEt‘Vities of parents +.0953 +.2660
lth their toddlers Sig. .397 Sig. .229
\

 

100

Based on these findings, null hypothesis H5 and null hypothesis H6

for the individual category of exploratory play from Research Question
Fourteen are rejected. Null Hypothesis H6 for the individual
categories of intellectual, social and arousal play is accepted.
While a +.4846 correlation was found betwen frequency of fathers'
positive control behaviors toward toddlers and frequency of fathers'
social play activities with toddlers this relationship only approached
Significance at a .078 alpha level.

No statistically significant relationships were found between
frequency of mothers' positive control behaviors with their toddlers
and frequency of maternal play activities with their toddlers. Based
on these findings, null Hypotehses H1 and H2 are accepted for Research

Quest i on Fourteen .

CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

General implications of the research findings from Chapter IV will
be discussed in this section followed by an analysis of research
findings by categories of research questions. Those questions
concerning affiliative behaviors of parents and toddlers will be
discussed first. The research questions comparing parental caregiving,
Play activities, and support-control interactions with toddlers will be
Considered. The third group of results will be those relating parent-
toddler affiliative behaviors with caregiving, play and support-control
interactions on the part of parents with their toddlers. Finally, the
findings correlating categories of caregiving, play, support and
Control based on the parental self-report questionnaire will be
discussed.

The findings from Chapter IV indicate that minimal differences
ex‘iSt between behavioral styles, type of interactions and activity
paliterns used by mothers with toddlers when compared with behavioral
Sty] es, type of interactions and activity patterns used by fathers with
todd‘lers for the families in this study. These were families with both
parents working away from home twenty or more hours per week and with
One toddler between fifteen and twenty-three months of age. Parents in
this study were between twenty-two and thirty-three years of age.
pa"Grits had attended school between twelve and seventeen years. Using

101

102

Hollingshead's Four Factor Index of Social Status, which includes
occupation and education levels, families could be identified as medium
business, minor professional, technical, Skilled craftsman, clerical
and salesworkers (Hollingshead 1975). All families in the study were
Caucasian. Results from the majority of research questions support a
no difference conclusion regarding mother-toddler and father-toddler

interaction. Results include the following:

1. No differences were found between mothers and fathers in how
frequently they exhibit affiliative behaviors in individual
categories of smiling and laughing; touching, hugging and holding;

imitative grimaces; or high pitched vocalizations with their
toddlers.

2. No differences were found between mothers and fathers in the
frequency of their verbal affiliative behaviors, physical

affiliative behaviors, or total affiliative behaviors with their
toddlers.

3- No differences were found between the frequency of toddler
affiliation toward mother and father in behavior categories of
smiling, looking, laughing, showing toys, and proximity seeking.

4- No differences were found between the frequency of toddler
affiliation toward mother and father in behavior categories of
verbal affiliation, physical affiliation and total affiliation.

No differences were found between the verbal affiliative behaviors,
physical affiliative behaviors or total affiliative behaviors on
the part of sons or daughters with their mothers and fathers.

No differences were found between mothers and fathers in the
frequency of their total caregiving behaviors with toddlers or in
how often they exhibit individual caregiving behaviors of feeding,
rest, hygiene and general care with their toddlers.

‘ No differences were found between mothers and fathers in the

frequency of their intellectual play, arousal play or exploratory
play interactions with their toddlers.

8' No differences were found between mothers and fathers in the
frequency of their verbal and physical support interactions with
their toddlers.

9.

No differences were found between mothers and fathers in the

frequency of their positive control behaviors or negative control
behaviors with their toddlers.

103

Parent-Toddler Affiliative Behaviors

The no difference findings between mothers and fathers in their
affiliative behaviors with parents are consistent with findings by
other researchers who have studied affiliative behavior in laboratory
and structured in-home observations sessions (Belsky 1979, Lamb 1979,
Field 1978, Vandel 1979, Clarke-Stewart 1977, Lamb 1977c, Lamb 1977d).

The only difference between mothers and fathers affiliative
interaction with toddlers was found in the category of grooming
behaviors. Mothers were observed taking part in more grooming
behaviors than fathers were. This difference may reflect the greater
tendency for mothers to engage in caregiving interactions when compared
with fathers. However, this difference is minor since the total number
0f grooming behaviors diSplayed by each parent is low (see Table 1).

While no statistically significant differences were found between
affiliative interaction on the part of toddlers with mothers and
affiliative interaction on the part of toddlers with fathers, it was
interesting to note that the frequency of toddler vocalization with
Parents did approach a statistically significant level and that
toddlers vocalized more toward their mothers than toward their fathers
(see Table 2). The interaction category for mothers and fathers
inc‘luded a large number of behaviors and may best reflect the tendency
for mothers to engage in more verbal interactions with their toddlers
than fathers do (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Weinraub and Frankel 1977,
ZeQiOb, Arnold and Forehand 1975).

It seems important to emphasize that there were no differences
betWeen mothers and fathers in the category of physical affiliative

‘nteraction, particularly since fathers usually engage in more physical

104

interaction with their toddlers than mothers do (Clarke-Stewart 1977,
Belsky 1979, Field 1978, and Parke 1979). However, during the
observation sessions, the researcher found mothers using as much
physical contact and arousal play as fathers to promote interaction
with their toddler before mothers moved toward a more social, didactic
Style of interaction. This use of physical interaction may relate more
to a need by working parents to establish a close relationship with
their toddler than it does to gender of parent. It was also
interesting to note, that during the observations, this researcher
found toddlers frequently sought their fathers for comfort and that
fathers took part in a large number of holding, soothing and pacifying

behaviors with their toddlers.

