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dissertation entitled

THE EFFECT OF EARLY EDUCATIONAL DISRUPTION
ON THE BELIEF SYSTEMS AND EDUCATIONAL
PRACTICES OF ADULTS
presented by

MARGARET ELIZABETH HALE-SMI TH

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Ph . D . degree in Educational Adminis tration

 

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3-9.1

r._—__——

THE EFFECT OF EARLY EDUCATIONAL DISRUPTION
' ON THE BELIEF SYSTEMS AND EDUCATIONAL
PRACTICES OF ADULTS

BY
Margaret Elizabeth Hale-Smith

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Educational Administration

1992

ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT OF EARLY EDUCATIONAL DISRUPTION

ON THE BELIEF SYSTEMS AND EDUCATIONAL
PRACTICES OF ADULTS

BY
Margaret Elizabeth Hale-Smith

This study was designed to describe the effects of the
five year public school closing in Prince Edward County,
Virginia, on African American students who were of school age
during that time. Two groups were compared: students who were
placed in homes outside the state of Virginia by the American
Friends Service Committee (In School Group), and students who
stayed in the county during the school closing (Out of School
Group). Some of the variables were occupational level,
educational attainment, and participation in.post-high school
endeavors. Survey research and personal interviews were the
methodologies employed.

Questionnaires were mailed to a randomly selected sample
of students who were listed on school enrollment records in
1958. One hundred-fifteen usable questionnaires were
returned. Of this number, twenty-one were students placed by

the .American. Friends, and ninety-four' were students ‘who

ii

remained in Prince Edward County when the public schools
closed in 1959.

Frequencies and percentages were calculated for each
questionnaire item having a fixed response category. Where
open-ended responses were permitted, all such responses were
recorded and categorized so that frequencies and percentages
could be calculated. The Mann-Whitney U was performed on
questions measured at the ordinal level, Contents of personal
and face-to-face interviews were categorized into themes.

There were significant differences at the .05 level
between the two groups on educational attainment, occupation,
income, and post-high school endeavors. Students who
participated in the American Friends program had higher
incomes, reached higher educational levels, and generally held
higher ranking jobs. Participants in the American Friends
program also reported more learning activity as adults.

There were mixed results on the subjects of community
involvement and attitudes and beliefs about race relations.
For example, attitudes and beliefs about race relations from
a more general perspective appeared to be very similar for
both groups. However, from a more personal perspective, it
appeared that members of the American Friends program tended

to feel more positive about race relations.

iii

Copyright by
MARGARET ELIZABETH HALE-SMITH

1992
0

iv

DEDICATION

Ships at a distance have every.man's wish on board. For some
they come in with the tide. For others they sail forever on
the horizon, never out of sight, never landing until the
watcher turns his eyes away in resignation, his dreams mocked
to death by Time. That is the life of men.

.wa, women forget all those things they don't want to
remember, and remember everything they don't want to forget.
The dream is the truth. Then they' act and do things
accordingly.

*Zora Neal Hurston

This effort is dedicated to my parents, Carl F. and Margaret
E. Hale, who inIanother time and under different circumstances

could have had doctorates of their own.
It is also dedicated to my son, David Lynn Smith, Jr., who I
hope will gain encouragement from it to reboard his own

educational ship.

I love you.

* Hurston, Zora Neal, Their Eyes flgre Watching God. 1990,
HarperPerennial, HarperCollins Publisher, Inc.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to many who stayed by me as I traveled this
particular path. First, to God, who finally got my attention
and cooperation, and to my father and mother, who provided
emotional, spiritual and financial support. A special thanks
to Aunt Betty, who always expected this of me, and of course
to my son, David, whose close scrutiny was a motivator.

My committee under the leadership of Dr. Cas Heilman had
a very difficult task - working with me from a distance. Yet,
they were fully supportive and interested, and without their
guidance this dissertation would not have been completed. So,
to Dr. Heilman, Chair, and committee members, Dr. Mary Jim
Josephs, Dr. Lee June, and Dr. Leighton Price, thank you very
much.

I must also acknowledge my Virginia "family", for without
them I would not have had the inner strength nor the right
connections to achieve this goal. Therefore, to Mrs. Odessa
Branch, Mr. James Ghee, Mr. Chucky Reid, Dr. Sarah Young, Mrs.
Connie Rawlins, Mrs. Peggy Ward and Ms. Marlene Walton, Ms.
Edna Allen-Bledsoe, and Mr. Phillip Walker, thank you and God
bless you. *Special thanks to Dr. Wilbur Brookover for his
on-going interest, input and support of this project.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

LIST OF TABLESOO0.0...O...O0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOix

CHAPTER
I

CHAPTER
II

CHAPTER
III

CHAPTER
IV

INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 1
The Present Study 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 2
History 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 4

Prince Edward County Today..................17

LITERATURE REVIEWOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOO0.0.0.0....29

Research on Prince Edward County
School Closings.............................29

Cognitive Development and Schooling.........32

Adult LearnerSCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0000000035

METHODOLOGY.................................4O
Introduction................................40
Research Questions..........................41
Population..................................42
Instrument..................................46
Data Collection.............................50

Data Analysis...............................52

RESULTSOOOOIOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0.000000000000000054
ResearCh Question #1 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O 56
ResearCh Question ’2 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 63

vii

Research Question #3.... ..... ...... ..... ....66
Research Question #4........................7O
Research Question #5........................71
Research Question #6........................73
Interview Highlights........................78

CHAPTER
V DISCUSSION......OOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.00000000000086

Introduction................... ........ .....86
Findings.......... ........... ...............88
Summary............... ......... ............101
Limitations... ..... ............. ........ ...102
Implications.... ........ ...................105
Recommendations.. ......... ......... ..... ...108
BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................113
APPENDIX A: CORRESPONDENCE..........................119
APPENDIX B: LETTER OF SUPPORT AND COVER LETTER......120
APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE...........................122

APPENDIX D: INFORMATION SHEET/AGREEMENT TO
PARTICIPATE IN INTERVIEW..............129

APPENDIX E: INTERVIEWSOOOO0.0.00......0.00.00.00.000130

viii

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Study Sample of Students Clustered
by Grades.0....0.00.00.00.00.00.0.0.0...0.0.0.0043

General Categories on Questionnaire
and Related ItemSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00......48

Respondents by Group......... .......... . ..... ....55
Demographics by percentages......................56
Highest Grade Attained Group Comparisons.........57
What did you do when the schools closed?. ........ 58

How many years in school after public
schools closed in Prince Edward County?.........59

As you look back on the school closing,
how do you think it affected your life?.........60

In general, how did you feel when the
SChOOIS Closed in 1959?...0000000000000000......62

Occupations held by percentages..................63
Individual Income Levels by percentages..........64
Mann-Whitney U applied to Research

Questions 1, 2, a 3 Grade 7 and

Above Both Groups...............................65

Percentages of Migration Out of
County by Group.................................66

Children can get a good education in
the public schools of Prince Edward
County today................. ................... 67

Most of the people now in Prince

Edward County have forgotten about
the school closings.............................68

ix

Table

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24A.

