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ADULT EDUCATION IN A TRANSITION SOCIETY:
THE CASE OF HONG KONG

By

Suk Chun Lau

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Educational Administration

1992

7(/- if.) .. 7"”

ABSTRACT

ADULT EDUCATION IN A TRANSITION SOCIETY:
THE CASE OF HONG KONG

By

Suk Chun Lau

Hong Kong, a British colony and the focal point of this thesis, will return to
China in 1997. The purpose of this study is to present an interpretation of this
dramatic changes that Hong Kong undergoes, and a significant adult learning
perspective, with the aim of empowering Hong Kong’s people to participate in this

social transitional process.

Based on A. D. Smith’s transunit social change theory, the author views that
this reunion could become an opportunity for Hong Kong to participate in the
construction of a new Chinese culture, rather than a tragedy. Amongst the adult
learning theories, the author has identified that the views of Paulo Freire and Jack
Mezirow are the most significant adult learning perspectives for Hong Kong. Finally,
the author proposes an adult learning program in the form of a social movement

initiated by an adult learning network.

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study is actually a collective work in which many people have made
valuable contributions. My advisor, Dr. Joseph Levine, has played a major role in
helping me articulate my ideas and inspiring me in my understanding of what an
adult educator needs to be. His care, encouragement and support are more than
words can be expressed. Many thanks to Dr. Kathryn Moore, who is my thesis
committee member as well as my guardian from the very beginning. Thanks to Dr.

Anna Neumann, who introduced me to the works of Paulo Freire and Jack Mezirow.

Special thanks to Dr. Jack Mezirow for his generosity in clarifying my
questions about his transformation adult learning theory. He has given me many

helpful suggestions and insights as to how I might apply his theory.

I am very grateful to the many sacrifices made by my community - Franciscan
Missionaries of Mary. They are the inspiration of this study, and their support,
understanding and prayer are vital for my success. Last but not least, thanks to all
of my friends at MSU, in Hong Kong and Macau for their sharing of my vision and

my dream.

 

 

’L

Table of Contents

 

INTRODUCTION ............................................. 1
CHAPTER I THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES .................. 7
1 Views of Adult Learning and Educational Practices .......... 8
A The Developmental View ........................ 9
B The Behaviorist View .......................... 16
C The Humanist View ........................... 21
D The Transformative View ....................... 26
i The Philosophical Foundation of Transformation
Theory ................................ 27
ii The Transformation Adult Learning Theory of J.
Mezirow ............................... 29
iii The Transformation Theory of Paulo Freire . . . . 35

iv The Transformation Adult Learning Theory . . . . 39

2 Social Changes and Transition Society ................... 41
A The Macro View of Social Change ................ 42
B The Micro Views of Social Change ................ 43
C The Transunits Social Change Theory .............. 45
CHAPTER II A TRANSITION SOCIETY: THE CASE OF
HONG KONG ............................... 48
1 The Case of Hong Kong ............................. 49
A The Social and Historical Background of Hong Kong . . 49
B Hong Kong -- The Free Sphere of China ............ 51
C The Educational System in Hong Kong ............. 53
D Adult Education in Hong Kong .................. 53
2 The Future of Hong Kong ............................ 56
3 Hong Kong, A Transition Society ....................... 58
A The Dominant Views of Hong Kong Chinese about
Social
Change ..................................... 59
B A New Vision of Social Change in Hong Kong ....... 63

ii.

 

CHAPTER III AN INTEGRATIVE VIEW OF ADULT
EDUCATION AND THE HONG KONG SOCIETY . . . . 66

1 Hong Kong, A Transition Society as A Change Agent ....... 67

 

2 The Contributions of Transformative Adult Learning To The
Transformative Process of Hong Kong's Transition Society . . . . 73

A An Adult Learning Theory Provides A Meaningful View

 

of Transition Due to The Social Dimension .......... 74
B An Adult Learning Theory Emphasizes The

Empowerment of People ........................ 79
C An Adult Learning Theory With A Deeper and Broader

View ....................................... 83
D An Adult Learning Theory Which Emphasizes The

Value of Human Communication ................. 88
E Adult Learning as The Dynamic of The Transformative

Process in Hong Kong's Transition Society .......... 98

CHAPTER IV THE FUTURE VISION OF ADULT EDUCATION

IN HONG KONG ............................. 100

CONCLUSION .............................................. 111

REFERENCE ............................................... 114
1 i i .

INTRODUCTION

This study emerged from an extended dialogue between
the philosophical beliefs of adult learning and the dramatic
reality of the potential changes of Hong Kong as a
transition society. This is a difficult task due first of
all to the dilemma of educational theory versus educational
practice in which adult education is becoming increasingly
divorced from its philosophical and historical roots;
second, the dilemma of the educational function of being a
formator as well as a transformator. The educational
system, as a result of institutionalization, has become more
like an instrument of socialization for the members of our
society rather than the source of change. Third, our
commitment to the development of the transformative
character of adult learning in a transition society is
challenged by the present stereotype of adult education. It
is difficult to describe something indeterminate and with
moving character. As James D. Thompson said: " Our culture
does not contain concepts for simultaneously thinking about
rationality and indeterminateness, especially about

something half-closed and half-rational" ( 1967 ). Thus it

 

is difficult to understand how an educational practice can
be held either outside or inside of the institutions that
have either half-closed or half-opened forms of
organization. Even so, this study represents an effort to
give some expression to the beliefs of humans and human
learning power, and to show how they-can be meaningful and

integrally involved in Hong Kong's transition society.

The fact that the colony of Hong Kong will return to
Chinese sovereignty in 1997 has raised many fundamental
questions about Hong Kong's future, both in terms of the
effects of the mass reaction of the Hong Kong people, as
well as the way in which China will choose to deal with this
addition to its territory. We cannot predict China's
governmental strategies toward Hong Kong because it depends
on too many internal and external variables of Chinese
society. The main concerns of this study will thus focus on
how Hong Kong's people may perceive this change: how this
change can be made meaningful in a manner that involves the
people in this change process; and how adult learning can
become the transformative dynamic in helping people become

the agents of this process of change.

Change is a natural phenomenon of human life and of the
universe. This is why the focus is not on the how, the why,
or the what that change will bring, but on the way

educational perspectives will encourage human life to

2

 

continually transform and become more human. To use Paulo
Freire's term this is the process of 'humanization'. Adult
learning activities within this framework refer to the
transformative processes which can provide the dynamic to
make humanization possible in the changing journey of

history.

This study is based on the philosophical views of two
adult educators: Paulo Freire and Jack Mezirow. They differ
on certain views, but they both recognize humans as being at
the center of their world and actors in it; they believe
that adult learning is a process rather than just a course,
a transformative process, rather than a formative program,
by which people can become the actors, not the objects, of
their own history and the history of society. They both
also emphasize the reflective and communicative competence
of adults which has often been neglected in our present
society. These important concepts will be presented and
referred to throughout this study. But because of the
pragmatic nature of this study, they will not be presented
as theoretical arguments but rather as a basis for
philosophical reflection from which potential guidelines

for practice can be drawn.

Transformative adult learning theory, a concept used
by Jack Mezirow, offers us some indication as to what kinds

of human competencies need to be fostered to become the

3

 

 

dynamic of the self and collective transformative process.
The competencies that foster humanization are: Knowing one's
individual and collective identity, which enables the adult
members of society to be aware of and to articulate their
position in time and space, their relationship with their
world and their history: the critical reflective ability
which can continuously contribute to a better orientation of
our thinking and our actions and can give us new insights;
the communicative ability which builds of individual and
common identity, and make rational reflection possible; the
willingness and the desire to participate and to commit to
the mission of humanity which can only be stimulated by the
awareness of our position in the world and our relationship
with it, but not by compelling exogenous forces. These are
considered to be the dynamics which are promoted by adult
'learning activities in Hong Kong's transition society in
view of Hong Kong's contributions to the transformative
process of China's society. These are also the contributions
of Freire and Mezirow to our understanding of the role of
adult learning in a transition society, within which lie the

potential changes which can foster transformation.

Thus, the purpose of this study is to offer a potential
adult educational practice in a transition society by
defining the philosophical justification for the view that a
transition society has a special role as a change agent in

the process of social evolution. By exposing and critically

4

 

assessing some of the key philosophical positions of adult
learning, this study aims to present a new form of adult
educational practice which can be implemented across the
boundaries of organizations, and which unites the different
adult learning efforts in order to contribute to the
transformation of individuals, groups, and the climate of

whole societies.

This study aims to accomplish four general tasks within
its four parts: The first part provides an overview of some
of the dominant views of adult development and adult
learning theories and their relationship to adult
educational practices, within which the transformative adult
learning theory drawn from the ideas of Freire and Mezirow
is presented. At the same time, different views of social
change will be presented, i.e., A. D. Smith's transunits
social change theory which offers us a most meaningful and
positive view of our transition situation within which
change is perceived as a chance for newness rather than as
an unavoidable consequence of the past. The second task,
and also the content of the second part of this study, is to
outline the images of Hong Kong's society by showing its
differences with China and its future potential changes, and
how such changes can become a turning point for its own
development and the development of Chinese culture. This
all depends on the perspective of Hong Kong's people and

their transformative dynamic. The third task is the most

 

important part of this study in which we develop our own
philosophical position based on the views of Freire and
Mezirow, a position that suggests that adult learning can
become the dynamic of the transformative process of Hong
Kong and China. The final part and main contribution of
this thesis is the suggestion of a form of adult education
which takes the shape of an adult learning network. It is
because of this interactive character of the networking, the
transformative dynamic can be stimulated, and the adult
learning activities, both individual as well as collective,
with their possible forms and settings, can be joined as the
dynamic of the transformative process in forming a new
Chinese culture--one which will be more inclusive, rational,
and human. It is with this vision, that this thesis will
view adult learning as a dynamic transformative process in

contributing to humanization--to make human life more human.

 

 

CHAPTER I THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

The aim of the first part of this study is to introduce
and examine some of the most common views of adults, adult
learning, and social change. Many of the themes and
arguments touched on in this part will recur in greater
detail in the chapters that follow, but a general
introduction should provide a useful perspective within

which the issues to be raised later can be located.

The presentation of a theoretical perspective of adult
learning and social change provides a basis for a rational
but subjective alternative within which the hard core of our
practice can be formed. This hard core is expressed as our
beliefs and our value system which will provide guidelines
for potential practices in the concrete social context.
Thus, to formulate our beliefs about adult learning and to
understand social change, this part of the study is divided
into two sections. First, we present several well known
adult development and adult learning theories, within which
the transformative theory has offered us a broader and
deeper understanding of adult learning, with adults being
the center of human history. Second, we reflect on the
meaning of a 'transition society' with different views of
social evolution and social change. The transunit theory of

social change, a theory described by A. D. Smith to explain

 

how the different social units can influence one another,
can offer a compatible view in making the changes in Hong
Kong even more meaningful. It is only in understanding this
that adult learning activities will find their indispensable

position in a transition society.

1 Views of Adult Learning and Educational Practices

The area of adult education actually involves
philosophical questions, even though not every adult
educational theorist would claim to be a philosopher. These
theories, however, all build on philosophical questions such
as: Who is considered an adult?, What are the learning
characteristics of adults?, Why should adults learn?, How
do adult learn? And based on the understanding of these

questions, where does the role of education intervene?

Who is considered an adult?, the most simple question,
is often the hardest to answers. It is this kind of
question which lies at the heart of adult educational
studies, and upon which thousands of people endeavor to

reflect.

A huge body of literature, as well as many groups of
theories, have made significant contributions to the

understanding of how adult learning phenomena. The

developmental view, the behaviorist view, and the humanist
view are the most prominent theories, which deeply influence
the understanding of adult learning phenomena and the
current practices of adult education. The aim of this
section is to trace these views of adult learning, to
describe some of their principle features which determine
their approach to educational practice, and to critically
asses their claims and their limitations. Finally, this
section considers the transformative view of adult learning
suggested by Paulo Freire and Jack Mezirow as potentially
the most significant view for a transition society, and
within which a new understanding of adult learning and the
practices of adult education can be drawn. This particular
understanding of adults and vision of adult education is
presented, and conclusions are drawn with a critical
discussion which under scores the value of the
transformative approach and its significant application to a

transition society.

A The ngglgpmental View

A great deal of research has been done on understanding
adult nature from a biological view which was suggested by a
group of theorists who have been known as developmental
theorists schooled in the Freudian tradition. Developmental
studies have as their common focus the progressive and

sequential aspects of the entire span of human life, with

9

age being a convenient index of sequential progress. In
other words, adulthood is a stage in the course of human
life, and chronological age is an indicator. There are
different assumptions about the nature of development; two
general approaches are known as the phase approach and the

stage approach.

The phase theorist, such as Daniel Levinson, views
adulthood as a part of the journey from birth to death,
following an underlying univerSal pattern. He compares this
human journey to a single cycle of seasons -- a series of
periods which are relatively stable segments of the total
cycle, each having its own time. As Levinson pointed out,
"To speak of seasons is to say that the life course has a
certain shape, that it evolves through a series of definable
forms,..:Every season has its own time: it is important in
its own right and needs to be understood in its own terms "
(1978, p. 6). The phase theorist's basic assumption of
human development is progressive and sequential, following
the same predictable pattern. Thus adults like the plants
and animals which develop in response to the changing
seasons, develop in response to their social tasks which are
determined by their physical, social and natural timing
according to the progression of chronological age. Levinson
has identified certain clusters of developmental tasks
involved in establishing and maintaining various life

structure components. These very specific life tasks can be

10

predicted accurately within a few years of chronological
age. Thus, for the phase theorists, the concept of
development is a continuing response to central life tasks.
The success of adult development depends on the
accomplishment of their developmental tasks which mark the

phase of adulthood.

Although having the same interest in understanding
adulthood from a chronological view, stage theorists take
their direction from personality development in which the
successful adaptation of prior stages is the determinant of
success in the following stages. The crucial characteristics
of this approach about adulthood are that it offers a
conceptual explanation of the adult's development in the
course of their encounters with the social environment at
each stage of their life, it emphasizes that childhood
development -- the earlier stages of adulthood -- are the
building blocks upon which success or failure in the later
stages -- adulthood -- depend, and each stage presents a new
challenge that must be negotiated successfully. Both C.
Jung and E. Erickson have voiced concern that the important
dimension of adult development involves reworking
assumptions about one's world that have been wrought from
childhood. Erickson presents an example of the development
of the sense of autonomy, which exists to some extent in
earlier stages, such as infancy, and develops until the

later stages of adulthood. These individuals formulate

11

their particular ideas and concepts of autonomy through
their encounters with the environment throughout the
progression of their years (1980). These encounters result
in crises, which are to be described for each stage. The
potential crises of successive stages can predict and
describe the adjustments of perspective which are
accomplished in their own time. Adulthood is described by
Erickson in his eight stages of the life cycle as the stage
of care and responsibility. Adults in this stage need to
develop a "new different love of one's parents, free of the
wish that they have been different and an acceptance of the
fact that one's life is one's own responsibility " (1980,

p. 104).