Comparisons of Parental Caregiving, Play and
Support-Control Interactions with their Toddlers

Caregiving activities have been seen as the mother's domain, with
most mothers involved in more caregiving behaviors than fathers
(Kotelchuck 1976). However, the self-report measures used in this
StUdy demonstrate greater involvement on the part of fathers in
Caregiving activities of all types (see Table 3). This higher level of
par‘ental involvement is probably due to both parents working outside
the home and may relate to changing roles for parents in these
Far“ilies. Caregiving behaviors involving general care, feeding and
r831: showed no significant difference between mothers and fathers.
However, the behavior category of cleaning or hygiene did Show a
SiQflificant difference between parents, with mothers reporting more

1“VOlvement in cleaning activities with their toddlers than fathers

105

did. When all caregiving activities assessed on the questionnaire were
totaled, i.e. feeding, cleaning, rest and general care, the results
were not statistically Significant but did approach a statistically
significant level with frequency totals of 45.10 for mothers and 39.40
for fathers. The results suggest that, although fathers in these
families took an active role in their toddlers' care, mothers had more
responsibility for caregiving tasks with their toddlers.

In the category' of play, parental reSponse to the self-report
questionnaire Showed more Similarities than differences between how
often mothers and fathers report taking part in play activities with
their toddlers. No statistical differences were found between mothers
and fathers in the frequency of their reported intellectual play,
arousal play, or exploratory play with toddlers. However, a
statistically significant difference was found between how often
mothers and fathers take part in social play activities with their
toddlers. The mean frequency for mothers was reported at 78.90 while
the mean frequency for fathers was reported at 7.90. These findings on
parental differences in social play activities with toddlers are
consistent with other research findings indicating that mothers take
part in more social and intellectual play with their toddlers than
fathers do (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Zegiob, Arnold and Forehand 1975).

While the research data Show a statistically significant
difference between total play activities on the part of mothers with
toddlers and total play activities on the part of fathers with
toddlers, the statistical results lack meaning when a careful analysis
is done. Since the mean difference between mothers' total play

activities with toddlers and fathers' total play activities with

 

106

toddlers is the same as the mean difference between parents in the
category of social play, and since categories of intellectual, arousal
and exploratory play Show minimal frequency differences between
parents, findings regarding parental total play activities with
toddlers have been affected by results from the social play category
(see Table 5). In Spite of the statistical findings, the most
apprOpriate conclusion when analyzing the data is that there is little
difference between mothers and fathers in how often they take part in
total play activities with their toddlers.

The research study found no significant differences between
mothers and fathers in their reported use of verbal and physical
support behaviors with toddlers or in their reported use of positive or
negative control behaviors with toddlers. Although mothers did exhibit
a higher level of physical support behaviors toward their toddlers, the
difference between mothers and fathers was not statistically
significant (see Table 8 and Table 11). These results suggest that
mothers and fathers in the study shared values and had a similar
approach to childrearing within family units and among all families in
the study. Probably the homogeneous nature of these families, both in
terms of education and occupation level was a Significant factor
influencing parental use of support and control interactions when

guiding the behavior of their toddlers.

 

107

The Relationship Between Parent-Toddler
Affiliative Behavior and Parental Caregiving, Play,
and Support-Control Interactions with Toddlers

The four research questions discussed in this section of the
chapter look at relationships between data gathered using the parental
self-report questionnaire and“ data collected during the in-home
observation sessions concerning parent-toddler affiliative behavior.
Pearson Product Moment Correlations were used to determine 1) whether
the relationship between variables was positive or negative, i.e. did
variables increase at the same rate or did one variable increase while
the other decreased and 2) was the relationship significant at a .05
level of statistical significance. For purposes of this discussion,
attention will focus on those results which approach a level of
statistically Significance between .05 and .10.

The data relating frequencies of parental caregiving with
frequencies of affiliative behavior between parents and toddlers show
no significant relationship between these variables. .As a result, it
seems reasonable to conclude that there is no relationship between the
frequency of mothers' or fathers' caregiving activities with their
toddlers and frequency of affiliative behavior between parent and
toddler (see Table 4).

However, relationships were found between frequency of parental
self-reported play activities with toddlers and frequency of parent-
toddler affiliative interaction. Statistically significant
relationships were found between fathers' arousal play activities with
their toddlers and fathers' affiliative behaviors with their toddlers.
This correlation was positive indicating that as fathers report an

increase in arousal play activities with their toddlers that the

 

108

frequency of fathers' affiliative behavior' with their 'toddlers also
increases. This relationship was significant at a .049 alpha level.

Two other relationships between fathers' play activities with
toddlers and fathers' affiliative behaviors with their toddlers also
approached a statistically significant level. The frequency of
fathers' self-reported exploratory play activities with their toddlers
reached a .056 level of statistical significance. The correlation
between these variables was a positive .5346, indicating a common
direction of increase. The total of all play activities on the part of
fathers with their toddlers also approached a statistically significant
relationship when correlated with fathers' affiliative behaviors with
their toddlers. This correlation was a positive .4752 and reached a
.083 level of statistical Significance.

The results reported in Table 6 suggest that increased paternal
play' with toddlers, particularly in the categories of arousal and
exploratory play, are probably associated with higher frequencies of
paternal affiliative behavior toward toddlers. These results are
particularly interesting because fathers tend to engage in more arousal
and exploratory play with their toddlers than mothers do (Clarke-
Stewart 1977, Belsky 1979, and Field 1978) and since research indicates
that in many families fathers are more involved in play activities with
their toddlers than mothers (Parke 1979). While two relationships
between maternal play activities with toddlers and toddler play
activities with their mothers approached a statistically Significant
level, it does not appear that the data reported in Table 7 indicates
any meaningful relationship between those variables. In fact, these

negative correlations raise questions as to whether higher than average

 

109

reSponses on some questionnaires may have affected the statistical
results concerning social play and total play categories reported in
Table 7.

