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J ’1“ ' ,'.H-~; Htr" r ,3 . ’,: V3317 Ml? p.7-727JU1 1 law 313,133) 0. .. .3 -v} 7 7,31,,“ 3. -.,-;~4,33" ..,;I" J‘I.V\';’“" 'l" mew ~s NIVERSITY UBRARI Illl'llll‘ll‘ulm I mu lllllllllllll 3 1293 00881 1014 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN ANALYSIS OF ADULT HIGH-INTEREST, LON-LEVEL FICTION FOR THE NEED-ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE presented by Mary Anna Kruch has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Teacher Education Major prol’essor Date October 29. 1991 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 LEBRARY Michigan State * University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your reoord. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. __________________7 DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE L__ |L__J E: IE] WEI—fl LJCPLJ 1r ‘7 MSU is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution Memo-p 1 AN ANALYSIS OF ADULT HIGH-INTEREST, LOW-LEVEL FICTION FOR THE NEED—ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE By Mary Anna Kruch A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1991 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF ADULT HIGH-INTEREST, LON-LEVEL FICTION FOR THE NEED-ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE By Mary Anna Kruch The primary purposes in this study were to extend the knowledge about literacy materials currently being used with adult disabled readers and to determine whether these materials meet the needs of these learners. A related purpose was to analyze reading series commonly used with adults for the protagonist’s need-achievement motive, and the existence of achievement imagery, nurturant press, block, and achievement thema. Stories were categorized according to the protagonist’s age, gender, socioeconomic status (SES), and ethnic background to establish the ten most frequently occurring protagonist profiles and to discover whether a relationship existed among any of the profiles and achievement imagery. The researcher surveyed l5 adult learning center directors in medium-sized cities to discover the most commonly used fiction. Eighteen high-interest, low-level reading series were selected for examination. Stories had an average readability of 2.0 to 4.0 grade level. Mary Anna Kruch The researcher identified the main character in l20 stories and then scored each story for achievement imagery, nurturant press, block, and achievement thema. McClelland’s (T953, 1976) model for determining existence of the achievement motive was used. After identifying the gender, age, SES, and ethnic background of each protagonist, the researcher formulated l0 character profiles of the most frequently occurring combinations of the above variables. These profiles were compared with profiles of adult disabled readers to determine whether stories reflected the gender, SES, ethnic backgrounds, and age groups of adult learners. The chi-square procedure *was used to test for significant relationships between achievement imagery and the independent variables of interest, as well as between the protagonist character profiles and achievement imagery. Descriptive statistics also were used. Significant relationships were found between achievement imagery and (a) block, (b) nurturant press, and (c) achievement thema. Strong but not significant relationships were found between achievement imagery and (a) ethnic background, (b) gender, (c) age, and (d) SES. The most frequently occurring protagonist with a high percentage of achievement imagery was a male, Caucasian, young adult of mid-SE5. The character profiles established in this study differed from the characteristics of many students using these materials in adult learning centers. Copyright by MARY ANNA KRUCH 1991 Dedicated to Bob, Jennifer, and Emily. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My heartfelt thanks to Dr. Lois A. Bader, my advisor and committee chair, who has been teacher, role model, and a rock of support throughout my doctoral program. Her encouragement and her faith in me greatly aided in the completion of this project. Dr. Bader’s insight, courage, innovation, and motivation continue to be an inspiration for me. I also wish to thank Dr. Michael w. Casby, Dr. Peggy M. Riethmiller, and Dr. Eugene Pernell, my doctoral committee, for their helpful cements, suggestions, and willingness to give of their time. Dr. James Stapleton, my statistician, and Alice Kalush, my computer programmer, gave generously of their time and expertise. Without them the study could not have been conducted as it was designed. My thanks to both of them. Thanks to Sue Cooley for editing and typing my work. Her support in the final hours is much appreciated. My thanks to Dr. Jean C. Tobey, my friend and role model, for her encouragement and belief that I could make it. Finally, I wish to acknowledge my parents, Gidio and Betty Jo Scenga, for their nurturing love, support, and unconditional faith in me. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................... LIST OF FIGURES ....................... Chapter I. THE PROBLEM ..................... Background ............... Statement of the Problem ........ Purpose of the Study .......... Importance of the Study ......... Research Questions ........... Delimitations and Limitations ...... Generalizability ............ Definition of Terms ........... Overview ................ REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH . Introduction .............. Theories of Motivation ......... Primary Studies in Achievement Motivation Practices in the Education of Adults . . Enhancing Achievement Motivation in Adults Summary ................. METHODOLOGY ................ Introduction .............. The Population and Selection of the Sample Procedure ................ Hypotheses ............... Method of Analyzing the Data ...... Summary ................. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . Introduction .............. Results of the Data Analyses ...... vi ..... ..... ..... ..... Research Question 1 ............... Research Question 2 ............... Research Question 3 ............... Research Question 4 ............... Summary ...................... V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS .................. Summary ...................... Discussion of the Findings and Conclusions . Recommendations for Practice ........... Recommendations for Further Research ....... Reflections .................... APPENDICES A. HIGH-INTEREST, LOW-LEVEL LITERACY SERIES CHECKLIST AND INTRODUCTORY LETTER TO ADULT LEARNING CENTER DIRECTORS ...................... B. EXAMPLES OF PRESENCE OF ACHIEVEMENT IMAGERY, ACHIEVEMENT THEMA, NURTURANT PRESS, AND BLOCK IN HIGH-INTEREST, LON-LEVEL ADULT FICTION AND SAMPLE DATA-COLLECTION SCORE SHEET ......... C. PROFILE OF LVA TUTORS AND ADULT LEARNERS FROM THE LITERACY VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA ......... BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ vii 88 90 93 94 Table 4.1 4.10 4.11 LIST OF TABLES Presence of Achievement Imagery in the Adult Fiction Stories .................. Presence of Nurturant Press in the Adult Fiction Stories ...................... Presence of Block in the Adult Fiction Stories . . . . Presence of Achievement Thema in the Adult Fiction Stories ...................... Relationship Between Achievement Nurturant Press .................. Relationship Between Achievement Relationship Between Achievement Achievement Thema ................. Relationship Between Achievement Relationship Between Achievement Relationship Between Achievement Background ..................... and SES . . . Relationship Between Achievement Relationship Between Achievement of Publication ................... Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery and Gender and Age . . . and Ethnic and Date Combinations of the Variables of Gender, Age, Ethnic Background, and SES of the Protagonists in the Adult Fiction Stories ............... viii Page 48 48 48 50 5O 51 52 54 55 57 59 61 .14 .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21 .22 .23 .24 The Ten Character Profiles Occurring Most Frequently in the Adult Fiction Stories ............ Relationship Between Achievement Imagery and Character Profile I ................ Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile II ................ Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile III ............... Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile IV ................ Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile V ................ Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile V ................ Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile VII ............... Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile VIII ........... V . . . . Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile IX ................ Relationship Between Achievement Character Profile X ................ ix Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery Imagery and and and and Page 63 65 66 67 69 7O 71 72 73 74 75 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 McClelland’s Model for the Achievement Motive Behavioral Sequence ................ 9 4.1 Presence of Achievement Imagery by Gender of the Protagonist .................. 53 4.2 Presence of Achievement Imagery by Age of the Protagonist .................... 54 4.3 Presence of Achievement Imagery by Ethnic Back- ground of the Protagonist ............. 56 4.4 Presence of Achievement Imagery by Socioeconomic Status of the Protagonist ............. 58 4.5 Presence of Achievement Imagery by Date of Publication of the Story .............. 60 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM mm Many reading authorities agree that students of all ages should be provided with instructional materials that coincide with their individual interests and activate their background knowledge (Bader, 1980; Bond, Tinker, Nasson, & Hasson, 1989; Goodman, 1986; Harris, 1970; Smith, 1973, 1982; Vacca & Vacca, 1989; Veatch, 1966). Adult learners, in particular, require literature that is of interest to adults, holds their attention, aids comprehension, and is delivered in a nonpatronizing way. Teachers and tutors in adult literacy programs often are confronted with obstacles in their attempts to find reading materials appropriate for adult learners (Harned, 1980). One obstacle is the» prevalent use CH: inappropriate skill-based materials, which often talk down to the learner, are of little interest, and fail to promote the reading, writing, thinking, and speaking opportunities that adult disabled readers need in order to become literate (Veatch, 1966). Shannon (1989) reported that, because packaged materials are used in reading instruction, students have become proficient at reading skills but not at reading. Even advocates of using test scores as measures of success have found that skills-based reading programs cannot deliver on their promise of producing a literate citizenry. This is because such programs rest on the false separation of knowledge and knowing, which ultimately prevents students from taking control of their literacy in order to make sense of text in the same way they make sense of other experiences (Shannon, 1989). Simply stated, reading is not the decoding of sounds. During the act of reading, both the author and the reader are transformed (Goodman, 1986). The reader interacts with print in order to comprehend the author’s message. The reader thus searches for and constructs meaning by connecting new knowledge to knowledge already possessed (Vacca & Vacca, 1989). Adults have a wealth of background experiences and require materials that are appropriate to their needs and interests, with real-life situations to which they can respond. The process of reading comprehension depends on the reader’s schemata (structures that represent the generic concepts stored in an individual’s memory). The more nearly a reader’s schemata match the schemata intended by the author, the easier it is for the reader to comprehend the text (Cooper, 1986). In addition, greater cultural diversity than ever now exists in the United States. Henry (1990) predicted that, in the twenty-first century, racial and ethnic groups in the United States will outnumber Anglo Americans for the first time. According to Henry, everything from politics and education to industry, values, and culture will be altered. Asian Americans, whose number grew from 3.8 million in 1980 to 6.9 million in 1989, are the fastest-growing and most affluent minority in the United States (O’Hare, 1990). In a world in which pride in identity is stressed, it is of utmost importance that no person feels that his/her family’s customs, beliefs, or language is unworthy of recognition and respect (Sutherland & Arbuthnot, 1986). Packaged lessons, which are still widely used with adults, have a prescribed scope of content and sequence of presentation and do not address the varied cultural backgrounds, purposes, and changing situations of today’s adult learners. The reactions of teacher educators, teachers, parents, and students have produced some successes in bringing about changes in reading programs. One approach that can enhance adults’ success in reading is the use of high-interest, low-level fiction combined with reading, writing, thinking, and listening activities. However, providing substantial amounts of appropriate reading materials for students who do not read well, who read less well than their peers, and who have difficulty reading materials geared to their age presents a particular problem. Many of the books adult students can read are written for younger students who have different interests, experiences, and standards for determining what is worth reading. Consequently, older but less skilled readers shun these books (Graves & Graves, 1989). Further, when mature individuals believe their ability to read is low, they believe they lack the capacity to achieve (Nicholls & Miller, 1985). Statement of the Problem Locating suitable literacy materials for adults who choose to seek help in reading constitutes a major problem for both teachers and students. Whereas publishers are now producing more fiction series for adults, the stories are often chosen for their readability level rather than their help 'hi motivating learners. Few attempts have been made to elicit precise data about the motivation of the main character; the age, gender, socioeconomic status (SES), and ethnic background of the main character; the plot content; and other influential variables in adult fiction. The present study was undertaken to gather information with which to address this problem. Purpose of the Study The researcher’s primary purposes in this study were to extend the knowledge about literacy materials that are currently being used with adult disabled readers and to determine whether these materials meet the individual, diverse needs of these learners. A related purpose was to analyze paperback reading series that are commonly usedwith adults in learning centers ikw' the protagonist’s need- achievement (N-Achievement) motive, as described by McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell (1953, 1976). The specific characteris- tics for which the series were examined were the existence of achievement imagery (the act of planning to accomplish 21 perceived goal), nurturant press (a source of encouragement to the protagonist), block (an obstacle to goal attainment), and achievement thema (theme revolving around the protagonist in the process of goal attainment). Another purpose was to categorize the stories according to the protagonist’s age, gender, SES, and ethnic background to establish the ten most frequently occurring protagonist profiles and to discover whether a relationship existed among any of the profiles and achievement imagery. Importance of the Study The researcher anticipated that this study would provide evidence that precise data about different variables affecting adults’ success in reading can be derived from adult fiction stories. Having this information will constitute a step toward the goal of producing fictional materials for adults that more closely correspond to the profile of adult learners and are more suitable in terms of interest and motivation through developed, adult plots. Of equal importance is the possibility that the results from this study can be used to help teachers of adults select appropriate materials by creating an awareness of the variables inherent in some materials that might present additional reading problems for students. Research Questions The following research questions were posed to guide the collection of data with which to accomplish the purposes of this study: I 1. In what percentage of high-interest, low-level adult fic- tion are achievement imagery, nurturant press, block, and achieve- ment thema present? 