WWI\kflllmlflllflllml ' ’ g, 31293 00848 '“ " “ 5‘ .9.“ ' r THESIS "‘“"”""”“""‘I This is to certify that the dissertation entitled FAZIL' ISKANDER: AN ANALYSIS OF HIS PROSE presented by Kathleen Ann Haase has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctoral degreein Russian ’ MUG/Lufuw’iwzb Majorpyjm Date 60/4 7 g, I k7 g g ‘- MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 042771 é! RETURNING MATERIALS:. MSU Place in book drop to remove this checkout from w your record. FINES will ,_, a be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. mi: 3g mo FAZIL' ISKANDER: AN ANALYSIS OF HIS PROSE By Kathleen Ann Haase A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Linguistics, Germanic, Slavic African and Oriental Languages 1986 ® Copyright by KATHLEEN ANN HAASE 1986 ABSTRACT FAZIL’ ISKANDER: AN ANALYSIS OF HIS PROSE BY Kathleen Ann Haase Iskander’s prose, dating from 1962 through 1985, is analyzed to reveal the prominent themes, characters, and poetic devices. Chapter One examines the major themes (Iskander’s childhood, Abkhazia, love, writing, truth in art, humor, and nature); Chapter Two analyzes Iskander’s main characters (Iskander as a boy, gik, Iskander as an adult, his mother, father, sister, brother, grandfather, Uncle KolJa, grandmother, aunt, the Rich Tailor, Alixan, Kolxerukij, Uncle KJazym, and Sandro); Chapter Three examines Iskander’s poetics (language, compositional structure, imagery--personification, oxymoron, ostranenie, allusions, motifs--and satire); and Chapter Four surveys the critical reception of Iskander’s prose. Two dominent themes prevail in Iskander’s prose--his childhood and his native Abkhazia. The autobiographical stories show the inner world of a preadolescent boy who is Just coming to terms with the world around him. As Iskander describes the history and customs of Abkhazia, he also reveals his concern that this way of life is disappearing. The theme of Abkhazia is linked with a love of nature. Kathleen Ann Haase Iskander’s characters reappear in many of his works, forming a network of over two dozen characters, whose lives continually criss cross (peasants, bazaar merchants, tailors, and palm-readers). All belong to Abkhazia and through their lives Iskander produces his mosaic picture of Abkhazia. Iskander’s strengths lie in the variety of his language, control of narrative voice, characterization, imagery (simile, metaphor, symbol, allusions and personification). His shorter works are tightly structured, using foreshadowing to strengthen the composition and thematic cohesiveness. He frequently draws on other works of literature, folklore, and Bible, and Greco-Roman history and mythology for titles and imagery. Satirical and humorous devices occupy a prominent place in Iskander’s poetics. His satire, notably in the use of hyperbole, grotesque, personification, names, digressions, and the blend of lyricism and satire, is closely linked to Gogol’. Iskander’s prose has been received exceptionally well, in the Soviet Union and in America. The critics see Iskander experimenting in new directions, moving away from an autobiographical to third-person narration. ii In memory of my mother iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge the help of my committee, Prof. Raimund Belgardt, Prof. Alexander Dynnik, and Prof. Frank Ingram. I would particularly like to thank the chair of my committee Prof. Munir Sendich for all his guidance in preparing this dissertation. In addition I would like to acknowledge the help I received from the staff of the libraries in Leningrad and Moscow while I was doing my research. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ONE: THEMES Introduction Childhood Family relationships Friendship School Honesty Adult life Love Writing Truth in Art Humor Abkhazia Customs Rural life History Disappearance of Abkhazian traditions Nature Conclusion 11 11 13 14 16 19 20 22 22 23 24 25 25 25 3O 31 44 47 51 CHAPTER TWO: MAIN CHARACTERS 55 Introduction 55 Iskander as a boy/gik 56 Iskander as an adult 61 Mother 64 Father 67 Sister 68 Brother 69 Grandfather 72 Uncle Kolja 74 Grandmother 76 Aunt 77 The Rich Tailor 80 Alixan 84 The Palmist 86 Kolgerukij 88 Uncle Kjazym 89 Sandro 91 Conclusion 92 CHAPTER THREE: POETICS 99 Introduction 99 Language 99 Structure 106 Narration 108 Digressions 116 Foreshadowing 121 Characterization 126 vi Imagery 136 Simile 137 Metaphor 144 Symbol 148 Personification of Animals, Nature, and 150 Other Objects Oxymoron 154 Ostranenie 155 Allusions 157 Folkloric Motifs 158 Biblical Motifs 163 Greco-Roman Motifs 167 Satire 169 Narrator 171 Hyperbole 174 Grotesque 175 Irony 175 Allegory 177 Black Comedy 178 Dream 181 Anticlimax 181 Names 182 Conclusion 184 CHAPTER FOUR: CRITICISM 193 Introduction 193 Iskander on Literature 194 vii Criticism of Iskander's Prose 199 Themes 199 Style 204 Imagery 205 Digressions 206 Narrative Voice 207 Characters and Characterization 210 Humor and Satire 214 Criticism of Individual Works: 220 Den' 1 nox' Cika 220 Remzik 222 Morskoj skorpion 224 Sozvezdie kozlotura 228 Sandro iz Cegema 237 Conclusion 249 CONCLUSION 256 BIBLIOGRAPHY 265 lgtrgdggtiog Fazll’ Abdulovil Iskander is a Soviet writer of Abkhazian origin. Born in Abkhazia on March 6, 1929, Iskander grew up in Sukhumi, a city on the Black Sea in the Abkhazian Autonomous Republic in Soviet Georgia. By contrast, most of Iskander’s adult life has been spent in Moscow. After graduating from High School No. 3 in Sukhumi in 1948, Iskander went to Moscow, where he enrolled in the State Library Institute. In 1951 he transferred to Gor’kij Literary Institute, graduating in 1954. Since graduating, he has worked as a newspaper editor in Krusky and in Bryansk. From 1954 to 1955 Iskander worked in the literary section of Ecjangkij kgmggmglgg. Then from 1955 to 1956 he worked at fig:g§g1g_g£§gg;. Following this Iskander returned to Abkhazia where he worked as an editor for the Abkhazian State Publishing House in Sukhumi. In 1962 Iskander moved back to Moscow, where he currently lives. Iskander’s literary output includes works that establish him as a poet, prose fiction writer, translator, and critic. One of his short stories, Eggm1;_gxggtllgzg naggggk, was made into a film in 1970 by B. S. flabaJ. Iskander began his literary career as a poet, with his first poems appearing in 1953. Eggmg_g_hgitgl;nggji was published on March 21, 1953 in Q£9£§££fl2L£i£.EL12fl13 Egfizzl,gnhn1,was included in the eigth issue of the almanach uglgggi; gggggiig. His first prose work, 33:29; gglg, appeared in 1956, to be followed by the short stories, 2‘53; and agggfigl Q mggg, that appeared six years later. And by 1986, Iskander has written 57 short stories, seven tales, and one novel. with regularity, Iskander’s works have appeared in Mum gum. and 534425.21; wit. to name but a few of the most frequent publishers of Iskander’s works. Most of these works have been republished in his eight prose collections. A number of Iskander’s works have been translated into many languages, including English, such as his povest’ Sg;gg;§ig.§gzlgtngg and his novel Sggggg 1; im- Iskander’s works are widely read in the Soviet Union. Klaus Mehnert ranks Iskander among the most popular Russian authors, although he places Iskander among the second group of twenty-four. His popularity seems undiminished by his participation in ’. Since Iskander was both an editor and contributor to the collection, he was punished by the Soviet government--his works were not published for several years. However, the government seems to have relented for several new books have been published in the Soviet Union recently. In 1983 ngfiltg fiikg, a collection of stories including one--!ggm;;glgr-which only appeared before in ugtggggl;, was published by Sovetskij pisatel’. Then in 1985 Raduga Publishers in Moscow published a translation of most of these works in Qflifi gag ni§_Engggg, The best sign of official forgiveness can be seen in the publication of a biographical bibliography on Iskander in 1982--ngil’ 11mm Wm ’- The introductory article by the compilor 2. B. Mianlova and a seventeen page article by B. Sarnov praise Iskander as an author of books that are wise and happy, at times sad and thoughtful, yet are always good. This is followed by seven pages of quotes from critical essays acclaiming Iskander’s poetry and prose. With the path to publication open once again, we can look forward to further new works by Fazil’ Iskander. Iskander’s literary predecessors include Turgenev, Tolstoj, Cexov, Bunin, Gogol’, Zoglenko, and Gor’kiJ. The lyricism of Turgenev, Cexov, and Bunin has a direct descendent in Iskander. Nature is another link between these authors. The young narrator of Iskander’s works reminds the reader of the boy narrator in the works of Tolstoj and Gor’kiJ. Iskander’s roots can also be found in Russian satire, that of Gogol’ and Zoxgenko in particular. Like Gogol’, Iskander combines both lyricism and satire. ZoXXenko’s depiction of the disparities in everyday life, his display of comic incongruities and situations in ordinary people’s lives--all this is found in Iskander’s satire. mm This dissertation concentrates solely on the prose of Iskander. The first chapter surveys Iskander’s prose focusing on major themes in his works. Although much of Iskander’s work is autobiographical, my dissertation does not study Iskander’s prose from a biographical point of view to identify a fiction or reality reflected in his works. Abkhazian life and traditions are the focus of another major theme that will not be discussed from the historical approach simply to discover Abkhazian traditions and history. Instead, it focuses on why Iskander has chosen these themes. I discuss what Iskander is examining in his childhood, what aspects of interpersonal relationships are portrayed, and what Iskander is saying about Abkhazian life. I also consider several additional themes which encompass Iskander’s adult life, honesty, love, love of nature, and Iskander’s views on humor and literature. W Iskander’s works are structured around the experiences or relationships of one person or a small group of people. Therefore, an analysis of several main figures comprises Chapter Two. Characterization is one of the strengths of Iskander’s prose. He is able to create convincing portrayals in his stories. His most successful works describe characters and events taken from real life. Some of his characters emerge again and again in later works, reinforcing what the reader already knows and building on that to reveal additional aspects of a character’s personality. A network of interwoven strands is formed whereby the characters become old friends of the reader when relatives, neighbors, and friends are reintroduced. A large number of Iskander’s works are autobiographical. The narrator here is an adult recalling his own childhood. Several other stories and tales are by a narrator who tells about a young boy named gik, whose attitude and background closely identify him with Iskander as a child. Both of these characters are analyzed. The other characters to be studied are Iskander as an adult, Kol‘erukij, the Rich Tailor, Sandro of Cegem, Kjazym, Iskander’s grandfather, Uncle Kolja-~his 'crazy uncle,‘ Iskander’s favorite aunt, Alixan, and the Palmist. 9mm Chapter Three is devoted to an analysis of Iskander’s poetics. It will center on the following poetic devices identified as central to Iskander’s prose: language, structure (narration, digression, foreshadowing, characterization), imagery (simile, metaphor, symbol), personification, oxymoron, ostranenie, allusions, motifs, and satire. This is a general analysis of all of Iskander’s prose not of one particular work. The intent is to reveal and discuss the prevalent characteristics of Iskander’s prose. Therefore, the analaysis of a single work is not exhaustive. At the same time, a statistical analysis of the poetic devices found in his prose is beyond the scope of this work. Language, one most important component of Iskander’s poetics, is carefuly chosen to indicate internal changes, to show feelings and moods. Descriptions of nature play an important role in setting the mood. Iskander uses many local Abkhazian or Turkic words to enhance the reader’s feel for Abkhazia and its culture. Here he achieves a delicate balance. There are not enough foreign words to impede understanding of the story, but enough to give the reader the flavor of life in Abkhazia. Slang and colorful idioms also appear in conversation, helping to characterize the speaker. Iskander also includes the jargon of the newspaper world, particularly in Sgggglglg kgzlgtgng and in several short stories. This special language helps to set the mood and denote the author’s feelings about the I'Red Subtropics' and campaigns. This type of language is then contrasted with the author’s lyrical description of nature. This chapter also studies Iskander’s main structural devices. Iskander’s shorter works are tightly structured. Each one has a sense of completeness. The end of the work brings together the loose ends of the story, closing the tale without a sense of abruptness. Narration is a major structural device used by Iskander. Many stories are first-person narrations by one of the main characters. Other works are told by a narrator who knew the person being described. Frequently, works told in the first-person are built around an episode in the life of a child. The climax often comes in a realization about himself or another main character in the story. Iskander does not limit himself to first person narration alone. He also uses omniscient, third person narration, where he strictly controls the point of view. Other devices analyzed include digressions, foreshadowing, and characterization. Digressions have multiple purposes. They add an informal chatty tone to a work, provide information and humor, relieve tension and suspense, develop the main theme, and contrast ideas. Iskander uses foreshadowing in a number of works to strengthen the cohesiveness of each piece. This chapter likewise deals with Iskander’s method of characterization. In addition to a description of his outer appearance, each person is shown through his gestures, conversations, and interaction with others. Iskander is skilled at using a key feature or mannerism to capture the essence of a particular character. Such is the case with Kolgerukij and the Rich Tailor. Each character becomes an individual yet has universal foibles. Kolzbrukij, for example, is the loudmouth, intent on one-up-manship, that everyone has met at one time or another. In each case, I discuss the initial description of a character. Contrasted with his usual method, is the charaterization of the editor, Avtandil Avtandilovix, in fig;ggzfllg|§g;lgtggg. Here Iskander turns to caricature in keeping with the poetic devices of this satiric work. Iskander’s works are filled with a unique, vivid imagery. It is here in particular that one can see the poet behind the prose writer. Metaphor and simile are used extensively throughout Iskander’s prose. Following an analysis of these elements, there is a discussion of his use of oxymoron, ostranenie, personification, and folkloric, Biblical, and Greco-Roman motifs. Additional focus falls on Iskander’s satire, which plays an important part in his prose. Elements of satire are evident in most of his works, notably in many of his short stories, W Wu, and m i_; £33531. In addition to using the poetic devices mentioned above to convey his satiric message, Iskander employs a number of additional devices. Grotesque, hyperbole, allegory, and dreams, among others, are among those devices analyzed. W This chapter examines the reception of Iskander in literary criticism. It begins with Iskander’s own views on literature, particularly the ideas expressed in his articles 'Prugina jumora,‘ 'Ob Ozage i dome,‘ 'Po‘zija dramy,‘ 'Idei i priemy,‘ and '0 novatorstve, banal’nyx istinax i citatax.’ A survey of the major interpretations of Iskander’s prose concerning Iskander’s themes, poetics, humor and satire is discussed. This is followed by a more detailed analysis of five individual works: an;,l,flQ£LH§LKQ, W.Mm.ummm. melamine L1_§gggmg, The survey includes Soviet and western criticism. Soviet reviews include criticisms by S. Rassadin, U. Solov’ev, S. Sivokon’, U. Azanov, and B. Sarnov, among others. The analysis of criticism published outside the Soviet Union examines C. Packard’s thesis and dissertation and articles by V. Babenko, H. Burlingame, and by many other Iskander scholars. finnslualnn Iskander is an accomplished prose writer who has already found a place among the leading writers in the Soviet Union. However, there is no detailed thorough analysis of Iskander’s prose to date. Some of his individual prose works have been studied critically, but many not at all. This dissertation is a comprehensive 18 analysis of the themes, characters, and poetics in all of his prose. This study will reveal that Iskander’s prose frequently displays humorous, satirical asides, which remind one of Gogol”s satiric devices--a blending of lyricism and satire. Yet Iskander’s works achieve a much more balanced union than those of Gogol’. In Iskander a less obtrusive use of grotesque prevails. Iskander, furthermore, exhibits a genuine sympathy for his characters. A number of comparisons with the works of Zoscenko can be drawn as well, Iskander’s works are much lighter and are less topical than Zoscenko’s. Much of Iskander’s work is autobiographical, depicting the colorful people and customs of Abkhazia. Iskander values these traditions and is concerned over their loss in contemporary society. The focus of Iskander’s works is people. His stories center around an event in the life of Iskander himself or one of his relatives, neighbors, or friends. Iskander is skilled at creating convincing portrayals of these people. Iskander’s works are well-written and tightly structured. Language is carefuly chosen, achieving a delicate balance between lyrical digressions, local Abkhazian and Turkic words, newspaper jargon, slang, and idioms. Iskander’s satire is gentle, yet sharp and well-directed when necessary. Chapter One Themes Iskander is a highly autobiographical writer. He focuses on his family and neighbors and on life in his native Abkhazia. Iskander is keenly aware of the political, social, and cultural problems of this world. As he recreates this world in his prose, his sympathies and convictions are clearly revealed. A detailed analysis of Iskander’s prose uncovers a number of readily discernable major themes. Iskander’s childhood is important to him and forms a major theme which runs through half of his prose. Depicting his life at a time when he is just entering adolescence, he charts his growth and progress toward emotional maturity, developing a subtheme from his childhood. As he explores his childhood world, Iskander describes his family life, analyzing his relationships with various members of his family. Childhood friendships are also scrutinized in their many aspects--including loyalty, honesty, compassion, competitiveness, rivalry, and bullying. Another side of this children’s world examined by Iskander falls under the general category of school. Here Iskander looks at grades, homework, teachers, and medal competitions. 11 12 Some of these same themes recur in the works centering on Iskander’s adult life. Friendship and honesty are picked up again and discussed from the adult point of view. When he describes his adult years, Iskander also turns to the theme of love. This search for love encompasses both the clumsiness and beauty of young love as well as the pain of love lost. As Iskander chats with his reader, many of his comments concern writing and his evaluation of his own writing, forming another major theme of his prose. when discussing writing Iskander underscores the importance of humor--an additional theme recurring in his works. The majority of Iskander’s prose centers on life in Abkhazia. Even those works that are set in Moscow or elsewhere in the Soviet Union inevitably touch upon life in Abkhazia in some fashion. The main characters return home or remember some aspect of life there. Indeed there are few people from Moscow in the Iskander’s prose. Most characters, even if living in Moscow, are originally from Abkhazia. Other people, including Iskander himself, are judged by the standards of Abkhazian customs and rules of hospitality. Thus when these works are viewed as a whole, it is evident that Iskander reveals much of the history and customs of Abkhazia through the lives of his characters. works concerning this major theme refer as far back as tsarist times before the turn of the century 13 and chronical major historical events. Included among the many facets of life in Abkhazia, one will find engagements, bride abductions, marriages, the ritual of proving one’s manhood, family life on the farm, hospitality, death, and funerals. Soviet rule over Abkhazia has brought with it many changes and problems. Among these, Iskander analyzes the dictatorships of Lenin, Stalin, and Khrushchev, collectivization, the purges, the cult of the personality, and the resettlement of ethnic groups. Contemporary problems include bribery, the black market, crime, hooliganism, alcoholism, and prostitution. Iskander is a deeply national writer who is concerned about all the changes occurring in Abkhazia. In his prose, he repeatedly returns to this theme. with the traditional way of life disappearing, Iskander questions whether or not anything of comparable worth will replace this loss of traditional values and customs. Closely related to Iskander’s love of Abkhazia is his love of nature, particularly the forest and the sea. This theme includes an emphasis on the necessity to protect the beauty of nature from destruction by the poacher and careless tourist. A prevalent theme running through one half Iskander’s prose is that of his childhood, set in Abkhazia during the late 1930s and 1940s. All these stories are first person 14 narrations with Iskander as the unnamed narrator. Iskander combs through his past to share valuable and interesting lessons. Xora B Hamnx MOpHX He OHBaeT npnnusos u ornHBOB, BEMHH neTCTBa -- 3T0 MOKpufi saranoqaafi oeper nocne ornnsa, Ha EOTOpOM MOXHO Hafirn caMHe Heomnnaunue Bemn. The narrator Iskander describes himself as he enters adolescence. His growth and development toward maturity is a theme which comes to the foreground as the boy tries to deal with life’s challenges. while grappling with such problems, Iskander stresses the necessity to maintain faith in humanity at all times. Momer ours, camaa Tporarenbnafi H caman rnyooxaa qepra neTCTBa -- 6ecc03HaTeanaH Bepa B Heooxonumocrb anpasoro CMHCHa. Cnenosarenbno, paa B qem-To Her anpasoro cmmcna, Hano ncxarb, qTo ucxaanno ero nnn xyna OH sarepfinca. neTcrso sepnr, qTo MHp pasymea, a Bee HepasyMHoe -- 9T0 nomexn, KOTOpHe momao YCTpaHHTb, CTOHT nosepHyrb Hymaun pmqar. MomeT oars, neno B TOM, qro B neTCTBe mu eme anmnM myM marepnacxon xposn, npo- Hoanmenca CKBosb Hac H BCKOpMHBmeH Hac. an pyxaMH Hamnx marepen nenan HaM noopo n Tonbxo noopo, n passe He eCTeCTBeHHO, qro nosepne K ero paSYMHOCTH y Hac nepanao. A Kan me unaqe? H nymam, qro HaCTOHmne nrnn -- 3T0 Te, uro c ronaMH He yTpatuamr nercxon Bepu B paSYMHOCTb MHpa, n60 sra Bepa nonnepmnsaer HCTHHHYP CTpaCTb B oopre c oeayMHeM mecroxocru H rnynocrn.2 Focusing on people, Iskander explores a particular SSpect of interpersonal relationships in his childhood Stories, studying how people interact with one another. FPequently the story shows how members of the family get 15 along together. The special relationship between a grandfather and his grandson is an important one which Iskander analyzes. His respect and love show through the portrait he creates. His grandfather’s strong personality has an effect on the rest of the family as well. As a boy, he waited for his grandfather to fail at something or make some small mistake. Iskander sensed that others in the family also felt the same way for then his grandfather could not command as much respect and would not be able to interfere in their lives. The relationship between himself as a boy and his uncle Kolja, who was insane, is another complex bond disclosed by Iskander. This is broadened to include his uncle’s sister and mother who all lived above Iskander. Although Iskander and his brother could not resist temptation and teased Uncle Kolja unmercifully, Iskander did not like it when others criticized Kolja or laughed at Kolja’s love of Aunt Faina. His aunt and grandmother loved and protected Kolja. Iskander helped out by taking his uncle to fish or to get lemonade, his two favorite pastimes. Iskander examines the ties between himself and his Strong-willed, domineering aunt who lived upstairs. Itkander spent much time at her place. She must have taken care of him while his mother worked at the hospital. Iskander was her favorite nephew and his aunt took him 16 under her wing, dragging him to movies nightly over his mother’s protests. His aunt also took great pride in Iskander’s performance in school, considering him an 'otlignik.' In legi‘l gtnggtl and a number of other stories, Iskander tells how he expended much energy to prevent his aunt from discovering that everything was not up to the level of her expectations. Relationships with other children are also described in some detail, exposing the many facets of childhood friendships. The special relationship with an idol is one such aspect to come under scrutiny. In M 1 51min Iskander studies why he idolized Jura Stavrokidi, as well as how and why the relationship disintegrated. Jura was bigger, stronger, and more athletic than anyone in Iskander’s class and Iskander followed in his footsteps. Yet when Iskander would not unquestionly support Jura by lieing, it was the end of their friendship. This study of the problems of friendship is carried over into Iskander’s adult years. Trust is a main ingredient of friendship; if it is not there, the friendship will die. In mm M, a German describes his good friend, one to whom during Hitler’s time he could tell everything. Yet a chill came between them when one momentarily suspected the other of being a Gestapo agent. It was the end of their friendship. npymoa He nmcnr, qroou ee nurann, 3T0 ee ynnmaer n ooecnennsaer. Ecnn anxoa Tpeoyer ncnuraaufi, TO I7 eCTb marepnanbnux rapaHTnfi, TO PTO He qro HHOe, xax pyxosnmn Tosapooomen. Her, npymoa -- are He nosepne, KynneHHoe ueHon chuTaHnfi, a nosepqu- BOCTb no BCHKHX HCHHTaHHH, BMeCTe c TeM 3T0 Hacnamnenne, cqacrbe or camofi nonnoru nymesnofi ornaqn onusxomy uenosexy.3 Sharing and helping others are two additional aspects of the friendship theme that Iskander develops. The story 1; nggkg; g Q filk; shows this more positive side of childhood friendships. Cik allows other neighborhood children to ride his grandfather’s horse. This included helping Lesik, a boy who had Cerebral Palsy, ride the horse. The story described the joy Cik felt since his friend was able to participate and enjoy himself. This helping hand is extended again in the povest’ 2:3; i flgfi; filkg_when Cik takes Lesik along to gather resin to make into bubble gum. Elk enjoys Lesik’s fresh viewpoint. Since everything is new to Lesik, it enables Cik to see the world through Lesik’s eyes and recapture the initial joy experienced when that part of Cik’s world was new and fresh to him too. Friendship has its burdens too. In 9‘5; L gg§;,§ikg, Iskander learned inadvertantly that his friend Nika’s father had been arrested during the purges. On his own initiative, he decided he would help protect Nika from this terrible truth for she did not know what had happened. 