As might be expected, relationships were found between parental
support interactions with toddlers and parental affiliative
interactions with toddlers, though no relationships were found between
parental support interactions with toddlers and toddler affiliative
interactions with parents. Physical support interactions of mother
with toddler were statistically Significant at a .042 alpha level when
related to affiliative interactions with toddlers. The correlation
between these two variables was a positive .5706.

While no relationship for fathers reached a .05 level of
statistical Significance, two relationships approached statistical
significance and are of value to consider along with other data
reported in Table 9. Physical support interactions on the part of
fathers with toddlers showed a positive .4835 correlation with
affiliative behavior on the part of fathers with toddlers. The
relationship between these variables reached an .078 level of
statistical significance. Total support interactions of fathers with
toddlers showed a positive .4503 correlation with affiliative behavior
on the part of fathers toward toddlers. This relationship reached a
.096 level of statistical Significance.

These combined results for mother and father suggest that
relationships exist between the frequency of parental self-reported
support interactions with toddlers and observed affiliative behaviors
on the part of mothers and fathers with their toddlers. This

conclusion seems particularly applicable to physical support

 

110

interactions on the part of parents with their toddlers. Mothers' and
fathers' physical support behaviors were more closely associated with
parental affiliative behaviors than were anthers' and fathers' verbal
support behaviors.

Results which correlate positive and negative parental control
behaviors with affiliative behavior between parent and toddler are
mixed for the mother-toddler relationship so that no meaningful
conclusion can be reached concerning those results. However, there
were statistically significant results concerning positive control
interactions on the part of fathers with toddlers. Fathers' positive
control interactions Showed a: positive .7909 correlation with fathers'
affiliative behavior toward toddlers. These results were statistically
significant at a .003 level. At the same time, fathers' positive
control interactions showed a positive .7510 correlation with toddlers'
affiliative behavior toward fathers. The relationship between these
variables was significant at a: .006 alpha level. In combination, the
results from Table 12 and Table 13, suggest a strong association
between increased frequency of fathers' positive control behaviors
toward toddlers and increased frequency of affiliative behaviors
between fathers and their toddlers. These data results suggest that
the interaction patterns can be viewed as a reciprocal integrated

process.

 

111
The Relationship Between Parental Caregiving, Play
Activities and Support-Control Interactions with Toddlers

The relationship between categories of interaction and activity
assessed using the parental self-report questionnaire were analyzed
with the Spearman Rho Correlation at a .05 alpha level. Some of these
relationships were statistically significant but, in several
situations, it seemed appr0priate to conclude that there was no
relationship between the categories of data.

Frequency of caregiving activities involving fathers' general care
with their toddlers was positively correlated, .6564, with fathers'
support behaviors toward their toddlers. This relationship was feund
to be statistically significant at a .020 level. However, since no
other relationships between fathers caregiving activities auui fathers
support behaviors were statistically significant, it appears that the
category of general care on the part of fathers with toddlers may
reflect a tendency for higher paternal scores in this category. Of
particular interest in Table 18 is the negative relationship between
frequency of maternal caregiving activities and frequency of maternal
support behaviors toward toddlers. The implication of these data,
which are not statistically significant, and therefore may lack
accuracy' and generalizability, is that mothers who report a higher
frequency of caregiving activities may Show fewer support behaviors
toward their toddlers.

For Research Question Twelve no 'relationship was found between
parental self-reports. concerning control behaviors with toddlers and
parental self-reports regarding caregiving behaviors with toddlers (see
Table 15 and Table 16). Based on these findings from Research Question

Eleven and Twelve, it appears that there is no relationship between

 

.J
." ‘1»;-

112

support and control interactions on the part of parents with toddlers
and caregiving activities on the part of parents with toddlers.

In contrast, the relationship between parental reports of support
behaviors with toddlers and parental reports of play activities with
toddlers result in several statistically significant relationships for
fathers. Frequency of fathers' arousal play activities with toddlers
were correlated at a positive .6980 level with fathers' support
behaviors with toddlers. These results reached a .013 level of
statistical Significance. Frequency of fathers' social play activities
with toddlers were correlated, at a positive .6400 level, with fathers'
positive support behaviors with toddlers. These results were
significant at a .024 level.

At the same time, the frequency of fathers' total play activities
with toddlers, were correlated at a positive .5877 level with fathers'
support behaviors with toddlers. These results were statistically
significant at a .037 level. Based on these findings from Table 17, it
seems appropriate to conclude that fathers, who report taking part in
more play activities with their toddlers, also report exhibiting more
support interactions toward their toddlers. It is of interest that
similar results were not found for mothers. This may be a function of
the more containing, structured play style typical of mothers with
their toddlers (Clarke-Stewart 1977, Belsky 1979, and Field 1978).