24B.

25.

page

The political climate in Prince Edward
County is now positive for Black Americans.
Percentages who agree or disagree................69

There is little racism in Prince Edward
County. Percentages who agree or disagree.. ..... .69

At the present time there are as many
opportunities for success available
for me as there are for anyone. Percentages
of agree or disagree.............................70

Have desegregated schools helped or
hindered the education of Black
Americans? Percentages..........................71

Involved in Community Activities.
PercentageSOOOOOOOOO0.0...0......00.0.0000000000072

Percent of attendance at community
meetingsoo...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.00000000072

Registered voters and voted in
last election by Group...........................73

Attitudes toward education........................74

Percent involved in formal
educational activities...........................76

Type of educational activities....................76

Mann-Whitney U Applied to Research
Questions 3 through 6............................77

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

During’ the last. two decades institutions of‘ higher
education,have seen a constant stream of adults returning to
the classroom. Many researchers have given us insight into
this increasing phenomenon. For example, discussing the
importance of flexibility as the key to survival in our
"information. society," Burstryn (1986) suggests ‘that. the
constant changes now demanded by society cause adults to
question constantly the marketability of their skills. In
their investigation of events that trigger life changes as
reasons for adult learning, Aslanian and Brickell (1980)
discovered that transitions related to career ranked first.
This finding' would seem to be in line with Brustryn's
assumptions.

Other researchers, such as weathersby (1977) and Ross
(1985), look to adult developmental processes for answers to
why adults participate in formal education. Their research
suggests that.when adults return to college at particular ages
linked to times of life reassessment, then education is linked
to process of growth, developmental change and transformation,
and is therefore utilized as a developmental intervention in

1

their lives.

Students who have "stopped out," or delayed the pursuit
of their higher education goals have done so for a variety of
reasons“ This population.can, in the larger sense, be said to
have experienced "educational disruption"; that is, an
interruption in the continuous pursuit of educational
opportunities leading to certification and/or completion of a
predetermined educational goal.

Although their reasons for attending or returning to
college make adult learners an especially heterogeneous
cohort, their return to the classroom gives them a common
bond. They also share the fact that during their "stopping
out" period they were engaged in other important activities,
playing important roles, learning new skills. These
experiences are often helpful when adults return to the

classroom.

The Present study

The focus of this study is on a group of students who
experienced ”educational disruption" unique in the history of
education in the United States. That disruption came, for
many of them, during their most formative years and without
their consent. This interruption lasted for five years.

One of the purposes of this study is to investigate
whether that disruption has had an impact on how this group

now perceives and interacts with the educational opportunities

3

available to them as adult learners at the present time. It
is of particular interest if that "stopping out” period
created, or helped to create beliefs and attitudes which now
help or hinder these adults in pursuing formal schooling. The
study will attempt to determine if this group follows the
patterns of adult learners as described by Aslanian and
Brickell (1980).

Also of interest is the 'vocational level of these
individuals and their feelings about their community. These
issues are of interest because they may be indicators of
future growth potential for the community. Vocational
interests and choices are often stimulated early in the
educational cycle. Teachers are often key factors in helping
students to identify strengths and talents that lead.totcareer
decisions. Teachers also act as mentors, advisors and role
models--and transmit the value of education to students.

Community, for this study, becomes an important current
factor. Dewey (1969) wrote that the prerequisites for a
democratic community were education, social inquiry and the
development of a competent citizenry. Minar and Greer (1969)
believe that "The mere fact that [people] live together gives
rise to common problems that push them toward common
perspectives and induce them to develop organizational
vehicles for joint action."

If there is substantial community membership which

distrusts "public officials" because of their unique school

4

experience, then that group may be less likely to be actively
involved in community decisions, would probably be less likely
to encourage their children to plan for futures in the
community, and may, in general, feel disenfranchised.

Overall, this particular group might then be less
satisfied with decisions made for the community, would
probably not be involved with efforts which might help them
improve their personal lifestyles (i.e. educational or
vocational opportunities), and might be more suspicious of
public institutions such as the school system. Could they
have a sense of community, what Minar and Greer describe as
"a state of mind...a sense of interdependence and loyalty."?
3153.911

In 1951, dismayed by the intolerable conditions at their
segregated school and frustrated by their parents' inability
to obtain remedies from local school officials, the African
American children of Moton High School in Prince Edward
County, Virginia, went on strike (Smith, 1965; Williams,
1987). The students, led by 17 year old Barbara Johns (niece
of the eminent Vernon Johns), hoped to call public attention
to the sad conditions that existed at Moton High School. The
school, located in Farmville, Virginia, was grossly
overcrowded; one professor from the local college had reported
that when.he accepted an invitation to give a lecture athoton
he "could barely get to the platform to deliver the lecture

because every square inch of space was taken up by students"

(Schuler and Green, 1974).

The fact that the African American children did not have
adequate facilities for learning was not a new phenomenon in
Prince Edward county. When Moton High was built in 1939, it
had a capacity of 180. By 1947 records show that 377 students
were enrolled and attending the school (Smith, 1965).

In 1948 the County Board of Supervisors decided that it
would not invest in a larger school to relieve the already
overcrowded conditions in Moton High school. Instead, it
financed the construction of tar paper shacks for use as a
"temporary" remedy of the problem. These shacks were often
mistaken for chicken coops (Smith, 1965; Green, 1964), and
while they did provide more space, the shacks did not solve
the overcrowding problem. The shacks were also inadequate in
terms of simple housing requirements. In describing the tar
paper shacks, one student, John Stokes, said they "...were
drafty and...cold. If you sat around the stove you were too
warm and if you sat away from it you were too cold. It was no
way to be taught..." (Smith, 1965).