According to the developmental view, adulthood is a
stage or a phase of an individuals' life which progresses by
age, like a biological organ which is controlled by nature,
biological laws, and time. Nevertheless, both the stage and
phase approaches recognize that the life cycle is not an
unchanging flow, but that the stages are qualitatively
different from those that precede and those that follow, and
that each stage has its diurnal, atmospheric and
psychological character (see Levison, 1978, pp. 5-6).
Changes occur within each stage, and a transition is
required for the shift from one stage to the next. Each
stage is important in its own right and needs to be

understood on its own terms. As suggested by the Jungians,

12

if the development of childhood was good enough, adulthood
would be tranquil. With the various tasks that arise at or
about a certain period in the life of an individual,
successful achievement leads to happiness and to success
with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by society, and difficulty with
later tasks. When transitions occur in adult life, adults
cope in different ways with them. These transition points
give shape and direction to the various aspects of a
person's life. With this view, adult development is
basically linked by age to specific cognitive, emotional,
and physiological developments and capacities; it is
measured by the scales of adjustment and achievement of
tasks in each phase of life, the developmentalists also

conceive that knowledge and learning are stage-related.

This is why the developmental approach emphasizes that
the individual learns his/her way through life. What should
or would people be learning? For Havighurst, one of the
phase theorists, " people should learn the task which arises
at or about a certain period in the life of the individual,
successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and
to success with later tasks" (1948, p. 5). This stems from
the developmental view that transition during one's life
span is a time of learning in which individual adults search
for suitable ways to cope or to deal with change. Adults,

during these transitions, often seek educational experiences

13

 

because of the necessity to take a step back and observe
their lives and reconsider their needs and options. Thus,
learning means 'to change': and the deliberate effort to
help adult learning through adult education is especially
significant during the transition from one life period to
the next. In other words, educational activities are the

catalysts for helping people change.

Educational practice, according to this approach, is
inclined to match instruction with a well defined and well
formed curriculum which is suitable for each stage of
development. The main goal of adult education would be to
help adults cope with the crises of their age's stages in
the life cycle, particularly with the task of the encounter
of adults with their environment. Thus, adult education is
task oriented. Therefore, according to the developmental
view, educational decision making relies on the competence
of a few people with little participation from the
participants, just as it would be inconceivable for doctors
to allow their patients, or even nurses, to decide how
medical ailments should be cured. In short, the
developmental approach to adult education is task oriented,
focussing on life-problem solving, and emphasizing formal
and prior childhood education, considering adult education
as a remediation of failure during prior education. The
emphasis is on psychological therapy for failure during

childhood development rather than learning for growth.
14

Counseling, psychoanalysis or learning coping skills are the

most common practices of this approach.

It should also be noted that such perspectives of adult
development and adult education practices mainly are
focussed on simplifying human and social phenomena in a
stable and determined way. The stratification of
individuals according to their age groups, as suggested by
the phase theorists is the consequence of this perspective.
Most criticism of this approach is provoked by the
stereotyping and immobilization of educational activities
into certain paradigms, which neglect the changes of social
context and lead to inappropriate educational strategies.
The negligence and the rejection of the particularities of
different individuals and the capacity of humans to be the
actors in their own lives gives this approach a very limited
scope. The task-oriented adult educational practice is used
to stratify individuals in accordance with the complex
network of roles that sustain the existing social order, and
the individual adults are viewed as players of suitable
roles instead of autonomous people. This would be even more
dangerous in a feudalistic society which is heavily
controlled by social norms and social expectations. If this
approach was the only foundation of adult educational
practice, adult educators would have the role of being the
guardians of social order, and adult educational practices

would become the tools which enforce social norms and

15

 

preserve social stability rather than inducing social

progress.

8 The fieheviezise View

The view of education as the process of changing the
behavioral patterns of people is the view held by most
educators. This approach is drawn from behavioral
psychology, having a heritage in positivism, a system of
philosophy which opposes any metaphysical or theological
claims as the basis of valid knowledge. This perspective is
known as behaviorism and claims that valid knowledge can
only be established by reference to that which is manifested
in experience. The conviction which underlies such a view
is that the way to know an individual can not be by his/her
mind, but only by his/her behavior, which can be observed
and justified. The behaviorists believe that only by
controlling human behavior can a better society result: and
the human behavior is shaping and maintaining by the
environment. As B. F. Skinner, the most recognized
behavioral psychologist, advocated: "It is the environment
which acts upon the perceiving person, not the perceiving
person who acts upon the environment" (1971, p.188).
Behaviorists look at human behavior as a result of the
responses of an individual toward his/her environment, that
humans learn to behave in certain ways because such actions

bring them the most satisfaction. Successful behavior

16

 

becomes the reinforcement and the motivation for further
action. Adult human beings are considered by the
behaviorists as involuntary and dependent organisms, whose
behavior is conditioned by a reflexive response toward
stimuli, and is determined by the events experienced in an
objective environment. Since actual behavior is the result
of past experiences, personal experience is the most
important information to know in order to trace the
development of an individual organism. The concepts of
feedback, reinforcement and reward then are the most
important tools implemented by behaviorist educators in the

teaching process.

Education is considered by behaviorists as a process of
changing the behavior patterns of people; or simply, as a
way of teaching, "an arrangement of contingencies of
reinforcement under which students learn" (Skinner, 1968,

p. 64). Thus, behaviorists look at education as an applied
science, the utilization of the scientific method which,
with the precise goal, accurate planning, reinforcement
conditioning, and appropriate measurement, would be the way
to ensure the most successful educational outcome. The
non-scientific components, such as value judgment and social
ideals which cannot be explained or justified by the
application of scientific knowledge are out of
consideration. Behavioristic educators hold to the

conviction that it is possible to produce a well organized

17

educational situation or educational procedure which can be
employed to attain well defined educational goals and to
make objective educational decisions. Competent educators,
must choose and recommend educational strategies that are
mainly instrumental in the achievement of whatever
educational goals are determined. At the same time,
educators are planners, controllers, and managers of
educational activities. The efficiency and effectiveness of
changing individual behavior are the criteria of educational
evaluation. The application of the behaviorist approach in
adult education is widely incorporated into programs in
adult vocational education, adult basic education, and even
in the areas of health education and work place education
which involve the steps of needs assessment, instructional
materials planning and performance measurement. With this
approach, the curricula of adult education needs to be well
planned according to the job description or the assessment

of the final result.

For example, the Adult Performance Level (APL) approach
to the design of literacy programs is established by the
competence levels needed to ensure adults the ability to
function successfully in today's society. This is one
example of the implication of the behavioristic view in the

adult education field.

Another great impact made by the behaviorist approach

18

in adult education is program planning. A great deal of
literature about adult program planning are based on the
positivist tradition which states that educational decisions
can neatly depend on the instrumental questions concerned
with educational means and procedures, while value questions
concerned with ends are incoherent. The educators holding
to this perspective rely on scientific and rational planning
skills to predict ideal educational outcomes. Ralph W.
Tyler's educational accountability (1971) is an example.
Tyler emphasizes the importance of measured educational
goals, assessment of effectiveness of learning, and
accountable procedures. Houle's fundamental system (1972)
and a group of planning theorists including Boone (1985),
are well known in the adult education field. Even though
there are no particular adult education theorists who can be
identified as behaviorists, the behavioral approach's
influence has been manifest in the areas of adult education

policies, programs and practices.

Even with this brief presentation of the behaviorist
approach, it has been shown as a subject of critique. The
greatest challenge to the behaviorists emerges from two main
sets of arguments: Who is the actor in the educational
process, and what kind of linkage is there between the
educational aims and the educational means? Within the
behaviorist approach, educators and administrators take a

dominant role in the adult learning process. They adopt

19

the role of a learning technician applying the principles of
operant conditioning so as to ensure effective learning.
Their commitment to a well designed procedure is the
dominant way they ensure the well predicted outcome, and it
is always regarded as appropriate for the social needs and
the institutional goals within which the individual has no
control. Obviously, this dependency on the planning
procedure results in the inclination of the capacity of
individuals to reflect upon their own situations and change
them through their own actions. It can be argued that even
though human actions are largely defined by the expectations
of society, human actions are not merely based on 'objective
reality', but are defined mainly by one's interpretation of
one's actions and situations. Human action is not purely
objective, but rather subjective. Therefore the behaviorist
approach can be seen as failing to describe how individuals
interpret their actions and their situations, and failing to
recognize that the ultimate actor in the personal
transformation process is the learner who acts and reacts
with his/her desires, feelings and interpretations, and
with his/her abilities of reflection, rationalization, being

aware, being critical and being selective.

other criticize the behaviorist approach for its
failure to recognize the particular relationship between
educational aims, and the means employed to achieve them.

Behaviorists tend to rely on the scientific method to attain

20

 

'efficient' and 'effective' problem solving goals. critics
say it is naive to deny that educational 'means' are value
laden because they incorporate attitudes toward other
people, and educational activities always involve human
activities. The instrumental criterion of efficiency and
its effective application in an educational context is
always incoherent and has moral constraints; it always
incorporates some moral notion of what is permissible to do
to other people and what is not. For example, the empirical

results of experiments with animals conducted by the early

 

behavioral psychologists, would be unacceptable in an
educational context. The fact that moral values enter into
all educational decisions, means educational aims cannot be
the end products to which educational processes are the
instrumental means. Aims are expressions of values in terms
of some distinctive educational character bestowed on them.
And it is the educational aims that largely determine what
is to count as an educational method, but not vice versa.
When we talk about the educational aim we are talking about
a subjective value based on the whole view of the destiny of

humanity.

g The figmehish View

If behaviorism is the most widely implemented theory in
the educational context, then, humanism is the most accepted

by educators. Behaviorism is so precise, with its empirical

21

method for human behavior. However, humanism is so
ambiguous, having adopted various philosophical traditions
such as ancient Greek philosophy, Renaissance,
existentialism, modern psychotherapy, and even Marxism, that
we have difficulty in defining it. Although it is not the
task of this study to analyze such a complex philosophical
tradition, it is important to emphasize the great influence

humanist beliefs have had on adult education.

Humanist philosophy is built upon the idea of human
self-confidence, dignity, autonomy, and capacity for
self-fulfillment and satisfaction. Humanists prefer to look
at the human being as a whole and are opposed to the
behavioristic view that humans are behavioral organisms.
Humanists have a faith in human potential. They consider
human beings as being inherently good, free and not
determined by external forces or internal urges as
behaviorists claim, and that human beings have the ability
to evaluate themselves in order to grow and develop. Thus,
self-actualization is the goal of human development, and
human beings have within themselves the power and potential
for achieving this. According to humanists, being a
self-actualized person is an adult phenomenon. Being adult
is described by the well known humanist A. H. Maslow as
being "grow into humanness in the society and the culture,

the family" (1970, p. xviii).

22

Within this humanistic belief system, learning is a
human activity which emanates from the learner. Thus, the
learner is the best judge of whether learning has met
his/her needs and interests. Building upon the belief that
human beings are essentially good and perfectible, humanism
emphasizes the 'auto-centered' and 'self—directed'
educational approach. The central aim of education is to
make the learner progressively more self-aware, more in
touch with himself, aware of his own uniqueness. Therefore,
the task of education is to center the authority within the
learner himself, and to develop within the learner an

attitude of responsibility toward his own learning.

The most well known translation of this humanist
approach to adult education theory is M. Knowles' andragogy
which is recognized by almost every adult educator a the
landmark of adult education. M. Knowles, influenced by E.
C. Lendeman and C. Rogers, focused his theory of the
internal dynamics of learning in adulthood and called it
'andragogy' (1984, p.4-7). The four assumptions upon which
andragogy is built are: An adult is one who has arrived at
a self-concept of being responsible for one's own life, of
being self-directed: an adult is a growing reservoir of
experience; an adult is ready to learn; and an adult is more
problem-centered than subject-centered in learning (1970).
It is from there that Knowles draws numerous implications

for the design and evaluation of learning activities. The

23

unique contribution of Knowles is to make a clear
distinction between child and adult learning. His theory
clearly emphasizes human-centeredness and recognizes that
humans have the capacity for their own self- actualization.
With this humanistic educational approach, Knowles'
description of the adult character is drawn from the most
basic assumption of humanism -- that human beings are
essentially good and perfectible. This labels him as a

humanistic adult educator.

Andragogy is well known by adult educators, but at the
same time, it has also been challenged. The assumptions of
human self-fulfillment, self-readiness, and
self-directedness have led to arguments by some educators
that these are human developmental goals rather than parts
of the natural human condition. Therefore, the
characteristics of self-directed adults who are ready to
learn how to solve their own problems through their own
experience would be the same as those characteristics of
adult learners who are voluntary participants in learning
activities. The problem that is inherent in this view is
that the description of adult learning is drawn from
participants in adult learning activities rather than
potential adult learners. In many place this means that,
since adult learners are drawn mainly from the middle class,
the characteristic of adult learners are the same as those

of middle class. This raises the question of programs for

24

adult learners as being comprised of activities of the

middle class.

Even though recognized as a humanist adult educator
whose main concern is the learner, Knowles' four
assumptions can be interpreted as being pro-teacher rather
than pro-learner, a theory closer to a theory of teaching
than to a theory of learning, and he has described his
theory as "the art and the science of helping adults learn"
(1970, p. 38). His assumptions are more likely the
descriptions or the guidelines of good adult teaching
practice, which facilitate the development of a
comprehensive understanding of the teacher's role as an
educator by engaging in a reflection of the adult character.
Knowles has created an ambiguous problem with teaching and
learning by labeling andragogy as a teaching theory with
intention of empowering adult educators with a better
knowledge of their students. The consequence is that most
adult educators are identified as teachers just like all
teachers who enhance other adults to learn with the

appropriate methods.

By establishing andragogy as the science of helping
adults learn, Knowles fails to describe the learner's
learning process of transformation of 'self' from one stage
to another. In other words, what are the processes the

learners need to go through, and the kinds of strengths or

25

dynamics that would help the learners learn or grow?
Without the consideration and explanation for such adult
learning or changing processes the application of adult

educational theory is narrowed.

The discussion so far has been an attempt to explain
the phenomenon of adult learning from different theoretical
perspectives according to the different understandings of
human beings and adults in particular. Human beings act
within the world, their actions are determined not according
to objective reality, but rather, according to their
subjective interpretations which are influenced by their
experiences. The theories which have been mentioned have
failed to enable us to describe how individuals interpret
their actions and the situations in which they act; how the
different learning processes would transform the
understanding and the interpretations of the person
individually and collectively, and how the progress of
humanity in the journey of history will be enhanced. The
next section will introduce a family of adult education
approaches which stem from a critical theory, which will be
called a transformative adult learning theory in this study,
and two scholars, Paulo Freire and Jack Mezirow, who are
considered the two foremost representatives of this

transformative adult learning theory.