18 The competitivness between the boys is another important part of their world. The age old process of determining which boy is the leader is convincingly portrayed by Iskander. gin; l ng£;‘filkg explores one such struggle involving Cik. To maintain his stature as the leader in his courtyard, Cik must fight a boy from another neighborhood. He would lose face if he backed down. Eggggmlgnig’fgl’Sivgzmgngtfikgv shows how one boy tries to control the other boys in the neighborhood since he has the only soccer ball. It also describes how Iskander finally was able to break free from this control. Another aspect of how dependency affects relationships is portrayed in the story g£gm13_ng,ggggm. Here Erik forces Iskander to submit to brutal, somewhat sadistic games, merely to find out what time it is. As children try to sort out their relationships, they attempt to exert their power over others. In the process, some children become bullies. Iskander’s works study this problem as well. Bullies appear in several stories; however, they do not fare well. Tyranny of the strong over the weak is never rewarded. Instead the bully is punished for his bad behavior. Kaban is beaten by Cik’s much smaller grandfather. As Kaban is bested in the story 11 nggkgggg g filfig, another bully Keropcik is brought to Justice in the story 291mg1g11. Cik sees Keropgik and friends overturn Alixan’s tray of sweets in the bazaar. 19 Although Eik is smaller and powerless to prevent what happened, bik tells his older, muscular friend Motja about what happened. Motja eventually finds Keropifik and punishes him. Yet when Motja finally punishes KeropEik by making him strip to his underpants in public, Elk can not help feeling sorry and embarassed for KeropXik. School ls another subtheme of Iskander’s childhood. This important part of the child’s world is a major source of anxiety. Iskander graphically illustrates how grades, homework, and expectations of teachers and parents produce anxiety. Iligggggtzi ggflglg figggklg describes the ensuing panic when Iskander does not have his math homework done. It is further compounded when he is called to the board to solve the problem he could not solve. Iskander notes how everyone is afraid of appearing ridiculous. It appears as if people are shamed into doing good work. Iskander lived in fear of not fulfilling his family’s expectations of him. In Z;i§itg,§ikg, he goes to great lengths to keep them from learning of his behavior at school. When his teacher wants to talk to his mother or father, Xik spends an entire day devising an elaborate plan to prevent this. Sdnce he must bring an adult, his only choice is his crazy uncle Kolja. He tempts his crazy uncle to leave iiome by offering him lemon-ade bought with money obtained in a trade with a friend. The success of his plan rests 28 on his uncle’s silence. Luckily the teacher does all of he talking and Cik avoids an unpleasant scene at home. Iskander shows in Egg ggn’jg gvkgllgtgv how children try to avoid schoolwork at all costs, sometimes going to unusual lengths to get good grades with minimal effort. Teachers, on the other hand, did their best to encourage students to do their work. when Iskander is teased and called I'ot"javlennyj lentjaj,‘I he does everything possible to maintain this image, including giving up homework. In class he does not take notes and pretends to fall asleep, while he listens attentively. Then Iskander volunteers to answer questions for the next day in advance before he forgets the new material, thus receiving good grades without having to study. However, the school decides to reform him, applying the method of concentrated education. The school succeeds in turning him not only into a good student, but into a potential silver medal-winner. The justification for this reform is that other slackers would envy the reformed student’s achievements and soon follow suit of their own accord. Along with friendship, Iskander is concerned with honesty in interactions with others. Iskander’s inability to lie is the major factor in the breakdown of his friendship with his idol, Jura. All relationships need to be based on truth. As a boy, Iskander was disconcerted by the fact that adults would continually think one thing and 21 then say and do the opposite. Initially he took this as a game. Korna qHK own cosceM manenbxnfi, OH, cnymaa, xaK so nBOpe onnH Bspocnufi, paarosapnsaa c npyruM, POBOpHT onHo, a nymaeT npo npyroe, canan, qro 3T0 Tamas nrpa. gnx aameqan, qro H npyron sspocnufi npn srom nymaeT cosceM npo npyroe, Tax qro HHKTO HHKOPO He oomauusaer. OH Tonbxo He nomnuan, noqemy OHM B Konue nrpu He paccmemrca n He cxamyr o TOM, qro OHM x0pomo nonrpann. A unorna noma, Korna coonpanncs rocrn, Hum aameqan, qro HaqnnanaCb Bceoomaa Hrpa, Korna Bce rosopnnn npo onHo, a nymann He Tonbxo npo npyroe, a npocro npo paanoe. Tax qro qHK He ycnesan npocnennrb, xro npo qro nymaer, nun npocro ycrasan cnenHTb. Hpasna, cnyqanocs, qTo Bapocnme aaomsann npo sry nrpy n KTo-Hnoynb n3 an Haqnnan paccxaausarb uro- Huoynb nurepecnoe n Huqero npyroro npn STOM He nyman, n Torna gnx c oooxannem cnyman sroro uenosexa. In Zigggtnzj‘glgg, Iskander tells on his sister who ate pork at a neighbors. This does not gain him any favor at home. On the contrary, his father punishes him severely for such behavior. Iskander took this lesson to heart. Ho ypox He npomen napom. H Ha 3cm mnaHb nonan, qro anaxofi Bucoxnn nanan He mower onpaBnaTb nonnocrn H npenarenbcrsa, na n scaxoe npenarenbcrso -- 3T0 Bonocaraa ryceHHna maneHbKon aasncrn, Kang 63 npnnunnamn 0H0 HM npnxpmsanocs.5 This need to speak the truth carried over into his adult life. A conscience is a valuable trait to possess, giving a person guidance throughout his childhood and adult years. H eme onHO a TBepno HOHHH: Bce HOTepHHHOe MOXHO HafiTH -- name nmoosb, name mnocrb. H 22 Tonbxo norepHHHym cosecrb eme anro He Haxonnn. Bro He Tax rpycrno, KaK momeT noxasarbca, ecnn yqecrb, qro no pacceHHHOCTH ee Hesoamomao HOTepHTb. As Iskander moves on to describe his adult life, a major theme to appear is the emotion of love. Iskander examines numerous aspects, including the search for love, the trials and tribulations of young love, lost love, and marriage. The various apsects of young love are a major component of this theme. Iskander describes all the awkwardness of youth, the indecisiveness, plus planning and replanning a course of action. The initial contact could begin with an unsigned declaration of love, as it does in Mgggfiglggkggglgn and Elggmg. After receiving such a letter, a young man is strongly affected. Uanity flattered, he goes off to discover the mysterious author. The search for the right girl is a long, complicated process full of pit falls. It can begin anywhere--in class, in the library, in a crowd, on the metro, or at the movies. There will be many unsuccessful encounters along the way. There will be many bungled attempts to initiate contact and speak to the girl singled out as a good possibility. Sometimes it is only a missed opportunity to speak to someone as happens in Mgggkgi_gkggglgn. At lather times one person will not return the other’s affection. Such problems are described in Mgggkgj,gkgnglgn rand 5912:1911 kgzlgtggg. The more serious problems of 23 lost love are considered as well. People can grow apart when separated from one another. while the young hero of nglg ggggglfig is off serving in the army, his girlfriend falls in love with someone else. By the time he returns home, she has married her new love. A major premise presented by Iskander is that men are attracted to women by their figures, walk, and laugh, Yet these things are not necessarlily tied to the make-up of a woman’s soul. A man will find true love and happiness if he ignores the outer appearance and searches for someone with a pure soul that responds to his. BnnHo nyma ero, nyman Cepren, nonasana BcrpeqHHM nesymKaM oonee Tosxue curaanm, qu Te cnrHanm, KOTOpHe MH nonaeM BcrpequM ermHHaM, H, ycnumas OTBeT Ha an or srofi maneHbKofi nesymKH, oaa, nyma ero, 6naronapHo orsernna nroosbm H xpncrannnanposanacs B nmosu. H nonoono Tomy, nyman on, Korna HaM Hpasnrca BHemHOCTb meHmHHu H mm BnmonHeMCH B nee n, BnmonsmHCb, nOpHCOBHBaeM ee nyxosnun oonnx HMeHHO TaKHM, KaKHM mm ero xorenn om snnerb, nonoouo aromy, Korna qenosex quCTByeT x ermnHe nymeBHym onnsocrb, OH ee mano npnsnexarennym BHem OCTb no- pncosaaaer B cornacnn c oonnxom ee nymn. The people who search for and find a compatible soul also find happiness as Sergej’s friend does and as Zaira and valiko do. Iskander frequently chats with the reader, digressing from the storyline of his works. As he talks about his life, a portrait of Iskander emerges from the texts. Iskander presents himself as a naive, somewhat bumbling person. His tone is light and humorous. These 24 digressinns about Iskander contain many comments about writing which mesh together to form a separate theme of their own. The humorous vein carries over into this area. when Iskander relates how he became a writer, he states that he did so because he thought that it would be more interesting and profitable than cataloging the books of others. His writing process is not a sacred ritual, but rather a sham. He sits at the typewriter pretending to write as his family tries not to interfere, but in reality Iskander states that he is inventing or listening for the phone. It becomes clear that Iskander admires good writing. Iskander loves a good storyteller, adniring the natural craft in others, encouraging them. His comments concerning writing at the B;g_§gptngglgg and elsewhere indicate his dispare over the state of writing in general in the Soviet Union. Iskander mentions the necessity of humor in several works, yet he feels trapped by the label of humorist. He feels that the reader has come to expect this of him and ivill not accept him as a serious writer. Truth in art is another topic Iskander turns to. He strongly believes that the author must be truthful as well as humorous. This imposes some problems for the Soviet writer, as Iskander shows in fig;gg;§ig_figzlgtgng. Uhen Iskander tries to write down the things the kolkhoz 25 chairman says for an article about the goatibex, the chairman will not allow him to write anything down, saying that not every truth could be written down. The chairman says that he will inform Iskander if something is worth writing about. This theme is closely connected with the theme of humor, another recurrent theme in Iskander’s prose. Iskander asserts that humor can be attained only after descending to the depths of pessimism and discovering that there is nothing there either. The traces of the trip back from the abyss will be genuine humor. Humor is Joined together with truth. For something is only truly humorous if it is truthful. People need humor and thereby truth even if it is from a Jester. One must not take oneself too seriously, otherwise it will lead to their own demise as it did in the case of ancient Rome. At the same time if you can laugh at something, it stops being as fearful. Since Iskander uses his gentle humor to poke fun at a number of sacred topics, he helps the society to laugh at its own excesses and problems, be they in the government sector or in private life. The theme of Abkhazia is central to Iskander’s works, which contain a wealth of information concerning Abkhazian customs. Many of the customs surrounding courtship and marriage are covered extensively in Iskander’s prose. 26 Iskander explains that young people try to arrange meetings in a neutral home, which has no family ties to the prospective bride or groom. The groom would inform a distant relative that he would be arriving on a certain day with a stolen bride. At times the girl did not know of the abduction. This is illustrated in the chapter umzfignlg from gandgg i; figggma. At other times it was really the case that they eloped. The chapter I‘ll, £212 ham: illustrates this for Tall herself planned to meet bagrat on the appointed evening. After the abduction, the bride’s relatives try to stop the young lovers before the marriage is consumated. In Tali’s case since they are too late, they leave the two in peace. In the chapter umzkgnlg, the relatives do not succeed in overtaking the two couples. At the end of ten days, the newlyweds return home to celebrate. But by no means are all marriages the result of abductions. Many marriages are arranged between two families. In such cases, the groom’s relatives visit the bride’s house. when both sides agree to the terms including the bride’s dowry, a gun is fired into the air to seal the agreement. This procedure is illustrated in 31:13:11.: 151nm The wedding celebration is accompanied by a huge feast. At the feast as at all Joyous celebrations, a tamada heads the table giving toasts and entertaining the guest with stories. The guests frequently sing, dance, 27 and drink until dawn, as Iskander describes in the povest’ Mumm- To be considered a prOper groom, a man had to prove himself by performing some type of daring escapade. He might steal someone’s horse as KolEerukiJ did. Likewise a young man could take something else. B Te BpemeHa B Hamnx KpaHX noonecrb mqunnm npOBepfinaCb cnoc06HOCTbm c Hanoonbmen nepaocrbm yrHaTb qymoro KOHH, CTano OBeu, Hnn B KpafiHeM cnyqae KOpOBy. A proposal could be refused, as happened in the short story 31929, if the intended groom had not proven his valor. - Futhermore, there are numerous descriptions of funerals, as well as references to the subJect of death, which present the reader with an accurate, composite picture of these customs. when an Abkhazian dies a messenger of woe is sent out to the neighboring villages to inform everyone. The funeral is held at home. As relatives and friends come to the funeral, each mourner, after removing his hat, is accompanied up to the coffin by someone who is to prevent the mourner from inJuring himself during his manifestations of grief. Everyone brings food for the funeral feast. While they drink in silence, the mourners listen to the words of wisdom from someone called upon to speak. The female relatives wail in the background. A husband, however, is expected to remain dry-eyed and to show no emotion at his wife’s 28 funeral as he views the shawl-wrapped body of his wife. All follow a set ritual of mourning called 'sax‘ej-vax‘ej.‘ Forty days after the death, a feast is held (a I'Sorokovina") to honor the departed soul. According to Abkhazian custom, a dead man must be buried in his family burial ground, no matter how far away he died, no matter how long it takes to discover where someone is buried. Tradition decrees that the deceased will only find peace and release his soul to heaven when he lies buried in Abkhazia. Hospitality, symbolized by bread and salt, is exhibited in many aspects of everyday life. Iskander continuously points out various individual customs. When a person returns a container he borrowed, he must not return it empty. Instead he must put something it it and apologize if it is not completely full. whenever an Abkhazian man is at home, his kitchen door must stand open all day long as a symbol that the owners are willing to receive a passing traveler and give him something to eat and drink. A closed door is considered to be the sign of a stingy host. Any thirsty or hungry traveler is welcome. If darkness overtakes someone along the road, he must be invited in to spend the night. It is even considered a matter of honor to take in a wounded abrek (an outlaw), despite the possibility of trouble from the government. 29 A deep respect for old age is also embeded in Abkhazian customs. Even an abrek would not dare raise a hand against a patriarch. An interesting custom is brought out in the novel fianggg L; Egggmg. A man cannot soak his feet in the same spot in the water of a river or stream after he drinks there. He must go downstream so as not to muddy the water. Allah will punish those who violate the customs. In addition to having their fortunes told, the people consult with the mullah when they aren’t sure how to interpret events. In the chapter I;ll,,§uflg'§gggmg of fignggg,11_§gggmg, Sandro and his wife call in the mullah to read a prayer of deliverance over their daughter’s pillow and to determine if she is under the influence of forces of good or evil. The mullah is the only one who possesss and reads the Koran. He reads from the Koran and places an amulet around Tali’s neck. People pay for his services by giving him poultry or livestock, perhaps a goat. Personal and family honor are valuable qualities, to be protected at all costs. Relatives consider it their duty to avenge the wrongs inflicted upon a family name. It is considered in very poor taste to refuse the hospitality of a fellow Abkhazian without good reason. Personal integrity is highly regarded. Informers are 38 dealt with swiftly, the punishment matching the crime. It is an old Moslem custom to cut off an informer’s ear and tongue. According to another Abkhazian custom, a woman cannot use guns or other weapons. She will defile the weapon.‘ At the same time, the weapon dishonors the woman. A woman can take up a gun only if there are no men left in her family to avenge spilled blood. Along with presenting the reader with a wide array of customs, Iskander also gives a fairly detailed account of several aspects of rural life. Native Abkhazian food and drink are present in most works, sometimes even with descriptions of how a particular dish is prepared. Such items as mamaliga (corn hominy), gurek (unleavened round bread), halva (a mixture of honey and nuts), aJika (a spicy condiment from walnuts, garlic, red pepper, and other spices), hagapuri, kumys (fermented mares milk), sagivi (spicy walnut sauce), sasfiyk (pieces of muton roasted on a spit), tabaka (spicy chicken), has, lobio (spicy bean dish), caga (liquor from grape pressings), araki (strong fruit liquor), and ayran (mixture of yogurt and water) are present on the tables of Abkhazian homes. The reader learns about various aspects of farm life, encompassing the particulars of beekeeping, making wooden shingles, farming, hunting, goatherding, and tending to 31 the cows, horses, and poultry through a series of excellent genre pictures. Problems relating to several diseases present in that area of the Soviet Union are also pointed out. Malaria, small pox, tuberculosis, and rabies are the four illnesses about which Iskander gives accounts. Although they get shots and medicine, people still follow many of the ways of folk-medicine. Relatives call in the 'znaxarka' to prepare a potion in giggg to ward off rabies and in Qggggg ggtgtgg to get rid of Iskander’s malaria attack. In the latter case, the znaxarka says Iskander must drink the urine of a pure white goat to rid his stomach of the malaria. The elaborate precautions surrounding an outbreak of small pox (called 'carskiJ gonec') are reported in the story ”3211;. As Iskander describes life in Abkhazia, the history of the area is also presented and forms another maJor theme of Iskander’s prose. He begins with ancient history, which occupies a small role in his works. In the first century 8.8., Romans built fortifications at the site of what is now Sukhumi, originally established as the Greek city Dioscurias. In the story finalizanln,g_ignngl Lgpgnkgm, Iskander takes the Englishman diving to try to find the walls of the ancient city said to exist in the sea off the shore of Sukhumi. Then in the sixth century A.D., the 'Great Abkhazian wall' was built to keep out 32 maurading northern tribes. Iskander specifically states in Qggggg ggtgtv; that he frequently played along the wall during his childhood, unearthing the bones of distant ancestors. These ancestors, Svans are an ancient race native to the high mountain valleys in the Caucasus. They still practice several ancient customs including polygamy. There are a number of references to the lore about this race present in several works, including Svjatoe ozero and m 3 £9an However, the maJority of the history concerns Abkhazia from the mid-1840s to the present. There were a series of revolts in the 1840s, and Abkhazian peasants emigrated to Turkey, deluded by promises of wealth and religious tolerance. This emigration was repeated once more in the 1860’s following the annexation of Abkhazia by the Russian Empire. Some of the emigrants returned to their villages in the 1880s. Iskander informs the reader of this through the stories told by his grandfather in Qggg§kg. A HaM no BToro POBOpHHH, qTo B Typunn xneéoaocnme nepeBBH n caxap H3 semnn npnmo, Kax cons no6uBamT.9 na HaM POBOpHnn, --o6BBCHHmT Hamu, -- HTO B Typunn npfiMO n3 Bemnn pomT, Kan conb, n xneoecame nepeBBH paCTyT. BOT MH H pemnnn -- HpOKOpMHMCH, pas nepeBbH xneooaocnme H caxapy Kaxnmn ce6e momeT HaKOHaTb. na MH n mycnnbmaHCTBo, no npaBne CKaBaTb, HB-Ba STOPO anHHnn. Hac uapb npennaran OXpHCTbHHHTb, na Mm orxaaanncs. Rebel outlaws formed bands in the highlands of the Caucases and resisted the annexation by Russia. 