This point of view was not shared by school officials.
County Superintendent T. J. McIlwayne stated that the
outbuildings ‘were in line with school requirements, and that
there was "no crowding in classrooms beyond measures found
necessary throughout the system. "1 Moton students disagreed

and pointed to the fact that over 400 students were enrolled

 

‘Eamlillelerald. April 27.1951

6

at Hoton, and that the school's deficiencies (which included
the lack of lockers and stationary seating in the auditorium
as well as inadequate transportation), added up to a school
that was not the equal of its‘White.counterpartm .According to
what Barbara.Johns.had.heard, the Farmville High School had.an
”inviting auditorium with seats in rows attached to the floor,
the locker rooms just outside the gymnasium and [an] infirmary
where a feverish child could be.rubbed.down with alcohol while
resting on a cool cot."2

When the students of Moton High School agreed to strike
in April of 1951, it was their way of, asking for a better
school, a way to communicate to the White community that
they, too, desired a good education. But the community at
large would have to wait to learn what all the excitement was
about. Their source of information, the Mid, was
published on Wednesdays and Fridays. There was no mention of
the strike in the April 25, 1951 edition of the Herald. The

gignmggg_11mg§;pi§p§ggh carried a story about the strike on
Wednesday, April 25, but it was Friday, April 27, before the

Herald published news of the strike. In the Iimggznigpatgh
article Superintendent McIllwaine stated that an $800,000
school for Black students was in the planning stages, and he
strongly denied that the strike was related to a recent school

bus/train accident which took the lives of five Moton

 

2Barbara Johns Powell recalls her experiences as a student

in the W. July 7. 1988 page 1-

students.3

The initial article about the student strike printed in
the W on April 27 also pointed out that
”negotiations for a site for [a] proposed new high school"
were underway, and continued by dismissing the students’
complaints as unfounded. The same edition carried an
editorial which described the strike as "student-inspired mass
hookie" and wondered if the strike were a product of "the
present system of education [or] the lack of discipline so
obvious in the home, the church...and in everyday philosophy
of living".‘

Moton High School students never dreamed that their
actions would light the fuse on what would eventually explode
into the closing of all public schools in Prince Edward
County, Virginia, for a five year period. Caught up in the
wave of the Civil Rights movement that was gaining momentum
and sweeping over the country, their original entreaty for a
better school became a cry for integrated facilities in the
country.

A few weeks before the lawsuit was initiated, J. Barrye
Wall, publisher and editor of the W wrote,
"News reports published in the daily press during the past
week have suggested that the move at the R.R. Hoton High

School. . .is one to eliminate segregation in the school system.

 

W211. April 25. 1951.
‘Wald. April 27. 1951

8

We do not believe this has any foundation in fact. However,
the so> called 'student strike' appears to have outside
stimulus." Mr. Wall may have been referring to the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People,
for under the auspices of the NAACP, a lawsuit (Davis v.
Prince Edward County) on behalf of the Hoton High School
children was filed with the Commonwealth of Virginia one month
after the strike had begun. When the Federal District Court
ruled against Moton High School in 1952, the NAACP immediately
appealed the case to the United States Supreme Court where it
was added to those cases which fell under the title Brown vs
Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (Williams, 1987; Wolters,
1984; Steck, 1960).

It would appear that members of the County Board of
Supervisors were startled by the court action; money for a new
segregated school for.African Americans mysteriously appeared
two months after the school strike-~a month after the lawsuit
was filed (Wolters, 1984; Smith, 1964). In 1953 the new'Hoton
High School was completed at a reported cost of $850,000
(Steck, 1960), but this gesture was not the solution to the
educational dilemma in Prince Edward County.

By 1954 the situation for Moton High students had
improved but conditions in the community had changed
drastically. Relations between the Whites and African
Americans had become cool and resentful. When the United

States Supreme Court announced its decision in the landmark

9
Brown vs. Board of Education case, the lawsuit for the Moton
High School students was included with other "separate but
equal" cases heard by the high court.

In Farmville, J. Barrye Wall wrote, "We therefore
conclude that public education as it is presently constituted
has been undermined and toppled to fragments by the general
decision of the Supreme Court."’

Virginia's response to the Supreme Court ruling was to
implement an effort called "Massive Resistance." This
political policy called for the continuation of segregated
schools statewide and was based on the premise that Virginia
could be a beacon of "state sovereignty" for all the South
(Dabney, 1989). With the blessings of the legislature, the
Whites of Farmville and the rest of Prince Edward County
discussed options that would allow them to maintain the status
quo with schools. The Board of Supervisors in Prince Edward
County decided to appropriate funds for the operation of the
schools for only thirty days at a time. This strategy
effectively eliminated long-term planning on the part of the
School Board, and gave the Board of Supervisors unrestrained
control over the fate of the public schools.

Although the School Board was restricted from any long-
term planning, another local group was actively involved in
that very endeavor. In 1954, fearing that integration might

well be forced upon the Commonwealth, the Prince Edward School

 

’Eamlillflerald. June 25. 1954.

10
Corporation had formed to design private schools for White
children. When Virginia's Massive Resistance laws were struck
down in 1959, the Corporation (which was renamed the Prince
Edward School Foundation) announced that all-White private
schools would be in full operation in September, 1959 (Smith,
1965; Pearson, 1961).

On June 2, 1959, two events of notice took place in
Farmville. On the Longwood College campus, commencement
speaker, Virginia Governor J. Lindsay Almond, Jr. , stated that
if public schools were closed federal domination would be the
consequence. Once central government controlled education,
the Governor said, "You have to look only to what happened in
Hitler’s Germany, Mussolini's Italy and what is happening in
Soviet Russia to see the final result...."‘

Although the Governor's speech seemed to make an effort
to promote the same argument used by segregationists (state
sovereignty) for keeping the public schools open, his view was
not valued in Prince Edward County. The second event of
significance that took place on June 2, 1959, was an earlier
announcement by the Board of Supervisors that no funds for the
operation of public school would be appropriated.

Word of this decision swept though the country. The
BMW announced it was "solidly behind” the
policy makers in Prince Edward County, and the W
W ”. . .understood and support[ed]" the decision. Later

 

“MM. June 2. 1959-

11
in June reporters from the magazine U4_§&_Ngw§_§_flg;1g_3gpgzt
(1959) visited the county and wrote that although there was
solid support in the White community to avoid integration at
any costs, racial bitterness was nonexistent.

Perhaps the members of the African American community
were too stunned by the closing to be bitter; Or perhaps many
shared the feelings expressed by a parent in the September 26
issue of the RM. A housewife is quoted as
saying, "It's just a matter of time before they learn that
they can't raise $300,000 a year for private schools in Prince
Edward County. They may do it for one or two years, but not
much longer” (1959).

Whatever the prevalant beliefs about the closing of
public schools in the county, one looming factor remained.
There were approximately 1700 African American children who
should have been enrolled in the fall of 1959. The public
officials charged with providing education for all children in
Prince Edward County had abdicated that responsibility for
those 1700 children, and the African American parents and
civic leaders recognized that it was now their responsibility
to see to the education of their children.

Under the leadership of Reverend L. Francis Griffin,
minister in Farmville and. president of the local NAACP
chapter, and with the assistance of Rev. Dunlap, minister of
the local African Methodist Episcopal Church, arrangements for

some of the students were made with Kittrell Junior College.