26

i The PhilOSOphical Foundation of Transformation Theory

Both Jack Mezirow and Paulo Freire are strongly
influenced by the German philosophers. Freire declares that
he was most influenced by Marx and Eric Fromm, and Mezirow
has elaborated his theory based on the critical social
theory of German philosopher J. Habermas. Even though this
study has no intention of discussing the Marxist or
Frankfurt Schools of philosophy, since it would be beyond
the scope of this study, we will point out some influential
concepts which can help us understand the value of the
transformative theory in adult educational practices and its

significance for a transition society.

The family of ideas called critical theory, coined by
M. Horkheoner, is a philosophical explanation of human
destiny (Ko, 1986). Its conceptualization begins with
locating human beings in the center of humanity. Contrary
to humanism, critical theorists never consider man as an
individual, but rather, as a member of humanity as a whole.
To recognize the nature of human beings by separating them
from other members and from the world, would be to fail.
For critical theorists, humans are not inherently good, as
humanists presuppose, but rather weak, and they suffer from

self-imposed coercion. But critical theorists also disagree

27

with the developmental and behaviorist approach which
purports that human beings are not living in an 'objective
reality' over which the individual has no control, but
humans have the ability to critically reflect on their own
situations and overcome the oppression of distortion and the
social condition, and through their reflective actions -
'praxis' - man transforms himself and reconstructs the world
in order to realize his true 'potentialities' or 'essence'

(W. Carr & S. Kemmis, 1986).

The main concern of critical theory, therefore, is the
emancipatory process of human beings through their own
reflection and actions. Learning from this viewpoint is a
process which is derived from an interest in human beings,
and permits the learning participants to be oriented toward
transforming themselves and their situations through their
own reflection and actions. The concept of participants is
very important. For the critical theorists there are not
two classes -- teachers and learners -- in the learning
process, but rather, all who are involved in the learning
process are the participants. J. Habermas claims, "The
vindicating superiority of those who do the enlightening
over those who are to be enlightened is theoretically
unavoidable, but at the same time it is fictive and requires
self-correction: in a process of enlightenment there can
only be participants" (1974, p. 40). In the learning

process the human communicative action, which Habermas calls

28

discourse, is indispensable. Therefore, the critical
theorist desires an ideal speech condition which allows for
a flow of ideas and arguments and for participants to be
free from the threat of domination. From this will emerge
the emancipation from distortions and the rational autonomy,
this ideal speech condition is a form of life, and also, an

ideal educational environment.

ii The Transformation Adult Learning Theory of J. Mezirow

Jack Mezirow, whose adult learning theory stands apart
views adult learning as a transformative process. Drawing
from the Frankfurt School's philosophical tradition, Mezirow
bases his transformative theory on the beliefs of Kant,
Marx, and Habermas, which purport that the ultimate goal of
human development is to become, or to realize his/her true
'potentialities' or 'essence' of being human. Human beings
are social beings for Mezirow, they can never be understood
if separated from their world. Humans are the creation of
their social and historical situation bound by their prior
experiences, but at the same time, humans are also creators,
who can form and transform themselves and their environment.
For Mezirow, adults are characterized by growth in their
critical reflective abilities which permits them to assess
their old perspectives and achieve new interpretations of

their experiences. As he points out, " As we age, we can

29

become more attentive to context and more critically
reflective of meanings taken for granted that at an earlier
age we perceived as context-independent" (1985, p. 25).

Such critical reflective ability then according to Mezirow
become the unique characteristic of adulthood: "Adulthood is
the time for reassessing the assumptions of our formative

years" (1990, p. 13).

Such a definition of adulthood embodies the unique
character of the transformative theory, and the assumptions
dealing with adult development and maturity also emerge.
Mezirow has conceptualized that adults are not only
progressing in chronological age, but their development is
also expressed as inner growth through the reconstruction of
their understanding about themselves and their world.
Mezirow points out that transformative theory is "a
developmental process of movement through the adult years
toward meaning perspectives that are progressing more
inclusive, discriminative, and integrative of experience"
(1978, p. 106). The dynamic of this progressive growing
process is the critical reflective ability of adulthood,
which permits adults to overcome the " limited, distorted,
and arbitrary selective modes of perception, and cognition,
through reflection on assumptions that formerly have been
accepted uncritically, is central to development in

adulthood " (1991, p. 5).

30

The understanding of adult development through critical
reflection provides a view of adult learning which differs
from mere acquisition of information or behavior change.
Mezirow, in outlining his learning theory, states that "the
awareness of why we attach the meanings we do to reality,
especially to our roles and relationships... may be the most
significant distinguishing characteristic of adult learning"
(1981, p. 11). Thus, for Mezirow, adult learning is neither
for adjustments during transitional crises in the human
aging process, nor for changing behavior with external
intervention, or even for self-realization. Rather, it is a
transformative process through critical reflection which
involves "an enhanced level of awareness of the context of
one's beliefs and feelings, a critique of their assumptions
and particularly premises, an assessment of alternative
perspectives, a decision to negate an old perspective in
favor of a new one or to make a synthesis of old and new, an
ability to take action based upon the new perspective, and a
desire to fit the new perspective into the broader context
of one's life" (1991, p. 161). It is from this view that
adult learning in transformative theory is focused centrally
on the changing of contexts rather than on acquisition of
data. Such a learning process begins with the dilemma and
moves forward as distorted meaning structures become

transformed through critical reflection.

Critical reflection is not merely a form of reasoning,

31

but a form of participation in human communication, or what
Habermas called 'the climate of discourse'. Because it is
only in discourse that most significant errors are likely to
be challenged by others, and through critical inquiry and
argument we can determine that some judgments about reality
are more correct than others. It is in this process that
alternatives and new insights emerge and adequate actions
are inspired by it. Thus, learning occurs when one is open
to the scrutiny and criticisms of other people. In the
process of changing, generating and reconstructing
perspectives, new understanding and actions will emerge
ending old learning but making room for new each time an
individual or a group encounters a new situation and new
experiences. In that sense, the transformative learning
process is mainly self-directed learning, because learning
is operated by an individual's inner self and through

his/her interactions with others and with the world.

Adapted from Habermas' knowledge and the human
interest' theory, knowledge is not produced by a 'pure'
intellectual act, but rather, it is the outcome of human
activity that is motivated by natural needs and interests
(see W. Carr 8 S. Kemmis, 1986, ch. 5). Agreeing with
Habermas' theory, Mezirow recognizes that most adult
learning is multidimensional involving basic adult interests
of controlling the environment, understanding meanings as we

communicate with others, and understanding ourselves. Such

32

a view of knowledge and learning confirms that learning is
not a kind of response to stimulus as behaviorists suggest,
but rather, it is human living which produces interaction
among other human beings. Adults do not learn to become

mere intellectuals, but rather to live new and better lives.

Interpreted in this way, adult education is
"understood as being centrally involved in creating and
facilitating dialogue communities to enable learners to
engage in rational discourse and action" (Mezirow, 1990,

p. 354). The educational setting of such adult learning
would not only be the classroom, but as Mezirow defines it,
" safe places in which to try out new roles and ideas, a
community of critical discourse, a sphere of freedom, and an
authentic space in which the dialectic of freedom may be
achieved (see 1991, pp. 206-207). Adult educators, in such
educational settings act different from their traditional
roles. Mezirow considers them as 'collaborative learners'
who are critically self-reflective and who encourage others
to consider alternative perspectives, enforce norms
governing rational discourse, and encourage solidarity and

group support (see 1991, pp. 206-207).

Even Mezirow has had difficulty in producing a prefect
theory of adult learning theory which is not open to
discussion and criticism. But his explanation of adult

learning phenomena has provided us with a new understanding

33

of adult learning, and from which we can induce a
transformation of adult educational practices. Concepts
such as communicative climate building, learner
participation in discourse situations, the development of
critical reflective ability, adult critical character, three
learning domains, and the learning process as a
transformative process, are the new insights within which
new understanding and new practices can emerge and reveal
potential for a transition society. However, it does not
lack challenges from others. Several educators have studied
transformation theory and contend that Mezirow has placed
too much emphasis on the individual's inner change rather
than on social change, and having as a consequence "the lack
of a coherent, comprehensive theory of social change, and a
lack diffused throughout the internal structure of this
theory" (Collard & Law, 1989, p. 102). The reason for such
a lack of social character in Mezirow's theory obviously
stems from the foundation of his theory. Even Mezirow
refers heavily to Habermas' social critical theory, but his
selection of Habermas' thought is reflected mainly in the
concepts of knowledge, critical reflection, and discourse.
Actually, the transformation of the individual is the
central concern of Mezirow. This is why he claims that his
theory is not a social change theory, even though he
recognizes that the transformation of individuals would
bring about changes in society. He prefers to place his

belief in the power of education in a society, such as the

34

United States, in which social change is not seen as an
urgent need. In contrast, another transformation theorist,
Paulo Freire, sees societal change as the determinant and
urgent need for a decolonized country, a transition society

such as Brazil.

iii The Transformation Theory of Paulo Freire

Paulo Freire has been influenced by his involvement
with development of the Catholic Church Movement and the
Brazilian Revolution. As a Christian and a Marxist (1990,
p. 1), his view is not only a concept of theoretical
building but more like an ideal whose only response is
commitment. Freire situates human beings in the center of
the universe and of history, and humanity's process within
history continuously moves toward plenitude. As Freire
claims, " man are in the process of becoming, as unfinished,
uncompleted beings in and with a likewise unfinished reality
" (1990, p. 73). Men exist in the universe, but differently
from animals, with their 'not-I' and 'I' awareness. Men are
not only living in the world, but also " infusing the world
with their creative presence by means of the transformation
they effect upon it, not only live but exist, and their
existence is historical" (1990, p. 89). Then, men are the
actors, the 'subjects' of their own history. Opposite of

the behaviorists, Freire believes in men who cannot be

35

controlled by external power, since "men respond to the
challenge with actions directed at negating and overcoming,
rather than passively accepting, the 'given' " (1990,

p. 89). In the same line of thinking as J. Mezirow, Freire
recognizes that it is the critical reflection ability of
human beings which empowers human beings to overcome
challenges. Freire contends that: " As critical perception
is embodied in action, a climate of hope and confidence
develops which leads men to attempt to overcome the limit-
situation " (1990, p. 91). In short, human beings portray a
vivid image in Freire's theory. Man, as a conscious being,
has the ability to reason, to dialogue, to reflect, to act,
to create and to participate. Finally, man is the being who
transcend themselves and transform the world to build their

future (see 1990).

If the developmental theorists view 'timing' as a
journey from birth to death, and within which men progress,
'timing' will get its perpetual and dynamic expression in
Freire's writings. For Freire, men exist in time, they are
inside, they are outside, they inherit, they incorporate,
they modify, but men are not imprisoned within a permanent
'today' (see 1973, p. 4). It is with such perception of
timing then that the concepts of change and transformation
get their meaning. Change is not dramatic in the sense that
the world and humanity are in a constant process of

transformation; and the way of transformation viewed by

36

Freire is the movement "between being and being more human"
(1990, p. 93). And our reality is really a process which
undergoes constant transformation. The adequate way for men
to deal with these changes is integration -- an "integration
with one's context" which is "distinguished from adaptation"
(1973, p. 4). For Freire, adaptation in the transition
period as suggested by the developmental theorists, it is
"behavior characteristic of the animal sphere; as men relate
to the world by responding to the challenges of the
environment, they begin to dynamize, to master, and to
humanize reality" (1973, p. 5). The development in this

transformation then is continuing integration.

Based on the German philosophical tradition, Freire
recognizes the ability of consciousness, awareness, and
critical reflection as part of human nature, and the power
to push human beings to progress in the transformation
process of humanity. Freire is not talking about the process
of learning, but he calls for conscientization which "is the
deepening of the attitude of awareness characteristic of all
emergence" (1990, p. 101); and it is also an act of
investigation which introduces men to a critical form of
thinking about their world. Therefore, for Freire, learning
actually is a transformation process, and this
transformation process is not only for individuals, but for
all of humanity which he calls humanization. Thus, learning

is a transformation and a humanization process beginning

37

with the investigation, and expressed in praxis which "is
the action and the reflection of men upon their world in
order to transform it " (1990, p. 66). This transformation
process only emerges in encounters between men in which "the
united reflection and action of the dialoguers are addressed
to the world which is to be transformed and humanized"
(1990, p. 77). And it is in this encounter that the only

learning method - dialogue - is exercised in its full sense.

Freire's educational approach is founded on faith in
men, which was mentioned before. In despair over the
traditional education approach, he contends that traditional
education only dictates ideas but does not change them:
there are only lectures but no discussions; only imposing
but no initiation: only to storing of formulas but not to
offer the student to think, only to assimilate the results
of research: no effort to re-create and re-invent (see
1973). Freire declares that education is an act of love.
It should be what he calls liberation education, or an
education " for men to come to feel like masters of their
thinking by discussing the thinking and views of the world
explicitly or implicitly manifest in their own suggestions
and those of their comarades " (1990, p. 118). This kind of
education is not merely a transference of information, and
'dialogue' is the only method through which the educational
process can occur. Compatible with Mezirow's approach, in

liberation education there are no teachers and students,

38

but men teaching each other. Instead of the problem solving
method which is supported by the developmental and humanist
theorists, liberation education introduces the
problem-posing method through which men would "develop their
power to perceive critically the way they exist in the world
with which and in which they find themselves; they come to
see the world not as a static reality, but as a reality in

process, in transformation (1990, p. 71).

iv The Transformation Adult Learning Theory

This study has passed quickly over a number well known
adult educational theories, including the developmental
approach with the stage and phase theories, behaviorism, and
humanism, and has used several pages to introduce the
transformation adult learning theory which is taken as the
basic reference of this study. As a consequence, it is
difficult to assess all of the many studies of each
theoretical family and the criticisms of each of the views.
Nevertheless, there are some important points worth
mentioning. In the process of reflection upon the
fundamental assumptions of the developmental, behaviorist
and humanist approaches, we can easily discover that they
are developed through an outsider perspective which is based
on the observation of the analysis of subjects who are

called men, adults, or learners. And their suggestions are

39

based on the problem-solving approach, which is based on the
diagnosis of adult's or learner's needs for success. Actual
adult educational practices which are submerged by such
views and attitudes would lose their dynamic easily and
would keep their marginal status as supplements to the
'normal education system'. The stratification of human
beings as to who can teach and who needs to learn is the

ultimate obstacle of human development.

A brief description of J. Mezirow's and Paulo Freire's
approaches has been presented, both of whom agree that
humans have the ability to transform their lives and their
world with their critical reflective abilities and their
competence in communication. Humans then are the actors and
the subjects of their own history and control their own
destinies. Processing takes place not individually but in
humanity as a whole. There are no teachers or learners, but
all are transformers together. Learning then as the dynamic
of this transformative process does not occur only in the
classroom setting, but in all dimensions of human life. The
intervening acts of this type of education are far from
bureaucratic. Rather to create a climate, an atmosphere
within which men have freedom to reflect, to discuss, to
create, and to act. The ideas behind of this theory can
lead adult educational practice toward a transformative
process, in which adult education revives its dynamic and

thus becomes the main education which can emerge in every

40

 

area of human life and every human setting. It is then that
adult education will become the 'main' education, because it

is an education of life.