33 Iskander’s grandfather also tells Iskander about abreks in the story Qggugka. The reader gains more information concerning them in the novel Sggggg_11_égggmg. Sandro’s cousin is the abrek Sxasciko. The period of time from 191? to 1921 was a time of revolution and civil war for Abkhazia as it was throughout Russia. In April, 1918, Zordenia, a Menshevik, declared Transcaucasia to be independent of Russia. The territory consisted of Abkhazia, Georgia, Azerbaidzhan, and Armenia. The Battle of the Kodor took place in May, 1918. The Mensheviks gained a victory here in their battle for control of Transcaucasia. These events are described in the novel fignggg 11 figggma, Iskander devotes an entire chapter to the battle over the river Kodor. Sandro was a witness to the events. Elsewhere in the novel, Sandro and other characters comment on the difficulty of life during unstable times when the government changed hands a number of times. Groups of soldiers and deserters roamed the country, looting as they went. The first chapter of fiangLQ‘Lz‘Egsgmg described the plight of the Armenian tobacco merchant at the hand of the Mensheviks. The Red Army regained control of Transcaucasia in 1921, making Abkhazia a Republic of the Soviet Union. Nestor Lakoba, who appears repeatedly in the novel, was made the leader. Lakoba along with many rulers are 34 present at a feast for Stalin. Included among those present are Beria, Uoroshilov, and Kalinin. Lenin put his New Economic Policy into effect beginning in 1921. Iskander describes the effects of NEP on the Persian merchant Alixan. The policies become more and more restrictive and, in effect, force Alixan to close down his coffee shop and resort to selling home-made candy and steamed walnuts at the market and on the pier. Between 1922 and 1923, Lenin wrote a secret document. In this document he warned of the danger of a break between TrotskiJ and Stalin. Lenin also voiced his opposition to Stalin’s policies against minorities. Iskander is quite outspoken in his support of Lenin and hatred of Stalin. This comes through clearly in the chapter Xarlampo i Despina in Sandro L; Gegema, flggzg Qiagz. A distorted version of these guidelines specifically pro-Abkhazia is presented here. Iskander’s feelings for Stalin are apparent, not only in this chapter but throughout the novel and in many other works. Aesopian language is used to identify Lenin as 'tot,¥to xotel xorogego,no ne uspel.‘ At the same time, Iskander nicknames Stalin I'bol’gie usy." Frequently this is how the narrator or another character refers to Stalin instead of by name. In many works, someone will say that he dislikes mustaces in general, or men who have mustaces. In the chapter Pirz Valtasara, Iskander goes as far as 35 portraying Stalin as a thief and murderer in the days before he came to power. Throughout the novel, there are references to Stalin as a vampire or to his vampirish programs. The problems inherent in the power structure under a dictator are explored by Iskander, particulary the attempts by secret police to enlist the help of individuals. Lgtnim gg£m_discusses the period of German history under Hitler and the Gestapo, detailing how the Gestapo, fishers of souls, try to trap someone into working for them. Kgglifil‘l,ugagz, puts the problems of dictator and informers on the allegorical level by describing the social structure of rabbits and boa constrictors in Africa. Here too the secret police try to get men to sell a small piece of their soul. People convince themselves that they have only done one small deed; not realizing that once they commit a treacherous act, no matter how small, they can no longer regain their pure soul. Iskander also describes the allure of power and the affect this has on the actions of those under its spell. The year 1929 marks the beginning of the collectivization of agriculture. The widespread resistance in Abkhazia is reflected in Iskander’s prose. Xabug, Sandro’s father, explains the feelings of those peasants who resist the government’s efforts. He could 36 not understand the government policies. TaK omno HEHOHHTHO, rne cyneT Konxos nepmaTB CKOTnHy, ecnn ee cooepyT co Boero cena? Hoqemy He CTponT BapaHee oonbmnx KOpOBHHKOB n KpHTHX BaPOHOB nnn OBeu H K03? KaKan cnna BaCTaBHT erCTbHH x0pomo paooTaTB Ha oomeM none, Korna anon H Ha CBoefi ycanboe paooTaeT Koe-KaK? A rnaBHoe, qero He BHpaBHTb CHOBOM n qero HHKorna He nonmyT 3TH qecyquue nncapn, KTO me Baxoqu paGOTaTb, a MOKeT n mnTb Ha Bemne, ecnn OCBepHHTbCH cama Tanua nran Tucnqenernnn, oeaorquHan, KaK Tafiaa none? TanHa nxan erCTbfiHHHa K CBoemy nonm, K CBoen nonone, K CBoen KOpOBe, K CBoemy ynbm, K CBoemy meneCTy Ha CBoeM KyKypyBHOM none, K CBOHM BHHOPpanHHM rposanM, paanaBneHHuM CBOHMH HOFaMH B CBoen naBnnBHe. M nyCTb 3T0 BHHO HOTOM pacxnemeT n pacxneoaeT Caano co CBOHMH npomanmramn, na TanHa—To OCTaHeTCH c HHM, ee-To OHH HHKaK He pacxnemyT n He pacxneoaKT. M ecnn on BmpyqaeT nenbrn 3a CBon CKOT nnn Ta6aK, TaK TyT neno He TonBKo B neHBraX, KOTOpHe Tome Hymnm B XOBHHCTBe, a neno B TOM, qTo n Ha caMHx 3THX nenbrax, qero HnKaK He nonmyr Bce 3TH qecyquae rpaMOTeH, Ha camnx srnx neHBraX nemnT cnanKoe KonnOBCTBo Tannu H,M0xeT, TeM OHH x0pomn, q'ro1 mynan nx, Bcerna MOXHO anKOCHyTBCH K TanHe. Among his neighbors and relatives, Xabug says after each drink: "Etoby {tot kumxoz oprokinulsJa, kak eta rJumka.' (Kumxoz is Abkhazian for kolxoz.) The workers on the kolkhoz are described as lazy workers. The government regulations concerning the kolkhoz are shown to be illogical. Plans are drawn up and there is no leeway given for adverse weather conditions. An independent farm owner, Daur, tells Xabug that the latest directive from the government tells the kolkhox workers to harvest the tobacco crop on a certain date according to the "plan'. even though the crop was not mature enough and needed more 37 time before it would be ready for harvest. Earlier in the year, the low-lying fields had not dried out properly before the corn was planted, so the crop turned out to be stunted. Again the 'plan' dictated the proper time, not weather conditions. Indeed it is not only men, but even Xabug’s mule who expresses the views that the kolkhoz is bad and the workers are unenthusiastic and lack dedication. The government had a program for the consolodation of Kolkhozes. Iskander brings out the illogical manner in which this too was accomplished. In the povest’ gogggggie kgglgtgng, two kolkhozes are merged together. But the farms had totally different crops. One kolkhoz produced tea, the other tobacco. Neither chairman knew or cared much about the other crop. Many hard feelings were created when one chairman was promoted over the second one. In contrast private plots are more productive than on the government land. The workers take their time here and make sure that they fertilized the land with manure, even if only that found along the road. The period from 1936 to 1938 was the time of purges conducted by Beria under Stalin’s orders. There are numerous references to the purges in Iskander’s prose. Iskander refers to this period as I'Xuma tridcat’ sed’mogo goda.‘ The people who were taken away during this plague are decent people, not traitors or criminals. Although 38 the purges lasted a year and then stopped, those arrested were not released. It can be inferred from what is stated in fignggg,1;,égggmg, that Iskander’s father was among those taken in ’37: naBHum-naBHo, Korna ceCTpa ero Buxonnna 3amym 3a napHn n3 Myxyca, 0H, exan B qncne conpOBomnammnx HeBeCTy.... Toro napan, myxa ero ceCTpm, Tome Bannn B TpnnuaTB cenbMOM Pony, H OH Torna TaK me, KaK H KyHaKy, npennaran emy CHpHTaTbCH B necy n nepexnaTB runnoe BpGMH. TOT Tome He Baxoren HpHTaTbCH n BOT ceCTpa ero ocranacs onHa B ropone c nByMH neTbMH Ha pyKax. Konequ, ponHue en nomoramT, na n cama ona pa60TaeT cann- TapKon B oonbnnue, HO nerKo nn B ropone onHon c TpEMH neTBMH. Although others, such as Pata PateraJa, lead dancer of the Abkhazian Song and Dance Troupe, don’t avoid arrest, Sandro narrowly manages to avoid it by resigning from the troupe. During this time of fear, informers are prevalent. Xabug comments on the fact that informers have even appeared in Chegem. Two incidents involving anonymous letters denouncing people are recounted. In one instance described in the short story figlfiiggfiil, an anonymous letter is received by the kolkhoz chairman denouncing KolceruiJ for planting tung trees above his grave. The second instance involves a letter received by the newspaper 3 g Snptggnlgg denouncing the kolkhoz chairman suspected of mistreating the goatibex. Although neither case results in an arrest, the possible problems raised by a I'written document“ are vividly conveyed. 39 World War II breaks out. In 1942 the Germans invade Abkhazia, trying to gain control of the oil fields in the northern Caucasus. Loss of loved ones, a disrupted economy, shortages, lack of workers on the kolkhoz, and the bombing of cities are all aspects of the war that Iskander brings out in his prose. In zlngmgnt, two German parachutists are even captured. Various ethnic groups are uprooted by Stalin in 1948. They are resettled in remote areas. In the chapter WimwsmumMm. Iskander mentions that the Greeks are deported to Kazakhstan via trucks in one such mass relocation. In 1953 Stalin died and Khrushchev emerged as the new ruler. The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was held in 1956. It is at this congress that Khrushchev denounced Stalin and h a cult of the personality. Chegemians approved of the speech, Iskander states in figgggg l1,figggmg, nggzg,glagz. In the 1960’s Khrushchev dictated that the government would only buy bay leaves from the kolkhoz. This was an effort to cut down on profiteering by private individuals. Sandro complained that the government would not buy the bay leaves that he had harvested since he was not associated with any kolkhoz. Iskander also describes a number of problems concerning life in Abkhazia under Soviet rule. Some 40 matters are briefly referred to, such as the campaign against religion. In Sandro l; figggm; in the chapter lgtgglg_mglgl;gggg ggngga, churches are to be closed to deprive the priest of his forum. In accordance the Greek Church in Mukhus is closed. Later it is opened and closed a number times. During the time of the cult, the names of local rivers, mountains, and valleys were changed from their ancient Abkhazian names. Even after the end of this period of Soviet rule the names were not changed back. Iskander covers the theme of campaigns extensively. They are a prevelant part of Soviet life and are organized for any conceivable reason. Campaigns such as those of Lysenko were supposedly based on scientific evidence. The story line of 5912;;g1; kgllgtgna centers around one such campaign to promote a hypothetical animal, the goatibex. word came down from Moscow that the 31g_§gp1£ggl 1 must promote the goatibex. The campaign included a write-in campaign to educate the public and to invite questions concerning the goatibex and a poetry contest. Iskander also provides the reader with glimpses into the seamier side of Soviet life. Bribery is one such problem. It is possible to get a room in a hotel that is full with the right connections or a bribe. Auto inspectors are often on the take. In leZniki, Iskander’s cousin Uanegka Mamba, a wheeler-dealer who is always 41 trying to get an extra ruble transporting fruit illegally or dealing in gas, complains about the inspectors. Either they will not take a bribe, want too much, or else along one stretch of road three inspectors take bribes yet the last one will not. Mamba also talks himself out of a speeding ticket. Sandro’s favorite Tengo, another road inspector, also takes bribes. Problems in the economy are another topic found in Iskander’s prose. There are shortages of consumer goods and government stores are inadequately stocked. To fill the need, peasants take their crops to Moscow to sell at the market at higher than normal prices. A number of people have dealings on the black market. People board the trains at rural stops to sell produce to the riders. In addition to Vanecka Mamba, the dentist in Sanggg Ll figggma is stealing gold and profiteering. Government regulations are totally inconsistent. To illustrate this, Iskander retells the story of his aunt’s cow. The cow could not stay with relatives in the country. A new government regulation required all cows to remain with the person to whom they are registered. By law it was permissible to keep a cow in the city; however, it was illegal to graze it within city limits. The drinking problem is a concern of several of Iskander’s works. In particular Iskander is concerned with drunk workers and drunk drivers. On a bitter cold 42 evening Iskander comes across a drunk as he leaves the subway station. Iskander attempts to get him home, but the drunk refuses to tell Iskander (or cannot remember) where he lives. Iskander compromises by getting the drunk to a protected, more populated area. In another story Egg ggkglipsgm, two drunk factory workers are sitting and drinking near a beer stand by the train station, obviously a common sight. Then in fignggg l; figgemg, aggz; alggz, one of Iskander’s relatives is arrested for drunk driving, a common occurence for him, and has his license suspended. The drinking problem is linked with the problem of hooligans. In Eggggmlgnig,fgl’givxmngggggikgv a man is lying on the grass in what appears to be a drunken stupor when a hooligan attempts to rob him. However, the 'drunk' rolls over and traps the thief’s hand in his pocket. Hooligans occur elsewhere in Iskander’s prose. Kaban, the neighborhood bully, attempts to intimidate Iskander’s grandfather. This eighteen-year-old youth shows no respect for his elders and even dares to make an obscene gesture in his direction. Another hooligan called Keropcik causes problems in the story 291mglgig. To have a good time at the bazaar, Keropcik and a group of friends kicked over the merchant Alixan’s tray, breaking the glass tray and spilling candy onto the wet pavement. 43 The criminal element of Abkhazian life is also shown by Iskander. His world is also peopled with thieves, armed assailants, and murderers. Jason is a thief, who has already been in Jail for having a fist fight in a resturant. Cik suspects that Jason even killed a man during a robbery. Whether this is true or whether Jason was merely bragging, remains unclear. In figggkgi 15952193, UolodJa is attacked by an angry driver wielding a crowbar. The driver’s friend comes to back him up and also goes after volodJa with his crowbar. Outnumbered and backed to the wall, VolodJa remembers that he has a pen knife in his pocket. UolodJa pulls it and uses it as one man attacks again, unfortunately killing his assailant in the process. UolodJa is arrested and sent to prison. Even the subJect of prostitution is briefly touched on. Iskander merely notes its existence without moralizing about it. In L; gaggkgzgg g fiikg, Cik encounterss a prostitute at the police station when he gets in trouble for grazing his cow in the city. She has been arrested for engaging in a forbidden profession. The woman, who has a brightly colored dress and a heavily made-up face, is given twenty-four hours to leave town. The indoctrination of young minds is a further topic presented by Iskander. Youth magazines exhort children to be watchful for enemy activities. In u91,g13fl1; 13ml; {ggtnzx gravi! a young pioneer describes in one such 44 magazine how he exposed a German spy. Iskander falls under the spell of the story and decides that his own uncle must be a spy as well and devises a plan to unmask him. Not only does Iskander unfold the customs and history of Abkhazia but he does this for another purpose than simply to inform. Iskander takes the position of many village prose writers. He is adamant that this old, traditional way of life is of value. Roots, ties to the past and the land, are important. KpaeM neTCTBa H BaCTan nanHapxanBHym nepeBeHCKym mnanb onaann n Hcherna nonmonn ee. MomeT oars, n nneannanpym yxonnmyp mnsnb? MomeT GHTb. quOBeK He BOBBHmaET To, qTo OH nmonT. Hneannanpyn yxonnmnn oopas mnsan, Boamomao, MH caMH TOFO He COBHaBaH, npenannneM cqu oynymemy. Mu emy KaK om FOBOpHM: --BOT HTo MB TepneM, a HTo TH HaM naemb BsameH? HyCTB 6ynymee npnsanymaeTcn Han 3THM, ecnn ono Booome cnocoono nymaTb. Many of the problems present in Soviet life are the result of changes in the way of life. Long standing traditions have been broken. The peasant is divorced from the land and placed in the collective where he works the government’s land. The workers are missing the all important tie to the land, 'their land,ll and no longer care about the crops. The plan dictates how and when planting and harvesting should be done, rather than 45 weather conditions. Young people have lost respect for their elders. People are no longer friendly and hospitable. They distrust one another, even inform on each other. Along with general dissatisfaction and alienation comes an increase in the drinking problem. As the new Soviet man loses or throws away tradition to follow the new path to building communism, Iskander wants to know what beliefs of equal value are being substituted. One hears echoes of this sentiment in many of Iskander’s works, as in Lg! fgggli g ggpggg’JQx Kgggga, in which Iskander muses on the lost fishing ability of Abkhazians. Booome cpenn aoxasueB penKo BCTpeTnt puoaKa. nnn Hapona ncnOKon BeKOB manero y MOpH, 3T0 CTpaHHOCTb, n nymam, TaK omno He Bcerna. Mae KameTcs, Hecqacrnoe nepeceneane B Typunm B npomnom BeKe BaXBaTnno npemne Bcero anenen anMOpr n peqaux nonnn. Bmecre c HHMH, BaBepHoe, n ooopBancn nnn aoxasueB pmoaun npo- mucen. Ecnn B Haponnofi naMHTH, nonymanOCB MHe, MOPyT fiuTB npOBanm, 3a6BeHbe TaKnx BPHMHX npomucnOB, TO KaK me Hano depeqb oonee xpynKne HeHHOCTH, QT05H OHH He ncqeann, He ynequnnHCB. The home of Iskander’s grandfather in the country is an oft repeated image running as a leitmotif through Iskander’s works, reminding the reader of the past and its value. Iskander reflects on this in M3 L1. m, m u. tum. mu 91m. mm mm. m. and figzggzglg‘kgzlgtgna. Iskander’s sister concurs with this feeling in ugrggz, saying that it was a mistake to abandon the country. In ugggfigi‘gkggglgn, Iskander again 46 feels the pull of ties to his homeland and wants his daughter to be aware of her roots. This feeling is expressed best in §ozvgzgie kgzlgtgra. In all, twenty-two pages are entirely devoted to life in the Abkhazian country-side. Iskander lists the aspects of daily life he misses. Cenuac, rne 6H a an mun, y mean HeT n B nomnHe Ton mapKon panOCTHOn THFH B ropon. HaoOopOT, a Bee qame n qame quCTBym, qTo MHe He XBaTaeT nenymKnHoro noma. MOXGT OuTb, HOTOMY HTO nenymKnHOPO noma yme HeT -- CTapme ymepnn, a mononHe nepeexann B rOpon nnn noOnnme K HBMY. A Korna OH Own, Bce He XBaTHnO Bpemenn OHBaTB TaM name, a ero Bce OCTaBan npo Banac. H BOT TenepB TaM HnKoro HeT, n MHe KameTcn, qTO n orpaOneH, HTO KaKon-TO mon rnaBHun KopeHB OOpyOneH. name ecnn n TaM OmBan penKo, camon OBoefi mnsnbm, CBOHM oqamHuM nHMOM, noOpon Tenbw CBOHX nepeBBeB OH HOMOPan MHe Hanann, nenan mean cmenen n yBepeHHen B ceOe. H Gan nhon HeynanM, HOTomy qTo qacTB moen mnsan, M0e Hanano mymeno n xnno B ropax. Korna qenOBeK omymaeT CBoe Hanano n CBOe npononmenne, OH menpen n npaBnnBHen pacnonaraeT CBoen xnsbnm H ero prnHen orpaOnT, HOTOMy HTO OH He Bce CBOH OoraTCTBa nepmnT npn ce6e.16 It is Iskander’s belief that other nations besides Abkhazia do not have the same beauty of customs nor do they value family ties. Even the Abkhazians are losing these desirable qualities. While some of this is due to inevitable changes in society, it is also partially due to government policies. Nations are up-rooted and settled far from their native land due to fear, as well as a desire to make the Soviet Union one harmonious whole, speaking one language only. Iskander laments this change: 47 ...Ceroan He cnmmno rpequKOn u TypeuKon peqn Ha Hamefi Bemne, n nyma MOH neqannTcn n onyx MOE ocnpOTen. H c neTCTBa HpHBHK K Hamemy maneHBKomy BaBnnOHy. H HpHBHK cnmmaTB B Bosnyxe ponnnu a6xaBCKyK peqb, pyCCKym pqu, rpyanCKyK pqu, MHHrpenBcKyw peuB, apMHHcKyK peqb, TypeuKym pqu, ennypcKyr pqu /na, na, nnnn Cannpo, ennprKyK Tomei/ n Tenepb, Korna n3 BTorO cnanocTHoro MHororonOCBn, n3 OpHBKymero CBemeCTBm meOeTa HaponOB, Bmépomenu npnBuuHue ronoca, HeT panocTn cnyxy moemy, HeT ynoeHnn BosnyXOM ponnnull7 At the same time Iskander mourns the passing of the old way of life in the country, he extols the innate wisdom of the people- In sum is. £13m; _9_2'_e.n v 9.1.121. Iskander states that many people from the villages and country are illiterate yet they possess natural wisdom. Their souls are purer. The peasant lacks any temptation to hypocrasy. KJazym is referred to as a disguised King Lear among the Philistines. Expanding on this in Ujgatz, Iskander states that people can cram their head full of knowledge, yet still have a minuscule, undeveloped soul incapable of understanding the good in others. These city dwellers are consumed with envy of the greater wealth of their neighbors. The people are described as a healing power. It is an eternally living temple, which for centuries has been fostered. Parents have instilled in their children a mystical respect and love of the people. Tied in with the love of Abkhazia is Iskander’s deep love of nature. Iskander’s links with Turgenev and Eexov can be clearly seen in this area. His lyrical 48 descriptions also capture the nuances of the world around him, describing nature fully, giving the names of the many and varied trees, bushes, flowers, birds, and fish. Passages are written so that sounds, smells, colors, and textures are vividly pointed out. Vickie Babenko is correct when she states that Iskander captures nature with a painter’s brush.18 Iskander describes nature as: 'zemlJa pokryta tolstym, slabo pruzinJaggim sloem proXlogodneJ listvy"19 ; I'telesnyJ zapax razomlev‘eJ na solnce zeleni'ZO; llsly‘al gem-to volnuJu‘EiJ xelest zelenyx vergin'21; 'Ja vse ze zamegal krasotu moighyx, temno-serebristyx stvolov byka"22 'uJutyx podnoziJ bol’Xix derev’ev,zavalennyx kalenoJ prozlogodne} listvoJ'23; and Boanyx neca UpOHHBaH 6ecnpemeHmM meOeTOM nTnu. Ponoca nx ToanO caaqana Kamchn neHHeM, a HOTOM Haqnnaemb quCTBOBaTB, HTO OHH neperOBapnBamTcn, nepeKnnKamTcn, nepepyrnBamTcn, nepecmenBamTcn, a TO K npOCTO nepemnrnBachn. From the detailed pictures of birds (such as that of the woodpecker in Qggggglggtgtgg), of fish (in ugngkgl gfignnign), and of beekeeping (in figlL£glpggg;'gg££ggg am), it is evident that Iskander has observed life in the forest and sea carefully. Continuing the tradition of Turgenev and gexov, the forest and sea are not merely the background for stories, but active participants. It is as if they are friends and Iskander wants us to share in their beauty. 49 Nature is portrayed as friendly, bright, and pleasant. It has a calming influence: VXonnTB He XOTenOCB. OTTHByB Ha 60K Tnmenan KapmaH c pH6aMH, n ner XHBOTOM Ha Tennmn, nporpeTun connueM CTBon. OH cnerKa nOKaanancn non HanOpOM Bonu, TonKaBmen norpymeHHme B Bony BeTBH. BnHBOCTb rnyOOKon, GHCTpO OePymen Bona ycnnnBana omymeane HOKOH, HenoanxHOCTn. OT HarpeToro CTBona nonamancn BnHHmn aanax. Conneqnae nyqn CKBOBB MOKpHe 6men rOpnqo anTpaPHBnHCb K HOPaM. Mox meKOTan meKy, CTBon n0Kaanancn, n norpymancn B cnanKyK npemy. MypaBen menneHHO npoOnpancn no moen wee. CKBOBb npemg n nonyman, QTO naBHo He chaTuBan TaKoro HOKOH. 5 The two main images from nature found in Iskander’s works are the forest and the sea. The forest is mighty, brambly, interlaced with branches and roots. It is cool, inviting, and refreshing. Iskander portrays the forest as an animate being, 'vetvi, omyvaemye vodoJ, zeleneli kak ni v {em ne byvalo.