12
Kittrell, an institution sponsored by the African Methodist
Episcopal.Church, was located.approximately 120 miles south of
Farmville, near Henderson, North Carolina. .Although Kittrell
was a college, it also offered a high school branch.7

Kittrell would charge students from Prince Edward County
half tuition; any who could not afford that fee would also be
welcome.‘ Approximately 60 students (sophomores, juniors and
seniors) from Moton High School eventually took advantage of
the open door at Kittrell.

One of the greatest fears for the children was that those
in the senior class of 1960 would be lost if schools were
closed for at least one academic year. They were older, with
more skills, and therefore more likely to be lured away to
jobs. Once the juniors and seniors were off to Kittrell,
Reverend.GriffinLturned.his attention to students in the lower
grades.

By February, 1960, training centers in churches, lodges
and other public facilities throughout the county were ready
for the African American children. These centers were not in
any fashion.designed.to be "schools", but.they offered reading
and arithmetic to county children. Records from these centers
are unavailable, but it appears that the number of children
served by these centers was minimal when compared to the
potential enrollment for the county. A memo dated February

11, 1960, from Barbara Moffett, representative of the American

 

7W. Spetmeber 26. 1959.

13
Friends Service Committee, states:

I came away with the impression that more children
have left the County than the earlier statistics
would indicate. Families have been making private
arrangements for their children and some of the older
boys particularly have been trying to find jobs.
Because of the fact that children have left and that
transportation is a real problem, I believe that any
program of activities would actually involve a much
smaller number than 1700.'

Involvement by the American Friends Service Committee, a
Quaker organization, was considerable. The Committee located
homes around the country that would welcome those Prince
Edward children who were willing to move away with their
parents' blessings and hopes. These homes were located in
integrated school districts in the North, and most were White
homes. At least sixty students accepted invitations extended
through the American Friends Service Committee.

By the summer of 1961, members of the Virginia Teachers
Association (an African American association) arrived in
Farmville to provide a remedial program with an emphasis in
reading. In 1962 they returned with graduate students from
northern colleges and a similar summer reading program.
Graduate students from Queens College in New York joined
members of the American Federation of Teachers in 1963 for a
third summer program.

Also present in Prince Edward County in 1963 was a

representative from. another' Northern school. 'Under’ the

 

’Confidential memo from Barbara W. Moffett, February 11,
1960: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division.

- l4
auspices of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Dr. Robert L. Green from Michigan State University
arrived to study the educational status of the .African
American students. The federal sponsorship of this study was
due largely to the personal interest and concern of President
John F. Kennedy (Smith, 1965).

Dr. Green wanted to determine "...the general effects of
closed public schools on the sociological environment of
Prince Edward County's Negro population" (Green, 1964, p.6).
It was believed that the data generated from the study could
have positive long-range benefits. More specifically, Dr.
Green believed that formal education’s role in society could
be addressed by studying a group who had been denied education
for a period of years.

This seems a legitimate line of inquiry; one of the
fundamental beliefs in this country asserts that the school is
an essential agency. Schools are said to perform valuable
functions for society - such as transferring the values of the
culture, preparing children for leadership, citizenship, and
vocations (Dewey, 1916; Whitehead, 1929). .According' to
Parsons (1959), the school class trains individuals to be
”motivationally and technically adequate [in] the performance
of adult roles"; or, as he restates, it develops "commitments
and capacities which are essential prerequisites [for] future
role-performance" (pp 297-298). If, in fact, the education<of

children has such far-reaching and serious ramications, then

15
the withholding or denial of education should, as Dr. Green
supposed, incur measurable results.
In his attempt to provide this information, Green
interviewed and tested a sample of children in Prince Edward
County in 1963. The major findings were reported as follows:

(1) The school closing caused severe retardation in the
academic achievement of the children.

(2) The disruption in schooling was directly related to
depressed intelligence scores of the children (low
by 15 to 30 points).

(3) There was minimal communication between African
Americans and White community members.

(4) The short-term remedial programs had some effect
but were inadequate as substitutes for school.

(5) There was a direct relationship between interim
schooling and a child's occupational and educa-

tional aspiration level.

While the findings from Green’s study were alarming, they
provided valuable data and information for the next stage of
intervention in Prince Edward County.

In June of 1963, William J. Vanden Heuvel, special
assistant to Attorney General Robert Kennedy, contacted the
Governor of Virginia to express the Kennedy Administration’s
concern about and interest in the Prince Edward situation.
With the help of then Virginia governor, Albertis Harrison,
former Virginia Governor (and former President of the
University of Virginia), Colgate W. Darden, Jr. , was convinced
to head the board of trustees for a Free School Association in

Prince Edward County (Holland, 1964; Smith, 1965).

The other members of the six-person, biracial board were

16

Dr. Fred.Cole, President of Washington.and.Lee University; Dr.
Robert Daniel, President.of‘Virginia.State.College; Dr. Thomas
H. Henderson, President of Virginia Union University; Dr. Earl
McClenny, President of St. Paul's college, and Dr. F. D.
Ribble, retired dean of the University of Virginia Law School
(Holland, 1964). A leader for this unprecedented effort was
needed; Dr. Neil Sullivan, who was currently heading the Long
Island, New York, school system, agreed to take on the role of
Superintendent for one year (Holland, 1964; Smith, 1965).

With leadership positions filled there remained another
serious problem. How would the Free Schools be funded? This
question was answered when donations from foundations,
organizations and individuals began to arrive. .Approximately
one ‘million. dollars was contributed to the Free School
Association. According to Holland (1964), foundations
contributed 67 percent, individuals 10 percent, and
organizations 23 percent of all funds.

With the assurance of operational funds for at least one
year, Dr. Sullivan began his duties as Superintendent of the
Free Schools. With the assistance of United States
Commissioner of Education Francis Keppel and the National
Education Association he began recruiting teachers for what
would be a challenging student population. Many of the former
Prince Edward County African American teachers returned.
Other specialists and young teachers throughout the county

also joined Dr. Sullivan to work with the children of Prince

17
Edward County.

Next, Dr. Sullivan established a non-graded teaching
system. It was here that the results of Green's tests were
extremely helpful in determining where students should be
placed. When the Free School Association opened on September
16, 1963, it was with an air of hope and pride. Three White
children enrolled with the approximately 1600 African American
children from Prince Edward County; in September, 1964, the
public school reopened with about this same enrollment
(Holland, 1964; Sullivan, 1965). However, reports about the
public school system up to nearly three years later indicated
that enrollment of White children remained at a minimum
(Blank, 1966; Starr, 1967).

W

Prince Edward County covers 357 square miles in what is
known as the Piedmont area of Southside Virginia and has a
population of 17,600. The town of Farmville has a population
of 6100 on 4.5 square miles. In Farmville, there are five
banks, one hospital, one college (Hampden-Sydney, a private,
all male college is often cited in literature about Farmville,
but is actually located in Prince Edward County approximately
10 miles from Farmville proper), three radio stations (one
owned and operated by African Americans), and at least 40
churches of various.denominations. 'The area is served by fire
department and rescue squad volunteers. The county's

population is roughly half African American, half White.