2 Social Changes and Transition Society

To identify Hong Kong as a transition society seems to
be meaningless, since transition would be descriptive of all
of society, because life is never static. Human history is
a continuous transitional process. Transition suggests a
process, a movement from one position toward another new
position. Transition always includes change, and some
modification or novelty is expected as a result of the
process of transition. Therefore, when we identify a
society as a transition society, we refer to a society which
is in the process of changing. Change is the rhythm of the
advancement of history. Most of the time, humans resist
change and try to maintain stability which many people think
is the normal condition of human life. Human reaction
toward changing situations is so different, and depends on
each person's interpretation or perception of the change.
Understanding, behaving, and valuing change is what learning
means, and it is in these that the significant adult

educational programs can be developed.

Studying the phenomenon of human social change has been

41

an interest of sociologists, political scientists, and
anthropologists during the last century. The processes and
the forms of social change are so varied and numerous with
such complexity and diversity that no single view could
provide a significant explanation. Anthony D. Smith, a
sociologist, has derived a simple grouping of the diverse
social change theories into two main categories (1976),
namely, the macro view and the micro view of change. The
importance of mentioning such categorizing is not for the
sake of analysis as it is not the main concern of this
study; however, these two general views of social change
have also represented the general attitudes of the Hong Kong
people toward social change. Thus, it will be very
important for us to identify our position of how Hong Kong's
transitional situation would be meaningful for the Hong Kong
people, and it is from there that we can correctly identify

the function of adult learning for such a society.

A 0 V w o o 'a an e

The macro view of human history as a whole and with a
long term perspective consists of the views of a group of
sociologists such as: H. Spencer's social classification
theory (1876): Max Weber's study of Protestant ethic and
the development of Capitalism (1958); E. Durkheim's study of
the types of social organization, how they develop from a

simple structure to a complicated set of patterns which

42

constitute organization today (1954): T. Parson's social
evolution theory in which societies go through primitive,
intermediate and modern stages (1966); and K. Marx'
historical materialism, in which the economic form of
reproducing life is characteristic of the human stages of
development. These sociologists look at human history as an
accumulation of unintended and unplanned changes. With such
views, changes are not as much the product of human purpose,
but rather, an intrinsic law and power within society, a
determinate process of development in the sense of both the
realization of potentiality and the subsequent improvement
of achievement in successive phase. These theorists are
mainly concerned with the functions or objective
consequences of the collective patterns of activity, and
usually the study of pattern maintenance and stability.

With this view the emphasis lies on the impact of the

changes and the adjustments of people, while the role of

human choice and action are almost whittled away.

B The Micgo Views of Seciei Qhehge

Another group of researchers who have concentrated on
human intentional change hold a micro or active view of
social changes. Such views are D. Lerner's modernization
theory which recognizes that modernization derives from

innovations (1958); E. Roger's theory of diffusion of

43

innovation (1983): R. A. Nisbet's social change and history,
which holds that most historical change results from the
intrusion of an event (1969); and J. A. Bank's social
movement theory, viewing social change as the rupture of the
stable society (1972). Central to this view of social
change is the recognition of the large role accorded to
human choice and creativity. It is the role of rational
human activity such as innovation, social movement,
migration, and revolution. All of these sequences of human
choice permit advances of history. The crucial issue, then,
is not so much of gradual societal change or evolution, but
of purposeful human intervention and selection. These
studies are focused on the channel of change, the
assimilation, the communication, the mobility and the mass
media exposure of people through which new culture has
emerged and formed. According to this view of social
change, it is not human activity which becomes central, but
a conscious, willed and planned activity, event, the act of
choice itself. Therefore, for these theorists change
implies a break with past patterns of behavior or beliefs
and a conscious dynamic movement to another pattern. As a
consequence, change always involves a period of conflict and
crisis, men will try to incorporate it as smoothly as
possible so as to preserve the identity of their group and
its ways as far as they can. With this view, the
intervention of individuals, movements and groups is crucial

in the process of social change.

44

In

The Transunits Seciai Chenge Theory

As we have mentioned above, there is no single theory
that can explain the complexity of human social change
phenomenon. Our intention here is not to provide a
sociological analysis of social change. Our interest is to
focus on the impacts of these different views; we assume
that the strategies of people to deal with change depends on
their perspective and understanding of the change. It is
with this in mind that our understanding of social change
needs to be pragmatic in the sense that it would be adequate
for the particular changes which Hong Kong has faced. Hong
Kong was a part of China, a unit which separated from China.
The future changes of Hong Kong mainly consist of a change
in the relationship between a particular unit with other
units and with the large entity as a whole. A. D. Smith
suggests a third view of social change which is called a
transunits social change theory and has offered a more
meaningful view of Hong Kong's transitional situation. Smith
points out that there are some elements of social change
which have been neglected by the two macro and micro views
of social change. He emphasizes that many changes emerge
from interactions between units, or units and the society as
a whole. He claims that many changes are the product of
mutual interactions between a given unit and others

surrounding it. "Where changes cannot be convincingly

45

ascribed to either cumulation or sudden intrusion, or to
voluntaristic planning, there is a prima facie case for
deriving them from the linkages and currents formed by a
given unit with others with whom it stands in mutually
interinfluencing relations" (1976, p. 133). Smith points
out that the transunits interactions are a long-term, more
or less continuous pattern of interplay and partnership
between two or more patterns or units, and in time, can
provide a source and context for changes within particular
units of that constellation. It is interpenetration or
close relations themselves which constitute basic conditions
for change within the constituent units. Then, analysis of
change in terms of transunits interactions presupposes a
world of rival power centers which exert mutual influences.
Smith's argument here is concerned with the importance of
the historical record, not only of sudden cataclysmic
intrusions, but of broader and more lasting interactions
between patterns and units which form the essential setting
for analyses of human responses and innovations in the light
of unique value commitments and ideals. It is in the
dialogue between, on the one hand, the ever-changing context
and web of interunits relations, and, on the other, creative
human syntheses and activities, that much significant change
- its origins, mechanisms and forms can be located and

understood.

The transunits views of social change which emphasize

46

mutual interaction, interpenetration, dialogue and
relationship between the different or rival power units is
meaningful for a transition society such as the case of Hong
Kong. For, with this view, Hong Kong's transition society
will not be seen as an object to adapt deliberate change but
one which has an active role as a change agent in the
transitional process. And it is also with this
understanding of Hong Kong's social change that the
transformation adult learning theory as suggested by Freire
and Mezirow, as being compatible to facilitate the diverse
units in conscientizing their differences, in providing a
critical analysis of the situation, in facilitating the
interaction, and formulating a climate for dialogue, then
adult learning activities will not be only supplemental, but

rather the mediator and the dynamic of social change.

47

CHAPTER H A TRANSITION SOCIETY: THE CASE OF

HONG KONG

The previous examination of the different views of
adults, adult learning and implications for adult education
has enabled us to understand, from a more sophisticated
position, the rationality of our alternative. This
reflection sustains our belief about adults' status in human
history and the nature of adult learning with its
contribution to the progress of human life. The
transformative adult learning theory seems to be a more
appropriate approach. However, if it is to have a future in
the Hong Kong transition society, it must develop a
relationship with the social conditions, concerns, and
problems of Hong Kong. Only then will the transformative
adult learning theory be a living force. Therefore, the
second part of this study will concentrate on a description
of the Hong Kong society which is characterized by its own
historical development as a British colony, and yet at the
same time, having an inseparable relationship with Chinese
history. The development of Hong Kong's educational and
adult educational system are the result of the interaction
between the Hong Kong people and their environment in the
journey of Hong Kong's history. The flourishing development
of mass media and the freedom of the press in Hong Kong have

allowed Hong Kong to play, and possibly continue to play an

48

important role in the history of China. It is this same
group of people, especially the adult members, who will be
considered the announcers of the new epoch of Hong Kong and

the history of China.

1 The Case of Hong Kong

A The Sociai and Histogical Background of Hong Kong

Hong Kong, a tiny territory with a land area of only
1,075 square kilometers, and 5,859,100 people (1990), is one
of the most densely-populated places in the world. Hong
Kong has been a British colony since the Opium War between
China and Britain, and it was in accordance with the
Convention of Chuenpi, January 20, 1841, that the island of
Hong Kong was ceded to Britain. After the second
Anglo-Chinese War (1856-8) which ended with the Convention
of Peking, Britain obtained a perpetual lease for Kowloon
peninsula as far as Boundary Street. And later, in 1898, by
a convention signed in Peking by China and Britain on June
9, an extension of Hong Kong's territory, the New
Territories - comprising the area north of Kowloon up to the
Shum Chun River, and 235 islands - was leased for 99 years
to Britain, and by then, the British unilaterally took over
Kowloon City. During the past 150 years, Hong Kong, now a

name including the territory of Hong Kong island, Kowloon

49

peninsula, and the islands became a center of Chinese
emigration and trade with Chinese communities abroad. In
the period of 1948-9, as the forces of the Chinese
Nationalist Government began to face defeat in the civil war
with the communists, Hong Kong received on influx of people
unparalleled in its history. Hundreds of thousands of
people entered the territory choosing to live under a
foreign flag. The population totaled about 600, 000 by
1945, and rose by the mid - 1950's, to an estimated 2.2
million. Since then the population has continued to rise

and now totals 5.86 million (1990).

Hong Kong, 'a barren island with hardly a house upon
it' as described by Palmerston, the British Foreign
Secretary at the dawn of colonization, has been transformed
into the eleventh largest trading entity in the world. It
was an area without any natural resources or productive
land, but become one of the most important financial centers
in the world, exporting more than the whole of China. In
the last several decades, Hong Kong has been prospering
economically, but also, it has something considered as a
rare phenomenon in the modern era -- a politically stable
society. This is a somewhat unusual example of a colony in a
post-colonial world. Located at the edge of a communist
power which persistently vows to demolish all residual
colonialism in the world. Hong Kong still displays little

nationalism or other violent political activities. Some of

50

the reasons given for such political and economic

development under a colonial government would be:

1) The laissez-faire capitalist economy which reveal the
colonial government's attitude of positive non-intervention
has embodied a low taxation policy coupled with minimal
regulation of businesses which has also improved the living

conditions of the people:

2) The colonial government is basically efficient and does
not interfere with the Chinese lifestyle: the people of Hong
Kong have been influenced by the very Chinese traditional
'bureaucratic paternalism' and passive acquiescence, and
view as more important prosperity and a peaceful environment

rather than participation in political or public affairs:

3) The agricultural character of the Chinese people, who
make up 98% of Hong Kong's residents, is that of a hard

working people who cherish stability.

A o o -- Th Free S e of

The success of Hong Kong is not only revealed by its
economic development, which is easily recognized by people
who look at Hong Kong on a surface level. Hong Kong is not
only a free trading post, but also a free sphere vital for

Chinese cultural development (Lee, 1991). The influence of

51

informational capital as a factor in Hong Kong's development
can be witnessed explicitly through the production,
circulation, and consumption of information. This has
directly advanced the process of cultural reproduction and
identity formation in Hong Kong. The fact that the
circulation of information and the interaction of different
ideologies are possible and facilitated has offered Hong
Kong a particular status in the boarder Chinese society.
Such freedom of the press cannot be enjoyed by most Chinese
people who live under the communist regime in mainland China
or under the arbitrary government in Taiwan. Therefore,
Hong Kong has become an open widow for the Chinese people to
view the world and a bridge to link Western and Eastern
cultures. There is within Hong Kong news media which
includes nearly 70 daily newspapers, over 600 periodicals,
two private television companies, one government
radio-television station, two commercial radio stations and
a radio service station for the British Forces (1990). And
most foreign newspapers and books can be easily found in
street news shop or bookstores. Such a variety of channels
of communication and the freedom of the press have made Hong
Kong an international city and an interaction center between
Western and Eastern cultures, and a bridge between mainland
China and Taiwan. Therefore, Hong Kong has been called by
some intellectuals, 'the free sphere of Chinese culture'

(Lee, 1991).

52

Hong Kong's educational system is another important
factor in the progress of Hong Kong's history. The public
education system was established in 1847 with grants to the
Chinese vernacular schools. Later, the voluntary schools
- mainly run by missionaries - were included in the grant
scheme. The most influential event introduced in education
was the Ten Years Plan of the governor, Sir Murray
MacLehose, in 1971. The government of Hong Kong began
providing free primary education and three additional years
of free education to secondary students was introduced by
1978. The educational objectives for both the policy makers
and the citizens was predominantly a highly utilitarian
means to economic and vocational ends. The main educational
goal for the policy makers was to produce personnel to fit
into the Colony's manpower plan. And the attitude of the
people was to obtain knowledge for the pursuit of

achievement and consumerism.

D d tio n Hon 0

Since adult education is the main concern of this
study, a brief presentation of the development of adult
education throughout Hong Kong's history will enable us to
rediscover the role of adult education in the journey of

Hong Kong's development, as well as the image of adult

53

 

education which has been formed during the past few decades.
Hong Kong's adult education has a very short history. It
was only after the Second World War because of the need for
rehabilitation of society that many small English learning
or business training schools emerged. Some non-profit
organizations also established evening professional courses
such as bookkeeping or language classes for adults. This
marked the initial development of adult education in Hong
Kong. It was not until 1954 that Hong Kong's Education
Department established an Adult Education committee. Since
then, adult education has formally been recognized as an
integral part of the educational system in the society. In
the middle of the 1960's, due to the need for economic
development, adult education in Hong Kong took the form of
vocational and professional training: in 1965, Hong Kong
University began to offer some non-credit courses for
non-traditional students: and in 1969, public vocational
schools began to offer evening classes. Adult education
began to gain notoriety in the 1970's and 1980's. The
government began to subsidize complementary education and
the main objective was still focused on vocational training
to assist the changing economic system from labor-intensive
to capital-intensive, adult education being the instrument
to do so. The aging of the population, averaging 26 in 1981
to 32 in 1991 (Nov, 13, 1991, Overseas Chinese Economic
Journal ) has made adult education become a crucial theme of

education reform in the 1990's, and the development of adult

54

 

higher education has become the focus of recent and upcoming
developments in adult education. Some concrete plans
already instituted in the government's agenda include: The
Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong (Open University) which
was formally established in June 1989. In the first year,
about 4,000 students enrolled in various foundation courses.
A third university augmenting the number of seats at the two
universities is the plan for 1993. Such development of
adult education reveals some characteristic of Hong Kong's

educational system:

1) The average educational level of the Hong Kong people is
quite high compared with prior generations, thanks to the
Nine Year Compulsory Education Policy and the low drop out

rate.