‘ 26 Above the forest, there is a living sky. Stars tremble and sway. Hollow-clouds cut up the sky. Iskander loves the sea more than anything. As a child he made off for the beach whenever possible. The sea is always powerful and fresh. It too is a living entity, which laughs and caresses: 'Za stenoJ givet {to-to mogugee i prekrasnoe, i ne uspokoitsJa, poka ne prikosnetsJa k nemu.‘ 27 It too is usually friendly. But there is another side to the sea, for it can turn cold, indifferent, and hateful. The water which previously instilled a sense of peace suddenly turns into a hostile 50 current: 'Uoda vse vrazdebneJ Xumela vokrug menJa'28; and 'Nu i cert, podumal Ja, esge raz guvstvuJa zlobnoe userdie s kakim menJa taszila voda."29 Another time after almost drowning, it is described as a dirty swamp, 'slovno Ja plyl v teplom, ngaznom bolote'30. Yet despite the fact that the sea was dangerous, it still drew Iskander to it. He still loved it and sought solace from it: OH noquCTBOBan, qTo MOpe, KOTOpoe OH TaK annn moxeT 6HTb meCTOKnM n paBHOHYMHHM, no Bce paBHO OH ero nm6nn, KaK anHT KHBHB, Baas, qTO OHa MOKeT 6HTb u paBnonymHOn n meCTOKOn, H Bce-TaKn yanMO omnnan OT Hee qyna cqaCTBH.31 The beauty of nature needs to be preserved. In his concern about this Iskander is associated with many other contemporary writers, including Rasputin, Kazakov, and Astafev. One of the tasks of mankind is to prevent the poacher and careless tourist from spoiling the natural beauty found in the country. Iskander states this strongly in the story Svjatgg Qgggg. The mountain lake must be protected even if only through the help of half-believed ancient myths. Iskander is a nationalist writer. Abkhazian life in general, comprising the history and customs of life there, is a maJor theme. Iskander repeatedly states that he places a high value on life in the country. This places him squarely among the village prose writers including Kazakov, Astafev, Rasputin, and Nagibin (particularly in 51 their struggle for the preservation of the natural beauty found in the country). Like Kazakov, Iskander must leave the city and return to the country to be refreshed. It is among nature these writers and their characters feel at home. Here the individual is free to examine life along with its personal values. In keeping with the works of Rasputin and Astafev, Iskander is concerned about the changes occurring in society. MaJor shifts in values are taking place. All these writers want to be sure that the old way of life is not lost forever and at least that principles of equal worth replace those that disappear as the country continues to move in new directions and to modernize. Iskander differs from the other village prose writers in the local of his country and the tone of his works. Instead of the cold Siberian landscape of Astafev and Rasputin, Iskander describes the sunny coastal town of Suxumi. Along with the warmer climate, Iskander’s tone is lighter, tinged with satire and humor. While concerned with the same themes Iskander avoids the heavier, more depressing tone of Kazakov and Rasputin. Iskander’s childhood is a central theme running through his prose. His analyses of family ties and friendships are very astute and successfully convey the nuances of interpersonal relationships. Iskander focuses 52 on the personal, emotional response of a boy Just entering adolescence to the world around him. The adult also responds emotionally to the world. The search for love becomes a significant theme in those works concerning Iskander’s adult years. His descriptions of an awkward, inexperienced youth attempting to find the right girl are superb analyses of this stage of life. However, Iskander is pessimistic about his own ability to find true love, for he is attracted by physical beauty rather than spiritual beauty. Abkhazia is the single most important theme in Iskander’s works outside of his childhood. Iskander is a highly nationalistic writer who is concerned about the fate of his tiny country. He creates a detailed picture of life in Abkhazia, emphasizing the traditional aspects of life there. An important message directly related to this is carried by his works. Traditional values are being eroded by the new Soviet way of life. Iskander, as do many village prose writers, makes a strong plea that beliefs of equal value be substituted in their place. Nature is also extremely important to Iskander. This love of the land, connecting him with Turgenev and Cexov as well as Kazakov and many other contemporary writers, is deeply felt in his works. 53 Although Iskander often approaches his themes with humor, he takes the craft of writing and his themes seriously. His mission, the writer’s mission, is to speak the truth. Ngtes 1Fazil’ Iskander, VermJa sgastlivyx naxodok (Mosocw: l'MolodaJa gvardiJa,‘ 1973), p. 25. 2F. Iskander, Sozvezdi; koglgturg, in his Qggggg ggtstgg (Moscow: 'SovetskiJ pisatel’,‘ 1970), p. 274. 3F. Iskander, Letnim dngm, in his Dergvo detstva (Moscow: 'SovetskiJ pisatel’,‘ 1970), p. 281. 4F. Iskander, Dgn’ Kika, in his Pgrvoe gglg (Moscow: I'DetskaJa literatura,‘l 1978), p. 125. 5F. Iskander, Zagretnyj plog, in his ngvgg gelg (Moscow: 'DetskaJa literatura,‘ 1978), p. 46. 6F. Iskander, chmJg ggagtlivyx naxoggk (Moscow: 'MolodaJa gvardiJa,‘ 1973), p. 25 7F. Iskander, Mgrsng gkgngion, in his Pog ngLJQ agggfiggg Q:;53,(Moscow: 'SovetskiJ pisatel’,' 1979), p. 8F. Iskander, 51929, in his Z;nggtnz1,glgg (Moscow: 'MolodaJa gvardiJa,‘ 1966), p. 16. 9F. Iskander, We. [39on min, XLVI, No. 7 (196B), 67. lolhifl 11F. Iskander, Sanggg i; nggmg (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1979), p. 142. 12The English translation of In; figspgl 19 (New York: Vintage, 1984) p. 59 translates this as 'three.‘ The next sentence of this quote also gives the number of children as three on p. 58. 13W [Arms]. 99- 460-1- 14.I_p_isi-. pp. 7-8. 54 15FH Iskander, Lov foreli g verxov’Jax Kodora, in his Qggggg ggggtgg_(Moscow: 'SovetskiJ pisatel’,’ 1970), p. 129. 16 F. Iskander, Sogvgzgig kgglgtura,in his Dgrgvo ggtggva (Moscow: 'SovetskiJ pisatel’,' 1978), p. 270. 17 F. Iskander, Sandro i; ngemal novze giavz (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1981), pp. 79-80. 18Vickie Babenko, 'Fazil Iskander: An Examination of his Satire,“ ggsian Language Jogrnal, XXX, No. 106 (1976), 131-42. 19 Iskander, VgfigangJa gorgga, in his Pervgg gglg (Moscow: 'DetskaJa literatura, 1978),” p. 63. 20 M_ 2112151., p. 65. 22 L915!- 23 mg” p. 65-66. 24Ffi Iskander, Qggggka, in his ngvgg gelg (Moscow: 'DetskaJa literatura,‘ 1978), p. 93. 251.92 fgrgli g verggg’ng Kgdgrg, pp. 136-37. 26mg... p- 136- 27F- Iskamdcr. W. in his Wis—.10 (Moscow: I'DetskaJa literatura,’ 1978), p. 6 28ml! v uer. p- 138- M.’ p. 139- 30F} Iskander, Sggggg, in his ggifiitg éik; (Moscow: 'SovetskiJ pisatel’,‘ 1983), p. 251. 31F. Iskander, finpigig i Liupgg’ is 9395,“... w, No. 6 (1975), p. 31. 29 Chapter Two Main Characters The capacity to characterize is one of the most important abilities of a fiction writer. Iskander is a master at this craft. The people of Abkhazia come to life in the pages of his prose. Their lives unfold in Sukhumi, the capital of Abkhazia, the countryside surrounding this city, in the made-up setting of Cegem in Eastern Abkhazia, and in Moscow. These people are characters based on Iskander’s relatives, neighbors, and friends, carefully chosen for their colorful personalities. The reader will encounter many of these characters repeatedly in Iskander’s works. In this manner a network of more than two dozen characters is created allowing the reader to learn about additional aspects of their personalities and lives. Iskander’s works form one continuous whole, merging together as if comprising a huge Jigsaw puzzle or mosaic picture of Abkhazian life. These characters do not reflect the positive hero of the Socialist realist tradition. Many of his characters have their feet firmly planted in the past. The old traditions still influence their way of life. These survivors of the past are not exposed nor are they held up for scorn. There is no model of the New Soviet Man 55 56 presented for them to follow. There is no movement toward a new and better Soviet state. Rather Iskander’s writing follows the tradition of the little man in literature. Iskander himself states in the introduction to Sangno iz imam Cnenyn TpanHanM pyCCKon Knaccnqecxon nnTepaTypu, nOKaBaBmen nonHOCTB nymeBHOn mnsnn TaK HaBHBaeMOPO maneHBKoro qenOBeKa, n nHTamCB B Nepy CBOHX cnn paCKpHTb BaaanenBHOCTB BnnquKoro cymeCTBOBaHHH maneHBKOPO Hapona. His main characters include a tailor who works at home on the side, a palm-reader, Iskander’s crazy uncle, men who have not Joined the kolkhoz, and children whose fathers have been arrested in the purges. The most prominent character in his early works is Iskander as a boy of about ten years old. He appears in more than two dozen stories.2 His alter ego--5ik--is 3 In many works the portrayed in another seven works. members of Iskander’s family are described in detail. Iskander has a large extended family. Iskander’s immediate family consists of his father, mother, an older brother, and an older sister, all of whom remain nameless. Several relatives live upstairs from them: Iskander’s favorite aunt, his crazy uncle KolJa, and his grandmother. Many neighbors are also represented in these works. The Rich Tailor and his son Onik live upstairs as well. Alixan, a merchant who sells candy and roasted chestnuts, 57 lives in a shanty in the courtyard. In addition to Onik, several other children who live in the courtyard are Iskander’s friends: Lesik, Nika, and Sonka. The palm-reader was a frequent visitor in the courtyard. On his trips to the country Iskander frequently stayed with his grandfather and Uncle KJazym. KolXerukiJ lived nearby. KJazym’s brother, Uncle Sandro, is another relative Iskander met and visited when he was an adult. Iskander describes a character through his gestures, conversations, and interactions with other. Conversations are sprinkled with slang, colorful idioms, and Turkic and Abkhazian words to help individualize a person and at the same time to give the works the flavor of Abkhazian life. Iskander is skilled at using a key feature or mannerism to capture the essence of a person. It forms a leit-motif, repeated in subsequent works. Examples would be the Rich Tailor constantly appearing on his balcony and Alixan’s 'kruglye brovi nad kruglymi glazam1.' Iskander includes many realistic details in his rendering of a person’s habits and work. In describing KJazym, Iskander includes several excellent genre pictures of KJazym engaged in bee-keeping and in lancing an abcess on a cow. These details contribute to the construction of a separate identity as well as to the determination of that person’s place in Abkhazian life. 58 A large number of Iskander’s autobiographical works are told by an adult narrator, looking back on his own childhood. Several other works center around a narrator who tells about a young boy named Elk. gik’s attitude and background closely identify him with Iskander as a child. They have the same relatives, friends, and dog, and they share many of the same experiences. Although these stories are about a child, they are not written specifically for children. Told by an adult reflecting on his youth, the stories reveal psychological insight into a particular relationship or side of the boy’s personality, as he analyzes his own actions and those of the adults in his world. In the earliest stories of his childhood, the reader learns little or nothing of Iskander’s physical description, having to guess that Iskander/glk is about ten years old, quite strong, yet somewhat small for his age. Instead, since Iskander portrays himself in challenging situations, one learns about the boy through his words and actions in response to problems that develop, whether he fights off his aunt’s rooster with a chair, rides to the mill alone to get corn ground, or teaches himself to swim. The boy has a complex make-up. He is portrayed as an honest, feeling child having a highly developed sense of right and wrong, generally atuned to the false behaviour 59 in others, particularly adults, as shown in legl‘l 31:51:; and in the stories about Cik such as Caepitig i ngbgv’ k mgr’Jg. He divides other children into those who have learned that adults are capable of saying one thing and doing or thinking another and those who are naive and believe what adults say. Few children come to this realization about the hypocrisy. At he same time that he offers profound insight, he is often naive in his interpretation of the world. Iskander’s narrator is reminiscent of TolstoJ’s young narrator in the trilogy Qgtgtgg, thggggtgg, and Jgnggt’, as well as the boy Aleer in GoniJ’s Qgtgtgg. Iskander uses TolstoJ’s technique of ostranenie to have the boy comment on the world arround him, viewing things from a fresh perspective. Along the same vein, the boy does not go against his sense of Justice, even to support his idol. In the story Mgl,kgml£, Jura, Iskander’s idol, tries to pick a fight with a much smaller boy. He insists that the other boy started the whole thing. When Jura turns to Iskander for support, it is not forthcoming. Iskander can not back up his friend in a lie even though it means the end of their friendship. He finds it difficult to tell a lie and resents it if someone puts him in the position that necessitates a lie. 60 Another characteristic is his loyalty to family and friends. Iskander/Cik is quite compassionate in his dealings with the other children. Lesik, one of the boys in the courtyard, suffers from Cerebal Palsy. Eik goes to great lengths to include Lesik in such activities as making chewing gum from resin and riding Eik’s grandfather’s horse. Iskander/gik is shown to be quite cunning as well. Iskander develops elaborate plans in Vcemja pg §;;5m_to find out what time it is and avoid having people find out that he does not know how to tell time. He eventually figures out that he can learn to tell time without admitting to anyone that he does not know how, by standing in front of the store with a clock over its door and listening to the people as they go past. Iskander draws a three-dimensional portrait of the boy, who is not the perfect child. Iskander/gik has his share of short-comings. He attempts to steal sausage from the school cafeteria in fig; kgmig, tells on his sister for eating pork (thereby breaking the Moslem prohibition against eating pork) in Zagrgtan 219g, and teases his crazy Uncle KolJa (indeed he even decides that Uncle KolJa is a German spy and tries to provoke him into revealing himself) among other things. This is a portrait of a dynamic character. The climax in many of these works comes in a realization about 61 himself or another main character in the story. Due to his highly developed sense of right and wrong, Iskander/Cik accurately Judges the activities of the world around him, even if with a somewhat childish interpretation. Thus the reader encounters the boy at a time of discovery and growth. Point of view is controlled so that the reader lives through the experience with the boy and follows his thoughts as he tries to come to an understanding of his problem, producing a very successful, sympathetic character. There is another large group of prose in which Iskander is present as a student or an adult.4 At times he only performs the duties of narrator, as in a number of chapters from §an§gg,i; e ema. In still other chapters Iskander offers alternate interpretations to Sandro’s explanation of events. More frequently he is an active participant in the action, one example being nggglgig kgzlgtggg. Whether Iskander is narrator or active participant, one of his maJor functions is as commentator on what is happening in the world around him. Iskander attempts to present an obJective, somewhat detached opinion on matters, even when describing the campaign to promote the kozlotur and Iskander’s subsequent problems at work. Events call forth an honest, emotional response from him when they directly concern him, particularly on matters dealing with honesty and his native Abkhazia. 62 Iskander’s reactions and reminisences offer an alternate view to the aspects of contemporary life. This is most always done with a touch of humor, sometimes presenting a scene from a new perspective. Here Iskander is the unnamed narrator or takes the name SergeJ5 or Zenon.6 These works reinforce the traits evident in the stories of Iskander’s childhood. Iskander continues to maintain a highly developed sense of right and wrong, values honesty and friendship, and is curious, analyzing his relationships and the world around him. In figlatgg nggg, Iskander does not believe the Svanian tale told by the shepherds about the lake being enchanted so he goes off to prove them wrong. In Lgtnlm,gngm and ii 'n ; igngi_l_ggbgn§gm, Iskander meets foreigners and matches his preconceptions with reality. In the stories of his youth Iskander is a student in Moscow. Although he is pulled to the city life, there are still strong ties to life in Abkhazia. When Iskander returns to Abkhazia for vacations and once again experiences the beauty of nature, it calls for an emotional response which acknowledges the value of this life close to nature and is concerned about the need to preserve this way of life. This feeling is reinforced in the works describing Iskander’s adult life. Part of the pull towards life in Abkhazia is the close ties with his family. 63 In the group of works about his adult years, Iskander is a writer. In §szgzgig kgzlgtgrg and Sgndrg i; m, he is a writer for the paper 33g Sgbtpgpics. In a number of other works, Iskander is a writer from Moscow.7 Sometimes he is described as being married and having a daughter. In the works of SergeJ, he is a writer from Moscow but his field is history, not literature. Iskander portrays himself as a soft touch. He cannot refuse people who want to borrow money from him. In the Eggngmlggi£_f ’ iv n t 'k v, he reveals that his defense against them, learned in childhood, is to pretend to be duped and to go along with them. Then he does whatever he wants to, later saying he forgot all about everything. At the same time, Iskander does not use his position to pull strings. He cannot help Uncle Sandro get gold teeth for Aunt KatJa in §angro i; figggm; nor does he use it to get a room at a hotel that is 'full.‘ Others pull it off as he ineptly stands in the background. Iskander’s adult portrait is also three-dimensional. He is presented as a complex, honest, feeling man. Throughout these works, he tries to maintain a reasonable, obJective point of view. He has his doubts about the way things are handled at the ng Sggtrgpicg and at the dentist’s office. Yet the doubts are presented in a gentle, humorous fashion which is disarming and diffuses the criticism. A portion of the humor is directed at 64 himself and his failings. Thus this slightly bumbling character manages to gain the reader’s sympathy- Iskander’s family plays a prominent part in his prose. However, there is little physical description of family members. They function as background or intermediate characters, interacting with Iskander to examine family relationships. Their portraits are more faceless pictures of a 'mother,' a I'father," a "sister,'I and a 'brother.‘ Iskander’s mother is present in fifteen works.8 Her first appearance is in the Zaprgtgzj glgg. Along with the other members of Iskander’s family she remains nameless. In ngrgtnzj 312g, we learn that she is the mother of three children: two sons and one daughter. Iskander is the youngest child. The first mention of his mother is that she, together with her good friend Aunt SonJa, sat for an entire month next to his bed nursing Iskander back to health. Iskander reemphasizes her patience and constant can in denial W- OHa naBana emy neKapCTBo, a same npOCTo Knana. emy Ha n06 MOKpoe nonOTeHue n cunena Bosne Hero, nomaanan qemfnnéynb, OCBemammnM Bosnyx,.n Ha nnue ee Omno Bapamenne BenHKorO Tepnennn, canon CBoen OesycnOBHo npeBocxonnmero ero Oonesnb, H OH 3T0 tI)!8CTBOB6JI, PI OT STOI'O 6M3? CTaI-IOBPIJIOCB nerqe. Iskander mentions in passing that his mother worked in a hospital in Sukhumi. 65 The brighter side of his mother’s image is only briefly glimpsed in two works. Usually Iskander draws his mother’s portrait as a picture of a woman who is trying hard to maintain a home and to do the best for her children, a difficult task during the war. Frequently she did this on her own, since Iskander’s father is absent from most works. If the bombing came too close to town, the family would be sent off to the country, where they were divided up among relatives with their mother staying somewhere in between. Her main concerns were the safety of her three children, their education, and obtaining food during a time of shortages. Iskander’s aunt lived upstairs and watched him while his mother worked. While this helped his mother out, enabling her to work, it also complicated matters. Since Iskander’s aunt was an opinionated, domineering woman, this led to a struggle with Iskander’s mother for control. But his aunt ruled over everyone. Iskander was left in the middle, torn between the two centers of his life. BneCB, BHHBy, y mama, -- chOBaTan HeofixonnMOCTB, nonr. TaM -- cnanOCTb nanana, CTpaCTb. Mon neTCKan nyma TpenemeT n 6beTCH memny STHMH nByMH nonmcaMH, eme He Benan, HTO OHH nonmca. MaTb -- nonr. TeTymKa -- CTpaCTb. Iskander gives some information of his mother’s family background and childhood in glggg. His mother is one of ten children in the family. 8y implication KJazym, Isa, 66 Maxaz, and Sandro are her brothers. One of her sisters is AJsa. Iskander is not explicit in delineating his family tree. Only the sister AJsa is mentioned by name in the story. It is only because their father is the same person described in other stories, that one is able to piece together the Jigsaw puzzle of the family relationships. Her father was a stern man. The girls all worked hard. Iskander states that this was good for his mother’s character development for it carried her through much that could have broken her. Iskander also touches on his relationship with his mother when he is an adult. In the story Mgla_miligija mgnia,pg;g{gt, Iskander has already had a book published and is about to go to Moscow. His mother, as always, tries to keep him from going. He needs a new coat and might catch cold before getting one. She still treats Iskander like a child. She wants to sew, or at the very least pin, letters of credit into his pocket. She doesn’t think he is well known enough as a writer to be able to buy a coat without the letters. This minute portrait of his mother is drawn lovingly but with a sense of humor. Qtratz contains the final mention of his mother. In an emotional story, Iskander writes that his mother, brother and sister all passed away in the same year. He deeply regrets that there is nothing he can do to show his love for them. 67 Iskander’s father plays an active role only in Zappgtnzj gigg. He is mentioned briefly in six other works.11 As with the other close members of Iskander’s family, his father remains nameless. In Zagrgtan 2129, his portrait is a mixture. He appears as both a loving father and angry man troubled by events at work. He returns home from work late, gloomy, and preoccupied. He becomes angry because Iskander’s mother had the rest of the family wait for dinner until he got home. Then during dinner Iskander’s brother tries to get his sister to eat the onions from his soup. His father gives him such a look that the spoon stops in mid air and returns. After dinner, however, he cheers up. He has managed to get ahold of nine new notebooks and distributes them evenly among his three children. Seeing that Iskander is upset, he tries to quiet him, promising to take Iskander fishing in the mountain rivers. His mood swings abruptly when Iskander tattles on his sister for breaking the Moslem law by eating pork. His father becomes extremely angry. His eyes are particularly expressive. In a rage, he grabs Iskander and throws him to the floor. 'Sukin syn!--kriknul otec.--Exge predateleJ mne v dome ne xvatalo!