18

According to the local Chamber of Commerce, Farmville is
considered ‘the retail center for the seven counties of
"Southside" Virginia. The downtown area, located on four
blocks of Main Street, does a thriving business. There are
not malls, but four open air "shopping centers" house variety
stores, groceries, and other retail stores“ During the Spring
of 1990, a. Walmart Discount store opened its doors in
Farmville. This was a major event for the town, and along
with the opening of a new motel and news that a turkey
processing plant might locate in the county there was much
exitement among area land-owners and developers.

Information from the local Office of Economic Development
reports that the service sector, retail trade, government and
manufacturing provide over 80% of the employment for the town
and county. Services account for 27.0%, retail trade carries
24.0%, government holds 20.0%, and.manufacturing has 16.0% of
the labor market. The same publication lists the following as
the top five employers in the region: Longwood College,
Prince Edward County School System, Southside Community
Hospital each employ 300 or more; Craddock-Terry (shoe
manufacturing) and Carbone of America (carbon brushes) employ
between 200 and 299 people.

A seven member Town Council, Mayor and Town Manager form
the local town government. As it was in 1959, the county is
governed by an eight member Board of Supervisors and a County

Administrator. The School Board is not elected, but appointed

19
by the Board of Supervisors. Currently, two African Americans
serve as members of the Town Council, three sit on the Board
of supervisors, and three are members of the School Board.

The Prince Edward Academy still functions as the private
school for the county and sits on 53 acres near the heart of
Farmvillem Tuition at the Academy is $2495 per year.
Enrollment is said to be 630, and while school officials have
refused to discuss the Academy directly with the researcher,
it appears that at least four African American students may be
enrolled there.

Although Prince Edward Academy remains an academic force
in the county, its symbolic significance has not escaped
individuals outside of Prince Edward County. On February 24,
1981, the Virginia;£ilgt printed an article which announced
the end of the federal tax exemption status enjoyed by the
Academy. The school had appealed, but the Supreme Court
refused to overturn the original decision made by the Internal
Revenue Service.

This issue again gained attention when, in August, 1985,
the W119; reported that the IRS had restored tax
exemption status to the Academy. The House Ways and Means
oversight subcommittee called IRS commissioner, Roscoe I...
Egger Jr., to explain the process used in making ‘this
determination. The attorney for Prince Edward Academy argued
that the school had a non-discriminatory policy, even though

it had no Black pupils or teachers. He also stated that in

20
compliance with IRS requirements, advertisements had been
published earlier in 1985 which clearly explained the school's
open admissions policies.

Columnist Carl T. Rowan also testified during the hearing
and quoted a 1979 statement made by Robert T. Reed, the
Academy’s administrator. Mr. Reed attributed the rise in
school crime and decline in education on the Supreme Court's
1954 desegregation decree. He also believed that the races
should be educated separately. Mr. Rowan argued that Prince
Edward Academy was not a charitable institution, and that it
had not changed [its racist stance].

The 1989-90 enrollment figures for public schools is
reported.at 2,437; Prince Edward County High School’s student
body is 62% African American and 38% White. While these
figures are encouraging, it is interesting to note that in
1989 the local chapter of the NAACP began investigating
several complaints about the public school system; hiring
discrimination, tracking of students along racial lines, and
differences in disciplinary actions based on race are among
the issues of concern.

A firestorm of sorts broke out in the community when, in
May, 1990, the School Board announced that it had decided to
change the name of the elementary school to that of the
current Superintendent. Their justification of this act was
that he should be rewarded for the good job he was doing; The

local radio ”call-in" show was flooded by individuals voicing

21

their support.or disapproval of this action for days after the
announcement. A mass meeting was called by the NAACP to
discuss the issue, and two weeks later it was announced that
the Superintendent had asked the Board to rescind its
decision; it did so. The issue of public schools is still a
very sensitive one in Prince Edward County, Virginia.

Longwood College, located in the center of Farmville, is
a state supported public institution, and is one of the major
employers for the town and nearby counties. Its current
enrollment hovers around 3000, and its low faculty to student
ratio is an important marketing tool. The African American
community has a love-hate relationship with the college.
During the school closings the college, then a public, female,
teachers' college, refused to take a stand. Only Dr. C.D.
Moss, Academic Dean of the College, spoke out in favor of
public education. Longwood closed its on-campus "lab" school
(a school used by most faculty and provided as a laboratory
for the aspiring teachers) in the late 19608; although the
shut-down may have been inevitable due to complaints of
discrimination at many state college "lab" schools, some felt
that the Longwood action was taken to avoid enrollments by
African American children. Longwood College does not have a
reputation of concerned neighbor, but is percieved as an

adversary or at best an agency with an attitude of "benign

22

neglect" towards the African American community.9

In the 1970s Longwood began an expansion project that
continues today. Hundreds of African Americans have been
forced to leave their homes, and a significant portion of that
community was scattered. Many of the people uprooted were
elderly, and expected to live out their lives in homes owned
by generations of the same family; well established and
respected businesses were torn down; homes of historic value
were demolished. As the college continues to grow, more homes
are taken under eminent domain laws. Some members of the
African American community state that.many promises have been
broken; the college had claimed more than once that it would
venture no further, but came back again and again for more
homes. Some people suggested that rezoning laws allowing the
expansion seemed to be drawn on racial lines. Individuals in
the once thriving African American community continue to ask
why it is only their neighborhood that is marked for
destruction in the name of progress. Longwood employs a
significant number of local African Americans in service
positions (i.e. painters, custodians, cooks), and complaining
too loudly about the college’s encroachment is sometimes
viewed as "biting the hand that feeds you."

There are now more African Americans living outside of

the threatened community than in it, and generally among

 

9Vera Allen, former principal of Moton High School and owner
of Allen Funeral Home. Personal interview on 7/12/90.

23
members of the larger African American population the attitude
about fighting Longwood College is one that expresses the
futility of taking on a powerful political machine. Yet, the
African American community will rally on the subject of the
public schools.

In June, 1990, the Prince Edward NAACP Education
Committee approached the Prince Edward County School Board to
voice their concerns about the public school system. Although
several issues were raised in the initial petition of the
NAACP, (i.e. administration of discipline, recruitment of
Black faculty, curriculum and guidance), the NAACP concluded
that "the concerns we have raised with the Division
Superintendent regarding discipline, curriculum, extra-
curricular participation, guidance, and perhaps even the
decline of black faculty in our classrooms are manifestations
of across-the-board 'homogeneous grouping' in the Prince
Edward County Public Schools".m

Practices utilized by the schools to group students were
perceived by the NAACP as being unusually rigid and harmful to
students in academic and emotional ways. Their paper stated
that, "To group a child at age five is to make decisions about
that child's educational experience for the next thirteen

years. Fast groups move faster, slow groups move slower, and

 

10Prince Edward County Branch National Association For The
Advancement of Colored People-Education Committee,
Position paper to Prince Edward County School Board,
June 6, 1990.