2) Higher education is necessary for economic development
and the transition from a labor-power-intensive system to a
capital-intensive system, and high technology is necessary

for further economic development: and,

3) Education is valued by Chinese parents and they are
willing to offer their children higher education, and now it
is possible because of better economic conditions and fewer
children in each family. In general, the Adult Education
Section of the Education Department provides formal and

non-formal education through a number of courses and

55

activities, and assists voluntary organizations through a
subvention scheme. Formal courses cover remedial education,
second chance education and education for personal
development at levels ranging from primary to
post-secondary. Over 20,000 people enrolled in formal
courses during the year. Non-formal education courses cover
a variety of cultural, social, recreational and educational
activities. Most of these activities are organized by
voluntary organizations and subsidized by the government on
a case-by-case basis. About 28,000 people participated in
these courses and activities. During 1990-1991, government
subsidies were granted to 285 projects operated by 66
organizations. Some problems were pinpointed in a document
of the UNESCO in 1982 ( Shah, 1982) including government
tardiness and weak financial support which caused adult
education in Hong Kong to remain a marginal activity in the
overall scheme of educational development. Also a lack of
trained personnel and professionals. According to this
document the educators hold 1 Certificate, 9 Diplomas, 1
Masters degree, and 1 Doctorate. Also, a lack of
coordination made the development of adult education in Hong

Kong much more arduous than necessary.

2 The Future of Hong Kong

The future of Hong Kong and its people is now clouded

56

with uncertainty by the approaching return of the colony to
Chinese sovereignty in 1997. Hong Kong has always been
recognized as a borrowed place, in a borrowed time, which
China saw as a gross affront to national pride. The present
Chinese government in overstating this case, declares that
”to recover the Hong Kong area is the common aspiration of
the entire Chinese people" ( Sino-British Agreement, 1984).
To realize this common aspiration, the governor supposedly
being the representative of the entire people, negotiations
were made between Britain and China, but described as Deng
Xiaopin as, ' only a two-legged stool'. The people of Hong
'Kong did not possess the right to determine their own future
because they were, and always have been, Chinese citizens.
The Sino-British agreement, which confirms the recovery of
Chinese sovereignty after fifty years of capitalism in 1997,
guarantees Hong Kong as a Special Administrative Region,
personal liberties and maintenance of the legal system.

This agreement was signed in Beijing in the Great Hall of
the People on December 19, 1984. Hong Kong then entered
into a transitional period of which decolonization is the
end stage. Unlike other colonial societies, Hong Kong's
decolonization is not considered a promise of hope and
freedom. This process is considered by Hong Kong's people
as a threat of disaster. The evidence for this is the
hundreds of thousands of people who are voting with their
feet. By emigrating to another place, living under another

flag, hoping to find a safe place for themselves and their

57

 

families. The numbers of emigres began to rise in 1987 and
the estimate for 1990 is 62,000 persons with similar numbers

forecast in coming years.

Hong Kong, a transition society, is expected to return
to its mother country after 150 years of colonization, will
leave its capitalist regime to return to a communist regime.
Even with all the promises that were made in the
Joint-Declaration and the Basic Law, still many fear the
erosion of democracy and civil liberties. Uncertainty has
raised many fundamental questions about Hong Kong's future.
During such a critical time would adult learning or adult
educational activities be meaningful for this transition
society? Could the changes become a motivation, or a
strain, a chance or an end? The answer can only be drawn
from our understanding of change which is heavily influenced
by past experience and the common view of Hong Kong's

people.

3 Hong Kong, A Transition Society

As we have mentioned in the first part of this study,
the importance of knowing the different views of human
beings toward social change phenomena is not for the sake of
theoretical analysis, but because the actions of human being

depend mostly on their perceptions of events, and such

58

 

perceptions weigh heavily upon previous experiences. To
understand the perceptions of the people of Hong Kong toward
the inevitable change is important then for a better

understanding of the premises of their reactions.

e o ' V'e 0 on Chi es about oci

CHEESE

I?

Grappling with the problem of the impact of future
social change in Hong Kong's society, will render meaning
and predictability to the potential practices of adult
learning and educational activities. It is not sufficient
to describe the changes which are prescribed in the official
documents, such as the Join-Declaration or the Basic Law.
The promise offered by the Chinese and British governments'
article are based upon the premise that they can impose an
agreement on the people. Taking a close look at the
cultural aspects of Hong Kong's society is a necessary
prerequisite for understanding the meaning of change for

Hong Kong's ordinary people.

Hong Kong society 98% Chinese, Chinese culture
obviously influences in their perception of social change.
Even after 150 years of colonization by the British, Hong
Kong, unlike other colonial lands is still dominated by
Chinese culture. The Chinese are basically an agricultural

people who cherish stability and who have a rather passive

59

attitude toward change. In an agricultural society,
people's lives are dependent upon and controlled by the
power of nature. The Chinese people are a people with a
long history, and through this long historical journey,
people learn continually how to obey the 'tien' -- the
creator of life and history -- and try to build up strong
kin networks -- families -- to protect themselves from the
constraints of nature. It is from these that the great
historic imperial civilizations developed. With such a
cultural background, the Chinese basically held a very
passive attitude toward historical social changes. History
is such an accumulation of successions beyond human control
to which submission and adaptation is the only human choice.
Such attitudes are incorporated within Confucian ideology
which was very closely tied to the political framework of
the Chinese Empire and fostered by the literate group which
fulfilled certain crucial integrative functions stabilizing
the mechanisms in the imperial system. By stabilizing the
change mechanisms in the imperial system, helping it to
absorb changes regularly throughout its long history, this
system also severely inhibited the development of a

reformative or transformative capacity in Chinese society.

The family is another functional unit, a relatively
self-enclosed and protective group with little individual
autonomy which emphasizes collective rather than individual

benefits. In such a society, the primary duty of
60

 

individuals was to increase family strength and resources,
not to represent the worthiness of the family through some
external goals and commitments. Within such cultural
environments, dominant images of social change flow just
like the tide, or like man's days, weeks or years. round.
The changes of empires are considered the divisions between
long periods or plateaus of stability, and movement by any
part calls for a readjustment in position of the other
parts; and usually readjustments of any social changes are
made on the part of ordinary people. Therefore, stability
is valued by the people and change takes on a negative

connotation.

This view of social change and the advancement of
history is the heritage of most of the Hong Kong people.
They cherish stability and are rather passive when facing
changes. According to a survey of 550 Hong Kong Chinese
citizens conducted during the period of December 1970 -
March 1977, 87.3% of the respondents would definitely prefer
social stability and economic prosperity. As Lau concluded,
" In Hong Kong, many people are disposed to preserve social
stability at any cost, and this disposition implies that our
respondents would withdraw from any activities which they
perceived would lead to the disruption of social stability "
(1981, p. 203 ). Even the transition process and the
changes have been painful to Hong Kong's people: yet in the

same survey, 52.7% of the respondents stated that " they

61

would still prefer to stay in Hong Kong and did not
contemplate trying to transform it to suit their own
cherished ideals" (1981, p. 206). As many as 91.1% of the
respondents "felt they had no power to change the society"
(p. 206). Furthermore, an even higher percentage of them,
97.6%, maintained that they had no influence whatsoever on
the formulation of governmental policy " (p. 207). The
government and the future change appears to be an
invulnerable entity which controls their fate. They feel it
is beyond their capability to do anything about it. As a
result, the adaptation of the change rather than active
intervention appears to be the guiding principle regulating

the reactions of people in this transitional process.

Transition is a fait accompli, a predetermined process
of the whole nation, or an inevitable process of history
which individuals have nothing to do with. With such
vision, many strategies have been adapted by the people of
Hong Kong: the middle class people are trying to emigrate to
other countries, business groups fearful of losing their own
privileges have developed relationships with the Chinese
leadership, and the vast number of ordinary people are
trying to keep silent about public affairs and enjoy life
which they believe is the way to exercise their 'freedom'

during these 'last' few years.

62

w V's' 0 So a h e ' o Kon

It!)

The dominant view of Hong Kong's people toward the
changes cited previously should not lead to the assumption
that the population is totally quiescent. With the advent
of 1997, novel circumstances have been advanced by a
significant proportion of the population, mainly in the
middle class and with the intellectuals. A new vision for
change with an emphasis on the intervention of people's
rational choice has been introduced thanks to the thriving
mass media and free press environment. Terms such as
people's interests, democracy, act of choice, participation
and human rights have spread throughout society during the
last few years. Some new emphases regarding the orientation
of Hong Kong's citizens are found in a study by Kuan and Lau
(1989), which has also been supported by a survey conducted
in 1985 (Lau, 1988, p. 43), in which the concepts of
freedom and democracy were spoken of by the respondents.

The study cited that:

1) The concept of freedom is valued largely by the people
and is not based on a belief in fundamental rights but from

an instrumental point of view:

2) The idea of democracy is also quite popular among the
people of Hong Kong. Forty-nine percent of the respondents

in the 1985 survey believed that elected leaders could rule

63

Hong Kong better than the existing leaders of the
Government. Like the idea of freedom, the understanding of
democracy among the Hong Kong Chinese is, however, very
limited. As Kuan and Lau pointed out: " The pattern of
responses clearly attests to the primacy of public opinion
to democracy, but leaves election, responsiveness,
leadership and others far behind " (1989, pp. 91-115).
Although the ideas of freedom and democracy have made
inroads into the minds of Hong Kong's Chinese, it is the
pragmatic value of social stability that is most cherished
by them. A study of the political culture of college
students by Elaine Y. M. Chan and Joseph Cho-wai Chan, cited
by Kuan and Len (1989, p. 95) reveals that: 41.1% (N = 677)
of the students expect the government to " manage the
society" while "maintaining stability". This reflects that
the Chinese people are still strongly dependent on public
authority for the preservation of social stability. Even
the students are expected to be more idealistic than the
rest of the population. Hong Kong's Chinese are
establishing 'negative' democracy by restricting the
jurisdiction of political power: they are less interested
in pursuing the 'positive' democracy of participation in the
sharing of political power to plan the changes. While still
remaining largely passive, the Hong Kong's Chinese are
somehow able, in their values, to lessen subscription to
traditional ideas, the objects of change. They have

installed some restraints on their jurisdiction and

64

penetration. Public interests are recognized, but they are
no longer solely defined by the government. Compared with
the traditional Chinese, the Hong Kong Chinese are more
prepared to grant legitimacy to private interests and confer
upon them an autonomous status. A popular appeal of the
democratic rhetoric is articulated by the people. In May
and June 1989, hundreds of thousands of people spilled into
the streets to protest against the Chinese declaration of
martial law, and later in June of 1990, more than one
hundred thousand again took to the streets to commemorate

those who were killed in the Beijing massacre.

There is now intense concern about civil liberties in
Hong Kong. In 1991, for the first time in Hong Kong's
history, 18 seats of the Legislative Council are open for
direct election. As a result, 16 seats were taken by
democratic groups. All of these are the introduction of the
new social view which reconfirms human participation in the
evolution of history: even the passive view of social change

still seems to be more prevalent.

65

 

 

CHAPTER III AN INTEGRATIVE VIEW OF ADULT

EDUCATION AND THE HONG KONG SOCIETY

In the previous two chapters, two sets of variables
have been introduced. First, the different philosophical
views in the areas of adult learning and social change,
which have different impacts on adult educational practices
and on the adult members of a society. Second, the social
realities of Hong Kong, its future changes, and the
different views of Hong Kong's people regarding these
events. This section will identify an appropriate
alternative that can express these ideological beliefs: the
meaning of adult education and the ideal way of life: and
at the same time, offer potential practices in response to
the particular social-historical context, Hong Kong being
the case of this study. According to the goal of this
study, the concern is not a theoretical argument but a
philosophical scrutiny, emphasizing some basic values and
their potential operation which would be appropriate for the
Hong Kong social-historical context. To determine the value
of the preferable perspectives of adult learning, social
change and the potential practices is mainly a philosophical
work in which judgment is based on rational reflection and
on subjective choice. It is obvious that the validity of
such alternatives involves the conflicting questions of

value, feelings, ideals and normative concepts. However,

66

the purpose is not to argue that different perspectives are
incomparable or to formulate a single set of standards, but
rather to develop an understanding based on the judgments of
a particular society during a particular time in the
evolution of human history. Therefore, the task of this
final chapter is to clarify the alternative views, and make
a choice based on relevancy to a transition society whose
role is to be a change agent in the evolution of history.
With these in mind, the first section of this chapter will
focus on the identification of Hong Kong's transition
society as a change agent with its differences as part of
the whole entity--Chinese history. The second section will
offer a determination of the significance of the
transformative adult learning theory as revealed by its

contributions to a transition society as a change agent.

1 Hong Kong , A Transition Society as A Change Agent

Given the existing circumstance of Hong Kong, the
primary question raised is 'what can transition could be
mean?‘ Hong Kong's people have been categorized as being
either passive or active. Most of them hold the assumption '
that the future change of Hong Kong is an unavoidable
historical process, a natural ending of this borrowed place

in a borrowed time. The people who hold such views of the

future are most concerned with the impact of change.

67

Because of past experiences, most Hong Kong Chinese must
choose between emigration to seek another safe place to live
or be alienated from public affairs and search for better
economic benefits and enjoyment during the 'last free days'.
A significant proportion of the population, mainly the
middle class and the intellectual, are still stubbornly
committed to the belief that the people ought to be able to
control their own history, and that by choosing to act they
can change their future. They are pressing for democratic
and representative government. The initial development of
such democratic groups has been slow due to the lack of
democratic experience by the Chinese people and the
condemnation of it by the Chinese Communist Party. They are
viewed by the Chinese leadership as rebellious and have been
warned that 'Hong Kong is a base of anti-communism'. The
introduction of the emphasis on the role of the people in
the transitional process has caused a lot of tension and
confusion. Such tension between the people's demands for
human rights and the dictatorship of the Chinese government
have spurred several political crises during the last few
years. A substantial proportion of the people believe that
an excessive demand for democracy is not a wise choice for a
transition society and that it will only cause the direct

intervention of the Chinese leadership.