2. Is there a1 significant relationship between achievement imagery and any of the following variables: nurturant press; block; achievement thema; protagonist’s age, gender, ethnic background, and SES; and date of publication of the series? 3. What are the most frequently occurring combinations of the variables age, gender, ethnic background, and SES with regard to the protagonist in high-interest, low-level adult fiction? 4. Is there it significant relationship between any of the protagonist character profiles and achievement imagery? 4a. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile I (female, Caucasian, mid-SES) and achievement imagery? 4b. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile II (male, Caucasian, mid-SE5) and achievement imagery? 4c. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile III (male, Black, mid-SE3) and achievement imagery? 4d. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile IV (female, Black, mid-SES) and achievement imagery? 4e. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile ll (female, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery? 4f. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile VI (nmle, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery? 4g. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile VII (male, mid-SE8, young adult) and achievement imagery? 4h. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile VIII (female, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery? 4i. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile IX (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery? 4j. Is there a significant relationship between Character Profile X (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, teen) and achievement imagery? Descriptive statistics were used in answering Research Ques- tions 1 and 3. Hypotheses were formulated to analyze statistically the data gathered with regard to Research Questions 2 and 4. These hypotheses, stated in the null form, are included in Chapter III. Delimitations and Limitations 1. This study' was limited to an examination of 120 high- interest, low-level fiction stories that are widely used 'hi adult learning centers in medium-sized cities (populations ranging from 10,000 to 50,000) in Michigan. 2. The readability level of the stories examined in this study was limited mainly to the 2.0 to 4.0 range. 3. Four N-Achievement (achievement-motive) factors were coded: (a) achievement imagery, (b) nurturant press, (c) block (to goal attainment), and (d) achievement thema. 4. The instrument used to determine presence of N-Achievement was the model used by McClelland et a1. (1953), an adaptation of the Thematic Apperception Test (Murray, 1938). 5. Whereas McClelland et a1. (1953) scored stories written by adult subjects, this researcher scored stories published specifically for adult disabled readers. 6. The picture cards shown to the subjects in McClelland et al.’s (1953) study' depicted only male characters. The stories examined in the present study included both male and female characters. Generalizabilitv The data from this study were drawn from only 18 high-interest, low-level adult fiction series. Most of the stories examined had reading levels of 2.0 to 4.0. lherefore, the findings from this study cannot be generalized to all published adult fiction materials with a reading level range of 1.0 to 8.0. However, the findings could suggest what might be found in samples of similar materials. Definition of Terms So that the reader can better understand this study, explanations of relevant terms are provided in this section. McClelland’s model for the achievement motive behavioral seguence. McClelland’s model was used to determine the existence of the achievement motive in the reading series examined in this study (see Figure 1.1) (McClelland et a1., 1953). According to this model, the behavioral sequence originates when an individual experiences a state of need or a motive (N). (The symbols in parentheses denote the various scoring categories that McClelland et al. used.) The person may also be anticipating successful attain- ment of this goal (Ga+) or frustration and failure (Ga-). He/she may engage in an activity that is instrumental (1) to the attainment of the goal, which may lead to the attainment (1+) or nonattainment (I-) of the goal. Sometimes his/her goal-directed activity will be blocked. The obstacle or block (B) to the person’s progress might be located in the world at large (Bw), or it might be some personal deficiency in the individual (Bp). The person is likely to experi- ence a state of positive affect (G+) when his/her goal is attained, or a state of negative affect (G-) when his/her goal-directed activity is thwarted or he/she fails. Often someone will help or sympathize with the perSon (nurturant press-~Nup), aiding in his/her goal-directed behavior. Obstacle The Person Bw Cool I - or + B? 1+ Figure 1.1: McClelland’s model for the achievement motive behavioral sequence. From D. C. McClelland, J. W. Atkinson, R. A. Clark, and E. L. Lowell, The Achievement Motive (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1953). Achievement motive (N-Achievement). N-Achievement is the learned result of pairing cues with affect or the condition that 10 produced the affect. The following are two examples. Specific references to N-Achievement are in capital letters. a. Affective concern over the goal: THE BOY WINS THE ESSAY CONTEST AND FEELS PROUD. b. Type of instrumental activity indicating a desire to compete successfully with a standard of excellence: THE BOY IS WORKING VERY CAREFULLY ON HIS ESSAY. (McClelland et al., 1953, p. 112) Achievement imaqerv. Achievement imagery refers to an achieve- ment goal that is explicitly expressed by some individual in the story, usually the protagonist, who is successful in terms of competition with some standard of excellence. The individual might fail to achieve this goal, but the concern about excellence still enables him/her to identify the goal imagined, or sought after, as an achievement goal. In addition, the goal must be long term or involve a unique accomplishment. The following are inn) examples. The words and phrases in capital letters indicate evidence of achievement imagery. a. Unique accomplishment: Something is being heated in a type of furnace which appears to be of metal. The men are blacksmiths. The men have been doing RESEARCH on an alloy of some type and THIS IS THE CRUCIAL TEST that spells success or failure for the experiment. They want a specific type of metal. They are working for government interests. They may be successful this time. They have INVENTED a metal that is very light, strong, durable, heat resistant, etc. A REAL STEP IN SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS HAD BEEN MADE. (McClelland et al., 1953, p. 117) 11 b. Long-term involvement: THE BOY IS THINKING ABOUT A CAREER AS A DOCTOR. HE SEES HIMSELF AS A GREAT SURGEON PERFORMING AN OPERATION. He has been doing minor first-aid work on his injured dog, and discovers he enjoys working with medicine. He thinks he is suited for this profession and sets an ultimate goal in life at this moment. (McClelland et al., 1953, p. 118) Achievement thema. Achievement thema can be recognized in stories when the achievement imagery is elaborated in such a manner that it becomes the central plot or theme (H"the story. Striving for an achievement goal and eventually attaining the goal may be the central plot of the story. For example: Father and son are having a serious talk. They are going into bankruptcy because of a railroad strike. They are trying to remedy the situation by borrowing money from bankers. They do get some money but not as much as they need to get the business running as successfully again. The business continues but does not make money as usual until ten years later. (McClelland et al., 1953, p. 136) Nurturant press. Forces in the story, personal in origin, that aid the character who is engaged in on-going achievement-related activity are ‘termed nurturant press (Nup). Someone aids, sympathizes with, or encourages the person who is striving for achievement. The assistance must be in the direction of the achievement goal, and not merely incidental to it. In the following example, words evidencing nurturant press are in capital letters. AN OLD EXPERIENCED MAN IS GIVING A YOUNG GREEN KID A LITTLE HELPFUL ADVICE ON HOW TO IMPROVE HIS WORK. The kid has been slow and has had a little trouble getting into the swing of things, and the old gentleman has noticed it. The kid vfill take all the advice to heart and go back to work with better methods or ideas suggested by the older man. (McClelland et al., 1953, p. 132) 12 Block. This refers to an obstacle to the progress of a goal- directed activity, or to some hindrance of progress. Such obstacles must be overcome before the goal is attained. The obstacles may be located within the individual (lack of confidence, a conflict to be overcome, inability to make decisions, responsibility for some breakdown in equipment, or past failure). When the obstacle is part of the environment, it could be located in the world at large. a. Examples illustrating personal obstacles: A boy is daydreaming. He is a student who knows he has to study. IN THE PAST HE HAS HAD POOR MARKS. Now he realizes that he must study harder, or else his school work will just be a waste of time. A new man is being taught how to run a machine in a factory. He is interested in the work, but he is nervous. He has been hired quite recently and has MADE A MISTAKE. The foreman is helping him realize what he has done. b. Examples illustrating environmental obstacles: THE INVENTION WAS ABOUT FINISHED WHEN THE GASKET BROKE. HIS FAMILY COULDN’T AFFORD TO SEND HIM TO MEDICAL SCHOOL. (McClelland et al., 1953, p. 133) Adult. A person 18 years of age or older is generally consid- ered an adult. This definition was used 'Hi testing Hypotheses 1 through 8. For purposes of this study, the following age categories were used in testing Hypotheses 9 through 18: Teen 16-19 years of age Young adult 20-24 years of age Mid-age adult 25-44 years of age Older adult 45-59 years of age Senior 60+ years of age Disabled reader. This term refers to a learner who lacks the skills necessary to comprehend written language at zni advanced or independent level. 13 Protagonist. The main character in each adult fiction story examined in this study was considered the protagonist. Readability level. This term refers to the reading achievement or grade level students need to comprehend the reading material. Typically, levels are determined by formulas that involve a measure of sentence length and word difficulty. 02w Chapter I included the background and statement of the problem, purposes and importance of the study, the research questions, delimitations and limitations, generalizability of the study, and definitions of pertinent terms. A review of literature related to the study is presented in Chapter II. Writings and research on theories of motivation, primary studies in achievement motivation, practices in the education of adults, and enhancing achievement motivation in adults are reviewed. The methodology used in this study is explained in Chapter III. The population is delineated, and sample selection is explained. Procedures the researcher employed in examining the reading series included in the study are discussed. The research hypotheses are stated, and data-analysis techniques are explained. The results of the data analyses are presented in Chapter IV. A summary of the study, discussion of the findings and conclusions, recommendations for practice and further research, and the researcher’s reflections are included in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH Introduction This chapter contains a review of related literature and research on the following four major topics: Theories of Motivation, Primary Studies in Achievement Motivation, Practices in the Education of Adults, and Enhancing Achievement Motivation in Adults. Theories of Motivation Arkes and Garske (1982) noted that motivation, unlike behaviors, cannot be observed. This is one factor that has made studying motivation so difficult. Freud (1910/1938) contended that people are unaware of their motivations. In contrast, other theorists have suggested that people vastly underestimate the power' of' external influences on their' behavior (Hull, 1952; Lewin, 1935; Skinner, 1966; Spence, 1956; Thorndike, 1911). As a result, people search in vain within themselves for causes that might, in fact, be external. Therefore, analyzing motivations is a challenging task. Arkes and Garske (1982) defined motivation as those processes that influence the arousal, strength, or' direction of behavior. Thus, motivation is necessary to achieve one’s goals. Motivation 14 15 differs from learning, which, according to Arkes and Garske, is the process by which a relatively permanent change in behavior occurs as a result of experience. (It should be noted, however, that achievement motivation, as described by McClelland et a1. (1953), is a long-term process.) The study of learning emphasizes that events in an organism’s past (experience) influence its present behavior. According to McClelland (1961), achievement motivation can be a learned behavior; that is how motivation and learning are linked. The study of motivation emphasizes contemporaneous influences on present behavior (i.e., hunger as an influence on eating). Learning is relatively permanent, whereas motivation is not always lasting. Researchers study motivation to understand why people behave in certain ways. There are many different kinds of motivational phenomena, and no one grand scheme encompasses all behaviors. The history of science has demonstrated that few collections of motivational phenomena can be explained simply and adequately from a single viewpoint. The psychology of motivation illustrates this truism. lkl general, motivational theories fall into two categories, clinical and experimental, which include behavioral, psychological, and developmental aspects. The clinical approach is a naturalistic investigation of motivation, based on observations of motivated behavior as it occurs outside the psychological laboratory. Such an approach is more complex and less controlled than one performed under laboratory conditions. Thus, the motivational constructs and processes derived from the clinical method are less precise and more 16 global than those derived from experimental analyses. It is difficult to formulate hypotheses and test them systematically in natural situations. The experimental approach involves a scientific investigation of a particular phenomenon, in this case motivation. This approach requires that every proposal of a construct or a process be testable under controlled conditions in the psychological laboratory. Experimentalists formulate operational definitions for their motivational constructs and processes. All concepts established through operational definitions are meaningful in the sense that they can be reduced to observable phenomena. The resulting definitions permit the formulation of hypotheses that can be supported in subsequent experimental investigations. Freud’s (1910/1938) psychoanalytic theory and humanistic theories such as the self-actualization theory of Rogers (1942) and Maslow (1967) can be termed clinical theories. These researchers, whose studies were based on observational data, proposed that a behavioral outcome is determined jointly by a person’s efforts and his/her ability to perform a task. Once it has been decided that the person is responsible for an outcome, motivation is attributed to that person. Stated another way, motivation has to do with the why of behavior, as contrasted with the how or what of behavior. Theories that can be considered experimental are Hull’s (1952) theory of learning and motivation, as well as attribution theory (Kelly, 1967, 1971; Ross, 1977; Weiner, 1972, 1979, 1980; Weiner & 17 Kukla, 1970). Under highly controlled conditions, attribution theorists have investigated the effect of attribution (or qualities of success and failure) on expectations of achievement” According to these theorists, it is not success or failure, per se, but the causal attributions made for either of these outcomes that influence future expectations (Spence, 1983). For example, “if people attribute success to a stable factor such as ability, they should expect continued success. If, on the other hand, they attribute success to an unstable factor such as effort or good luck, they should be uncertain about future outcomes. Theories that are termed both clinical and experimental are Lewin’s (1935) field theory and McClelland’s achievement motivation theory (McClelland et al., 1953). In the following paragraphs, the above-mentioned motivational theories are discussed in greater depth. Freud’s (1910/1938) psychoanalytic theory of motivation is noteworthy in many respects. For example, despite the theory’s encumbrance with physiological concepts, cognitive processes (i.e., memory and thinking) are significant in motivating behavior. Drive- related thinking is what provides impetus to behavior. In contrast to cognitive theories, the psychoanalytic view Cpnsiders emotions and cognition as working together as a source of motivation. Cognitions that motivate behaviors are thus eagerly demanding; they constitute "peremptory ideation," a forceful train of motivated thought (Klein, 1967). 