‘12 With an expression of disgust and hatred, he leaves the room, slamming the door. Iskander was in shock because he loved his father very much and this was the first time his father punished him. 68 The remaining references to Iskander’s father are very short. Yet they help the reader get a feel for the type of man he is. In Vrng; ggggglivzx ggxgggk, Iskander’s mother compares Iskander with his father: 'Ty, kak tvoJ otec, budes’ starat’sJa lea drugix.113 Then in Sanggg L; Egggmg, it is mentioned that his father took Alixan and his wife into their courtyard after Alixan closed down his shop. These incidents help form a portrait of a man who cares about others and tries to help them. The fact that Iskander’s father is a good family man is strengthened in the story Eggatzi pgrtngJ l gngglg. The reader is left wondering about the fate of Iskander’s father. Since his mother’s face takes on a sad expression when she speaks about his father, it is evident that some misfortune befell him. Yet there is no mention of why she should look so sad when talking about him. With so few references to him, one wonders whether something happened to Iskander’s father due the trouble at work, the war, or the purges. One indirect statement regarding this matter is found in §anggg,iz éggg_a. Maxaz states that his sister married a man from Sukhumi who was later arrested during the purges. Of his immediate family, Iskander’s older sister appears in his works the fewest timesn14 She is in five stories, and in three of these she is only mentioned briefly. These emphasize that there was the usual 69 relationship among the three children. The first story is gantggtnz1,plgg. Here his sister is an active participant. When eating at a neighbor’s, she breaks the Moslem custom and eats pork. Since Iskander is also present, his sister is afraid that he will tell at home. From this point on she is in a duel of wits with her brother to see who will get the upper hand in the situation. In these stories concerning their childhood, the relationship between them is portrayed as a typical brother/sister relationship, with sibling rivalry and teasing. In later stories, she receives only brief mention. These examples serve to emphasize the age and sex differences. In Kglgerykij when the family leaves the city during the bombings, his sister is able to get a Job at the local collective farm as a time-keeper. In Vggmia pg lagam, Iskander mentions how his sister and her friends listen to romantic stories written by her friend Liza. ytggtz describes the untimely death of the sister of a man named Zenon. It can be assumed that this is about Iskander and his sister. He obviously loved his sister deeply and felt a great emptiness when she died from multiple schlerosis. In this work her portrait is drawn with love tinged with sadness. In contrast to the portraits of his parents and sister, the character of Iskander’s older brother is drawn 78 with considerable humor.15 In addition to adding comic relief, he appears to be Iskander’s foil, for they are opposites in temperament and behavior. While Iskander did well in school, his brother is constantly in trouble there. His teacher came to Iskander’s house at least once a week to complain about his behavior and poor grades. In Zapggtnzi,nlgg, their sister tells how he Jumped out the window once to avoid his teacher. His reputation causes a problem when their mother tries to enroll Iskander in school, as described in M91 pgrsz gkgl’nzj ggg;. Iskander is held up as a good example to his brother: although in legl 1 strggti (1973), his brother gets the last laugh since Iskander’s grades aren’t as good as their aunt thought they were. His brother’s actions aren’t any better at home than they are at school. In Eggmig gfiagtlivz; ggxgdgk, Iskander tells how his brother refused to go to the nearest store for wine. He knew that no one would punish him that night and that by the next day, he would do some trick and be punished anyway. He is suspected of stealing his aunt’s cigarettes in Ngxgzg_tglnz. Iskander tells us in the story Vrgmj; pg giggm, how his brother as a Joke wrote 'i nogami, tolsten’kimi, kak bil’Jardnye nozki'16 at the end of a story by a friend of their sister, where she is describing the boy she loves. He would frequently tease his crazy Uncle KolJa as well. Nor were his 71 companions the best either. In Vozmgzdig, it is mentioned that he frequently talked to the hooligan Kerpocik after soccer games. Even when he was older, he did not seem to change. In nggrgjgjg gggggg, during the bombing when the rest of the family goes off to the country, Iskander’s brother remained in the village nearest town as one already polluted by urban civilization. He was recruited into the army. He sent word back to his family that he had been wounded and had been put in a hospital in Baku. In reality, he was homesick and wanted to see his mother before he went off to the front. Zaprgtnzj 212g contains a composite picture of Iskander’s brother. In school teachers describe him as a 'banyJ lobotrJas', whose temperament took the form of a I'xuliganistyJ certik'. From the fourth year on, he dreams of becoming a chauffeur. Every scrap of paper becomes an application to the Director of Transport. Yet when he finally obtains a position as chauffeur, he soon loses it due to speeding. Iskander’s final mention of his brother occurs in 91531;. This story is more serious and emotional than previous works, illuminating another aspect of the relationship between the two brothers. His brother dies in the same year as his mother and sister, greatly 72 saddening Iskander. Obviously there were strong ties with his family. In addition to his immediate family, a number of other relatives, along with his neighbors, appear in Iskander’s works. This nucleus is chosen as much for their unique personalities as for the analysis of various aspects of the relationships among family members. Since people are defined in terms of their relationships with others, this is the area Iskander explores. The characters develop, not along a linear road, but at the cross-roads where their lives intersect. Each relative or neighbor is present in several works as a minor, background character. Then in a particular work, the relative becomes the focus of closer scrutiny. Thus even though many characters appear in small bits and pieces, the cumulative effect is that of a round portrait. There are several common traits found in these characters. Although a number of them are illiterate, they possess cunning and innate wisdom which helps them make their way through life with strength and dignity. This is usually coupled with an inner strength, a sense of self-worth. One important relative in Iskander’s prose is his grandfather. Iskander creates a vivid picture of his grandfather17; and through the story of his past life the reader also glimpses a small picture of the history and 73 customs of Abkhazia. When describing his grandfather, Iskander’s tone is serious. The reader can feel the author’s respect for his grandfather, who is introduced in §lgvg. Iskander creates a masterful portrait of a man with great inner strength, who has worked hard all of his life. Twice he resettled in Turkey, each time returning to Abkhazia to start all over again from nothing. His dominant trait is his love of hard work, exemplified by his persistent chopping away at the blackberry branches. Physically he is small but quite strong. His face typically is stern, almost fierce looking, probably due to the constant hard work. Iskander also describes his feet. They are not the feet of a person from the city, but rather like those of peasants, or more particularly of Biblical characters such as the apostles or prophets: H CMOTpm Ha prnnue OTyan nenymKnHax Hor, Ha nx KaKoe-TO ocoooe, OquTnnBoe CTpOeHHe. Ha Kamnon Kore cnenymmnn 3a OonbmuM nanbueM prnHee Oonbmoro n KaK Om HaneaaeT Ha Hero. H BHam, qTo TaKne CTyan HnKorna He OuBamT y roponCKnx nmnen, TonBKo HOTOMy-TO y nepeBeHcKnx. POpaBnO nosxe TquO TaKne me Born a sameqan Ha CTapHHHHX KaanHax c 6n6neBCKnM cmmeTOM -- erCTbHHCKHe Horn anocTonOB n npopOKOB. His grandfather is described as being brave as well. In 11_nggkazgg 9 £151, he does not hesitate to go up against the much bigger Kaban, the top bully in Eik’s 74 neighborhood. gik’s grandfather cuts Kaban down to size quite handily. Others seem to resent his strength of character. They seem to wait for some small failure on his part, as Iskander does in Qedugk; when they are out chopping branches. It is as if a failure on his grandfather’s part now and then would make it easier to live with him. Even though he is quite critical of others and expects them to do their share of the work, Iskander’s grandfather has a more gentle side to him. In Qegggka, he takes the time to collect bilberries for everyone at home, to show Iskander bear tracks, and to tell Iskander stories about his past. Here, as in ngag; glad; Klgzzma, his grandfather talks to Iskander as an equal, taking time to explain things to him, such as what had happened to KJazym’s horse Kukla. Iskander’s love for his grandfather comes through the picture of a stern man, who has worked hard all of his life. Another relative who is quite prominent in Iskander’s works is his uncle KolJa, referred to as “my crazy uncle.“ This successful portrait is drawn with considerable humor and sympathy. He appears in eleven works.19 In fig; giggig 11ml; gggtgzx pnavi], Iskander focuses primarily on his Uncle KolJa. Uncle KolJa has a certificate signed by a famous psychiatrist verifying that he is crazy and permitting him to live at home. When 75 children start boasting of their famous relatives who are fliers, etc., Iskander has his trump card--a crazy uncle. The fact that he has a certificate to prove it makes it even better. Uncle KolJa has a limited vocabulary consisting of about 80 words, mostly Aabkhazian: but he swears in Russian and Turkic. Uncle KolJa is quite strong and would cheerfully do work such as bringing water, chopping wood, or carrying bags to and from the bazaar. Normally, he is quite harmless. He would sit on the bench in the courtyard singing songs he makes up. A number of unusual habits make KolJa the obJect of much attention and teasing. He is quite fastidious about cleanliness, washing his hands every fifteen minutes or so. This is especially true after shaking hands with someone. One thing Cik does to irritate his uncle is to blow in his uncle’s direction. Uncle KolJa would cover his cup of tea with a saucer to prevent germs from getting into the tea. In addition to his cleanliness fetish, Uncle KolJa has a number of other strange behavior patterns. He hates cats, dogs, children and drunks; loves sweets, in particular syrup water and lemonade. To calm him down, his aunt sends gik off with his uncle to buy him lemonade. Finally, Uncle KolJa is passionately in love with Aunt Faina, who lives in the shanty in the courtyard. She is already married and does not return his love, which 76 is inexplicable in light of his passion for cleanliness. Aunt Faina is coarse, untidy, and dirty. Uncle KolJa is satisfied to watch her work in her kitchen. He stands behind one wall, out of view of his mother and sister, and spies through the cracks. If he is caught, he shrugs his shoulders as if to say: “It is bigger than me.“ He is only able to stay away for an hour or two. This love continues until the day he dies. Although Iskander portrays the relationship with his crazy uncle in a humorous manner, Uncle KolJa’s portrait is also drawn with sympathy and compassion. On numerous occasions, Iskander writes that he feels sorry for his uncle when people tease him. In the story u91_g1;g1; 1£MZ£ Eggtnz; gravi], Iskander notices an expression of suffering and shame in his uncle’s eyes when people laugh about his great love for Aunt Faina. Iskander’s closing sentences of that story sum up his feelings for his Uncle KolJa. HeT, Bce-TaKn mnsnb n ero He OOnennna cqaCTnnBuMH MHHYTaMH. Benb OH nen, n neHne ero Ouno HpOCTHM n panOCTHHM, KaK nenne nTnu.20 Iskander’s grandmother21 lived upstairs with his aunt and crazy Uncle KolJa. She is KolJa’s mother. In the story fl91.giggig ggmzx gggtnzx gravil, Iskander describes her as a strong person obviously devoted to her son. She will not allow KolJa to be put into a home. If Uncle 77 KolJa was causing problems, she would get him quickly under control by grabbing him by the collar and sticking his head under the faucet. If she thought he was being over-worked, she would give him the sign to not follow Iskander’s aunt’s orders. His grandmother could be a cantankerous woman, for if she became mad at one neighbor, she would not split the harvest with the rest of the neighbors. In addition she was an opinionated person and spoke up when she had a mind to, interfering in the lives of her family whenever she felt it was necessary for their welfare. Iskander composes a picture of a healthy, strong-willed woman from a rural upbringing. Frequently she smokes cigars and sits peacefully in the garden, next to the stove, or on the landing observing life. His grandmother’s portrait is drawn with a touch of humor along with love and compassion. Among the relatives who live upstairs is Iskander’s aunt. She also remains nameless. In the eleven works she appears in, Iskander portrays her as a strong person who greatly influenced his life.22 She is mentioned first in Qgtgkij g;g_and more fully described described in u91_g13g13 1gmzx,§§g1gzx gravil. She lives upstairs from Iskander along with her husband, Iskander’s grandmother, and Uncle KolJa. She loves to embellish reality, saying that Uncle KolJa was 78 “dusevnobol’noJ' rather than crazy. She also prefers the story that KolJa fell off an Arabian Jumper to the version that he became seriously ill during childhood. She keeps Uncle KolJa’s papers in her “Singer“ sewing machine. If a commission showed up to investigate why he was living at home, she would put a new holiday shirt on him and give him grandmother’s knitting, saying that he lived with her like a count. His aunt has an interesting and unusual background. She is multilingual, speaking Russian, Turkic, Georgian, Persian, and Abkhazian. She married a provincial Persian consular who once lived in town. They moved to Persia. She left him and returned to Abkhazia, later marrying an Abkhazian. She tells this story hundreds of times, as well as the story of how she met Prince OldenburgskiJ and how he fell in love with her beauty. Iskander spent much time upstairs at his aunt’s. There was always a group of relatives gathered in his aunt’s kitchen every night like at a club. Even during the daytime, neighbors visited his aunt. She took an active role in Iskander’s upbringing. In gaggitlg L ngggg’ megnlg, Iskander is at his aunt’s, trying to find an opportune time to ask his aunt if he can go to the sea. If his aunt gives permission, the other parents will allow their children to go too. His aunt, along with the Rich Tailor, was the main panicer if the children could not be 79 found. She was also avidly interested in Iskander’s education, hoping that he would not turn out like his brother. This obsession with Iskander’s education is a dominant trait which appears in several works. His aunt “glavenstvovala“ over the entire family and she usually got her way. Her strong domineering personlity carries over in her relations with the neighbors in the courtyard. She is habitually found sitting in a chair on the veranda (“kapitanskaJa mostka“) drinking tea and smoking cigarettes: B pacnaxnmix OKHaX Bepannu BTOporO eTama Ouna BHnHa TeTymKa HHKa B CBoen KnaccnquKOn nose co CTaKaHOM ernKoro nan B pyKe n c nannpocon, nuMHmencn B neneanHue. Ona HTo-TO omaneHHO pachasmBana HeBHnHMOH coOeceanue, n qHK COBepmeHHO He ncxnmqan, qTo OHa XBaCTaeTcn ero yqeOOn. From this vantage point she can see all that goes on in the courtyard and frequently comments on and interferes in the activities below. Iskander’s aunt is theatrical. She would strike theatrical poses in discussions with Aunt MedeJa. When she discovers what Iskander’s grades really are, she has the look of a good woman trampled by her unfeeling relatives. She turns into an old woman sitting with her head propped up by her hand and shaking back and forth from old age, an image repeated in the story Mgzgniki gggnz, She would do this when she wanted to show that her 88 life had been wasted worrying about those near her. In such instances, she claims that her relatives (sometimes referred to as invalids) were a chain around her neck, robbing her of her youth. Yet when her friend Aunt MedeJa arrives, she instantly changes into a flowering 35-year-old princess-swan. One of the traits Iskander disliked the most was his aunt’s duplicity. Frequently she would cool towards one of her friends without any apparent reason. She would create fights with the neighbors. It all depended on her mood. His aunt would create a scandal, throw her former friend out of the house, and not speak to her for months. The picture of this interesting, eccentric woman is another successful portrait to be added to Iskander’s family gallery. Iskander draws his aunt’s image with bold strokes, depicting a strong personality, exhibiting many contradictory traits. He sums up his position with this quote about his aunt: qHK HHKorna B mnsnn He Bnnen qenOBeKa TaKorO nOOporO n TaKOFO HecnpaBenngfioro onHOBpeMeHHO: Bce aaBncenO OT HaCTpoeHnn. One of Iskander’s childhood neighbors is Suren, nicknamed the Rich Tailor. He is first portrayed in the annecdote ngthJ i_finingpektgr (1969), which was incorporated into the short story figggtzlpgggtggl i 81 r ie. The Rich Tailor also appears in nine other works.25 Initially the Rich Tailor is shown as a tailor who works at home on the side. He gets a ticket for this. After this incident the Rich Tailor becomes cautious and checks out all strangers who walk down the street and cross-examines all new customers from his second story balcony. In £99531; pgrtggj i gpgglg, Iskander develops the Rich Tailor’s personality more fully. Humor and sarcasm are frequently used in drawing the Rich Tailor’s portrait. His is the closest portrait to that of the New Soviet Man for he does not maintain any roots with the past. He is a tailor who has managed to better his position in society. He no longer lives in a shanty in the courtyard. As his income rose, he acquired one room on the second floor of the house, then a second and finally a third room. Since he could expand no more, he buys a plot and is able to build his own home on it. But this New Soviet Man has gone awry; he wants to be rich thus he works at home on the side. In addition he has a bad temper and flaunts his feeling of superiority at everyone. The absurd, petty aspects of his personality are emphasized and the reader has little sympathy for this comic character, who is less successfully protrayed than the other neighbors and relatives who people Iskander’s works. 82 There are several traits and mannerisms that recur in subsequent stories that reinforce the Rich Tailor’s personality. He spends much time on his balcony, often ironing, surveying the courtyard and street, frequently interfering in what is going on. There are many geraniums on the balcony and the Rich Tailor constantly stops to sniff them. As Cik mentions in M Que. the Rich Tailor followed a set pattern in this matter and never changed his actions. BanKOH KaK 6m npenCTaBnnn n3 ceOH uBeTymnn maKeT ero Oynymen ycansOu. 3neCB OH oanHo OTnaxan, a same rnannn, rpOMKO anCKaH Bonon Ha cyKHO. BuBano, HaOepeT B pOT BOHH, a nOTOM noqemy-To nepenymaeT nonnBaTB, a TO a He nepenymaeT, na B BTO BpeMH qTo-To cpoqno Hano OTBeTHTb Komy-TO Ha ynnue, qame Bcero Annxany, TaK on, uTOOH He nponanan Bona OmpKHeT em Ha HBeTOK H nOTOM yme HaqnnaeT POBOpHTb. A TO, OuBanO n nonnBaTB cyKHO He nepenyman, n Bpone HeKomy cpoqno OTBeanB, HO TaK cnyuanno, ynaneT Barnnn Ha uBeTOK, n Bnpyr EOPaTHH HOpTHon Ber nonOHpaeTcn, HaCTopamnBaeTcn, cnOBHO ceno Ha paCTeHne KaKoe-TO 3nOBpennoe HaceKomoe nnn OH noquCTBOBan, HTO, OKaBHBaeTCH, 0H0 yMHpaeT OT manna, n BOT OH 5HCTpO HaKHOHHeTCH H -- ¢prl A nOTOM eme n eme n, yxe YCHOKOHBmHCb, CHOBa OepeTcn 3a mir. The Rich Tailor is also portrayed as being a man who feels superior to others in the neighborhood. Everything belonging to him is the best. His family is a model family. He points this out to his neighbors when he gets the chance, telling Alixan that Alixan’s wife is not as good as his is. Upon returning from his plot, the Rich 83 Tailor tells everyone how much better the air, fruit, trees, and birds are on his plot. To enhance his status among the neighbors, the Rich Tailor is a name dropper, mentioning in figgatzi pggtngJ i drggie how he sews for a “certain official.“ The Rich Tailor has quite a temper. He frequently starts fights with Alixan or the palm-reader. In any argument he must have the last word or make it appear as if he is the one to end the argument. His pretentiousness is typified by the fact that while guarding the fruit trees on his plot, the Rich Tailor shot himself in the hip and developed a slight limp. Iskander notes in several stories that the Rich Tailor later started to hint that his limp was due to a war inJury. However, Iskander does round out the Rich Tailor’s portrait somewhat. For all his bad points and extreme behavior, the Rich Tailor is a hard worker and proud father who provides well for his family. Yet even though this is true, his relations with his family are portrayed in an ironic manner. His daughter’s piano playing is encouraged to disguise the sound of the sewing machine when he works illegally at home. The Rich Tailor embarasses his son at school by stopping by Onik’s classroom and calling him a little dumpling in front of all his classmates. 84 Alixan is another of the neighbors from Iskander’s courtyard. Like many of the other characters from Iskander’s stories, Alixan has led an interesting life, which exemplifies a part of the history and color of Abkhazia. His life takes shape across the pages of nine stories.27 He is first mentioned in the story Vrnga ggggtlivzx naxgggk. Here Alixan is described as the mildest and most peaceable of men because his Job was selling honey-coated almonds. Alixan is described in more detail in the next story he appears in, figggtzi_pggtngl i gnggig. Iskander quickly fills in Alixan’s background as well as giving a physical description. Alixan is married to Daga, whom he loves very much. They live in a shanty (“xibarkak“) in the courtyard. Alixan used to own a coffee shop and confectionary. Now, however, he has a tray he fills with sweets or roasted chestnuts to sell at the market. When steamships arrive he sells them to the passengers on the dock. He is a proud man and still calls himself a “kommersant:“ “Ja kommersantom rodilsJa i kommersantom umru.“28 Physically Alixan is a tall, thin, stoop-shouldered man. Throughout the story flggatzl porthJ i_gnggl;, Iskander associates Alixan with the phrase “kruglye brovi nad kruglymi glazami.“ This leit-motif is repeated again in the story QQLQL L gtnagtl as well as in the stglll 85 £15; and Sggggg i; figggma. Iskander uses the epithets “mirnyJ', “dobroxelatel’nyJ“, “rovnyJ', and “spokanyJ' to show what an even, peaceful temperament Alixan has. In the evenings after work, he would rest on a bench in the courtyard or on the street outside the Rich Tailor’s door. He would sit and soak the corns on his feet in hot steaming water. Sometimes he would finger his beads as he soaked his feet. Then he would sit cross-legged with his feet on the opposite knees and blissfully scratch each foot with a spoon. This image is repeated again in Sangrg ufimmandlsflinfifl- Frequently Alixan and the Rich Tailor would chat, or more often argue about something. Many evenings they played nards (an ancient game played with dice) and drank coffee. Alixan seems to be the foil or counter-weight to the Rich Tailor. On numerous occasions Alixan expresses the attitude that others should be left in peace to live as they want. Iskander constructs the portrait of Alixan with feeling and sympathy which at times is mixed with a touch of humor. The final lines of the chapter Igcoki from the novel 5;g§gg_i;,figggmg sum up Iskander’s feeling for this character: A OHBano, BeqepaMH nnnn Annxan cunen Ha nopore CBoen KOMHaTeHKH, napnn mosonn B Tennon Bone, Kypnn n HaneBan nepcnnOKne necnn. HOMHm OTeKneHeKmnn Barnn KamTaHmnKa, menonnm, uenennmyK cnanKon POpEQBm decomacneHHOCTn xnsnn, OeCKoneqHym, KaK KapaBaHHun nyTB B HnKyna. 