To categorize Hong Kong's transitional situation into

two types of views, calling it an unavoidable historical

68

process or a situation which can be changed by people's
intervention, are both a miss with regard to the
characteristics of a transition society as suggested by
Smith and cited previously. A transition society is
primarily a society which experiences a passing from one
condition to another. The implicit assumption of Hong Kong
as a.transition society is that although a part of China,
its actual condition is outside of China and different from
China. The differences between Hong Kong and China are
obvious and have increased throughout the advance of its
history of separation. Julian Steward pointed out in his
work on cultural variation that each particular culture is
viewed as a discrete entity, and faces peculiar problems of
adaptation to its environment. It is through increased
adaptation to its environment that a given culture assumes
its distinctive form (J. Steward, 1955, 1977). Hong Kong
has limited natural resources, the need for continuous
adjustment to its environment, a particular culture, and a
particular social system which has developed. This is a
unique colonial system with an emphasis on the laissez-faire
policy: a unique population highly educated and with
expertise in creating an economic miracle: passive in public
and political affairs: and a unique social system whose
middle class is central and cherishes freedom and civil
liberties, though strongly utilitarian in their beliefs.
Hong Kong then has developed a unique culture different from

China's, which is a society dominated by Communist ideology,

69

an arbitrary political system, a dictatorial leadership, and
a planned economic system. According to Smith the
differentiation between China, and Hong Kong as a part of
China, is one important factor in creating change and
promoting a new integration. It is based on this concept of
differentiation that A. D. Smith has developed his transunit
interactions theory. He emphasizes that the continuous
interaction between two or more different units can come, in
time, to provide a source and context for changes within
particular units and within that constellation. As Smith
claims: " Change in this case proceeds between and across
units" (1976, p. 132). And these units " stand in mutually
interinfluencing relations " (p. 133). The new changes
which occur through the interaction of differential units is
a stage of reintegration, a journey of progress through
which a new culture develops. Smith's transunit social
change theory provides new insights in understanding the
characteristics of Hong Kong as a transition society.
According to this perspective, the differences between China
and Hong Kong then are a useful factor, not an obstacle,
for creating the conditions for change and the advent of a
new Chinese history. The fact that there will be a recovery
of Chinese sovereignty in Hong Kong will make this
interaction exercise a deliberate one, and this
interpenetration will result in the transformation of
Chinese history. With this view, Hong Kong as a transition

society will play a positive and crucial role in the

70

 

development of Chinese history. By consciously keeping its
differences and being open to interaction with its new
partner, Hong Kong can become a change agent: and its
differences with China will be the source of contributions
to change and development. Hong Kong, then, a different
unit but a part of China, needs to be ready to learn to
dialogue and interact with other units and with the Chinese
society as a whole: and by this facilitate the emergence of
a new Chinese culture which will join in the process of
humanization. With this view of social change and as Smith
contends that " because the greater 'openness', must allow
an important, but not overriding, role for individual and
group creativity in the shaping of changes " (1976,

p. 137). And, " it is often quite different from that
intended by their elites and ruling classes" (p. 135). This
view of mutual 'fit' and an active view of the
transformation process will be meaningful not only for a
particular case such as Hong Kong, but its explanation can
also be relevant to the society which is characterized by
differences of culture, race, or ideology, and which tries
to work for a better world and brings about change. This
perspective of bringing change, particularly reintegration
through interaction among different units, appears more
relevant when emphasis lies on non-violent and more lasting
change in the progress of human history. It recognizes
creative human initiative and the equal contributions of

different individuals and groups in the evolution of the

71

human culture. It is with this perspective that Hong Kong,
a transition society, will maintain a positive image while
playing the role of a change agent. Then the transition
period will be a process of participation, creation and
interaction. It will also be the time of conscientizing the
differences between the units and learning how to interact
and to participate, and to make the transition period a
starting point of progress. This is where adult educational

activities play a vital role, a role as mediators of change.

The value-orientations underlying the previous
perspective are clear: First, the reunion of Hong Kong and
China is considered a chance for interaction with other
parts of China and with China as a whole unit, rather than
as a crisis. Second, the differences are considered the
source for contributions toward formulating a new face for
Chinese history, not for creating obstacles. Third,
recognition of the participation of individuals as well as
groups in the transition process. Fourth, emphasis on
educational and communicational competence of individual
members, especially contributing to more lasting changes
rather than to revolutionary intervention. In this context
we are naturally interested in the question: Will the ideas
of Freire and Mezirow offer a significant adult learning
process in which learning can become the dynamic of the

transformative process of individuals and society?

72

2 The Contributions of Transformative Adult Learning To The Transformative

Process of Hong Kong's Transition Society.

In the first part of this study, we have presented
three theories of adults, adult learning and their
implications for adult education. We have also introduced
two adult learning theorists, P. Freire and J. Mezirow, and
have synthesized their views of adult learning. Although
they differ in some respects, both their views of adult
learning as a process within which the transformation of
society and its adult members become possible, are the same.
It is their common transformative vision which has revealed

hope for a transition society.

Reflection on their views would be meaningless unless
it could offer a vision for potential practice in a concrete
situation. Hong Kong, a transition society, has entered
into a process of social change. The adaptation of the
transunit theory of Smith cited in the second part of this
study, leads us to identify Hong Kong as a change agent in
the evolution of Chinese history through its interaction
with its differences with China. Now it is time for us to
reexamine the significance of the ideas of Freire and

Mezirow for a transition society such as Hong Kong.

73

Some conditions have to be made on the formation of
such a transition society to ensure that its adult members
assume the responsibility of joining in this
transformational and formational process. First, adults
must be made aware of the uniqueness of Hong Kong's society,
and recognize it as a force for change. Second, adults must
use their critical reflective competence to transform and to
form a new understanding of human historical evolution, and
they must realize the power they have to control their lives
to a higher degree. Third, competency in communication and
dialogue in the process of interaction among individuals,
groups, and societies as units must be strived for. The
transformative adult learning approach will have valued by

its abilities to meet those needs.

A Ah Adele Leerhihg Iheozy Previges A Meanihgfui View of
ns' '0 to The Soc im nsio

The views of Freire and Mezirow regarding their
emphasis on the social dimension of adult learning are
outstanding. Although they have different emphases, both
recognize the social dimension of human learning. Freire's
work introduces a cosmological view of the position of human
beings in relation to their world and history. And it is in
this cosmological view that Freire defines the meaning of
human learning in the social evolution process and claims

that: " Men are beings in the process of becoming - as

74

 

unfinished, uncompleted beings in and with a likewise
unfinished reality... The unfinished character of men and
the transformational character of reality necessitate that
education be an ongoing activity " (1990, p. 72). Even
Mezirow contends that his main interest is to construct a
meaningful learning process with no intention to develop a
comprehensive theory of social change. But he claims that
educational practices which foster critical reflection
individually and collectively will lead to individual and
social transformation, and by this view, the learning
process must be understood in the broader context of a
comprehensive social theory ( see 1989 ). Actually,
Mezirow's view is influenced by Habermas' thoughts about the
human learning process in regard to social evolution,
Habermas describes this process as occurring at two levels:
" The learning mechanisms have to be sought first on the
psychological level... Individually acquired learning
abilities and information must be latently available in
world views before they can be used in a socially
significant way, that is, before they can be transposed into
societal learning processes. Since the cognitive
development of the individual takes place under social
boundary conditions, there is a circular process between
societal and individual learning " (1979, p. 121). It seems
that Mezirow has developed the focus of his learning theory
on the first level -- the individual psychological level of

individual transformation, and opens himself to the

75

 

supposition that Habermas cited, that such individual
learning will lead to social learning and social
transformation processes. With this perspective Mezirow
considers his views as reformist rather than revolutionary.
The different emphases on the social dimension of adult
learning of Freire and Mezirow give us a complementary
perspective. Freire's view offers us a philosophical
foundation of the value of adult learning in the social
evolutional process and Mezirow offers us the mediating
factors in the individual and the social transformation

process (see Mezirow 1989).

According to these views, human learning is necessary
for social evolution, and learning is an even more crucial
factor in the reconstruction and the reintegration of
society. The social evolution process of human beings is
different from that of animals. As J. Habermas mentioned
in his analysis of Marx's Historical Materialism, human
social evolution is different in homo sapiens which
integrate both organic and cultural forms of evolution "The
introduction of new forms of social integration requires
knowledge of a moral-practical sort and not technically
useful knowledge that can be implemented in rules of
instrumental and strategic action" (1976, p. 146).
Therefore, adult learning is important for social evolution,
but it appears more important at the moment of transition

when societies search for new integration.

76

Freire and Mezirow have developed a clear outline of
the contribution of adult learning in a transition society
in which the new situation and the new tasks of such a
society require awareness, knowledge and competence. When
Freire reflected on the transition of Brazilian society, he
pointed out that: "The time of transition involves a rapid
movement in search of new themes and new tasks. In such a
phase man needs more than ever to be integrated with his I
reality. If he lacks the capacity to perceive the 'mystery'

of the change, he will be a mere pawn at their mercy"

 

(1973, p. 8). And Mezirow has explained more in detail how
the learning process can become a process of formation of a
new society. In a changing society, "Adults in such a
society face an urgent need to keep from being overwhelmed
by change,... they discover a need to acquire new
perspectives in order to gain a more complete understanding
of changing events and a higher degree of control over their
lives.... Thus, it becomes crucial that the individual learn
to negotiate meanings, purposes, and values critically,
reflectively, and rationally instead of passively accepting
the social realities defined by others"(1991, p. 3). This
is the dynamic of adult's learning. The views of Freire and
Mezirow present new insights into how human and social
aspects can be integrated, the significance of the
individual as the controller of social change, and the power
of human learning in the transition situation. These ideas

can be seen as the basis for a strong philosophical position

77

regarding the value of adult education in a transition

society.

As has been described, two general views of social
change appear in Hong Kong's society. While one emphasizes
the adaptation to or the alienation from change, the other
focuses on the intervention of people's force. The reality
for us is clear enough that neither of these two strategies
can bring about a more beneficial and lasting change which
can contribute to new social integration. The preference
for the transunit social change theory which emphasizes the
differences and the power of interaction offers Hong Kong a
new alternative of becoming a change agent in the evolution
of Chinese history. Such a new and important task for Hong
Kong requires certain competence of the people, especially
the adult members of society. As suggested by Freire, Hong
Kong, in order to be a change agent in Chinese culture,
needs to begin by transforming itself. With this in mind,
the educational challenge for Hong Kong then is not the
question of quantity as emphasized by the government's plan,
but is related to the effective development and use of the
adult education enterprise as a major transforming power
which brings the dynamic into the transformative process of
itself and that of China. Therefore, the adult education
enterprise must not be seen merely as a supplement to formal
education as is the present situation in Hong Kong, but as

an instrument of empowerment to foster the dynamics of a

78

transformative society. In recognizing the learning power
of its adult members in the society, and emphasizing the
importance of awareness, critical reflection, and
communication competence in the learning process, adult
educational practices cannot be eliminated from vocational
or recreational programs, but must be permitted to enter
into the different dimensions of human activities. This is
not possible unless the transformation process begins with
the adult educators and the institutions which are involved
in the organization of the adult learning process; since
their identity, their social awareness and their educational
philosophy are the most crucial factors influencing not only
the development of adult educational enterprises, but also
the progress of the transformative process of Hong Kong's
society. With the belief that adult learning is the dynamic
of this transformative process and will lead to new social
integration, the adult learning theories of Freire and
Mezirow, in implementing adult learning in the development
of the society and humanity, need to become the
philosophical foundation of adult educational practice in

Hong Kong.

09-. S , e Emo-ow 11‘! 0-

lw
(b
"=2
O
0

Both Freire and Mezirow are humanistic in that they

both have placed human beings at the center of history and

79

the universe: yet they differ from humanists who view
self-perfection and self-realization as the goal of
development. As has been mentioned before, human beings are
considered by both Freire and Mezirow as still being in the
process of becoming. They are conscious beings who have
the ability to reflect, to create, to act: and to
continually overcome the challenges on the road to becoming.
It is human awareness and critical reflective power which
assures human beings that they can construct their societies
by their own hands. Therefore, the development of these
abilities is the main interest of the human being and
considered the ultimate goal of adult education. For
transformation theorists then, adult learning and adult
education is actually a process of development and a process
of empowerment. Freire contends that the importance of
education " is to help men help themselves, to place them in
consciously critical confrontation with their problems, to
make them the agents of their own recuperation " (1973,
p.16). Empowerment here refers to the process of the
development of human internal power, a process by which
people seek, as Mezirow suggests: " a higher degree of
control over their lives " (1991, p. 3). Such understanding
of the learning process as a process of empowerment is,
according to Freire: "enabling the people to reflect on
themselves, their responsibilities... on their very power of
reflection. The resulting development of this power would

mean an increased capacity for choice.... the people

80

perceive their reality as being of the greatest importance
for the process of humanization " (1973, p. 16). Thus, for
transformation theorists, learning actually is a process of
humanization, an act of empowerment through which human

beings can become fully human.

Transformation theory offers a very powerful vision of
adult learning for a transition society. It emphasizes the
fostering of the power of people, not only a few elites, to
become the actors and through them to make the society a
place of continual transformation and development. Hong
Kong, with its historical background and its Chinese-like
character, has adult who are weak in regard to
individuality. The evaluation of individuals is judged not
by their competence, but by their conformity to their social
role. Hong Kong's Chinese, as well as all the Chinese in
the world, bear the marks of a long feudalistic tradition in
which submission of the people is one by product: and
democracy has never been experienced in the history of
China. Individuals are dispersed and submerged in the
immensity of the social network. They are more likely
identified as members of a family, or bearers of a family
name rather than as autonomous and responsible members of
the larger society. During this transition period, the lack
of consideration for Hong Kong's people in the transition
process is one of the results of this collective system and

also the main cause of the alienation and the passivity of

81

 

 

the people. Hong Kong, in order to become a change agent
through interaction with China, needs first to become a
transitive unit. Therefore , the question of how to
stimulate the motivation of the Hong Kong people to
participate in the change process as autonomous persons must

be the first concern in this transitional period.

Some people propose that a stronger leadership would
help in solving such problems. At the same time, there are
other groups of people who believe that extending an
invitation to the elite, as governor's consultants, from the
authorities would facilitate the transitional process of
Hong Kong. These are seen as the unacceptable approaches
since it entails people as followers waiting for good
leadership. Meanwhile, their passitivity will lead to the
loss of the dynamic of the whole society. To maintain the
belief that motivation is always an internal stimulation is
the outcome of human conscience and human choice. The
concept of becoming a full actor, suggested by the
transformative learning theory, is not the same as becoming
an 'activist'. Rather, it refers to becoming a conscious
person, one who can rationally reflect on his own, one
willing to take the chance while understanding the
consequences and the responsibilities. This cannot be the
task of leadership, but rather, a task of learning and of
educational activities. This is why there must be

consideration of human learning as a transformative process

82

 

 

rather than a formative process, as suggested by the
transformative learning theorists. Therefore, to assure its
role as a change agent participating in the reorientation of
Chinese history, Hong Kong needs to introduce an adult
learning approach to empower its people. This is the
ultimate goal of all adult educational programs and
practices. This empowerment should be understood firstly to
form a common understanding in which all the people are the '
actors and at the center of their own history and the
history of their society. Secondly, to recognize and to

develop the transformative abilities of the people. With

 

these views, adult educational practices should emphasize
the empowermental goal and the learning process. It is only
through empowerment that the people of Hong Kong, not just a
few of them but the whole population, will become the
'announcers' and the 'formators' of a new epoch. Also, with
such understanding, the transformative adult learning
perspective appears significant with its emphasis on the
recognition of the transformational ability of human beings

toward their own development and the evolution of society.