Similar results were found for fathers and mothers when the
frequency' of parental self-reported positive control behaviors were
considered in relationship to the frequency of parental self-reported
play activities with toddlers (see Table 18). Frequency of fathers'

exploratory play activities with toddlers was positively correlated, at

 

113

a .7047 level, with the frequency of fathers' positive control
behaviors with toddlers. This relationship was statistically
significant at a .012 level. While not statistically significant, the
relationship between fathers' positive control behaviors with toddlers
approached statistical Significance with a .078 alpha level and a
positive correlation of .4846. The total of all fathers' play
activities with toddlers was correlated at a positive .6327 level with
fathers' positive control behaviors with toddlers. The relationship
between these variables was also statistically significant reaching a
.025 alpha level. The data suggesting Significant relationships
between frequency of fathers' support behaviors and positive control
behaviors with the frequency of fathers' play activities toward
toddlers are further supported by findings in Table 18 which indicate
no relationship between reported negative control behaviors by parents
with toddlers and reported play activities by parents with toddlers.
Thus, the relationship is not between fathers' support-control
behaviors and fathers' play activities with toddlers but between
parental control and support behaviors with toddlers which are

positive, and paternal play activities with toddlers.

Overview
As the activity, interactions and behavior patterns discussed in
the previous sections are considered, it is evident that social-
emotional development for the toddler’ occurs as the result. of inany
interactions and experiences. Clearly, those interactions and
experiences are part of a reciprocal, integrated process, with the

behaviors and activities of parents and toddlers mutually affecting one

 

114

another (Field 1978, Belsky 1979, and Lamb 1977c). These experiences
include aspects of the toddler's social environment, while other
experiences include aSpects of the natural and man-made environments.
And, it is through the toddler's interaction with those environments,
that growth takes place for young children in each of the develOpmental

areas .

 

CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, IMPLICATIONS

Conclusions

Analysis of the observational data on parent-toddler affiliative
interaction, together with data analysis of parental play, caregiving
and support-control interactions, suggest several conclusions
applicable to the families taking part in this study. Due to sample
size and method of family selection, generalization of these findings
beyond the group of families studied is not possible. These
conclusions were discussed in terms of the findings presented in
Chapter V and are listed here as contributions toward a more complete
understanding of mother-toddler and father-toddler relationships.

Based on the research findings, the following conclusions have
been reached:

1. There are more similarities than differences in the frequency with
which mothers and toddlers and fathers and toddlers express
different types of affiliative behavior with one another.

2. The frequency of self-reported father-toddler caregiving activities
shows active involvement by fathers in caregiving at a level nearly
as high as the frequency of self-reported mother-toddler caregiving
activities.

3. The frequency of self-reported parental play activities with
toddlers in the areas of intellectual, arousal and exploratory play

were Similar for mothers and fathers.

4. Mothers report taking part in significantly more social play
activities with their toddlers than fathers do.

5. Mothers and fathers report using similar frequencies of verbal and
physical support interactions with their toddlers.

115

 

 

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

116

Mothers and fathers report using similar frequencies of positive
and negative control interactions with their toddlers.

There is no relationship between how often mothers or fathers
report taking part in caregiving activities with their toddlers
and how frequently parents and toddlers exhibit affiliative
behaviors with each other.

Fathers who report more play activities with their toddlers,
especially arousal and exploratory play, also exhibit more
affiliative behaviors toward their toddlers.

Mothers and fathers who report higher frequencies of support
behaviors toward their toddlers also exhibit higher frequencies of
affiliative behaviors toward their toddlers.

Fathers who report higher frequencies of positive control
behaviors toward their toddlers exhibit more affiliative behaviors
toward their toddlers and receive more affiliative behaviors from
their toddlers.

No consistent relationships can be established between the
frequency of parental self-reported caregiving activities with
toddlers and the frequency of parental self-reported support
behaviors toward toddlers.

No relationship can be established between the frequency of
parental self-reported caregiving activities with toddlers and the
frequency of parental self-reported control behaviors toward
toddlers.

Fathers who report frequent play activities with toddlers,
especially arousal and social play, also report higher levels of
support behaviors toward their toddlers.

No relationship was found between reports by mothers on frequency
of play activities with toddlers and reports by mothers on
frequency of their support behaviors toward toddlers.

Fathers who report frequent play activities with toddlers,
especially exploratory and social play, also report higher levels
of positive control behaviors toward toddlers.

No relationship was found between reports by mothers on frequency
of play activities with toddlers and reports by mothers on
frequency of positive control behaviors toward toddlers.

No relationship was found between reports by mothers or fathers on
frequency of play activities with toddlers and reports by either
parent on frequency of negative control behaviors toward toddlers.

 

117

In general, there were more similarities than differences found in
the mother-toddler and father-toddler relationship among the ten
families in this study. The dual-career nature of these families may
have been one factor contributing to these similarities. However, when
the education and occupation status of parents in these families are
taken into account, it appears that these in-home data consistently
represent laboratory findings related to mother-father interactions
with infants and toddlers and that, within families of a nfiddle range
socio-economic status, perceptions of roles, interactions and

activities appropriate for mothers and fathers may be changing.

Limitations of the Study
The research limitations acknowledged in the first chapter are the
primary limitations of this study. ‘These limitations are expanded
below:

I. The study was conducted with families who had one child in the
fifteen to twenty-three month age range. As such, the results can
not be generalized to families with children outside that age
range, nor to families with more than one child.

2. The mothers and fathers in this study were both employed or
attending school away from home twenty or more hours per week so
that findings are limited in the type of families to whom they

apply.

3. Ten families were selected through a non-randomized process,
decreasing the strength of the statistical techniques used in data
analysis and decreasing the possibility for generalizing the
research results.

4. Coding during the observation session focused on. mother-toddler
affiliative interaction and father-toddler affiliative interaction
with no coding done for mother-father interactions. Information on
parental interactions could also be useful in better understanding
parent-toddler interaction.

 

 

118

5. Information on the type of activities mothers, fathers and toddlers
do during the observation sessions could provide additional
understanding of family dynamics and more detailed information
regarding parent-toddler affiliative interactions.