86 Annax, nonmanax, paxmann no cyp annaxi -- Bnamen, KTO 6namen...29 The palmist is a frequent visitor to Iskander’s courtyard. His colorful, flamboyant figure from Abkhazia’s past comes to life on the pages of four works.30 Iskander first describes the palm-reader in the story figggtzilngntggi_i,gggglg. He has a striking outward appearance to compliment his striking personality. His predominant features are his “firey“ beard and hair which match his “firey' gaze. The palm-reader would ride into the courtyard on his donkey to tell fortunes, announcing his arrival by calling out: “PoslednyJ russkiJ dvorJanin i pervyJ sovetskiJ xiromant.“31 All of his activities are conducted while still seated on his donkey, even drinking coffee at one of the stalls and telling stories to other customers. In payment for services, the palmist takes money, produce, or clothing for his numerous brood, referred to as “volxata“ or “RyiiJ komand.“ The palm-reader lived in a stalactite cave on the mountainside outside of town. His wife was almost a mother-hero due to the large number of red-haired children they had. They lived together in the cave with their donkey. Iskander portrays the palm-reader as a conniver. He ran an illegal still at the back of his cave using stolen fruit. In season, the still worked almost round the clock 87 like a small war factory. During the bombings in World War II, the town used the palm-reader’s cave as a bombshelter. He used this as an opportunity to sell his home brew to the men, while his children used the darkness and panic to steal things from the suitcases and pockets. Always on the watch for a quick way to make money, after the war the palmreader turned this cave into a tourist attraction for it had been the hide out of two downed German fliers. He gave tours of the cave showing the stalactite the Germans hung on to and the underground river. He also sold souvenirs including “cave-pearls,“ candles, and medicinal clay; plus he told fortunes. His children would steal the tourists’ sandwiches and Jars of milk if there weren’t any strong men in the group. Iskander presents the reader with a striking figure drawn with bold strokes. The palm-reader is a comic image somewhat larger than life. Yet Iskander gives him dignity and pride, saving him from becoming a mere caricature. The parallel drawn at the end of the story Eggmia pg xgggm indicates how Iskander feels about the palm-reader. OrnennoOOponHmn XHpOMaHT, He cneaan c ocnnKa, nnn Kooe Boane onnoro n3 CTonnKOB, n Bce finnmanmne CTonnKn Ounn OOpameHu K Hemy, nOTomy QTO paCCKaBH ero, noxoxne Ha npOpoquTBa, XOTH n He CfiaBanHCb HHKOPna, nuorna yTemann. KaaanOCB, npeBHnn nnnnrpnM, nOCTHrmHH oaanca nMOCKypHBCKon Ko¢efiHH, cenqac paCCKaKeT nocnennne BaBnnOHcKne HOBOCTH n anHeTcn nanbme Ha CBoeM ocnnKe, uOKan quTHumn KOUHTaMH no erMHHCTHM pycnaM ncquHmenx napCTB H BHOHBan n3 an ennHCTBennoe, qu 033 Bnanenn n BnanemT, -- CKynHym nanb BeKOB. Among the people in the village Ankara where one of his uncles lives, Iskander encounters Saaban Labra, better 33 KolgerukiJ is another known as KolgerukiJ. strong-willed, bad tempered individual, who is also described in quite a humorous manner. This is an example of Iskander’s mastery at characterization. Initially he is mentioned in Vegernjgja gorgga in which we are told how Iskander fell into KolxerukiJ’s empty grave one night. A full length characterization follows in the story Kglggpgkij where the initial portrayal shows KolgerukiJ’s sharp tongue, loud, irritating manner, and outrageous behavior. When KolgerukiJ goes to the city for an operation, a prankster calls to say that he has died. When Kofgerukij returns home to his own funeral, instead of apologizing for the mixup, he demands to hear the mourners, refuses to return the funeral gifts (he pretends to have been sent home by the hospital to die), and yells at anyone who comes to see if he had died. KolgerukiJ is constantly arguing with his wife and friend Mustafa. A strong rivalry over who is the better horseman had developed between the two friends, only to be settled after KolgerukiJ’s death. His sharp tongue becomes quite pointed in several chapters of the 89 novel Sagggg l; m published outside the Soviet Union. The comments are definitely anti-Stalin. KolgerukiJ’s dominant feature is his left arm which was withered, the result of being shot by a Prince he had insulted. There are several examples of KolgerukiJ’s outrageous behavior in the story. KolgerukiJ would imitate the rooster’s crow while out working in the fields. This would get all the roosters in the area crowing. KolgerukiJ was quite proud of this ability. Although he was a hard worker and worked on the kolkhoz farm, KolgerukiJ would put his arm in a red sling and walk around that way for days if the government was enlisting workers. He would hint that his inJury was caused by a Menshevik bullet. Despite his sharp tongue and comic figure, Iskander rounds out KolzerukiJ’s personality, showing him to be a kind-hearted man as well. He would stop unasked and give Iskander’s family corn flour, telling them not to tell his wife about it. In Bgmzik, his kindness is reinforced. When his grandson Remzik comes back to the village, KolgerukiJ welcomes him home unquestioningly and takes Remzik along with him to the river to water and bathe his new horse. KolgerukiJ even lets Remzik ride the horse. During his childhood, Iskander frequently stayed at his uncle KJazym’s house in the country. His mother would 9% send him to the county when the fighting got close to Suxumi. KJazym34 is first described in the nggg;_g1;gl Klgzzmg. Here KJazym is described as a strong, tall, stately man with a severe look on his face. He is a good provider, whose one passion in life was his extraordinary Jumper, Kukla. KJazym’s character is developed to a much greater extent in later works. He is one of ten brothers and two sisters, among them Sandro. KJazym is a hard worker, attending to the many tasks on his land: hoeing, bee-keeping, and tending the animals. Along with the shepherd Kunta, KJazym also puts up the roof on the new kolkhoz tobacco silo. KJazym is no longer presented as being severe. He is kind, laughing, and loves to tell tales, frequently about the shepherd Kunta. Iskander values cunning quite highly for it is a trait evident in many of his characters: himself as a boy, Eik, the Rich Tailor, KJazym and Sandro. KJazym is a brigade leader. Iannggg|ggtgtgg, he must use his innate intelligence (for he is illiterate) to outwit the shepherd Kunta as well as the people who want to see Kunta arrested. KJazym tricks Kunta into revealing where he hid the tobacco he stole. Again in the short story figlggfli; Kiglzm, KJazym is called in by the president of the kolkhoz to solve the theft of money from the kolkhoz safe. 91 Once more KJazym tricks Tmeyr into revealing where he hid the money. KJazym’s portrait is not drawn in the humorous manner of Uncle KolJa’s or KolgerukiJ’s. It is much closer to the portrait of Iskander’s grandfather. It is a balanced picture of a hard working man, possessing a sharp mind and self-respect. KJazym was always himself with any group of people. At the end of Dergvo ggtstvg, Iskander explains how he loved his uncle for these traits. Another maJor figure is Sandro.35 Sandro is not only the main character in the novel Sggggg l; figggma, but he also appears in: Qergvg ggtgtgg, Umzkanlg (1979), and lflglgxgl ggn; QQLLXQSQ ggmg, Numerous excerpts and entire chapters from the novel have been published separately. When §an922.11 figggma_opens, Sandro is eighty years old, yet still tall, strong, and handsome. He is broadchested, with narrow hips. Sandro has a cheerful, polite dispostion. His portrait is not presented in chronological order. The portrayal Jumps from describing Sandro at eighty to tales of his youth and back again. Sandro is in constant demand as a tamada, i.e. a toastmaster at weddings, funeral feasts, or other special occasions. He takes this responsibility seriously, being proud of his huge capacity to drink without feeling the effects. Complimenting his position as tamada, Sandro is an excellent storyteller. He loves to tell of his past 92 adventures and is usually surrounded by delighted listeners. In Bol’goJ den’ le’gogg gomg, four tales are interspersed throughout the body of the story. The stories are an interesting blend of realistic detail and the absurd, making it difficult to determine where the truth ends and fantasy begins. Sandro is cunning. On many occasions, he uses his shrewdness to turn a bad situation to his advantage. In ani , Sandro manages to be the one to marry his friend’s bride in a hilarious turn of events. In contrast with his father and brothers, Sandro has no love of hard work. While his father and brothers go off to hoe the fields, Sandro can be found at home entertaining guests. He never worked for the kolkhoz. His talant as a dancer secured him a position as a member of the Abkhazina song and dance troupe until the beginning of the purges. Here once again his cunning serves him well. He feigns an inJury and leaves the troupe avoiding arrest. Sandro felt that being a tamada was his life’s work. He maintained this position even in the city. In describing the events of Sandro’s life, Iskander is able to present a wide range of Abkhazian customs, making Sandro the tamada of Abkhazia. All of Iskander’s main characters are people whose roots are firmly planted in Abkhazia. There are few people from Moscow or elsewhere outside Abkhazia in 93 Iskander’s prose. And in most of these cases, Iskander’s works come back to focus on life in Abkhazia. These characters and Iskander himself are Judged according to the standards of behavior learned in Abkhazia. The characters are simple people, whose portraits are sometimes serious, sometimes humorous. Yet they are always drawn with sympathy and love. Even though several of them are drawn with exaggerated proportions (such as Kol¥erukiJ, Iskander’s aunt, the palmist, and the Rich Tailor), they do not become mere caricatures and are able to maintain their dignity and humanity. Cunning and innate wisdom are two traits Iskander values highly, qualities present in Iskander himself, gik, Iskander’s grandfather, KJazym, and Sandro. An inner sense of worth enables these characters to make their way through life with dignity: H annn eToro qenOBeKa n c neTCTBa Bocxnmancn HM, He OCO6€HHO nonnman npnpony OBoero Bocxnmennn. H_enannen y 086H B nepeBHe, B ponnon emy cpene, Bnnen B POpone cpenn qymnx nmnen, n Besne OH Own caMHM coOofi -- an nepen KeM He BaHCKHBammHn, Bcerna noOpomenaTenBHo-Hacmemnann. Cenqac, anancB HanTn cnOBa, HTOGH OoosnaanB ero cymHOCTB, n mory CKaBaTb, qTo B HeM qucTBOBanaCB HeOOannHan nyXOBHan snaanenbnocTB. A character’s language and gestures help to individualize him. However, no character is developed in isolation. All are shown through their interactions with one another. In Iskander’s prose, the same characters 94 recur in a multitude of works, so that he is able to show his characters in a wide variety of situations and relationships. In addition to the maJor characters described, there are many others who occur in Iskander’s prose more than once. They include Iskander’s childhood friends Onik, Lesik, Son’ka, Nika, and Remzik; the shepherd Kunta and his brother Omar; Aunt MedeJa; the school guard starik GabuniJa; the hunter Tendel; Sandro’s wife KatJa; Vaxtang; and KJazym’s wife Nuca. Iskander produces rich characterization by enmeshing his friends and relatives in an extended network of human relationships. While a part of a caring family, each person preserves his own unique personality and interesting history. It is through interaction with the other characters that Iskander/Cik achieves realtiy. The panorama of the lives of these characters enables Iskander to show the society of Abkhazia in action. The complicated network of individual lives forms a fascinating composite picture of life in Abkhazia from the turn of the century to the present day. [$9411 1Fazil’ Iskander, §gndgg_iz_§gggmg (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1979) g p. 7-8. ZIskander describes his own childhood in the following twenty three works, the initial description occuring in Iskander’s first prose work Pgrvoe gglo (1956); Bgsgkgz g mag; (1962); Pet (1962); QetgkiJ sag (1963); Zagretng 2129 (1963); V r ' ' ggggg; (1964); Trigggggtzj ggggig mm (1964): as; m ma {tuna mes—vii (1964); 95 9999,1991‘9 gaxmgtz (1964); Posramlenie fai’givomonetgik9v (1965); Vrem'a 9 ggtlivzx naxodok (1966); Kol erukiJ (1968); Dedu ka (1968); N9 vse tak prosto (1968); Pis’mo (1968); Rod 9en’J9 9vkali9tov (1969); fiogatzJ gorthJ 1 999919 (1978); Eut’ i; VarJag g Greki (1 71); Mu eniki 9999; (1972); Pgrsz raz 9 gersz kiass (1973); Qolgi L gtgggti (1973); VremJa 99 fasam (1973); and Qer9v9 dgtgtva (1977). 3These works are: en’ ik (1971); N96nz9 tgjnz (1972); Remzik 1974); a99it§9 l lJubov’ 5,morj9 (1975); 531199999 9 'k (1977); Vozmgggig (1977); and ggigit; i (1978). 4W<1964>152m2uzfm (1964): um; Lost 2 ggxmgtz (1964); Pogramlgnie fal’ ivomonet ik v (1965); 59v919ie k9zl9tur9 (1966); Angli anin 9 gnoJ i rgbenkgm (1967); Ks£.mz putesesgogggli (1967); as 259,395 progto (1968); Letnzm gnem (1969); L99 foreli 2,VBPXQVJ§X Kogorg (1969); E99 gen’Ju evkali t v (1969); gstrefig (1969); 9919 miligijg 99919 bgre 9t (1970); §lu§aJ 99 dor (1971); 293; i; vnggg 9,§r9ki (1971); S n l; 5 (1973); 999999 9939tv9 (1 77); g gtrane (1977 ; and 599999 (1981). 5SergeJ appears in the following works: 19199 (1974); Priggingvgnig (1975); 9999991 kor i (1976); Bol’ i n ’ (1977); and g_;;;;99 (1977). 6Zenon is the main character in one work, Utratz (1982). 7These are the later chapters of §99999 §1 Egggma (1973): E99 ggn’Jg evk li tov (1969); Vstrg 9 (1 69); 9919,mi1i§i19 mgnJa bere e3 (1978); Zairg (1974); and 9999591 9k9r9i99 (1976). 8Iskander’s mother appears in these works: Q9tskiJ 999 (1963); 299993nz1 9l99 (1963); VgcernJajg 999999 (1964); 51999 (1965); VremJ9 glagtlivzx ngxodok (1966); K9lEgrgkiJ (1968); M9J9 miliciJa menJa berezet (1970); n’ ik; (1971); E9§lednzj xirgmant (1972); 991 99rvzj ol’n ° 999; (1973); Dolgi ; gtrggti (1973); M r k ' 95999199 (1976); 999999 99t9tv9 (1977); £23: (1978); and utrgtz (1983). 9F. Iskander, M9r959J ggggpign in 299 99n’J9 99999 (Moscow: “SovetskiJ pisatei’,“ 1979), pp. 2 8-9. 10F. Iskander, 99191 i ggrggti in his VremJ; 9gggtlivix 999999! (Moscow: “MolodaJa gvardiJa,“ 1973), p. 75. 96 11Iskander’ s father appears in the following works: Z99regan 9199 (1963); innga slagtlivzx nax999k (1966); 0 at 999tnoJ_ %(1970), PervyJ den’ 9, erv ”‘9‘“ .271?» M(1973); nd Ce ema (1973); VremJa (1973); and Z aggitg Clka+ (1978). 12F. Iskander, Z99r9tan 210d, in Egrvog 9919 (Moscow: “DetskaJa literatura,“ 1978), p. 45. L3ynmm1a.sisstligzx.nssgdek. p- 13- 14She appears in the following works: Z999egan 9l09 (1963); V9§9r9J9J9 999999 (1964); Vr99J9 99.99999 (1973); K9] l§9r9kiJ (1968); and 9tr9tz (1983). 1'5He is present in these works: Z99r§ean 9199 (1963); V9§9rnJ9Ja d9rog9 (1964); VremJa sgasglivzx nax (1966); Bo at ' 99rtn9J 1 9r ggie (1970); No n e t9an (1972); Qoiai 1 §trasti (1973 ; Vrem'a 99 zasam (1973); M9J 999911 Kol’an den’ (1973); 1IJ9990’ K m9rJ9 (1975); Vogmggdie (1977); 9999119 ik (1978); and 91991; (1983). 1629e9Ja 99 fiagam, p. 105. 17 His grandfather appears in the following works: .9122; (1965); 12599; 9J9di 9191299 (1966); Sogvgzdig kozlotucs <196é>i Qsduiks (1968): and 1;.Lssskszggig iK (1977). 18 Iskander, 99913319, 139119919, xuv, No. 7 (1968), 68. 19His uncle is present in these works: _91 919919 99929 figggnzx 9r9vil (1964); BogatzJ 9991991 i drugig (1970);L en’ fiik9 (1971); Put’ 19 v9rJ99 v reki (1971); in e gaan (1972); M9999iki sggn z (1973);g§9§Ei igig i b 0’ m2_1u (1975); 11._ssskszgz 2f§152.<1977>i and it (1978). 20 Iskander, 991_919919499mz9 figgtnzx 9r9vilain his 9:99t ligzx _99999_ (Moscow: “MolodaJa gvardiJa,“ 1973), p. 41. 21 His grandnother is in t ese works: Mo oJ 919919 99999 99919;; 299911 (1964); an' 'ka (1971). Notn e t9Jn z (1972); Q9lgi 1 r ' (1973); M9J 99rsz 999_ (1973); Vr99J9 99 (1973); and Z9 gita ik (1978). 22 Iskander’ s aunt appears in the following works: 2111511 sad (1963); .21.Q1sd12.2amz_ (1964); fi9g91zJ,9991991 1 999919 (1970); an’ (1971); 97 M9§9niki 99e nz (1972); Dol i §trasti (1973); UremJ9 99 Easam (1973); Cae9itie 1 l ubov’ morJu (1975); 19 r9§sk9zov 94 tik (1977); zaiaita ika (1978); and 99 99391 91199 (1981). 23F. Iskander, gogéita‘fikg in his ga§¥ita E159 (Moscow: 'SovetskiJ pisatel’,‘ 1983), p. 81. 24F. Iskander, Ea99itie 1 lJu9ou’ 9_morJ9, JUn99t’, No. 6 (1975), p. 28. :The Rich Tailor appears in the following works: fininS99ktor (1969); Posl9dan xir999nt (1969); M99rtnoJ 1 drugie (1978); Nocnzg 1aan (1972); 9991 a (1973)- Urem a 99 Easam (1973); I rassk9gou 9 Qikg (1977); as it ik (1978); and fl9n ' uli99 (1981). 26F.1skander, BogatzJ 99r n9J “drug 9, Nosz ir, No. 6 (1978) p. 18. 27Alixan is present in these works: Ur9mJ9 9999§1ivzg 99x099k (1966); EogatzJ 99rtn9J 1 dru i (1978); Den’ ika (1971); P ledn ' xiromang (1972); D i 1 9tr9§§i (1973); vre9J9 99 asam (1973); §an9r9 19_§99999 (1973); 299999919 (1977); and z; §§it9 6ika (1978). 28E9gatzJ 9ortnoJ i drugie, p. 24. 29F¢ Iskander. 512922.11_§191m11 in his 512922.11 ema (Moscow: I'SowetskoJ pisatei’,I 1977), pp. 312-313. The final works are changed in the version published by Ardis. They read: 'Bixmilax iraxmani iraxim! -- blafen kto bla!en.' §999ro 19 6999m9 (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1979), p. 85. 30The Palmist is in the following works: 9999121 9or§99J 1 9r9gi9 (1978); Den’ (1971); 999199911 xi9999n g (197 ); and Ur9mJ9 99 (1973). “Wrmm i .19_dr~ ie. p. 14. 32Fh Iskander, Ur9mJa 99 99999J in his 299919 liv 9999999 (Moscow: 'MolodaJa gvarJia,‘ 1973), p. 114. :y3KolXerukiJ appears in the following works: U 99r9g9 (1964); K9 l§9r9kiJ (1968); and §99999 19 (Ardis, e 979). 34'KJazyIn is in these works: 999991 9Ja a91 5199999 (1966); 9999§_9 (1968); 99; _1,999199_ (1971); 999999 99191va (1977); Eri999ir KJazzm (1 81); and B9l’91J 98 gm; M939 dome (1982). 35Sandro appears in the following works: filgfigl‘gg gogggg (1970); §andro i; éegema (£973); Qergvg tstva (1977): mm (1979); and M SIS—'1’ 1’ 0 9m (1981). 36F. Iskander, Qgrgvg ggtggvg, in his m _i_; m (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1979), p. 599. Chapter Three: Poetics Iskander’s prose has a number of different genres--the short story, the povest’, and the novel. To each work he brings a wide range of poetic devices. And in a number of works he experiments with new styles and new techniques. Iskander is a careful craftsman, who comes to prose by way of poetry. His descriptions are saturated with imagery from the most varied sources used to evoke a mood and to characterize the many people in his prose. This complex web of images found in epithets, symbols, similes, and metaphors adds artistic depth to Iskander’s works. Personification, oxymoron, ostranenie, plus folk-lore, biblical, and Greco-Roman motifs are additional devices used to enrich many works. His prose is structurally complex. In constructing his works, Iskander pays careful attention to control of narrative voice and point of view. Digressions, foreshadowing, personification, and satiric devices are commonly used. Lansgsns Not only does his prose encompass many styles, but its language is rich and varied. The varied texture is evident in the wide range of styles, often masterfully combined in a single work. One finds lyrical descriptive passages together with humorous passages, bureaucratic and 99 188 Journalistic Jargon, slang, and dialogues which often incorporate Turkic or Abkhazian words. Lyrical passages are used to set the scene and the emotional tone of the work. Dedugka, for example, begins with a vivid description of the hillside where Iskander and his grandfather are working. Ma 0 nenymxofi Ha neCHCTOM rpeGHe rcpa. Xapxnfi neTHnn neHb, HO sner TeHHcHL.npoxnanH0. BGMHH nopoTa TOHCTHM, cnaéo npymHHHmHM cnoeM npomneronnen HHCTBH. TyT H TaM pa36pocana CMOpmeHHHe emnxu Komypa 6yxoamx OpemKOB. Oduqno OHH nycrue, HO nHorna nonanawTCH H c opemKaMH. Boxpyr, Kyna an HOCMOTpnus,MomHue cepeépfinme CTBonm 6yKOB, penxne xpaxncrme KamTaHu. B npOCBeTe memny nepeBbfiMH, B nanbnefi rnyEnHe, -- ronyoon npuapax Konxnncxon nonnua, orpamneHHofi CTeHofi MOpH, Bepnee KyCKOM ofeuu, HOTOMy qTo Bce OCTaanoe npnxpuaaer nec. This passage underscores Iskander’s deep ties with nature. Such descriptions, found in almost every other work, are rich in details and images. These landscape scenes are realistically presented, giving the names of the trees, bushes, flowers, birds, and fish. The colors, sounds, smells, and textures are vividly rendered. as Iskander describes the forest sounds, the prose takes on a musical quality: 'slygal {em-to volnujuggij gelest zelenyx ver‘s’in."2 The epithets chosen to describe the forest, sea, and river also convey a sense of peace and serenity as a part of nature. The forest is cool and inviting. It is by the sea or in the woods that Iskander feels refreshed and at peace. 181 In Sozvezdie kozlotura lyrical segments are contrasted with portions where Journalistic language predominates. These reminiscences again are linked with Iskander’s ties with nature and his grandfather’s home in the Abkhazian countryside. The tone is serene, with a sense of belonging, and the language becomes fresh, original, and expressive. Such descriptions of nature abound in lyrical undercurrents and underscore the narrator’s feelings. They establish a peaceful, calm mood as the emotional tone of the work. Bureaucratic and Journalistic Jargon and cliches prevail in those sections of Sozvezdie kozlotura concerning the goatibex. The speech of Uaxtang Bogua, Platon Samsonovic, and Avtandil Avtandilovic is laden with empty slogans and phrases, such as, 'Uy napisali vrednuJu lea nas stat’Ju.'3, or 'Sejcas lugge, gtoby eta ideja gla snizu, eto ix podstegnet....'4 Similar examples occur in the speech of bureaucrats in Sangrg i; beggm; and Kglzggukii, In EQLZngLLJ Iskander parodies the elaborate phraseology of official documents. KolXerukiJ, together with kolkhoz officials and relatives, drafts a statement to exhonorate KolXerukiJ of all wrong-doing for planting tung trees around his grave site. The comic effect of this document is heightened by the inclusion of repetition, particularly of anaforas ('starik Saaban Larba'), and irrelevant details. 