C a ' e Wi e nd oader V'

The human learning process seems to be an indispensable
transformative dynamic in social evolution. The acquisition
of competence, as suggested by Habermas, should not be

limited to technical knowledge which has as its goal the
83

improvement of the productivity of society: but rather,
moral-practical knowledge, by which the reconstruction of
the normative structure of society becomes possible (1976).
According to Habermas the most important knowledge for new
social integration is not technical knowledge as claimed in
Marx's Historical Materialism, but the knowledge which he
defines as that based on the interest of communication and
the emancipation of human beings. (see Habermas' KDQELQQQQ
end Ihhegese, 1971). Elaborating on Habermas views, Mezirow
formulated three domains of adult learning, having its own
methodology for obtaining knowledge, and each having a
different outcome for learning. The three learning domains
formulated by Mezirow and mentioned in this study are the
instrumental, communicative and emancipatory. Such
delineation of the different learning domains is not based
on the forms of learning as usually cited in the adult
education field as formal, nonformal, and informal, but
according to human interests which are based on the
relationship of human beings with their world. Adult
learning activities which foster this view are overcoming
the boundaries of the educational setting by emphasizing the
nature and the process of learning which should be exercised
in different settings or forms of learning. The
transformative adult learning theorists see adult learning
in a broader and deeper sense which surpasses the
limitations of settings and forms. As Mezirow describes it:

" Learning is centrally the changing of contexts rather than

84

the mere acquisition of data " (1991, p.89). For the
transformative theorists, learning actually is a
transformation process both individually and collectively,
and it can take on many forms. By this transformative
character of adult learning, new self-awareness and new
social integration are formed. In this view such self and
social transformative processes can be actualized by the
acquisition of the different learning domains of

instrumental, communicative, and emancipatory knowledge.

Adult learning takes on a deeper and broader sense

 

through Habermas', Freire's and Mezirow's views. These are
especially meaningful for Hong Kong's transition society.
As was described in the second part of this study, Hong
Kong's adult education contributed greatly to its economic
development in the past by tapping into available human
resources. It has always seemed to be the technological
skill provider. For most people, adult education has been
the way by which one could achieve a better life. And
during the transitional period, the role of technical
provider has been greatly appreciated and considered a
unique contribution to China on behalf of Hong Kong after
the reunion. This is no difficulty in identifying the
acquisition of technical knowledge and the development of
human resources as the primary goal on which Hong Kong's
adult educational activities have been based. Actually,

such a view of development has been challenged recently by

85

the dissatisfaction of the people who have discovered that
their economic benefits could be threatened by their
dependency on political power and by the policy makers.
Thus, the acquisition of communicative and emancipatory
knowledge appears to be important when we recognize that
Hong Kong's importance to China is not only based on its
economic contribution, but also its developmental experience
which can be communicated and shared for the construction of
a richer and better Chinese cultural history. Understanding
the three learning domains has offered us a wider
perspective of the adult learning process which previously
only emphasized instrumental, skillful and technological
learning. To understand what we need to learn in order to
have real relationships with others and with the world, and
to free ourselves from the distortion of presupposing
premises and ideologies we must distinguish learning from
schooling and enlarge our learning through different kinds
of activities in life and through life. This is most true
for the adult members in Hong Kong who always considered
schooling as being for the youth of society. The role of
adults has always been as one who teaches rather than one
who learns. Schooling is a symbol of immaturity and
threatening by the instruction of a superior role
player--the teacher. Having a new perspective on adult
learning will not only become more meaningful for the
participants but it will provide a broader recognition of

other adult members in Hong Kong society. Promoting the

86

understanding to all adult members that becoming learners is
not a compulsory task because of personal failure, but it
is the way to obtain the dynamic to join in the continuing

transformative process of life and society.

The three domains of adult learning as suggested by
Mezirow along with the social evolutionary views of
Habermas, encapsulate emancipatory learning, the critical
reflection of the premise, content, and the process of our
experience which is neglected and most needed for the
development of Hong Kong society. This is due to the
Chinese-like character of Hong Kong's people, the political
pressure from the dictatorial leadership, and the
instrumental preference of educational practices. As a
result, the competence of Hong Kong's people to critically
reflect on social events is quite weak. This unbalanced
development of Hong Kong's people has made them most
competent in creating an economic miracle, but most passive
in dealing with public and social affairs. Their
understanding of Hong Kong's future is mainly based on past
experience, and on pieces of information from the
authorities. Their passive attitudes and their dependency
on the authorities have become obstacles in Hong Kong's
transition society which needs to take an active role as a
change agent in Chinese culture. People who received a
unique instrumental education have become the objects of the

productional world and they are prohibited from the power of

87

controlling their own futures. When we talk about the need
for Hong Kong to become a change agent, the educational
approach which only emphasizes instrumental learning has
come into question for its lack of potential in helping
people to become creative, autonomous, and active
participants in the transformative process. Emphasis on the
development of critical thinking and awareness on the part
of the adult members in our society is one of the important
reform programs which Hong Kong adult education needs to
take into consideration. Mezirow's transformative learning
through critical thinking and Freire's liberal education
through problem-posing are the methodologies which Hong
Kong's transition society needs to adapt at all levels of
the education system, and especially in adult educational
practices, since it is the adult members in the society who

have the responsibility of advancing the transitional

process.
D Adult nin h 'ch hasizes The Va ue of
Wig:

Another characteristic of the transformation theory is
its emphasis on the value of human communication. Two main
domains suggested by Freire and Mezirow in the development
of communication competence are: the development of

individual and group (or collective) identity and the
88

 

development of individual and collective rationality. For
transformation theorists, the importance of the act of human
communication is built on the belief that humans are social
beings who cannot exist without interacting with others, not
only with other men but also with their world. Freire
called such interaction 'dialogue'. He does not interpret
'dialogue' in the linguistic sense, but in a dynamic view
of relationship--the triple-dimension relationships which
place men at the center of history. As Freire claims:
"Existence is a dynamic concept, implying external dialogue
between man and man, between man and the world, between man
and his Creator. It is this dialogue which makes man an
historical being " (1973, p.18). Dialogue then is primarily
an awareness of the position of individuals in time and
space, and a commitment of individuals to total engagement
as a member of history and of humanity. Therefore, dialogue
in the learning process, for the transformation theorists,
is never understood as only an instructional act of a
teacher or a transmission of information, but the human
dynamic through which they transform themselves and their
world. As Freire claims: "Dialogue is the encounter between
men, by which men achieve significance as men, and in which
the united reflection and action of the dialoguers are
addressed in the world which is to be transformed and
humanized " (1990, p. 77). Thus, the dialogue according to
Freire's thought is primarily an act of identification, an

act to search for the real position of individuals and

89

 

society in time and space, and their relationship with
others and the world. Where do they come from? Where are
they? Where are they supposed to go? The answers to such
questions will bring them to an understanding of who they
are, and what they can do, and what they are suppose to do.
It is this identification of their own uniqueness that
enables them to come to realize their relationship with

others and with their world: real interaction and

communication then becomes possible, and transformation

emerges.

For Mezirow, human communication takes a more concrete
path. He adapted Habermas' social communication theory and
translated it into an adult learning situation. He used the
term 'discourse' to express this act of human communication
as did Habermas. In Mezirow's work, 'discourse' takes on a
pragmatic sense and seems to be the dynamic and the method
of validity testing in the learning process. As was
presented in the first part of this study, for Mezirow,
competency in the communication of human beings needs to be
developed, through learning how to communicate and creating
the ideal situations for communication. This transformation
will emerge and "lead developmentally toward a more
inclusive, differentiated, permeable, and integrated
perspective" (1991, p. 47). The criteria of an ideal
discourse situation includes sufficient information,

equality, rationality, participation, freedom, and rational

90

argument which described by Mezirow, becomes the criteria of
evaluation of our learning situation, and even our entire

society.

Freire and Mezirow offers us a concept of human
communication competence which draws out two important
features of human communication in a transition situation.
First, the question of the identity of Hong Kong's people I
and the common identity of Hong Kong society. Second, the In

competence of Hong Kong's people for better communication

 

with China and, at the same time, with other societies in 5|

the world.

The identity problem of Hong Kong's people has lasted a
long time and has been the focus of much discussion. The
blame for this is addressed mainly toward the colonial
status of Hong Kong's society. However, this problem
appears to be more important, in the sense that knowing
one's identity is the prerequisite of effective interaction
with others and with the world, and only by which Hong
Kong's people will be able to define their future
orientation. Recently, many discussions have been raised
regarding the search for a 'Hong Kong common identity'.
Some people point out that the loss of identity was caused
by the mentality of living in a borrowed place. But others
recognize that the educational system was perhaps one cause

of such a consequence. In the educational system, English

91

is used as the teaching language, that history can be taken
as an elective subject, and political criticism and social
issues are kept out of the class room. This has resulted in
the people of Hong Kong becoming capable in business and
external affairs, but incapable of controlling their own
future. Knowing one's identity in a borrowed place and in a
borrowed time will become the crucial obstacle to the
participation of people in the transformation process
because they are not sure where they are to go, and feel
powerless when facing their own future. The deficient
educational system, and the familial mentality that prevails
have made Hong Kong's people live only in the 'present', and
interested only in the real 'benefit'. And for many, their
future depends only on the protection given by other
governments in other free countries. In order to be, it
must become. Building a common social identity in Hong Kong
will be the primary task of the transformative process,
through recognizing and accepting the Hong Kong people's own
uniqueness, their differences in comparison with other
Chinese, and their position in time and space. With this
identification, a true interaction with others, with China,
and with the world will be possible. Therefore, the building
up of individuals and the common identity is one function of
Hong Kong's adult education enterprise, which will help
advance the transformative process. Actually, there are
already a few conscious-raising programs that have appeared

recently in Hong Kong since the transition period began,

92

 

like the University of Democrats, a kind of public forum,
the Citizens Educational Center, The Green Movement and the
Social Events Criticism Program on television and in the
newspapers. All of these learning opportunities have newly
appeared with the goal of helping Hong Kong's citizens
reflect on their own position in relation to others,

society, nature and the world.

From a pragmatic view, human communication is also an
act of individuals in relation to their external and

internal normative reality of society. From this point of

 

View, Mezirow has described discourse as the acquisition of
the knowledge of communication and its importance for social
evolution. Regarding Hong Kong's case, this pragmatic view
of the development of human communication competence can be
applied mainly in three domains: First, in the
rationalization of the Chinese normative social structure:
second, in the fostering of individuals' communication
competence: and third, in the development of collective

communication in a group setting.

To elaborate on these points, communicative action is
known as normative social reality, according to Habermas.
For him, social evolution is more dependent on the
reformation of the social normative structure and fostering
the knowledge of communication, rather than upon technical

knowledge as suggested by Marx's Historical Materialism.

93

Chinese people are considered to be 'good' communicators in
the sense that 'good' relations are those emphasized in
familial and social settings. 'Good' relationships in
Chinese society mainly refer to conformity to the
expectations of social roles and social status. This is the
criterion used to evaluate the virtue of an individual.
Harmony' or 'no argument' are the codes of this normative
structure. Judgment, or the validity of the rules of ‘
communication, are adequate relationships according to I

status, range, roles in the family and in society, rather

 

than the claims of rationality. For example, the g;
instruction of a teacher is always considered to be correct,
not because of validity testing, but because of his/her role
as a teacher. This also holds true for the role of the
father in the family and the leaders in the country. The
'good' Chinese communicators are the ones who know the
correct social roles, not those who critically reflect on
statements or information received. To keep quiet is the
social art of the wise man. The unquestioning attitude of
most Chinese students proves this kind of communicative
norm. It is clear that this normative communication
structure has become one of the obstacles in the way of
China's progress in the modern era. Rational consensus and
legitimacy are the basic rules of a modern society. Hong
Kong has been influenced by British tradition and its
worldwide relationships, in which the existence of rational

argument, the legislative protection of public rights, and
94

the freedom of speech, are its basic foundations and those
on which Hong Kong can base their development as a modern
city in the world. Perhaps it is not surprising that it is
not the economic decline but rather the suppression of
personal liberties, the total control over communicational
channels, and the absolute power of the dictatorship of the
Chinese Government that most threatens Hong Kong and are the
reasons why people are escaping from life under the
sovereignty of the present Chinese regime. Thus, the
rationalization of Chinese communication is the most
important task to undertake in the modernization of China.
Hong Kong, then, with its own communicative knowledge will
be a great contribution for that purpose. The promotion of
rational communication will become one of the most important
subjects of adult learning activities, through the
formation of ideal discourse situations and spheres, as
suggested by Mezirow. The view of making Hong Kong a free
sphere with a climate of rational argument and reflection
needs to be the orientation of Hong Kong's transformative
process within which the competence of Hong Kong's people in
rational discourse becomes the dynamic of this

transformative process.

Second, to accomplish such a task the adult members of
Hong Kong's society needs first to master the general
rational rules of communication to the extent that they can

become successful change agents. Ideal discourse, as

95

 

described by Mezirow, "provides the grounds for determining
criteria for judging the level of development of ... the
educational process and the social goals and practices as
well. They become the bridge between the 'is', the present
nature of the adult learning process, and the 'ought', and
educational and social philosophy " (see 1991, pp. 77-78),
and can also become the main curriculum of our adult
educational programs. The communicative competence of Hong l
Kong's adult members needs to be fostered by the kinds of '

learning activities that are not limited to linguistic

 

competence, but more importantly emphasize the ability to 8
think critically about presuppositions, the stimulation of

the challenge to participate in public affairs, the

awareness of social and historical realities, and the

acceptance of the rational consensus and the democratic way

of life.

Third, since the people have been influenced by their
traditions and by political pressure, the collective
rational discourse opportunities are the most crucial issues
in the modernization of China, and also probably, the most
important contributions the transformation theory can offer
for Hong Kong as a transition society. How to overcome
conformity to pressure, the groupthink, the dominant
leadership: as well as how to establish a free sphere of
dialogue, have an equal opportunity to participate in

decision making, establish an environment free from coercion

96

in order to assess arguments objectively, and how to channel
accurate and complete information and alternative
perspectives, will be the most crucial problems which adult
education will face. Hong Kong, even with its colonial
background, is the only unit in Chinese history where the
criteria cited above have been exerted to a certain extent,
and have the possibility of continuing to develop. The
corresponding learning processes to acquire such knowledge
are needed. Therefore, the establishment of group settings
or collective dialogue situations for discourse through
which a rational climate in the society can develop will
become the content and the goal of adult educational
activities, as suggested by Mezirow. Since the
transformation process is a multi-interactional process
according to our understanding of the transunit view of
social change, such rational discourse groups or social
settings will have double functions. First, to offer an
environment for learning and exercise of rational dialogue
where the participants are free from pressure. Second, to
provide reciprocal support for new insights and changing
actions in the transitional period. This kind of learning
opportunity is rare in Hong Kong, but during the last few
years, a few academic associations, and political unions,
democratic groups, have begun to realize the importance of
this kind of learning, and have formed such groups as the
public forum. But because of its political character, it is

not free from tension and conflict. The development of

97

 

such group learning opportunities with the educational goals
of fostering communicative competence of the members of
society, and creating the habit of rational dialogue among
individuals, groups, and different social institutions, will
be very important in the orientation of Hong Kong's adult

educational development.