Recommendations

The research findings, together with experience collecting these
data point toward several possibilities for further research with
families who have toddlers in the same approximate age range as the
families in this research. Replications of the study with other family
units would provide a better understanding as to whether similar
results regarding mother-toddler and father-toddler relationships could
be found using the same methodology. Among the possibilities using
this research design would be:

1. Identifying families of a similar education-occupation background
where the father would be the only parent working outside the home.

2. Identifying, if possible, families of a similar education-
occupation background where the mother would be the only parent
working outside the home.

3. Identifying minority families of a similar education-occupation
background where both father and mother work outside the home.

4. Identifying minority families of a similar education-occupation
background where only one parent would be working outside the home.

As a result of more extended experiences than the initial one
family pilot study with the parental self-report questionnaire and the
observational procedures for affiliative behaviors, there are
possibilities for methodological change which may facilitate data
collection, could clarify inconsistencies in the research findings when
using the self-report questionnaire, and may extend the family types or

family configurations with whom similar research could be conducted.

 

 

119

First, changes in the self-report questionnaire would be minor in
such areas as caregiving and support. Based on questions, comments,
and reactions from parents taking part in this study more changes may
be appropriate in ‘the areas. of’ play’ and control. Suggestions for
change are listed below and could be accomplished without Significantly
altering the basic questionnaire included in Appendix B. A revised
questionnaire incorporating these same changes is included in Appendix
C.

1. Under caregiving the section on diapering in the category of
hygiene could be changed to include toilet training and read
diapering and toileting.

2. Under the general heading of play:

a. The category of games could read only games, without further
explanation since the additional games named raised questions
of interpretation among a few parents.

b. Including :1 third arousal play question would make the number
of questions in the arousal play category consistent with the
categories of intellectual, social and exploratory play. This
change might best be accomplished in the following manner:

1) Changing tickle, tumble and roughhouse to tumble and
roughhouse since those two activities include more gross
motor involvement than tickling.

2) Adding a category of tickle and peek using the same per day
responses so that arousal play would include three
categories.

c. Eliminate categories of encourage independent play’ and
encourage play with other children. Neither category is
consistently interpreted by parents, and while both are
important play concepts, they do not correspond well to the
other play categories assessed using this questionnaire.

3. Under the section on support-control, eliminate the question--give
directions or commands. This question overlaps with two other
positive control questions, i.e. give suggestions or instructions
and make or explain rules. In addition, eliminating this question
would mean that the questionnaire would include the same number of
questions concerning positive and negative control interactions.

 

 

 

120

Second, while changes in the observational procedures would

significantly alter the research design, it is the opinion of this

researcher that the following changes would increase accuracy, permit

more possibilities for using the collected data and could provide the

researcher with more flexibility during the observational time period.

1.

Use of the video camera and recorder for taping both auditory and
visual components of parent-toddler interaction in the home. While
this method of data collection is more intrusive and disruptive for
families than the presence of a researcher recording by hand, the
results could be of value if several two hour observations were
done with each family. Parent-toddler interactions would, over the
course of several visits, become more representative of typical
interactions between parent and child.

Recording of affiliative interactions could be done following each
in-home visit. This would permit the researcher to record other
interactions parents and toddlers do together, as well as recording
the type of activities parents and toddlers do during those times
when no affiliative interaction occurs.

Tapes could be valuable in pointing out other interaction
sequences, or activities which provide a more comprehensive
understanding of parent-toddler affiliative behaviors and of the
parent-toddler relationship.

Video-taping would also permit analysis of mother-father
interactions and the ‘relationship between their interaction
patterns and the interaction patterns of each parent with their

toddler and of toddlers toward each of their parents.

 

121

Use of taping and recording would also permit analysis of sequences
of interaction. It would not only be possible to determine who
initiated and terminated interactions but, at the same time,
information regarding the order of behavioral interaction could be
analyzed. By looking at sequence, it might be possible to move
from an analysis which is basically dyadic to an analysis which
could be considered triadic in nature.

Recording interactions using video cameras and auditory tapes would
also permit the researcher to study families with more than one
child. This would not only permit the study of sibling
relationships but might also enable comparisons to be made between
affiliative behaviors, caregiving activities, play experiences and
support-control interactions in one child families with the same
variables in families with more than one child.

Though during taped observations, researchers would be involved in
a number of mechanical tasks related to operating the equipment,
there could be wore possibility for creative observation of other
factors regarding parental roles, parental decision-making, space
utilization in the home, or toy and equipment selection which might
be associated with the parent-toddler relationship.

Less structured approaches to the study of parent-toddler
relationships and parent-toddler affiliative interaction would also
be possible. For example, use of unstructured observations which
would focus on the activities and interactions preceding and
occurring during periods of frequent and limited affiliation would

also make a contribution to understanding the process of

 

 

‘51

 

122

affiliation and the reciprocal dynamic nature of the father-mother-
toddler relationship.

9- The use of taped observations would permit coding of visits from
grandparents, aunts and uncles and family friends. Characteristics
of affiliation for these individuals with the toddler could be
observed, as well as observing changes in mother-toddler and

father-toddler interaction during visits from extended family and

friends.

Implications

This study has implications for further research which examines
variables in the same manner or incorporates methodological changes to
Study similar factors in parent-toddler relationships. While many
l°|'flplications for future research were specified in the previous
Section, it is probably the theoretical frame of reference for
research, more than Specific methodological aspects of this study,
Which may best assist professionals in understanding the parent-child
relationship. It seems appr0priate that research focus on interactions
in the home, that research on parent-child relationships recognize
those relationships as dynamic and reciprocal, that research on parent-
Child relationships take into account multiple variables, and whenever
Possible that research on parent toddler relationships utilize
observation procedures.