102 CTaan maaoan Hapoa, no npoanmy Konqepyxnn, KOTOpoe on nonyqnn eme no peBonwunn BMeCTe c KHHmeCKofi nynen, BHOCflenCTBHH oxaBaBmencn menbmeBncrcxon, c nepBHx me nnen Oprannsaunn xonxosa aKTnBHo pa60TaeT B apTenn, Hecmorpn Ba qacrnqno Bacoxmym pyKy /neBaH/. CTapnx waaoan Hapfa, no npoanmy Konqepyxnn, nmeeT caHa, KOTopHn B HaCTomee BpeMH cpamaeTcn Ha ¢pOHTaX OTequTBeHHon Bonnu H nmeeT npaBH- TeanTBeHHHe Harpanu /B cxooxax YKaBHBaHCH anpec noneBon nhou/. CTapnx maaoan Hapoa, no npoaBnmy Konqepyxnn, HeCMOTpH Ha npexnonaafi Bospacr, B 3T0 prnnoe BpeMH He noxnanan pyK prnnTcn Ha Konxoanmx nonax, He naBaH ornmxa CBoefi HOCTpanaBmen Bumeyxasannon pyKe. Emeronno OH Bflpa6aTHBaeT He menee quapeXCOT prnonnen. I'IpaBneHne Konxoaa, Bmec're c npencenaTeneM cenBCOBeTa, SaBepHeT, qro TyHFOBoe nepOBo on nepecannn Ha CBom ¢HKTHBHYK mornny no omnoxe, KaK n0peBonKun0HBun manorpaMOTHun CTapHK, 3a qro GyneT omTpa¢0BaH cornacno yCTaBy cenbxoaaprenn.5 Repetition is a traditional poetic device of folk-lore and one that Iskander employs. In n x-- olgnJ; ili egggggllg pg {egemski of Sandrg i; égggma, further examples of anaphora occur--phrases recur, repeated word for word or sometimes with a slight variation. Each time Dzansux meets someone on the road practically the same scene follows. -- 3T0 Bce nyTCHKH, -- cxasan naxapb, -- BOT, ecnn 6m TH annen nmancyxa-Cuna Onenn, BOT Romy 63 Tu nonannCH. OH camun mynpun qenOBex B onaan, a, BHaqHT, canan, n Bo BceM MHpe. Hm pasy He cnuma qenOBeqecxon peqn, on, ycnumaB ee, Buyqnn Ham asux 3a nfiTb naen! Cnuxano nn Taxoe?! -- 3 n GCTb nmchyx-Cmn Onean, -- cxasan nmancyx, -- n H B caMOM nene Bmyunn aoxaacxnn nsmx, Tonbxo He 3a nBTB naefi, a 3a nBa, XOTH 3T0 He nmeeT 183 snaqenne. Ho H, npnsnamcs, n HOMTH Bemnn He cmor 6H CbeCTb. Throughout the course of their Journey, Ob'edalo and Opivalo repeat the same phrases and have the same argument. Ob'edalo continually states: 'XOXU byt’ povesennym na gee moeJ lJubymoJ geny."7 0n the other hand, Opivalo constantly says I'Skoree dJatel, doleaEiJ derevo, umret ot sotrJaseniJa mozga,..."8 Each obJects when the other begins to repeat his favorite saying. Dialogues also play an important role in Iskander’s language. Qggk‘iggz g gaxmatz is an excellent example of this. It also is an experiment in a new style, a break from Iskander’s usual mode of narration. The entirety of this sixteen page story consists of a conversation between a young man and his fiancee. The conversation comprises a highly imaginative description of the rules of the game of chess and the functions of the various pieces. Dialogues perform a number of functions, such as helping to better characterize and individualize people. Hispronunciation of words might be included to differentiate a character’s speech. Some Abkhazians do' not speak much Russian. when they use incorrect Russian, this distortion often has a humorous effect, as in flnlgaglg‘filggzm, where Baxut says l'doktor, zop bolit' for l'zub bolit.‘ The fisherman in gaggitig l ljypgv’ k mggig pronounces 'mne' and 'menJa' as I'mine.‘I This intensifies 184 the comical, somewhat negative impressions he creates. In eflglitanin sienoJi rebenkom the Englishman uses improper Russian ('MiJ nanimaJt', 'Ja imeJt akvalanQE', and I'NaleudaJt gorodE'g) which heightens the effect of ostranenie. Conversations help to place a character in his milieu. The Journalistic and bureaucratic cliches of Avtandil Avtandilovic and Platon Samsonovic establish their place in the newspaper world, specifically that of Krasnze gubtrgpiki. Slang, colloquial expression, Abkhazian, Arabic, and Turkic words link characters with Abkhazia. The characters use expressions such as: 'Lopni moJ '10 I'Ostav’ ty etogo vyrygu, KJazym."11 '0 gem glazy. govorit’--zelen’-melen’; lobia-mobia."12 Conversations contain non-Russian words, which are blended into the text in such a manner that they do not inhibit the reader’s understanding of the story. Iskander translates the term after he uses it. Alixan chants from a common Moslem prayer in Arabic, 'Bismilax iraxman iraxim!--Bla;en, kto bla‘z/en...."13 Aunt Xrisula speeks in Greek I'Kendrepeso, Despina! (Ne stydno, Despina!)'14 while Xarlampo exclaims in his Turkish, I'EJ, gidi, dun’Ja! (Ex, mir!).'15 The narrator of Sozvgzgie kgzlgtngg calls Vaxtang Bogua a 'gangalist,' using Abkhazian slang defined in the following paragraph. when a Menshevik officer uses the Georgian word "Ertoba'l for unitY, 185 Iskander has Sandro ask his friend for an explanation of the word. At other times Iskander does not translate the word, but instead makes the meaning clear from the remainder of the sentence. Characters often address each other as I'kaco,‘ Georgian for friend. Iskander also uses dialogues of misunderstanding (or 'comedy of errors"), a device used by many a writer. One such dialogue can be found in Sozvezdie kozlotura. when Uaxtang Bocua is telling the narrator about his up-coming speech on the goatibex, two old men completely fail to understand what is being said. 06a CTaana o yBameHneM onymann BaXTaHra, XOTH HBHO Hquro Be nonnmann. TOT, HTO Own c nocoxom, name 3a6un npo OBom nynxy n Bamno cnyman ero, cnerxa BarHyB yxo Tax, QTOGH pqu ynOOHefi BnnBanacB B ymHym paxOBnHy. -- C yma conTn, KaK POBOpHT, -- cxasan TOT, qTO Own c nanxon. -- HaBepHoe, H3 Tex, HTO B panno POBOpHT, -- cxasan TOT, HTO Omn c nOOOXOM. -- ...Ho ona, Hama CKpOMHaH Rosa, -- npononxan BaXTaHr, -- meqTana o nquen none, cxameM HpHMO: OHa meqTana BCTpeTHTbCH c TypOM... M BOT ycnnnfiMH Hamnx Haponnax ymenbueB, -- a TanaHTaMH semnn Hama OoraTa, -- rOpHun Typ BCTpeqaeTCH c Hamen CKpOMHOn, nOMOBHTOfi H B To me Bpema npenecTHOn B camon CBoen CKpOMHOCTH a6xa3cxon xoson. Their comments heighten Uaxtang’s diatribe on the goatibex, illustrating the absurdity of such empty words. The dialogue of misunderstanding is skillfully worked into the structure of this povest’ and other works. In I; 106 ragskgzov Q ike Iskander works in a sensitive topic by employing this device. gik is not able to understand the conversation between a prostitute and the police. Iskander experiments with skaz only once, in Nebl o arn ' stu ni . A semi-educated employee of the railroad militia is telling about the time he shot a man in self-defense for stealing potatoes off the train. His naive attempts to Justify himself contain a multitude of awkward sentences. Ho, nOporne FOCTH, 3T0 OTqaCTH Ouno HeBepHO HOTOMy, HTO ecnu quOBeK xoqu HCHpaBHTbCH -- OH momeT HCHpaBHTbCH, HO moxeT n He HCHpaBHTb- OH. HO ecnn quOBeK He xoqu chpaBHTbCH, on Huxorna He HCHpaBHTbCH. Ha QTO Hanefincn BTOT npeCTyanK, He BHam. MomeT, nyman, HTO HO Hamen maneHbKon CTaHunn Becu He GyneT, Hnn nyman, qTO nonaneTcn no- pyccxn Be nonnmammnn BeCOBmHK? HO y Hac H FpaMOTHe Kanpa eCTb n Becu eCTb.1 Strucggng Iskander’s shorter works (short stories, tales, and many individual chapters of his novel) are well constructed. The details and events are carefully chosen to produce one specific aim, a united whole. In autobiographical works, one or more incidents from his own life are given to illustrate the point Iskander is making. Foreshadowing is used to prepare the reader for later 187 developments. The very beginning of a story contains a hint as to what the outcome may be. By incorporating the end in the beginning, structural and thematic unity are emphasized. Following the climax, Iskander brings his stories to a close in a number of ways. Frequently an aphorism is placed at the end of the story to summarize the meaning Iskander wants the reader to derive. In the final paragraph of Zggretan gigg, for example, the narrator says that he learned that high principles never Justify treachery. In other stories, Iskander views a subJect from two different perspectives without drawing a conclusion at the end. fig; kgmi; starts with the child’s view of his idol, the broad chested Jura Stavrakidi. Next the two meet again as adults. At this time the narrator finds out new information concerning his idol’s bravery. The narrator ends by stating that he must reevaluate his childhood assessments. Letnim gggm is similar in that Iskander does not comment on the politically sensitive conversation between the narrator and a German tourist. The story ends when the foreigner departs, leaving the reader to evaluate the conversation for himself. Yet another conclusion unravels the plot complications. In Brigggir‘Kiggzm_following the climax of Timur’s arrest, Iskander has KJazym explain how he solved the mystery. Then Iskander adds a final statement regarding Timur’s 108 trial and sentence. Thus he ties up all the loose ends of the story. The ending of UeternJaJa doroga is similar. This story relates a number of humorous incidents that happen to the boy narrator on his way to his uncle’s one night. The boy had made the trip to inform his mother that his brother was wounded in battle and wanted to see her. while the real purpose of the story is the humorous adventures of the boy, Iskander does not leave any unanswered questions regarding his brother. He informs the reader that his mother went to the hospital only to find that his brother was not really inJured, Just homesick.. Such conclusions enhance the sense of completeness for each story, strengthening its structural unity. r 'on Iskander relies not on one type of narration, but uses different styles. Some narrative styles are used only once, others are repeated. i r1 v m t is an experiment in styles. Iskander’s two characters tell the story through their dialogue--not Iskander’s usual method of narration. In works concerning his childhood Iskander employs a two-fold narration, that of the child and that of the adult who recalls his childhood. The adult sets the scene and recedes into the background as the boy lives through 109 the experience. Following this, the adult reappears at the end of the story. The first-person narration is effective, serving a number of purposes. It mainly reduces the emotional distance between the boy and the reader. Many of these stories explore the psychological growth of the boy. By seeing the world only from his limited point of view and by entering into his mind, sympathy for the boy is established. The reader faces each decision as the boy faces it. It brings about a parallel emotional response, near-identification. The reader more deeply experiences the truth when it is attained. As much as he is an active participant, the boy is also important as a commentator on the life around him. He reinforces Iskander’s values. Many times he is observant of falsity in others. Yet since he is a child, the boy is not always a reliable witness. The reader must adJust for the boy’s naive interpretation of events and errors in Judgement. This creates authenticity, for few children have an accurate understanding of all the complexities of the adult world. The young narrator also allows Iskander the opportunity to comment on a number of forbidden topics. The boy’s misunderstandings and his analysis of events highlight their absurdity. At the end of the story, the adult returns to the scene to provide an adult interpretation. Such is the 110 case in Zaprgtan 2199. At times the adult becomes an active participant in the story. Childhood friends meet again as adults and reminisce about the events of long ago, shedding a new light on how the matter should be viewed. This occurs in UgemJa gigstlivzx naxodok, Qgrevo ggtgtgg, and fig; 52mig. This adult narrator can easily be identified with Iskander. His comments on life must be viewed as Iskander’s. The final comments insure that the reader, though forgiving the boy, does not overlook the boy’s faults. There is another group of works closely aligned with stories of Iskander’s childhood. Remzik and works about [Eik are similar in style even though written in the third person. This narrator does not become a separate dramatic personality in these works. He is always the impersonal narrator, though he strictly limits the field of vision. These stories are still told from the point of view of a young boy (Cik or Remzik). The reader only learns about information the boy could have knowledge of. There is little commentary by the author concerning events outside the boy’s range. In ggmzik however, the narrator momentarily departs from Remzik to explain Aunt LJusJa’s point of view. Since Remzik could never understand how LJusJa came to cheat on her husband, two short paragraphs by the narrator are inserted to verify LJusJa’s III unfaithfullness and to provide insight into a matter incomprehensible to Remzik. The narrator allows the reader into Eik’s and Remzik’s minds, withholding insight into the minds of the other characters. The same sympathy for the small hero is developed. The reader goes through the experience with the boy. Remzik’s isolation is deeply felt. The reader wrestles with the problem along with him. The two boys are not always reliable witnesses either. The reader has to adJust for Cik’s analysis of the purges, prostitution, and contradictory laws. These naive boys are allowed to comment on items not seen in print in the Soviet Union. The narrator does not elaborate further, but remains silent, allowing the reader to correct the misinterpretation and to form his own mature opinion on the matter. §ngggglg kozlgtgcg, L93 fgrgli g gerxgngx Kgggga, Sgiatgg‘ggggg, Letnim gngm, An Ii! nin ; lgggi L rebenkgm, and Mgrgkgj skorpign among others are first person narrations concerning the narrator’s young adult years. The narrator is closely identified with Iskander--so closely that the reader assumes that the opinions expressed are those of Iskander. The narrator functions as a commentator on the world around him. He is a somewhat naive, bumbling character who gains the reader’s sympathy and confidence. His basic honesty proves him to 112 be a trustworthy companion, a reliable guide to people and events described and to the values of the author. His honesty puts him into conflict with the editor of the paper, the bureaucracy, and the government. His introspective thoughts highlight the falsity of the official position and reaffirm the correct moral values. Letnim gnem departs somewhat from this pattern. Here the narrator meets a German tourist and begins to discuss life under the Nazis; the narrator no longer comments on or interprets the events the German relates. The reader is left to form his own opinions based on the analysis given by the German. Due to the sensitivity of the issue and the close parallel that could be drawn between the events of Nazi Germany and similar occurences in the Soviet Union, Iskander refrains from having the narrator reemphasize the meaning. Despite this, the voice of the German seems to merge with that of the narrator and Iskander. It is evident that the German tourist is in total agreement with the author. He has become the author’s voice. The main narrator of the novel Sangro L; gaggm;_is the same naive, honest, bumbling person of ngvgzdig kgglgggga. Although the story of Sandro, the narrator makes himself a dramatized character who participates in the action of the novel, appearing in eleven of twenty-one chapters. including 21.19;; _9_L23a r 2 5:91}. gm. 9.1.292 113 Sandro l ego lJubimec, Xranitel’ gor, and Derevo getstva. Sometimes the narrator initially sets the scene for the story whereupon he disappears from the action, as happens in Xgrlampg l Dggpina. At other times this narrator appears at the end to sum up such as he does in Umzkanie ili_;;ggg§; Enggrggv, IgtoriJg mglel’nggg ggrgva, and D¥anggx--§zn olenJa ill evangelie po-ceggmgki. His appearance is more frequent and sustained in the last half of the novel. The author’s second self becomes a trustworthy companion who guides the reader into the world of Cegem. In addition to direct comments to insure that the reader comes to the proper conclusion about events and to reaffirm certain values, a large amount of commentary is spent 'chatting' with the reader. The narrator directly addresses the reader, interupting the story to talk about luriting or anything else, including Lenin, Stalin, and the 'Tower of Pisa. This elaborate, rambling, whimsical Icommentary is interwoven into the narration and is an end in itself for it frequently has no relationship to the story. HyBCTBym, qTo cenqac HaqHy anBHaBaTbCH B CBOHX cnaOOCTHx. CTapHfi noanaBHmn npneM. Ha HeM H B CBoe BpeMH cnenan CBom nnTepaTypHym Kapbepy. H nyman, HTO STOT npneM yme ceOH ncqepnan. HO, OKaSHBaeTCH, HeT. ETOT npneM Booome HencqepnaeM. qHTaTenm anHTHO qucTBOBaTB ceOH Hecxonbxo yMHee aBTOpa. OT BTorO on noanuBaeT ynanTenBHmn HpHTOK eaeprnn, Becenbfi n, B KOHeqHOM nTore, OnaronapnocTn aBTOpy. A aBTOpy, B CBom oqepenb, HpHfiTHO, qTo emy ynanocs cnerxa sanypnTB PonOBy anaTenH. OH OT eTorO 114 Tome nonaTuBaeT Becenbe. BOT ng, BBanMHO BBOOanBmMCB, ME, rnnnnmb, CKOpOTaeM Beqepox. This reminds one of Gogol”s narrator--in its ridiculing manner. The digressive chitchat continues for another four pages, concluding: HeT, TaK Henban. HyBCTBym, qTO mean Bce BPGMH BaHOCHT, a OCTaHOBHTbCH He MOPy. Hano cenqac me BBHTb ceOH B pyxn n Hemennenno BepHYTbCH B CTpOPHe paMKH cmmeTa. The relationship between the narrator and the reader forms a sub-plot of its own, independent of the story of Sandro and Abkhazia. The narrator helps to achieve a causal unity in the novel by his presence and personality. The reader senses the narrator’s presence in other chapters as well even though they are mainly third person narrations. The narrative may be interupted by an aside, as it is in the first chapter where an unidentified 'I' converses with Sandro or the 'I' might add a fact such as occurs in £515; OldenburgskiJ. Thus the narrator is one of the maJor cohesive elements of the novel. Much of the novel concerns Sandro of Cegem, whose opinions are frequently contrasted with those of the narrator. Sandro, as is the narrator, is both naive and worldly-wise; although their wisdom covers different spheres. The two men correct each other’s interpretations of the world. 115 The entire novel is not told in the first person by the narrator. A number of chapters are onmiscient third person narrations, beginning with the first chapter. Egigagir KJazym is a third person narration told from the point of view of KJazym. The author actively controls information here, withholding from the reader KJazym’s thoughts and actions concerning the theft. The reader is only allowed to see into KJazym’s mind on certain matters. The reader sees and hears KJazym but does not learn about his motives until the mystery is solved. At this point KJazym explains it all to his old friend Baxut. Thus Iskander manipulates the distance between the reader and KJazym. In Rgsgka; mgla sggrggg Xagggg, the narration shifts to first person again with no comments by the author. But here the narrator is the mule Arapka. This allows Iskander yet another voice to express his views on various aspects of life including collectivization and the purges. Iskander does not limit himself to any one method of narration. He chooses the method best suited to the needs of a particular work. At times the narrator is closely identified with the author; the story is told in the first person. This seems to be Iskander’s favorite method. At other times the narration is presented in the third person with a strictly controlled point of view allowing the reader to see things only from the vantage of one 116 character. In yet other works, the narration shifts to allow an inside view of several characters. There are other methods as well. Digressions Iskander’s works abound with digressions. Iskander loves to get off the main path and follow up a seemingly insignificant detail or side theme. His reasons for including digressions in a particular work vary. Digressions are effectively used to add an informal conversational tone to Iskander’s prose. while setting an informal chatty tone, they add authenticity plus help characterize the narrator. In this manner Iskander fills in the details about a character’s life or about a particular situation. Igrgki contains a six-page digression explaining how Daxa came to live with KolJa Zarxidis. Along with her history, this passage includes such details as the fact that she liked Turkish coffee which she washed down with Logidze Brothers lemon fizz and that she also read coffee grounds interpreting them with the help of her dreams. Other digressions may be included for humorous effect. BQlLin deg; bgl’gogo ggmg contains two stories told by Sandro to entertain a guest. One story tells how bees were taught to cross a bridge over a river. The second story is about a sheat fish that drank milk from a cow, who would stand in the water of the river to cool off. 117 In Mgrgkoj skgrpign there are numerous digressions taking the form of flashbacks or dreams by the semi-delirious SergeJ. These digressions are all related to SergeJ’s attempts to find true love and the real meaning of love. They are a vital element, essential to the development of the main theme. These digressions reveal SergeJ’s spiritual pain which parallels the physical pain caused by the sting of the sea scorpion. Digressions are also used to relieve the tension that has built up. In gtrgtz the story-line is emotional. Zenon’s sister has Just passed away after a long debilitating illness. Following the funeral the immediate family is sitting in the living room. Zenon’s brother-in-law recalls an incident from his childhood, in which he explains how the people dealt with a case of small pox in their village. The story, interesting in and of itself, is framed and interupted by several other incidents also about his mother, now an eighty-year-old woman, who cannot understand that the actors on the television are not really in the room. This serves to break the heavy, emotional mood of the story and to release the built up tension before the narrative returns to its sorrowful theme. Another work exhibiting the use of digressions to break tension is Enigggir KJagzm. KJazym questions Timur about borrowing money while hinting that he, KJazym, knew 118 Timur has a large sum of stolen money. Their conversation, occurring during a celebration, is cut short by the other guests. A humorous story told by the hunter Tendel immediately follows this strained exchange. In addition to relieving the suspense, this interlude retards the plot development. Earlier in the story KJazym was asked to help solve the theft of kolkhoz money from the safe. While thinking about this crime, KJazym collects honey from his log hives. This digression serves to depict Abkhazian farm life, distracts the reader from the story line, slows the development of the plot, and releases tension. Sozvezdie kgglgtgr; contains several digressions which are deeply embedded in the structure of the work. Here the digressions are part of the antithetical structure of the tale. They contain lyrical passages about the narrator’s childhood and about a romantic episode. True emotions, honest feelings are in evidence in these parts, Juxtaposing the falsity of the campaign to promote the kozlotur. The scenes describing the progress of the campaign alternate with those about the narator’s life outside his Job. By parodying the Journalistic Jargon and contrasting it repeatedly with lyrical digressions, Iskander emphasizes the falsity of this, or any other, campaign. 119 As these examples point out, Iskander’s digressions become an integral part of the work. However, Iskander does not always motivate the use of digressions so expertly in some works. Although the digression may be an excellent passage in and of itself, it does not blend into the work. Some passages have so many digressions that the reader loses the thread of the story. Such problems occur in a number of chapters of §andro i; m , making these chapters less interesting. Xarlampg i Despina is one such chapter. The shepherd Xarlampo and his fiancee Despina are two star-crossed lovers. This chapter tells the story of their long eight-year courtship, as Xarlampo tries to amass enough money to start up his own farm. Embedded in this chapter is a six-page digression about Lenin. It details why the Abkhazians are insulted that this good 'abrek' has not been buried in the ground, although the vampire Stalin has been. while this passage is an excellent satiric piece as are many of Iskander’s digressions, there is no structural reason to include it in the narrative of this particular chapter because its inclusion mars the the structural unity of the chapter. ngnitgl’ 92L lll_ugggg ;Q§g; gggl; ggrgev is another such chapter. After one page, Iskander goes off into a twenty-four page digression before returning to his original story. Four travellers are trying to get a ride 128 back to town after hunting. The narrator then launches into an anecdote about a podium. He then turns to describe AndreJ one of his companions, again diverging from the topic to describe one of AndreJ’s painting. This painting of three men in Blue Makintoshes causes quite a stir. This digression leads into another incident concerning Abkhazian Negroes. Here the chapter switches back to the topic of the painting. This leads into the discussion of problems surrounding the painting 'Goatibex on Svanian Tower.