18 The main emphasis of psychoanalytic theory in explaining the motivation of behavior is said to be on the persistent activity of the unconscious, biologically based instinctual drives. In this view, an individual’s conscious awareness is virtually excluded from the motivation process. Freud saw the instinctual drives as insistent, inevitable sources of conflict. Consequently, he viewed behaviors that might be motivated by direct, nonconflictual factors, such as the drives for achievement, love, self-esteem, and competence, as reducible to offshoots of the drive/defense conflict. The biological basis of' motivation has left the psychoanalytic theory with insufficient latitude to account for the effects of learning on behavior. The theories of Maslow (1967) and Rogers (1967) are considered humanistic. Humanistic psychology is an emergent and highly influential area of contemporary psychology, existential philosophy, and the humanities. Maslow, who founded the Association of Humanistic Psychology' in 1962, called humanistic psychology "the third force." It offers conceptions of motivation and behavior that are distinct from those proposed by the other main currents of psychology--psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology takes into account the motivational capacity and experience of such things as love, self-esteem, and freedom and aims at studying, in detail, the unique behavior of a single individual. Maslow’s theory of self-actualization concerns two issues: (a) motivation and need and (b) research methods. With regard to motivation and need, psychological growth and the full realization 19 of human potential are emphasized. Human behavior is motivated primarily by a person’s striving to become as fully human as possible--to be competent, effective, creative, and imaginativeu Motivated behavior is thus a striving to find one’s real self; its goal is personal enhancement. The term "self-actualization" is generally applied to this broad motivation toward attaining one’s potential (Arkes & Garske, 1982). Humanistic theorists are highly critical of the traditional scientific procedures that have guided the majority of research on motivation; these procedures require that constructs be operationally defined and investigated in controlled situations. Humanistic theorists maintain that this process artificially reduces the meaningfulness of the constructs and makes generalizing one’s findings to real-life contexts difficult and inappropriate. Humanistic theorists further contend that experimental analysis ignores determinants of behavior, such as values, experiences, personality, and the social environment (Arkes & Garske, 1982). Rogers’s (1967) theory of self-actualization assumes that an inherent tendency in individuals provides a constant impetus toward psychological growth and fulfillment. Three distinctive features of the theory are: (a) it stresses the role of conscious experience as a determinant of behavior, (b) it describes behavior as being phenomenologically motivated (an individual’s experience is unique and cannot be averaged or grouped with the experience of anyone else), and (c) the conscious influence of one’s basic tendency 20 arises from an interaction with the environment, especially its interpersonal aspects. Human relationships are therefore central in Rogers’s self-actualization theory of motivation. According to Hull’s (1952) theory of learning and motivation, behavior is ultimately motivated by primary, innate drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sex. This massive theory is based on the stimulus-response principles of learning. Hull viewed tfiological needs as the sole source of motivation and considered the reduction of those needs the definition of reinforcement. The theory reduced humans to animals and reduced both humans and animals to machines that, when stimulated, emitted predictable responses (Arkes & Garske, 1982). Lewin’s (1935) field theory represents a transitional conception between innate and learned motivation. He emphasized ”quasi-needs" (motivations that are run; based (n1 biological deprivation). For example, intentions to finish a task and to achieve 21 goal are 'the unportant motivational topics in Lewin’s theory. The principles of Gestalt theory are evident, as the emphasis is on insight rather than on learning by trial and error. The central tenet of Lewin’s theory is that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. McClelland’s achievement motivation theory deals strictly with achievement situations and is more limited in scope and greater in predictive precision than is Lewin’s theory. The achievement motivation theory emphasizes the importance and measurement of individual differences in assessing an organism’s interaction with 21 its environment; no mention is made of innate tendencies. According to McClelland et a1. (1953), achievement motivation is entirely learned. The strength of the achievement motive in individuals is best measured by the N-Achievement score, which is derived by coding the thought content of imaginative stories (McClelland, 1985). This score is usually obtained from stories written to pictures, but it can also be validly obtained from stories written to sentence stems, such as "A father and his son looking at a field" (McClelland, 1977). Whereas food is the reward for the hunger drive, "doing something better" is the natural incentive for the achievement motive. McClelland (1985) contended that what should be involved in the achievement motive is doing something better for its own sake, for the intrinsic satisfaction. This theory is discussed more fully in the next section, Primary Studies in Achievement Motivation. Primary Studies in Achievement Motivation According IX) Heckhausen (1967), interest 'hi achievement motivation dates back to 1910. Until an adequate clinical method was developed for measuring this motive, progress (H: a scientific type was negligible. The pioneering work of Atkinson and McClelland (1948) provided a basis for the large and significant body of information that now exists on this topic. These researchers began with the work of Murray and then expanded it substantially. Murray (1938) defined need for achievement as a desire or tendency "to overcome obstacles, to exercise power, to strive to do 22 something difficult as well and as quickly as possible" (pp. 80-81). In his personality theory, N-Achievement (n Ach) was one of 20 manifest psychological needs (as distinct from such biological needs as hunger). Murray devised the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a means of studying personality and needs. This test consists of a series of pictures about which the individual tells a story to answer the questions: (a) What led up to the scene being depicted? (b) What is now happening in the scene? (c) How do the characters feel? and (d) What will be the outcome? The pictures are relatively ambiguous and are meant to evoke themes that will be characteris- tically different for different individuals. In scoring the stories, themes are detected that indicate the personality and needs of the individual composing the story. For example, one card shows a boy staring into space, with a violin lying on the table in front of him. A story about a boy working hard to become a famous violinist would be interpreted differently from one about a boy who is supposed to be practicing but would rather be outside playing with his friends. The first story would indicate achievement, the second, affiliation. In the N-Achievement research, there are usually four pictures, and individuals have five minutes to tell a story for each one (Atkinson, 1958; McClelland et al., 1953). These fantasy measures have been used successfully for years. The need for achievement presumably can be aroused, but N-Achievement cannot be manipulated like hunger or thirst. 23 Individuals displaying high or low levels of N-Achievement in their stories can be selected and then tested in achievement situations. Individuals with high N-achievement were found to solve simple arithmetic problems much more rapidly than did those with low N-Achievement (McClelland, 1985). McClelland attempted to determine what produced higher N-Achievement, as well as why higher N-Achievement was directly related to better performance. McClelland et a1. (1953) offered a hedonic interpretation of N-Achievement. They found that cues previously associated with pleasurable, positive events produce a specific rearousal of that affect. The individual both experiences and anticipates a pleasurable outcome. If previous achievement conditions have had positive outcomes, an individual is more likely to engage in achievement behaviors. The opposite also is true. If an individual is punished for failure, fear of failure could develop, as would a motive to avoid it (Beck, 1990). Based on their research in this area, McClelland and Atkinson formulated the theory of achievement motivation, which they elaborated 'hi The Achievement Motive (McClelland et al., 1953). The first investigations McClelland and his colleagues conducted involved only male subjects. These subjects were asked to write stories about pictures they were shown, similar to Murray’s TAT. The subject generated the theme of the story. So this, like the TAT, was a projective test: The subject projected his own needs into the story. McClelland believed that the individual’s needs could be assessed by scoring the story in specific ways. Some of 24 the categories McClelland scored were achievement imagery, doubtful imagery, unrelated imagery, positive goal attainment, negative affect, nurturant press, and block to goal attainment. McClelland’s (1961) interests broadened from laboratory tasks to social problems, and he tried to determine whether N-Achievement was related to the rise and fall of cultures. What a society teaches its children about being independent was related to Protestantism and also in) social growth (Beck, 1990). The N-Achievement scoring system has the advantage of being applicable to any written material, including old newspapers, books, and public records. Children’s books also have been scored 1%”: achievement themes and related to economic growth. For example, deCharms and Moeller (1962) found that, between 1800 and 1850, theree was an increase and then a decrease in the number of patents issued per million people in the United States. This trend was closely paralleled by a rise and fall in achievement imagery in children’s books written in the preceding 50 years; there was a correlation of .79 between the two measures (Beck, 1990). McClelland (1965) also studied individuals 1T1 entrepreneurial or managerial positions, hypothesizing that they should have higher N-Achievement scores than those in nonentrepreneurial positions. McClelland found that 83% of Wesleyan graduates in entrepreneurial occupations 14 years after graduation had high N-Achievement scores while they were students, but only 21% of those in nonentrepre- neurial occupations had high scores. In addition, McClelland found 25 that individuals with high N-Achievement were more independent and less concerned about the feelings of others than were their low- scoring counterparts. McClelland viewed the "managerial type" in business as a nmdium risk-taker, requiring immediate feedback for his/her behavior, working harder under conditions of achievement arousal, and being unhappy unless continually rewarded with success. McClelland’s colleague, John Atkinson, refined the achievement theory. One of the first modifications Atkinson (1964) made was to place the theory into the framework. of expectancy-value theory. Next, he emphasized the role of conflict, especially in relation to N-Achievement and fear of failure. According to Atkinson’s theory, the tendency to engage in achievement-oriented behaviors, which he called tendency to success, is related to three functions: (a) the motivation for success (the same as N-Achievement), (b) the probability of success, and (c) the incentive value for success. The theory assumes that if the probability of success is very low, the incentive value of success is very high, and vice versa. Like McClelland, Atkinson found that individuals with high N-Achievement were medium risk-takers. ’Atkinson’s model accounted for immediate goals, but long-term goals needed to be considered as well. Raynor (1974) proposed that future orientations intensify the overall level of tendency to success in the present so that immediate and distant goals add together to affect achievement motivation. For example, for the college student, the immediate goal of passing a course and the distant goal of graduating together influence how much effort he/she 26 will put into a specific course. Raynor called future orientation "perceived instrumentality" because it is based on a person’s perception of how instrumental a present behavior will be in achieving a long-term goal. Achievement theory was further advanced by Feather (1967), who also considered future goals such as money and a job. With a particular external goal, such as getting a job, the person’s tendency to strive for this goal is the sum of present and future tendencies to strive for success and for the external goal. Raynor (1970) tested the achievement theory by studying the effects of future orientation and achievement motivation on students’ grades ““1 an introductory psychology course. Students rated the relevance and importance (instrumentality) of the course to their future goals. Subjects were then divided into two groups: those with high and low instrumentality for the course. As predicted, higher perceived instrumentality was directly related to enhanced performance and resulted in higher grades. This finding lent further support to the theory of achievement motivation. From the beginning of McClelland’s research, TAT scores have not been found to predict achievement performance for women (Beck, 1990). It is possible that the definition of achievement or the pictures used in the tests were not appropriate for females at the time the research was initiated. Horner (1968) speculated that females have a motive to avoid success. Some theorists have interpreted this difference in TAT scores to mean that males and 27 females have different motivational structures (McClelland, 1985; Schroth, 1987). But others have viewed the difference as evidence of the conflict between social stereotypes regarding females’ behavior and the actual behavior required for achievement (French & Lesser, 1964; Lesser, Krawitz, & Packard, 1963). In general, men and boys, not women and girls, are rewarded for successful competitiveness (Beck, 1990). Using a standard measurement technique developed by Horner (1968), Patty (1976) found that women who scored high in motivation to avoid success saw themselves as less affectionate than did women who scored low in this motive. They had low self-esteem and were career oriented but aspired to "traditional female occupations"; their mothers often were in traditional occupations. In contrast, women who scored low in motivation to avoid success had mothers in "nontraditional" occupations and thus had nonconforming role models. These women might have rejected the stereotypical view and hence had no conflict about achievement. At present, the general consensus is that there is no specific motive among females to avoid success (Spence & Helmreich, 1983). "Bader (1981) adapted McClelland’s scoring method and examined high-interest, low-level adolescent fiction for N-Achievement. The various series examined in Bader’s study differed significantly with regard to presence of achievement thema. Bader found no significant interactions between N-Achievement and other variables (achievement imagery, ethnic group, economic class, and gender), but most stories focused on Caucasian middle-class male characters. 