Implications also exist for education programs especially in the

areas of family life education, parent education, and provision of

supportive services for families.

.J

 

‘md‘ 11.!!!» .Etnlo- Y -.

123

First, it seems appr0priate to look at data from this research in
combination with data from laboratory settings and recognize when
teaching at graduate and undergraduate levels that, in many families
today, there may be more similarities than differences between mothers
and fathers in their interactive styles and in the type of activities
they do with their toddlers.

Second, when emphasis is placed on family life education at a
secondary level, that the basic educational experiences might most
appropriately be provided for males as well as for females. When in
many young families both parents work outside the home, it is likely
that roles for fathers will continue to change just as roles for
mothers have. The educational system could serve a positive role in
th 1’ 3 change process by facilitating knowledge and comfort levels for
young males who will take new roles as fathers which were not
prev iously modeled in their own family situations.

Third, parent education classes, particularly those associated

With adult continuing education tend to focus on a curriculum and
apDY‘oach to learning with which many women are comfortable. These
cc)UY‘ses could also develop curricula or approaches to parent education
”h ‘i ch would attract more fathers. Parent education courses might also
1““ hd useful these research results and the literature review material
when looking at parental roles in toddler develOpment.

Finally, in the area of family supportive services, it should be
1=l-""ther apparent, as much research and practical experience have
aL1"‘i'aady indicated, that the total family experience impacts on the
chi'Id and that knowledge about children and about child devel0pment

makes a difference in the child's life experiences. Thus, supportive

 

124

programs may be most influential in promoting healthy adjustment and
growth when those programs focus on young families with young children,
and when those programs provide participants with as much knowledge and

understanding regarding children as possible in an atmOSphere which is

supportive of family needs.

APPENDICES

'Yrfl

APPENDIX A
LETTER TO FAMILIES REFERRED BY MINISTER
PARENTAL CONSENT FORM

126

Dear

,

 

(parent's name)

Your minister (minister's name) suggests you may be willing
to participate in a study I am conducting about parents and their
todd'lers.

The study is part of my research work toward a doctoral degree I
aani c:<3mpleting in Family and Child Ecology at Michigan State University.
11163 study includes four in-home visits at a time when father, mother,
and toddler are at home. Parents are asked as part of the study to
complete a short questionnaire about parenting. University research
Y“€3C]L1 ires that all information gathered as part of any study remain
c:c>rif=idential. While the questions asked of you as parents only include
‘irif’c>rmation you would probably be willing to share with others, I can
aS'sure you that neither your names nor your child's name will be used
(DY‘ eassociated with the information gathered.

I will be contacting you by telephone within the next week and
hope that you are able to participate in this study. As parents, I
'tii‘irik you will find it an interesting experience.

Please feel free to contact me any time you wish to do so. My
telephone number is 238-1092 in Flint and my mailing address is below.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,

Mark S. Diana

62} South Meade Street #9
lint, Michigan 48503

.a u —— h-v-r...

 

127

Parental Consent Form

We together with our child, have agreed to participate in a
research study concerning parent-toddler interaction. The graduate
student conducting this research, Mark S. Diana, has explained to us
that the research will include four in-home visits. During the last
three of these visits, the graduate student will observe our child and
ourselves as we interact with one another. The researcher has
encouraged us to do the activities we would normally participate in at
the time of day these observations occur. The first visit involves
discussion of the research project and a time for us to become
acquainted with the researcher. At that time, written consent will be
Obtained from us as parents. Also during the final visit, we will be
aSked to complete a questionnaire about our child's play activities and
about how we interact with our child.

The research study has been explained to us and we understand
there will be observations as well as questionnaires included as part
Of this study. We freely consent to participate in this research and
r‘ecognize that at any time we wish to do so we may freely discontinue
0UP participation in this study.

We understand that the results of this research are strictly
Confidential, and that neither our names nor our child's name will be
associated with the data gathered. When this study is concluded, we
“111 be able to obtain from the researcher c0pies of the information
gathered.

We consent to participate in this research study and assent to our

Child's participation in this study.
(complete with child's full name)

 

 

(father's full name) (motherfis full name) (date)

I L _‘I)1

 

APPENDIX B
OBSERVATIONAL CHART
PARENTAL SELF-REPORT QUESTIONNAIRE

 

129

Ti me Room

 

Date

Coding for Affiliative Response

Todd'l er

-sm‘i 1 ing
—vocalizing

«1 00 king

e-‘l aughing
-—showing toys
"Pr‘oximi‘ty seeking

Mother

--Smi 1ing and laughing
—touching, hugging,
- holding
-‘I mi tative grimaces
"h‘i 9h pitched vocali'a
zations
“grooming

M

"Srrri 1ing
rVOcalizing

“1 00 king

“‘1 aughing
“Showing toys
“proximity seeking

m

“SiniIing and laughing
*tOuching, hugging‘,‘

. .holding
‘1 'p‘l tative grimaces
"h‘ 9h pitched vocalia

zations
“grooming

Coding will be done with numbers to
include the sequence of behaviors.

"WJ’Lfiu .

 

 

130

 

Time 2:12 P.M. Room Kitchen

Da te 4/19/83

Coding for Affiliative Response

Toddler

—smi ling
—vocalizing

«1 ooking

-.—‘I aughi’ng
-—showing toys
-proximi‘ty seeking

 

Mother

rsmi ling and laughing
“t0uching, hugging,
- holding
*1 mi tative grimaces
‘hi gh pitched vocali‘a
zations
“grooming

 

W

”Sm-i ling
‘Vocalizing
“jooking

"‘1 alaughing
"Showing toys
“DY‘OXimity seeking

M

“sm‘i ling and laughing

‘tOUChing, hugging?