24
a gap originally born of lack of experience or privilege, not
necessarily of ability, becomes cast in stone". It was clear
that although the term was never used by the NAACP, what they
were referring to was commonly known as "tracking".

In explaining her view of the charges about tracking
students, one member of the Board of Supervisors stated,
”There are two school systems running in the public schools
now. All the White children are gifted, and all the Black
children are not. That has been how he (Division
Superintendent, Dr. James Anderson) has convinced more White
parents, especially the college types, to enroll their kids in
the public school. You see, they are in public school, but
they are not really exposed to our (Black) children"."

The above allegation appears to have more than one
supporter; within their position paper the NAACP wondered if
the system of "homogeneous grouping" utilized within the
public school system of Prince Edward County was the result of
attempts to recruit "...families, white families in
particular, to public education following the re-opening of
the county schools".

In September, 1990, a sub-committee of the school board
(the Academic-Personnel-Student Affairs Committee) invited a
number of community members to participate in an investigation

of the grouping allegations. Those individuals who accepted

 

u A. Carrington, member PE County Board of Supervisors,
Personal interviews, June 23, August 15, 1990 and
May 6, 1991.

25

the invitation met with the board, where Carrol Bruce, member
and academic affairs chairperson, first instructed the group
not to talk to the press. She also stated that the project
would not be used by anyone seeking an opportunity to "get
[her] name in the paper". Many of the individuals present,
this researcher included, were taken aback by the nature of
Mrs. Bruce's instructions, which were delivered in a somewhat
defensive, almost hostile manner.

Mrs. Bruce placed volunteers into three sub-committees:
a Research group was instructed to review available
educational research on the topic of grouping; an
Interview group was asked to question teachers and
administrators about their perceptions of grouping practices
within the system. (Note: anonymity guaranteed); a Comparison
group was asked to contact school districts with similar
profiles to ascertain what practices they followed in regard
to grouping.

On October 2, 1991, the Academic-Personnel-Student
Affairs Committee submitted the findings of the grouping
study. Their final report stated that although there was no
one correct method for assigning students to classes, tracking
or ”lock[ing]" students into one particular group should not
be practiced. Furthermore, achievement level instructional
grouping should be flexible and allow for frequent assessment
of skills and an opportunity for movement to different levels.

The report also supported the investigation of strategies such

26
as cooperative learning' and. ;parallel scheduling' as
alternatives to achievement grouping.I2

Although some African American citizens may have
perceived this report as a step in a more positive direction
for their school-aged children, other community members seemed
somewhat distressed about potential changes within the school
system.

In a letter to Carrol Bruce, adults from nine White
families expressed their concerns about changes in the high
school college preparatory program, in general, and the Honors
(called the "Civilization") program, specifically. In their
letter they wrote that if placement into the program was to be
based on student and parent choice as opposed to achievement
testing, then, ". . .the new placement procedures for the
Civilization program will significantly increase the range of
academic preparation and achievement and perhaps motivation
among students in those classes. This in turn will inevitably
put pressure on teachers to change the curriculum, writing
requirements, and grading standards...In sum, we have serious
questions about the long-range prospects for maintaining a
genuine "Honors" program..."

Clearly, the public school system in Prince Edward County
must struggle with many of the same issues as other public

schools systems in this country, (e.g. providing quality

 

12Memorandum for the Prince Edward County School Board.
Report of the 1990-1991 Academic-Personnel-Student
Affairs Committee study on Grouping, October 2, 1991

27

education to a diverse student population; acknowledging
parental concerns). However, in Prince Edward County,
Virginia, questions about equitable treatment and
opportunities for all students in the public school system are
influenced by the history of the school closings. The unique
apprehensions and suspicions born of that experience will
continue to be the lens through which many African Americans
view school decisions.

This study will attempt to determine the impact of the
five year closing of public schools in Prince Edward County,
Virginia, on African American students who were of school age
during the years 1959 through 1964. Six research questions
will be investigated. They are:

1) Do the students who did not leave Prince

Edward County during the shut-down of
public schools show lower levels of ed-
ucational attainment when compared to

students who participated in the American
Friends program?

2) Are there lower occupational and income
levels for students who did not participate
in the American Friends program when public
schools closed when compared to students who
did?

3) Was the decision to reside in Prince Edward
County as an adult higher for individuals
who were deprived of a formal public schooling
for 5 years than for individuals who did not
share that experience?

4) Do the students who were deprived of public
education for 5 years hold less positive
attitudes and beliefs about race relations
than students who did not experience a 5 year
disruption in their education?

28

5) Are participation rates in community activities
lower for individuals who did not have public
education for 5 years than for individuals who
had continuous education?

6) Are there lower rates of post-high school
educational endeavors for the students who
remained in Prince Edward County during the
shut-down of public schools when compared to
students who left the county to attend school
elsewhere?

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Although Prince Edward County gained national and.wor1d-
wide attention because of its decision to close public schools
rather than to integrate them, interest in the impact of this
event has been mainly from a historical, judicial, or "human
interest" perspective (Branch, 1988; Williams, 1988; Wolters,
1984; Kluger, 1975; Smith, 1965). This study will attempt to
determine if students were affected by the five year school
closing in Prince Edward County, Virginia, and, if so, how'the
educational needs they present as adults might be addressed.

0 e w Sc

Research. that focuses specifically' on iPrince Edward
County and its inhabitants includes that by Green (1964) and
Ortner (1984). Scholarly research which examined the
ramifications of the school closing on those most affected by
it---the children ---is almost non-existent. When attemping
to locate a data base for his study, Green (1964) discovered
that no empirical evidence was available on the effects of
extended periods of non-schooling. He believed that the lack

of such research was "...probably a result of the national

29

trend of universal school attendance." (p.9).

Green (1964) reports that his study was divided into two
phases. Phase 1 involved the administration of questionnaires
to parents and/ or guardians to ascertain demographic and other
relevant information about school-aged children; Phase 2
involved the direct testing (i.e. Stanford Achievement, Iowa
Silent Reading, Stanford-Binet) of a sample composed of area
children and the administration of a questionnaire designed to
obtain information about the activies and attitudes of both
parents and children. (Green pointed out that tests were
provided to all African American Prince Edward children who
could be located and were willing to be tested).

Comparison groups for the study included elementary and
secondary pupils from an unnamed county nearby. Green points
out that these children were ". . .similar in family socio-
economic conditions and school characteristics" (p. 90). The
second comparison group included Prince Edward County children
who had attended school elsewhere between 1959-1963).
Differences in achievement and motivational levels for these
students, according to Green, may have been reflections of
”...the aspiration level of their parents toward school..."
(p. 90).