28 Occasionally, questions. have been ‘raised regarding the construct validity (the capacity of a test to predict the research results) of fantasy measures of achievement, such as McClelland’s model. McClelland et a1. (1953) typically used four pictures with each subject and developed a complex scheme for scoring the TAT pictures. Entwisle (1972) found that scoring each picture as l or 0 for presence or absence of achievement theme, as done with the TAT (Murray, 1938), correlated between .70 and .90 with McClelland et al.’s more complicated method of scoring. Thus, Entwisle saw the standard scoring scheme as little more than a four-item true-false test. This, he said, would account for the low estimates of test- retest reliability for TAT scoring of N-Achievement--correlations of .30 and .40. Entwisle noted, however, that if reliability of the TAT is so low, it is surprising that N-Achievement scores ever predict actual performance. Atkinson (1978) responded to this criticism by making a bold counterattack on traditional approaches to assessing reliability of the TAT. He argued that test-retest correlations might be low, but if test scores are split at the median into high and low groups, the same individuals will fall into the high and low groups on retest. This outcome is a sufficient indication of construct validity (Beck, 1990). Recent investigators have further refined and extended the research on need achievement. Schroth (1987) compared the various measures of N-Achievement and their relationship to performance on 29 an arithmetic task under various intrinsic and extrinsic-task orientation conditions. Neumann, Finaly, and Reichel (1988) adapted McClelland’s model to measure students’ achievement motivation and examined the relationship between measures of motivation and indicators of students’ behavioral and college outcomes. McClelland, Koestner, and Weinberger (1989) reported that implicit motives represent a primitive motivational system derived from affective experiences, whereas self-attributed motives are based on cognitively elaborated constructs. Currently, motivation theorists are investigating several new areas of interest (Beck, 1990): (a) the role of' cognition in motivation/emotion, (b) the importance of biological factors in achievement motivation, (c) the relationship between emotion and motivation, and (d) stress, coping, and the self-regulation of internal states. McClelland is continuing to pursue the concept of adults’ motivations and learning to achieve (Stewart, 1982). These topics are discussed in the next two sections, Practices in the Education of Adults and Enhancing Achievement Motivation in Adults. Practices in the Education of Adults Typically, those teaching adults to read and write have focused on functional skills--recognizing words and printed text, identifying parts of speech, and writing complete sentences. But these skills do not relate directly to the purposes of learners. Learners’ goal should not be merely to recognize words, but to 30 extend their knowledge of the world and their ability to function more effectively in everyday life (Soifer et al., 1990). Educators traditionally have planned with the needs of children or youths in mind. Accordingly, if it was assumed that what was being offered was education, educators thought that adults who wanted an education should take what was offered. For years, many adults who desired an education not only took a curriculum designed for children and were taught by teachers whose only experience was with children, but they were also obliged to sit at desks built for children (Kidd, 1973). Something drastic needed to 1x2 done to remedy this situation. To function effectively in modern society, one must be able to read. Statistics have confirmed that 10 to 30 million adults in the United States are classified as functionally illiterate (Hall & Coley, 1980). The definition of functional illiteracy varies from an inability to read above the fourth- to eighth-grade level to a lack of schooling beyond the fourth or fifth grade. Regardless of the definition, it is certain that many adults urgently need programs designed to develop their reading ability. Teachers of adults frequently are volunteers, so much of the instruction is done by people who have had little preparation in the teaching of reading. Although these volunteers often are successful because of their positive attitude and commitment, literacy programs should not be staffed solely by volunteers. These programs need teachers who are prepared to be facilitators, or guides, who provide opportunities for learners to take responsibility for setting 31 success goals. The teacher/facilitator provides the framework for the learner to take command of maintaining attendance records, com- pleting assignments, editing and revising materials, helping peers, and selecting materials for personal reading (Soifer et al., 1990). Teachers need to be facilitators rather than authority figures for many reasons (Soifer et al., 1990). An authority figure (the traditional role for a teacher) attempts to impart knowledge in the sequence and manner he/she deems appropriate. An adult facilitator, on the other hand, is sensitive to learners and makes sure they feel free to ask questions and to agree or disagree with one another and the teacher. The facilitator serves as a model, listening to and accepting contributions from all; thus, learners realize that others care about their ideas and that it is safe to risk making mistakes. Hall aunt Coley (1980) suggested that teacher education institutions should include attention to adult basic education programs, instead of only the usual focus on elementary and secondary levels. In addition to gaining increased knowledge about reading, basic adult education teachers should learn about the unique needs of adult learners. Adults often are motivated learners who have voluntarily sought schooling. This motivation frequently springs from such pragmatic concerns as the need to secure a job, the need to obtain a promotion, or the need to deal more effectively with daily demands (Soifer et al., 1990). Teachers of adult basic education classes can capitalize on this motivation by gearing the program to the students’ diverse needs and interests, as well as their cultural and ethnic 32 backgrounds. Materials related to the concerns of adult students could include automobile user manuals, restaurant menus, newspapers, notes from school, job applications, and other practical materials (Hall & Coley, 1980). Teachers also can use language-experience techniques to create materials of particular interest by recording students’ spoken language. In addition to having differing interests, adults espouse different values from those of younger students (Zahn, 1980). Adults’ concerns and dispositions tend to be more stable, and the anxiety of youth is moderated by feelings of greater autonomy, competence, and stability (Soifer et al., 1990). The opinions, attitudes, and beliefs of adults are more firmly fixed and often are more dogmatic than those of youths (Zahn, 1980). Other positive factors exist for adults in learning situations. Whereas children have had little experience regarding what they can hope to do or accomplish, adults have a vast reservoir of experience that has shaped their ideas of what is possible. This experience helps adults refrain from setting unrealistic goals for themselves and therefore to accomplish more easily the goals they do set (Zahn, 1980). This motivation for adults to achieve is the focus of the following section: Enhancing Achievement Motivation in Adults. Enhancing Achievement Motivation in Adults If one accepts the notion that adults are responsible people who want to increase their competence through useful learning 33 activities, what can educators do to make this desire a reality? To move in this direction, educators need to understand what motivation means to an adult learner. Adult students’ motivation is highly individual and varies with each student. and each situation. Nevertheless, certain general guidelines can help teachers encourage students to want to learn. The opinions CH: one’s peers are very effective motivators. Motivation is also fostered by favorable factors at home--loving parents who encourage achievement at school, serve as models of behavior, and provide the sorts of activities that prepare individuals for success in school. Schools can build on the motivation provided at home. But what if motivation is not provided at home? Reality-centered activities that are pleasant and encourage students can be fostered in the school environment so as to contribute to students’ basic motivation. Teachers can seek insights into their students as individuals, to encourage achievement performance. Nonreaders usually have a strong underlying motivation to learn to read (Ruchlis & Sharefkin, 1973). They long to gain self-respect by proving to themselves and to the world that they are not as unintelligent as others think and that they can learn if given the chance. High self-esteenl is associated with high productivity, whether it be exemplified in academic achievement, creativity, or leadership (Gilmore, 1974). Although intelligence has 'hwu; been associated with ability, intelligence quotient has been found to be a generally inadequate predictor of success (Gilmore, 1974). More 34 important to one’s success is a: clear sense of identity. The productive person knows who he/she is and where he/she is headed. McClelland (1984) would agree with this statement. He held that when everyone involved correctly understands the motivational elements of the situation in a concrete, behavioral way, then and only then is one likely to bring about change. In The Achievinq Society, McClelland (1961) described a training program for adults that was designed to enhance achievement motivation. He believed that arousing attention, sustaining successful opportunities for achievement motivation, and stimulating fantasy were the techniques that had the greatest effect on raising adults’ achievement-motivation levels. Encouraging participation and self-study are two additional suggestions for getting adult students to assume control over the direction of their own lives-~to feel competent, self-reliant, and capable of improving their performance. Malone (1980, 1981) proposed a: conceptual framework for activities that might contribute to intrinsic motivation. He believed that characteristics in the learner lead to optimal motivational states and that these qualities must be encouraged and developed for a student to become a self-motivated learner. These characteristics of the learner are challenge, curiosity, control, and fantasy. McClelland en; al.’s (1953, 1976) findings, discussed above, lend support to using fantasies written by students when looking for 35 the effects of individual motivation toward success. Adult education programs can promote intrinsic motivation by providing learning environments that encourage students to become involved in a world of fantasy and make-believe. Such fantasy environments can evoke mental images of physical or social situations that are not actually present and may contribute to motivation in several ways. First, the use of fantasy may serve a variety of emotional needs. In fantasy, by identifying with fictitious characters, students can experience vicariously a variety of rewards and satisfactions that might not be available to them in real life. In this sense, the use of fantasy may frequently provide one source of meaning for students who are engaged in personally irrelevant activities. This makes a good case for providing adults with literature that contains appropriate, interesting fictional plots. Also, fantasy may help enhance students’ motivation by providing concrete, familiar settings to which the substance of the activity is relevant and to which the material can be related. Wlodkowski (1985) offered a guide for enhancing motivation in adults by showing ways in which those working with adults can recognize and respond to their needs, which is a complement to ideas already presented. He suggested using some type of informal needs assessment, such as a group of open—ended sentences to be completed by the student. An example of such sentences is as follows: When I read the newspaper, I like to read about. My favorite TV programs are. . . . Something I want to do more often is. . . . The question I want this course to answer is. . . . An important goal for me is. . . . (p. 110). m-hWN—J 36 Asking these questions is one way of gaining insights into learner- perceived needs. When adults know from the beginning of a program that their instructor has attempted to know and understand them, and will respect their needs through the instructional content, motivation to achieve is enhanced. In addition to recommending a needs assessment, Wlodkowski (1985) suggested that (a) the instructional content, examples, and projects relate to the learners’ physiological needs; (b) imagery techniques that are used to help learners remember specific problems be relevant to the knowledge or skill being taught; (c) components of the learning environment that lead to failure or fear be removed; (d) the learning environment be organized and orderly; and (e) the unfamiliax' be introduced 'through the familiaru For example, in introducing a completely new topic to learners, the instructor should relate it to one with which they are somewhat familiar. In any adult education program with the goal of enhancing motivation, the importance of lifelong learning must be emphasized. In an increasingly complex society, people’s continued willingness to learn may be of greater consequence than is ensuring that they have learned a particular thing at a specific time (Maehr, 1976). There is no guaranteed method for establishing continuing motivation for learning, but the theory of cognitive evaluation and self- determination (Decj &. Ryan, 1985) supports the basic assumption that, to develop intrinsic motivation, positive feedback must be provided to people who are engaged in an optimally challenging, 37 self-determined activity. This theory has advantages to both the individual and society. Students who are lifelong learners know what good instruction is; as adults they can assert themselves and request such instruction and teach their children to (k) likewise. The more adults have experienced intrinsically motivating instruction, the less likely they will be to tolerate inferior methods. Thus, by instructing in a way that encourages and supports intrinsic motivation, educators can help develop lifelong learners and also contribute to positive educational practices. Summary The first section of this chapter contained 21 discussion of literature and research on theories of motivation, including a historical perspective of the subject. Several theories were described that have contributed to an understanding of the achievement motivation theory. The primary studies on achievement motivation were reviewed in the second section. Included were projected trends in such research. Past and current practices of teaching adults that directly or indirectly affect their motivation to learn were examined in the third section. Specific guidelines for ways to enhance the achievement of adult learners were reviewed in the fourth section. The methodology used in conducting this study is explained in Chapter III. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction The researcher’s primary purposes in this study were to extend the knowledge about literacy materials that are currently being used with adult disabled readers and to determine whether these materials meet the individual, diverse needs of these learners. A related purpose was to analyze paperback reading series that are commonly used with adults in learning centers for the protagonist’s need- achievement (N-Achievement) motive, as described by McClelland et a1. (1953, 1976). Another purpose was to categorize the stories according to the pmotagonist’s gender, age, SES, and ethnic background to establish the ten most frequently occurring protagonist profiles and to discover whether a relationship existed among any of the profiles and achievement imagery. The methodology employed in conducting the study is explained in this chapter. The population is identified, and the method of selecting the sample is discussed. In addition, the procedure used in collecting the data is described, and the null hypotheses are stated. Finally, the method of analyzing the data is presented. 38 39 The Population and Selection of the Sample The population consisted of all adult high-interest, low-level fiction paperback series used in adult learning centers in medium- sized Michigan cities. The reading series selected for examination in this study were the following: Fearon Fastbacks, Fearon Five- Minute Thrillers, Life Times 2, EHsaster Flashbacks, Specter, and TaleSpinners II (published by David S. Lake); Longman Fiction and Longman Classics (published by Longman); Sundown Books and Laubach Books (published by New Reader’s Press); Superstars-~Country, Superstars--Soul, Superstars--Music & TV, and Superstars--Sports (published by Steck-Vaughn); Pacesetters (published by Children’s Press); Cambridge Books (published by Cambridge Book Company); Perspectives (published by High Noon Books); Rally! Level A and Rally! Level B (published by Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich); Jim Hunter Books (published by Ffitman Learning, Inc.); Turman Fiction (published by Turman Publishing Company); and Dilemmas & Decisions (published by Quercus-Globe Book Company). These series were selected for study because they are commonly used in adult learning centers, as indicated by a group of 15 adult education directors whom the researcher surveyed (see Appendix A for a. copy' of ‘the survey and introductory letter). 'These learning centers were located in medium-sized cities (populations ranging from 10,000 to 50,000) in Michigan. Four to six stories in each series were examined; most stories had a readability level of 2.0 to 4.0. Approximately 15 of the 120 stories examined had a readability level of 5.0 to 7.0. Publishing dates ranged from 1976 to 1991, and 40 the series originated from 11 publishers. The publishers intended that all of these stories be used with adult disabled readers. mm Before conducting the actual study, the researcher and a graduate student in education did a pilot study with approximately 40 stories from adult reading series to identify a possible achievement theme, a stated achievement motive of the protagonist (achievement imagery), an obstacle to goal attainment (block), and a source of support or encouragement (nurturant press). These variables were scored according to McClelland et al.’s procedures for scoring (see Appendix B for a sample of the score sheet). In scoring these stories, an interrater reliability of .9+ was achieved in one week, the time span McClelland et a1. (1953) recommended for acquiring proficiency. In addition, date of publication of the stories, as well as gender, age, socioeconomic status (SES), and ethnic background of the protagonists, were recorded. After estab- lishing scoring reliability, the researcher proceeded in) score the 120 stories in the reading series selected for this study. The variables specified above were selected because McClelland et a1. (1953, 1976) found that presence of these variables, alone or in combination, in stories written by adults can be significant determinants of achievement in adults. McClelland developed an instrument that was a variation of the Thematic Apperception Test (Murray, 1938) to measure achievement scores in adult subjects. The findings revealed that adults who wrote stories in which the 41 protagonists possessed achievement imagery had high achievement motivation themselves. McClelland later developed training seminars to teach adults how to enhance their own motivation. For a story to be analyzed with regard to achievement imagery, the protagonist must have explicitly stated a goal that was in competition with a standard of excellence, was long term, and involved a unique accomplishment. If all of these factors were present in the stated goal, the story was scored as having achievement imagery. To denote presence of achievement thema, the achievement imagery must have-been elaborated in such a manner that it became the central plot or theme of the story. To denote presence of nurturant press, a force or forces in the story must have aided the protagonist while he/she was engaged in an achievement-related activity. For the story to be scored as having nurturant. press, the assistance, encouragement, or sympathy' must have been in the direction of the achievement goal. To determine presence of block, a specific obstacle to the progress of a goal-directed activity must have been noted. The obstacle could have been personal in source--within the protagonist, located within another character, or part of the environment. If any of these sources hindered goal attainment, the story was scored for block. For examples of the achievement motivation variables described above in the adult fiction examined, see Appendix B. For purposes of this study, the most frequently occurring combinations of gender, age, SES, and ethnic background in the 42 protagonist were recorded according to the following profiles: Profile I: female, Caucasian, mid-SE5; Profile 11: male, Caucasian, mid-SE5; Profile III: male, Black, mid-SES; Profile IV: female, Black, mid-SE5; Profile V: female, Caucasian, young adult; Profile VI: male, Caucasian, young adult; Profile VII: male, mid- SES, young adult; Profile VIII: female, mid-SES, young adult; Profile IX: male, Caucasian, mid-SES, young adult; and Profile X: male, Caucasian, mid-SES, teen. These character profiles were assembled so that the researcher could compare the most frequently occurring gender, age, SES, and ethnic background of the protagonists in the stories with profiles of the adult learners who use these materials (see Appendix C fer adult learner profiles compiled by the Literacy Volunteers of America). According to the Literacy Volunteers of America (1991), the two most common profiles of the adult learner are male, Caucasian, low-SE5, mid-age adult; and female, Black, low-SES, older adult. Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were constructed to analyze the data gathered to answer Research Questions 2 and 4. Ho 1: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and nurturant press. Ho 2: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and block. Ho 3: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and achievement thema. 43 Ho 4: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and gender of the protagonist. Ho 5: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and age of the protagonist. Ho 6: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and ethnic background of the protagonist. Ho 7: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and socioeconomic status of the protagonist. Ho 8: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and date of publication of the story. Ho 9: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile I (female, Caucasian, mid-SE5) and achievement imagery. Ho 10: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile II (male, Caucasian, mid-SE5) and achievement imagery. Ho 11: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile 111 (male, Black, mid-SES) and achievement imagery. Ho 12: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile IV (female, Black, mid-SES) and achievement imagery. Ho 13: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile V (female, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery. Ho 14: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile VI (male, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery. Ho 15: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile VII (male, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery. Ho 16: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile VIII (female, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery. Ho 17: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile IX (male, Caucasian, mid-SE5, young adult) and achieve- ment imagery. Ho 18: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile X (male, Caucasian, mid-SE5, teen) and achievement imagery. 44 Method of Analyzinq the Data The information recorded on the scoring sheets for each variable was entered into, and data analyses were run on, the IBM mainframe computer at the Michigan State University Computer Center. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program was used for statistical analysis of the data. The chi-square procedure was used to analyze the categorical data for Research Questions 2 and 4. The .05 alpha level was established as the criterion for statistical significance. The results for these questions and their related hypotheses were reported in the form of crosstabs or 2 x 2 designs, showing the presence of the achievement motive and its relationship with the other variables. To answer Research Question 1, frequency values and percentages were computed for each dependent variable. Results of these data analyses were reported in separate tables. To answer Research Question 3, values for the four independent variables (age, gender, ethnic background, and SES) were tabulated, and percentages of frequencies were computed. Variables were grouped into most frequently occurring combinations to establish Character Profiles I through X. Detailed data on the resulting profiles were reported in tables showing common values for the four variables. The findings of the data analyses for all research questions, as well as the descriptive statistics, are reported in Chapter IV. 45 Summary The methodology employed in the investigation was described in in this chapter. The population comprised all adult high-interest, low-level fiction paperback series used in adult learning centers in medium-sized Michigan cities. The sample included 28 adult reading series that 15 adult learning center directors considered to be the ones most commonly used in adult reading instruction. Four to six books from each series, having readability levels mainly between 2.0 and 4.0, were examined. The stories were examined for evidence of achievement motivation factors, as described by McClelland et a1. (1953, 1976), as well as for date of publication and the independent variables of gender, age, SES, and ethnic background of the protagonist in each story. 'Ten character profiles of the most commonly occurring combinations of gender, age, SES, and ethnic background of the protagonist. were created in) compare the characteristics of the stories’ protagonists with those of the adult learners who read the stories. The statistical procedures used 'hi analyzing the data were described. The results of these analyses are presented in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction The researcher’s primary purposes in this study were to extend the knowledge about literacy materials that are currently being used with adult disabled readers and to determine whether these materials meet the individual, diverse needs of these learners. 1A related purpose was to analyze paperback reading series that are commonly used with adults in learning centers for the protagonist’s need- achievement (N-Achievement) motive. The characteristics for which the series were examined were the existence of achievement imagery, nurturant press, block, and achievement thema. Another purpose was to categorize the stories according to the protagonist’s age, gender, SES, and ethnic background to establish the ten most frequently occurring protagonist profiles and to discover whether a relationship existed among any of the profiles and achievement imagery. Four to six paperback books from each of the series were examined. The methodology used in collecting and analyzing the data was described in Chapter III. In this chapter, the descriptive statistics related to Research Questions 1 and 3 and the results of the statistical analyses related to the hypotheses formulated to 46 47 address Research Questions 2 and 4 are presented. In the following pages, each research question is restated, followed by the findings for that question. Results of the Data Analyses Research Question 1 In what percentage of high-interest, low-level adult fiction are achievement imagery, nurturant press, block, and achieve- ment thema present? As shown in Table 4.1, 60% of the adult fiction stories examined in this study exhibited achievement imagery. Nurturant press was present in 61.7% of the stories examined (see Table 4.2). In 86.7% of the stories, block to the protagonist’s goal attainment was evident (see Table 4.3). As shown in Table 4.4, 56.7% of the adult fiction stories contained achievement thema; that is, the theme or plot revolved directly around the main character working toward goal achievement. Table 4.1.--Presence of achievement imagery in the adult fiction stories. Presence of Variable Value Frequency % Valid % N0 0 48 40.0 40.0 Yes 1 72 60.0 60.0 Total 720 100.0 100.0 48 Table 4.2.--Presence 0f nurturant press in the adult fiction stories. Presence of Variable Value Frequency % Valid % N0 0 46 38.3 38.3 Yes 1 74 61.7 61.7 Total T50 100.0 100.0 Table 4.3.--Presence of block in the adult fiction stories. Presence of Variable Value Frequency % Valid % N0 0 16 13.3 13.3 Yes 1 104 86.7 86.7 Total 150 100.0 100.0 Table 4.4.