‘1. ‘ holding

41er tative grimaces
‘ 9h pitched vocali—

_ zations

‘ Sh"Gaming

 

Coding will be done with numbers to
include the sequence of behaviors.

Questionnaire to Assess Parent-Toddler
Information, Caregiving Activities, Play

Experiences, and Support and Control Techniques

 

132

The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information about
your toddler and the activities you do with that child. Your reSponses
to these questions will be used in combination with the observations
done as part of this research study. There are no right or wrong
answers to these questions. Please keep in mind that answers will vary

depending upon the interests and schedules you and your child have.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.-

(child's first name) (child's sex) (child'slbirthdate)
22..

(parent‘s seX) (parent's age at laSt birthday)
23.

(parent's occupatibn) (year's of school completed)

 

(hours employed outside home/per week)

The next section of this questionnaire involves caregiving
aCt‘ivities which need to be provided for children. The questions are
aSked in order to determine how frequently, on the average, you do each
of the caregiving activities listed below. Please think of weekends as
"$1 1 as days of the week and check the response that best tells how

often you take part in each activity.

FEEDING

\b" e akfast

\e ach day of _five-six _three-four _one-two _never
the week times a week times a week times a week
lu\nc£

\each day of _five-six _three-four _one-two _never
the week times a week times a week times a week

 

dinner

each day of
the week

n i ght-snacks

each day of
the week

HYG I ENE

(j‘iiajauering

 

si x or more
times a day

dresshg

____55‘i x or more
times a day

__five-six
times a week

__five-six
times a week

__four-six
times a day

__four-six
times a day

31 eaning: hands and face

____£5‘i x or more
11‘! mes a day

W

-——_£5‘i x or more
‘1 1 mes a day

__four-Six
times a day

__four-six
times a day

12511E;__down for a nap

__five-six
times a week

12E115L_gto sleep at night

I__five-six
times a week

133

__three—four
times a week

__three—four
times a week

__two-four
times a day

‘__two-four
times a day

__;two-four
times a day

__two-four
times a day

__three-four
times a wek

__three-four
times a week

E5!E3E__back to sleep during the night

\d aily

five-six

'__times a week

__three-four
times a week

__pne-two
times a

__one-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__never
week

__never
week

__never
day

_never
day

__never
day

__never
day

__never
week

_never
week

_never
week

 

134

GENERAL CARE
gomfort and soothe

six or more _five-six _three-four _one-two _never
times a day times a day times a day times a day

watch inside play

5 i x or more _five-Six _three-four _one-two _never
times a day times a day times a day times a day

watch outside play

 

s i x or more _five-six _three-four _one-two _never
times a day times a day times a day times a day

The questions below are about particular play activities you may

do with your child. Please check the response which best describes how

 

Often you take part in each activity with your child, or encourage your
Chi ‘ld to play in this way. The questions apply to how often you do
each activity with your child, not to how frequently your child takes

part in this kind of play by him or herself.

Mling with puzzles

 

\‘F ive-six _three-four _two-three _once a day _never
1: imes a day times a day times a day

mlding and stacking blocks

\‘F ive-Six _three-four _two-three _once a day _never
1‘- imes a day times a day times a day

10\Oking at books

\‘F ive-six _three-four _two-three _once a day _never
t imes a day times a day times a day

“\ess-up or pretend

\‘Five-six _three-four _two-three _once a day _never
times a day times a day times a day

135

5101 ls or stuffed animals

f ive-six _three-four _two-three
times a day times a day times a day

9 ames-songs , peek , pat-a-cake

f i ve-si x _three-four _two-three
times a day times a day times a day

t i ck le, tumble and roughhouse

f i ve-six _three-four _two-three
times a day times a day times a day

r i d i ng or bouncing

__f i ve-six _three-four _two-three
times a day times a day times a day

mechanical toys (wind-up toys, jack-in-the-box,

f i ve-six _three-four _two-three
times a day times a day times a day

 

.21 ay with toys to sort or order

___f i ve-six _three-four _two-three
t imes a day times a day times a day

m with stacking or connecting toys

‘1': ive-six _three-four _two-three
imes a day times a day times a day

_once a day _never
_once a day _never
_once a day _never
_once a day _never

toys with motors)

_once a day _never
_once a day _never
_once a day _never

wurage independent play (child playing by him or herself)

\‘F ive-six _three-four _two-three
t imes a day times a day times a day

_once a day _never

wurage play with other children (when you are with your child)

\‘F i ve-si x _three-four _two-three
t imes a day times a day times a day

_once a day _never

 

The following set of questions applies to ways in which you guide
the behavior of your child.
closely applies to ways in which you influence the behavior and play

style of your son or daughter.

136

Please check the response which most

Again, keep in mind that there are no

<:c>r~r~ect responses to these questions.

share play with child

 

1f'ive-six __three-four
1:‘imes a day times a day

one-two

-—times a day

__pnce

aip>;)v~ove or praise child's behavior or activities

1F'ive-Six __three-four
1:‘imes a day times a day

llssee nicknames

1F‘ive-six __three-four
il‘imes a day times a day

one-two

'__times a day

one-two

"times a day

£§!1<>\~'physical affection with hugs or kisses

____;f"ive-six __three-four
12‘imes a day times a day

__pne-two

times a day

£3;:J!Lsa suggestions or instructions

~—__JF ive-six __three-four
1limes a day times a day

jaQiJECje directions or commands

\‘F ive-six _three-four
1times a day times a day

EESEJSLQ or explain rules

-..;f’ive-six __three-four
‘tzimes a day times a day

1E!l![:eaten punishment or scold

~—..;f’ive-six __three-four
1:imes a day times a day

Eilzjgnk or physically punish

.._;five-six ‘__three-four
'times a day times a day

__pne-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__one-two
times a

__pne-two
times a

__one-two
times a

day

day

day

day

day

__once

__pnce

__pnce

__pnce

__pnce

__once

__once

__once

day

day

day

day

day

day

day

day

day

_never

__never

__never

__never

_never

__never

__never

__never

_never

 

1.1 '
mgr, ..