E Agult Leezhihg es The themie of The Irehsfozmative

rocess n 0 Ken 's T ansi '

The prior statements make an assertion that adult
learning is a sort of dynamic which advances the
transformation and the reconstruction of whole societies.
Hong Kong, a colonial land with feudal and familial
traditions, lacks democratic experience, and is marked by
the passive, utilitarian, and distorted identities of its
members. Within such realities, transformative adult
learning, which emphasizes the empowerment and the
transformation of the members of society, offers a vision
which includes a strong philosophical foundation for the
value of human beings and their place in the process of
humanization: a deeper understanding of the nature of human
beings who are the actors and creators of human history with
reflective, creative, and communicative abilities: an
orientation and method of developing human competence for
transforming themselves and their society: and finally, a

broad meaning of adult learning which can be understood as

98

the dynamic of the transformative process. This learning
process can occur in all human settings with new
transformative actions, and new integration being its aims.
With this transformative adult learning vision, Hong Kong's
adult educational practices will be meaningful for the
transition society with its contribution of the
transformative dynamic. This adult learning approach
rejects banking education, a term used by Freire, in which
learners are seen as receiving objects, and offers a
multidimensional and emancipatory view of learning in which
the present Hong Kong adult educational practices are
transformed, and adult educators are identified as
participants, not directors of the transformative process.
Thus, Hong Kong's transition society can be transformed by
transforming. In other words, it must recognize the
importance of adult learning as the transformative dynamic
for building individual and common identity, fostering the
critical reflective and communicative abilities of Hong
Kong's people, creating the ideal environment and climate
for rational discourse in Hong Kong, and promoting mutual
interaction with China and with the world. Such practices
can only be described by the word 'movement' which is

created by the waves of transformation.

99

 

CHAPTER IV THE FUTURE VISION OF ADULT EDUCATION

IN HONG KONG

From the previous assertion that was made there will
undoubtedly be some criticism about the concept of
'transformative' adult learning as a search for something
that is too much a utopia futuristic model. This is created I
by the optimistic assumption that human beings can transform
themselves and their society, especially regarding Chinese

history--that it can become more rational, inclusive, and

 

human because of its reunion with Hong Kong. This would be ‘
still more difficult to believe for a utilitarian society

like Hong Kong. The criticism of being too utopian a model

is made against the pragmatic nature of transformative adult

learning as being too abstract and that it rests on the

unknown and unmeasurable results of theoretical assumption.

But it is just this abstract and unmeasurable nature which

makes the transformative adult learning process flexible

enough to penetrate into different human settings and

activities, and unleash an undetermined developmental power.

With the belief that adult learning is the dynamic of
the transformative process, and recognizing the possibility
of Hong Kong's transition society being a change agent with

its differences and abilities of interaction, this study

100

attempts to offer a future model of adult educational
practice in Hong Kong. There is no intention in this study
of assuming a single adult educational model for all
societies for all times: or to impose an absolute
educational approach to fulfill our subjective pre-defined
goal. The model that is offered is based on the social
educational philosophies inspired by Freire and Mezirow
which emphasize the empowerment of people by improving their
self-identity, fostering their abilities of critical
reflection, their awareness of reality, their communicative
competence, and their ability to take action and participate
in the transformative process of society. The model which
is suggested is not a series of courses or some kind of
curriculum. Rather, it is a type of 'movement' and a loose
organizing of effort to transform and to create adult
learning activities which will be exercised in different
human settings and thereby becoming the transformative
dynamic. Hopefully, through such endeavors, our society and
our world can continuously become a big classroom, a
learning climate, a sphere in which people are free to
observe and to reflect, to act and interact, to create and
to learn, to transform and to construct. The outcome of
this kind of learning process is not evaluated by the
quantity of data received but by the formation of a new
culture which is more inclusive, rational and human in
character. Humanization, then, is the ultimate goal of

such a transformative learning movement.

101

 

 

According to this perspective, a 'movement' is the most
suitable form of potential adult educational practice for
Hong Kong. A movement bears several characteristics which
can translate the intentions of an adult educational
practice. According to C. J. Stewart, a movement is an non-
institutionalized collectivity which proposes change and is
large in scope. Social movements are supposed to transform
perceptions of history and of society, and prescribe courses
of action, as well as mobilize forces for action (1984,
Chapter 1). A movement of transformative adult learning
would be a collective action, a non-institutionalized
collectivity, which proposes changes in our lives and the
climate of society, making ourselves, our community, and our
society more powerful to transform ourselves and our
society. This learning movement is based on the values and
beliefs of the educational philosophies that have mentioned
previously, rather than on bureaucratic authority. It is
this non-institutional character which will keep the
collective action vital and powerful. Even de-schooling is
proclaimed by some radical adult educators, but it is not
the intention of this proposal of a learning movement. It
is the concern that all human activities become educational:
and these different kinds of learning activities become the
dynamic of transformation in different human settings,
whether they are in classrooms or shopping malls. The
non-institutional and transformative character of this

learning movement can also permit these learning activities

102

 

 

to overcome the boundaries of existing organizations.
Because of the transformative nature of this collective
action, adult learning activities will become more
meaningful and new processes for learning will become a part
of society. The process of this learning movement would
then become a collective transformative process in Hong

Kong's society.

The strategy in developing such a learning movement is
first to form an initial group, which could be called a
learning network. The concept of a network is well known by
diffusionists such as E. Rogers, who considered it an
important factor in the process of the diffusion of
innovation (1983). According to this view, developing a
learning movement in Hong Kong by using the networking model
is relevant, for Hong Kong is a small place with a cultural
characteristic that supports human interaction. And in Hong
Kong there already exists flourishing communication
channels, a key to introducing the learning movement in our

society.

The idea behind an adult learning network is not to
build an adult educational school or even to organize some
special adult learning program and then label it
transformative adult learning. But it is a real network
initiated by a group of people, educators or non-educators,

who have common values and beliefs about human beings, who

103

 

 

are willing to share and to participate in Hong Kong's
transformative process by empowering its people through
different learning opportunities, and who have a common
vision and are willing to commit to the Chinese
transformative process. This is not a replacement for the
existing educational organizations nor for leader
organizations which are felt to be more superior than
others, but rather an organization of service providing an
ideal discourse situation, an experimental place for new
learning projects, a resource of information, and a place
of encouragement and support for new actions. This is an
educational network of people, not a government or political
organization, whose ultimate goals are educational and
developmental. It would encourage the development of
communicative and emancipative learning programs and would
try to translate the transformative value into different
educational programs. Such a people-interacting network is
not an organization or an institution but a loose built
organization of an ideal discourse situation where people
can be free to share experiences, to argue certain
questions, to get information, to reflect on the premises of
problems, and to get support for taking new actions. The
commitment of people is not really to the network but rather
the actual social group to which they belong: their family,
their peer group, their organization, their work place.
Their engagement in this adult learning network is mainly

interactive, reflective, informative, supportive, and

104

 

 

active. This adult learning network would become a dynamic
for every social group's own transformative process. It
would be a very loose organization which could take the form
of an information center, or whatever, with the goal of
facilitating communication and collective reflection and
action. It could also organize some transformative
learning programs with the purpose of promoting
transformative learning experiences, or serve as a model for
the development of the learning movement. Such efforts
could include citizen reflection groups, conscious-raising
groups, or community leadership training programs, according
to the inspiration of the people and with the joint efforts
of different members in the network. Nevertheless, the main
task of this network could be to initiate a learning
movement in our society, not for revolution but for the
transformation of ourselves, our community and our society.
Its goal would be to diffuse the transformative values of
adult learning and to create a new social climate and a new
culture. It would do this by encouraging people to learn
through reflection and dialogue with others and with the
world and also to encourage people's learning actions, and
to support the educational or social organizations which
want to translate such values into their own programs or

their own classrooms.

The communication rather than the instruction is the

unique method of this networking. Its rather free discourse

105

 

 

situation permits real dialogue among the different
organizations, groups, communities, and individuals who want
to commit to enhancing the transformative character of human
learning activities. The mass media: newspapers, magazines,
television and radio, joint-functional activities,
interorganizational projects, and the existing social
educational programs, will be most useful to diffuse and to
realize the meaning and value of adult learning. At the
same time, this adult learning network is a form of
construction and transformation of Hong Kong's society. The
goals of such a network are not only for its own
development, but for extending the transformative learning
experience into the lives of Hong Kong's adult members,
contributing to the transformation of Hong Kong's society,
and finally, helping Hong Kong become a change agent in

Chinese history.

People will question how to form such a network in the
concrete reality of Hong Kong's utilitarian form of society,
and how to break down the walls, or stereotypes of existing
organizations. It is not an easy task, but it is possible.
It can begin with some occasions for interaction such as
seminars, conferences, or a series of courses with possible
topics such as "the role of adult education" or "education
in the Hong Kong transition society". From these
opportunities of interaction and dialogue, invitations can

be extended to those interested in joining in on such

106

 

 

sharing, reflecting, informing network. In the meantime,

some information or a newsletter could be circulated among

all the participants. Some joint-functional project could

be started to foster the common beliefs and common

commitments
these kinds
things: the

acceptance,

of the members of the network. The success of
of constructive action will depend on some basic
attitudes of the developers of this network: the

recognition, and respect of the work of existing

adult educational organizations: and the clarification that

the goal of

this network project is beneficial for the

society as a whole, and not for the sake of its own

achievement.

The characteristics of adult educators

described in Freire's book, Pedagogy of Oppressed are

inspiring: Faith, Hope, Love, and Humble are the

requirements of a real adult educator (1990, Ch. IV). This

has also become also true for those at work in the process

of developing an adult learning network and as well as the

progress of

a learning movement.

The idea of creating an adult learning network to

initiate the learning movement is relevant for Hong Kong's

society. First, the communicative, reflective, and active

nature of the network makes it an excellent way of

illustrating the value of human learning to foster people's

abilities of reflection, emancipation and dialogue, as was

mentioned above. Second, the network promotes the

transformative learning experience which could be highly

107

 

 

accepted by the existing educational or social
organizations, since it is supportive and constructive
rather than constrained. Third, it is also the most
suitable way to diffuse the ideas of the transformative
power of adult learning and to enhance the transformative
process. Fourth, because the main components of a network
are people's common interests rather than bureaucratic
construction, the network is more dynamic and flexible.
Finally, it has a highly practical potential in Hong Kong's
unique society where a flourishing communication network
already exists, and where frequent interactions with China

and other countries in the world already occur.

Building such a network could cause some problems.
First, with a model of a network or movement, the
professional and institutional character of adult education
will practically be eliminated, and thus a stronger belief
in human learning power will be required. Second, the
unmeasurable outcome of this kind of practice of adult
education will produce greater frustration and
dissatisfaction for the educators or other people who join
this movement. A stronger commitment and mutual support are
required in the network. Third, the identity of adult
educators will come into question. Since there will be many
adult learning activities with different labels other than
adult education, the new identity of the adult educator will

require continued reflection based on the premise of our own

108

 

 

commitment to learn how to articulate our work with the
people's language. This is not an easy task and it asks for
a continued transformation of our own professional fields
and a reviewing of our present training of adult educators.
It is this challenge which will keep this developmental
movement of transformative learning as our own
transformative learning process enabling us to join other

people in the transformative process of Hong Kong's society.

This proposal for a future practice built on principles
of adult learning its will build up a kind of loose
organization as a social and educational network with the
goal of promoting adult learning as the transformative
dynamic for our society. The network will be developed,
not as its size grows but as the quantity of its adopters
grows and builds up other networks or other kinds of
learning organizations with the same perspectives. Through
this developmental process, some transformation will be
expected to occur in the existing educational organizations
and in the perceptions of adult learning in the society. In
this way, this adult learning network will introduce a
learning movement which begins with the individual's
learning process and transposes to a social learning
process. In this sense, adult learning will become the
concern of the people and the different educational and
social organizations will focus their programs on the

empowerment of learners. More and more public activities

109

 

 

will become educational in view and will foster the
participation of people in the transformation of our
society. In this process, both individual and collective
transformation will occur, and the climate and culture of
our society will be transformed, not into a preset model
described by the authorities or the elite, but into a better
way of life in which humanization is the aim. Such a new
culture will emphasize the power of learning, the value of
being human, the recognition of human reflective and
communicative abilities, the participation of people, the
emphasis on the democratic way of life in which the
consensus of decision making through rational argument and
discourse can be accepted. It is in this view that adult
learning activities will take on their micro and macro
perspectives. Adult learning will then be the
transformative process of individuals and the dynamic of the
transformative process of society. Only with these
perspectives will adult learning become meaningful not only
for particular participants in the adult learning programs,
but for Hong Kong or other transition societies which will
become change agents in the transformative process of the

larger society.

This model of the adult learning network and the
learning movement in a transition society is not only
significant for Hong Kong's society, but it will also be

meaningful for other transition societies, especially those

110

 

 

challenged by the differentiations of culture, religion, or
race: anyplace where people need to learn and experience
interaction and rational dialogue, and where people who are
involved in such challenges need to be capable of reflecting
on the opposing ideas, need to be aware of the social
reality, and need to have the vision of the common mission
of humanity. For this, the development of such learning
movements and learning networks which focus on the value and
the power of human learning will be one possible way of
leading toward new social integration and the formation of a

new social culture.

CONCLUSION

This study has covered an immense territory within the
field of adult learning and educational practice. First, the
vertical dimension of philosophical inquiry including
transformative adult learning, which is a view of adult
learning as a transformative process built on the views of
Paulo Freire and Jack Mezirow. Their views are the base on
which the guidelines of the proposed practices of adult
education are formulated. Second, the horizontal dimension
of the complexity of Hong Kong's society with its colonial
historical background, as well as its future dramatic

political and social changes. Hong Kong can be understood

111

 

 

 

as a change agent according to the transunit social change
theory of A. D. Smith, in which potential adult educational
practices need to be significant and relevant. The
transformative adult learning theory has found its position
at the central point of this vertical and horizontal
dimension with its human and social beliefs and its capacity
to respond to the transformative needs of Hong Kong's
society. The adult learning network, as suggested by the
author of this study, is viewed as a learning, interacting,
reflecting and acting movement created by individual

participants to advance Hong Kong and Chinese societies,

 

making them more rational, inclusive, and human. In such a
movement, individuals are involved as the actors in a
continuous learning process, in which they work together to
create a new environment and serve as a base for the
evolution of a new culture. This adult learning view and
practice can include individual learning activities at
different adulthood stages or social settings, as well as
collective learning activities. Continual observation,
reflection and action toward national or worldwide
transformation is its goal. It is with understanding this
perspective and practice then that we can see that adult
learning is actually a dynamic in the human and social
transformative process. Through learning, human beings,
especially the adult members of society, become the agents
of changing their own history and the history of humankind.

Adult educational activities are the organized efforts to

112

 

promote the competence of human beings, and to create
better discourse situations within which the transformative
process can advance. Adult education then is crucial for a
society, especially one in a transitional situation. It is
not a supplement to the formal educational system, a set of
courses, or some recreational activities. Adult education
needs to become a learning movement, fostering the
commitment and competence of the adult members in society,
promoting individual and collective transformation, and
aiming to form a new culture with a view toward

humanization.

113

 

 

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