--Presence of achievement thema in the adult fiction stories. Presence of Variable Value Frequency % Valid % No 0 52 43.3 43.3 Yes 1 68 56.7 56.7 Total 150 100.0 100.0 49 Research Question 2 Is there a significant relationship between achievement imagery and any of the following variables: nurturant press; block; achievement thema; protagonist’s age, gender, ethnic back- ground, and SES; and date of publication of the series? Hypotheses 1 through 8 were tested using the chi-square procedure to determine whether there was a statistically significant relationship between achievement imagery and the independent variables of interest. The results for each null hypothesis are presented and discussed in the following paragraphs. Ho 1: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and nurturant press. A statistically significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and nurturant press (X2 = 19.76498, p = .00001, df = 1, p < .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.5, 56 of the 120 stories’ protagonists had set long-term achievement goals and had nurturant press, which is some type of encouragement or support toward goal achievement. Thus, a significant form of support or encouragement existed for a majority of the protagonists exhibiting achievement imagery (56 of the 72). Ho 2: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and block. A statistically significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and block (X2 = 9.42307, p = .00214, df = 1, p < .05). Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. .As shown iri'Table 4.6, 68 of the 120 stories’ protagonists had set a long-term, unique achievement goal, and there was also some obstacle or block to the attainment of that goal. Thus, for 68 of the 72 protagonists 50 exhibiting achievement imagery, some obstacle stood in the way of goal attainment. Table 4.5.--Relati0nship between achievement imagery and nurturant press. Nurturant Press Achievement Row Imagery No Yes Total No Freq. 30 18 48 Percent (62.5) (37.5) (40.0) Yes Freq. 16 56 72 Percent (22.2) (77.8) (60.0) Freq. 46 74 120 c°’”m" t°ta’ Percent (38.3) (61.7) (100.0) Chi-square = 19.76498 df = l p = .00001 Table 4.6.--Re1ati0nship between achievement imagery and block. Block Achievement Row Imagery No Yes Total No Freq. 12 36 48 Percent (25.0) (75.0) (40.0) Yes Freq. 4 68 72 Percent (5.6) (94.4) (60.0) Freq. 16 104 120 C°’“m" t°ta1 Percent (13.3) (86.7) (100.0) Chi-square = 9.42307 df = 1 p = .00214 51 Ho 3: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and achievement thema. A statistically significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and achievement thema (X2 = 57.69798, p = .00000, df = l, p < .05). Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. Sixty-one of the 120 stories’ protagonists had set a unique, long- term achievement goal, and in these stories the theme or main idea revolved around the protagonist accomplishing his/her goal (see Table 4.7). Thus, in 61 of 'the ‘72 stories with protagonists exhibiting achievement imagery, the themes related directly to the protagonist accomplishing the goal. Table 4.7.--Relati0nship between achievement imagery and achievement thema. Achievement Thema Achievement Row Imagery No Yes Total No Freq. 41 7 48 Percent (85.4) (14.6) (40.0) Yes Freq. 11 61 72 ' Percent (15.3) (84.7) (60.0) Freq. 52 68 120 C°’"m" t°ta1 Percent (43.3) (56.7) (100.0) Chi-square = 57.69798 df = 1 p = .00000 52 HQ_4: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and gender of the protagonist. No statistically significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and gender/main character is a male (X2 = 1.06996, p = .30095, df = l, p > .05). Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected. As shown in Table 4.8, in 46 out of the 120 stories the main character was a male and" had set a unique, long- term goal. The remaining characters were either males who did not possess achievement imagery or females in whom achievement imagery was either present or absent. Although there was no significant interaction between achievement imagery and gender, it should be noted that the majority of achievement imagery was exhibited by male protagonists in 46 of 72 cases (about 64% 0f the time) (see Figure 4.1). More specific information concerning gender and achievement imagery is given in the presentation of results for Hypotheses 9 through 18, when the character profiles are discussed. Table 4.8.--Relationship between achievement imagery and gender. Gender: Male Achievement Row Imagery No Yes Total No Freq. 13 35 48 Percent (27.1) (72.9) (40.0) Yes Freq. 26 46 72 Percent (36.1) (63.9) (60.0) Freq. 39 81 120 C°’”m" t°tal Percent (32.5) (67.5) (100.0) Chi-square = 1.06996 df = l p = .30095 53 Females 36.1% Figure 4.1.--Presence of achievement imagery by gender of the protagonist. Ho 5: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and age of the protagonist. No statistically significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and age (X2 = 2.500, p = .11385, df = 1, p > .05). Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected. In 52 of the 120 stories, the protagonist was 18 or older and had set a unique, long- term achievement goal (see Table 4.9). In this test, age groups were broken down by protagonists younger than 18 and those considered adult--18 years or older. Although there was no significant relationship between achievement imagery and age, it can be seen from the table that 52 0f the 72 protagonists (72%) who exhibited achievement imagery were 18 years of age or older (see Figure 4.2). 54 Table 4.9.--Re1ati0nship between achievement imagery and age. Age Achievement Row Imagery No Yes Total No Freq. 20 28 48 Percent (41.7) (58.3) (40.0) Yes Freq. 20 52 72 Percent (27.8) (72.2) (60.0) Freq. 40 80 120 mum" ma] Percent (33.3) (66.7) (100.0) Chi-square = 2.500 df = l p = .11385 Under 18 28% 18 years or older 72% Figure 4.2: Presence of achievement imagery by age of the protagonist. 55 H0 6: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and ethnic background of the protagonist. No statistically significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and ethnic background (X2 = 2.60122, p = .62661, df = 4, p > .05). Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected. As shown in Table 4.10, in 48 0f the 120 stories Caucasian protagonists set unique, long-term achievement goals, in 13 stories Black protagonists set achievement goals, in 7 stories Hispanic protagonists exhibited achievement imagery, in 3 stories Native American protagonists set achievement goals, and in only 1 story did an Asian character exhibit achievement imagery. Table 4.10.--Re1ationship between achievement imagery and ethnic background. Ethnic Background Achievement Row Imagery Cauc. Black Hisp. N.A. Asian Total No Freq. 36 4 4 3 l 48 Percent (75.0) (8.3) (8.3) (6.3) (2.1) (40.0) Yes Freq. 48 13 7 3 l 72 Percent (66.7) (18.1) (9.7) (4.2) (1.4) (60.0) Freq. 84 17 11 6 2 120 C°lumn t°tal Percent (70.0) (14.2) (9.2) (5.0) (1.7) (100.0) Chi-square = 2.60122 df = l p = .62661 56 Although no significant relationship was found between ethnic group and achievement imagery, Caucasian characters were represented most frequently in the adult fiction stories (84 of 120), followed by Black characters (17 of 120), Hispanic characters (11 of 120), Native American characters (6 of 120), and Asian characters (2 of 120). Seventy percent of the protagonists were Caucasian, compared to 46% of the adult learners using these materials who are Caucasian (see Appendix C for Literacy Volunteers of America’s profile of adult learners). In addition, 48 (about 67%) of the 72 protagonists exhibiting achievement imagery were Caucasian, with the remaining 33% distributed among the other four ethnic groups (see Figure 4.3). Hispanic Caucasian Black 18.18 Figure 4.3: Presence of achievement imagery by ethnic background of the protagonist. 57 Ho 7: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and socioeconomic status of the protagonist. No statistically‘ significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and SES (X2 = .44805, p = .79929, df = 2, p >4 .05). 'Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected. As shown in Table 4.11, 13 of the 72 protagonists exhibiting achievement imagery were from the low SES, 52 fell into the mid-SES group, and 7 were in the high-SES group. Although the mid-SES group was represented as protagonists in about 73% of the adult fiction stories (see Figure 4.4), only 12% 0f the adult learners using these materials have mid- level incomes (see Appendix C). Table 4.11.--Re1ati0nship between achievement imagery and SES. Socioeconomic Status Achievement Row Imagery Low Medium High Total No Freq. 10 32 6 48 Percent (20.8) (66.7) (12.5) (40.0) Yes Freq. 13 52 7 72 Percent (18.1) (72.7) (9.7) (60.0) Freq. 23 84 13 72 c°’“m" t°tal Percent (19.2) (70.0) (10.8) (100.0) Chi-square = .44805 df = l p = .79929 58 Hi gh Low 18.18 Figure 4.4: Presence of achievement imagery by socioeconomic status of the protagonist. H0 8: There is no significant relationship between achievement imagery and date of publication of the story. No statistically significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and publication date of the stories (X2 = 3.07355, p = .38042, df = 3, p > .05). Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories that had achievement imagery, 23 were published between 1976 and 1979, 14 were published between 1980 and 1983, 20 were published between 1984 and 1987, and 15 were published between 1988 and 1991 (see Table 4.12). In each publishing-date group, more than 50% of the stories showed 59 achievement imagery. The 1984-1987 group had the highest frequency of this variable; 20 of the 27 protagonists exhibited achievement imagery (see Figure 4.5). Although no significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and publication date, it should be noted that, in the majority of stories, regardless of publication date, protagonists did set unique, long-term goals. Table 4.12.--Relationship between achievement imagery and date of publication. Date of Publication Achievement Row Imagery 1976-79 1980-83 1984-87 1988-91 Total No Freq. 20 10 7 ll 47 Percent (41.7) (20.8) (14.6) (22.9) (40.0) Yes Freq. 23 14 20 15 72 Percent (31.9) (19.4) (27.8) (20.8) (60.0) Freq. 43 24 27 26 120 C°‘“m" t°tal Percent (35.8) (20.0) (22.5) (21.7) (100.0) Chi-square = 3.07355 df = 3 p = .38042 60 1980-1983 19 4% 1976-1979 31.9% 1988-1991 20.8% 1984-1987 27.8% Figure 4.5: Presence of achievement imagery by date of publica- tion of the story. Research Question 3 What are the most frequently occurring combinations of the variables age, gender, ethnic background, and SES with regard to the protagonist in high-interest, low-level adult fiction? The researcher recorded the gender, age, ethnic background, and SES of the protagonists in the 120 fiction stories on a scoring sheet devised for that purpose (see Appendix B for a sample scoring sheet). The combinations of these variables as exemplified by the protagonists in the stories examined are shown in Table 4.13. 61 Table 4.l3.—-Combinations of the variables of gender, age, ethnic background, and SES of the protagonists in the adult fiction stories. Ethnic Gender Background SES Age Frequency Percent *Male Caucasian Medium Y. adult 23 l9.2 *Male Caucasian Medium Teen 16 l3.3 *Female Caucasian Medium Y. adult 9 7.5 *Male Caucasian Low Y. adult 9 7.5 *Female Caucasian Medium Teen 7 5.8 *Male Caucasian Medium Mid-age 5 4.2 *Male Black Medium Teen 4 3.3 *Male Black Medium Y. adult 4 3.3 *Male Hispanic Medium Y. adult 4 3.3 *Male Caucasian High Y. adult 4 3.3 *Female Caucasian High Y. adult 4 3.3 Female Caucasian Medium Mid-age 2 l.7 Female Nat. Amer. High Y. adult 2 1.7 Male Black High Y. adult 2 1.7 Male Hispanic High Y. adult 2 1.7 Female Caucasian Low Y. adult 2 1.7 Female Black Medium Teen 2 1.7 Female Black Medium Y. adult 2 l.7 Female Black High Teen 1 .8 Female Hispanic High Teen 1 .8 Female Caucasian Low Teen 1 .8 Female Hispanic High Y. adult l .8 Female Hispanic High Mid-age l .8 Female Hispanic Medium Teen l .8 Female Nat. Amer. High Teen l .8 Female Asian Medium Teen 1 .8 Female Asian Medium Y. adult l .8 Male Caucasian High Teen 1 .8 Male Caucasian Low Teen 1 .8 Male Black High Teen l .8 Male Black Medium Mid-age l .8 Male Hispanic Medium Teen l .8 Male Nat. Amer. High Teen l .8 Male Nat. Amer. High Y. adult l .8 Male Nat. Amer. Medium Y. adult 1 8 Total 120 100.0 Note: Age classifications were as follows: Teen Young adult Mid-age 16-l9 years 20-24 years 25-44 years *These cases were combined to form the character profiles. 62 The profiles shown in Table 4.14 are combinations of the variables occurring most frequently in the adult fiction stories. Some variables were recombined into more than one character profile to include the most frequently occurring demographic groups; therefore, the numbers total more than 120. In addition, it is important to point out that profiles were assembled by combining at least three of four common codes for the four independent variables of gender, age, ethnic background, and SES listed in Table 4.14. Character profiles were assembled in this manner because the majority of protagonists fell into two categories, Profile I (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, young adult) and Profile II (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, teen). Because of the small number of protagonists in the study, there were not enough data to say much except in terms of the most frequently occurring groups (codes) of variables. The goal of forming the character profiles was to discover the specific, typical descriptions of protagonists in adult high- interest, low-level fiction. By combining three of four common codes of variables, this goal was met. At the same time, the overlap of protagonists into more than one profile occurred, as expected. This overlap paralleled real life, where people are in more than one profile group. The wide dispersal of characteristics for protagonists over many groups also indicated :1 situation that was too complex to divide. Thus, the data were assembled into Profiles I through X, as shown in Table 4.14, representing the most concise character descriptions possible. 63 Table 4.14.--The ten character profiles occurring most frequently in the adult fiction stories. Number of Profile Description Stories I Female, Caucasian, mid-SES 16 II Male, Caucasian, mid-SES 44 III Male, Black, mid-SES 8 IV Female, Black, mid-SES 4 V Female, Caucasian, young adult 13 VI Male, Caucasian, young adult 36 VII Male, mid-SES, young adult 31 VIII Female, mid-SES, young adult 12 IX Male, Caucasian, mid-SES, young adult 23 X Male, Caucasian, mid-SES, teen 16 Note: Codes combined to form the profiles were as follows: Key to Profile I: 0010, 0011 Profile II: 1010, 1011, 1012 Profile III: 1110, 1111 Profile IV: 0110, 0111 Profile V: 0001, 0011 Profile VI: 1001, 1011, 1021 Profile VII: 1011, 1111, 1211 Profile VIII: 0011, 0111 Profile IX: 1011, 1010, 1012 Profile X: 1021, 1010 codes: Column 1: 0 = female, 1 = male Column 2: 0 = Caucasian, 1 = Black, 2 = Hispanic, 3 = Native American, 4 = Asian Column 3: 0 = High SES, 1 = mid-SES, 2 = low SES Column 4: 0 = teen, 1 = young adult, 2 = mid-age 3 = older adult, 4 = senior 64 Research Question 4 Is there a significant relationship between any of the protagonist character profiles and achievement imagery? Hypotheses 9 through 18 were formulated to determine whether there was a statistically significant relationship between achievement imagery and any of the character profiles established by examining the 120 adult fiction stories. The data were analyzed using the chi-square procedure. Findings for each of these hypotheses are presented in the following pages. Ho 9: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile I (female, Caucasian, mid-SES) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile I (female, Caucasian, mid-SES) and achievement imagery (x2 = .01089, p = .91687, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, only 11 had protagonists who were female, Caucasian, and at the nfid-SES income level (see Table 4.15). The protagonists in the remaining 61 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. 