On the Stranford Achievement Test, Green discovered that

30

31

for the Prince Edward children achievement in all areas (i.e.
spelling, reading, arithmetic) was depressed. Spelling,
paragraph meaning, and word meaning were especially affected
by the lack of formal schooling, although students who would
have been at grades seven and nine showed more severe damage.

Reading skills of fifty-two children from Prince Edward
County were measured with the Iowa Silent Reading test. When
compared with the results of the 14 to 16 year old children in
the comparison samples, the Prince Edward group's scores were
significantly below those children in the other two samples.

Another study suggested that African Americans in Prince
Edward County generally had higher levels of aspiration than
their White counterparts. Ortner (1984) attempted to
".. .study the broad effects of the phenomenon of closed
schools by examining the question of citizens' aspirations in
this setting to determine whether. . .the level of aspiration of
black citizens generally exceeds that of the white residents
in their community" (p. 51).

Using categories developed by W.E.B. DuBois during his
1897 comparison study of African Americans in Philadelphia and
Farmville (1978), Ortner (a professor at Hampden-Sydney
College located in Prince Edward County) devised a
questionnaire that asked residents their feelings about jobs
and housing. He concluded that overall the African American
residents of Prince Edward County felt better about their

futures, or held higher aspirations than the White citizens.

32
While Ortner is to be congratulated for his attempt, his
approach to ‘the stated} question stands open. to several
criticisms and flaws in how the study was carried out.

1. The four categories he uses are potentially offensive
and subjective (For example, one of the categories
was described as "The lowest class of criminals,
prostitutes and loafers; the submerged tenth").

2. Ortner’s questions were limited to two areas only, jobs
and housing, and failed to ask questions more pertinent
to his stated goal - the relationship of the school
closing to citizens' aspirations.

3. Students from his class acted as interviewers. Since the
college is primarily White, it is doubtful if any of the
interviewers were African American. Having this
particular set of questions asked by students (well-to-
do White males) from what is often perceived to be an
”elitist" college that was in fact the employer of many
local African Americans, may have biased the kinds of
answers interviewers received.

4. The White sample is not stratified in the same manner
as the African American sample.

5. There is little discussion as to why the significant
differences (between classes and groups) appeared.
Furthermore, questions that specifically relate the
school closing to feelings about current and future

situations in terms of housing and jobs are not asked
of either group.

Cognitive Qeyeiopment and Schooling

There is a substantial collection of research which
involves two areas that may provide some insights for the
current investigation: (1) the ' relationship between
absenteeism and academic achievement, and (2) academic losses
over summer vacation.

Research provided from the two areas is contradictory.

Some investigators report findings that show a significant

33

relationship between absenteeism and grades (Hersov, 1960;
Anikeff, 1960). Other studies, such as the one done by Rozell
(1968), find relatively low correlations between student’ 3
absenteeism and grades. The :gaggng for the absenteeism may
be crucial...that is, students from upper middle-class homes
who are absent due to European vacations with parents are
likely to be actively involved in learning, albeit outside of
the classroom.

Easton and Engelhard (1982) collected longitudinal data
on attendance, enrollment, and reading achievement and then
performed a multivariate analysis of variance. Their analysis
indicates that student absenteeism is significantly related to
both teacher-assigned reading grades and standardized test
scores. Their results also seem to indicate that
comprehension skills at the seventh and eighth grades are
particularly sensitive to poor school attendance. According
to these authors, the higher comprehension skills required in
the seventh and eighth grades are more strongly influenced by
school attendance. Based on their findings, they state that
absenteeism can act as a significant predictor for reading
achievement.

Their findings also have implications for research
results that report.negligible loss in reading skills at lower
grades. As Easton and Engelhard state, the level of
comprehension needed at higher grades requires more practice

and instruction than less complex skills used in early grades.

34

Students in early grades therefore have "less" to lose than
students in upper grades. In regard to the Prince Edward
population, it would appear that a five year disruption in
education would have severe consequences in terms of reading
achievement across all grades, but. especially for ‘those
students who had reached the seventh and eighth grades in
1959.

Questioning the assumption that academic skills
deteriorate during summer vacation, Wintre (1981) suggests
that students may, in fact, make some progress during the
summer. Her research is limited, as she points out, by the
fact that a single school, a single test, and a small sample
were utilized.

More importantly, Wintre’s population was composed of
‘middle-class students“ lHer failure to collect. detailed
information about the kinds of activities in which her sample
participated during summer vacation is another factor that
causes her results to be suspect. Students from a higher
socioeconomic level who had learning opportunities made
available during summer, or more significantly, who had
parents or caregivers who recognized what activities
constitute learning opportunities and could afford to provide
them, may have tested higher in the fall. While it is agreed
that children are actively involved in the process of
discovery in and out of school (Neisser, 1967; Wittrock,

1979) , the resources, guidance and motivation inherent in the

35
non-school environment are critical to the "learning" that the
child does.

Other researchers report that students, particularly
those from minority and/or«disadvantaged.groups, consistently
show losses related to summer vacations (Murnane, 1975; David
& Pelavin, 1978) . In her review of literature on summer
school programs, Heyns (1987) found that some of the research
which concluded that students did not suffer academic loss
over the summer was flawed by research design. Her conclusion
was that, in general, research indicates that children learn
at a slower rate during the summer and students, particularly
those from lower socio-economic backgrounds, generally benefit
from summer' programs aimed. at. decreasing* the impact of

academic loss over the summer.

W
Hodgkinson (1985) alerted us to the fact that after the

year 2000 one third of the United States population would be
sixty years of age or older, and one third would be members of
minority groups. Based on these facts, a significant portion
of the population may then be looking for ways to fill leisure
time (early retirement) or to enhance their skills in order to
work longer, while another group will need higher educational
and skills levels in order to meet the demands of newly

created jobs.

36

As the necessity to prepare for life in a post-industrial
society grows, the number of adults enrolling in college
programs has steadily increased. Yet enrollment figures show
disparity in terms of demographic facts. Statistics reported
by the U.S. Department of Education (1986) indicated that 80%
of all part-time students were White, 8% were Black and 6%
were Hispanic. In their landmark study on returning adult
students, Aslanian and Brickell (1988) found that White‘adults
were ”overrepresented in college classrooms in proportion to
their numbers in the [overall] population, and all other
adults are underrepresented" (p. 22). It would appear then,
that nationwide, African American adults in general are not
returning to the classrooms. A recent survey designed by an
ad hoc committee of the Association of Continuing Higher
Education (ACHE) attempted to "determine how continuing
education is preparing for the challenges and changes the 21st
Century will demand" (Huebner, 1990, p. 9). Their findings in
the area of recruitment go hand.in hand with those of.Aslanian
and Brickell; that was that "86% of the responding
institutions in this study have efforts to recruit adult
students, but the institutions are much less apt to recruit
specific underrepresented populations" (p.11). Huebner
believes this finding is a clear indication that institutions
are failing to recognize the value and purpose of specific
recruitment efforts in light of changing demographic patterns

and future students.