‘l Again the discussion returns to AndreJ’s painting which stirred up a lawsuit. It is only after the narrator explains how this matter was resolved that he tries to return to his original story. Again he digresses to explain why he included this entire incident about the picture: i.e. he is unable to be concise. Each story can be told only as it wants to be told. Perhaps the story provides a pretext for the digressions, for the digressions become so dominant that they overshadow the main story, similar to Sterne’s Tristrgm Shangz. Even if this is the case, the constant shifts in narration creates a disJointed text which leaves the reader confused. The digression is often used to provide humor, to develop the main theme, to relieve the tension and suspense, to contrast ideas, and to inform the reader. In other instances (Sangrg 1;_ e ma, for example), digressions are not Justified because they do not 121 strengthen structural unity. Instead they produce a fragmented picture, supplementing and reinforcing the loose, rambling narrative of the novel. Foreshadowing Events, information, and hints are arranged early in the work to prepare for the further development of the story. This strengthens the compositional and thematic cohesiveness of each piece. Iskander uses such a foreshadowing device at the beginning of VremJa scastlivzx naxodok. As the boy goes running down the street to the store, he experiences an unusual feeling of elation. This excitement is mentioned several times. The reader feels that there must be some reason for this mood. Then the boy seems to see money lying on the ground. This vision convinces him that he will soon find a wad of banknotes. The reader also comes to expect that the boy will discover something along the way to the store, an expectation which is fullfilled in the next paragraph. Foreshadowing is used more extensively in gagggtnzl .ngg, At the beginning of the story, Iskander tells of the Moslem law against eating pork, explaining how his desire to eat the meat grew. He even dreamed of its taste. Yet he resisted all temptation. The reader is set up for his downfall. However Iskander adds a twist to the plot for it is his sister who succumbs. Iskander is 122 outraged and alludes vaguely to retribution which will befall her. She starts to choke on the meat, but recovers. Iskander states that retribution would have to wait, implying that he would later make sure Justice triumphed. The mood of anticipation is further heightened when Iskander goes home early. His sister fears that he will denounce her. The tension builds at the dinner table the following evening when Iskander pretends he will tell on her and then speaks of something else. In this manner Iskander focuses the reader’s attention on the climax, the denunciation scene. Remzik is also developed through foreshadowing devices. From the beginning Iskander hints that all is not right in Remzik’s life. Remzik is sitting on the porch telling about his uncle Bagrat’s exploits in the war, when the group of twelve-year-old boys is invited inside to learn to dance. Remzik declines, in part feeling that it is not proper during the war. This connection with improper behavior carries over to his Aunt LJusJa, for Remzik recognizes the songs from his aunt’s records. Throughout the work tales of Bagrat’s bravery alternate with accounts of his wife’s betrayal, impelling Remzik to act on his uncle’s behalf. This builds a feeling that Remzik is being forced into a fateful course of action. Iskander reinforces this later in the work by linking Bagrat’s story with that of 123 Remzik feels he is a coward since he was afraid the night his father was arrested at home and pretended he was asleep, failing to say good-bye. Now Remzik feels that he is betraying his uncle if he remains silent again. Additional foreshadowing is found at the beginning of the story. The porch scene is interupted by the presence of someone in the shadows across the street. This living, terrifying piece of darkness with a cap brings fear to Remzik. Future developments are hinted at when Remzik realizes that it could be the doctor who works in the same hospital where his aunt works. Remzik says 'Mama byla prava!"20 At this point, the reader is left to guess about what. It is not until later when Remzik arrives home and sees the same cap from the shadow sitting on his aunt’s bedpost that Remzik spells out what his mother meant. The doctor, linked with fear and shadow, remains nameless, being called 'etot,' removing him from the ranks of humans. Along the path home to his village there are numerous hints of danger awaiting Remzik. He will leave 'forever'--a term which seems to forebode evil. Hitchhiking home, he is offered a ride home by a carload of drunk sailors. Everything he sees keeps reminding him of his unhappiness. The women met on his trip home are all possible traitors, Just like his aunt LJusJa. Even his grandmother is described in terms of a traitor--she is 124 a good old woman, who has passed the age when it is possible to become a traitor. Once home the danger becomes associated with his grandfather’s new horse. Although clearly afraid, Remzik agrees to ride the horse, knowing that it has thrown KolXerukiJ--a noted horseman. The fear is heightened when his grandnother expresses her disapproval and shouts that the matter rests on his grandfather’s soul. The feeling of impending trouble is strengthened when KolgerukiJ stops to talk to someone and sends Remzik down to the brook alone. Events come to a climax here. Remzik decides that he must Jump into the pool from the precipice. The danger is underscored when the horse refuses to Jump at first and again when the horse’s head hits sharply against Remzik’s cheek as they surface from the Jump. The foreshadowing of Remzik’s tragic death is complete following the third Jump, when the action switches from the preparation for the Jump to the scene of Remzik’s dog running home alone, followed by the picture of the horse coming from the woods alone nibbling grass along the way. The animals alert Remzik’s grandparents. Once the others have been warned, Iskander swiftly concludes the story of Remzik’s tragic death. The element of suspense is also well developed in several other works. Letnim,gggm_contains the absorbing description of an encounter with the Gestapo. This scene 125 conveys the psychological drama of a west German physicist when he is called upon to spy for the Nazis. The tension is built up and released several times as the west German tries to determine if the Nazis know about the one blot on his record from student days. The psychological tension of the cat and mouse game is masterfully developed. Iskander releases tension periodically by having the story interupted by the conversation between a pensioner and a lonely woman. The pensioner’s humorous didactic opinions on books and various news items interspersed throughout the grave tale counterbalance the serious tone of the story. Brigagir KJazym is a detective story incorporating many devices to build suspense. KJazym has agreed to find a thief. Initially Iskander uses hints. KJazym pretends that his brother is in trouble in the city for embezzling money and spreads the story that he needs to borrow 50,000 roubles to prevent even more trouble. KJazym baits his trap for Timur, the suspect, and slowly reels in his thief, purposefully arranging things so Timur could not find KJazym for several days. Everything is arranged to suggest Timur’s guilt and to point towards a confrontation between KJazym and Timur. Throughout this story, Iskander swiftly builds tension and then releases it. Digressions are used to retard the plot and relieve the emotional charge. Each new danger is 126 swiflty followed by another once KJazym confronts Timur. It is not until KJazym gives the money to Baxat that the climax is completed. The remainder of the story is anticlimax, revealing exactly how KJazym came to his conclusions, tricking Timur into showing his hand. Iskander integrates the element of suspense in these works. At times the suspense is sustained throughout the work, as it is in Remzik, Brigggir glgzum, and Pirz U l r . However at other times, it is present in only one segment of a work. In M9J gigglg gamzx,zggtnzg pravil, suspense builds in the passage detailing how Iskander thought his crazy uncle was a German spy, but it is lacking in the other sections of this short story. In each instance this element is carefully woven into the text. har t ri i n Iskander’s prose is filled with vivid descriptions of the people of Abkhazia. These characters frequently reappear in subsequent works, allowing Iskander to develop their personalities more fully. Considerable skill is used to bring each character to life. Main characters, as is traditional for Russian classical literature, fall into two categories. Those characters in the first group receive minimal physical description or get none at all. Included here are Iskander himself both as a boy and as an adult. Cik, 127 SergeJ and Zenon are alter egos for Iskander and, thus, also receive no description. Those closest to Iskander, his immediate family, are part of this group as well. The lack of individualization of his mother, father, sister, brother, and grandmother enables these characters to imply any Mother, Father, etc. Other characters--his grandfather, aunts, uncles, and neighbors--are provided with the details of their appearances. This is especially true if a story is devoted to one particular character. when portraying a character, Iskander pays particular attention to his eyes. They are always expressive, conveying every sort of emotion. Eyes flash, glare, implore, command, suggest, watch, flicker with resentment, look inquiringly, hurl lightning bolts, peer searchingly, and express boredom, menacing alertness, doom, contempt, astonishment, malice, or mocking warmth. People frequently carry on conversations with their eyes alone. Iskander/Cik talks to the other children and his dog Belka tvith his eyes. Likewise Iskander tries to gain forgiveness from the Svan mountain man in another such conversation in the chapter nggigel’ 92; LL; N;;Q§_;flggt ‘ggglx ggrgev from fignggg i; fieggm . In this passage gazes beseech, implore, suggest, explain, and nag. The shape of a person’s eyes is many times noted together with the emotion they express. The Gestapo (officer in Letnim gnem has dark, almond-shaped eyes, while 128 his superior has bovine eyes. The airsick passenger in flgi3_mili§ija meal; bergget has the same bovine eyes, which engage in a silent conversation with Iskander. In m; .i. 59:; fix; the boy Boco is lobster-eyed, while the butchers have bulging eyes. Keropcik of Cgepitig i lJuggv’ L_mg;1g has goat-like eyes: Baxut’s are small black-olive eyes. The peaceful merchant Alixan is associated with his 'kruglye brovi nad kruglymi glazami.’ This feature becomes a leit-motif reflected in those works featuring Alixan. It is not Just eyes that convey a character’s feelings: eyebrows are equally expressive. In addition to their use to portray Alixan, the secretaries attending Stalin’s feast in Sggggg l; fiegemg are associated with raised eyebrows throughout the chapter. Eyebrows are also mentioned repeatedly in An li nin g m _i_ rgbgnkm. The Englishman raises his sun-bleached eyebrows in amazement or question. They set off his blazing, blue eyes. Iskander draws a correspondence between his character and a particular, salient feature, especially one that iconveys an important aspect of his personality. Saaban Larba, as his nickname KolgerukiJ suggests, is linked to liis predominant physical trait--his withered arm. This appendage is only one of his outlandish qualities. It (:ompliments the bragging, cantakerous personality of this 129 peasant who likes to immitate a rooster crowing so that all the local roosters will Join in. The withered arm comes to represent his unique personality. The Palmist is another striking, vigorous character. In the several works where the palmist is present, Iskander emphasizes his firey red hair and beard together with his flashing eyes. These strange features reinforce the portrait of an eccentric individual at odds with life around him. when Iskander writes about his grandfather, he takes care to include a description of his hands and feet. His hands are strong and sinewy like the rest of him. They show the many years of hard work Iskander’s grandfather put into building his home and working his land. His feet are likened to those of the apostles and saints--continuing the positive image of a hard working, good man. Minor characters are also associated with a particular trait. In §gzvgzdie kozlgtur; the two old men’s noses tare likened to walking sticks: PnnOM c npaBneHHeM non MOqunM manOM opeXOBoro nepeBa B Tpannnnonnon nose nanKapXOB cunenn nBa CTaana a6xasua. Onnn H3 an nepman B pyKe nanxy, npyrofi -- nocox. H sameTnn n panOCTHO ynanncn Tomy, qTo KpquOBaTun Barno poraTyann Ha nocoxe onnoro CTaana COOTBeTCTBOBan KpquOBaTomy Hocy caMOPO OTaana, Torna KaK npyron CTapHK own c UpHMHM HOCOM n nepman nanny OeB BCHKHX OTBeT- Bnennn. 138 They are reduced to caricature, being identified merely as the old man with the staff and the one with the walking stick. Another instance is found in the chapter ELLZ Valtggara of Saner i; éggema. The district secretaries become raised eyebrows registering surprise. Tools for characterization are also lexical and are discussed in more detail in the section on language. Each character’s speech is tailored to his age and background. Conversations have the further important function of allowing the reader into the character’s mind. They reveal his thoughts so the reader is better able to understand and evaluate the speaker. The German tourist in nim gnflm presents his views on friendship, loyalty, and decency. During his conversation with Cik in Noahzg taint, Jason expounds on his criminal exploits. when KJazym talks to his old friend Baxut at the end of figlgggln‘gigzzm, he explains his reasons for suspecting Timur and how he broke Timur down completely. At the same time, conversations show how a character interacts with others, thus disclosing another important part of his personality. The conversations between Baxut and KJazym also reveal the friendly rivalry between the two men. The same rivalry is apparent when KolgerukiJ and Nustafa argue. The special relationship between a grandfather and his grandson is unfolded in e u a. Iskander’s grandfather takes the time to explain things to 131 the boy, talking to him as an equal. Arguments between the Rich Tailor and Alixan expose a relationship in which the tailor must dominate Alixan. The dialogues between KJazym and Nuca concerning household matters contain an excellent description of the relationship between an Abkhazian peasant and his wife. Through his speech, each character is individualized by revealing his opinions and relationships with others. This illustrates and adds to what the narrator has already stated. The reader is provided with more information enabling him to understand and to Judge the character. To further develop a character’s personality, Iskander shows each character in action. In Qegugkg, his grandfather is shown relentlessly chopping down bushes. Throughout the story, the emphasis is on his hardfiworking nature. KJazym is also shown as a serious, hard-working man. He hoes, tends bees, cuts shingles for the roof of the kolkhoz tobacco shed, and looks after his sick cow. Iskander firmly establishes the link between these two peasants and the land. In other instances a person is associated with a personal mannerism, frequently for humorous effect. In §;£QQ;_§ggg§, Iskander’s friend Uiktor is described as a fanatic when it comes to microbes. He is a merciless exterminator who carries his disinfectant sprays with him wherever he goes. As soon as he arrives in his hotel room 132 in Kamzatka, Uiktor goes through his sanitizing routine. This same mannerism technique is used to draw the portrait of the Rich Tailor. He is frequently out on his balcony ironing. From here he interferes in the events taking place in the courtyard below. while on the balcony, the Rich Tailor waters his plants by drinking water which he then spits out into the flower pots. This absurd habit is noted on several occasions and seems to underscore the tailor’s strange, petty personality. Repeatedly in Iskander’s prose, a character is placed in a situation which tests him. This is Iskander’s favorite device to force a character into a position which reveals the character’s true self. The hero’s response shows how honest a person he is or exposes a maJor flaw in his personality. Some pass the test, others fail. But all is not necessarily lost when a character fails his test, if he realizes his mistake and learns from it. In the stories of his youth, Iskander describes himself and his feeling at a moment of challenge. He must go to the mill by himself to get the corn ground and faces up to the task. Overcoming his fears, he teaches himself to swim. Despite the problems and inconvenience, he includes his friend Lesik in group exploits. when he becomes aware of the imprisonment of Nika’s father, Cik protects her from this knowledge. But Iskander/Cik does not always pass the test. when his sister eats pork at 133 the neighbor’s, Iskander tells on her. However, he realizes his mistake and this incident serves to teach him an important lesson. Iskander’s boyhood idol, Jura Stavrakidi, is also shown in many situations which test his courage--learning to swim, walking a swaying highbeam, and stealing sausage from the school cafeteria. He passes all these tests with flying colors, only to fail the most important test and lose Iskander’s respect. Jura wants to fight a younger, smaller boy and lies to force him to fight. At other times, Iskander devises a test of wits where the clever must prove their intelligence. when he was a boy, Iskander found himself in the position of not being able to admit that he could not tell time. He found a way to teach himself to tell time and get out from under the hold of Eric. Sandro and KJazym match wits with thieves and manage to outsmart them. Sandro finds himself in numerous ticklish situations and extricates himself by devising elaborate plans to outmaneuver his opponents. Other adults do not fare so well. The Rich Tailor in Eggsizi,ngfigagi,i_igggig and the kindergarten teacher of QgtgkiJ sad are each tempted by a pear. while the tailor is harvesting pears from the communal tree, the children point out a particularly large, ripe pear hidden from view high in the tree. All other pears are put in the communal basket, but this, the best pear, is tucked into the Rich 134 Tailor’s pocket. He feels he is more deserving. A similar situation develops in DetskiJ gag. A teacher breaks up an argument between two children over a large pear, saying that the pear belongs to all of them and will go into the fruit compote that all will have for dinner. Yet there is the pear in the teacher’s bag as she sets off for home: it was not in the communal compote after all. Another maJor device used by Iskander is to allow the reader inside a character’s mind, uncovering his thoughts and emotions which run the gamut from fear to anger, to betrayal, to satisfaction, to love, to Joy. This helps the reader to understand and evaluate a character. At the same time, it allows the reader to empathize with the hero, to identify with him. The reader becomes sympathetic to the hero’s situation. The narrator supplies insight into certain characters’ minds. Those stories that are first person narrations of Iskander’s childhood and adult years allow the reader to face a problem together with the hero and to know what the hero is thinking each step of the way to resolving the problem. Through this omniscient narration, Iskander creates a detailed psychological portrait. This carries over to Iskander’s alter egos gik, SergeJ, and Zenon. Although third person narrations, the works in which they are present are told strictly from their limited view points. The narrator provides 135 icommentary on their thoughts and feelings without allowing .a glimpse into the inner workings of anyone else’s mind. (3thers must reveal themselves through their words and (deeds. This occurs most extensively in MgrskoJ skgrpion. ‘I’here is little action in this work devoted to SergeJ’s ‘1Feelings and problems. Two other characters, Sandro and Remzik, are closely identified with Iskander. The narrator also explains their thoughts and motives. However, Iskander does not enter the minds of all his Iimain characters. Even though they are the central heroes i n short stories, the Rich Tailor, KolcerukiJ, and the FPalmist are only described externally. Their portraits dare completed through the comments and opinions of other <:haracters, their own speech and actions. The narrator (often comments on a person’s behavior. He will then ‘follow this up with an example to illustrate the point he Just made. His statements as well as those of the boy narrator, Cik, and Remzik, offer valuable clues as to how a person should be viewed. They seem to speak for Iskander and to be his Judges of truth and honesty. Imagery, a maJor element of Iskander’s prose, is used extensively for characterization. The images carry numerous additional indirect associations which expand the reader’s understanding of the character and his emotions. In addition to providing details to complete a character’s Portrait, similes and metaphors provide important clues to 136 how Iskander views the character. Those he respects are likened to someone of high morals. Less flattering imagery conveys Iskander’s disapproval. The use of imagery for characterization is discussed in detail in the fol lowing section. Physical description, individualized speech, behavior, capinions of others, insight into a character’s thoughts, sand imagery are combined to bring each character to life. EEach person becomes a unique individual. Iskander’s skill in manipulating language and in using vivid images allows 'the reader to see and hear the character, to feel what he -feels. ma r Iskander’s descriptions are densely packed with imagery that evokes multiple associations. Descriptions are used to bring out associations not always readily apparent. In one passage, Motorcycle gloves are used to link the present with the past: OT Heqero nenaTB H Hanen Ha pyxn ero nepanKH. OHH Ounn Taxenue, H n noquCTBOBan ceOH no nOKOTB norpyerHmM B cpenHeBeKOBBe. H noquCTBOBan, qTo ueHTp TamecTn moen cymHOCTH nepemeCTnncn B CTOpOHy MOHX yTnmeneHHHx pyx. H noquCTBOBan nerxoe menaHne cmaTb BZSTHX TypanHux nepanxax puuapcxoe KOHbe nnn mes. The atmoshpere of the Middle Ages is conveyed. In part this image is transfered to Tengiz, the owner of the 137 gloves who rushes off to battle the EndurskiJ truck drivers. In his descriptions simile, metaphor, and symbol are L‘sed to provide vivid images. By drawing concrete tsarallels, Iskander better illustrates an action or «emotion. These devices are also used to create an iatmosphere and the help characterize. £3imile Similes are particularly abundant in Iskander’s prose. In Juxtaposing two obJects, a common feature is brought tout, enabling the reader to more clearly visualize the ‘subJect (or tenor, to use I. A. Richards’ term). The iobJect that the tenor is compared with is the vehicle. The cliche has found its way into Iskander’s imagery. He uses such similes as: 'pobelel, kak smert’,'23 'paxnet, kak roza,"24 and 'zolotistaJa, kak med."25 Such similes may be reworked a little bit to make them more concrete, such as: 'luna napominala bol’ng zakopcennyJ krug gornogo syra."26 Here it is not Just cheese the moon resembles, but smoked mountain cheese. However there are few cliches in Iskander’s works. He prefers to create similes which are new and striking. Frequently the tenor and vehicle are chosen from widely differing spheres to attract the reader’s attention. The disparity sharpens the effect, creating a Inore successful simile, as occurs in the following simile: 138 'Nagali palit’ zenitki, i vidno bylo, kak vokrug nego t~azryvalis’ oduvangiki snarJadov."27 The tenor and vehicles are drawn from five sources: 1:he animal kingdom (animals, birds, insects), nature ( forces of nature, trees, plants), every-day obJects and auctivities, people, and abstract ideas. However abstract i deas are infrequently used by Iskander for the tenor or ‘Jehicle of his similes. In gen;_i,32§; Elk; an abstract cemotion is used as the vehicle: 'Golos ee obdal Eika I