65 Table 4.15.--Re1ationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile I. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile I No Yes Total No Freq. 41 61 102 Percent (40.2) (59.8) (85.0) Yes Freq. 7 11 18 Percent (38.9) (61.1) (15.0) Freq. 48 72 120 c°]"m" t°ta1 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = .01089 df = 1 p = .91687 Ho 10: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile II (male, Caucasian, mid-SES) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile II (male, Caucasian, mid-SES) and achievement imagery (x2 = .29306, p = .58826, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 01’ the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, 25 had protagonists who were male, Caucasian, and at the mid-SES income level (see Table 4.16). The protagonists in the remaining 47 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. 66 Table 4.16.--Re1ationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile II. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile II No Yes Total No Freq. 29 47 76 Percent (38.2) (61.8) (63.3) Yes Freq. 19 25 44 Percent (43.2) (56.8) (36.7) Freq. 48 72 120 c°]"m" t°t31 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = .29306 df = 1 p = .58826 Forty-four of the total 120 protagonists (37.7%) were in Character Profile II. Although the results were not statistically significant, it should be noted that this was the largest demographic group of the ten formulated in this study. In other words, the largest number of protagonists seeking a long-term, unique achievement goal attainment were male, Caucasian, and in the middle income level. This profile contrasts with the profile of adult learners reading adult fiction, who tend to be split evenly between male and female, are Caucasian, and are at or below the lowest income level (see Appendix C for adult learner profiles compiled by the Literacy Volunteers of America). 67 Ho 11: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile III (male, Black, mid-SES) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile III (male, Black, mid-SES) and achievement imagery (x2 = 1.28128, p = .25766, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, only 7 had protagonists who were male, Black, and at the mid-SES income level (see Table 4.17). The protagonists in the remaining 65 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. Table 4.17.--Relationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile III. . Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile III No Yes Total No Freq. 46 65 111 Percent (41.4) (58.6) (92.5) Yes Freq. 2 7 9 Percent (22.2) (77.8) (7.5) ‘ Freq. 48 72 120 C°]"m" t°ta1 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = 1.28128 df = l p = .25766 Although no significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and Character Profile 111, it should be noted that just 14% of the protagonists were male, Black, and in the 68 middle-income level. This contrasts with adult learners reading the stories, 52% of whom are male, 24% Black, and 12% in the middle- income level (see Appendix C). H0 12: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile IV (female, Black, mid-SES) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile IV (female, Black, mid-SES) and achievement imagery (x2 = 2.75862, p = .09673, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. However, the significance value (.09673) in this analysis came the closest of all to reflecting a significant relationship between achievement imagery and a character profile. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, only 4 had protagonists who were female, Black, and at the mid-SES income level (see Table 4.18). The protagonistsoin the remaining 68 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. As shown in Table 4.18, all four protagonists (100%) in Character Profile IV demonstrated achievement imagery. Although no statistically significant relationship was found in this analysis, it is meaningful that just 3.3% of the 120 protagonists were female, Black, and in the middle income range. This percentage contrasts with adult learners, who are typically 48% female, 24% Black, and 12% mid—SES (see Appendix C). 69 Table 4.18.--Relationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile IV. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile IV No Yes Total No Freq. 48 68 116 Percent (41.4) (58.6) (96.7) Yes Freq. 0 4 4 Percent (0) (100.0) (3.3) Freq. 48 72 120 C°‘“m" t°ta1 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = 2.75862 df = l p = .09673 H013: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile V (female, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile V (female, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery (X2 = .000, p = 1.000, df = l, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, 9 had protagonists who were female, Caucasian, and young adult (20-24 years of age) (see Table 4.19). The protagonists in the remaining 63 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. Also, only 15 of the 120 total protagonists were female, Caucasian, and young adult. 1:. 70 Table 4.19.--Relationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile V. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile V No Yes Total No Freq. 42 63 105 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (87.5) Yes Freq. 6 9 15 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (12.5) Freq. 48 72 ‘120 c°]"m" t°tal Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = .000 df = l p = 1.0000 Hg_14: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile VI (male, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile IV (male, Caucasian, young adult) and achievement imagery (X2 = .05952, p = .80725, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, 21 had protagonists who were male, Caucasian, and young adult (20-24 years of age) (see Table 4.20). The protagonists in the remaining 51 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. Also shown in Table 4.20, 36 of the 120 total protagonists were male, Caucasian, and young adult; hence Character Profile VI was second in size only to Character Profile II (male, Caucasian, 71 mid-SES), which contained 48 protagonists. Although 30% of the protagonists fit into Character Profile VI, adult learners reading the stories typically are 52% male and 46% Caucasian; fewer than 17% are young adults (see Appendix C). Table 4.20.--Re1ationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile VI. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile VI No Yes Total No Freq. 33 51 84 Percent (39.3) (60.7) (70.0) Yes Freq. 15 21 36 Percent (41.7) (58.3) (30.0) Freq. 48 72 120 c°]"m" t°ta1 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = .05952 df = l p = .80725 Ho 15: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile VII (male, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile VII (male, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery (x2 = .00710, p = .93284, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, 19 had protagonists who were male, mid-SES, and young adult (20-24 years of age) (see Table 4.21). The protagonists in the remaining 53 stories evidencing 72 achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. In all, 32 of the total 120 protagonists were male, mid- SES, and young adult. Table 4.21.--Relationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile VII. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile VII No Yes Total No Freq. 35 53 88 Percent (39.8) (60.2) (73.3) Yes Freq. 13 19 32 Percent (40.6) (59.4) (26.7) Freq. 48 72 120 C°]”m" t°ta1 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = .00710 df = l p = .93284 H0 16: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile VIII (female, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery. .No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile VIII (female, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery (X2 = .01543, p = .90114, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, just 7 had protagonists who were female, mid-SES, and young adult (20-24 years of age) (see Table 4.22). The protagonists in the remaining 65 73 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. Table 4.22.--Re1ationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile VIII. Achievement Imagery Character . Row Profile VIII No Yes Total No Freq. 43 65 108 Percent (39.8) (60.2) (90.0) Yes Freq. 5 7 12 Percent (41.7) (58.3) (10.0) Freq. 48 72 120 C°1"m" t°ta1 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = .01543 df = l p = .90114 Twelve of the 120 total protagonists (10%) were female, mid- SES, and young adult. In contrast, 48% of adult learners reading adult fiction stories are female, 12% are at the middle income level, and fewer than 17% are young adults (see Appendix C). Ho 17: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile IX (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, young adult) and achieve- ment imagery. No statistically' significant relationship was found between Character Profile IX (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, young adult) and achievement imagery (X2 = .14343, p = .70489, df = l, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories 74 with protagonists showing achievement imagery, 13 had protagonists who were male, Caucasian, mid-SES, and young adult (20-24 years of age) (see Table 4.23). The protagonists in the remaining 59 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. Table 4.23.--Relationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile IX. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile IX No Yes Total No Freq. 38 58 97 Percent (39.2) (60.8) (80.8) Yes Freq. 10 13 23 Percent (43.5) (56.5) (19.2) Freq. 48 72 120 C°]”m" t°t31 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100.0) Chi-square = .14343 df = 1 p = .70489 _ Twenty-three of the 120 total protagonists (19%) were in Character Profile IX. In comparison, 52% of adult learners are typically male, 46% are Caucasian, 12% are in the middle income level, and fewer than 17% are young adults (see Appendix C). 75 Ho 18: There is no significant relationship between Character Profile X (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, teen) and achievement imagery. No statistically significant relationship was found between Character Profile X (male, Caucasian, mid-SES, teen) and achievement imagery (X2 = .76923, p = .38046, df = 1, p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the 72 stories with protagonists showing achievement imagery, 8 had protagonists who were male, Caucasian, in the mid-SES range, and teens (16-19 years of age) (see Table 4.24). The protagonists in the remaining 64 stories evidencing achievement imagery were distributed among the other nine character profiles. Table 4.24.--Re1ationship between achievement imagery and Character Profile X. Achievement Imagery Character Row Profile X No Yes Total No Freq. 40 64 104 Percent (38.5) (61.5) (86.7) Yes Freq. 8 8 16 Percent (50.0) (50.0) (13.3) Freq. 48 72 120 C°]"m" t°ta1 Percent (40.0) (60.0) (100 0) II _a Chi-square = .76923 df p = .38046 76 Sixteen of the 120 total protagonists (13%) represented Character Profile X. In comparison, as indicated by the Literacy Volunteers of America, adult learners are typically 52% male, 46% Caucasian, and 12% mid-SES; fewer than 17% are teens (see Appendix C). Summary The results of the statistical analyses of the data related to the research questions and hypotheses were presented in this chapter. Chapter V contains a summary of the study, a discussion of the findings and conclusions drawn from those findings, recommendations for educational practice and further research, and the researcher’s reflections. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS Summary The researcher’s primary purposes in this study were to extend the knowledge about literacy materials that are currently being used with adult disabled readers and to determine whether the materials meet the individual, diverse needs of these learners. A related purpose was to analyze paperback reading series that are commonly used with adults in learning centers for the protagonist’s need- achievement motive, as described by McClelland et a1. (1953, 1976). Another purpose was to categorize the stories according to the protagonist’s age, gender, SES, and ethnic background to establish the ten most frequently occurring protagonist profiles and to discover whether a relationship existed among any of the profiles and achievement imagery. This study was based on procedures used by Bader (1981) in her analysis of high-interest, low-level adolescent fiction for the achievement motive. The present researcher analyzed 120 high- interest, low-level stories written for adult disabled readers for the achievement motive. Stories were scored for achievement imagery, nurturant press, block, and achievement thema, using 77 78 McClelland’s model, a version of the Thematic Apperception Test (Murray, 1938). In addition, stories were scored and categorized for' protagonists’ age, gendery SES” and ethnic background. Publication dates of the series also were recorded. The chi-square procedure was used to analyze the categorical data. Descriptive statistics were shown through the use of tables. Several crosstabs or 2 x 2 designs were used to show the relationship between achievement imagery and the other variables. In the preceding chapters, the researcher described the research problem, discussed the related literature and research, explained the methodology of the study, and presented the results of the data analyses. This chapter is organized as follows: Discussion of the Findings and Conclusions, Recommendations for Practice, Recommendations for Further Research, and Reflections. Discussion of the Findings and Conclusions The findings and conclusions pertaining to each research question are discussed in this section. Research Question 1: In what percentage of high-interest, low- level adult fiction are achievement imagery, nurturant press, block, and achievement thema present? Achievement imagery was present in 60% of the adult fiction stories examined, nurturant press was present in about 62%, bflock was present in about 87%, and achievement thema was present in about 57% of the stories. The investigator expected that the percentages for achievement imagery and achievement thema would be very close, and they were (60% and 57%, respectively). It seemed logical that, 79 when a unique, long-term goal was stated, the theme would revolve around attainment of that goal. The investigator also expected block and achievement imagery to be present in approximately the same percentage of cases, perhaps paralleling real-life situations in which a person often seems to become stronger in his/her resolve to achieve a goal when an obstacle exists. But this expectation was not borne out by the findings. Existence of block (87%) far surpassed existence of achievement imagery (60%). However, the obstacle to goal attainment in the stories examined often appeared to become the problem in the story. The investigator noted that the resolutions of problems in the stories usually were not presented, although this aspect was not scored. Apparently the authors of many series used block to goal attainment as a kind of literary device. The percentage of nurturant press (62%) closely matched that of achievement imagery (60%), as expected. Because the publishers described many of the stories as real-life adventures, the investigator expected that the majority of protagonists with achievement imagery would be supported or encouraged in some way. ‘Research Question 2: Is there a significant relationship between achievement imagery and any of the following variables: nurturant press; block; achievement thema; protagonist’s age, gender, ethnic background, and SES; and date of publication of the series? A significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and nurturant press, between achievement imagery and block, and