APPENDIX C
REVISED
PARENTAL SELF-REPORT QUESTIONNAIRE
PRESENTED IN PROPOSED FUTURE RESEARCH

 

138

Revised
Questionnaire to Assess Parent-Toddler Information,
Caregiving Activities, Play Experiences, and Support

and Control Techniques

 

139

The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather information about

your toddler and the activities you do with that child.

Your response
to

these questions will be used in combination with the observations

done as part of this research study. There are no right or wrong

answers to these questions. Please keep in mind that answers will vary

depending upon the interests and schedules you and your child have.

 

 

 

 

 

1.-

(Child's first name) (child's sex) (child's birthdate)
Z -

(parent's sex) (parent's age at last birthday)
3..

 

 

(parent's occupatiOn) (year's of’sChool completed)

 

(hours employed outtside the home/per week

The next section of this questionnaire involves caregiving

activities which need to be provided for children. The questions are

a'iked in order to determine how frequently, on the average, you do each

0f the caregiving activities listed below. Please think of weekends as

W61 1 as days of the week and check the response that best tells how

Often you take part in each activity.

FEEDING

breakfast

___each day of _five-six _three-four _one-two _never
the week times a week times a week times a week

lunch

___each day of _five-six _three-four one-two _never
the week times a week times a week

_times a week

 

140

dinner
__each day of __five-six __three-four __pne-two
the week times a week times a week times a week

night-snacks

 

__each day of __five-six __three-four __pne-two
the week times a week times a week times a week
HYGIENE

diapering and/or toileting

 

__six or more __four-six __two-four one-two
times a day times a day times a day ”times a day

dressing

.__six or more __four-six __two-four __pne-two
times a week times a day times a day times a week

cleaning: hands and face

 

__six or more __four-six __two-four __pne-two
times a day times a day times a day times a day

bathing

__six or more __four-six __two-four __pne-two
times a day times a day times a week times a day

REST

put down for nap

__daily ._4five-six __three-four __pne-two
times a week times a week times a week

put to sleep at night

 

__daily __five-six __three-four __pne-two
times a week times a week times a week

put back to sleep during the night

__daily __five-six __three-four __one-two
times a week times a week times a week

never

__never

__never

never

.__never

__never

.__never

never

never

 

 

 

 

141

GENERAL CARE

comfort and soothe

 

__six or more __five-six __three-four __one-two __never
times a day times a day times a day times a day

watch inside play

 

__six or more __five-six __;three-four __one-two __never
times a day times a day times a day times a day

watch outside play

 

__six or more __five-Six __three-four __pne-two __hever
times a day times a day times a day times a day g‘]
i
The questions below are about particular play activities you may F

do with your child. Please check the response which best describes how 2 , e

 

"E ‘.U! I

often you take part in each activity with your child, or encourage your
child to play in this way. The questions apply to how often you do
each activity with your child, not to how frequently your child takes

part in this kind of play by him or herself.

playing with puzzles

 

‘__five-six __three-four __two-three __pnce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

 

building and stacking blocks

 

__five-six __three-four __two-three __pnce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

looking at books

‘__five-six I__three-four __two-three ._gonce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

dress-up or pretend

__;five-six __;three-four __two-three __once a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

 

 

 

 

142

dolls or stuffed animals

__;five-six __three-four __two-three once a day
times a day times a day times a day '_—

games

__five-six __three-four __two-three once a day
times a day times a day times a day '_—

tumble and roughhouse

__;five-Six __three-four __two-three once a day
times a day times a day times a day -'

tickle and peek

__five-six .__three-four .__two-three once a day
times a day times a day times a day _"

riding or bouncing

._;five-six __three-four __two-three once a day
times a day times a day times a day '_—

__never

__never

__hever

__never

__never

mechanical toys (wind-up toys, jack-in-the-box, toys with motors)

__five-six __three-four __two-three once a day
times a day times a day times a day '__

play with toys to sort or order

 

__five-six __three-four __two-three once a day
times a day times a day times a day "'

play with stacking or connecting toys

__five-six __three-four __two-three __pnce a day
times a day times a day times a day

__hever

__never

__never

 

 

143

The following set of questions applies to ways in which you guide
the behavior' of .your child. Please check the response which most
closely applies to ways in which you influence the behavior and play
style of your son or daughter. Again, keep in mind that there are no

correct reSponses to these questions.

share play with child

 

__five-six __three-four __pne-two __pnce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

approve orgpraise child's behavior or activities

 

__five-six __three-four __pne-two __once a day .__never
times a day times a day times a day

 

use nicknames

 

__five-six __three-four __pne-two __once a day .__never
times a day times a day times a day

give suggestions or instructions

 

__five-six __three-four __one-two __pnce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

make or explain rules

 

__five-six __three-four __pne-two __pnce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

threaten punishment or scold

 

l_gfive-six __three-four __one-two __pnce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

spank or physically punish

 

__five-six __three-four __pne-two __pnce a day __never
times a day times a day times a day

 

1.
m.

I
,
.lMP
laina . .I .ipr‘ ’3...‘ 5“ ., 7

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145

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