between achievement imagery and achievement thema. Nearly 78% of the stories with achievement imagery also exhibited nurturant 80 press. This finding illustrates that, in the fiction examined, the protagonist, accompanied by encouragement or support, also possessed need achievement. A convincing 94% of the stories with achievement imagery also exhibited block. This variable was selected for scoring because McClelland et al. (1953, 1976) found block to be most often present in connection with need achievement. In the adult fiction examined in the present study, as in the adult fiction stories written by McClelland’s subjects, characters were most likely to set a unique, long-term goal if there was an obstacle to overcome. McClelland et al. reported that success-motivated subjects pursued ii goal regardless of the difficulties. The idea to be implanted, or developed, is that doing something well gives pleasure, despite the obstacles. Eighty-five percent of the stories exhibited both achievement imagery and achievement thema, as expected. Achievement thema could be scored and was found in both kinds of themes: (a) an achievement goal is stated by the protagonist and is eventually attained, and (b) (an achievement goal is stated by the protagonist, who is in need-related difficulty and attempts to attain but does not succeed in attaining the goal. In either case, for achievement thema to be scored, the entire story had to be an elaboration of the achievement behavior sequence (McClelland et al., 1953). Strong but not significant relationships were found between achievement imagery and gender, between achievement imagery and age, 81 between achievement imagery and ethnic background, and between achievement imagery and SES. Although no significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and gender, the majority of achievement imagery was exhibited by male protagonists (in 46 of 72 cases, or 64% of the time). This finding is noteworthy because male and female protagonists were not equally represented in the stories. A strong but not significant relationship also was found between achievement imagery and age. Fifty-two of the 72 protagonists (about 72%) exhibiting achievement imagery were 18 years of age or older. In addition, protagonists in the stories examined usually were found to be young adults (ages 20 to 24). This finding is important because the protagonists did not equally represent all age groups and because adult disabled readers most often are mid-aged adults (ages 25 to 44) (Literacy Volunteers of America, 1991). A strong but not significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and ethnic background. 0f the five ethnic groups represented in the 120 stories examined, Caucasian protagonists were found in 84 stories, Black protagonists in 17 stories, Hispanic protagonists in 11 stories, Native American protagonists in 6 stories, and Asian protagonists in 2 stories. In addition, 48 of the 72 characters who exhibited achievement imagery were Caucasian. This finding is of great importance because these ethnic groups were not equally represented, because most adult disabled readers are non-Caucasian, and because census reports indicate that the population of the United States is becoming 82 increasingly culturally diverse (Naldrop & Exter, 1991). In addition, Asian Americans, the fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States, who total 9 million people, were represented in only one of the 120 stories as achievement-motivated protagonists. Hispanics, who number 21 million in the United States, were represented only seven times in 120 stories as achievement-motivated protagonists, yet they are the next-fastest-growing ethnic group in the nation (Naldrop & Exter, 1991). Sutherland and Arbuthnot (1986) reported that older readers need materials of substance, materials that recognize the concepts of nationality and country, region, and continent, as well as social and cultural values. A strong but not significant relationship also was found between achievement imagery and SES. ‘The mid-SES group was represented most frequently (70%) as protagonists in the adult fiction stories examined. This is an important finding because just 12% of the adult learners using these materials have mid-level incomes (Literacy Volunteers of America, 1991). In addition, the stories lacked equal representation of all socioeconomic back- grounds. No significant relationship was found between achievement imagery and date of publication. The researcher had expected to find a higher level of achievement imagery in the newer books. However, the stories in 'the 1984-1987 group, not the 1988-1991 group, showed the highest frequency of achievement imagery. Most of the stories examined were in the oldest group (1976-1979) because of 83 their frequency of use in the adult learning centers surveyed and their availability to adult disabled readers. In more than 50% of the stories in each group, regardless of publication date, protagonists did set unique, long-term goals. Research Question 3: Nhat are the most frequently occurring combinations of the variables age, gender, ethnic background, and SES with regard to the protagonist in high-interest, low- level adult fiction? The most frequently occurring combinations of the above- mentioned variables were recorded. They then were assembled into the following ten character profiles: Character Profile I: Female, Caucasian, mid-SES Character Profile II: Male, Caucasian, mid—SES Character Profile III: Male, Black, mid-SES Character Profile IV: Female, Black, mid-SES Character Profile V: Female, Caucasian, young adult Character Profile VI: Male, Caucasian, young adult Character Profile VII: Male, mid-SES, young adult Character Profile VIII: Female, mid-SES, young adult Character Profile IX: Male, Caucasian, mid-SES, young adult Character Profile X: Male, Caucasian, mid-SES, teen The most frequently occurring profile of a story protagonist with a high percentage of achievement imagery in fiction for adult disabled readers was a male, Caucasian, young adult of mid-SES. The four most frequently occurring profiles, regardless of the existence of achievement imagery, were Profiles II, VI, VII, and IX. These profile groups were, in combination, all male, Caucasian, young adults of mid-SES. Similarly, in her study examining high-interest, low-level adolescent fiction, Bader (1981) found that most stories focused on middle-class, Caucasian male characters. The results of these studies indicate a general lack of equal representation of all ages, genders, ethnic backgrounds, and income 84 levels in high-interest, low-level fiction, and that the situation has not improved in the past ten years. Prevalent profiles of story protagonists simply do not match the profiles of adult learners who are using these materials. Research Question 4: Is there a significant relationship between any of the protagonist character profiles and achievement imagery? - No significant relationships were found between any of the character profiles and achievement imagery. However, as stated above, a majority of the stories scored for achievement imagery had male, Caucasian, young adult, mid-SES protagonists. Half (Hi the most frequently occurring profiles excluded females and Blacks. All of the profiles excluded Hispanics, Native Americans, Asians, individuals of high and low SES, mid-age adults, older adults, and seniors. Yet all of these characteristics exist in various combinations in adult learners. The biggest surprise was that Asians and Hispanics, the fastest-growing ethnic groups in the United States, were not represented in any of the ten profiles. Recommendations for Practice 1. Writers of high-interest, low-level fiction for adults need to go beyond the use of readability formulas to determine the suitability of adult fiction. Consideration should be given to character and plot development, topic, and sentence structure in adult fiction. Reduced readability levels of materials need not be synonymous with lack of plot or simplistic dialogue, which were noted in this study but not scored. 85 2. Publishers of high-interest, low-level fiction for adults need to provide reading materials that have as main characters more ‘ culturally diverse, mature men and women with whom their readers can identify. 3. Teachers need to learn how to examine adult fiction for motivating plot, content, and character profiles of protagonists that match their students’ ethnic backgrounds, SES, and gender profiles. Raphael (1981) and Langer' and Nicolich (1981), among others, have shown that familiarity with the characters and topics in the material being read influences reading comprehension. 4. Teachers need to learn how to score reading materials for achievement motivation so that motivational materials can be made readily available to all students. The scoring procedure used in this study is easy to learn, and it takes about as long to score a story as it does to read it. Recommendations for Further Research 1. This study should be extended using other variables that were not included in this research, such as presence of both plot and character' development, which may also indicate whether the materials are appropriate and suitable for the adult learners using them. 2. A study should be conducted to investigate the presence of achievement motivation in fiction used by young readers in classrooms with many ability levels. 86 3. A study should be conducted to investigate whether the sentence structure in high-interest, low-level adult fiction follows natural speech patterns or whether it follows a more simplistic pattern to accommodate the learners’ readability levels. Reflections At this point, the researcher will go beyond the data to share impressions. Educators commonly say their main problem is motivating students to learn (Durkin, 1979; Goodman, 1986; Malone, 1980; Shannon, 1989; Vacca 81 Vacca, 1989; Veatch, 1966; Watson, 1963). Counseling, encouragement, and books are provided, but these are not enough. How can educators motivate students to want to learn? The researcher believes that educators first need to recognize what affects motivation. Besides heredity, intellectual capacity, and home life, recognition for numerous small, everyday achievements helps build an autonomous desire to achieve. This recognition can be given at home and at school. In addition, the researcher realized in conducting this study that, strong, culturally' diverse role models in protagonists of stories read and in real life may be almost nonexistent in the classroom. Ihi the future, educators can seek culturally diverse, multidimensional materials and plan more exploratory lessons that celebrate diversity. Educators can reach inside themselves for the child in them and surround their students with enthusiasm and opportunities to write and read fantasy, to problem solve, and to 87 shape their own destinies. Finally, to motivate students to learn, more educators need to act as achievement-oriented role models who are open to new ideas and who love learning for its own sake. APPENDICES APPENDIX A HIGH-INTEREST, LON-LEVEL LITERACY SERIES CHECKLIST AND INTRODUCTORY LETTER TO ADULT LEARNING CENTER DIRECTORS 88 High-Interest, Low-Level Literacy Series Checklist Please check the series most frequently used. You may add titles not listed. Thank you. ____Harcourt Brace Jovanovich (RALLY) ____David S. Lake, Pub. (FEARON FASTBACKS) (FEARON FIVE-MINUTE THRILLERS) (LIFE TIMES 2) (DISASTER FLASHBACKS) (SPECTQR) (TAILSPINNERS II) ____Longman (LONGMAN FICTION) (LONGMAN CLASSICS) ____New Readers Press (SUNDONN BOOKS) ____ (LAUBACH) ____Steck-Vaughn Co. (SUPERSTARS) ____Children’s Press (PACESETTERS) ____Cambridge Book Co. (CAMBRIDGE) ____High Noon Books (PERSPECTIVES) (TOM & RICKY MYSTERY SERIES) ____Pitman Learning, Inc. (JIM HUNTER BOOKS) .____Turman Publishing Co. (TURMAN FICTION) ____Quercus (DILEMMAS & DECISIONS) ____Scholastic Book Co. (SPRINT) (ACTION) 89 923 Southfield Drive Nilliamston, MI 48895 February 16, 1991 Dear Adult Learning Center Director: I am a classroom teacher in Nilliamston Schools and a graduate stu- dent at Michigan State University. I need your help in getting started on a research project. Please take a few moments to indicate which high-interest, low-level series you use most frequently with adults in reading. I am inter- ested in which series are most commonly used so that I can conduct a study related to adult literacy materials. Check any or all series that are most frequently used and then return the checklist to me in the envelope provided. Thanks so much for your help! Sincerely, Mary Anna Kruch Work: (517) 655-4668 APPENDIX B EXAMPLES OF PRESENCE OF ACHIEVEMENT IMAGERY, ACHIEVEMENT THEMA, NURTURANT PRESS, AND BLOCK IN HIGH-INTEREST, LON'LEVEL ADULT FICTION AND SAMPLE DATA-COLLECTION SCORE SHEET 90 In the following examples, specific references to N-achievement are in capital letters. Achievement Imagery a. Unique accomplishment: Lizzie was not about to give up the race before it began, no matter what the man said. [She said to herself] I AM AS GOOD AS ANY ALASKAN MUSHER. AND I WILL NOT GO BACK TO NEW HAMPSHIRE WITHOUT GIVING THIS RACE ALL THAT I HAVE. (Traill, p. 13) b. Long-term involvement: It was the longest, hardest dogsled race in the world. The first 1,000 miles of the race were run to remember the 17 teams who rode the trail to Nome carrying medicine to help sick people in Nome. The last 49 miles were added later because Alaska was the 49th state. LIZZIE BELIEVED SHE COULD. IN HER OWN QUIET WAY, SHE DECIDED. (Traill, pp. 16- 17 Achievement Thema As days went by, Lizzie noticed that she was passing other teams, a lot of other teams. Very few were passing her. And every once in a while, she let herself think a new and exciting thought. MIGHT SHE WIN THIS RACE? (Traill, p. 37) Lizzie made good time. "I’M GOING TO WIN THIS RACE," she thought. "I’ll do it for Luka," she said through tight teeth. "I’ll do it to show everyone who said that I couldn’t. I’ll do it for George, and I’ll do it for myself!" (Trail!, p. 45) Nurturant Press "You’ve got a lot of natural talent," Barney said quietly, in a fatherly tone. “I’ve seen a lot of ballplayers in my time, and RIGHT NOW YOU STACK UP WITH THE BEST OF THEM FOR YOUR AGE.“ (Rookie Summer, p. 12) "Tell you what," the coach said. "If no one comes here this year, THEN I’LL WRITE TO EVERY BIG LEAGUE TEAM ABOUT YOU BEFORE NEXT SEASON BEGINS." (Rookie Summer, p. 10) 91 Block "Not here, Pete," Mr. Glass said. "I don’t want you using my garage to practice anymore. GARY IS GOING TO HAVE OTHER THINGS TO DO." (Follow ThataDream, p. 15) "MY DAD WANTS ME TO GO TO COLLEGE," GARY SAID. "BUT I WANT TO PLAY MUSIC. I just don’t like school that much." (Follow That Dream, p. 20) REFERENCES Gutman, B. Rookie Summer. Seattle: Turman Publishing Co., 1988. Rogoff, D., and Powers, T. Follow That Dream. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Quercus/Globe Book Co., 1989. Suter, J. Trail! Castro Valley, Calif.: Quercus Corp., 1988. 92 / lex an" /4 I B . 1'23:va , _. _—.—.—— — (lama: [Jeff APPENDIX C PROFILE OF LVA TUTORS AND ADULT LEARNERS FROM THE LITERACY VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA 93 um Main Profile of “mu“ Literacy Volunteers of America 9% Adult Learners & Tutors or AMERCAK LEARNER VOLUNTEER Gender Male 52% Female 80% Female 48% Male 20% Age 2544 59% 25-44 36% 45-59 19% 45-59 30% 16-24 17% 60+ 26% 60+ 6% 16.24 7% Ethnlo Group White 46% White 87% - a!“ 24.2: 3"“ ”a is me ° is ic e 11.12..“ 13% ME?“ Educational 5-8 31% Undergrad Degree 30% Level 9-11 30% . Some College- 25% 11.6. Diploma 17 % Graduate Degree 24% 0-4 16% H.S. Diploma 19% Some College 7% 0—12 2% Occupation Other 40% Protessional 29% Service 25% Other22% Technieml 12% Homemaker 12% Homemaker 11% Cler'ml 11% Agriculture 4% Managerial 10% Employment Full Time 44% Full Time 51% Status Unemployed 20% Retired 22% Not in Market 16% Not in Market 10% - ' Part Time 7% Part Time 8% . 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