37

Recruitment, i.e. inducement, may therefore be added to
the lists of barriers to learning for certain adults. K.
Patricia Cross (1979, 1981) and the national survey for the
commission on Non-traditional Study (Carp, Peterson, & Roelfs,
1974) identified three principal barriers that adults face
when returning to college: situational, institutional, and
dispositional. Non-recruitment of specific populations would
be added to institutional barriers, along with fees and
entrance policies.

Other continuing education administrators cite financial
aid as the biggest obstacle for minority students interested
in continuing their education. Alex Sharpe, associate dean of
continuing education at the University of Kansas, stated in a
recent article (O'Brien, 1990) that minority students "are
disenfranchised by the lack of funding from the federal
government. " Other administrators believe that some
minorities may not qualify for employer tuition support plans,
may be unaware of such programs, or may not be at job levels
which would allow them to take time off for classes. Another
major barrier may be perceptions about the institution held by
the minority community. One administrator interviewed in the
O'Brien article stated that her institution’s reputation as a
predominantly White, middle-class institution was probably a
major factor in the low enrollment of minority students. She
stated that "Historically, minority students from the local

community did not feel comfortable here, " and that " . . .there's

38
a lot of work we have to do to make people think of us as a
resource."

It may be a combination of such factors as listed
earlier, rather than any one specific "barrier" that accounts
for the low enrollment of African American adults in part-time
and full time college programs nationwide. Colleges and
universities with vision would be moving to address factors
which frustrate adults who seek postsecondary education,
particularly for those who are underrepresented in their
classrooms but not in the general population.

For some of the adults in this particular study, barriers
such as financial aid, institutional recruitment efforts and
reputation of most accessible institution are likely to be
important factors. Persons on the lower socio-economic scale
whose concerns center on food, housing and transportation and
whose feelings of "security" are more easily disrupted must be
able to comprehend and appreciate the practical benefits of
further education before they risk meager resources and/or ego
to obtain it (Maslow, 1954). Simply stated, people will
engage in activities that they believe will satisfy their
needs (McMillan, 1980; Vroom, 1964).

Dispositional barriers may play a significant role as
well, due to this group’s unique educational past. For
example, in many instances persons who returned for education
once the public schools reopened often found their classmates

several years younger than themselves. In the school setting

39

such age differences are often perceived as a stigma--an
indication of lower intellectual ability or lack thereof.

As adults, these individuals may be less willing to return to
the classroom (where they would again find younger
classmates), especially if their earlier experiences were
painful, They might perceive that such an action'would create
a deja vu episode better avoided.

In summary, research that sought answers to the effects
of extensive absences from early educational experiences was
basically non-existent" The 'work. done by Green (1964)
provided some hypotheses regarding expected outcomes for the
children. of Prince Edward Countyu Other research ‘that
examined more limited school absences provided mixed results
in terms of whether such absences affected learning
achievement.

A review of the literature regarding adult learning
indicates that African Americans, in general, are
underrepresentated in adult learning activities. The
population of this study may face a combination of "barriers"

due to their uncommon experience with the educational system.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

W

The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of the
five year public school closing in Prince Edward County,
Virginia, on African Americans students who were of school age
during that time. Two groups were compared: students who were
placed in homes outside the state of Virginia by the American
Friends Service Committee (In School Group) and students who
stayed in the county during the school closings (Out of School
Group).

Descriptive statistics were used to describe any
differences in such variables as occupational levels,
perceptions of race relations, and educational attainment in
Prince Edward County students who left the county during the
school closing and those who stayed behind. Other variables
of interest include 'migration. rates out of the county,
participation rates in community activities, and participation

rates in post-high school educational endeavors.

40

41

This chapter will describe the structural dimension of

data collection, sample identification and contact, and the

process of data collection and analysis.

WM

Answers to several questions were sought in this study.

They were:

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

5)

Do the students who did not leave Prince
Edward county during the shut-down of
public schools show lower levels of ed-
ucational attainment when compared to
students who participated in the
American Friends program?

Are there lower occupational and income
levels for students who did not
participate in the American Friends
program when public schools closed
when compared to students who did?

Was the decision to reside in Prince Edward
County as an adult higher for individuals
who were deprived of a formal public
schooling for 5 years than for individuals
who did not share that experience?

Do the students who were deprived of public
education for 5 years hold less positive
attitudes and beliefs about race relations
than students who did not experience a
5 year disruption in their education?

Are participation rates in community
activities lower for individuals who
did not have public education for five
years than for individuals who had continuous
education?

Are there lower rates of post-high school
educational endeavors for the students who
remained in Prince Edward County during the
shut-down of public schools when compared to
students who left the county to attend school
elsewhere?

42

2912;113:1121:

The sample for this study was obtained from school
enrollment lists from all African American schools in Prince
Edward County during the school year 1958-59. This included
twelve elementary schools (Mercy Seat; Peaks; First Rock; Mt.
Leigh; Worsham; High Rock; Five Forks; Virso; Felden; New
Bethel; Pamplin; Mary E. Branch) and the high school (R.R.
Moton). Each enrollment list included the child's name, age,
grade and parent's name and address.

Students listed as twelfth graders were not included in
the sample because they were graduates in June, 1959, just
prior to the school closings. No kindergarten existed during
this time period, therefore the enrollment lists provided a
total of eleven grades from which the sample could be drawn.

In order to provide a wider range of responses, two
grades were collapsed into one group for sampling procedures;
that is, students from the first and second grades were
considered as one group, students in grades three and four
were considered one group, and so on. The eleventh grade was
considered a single group. (See Table 1) Once the six groups
were established, each student listed in a combined grade
group was given a number, beginning with the number 1. Each
group was assigned a color to aid in numbering and record
keeping. (The color coding system proved to be very helpful in
light of the substantial size of the population, over 1700

students. It was particularly helpful in identifying the

43

different grades on the lists from the smaller schools. While

TABLE 1

Study Sample of Students
Clustered by Grades

 

 

 

 

 

 

Group Group Group Group Group Group

Grade I II III IV V VI

1 N815

2 N815

3 N815

4 N815

5 N815

6 N815

7 N815

8 N815

9 N815

10 N815

11 N830

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

the larger schools listed students in distinct grades on
separate sheets, enrollment lists from smaller schools tended
to reflect their smaller student numbers, and two or three
grades might be listed on one enrollment sheet. The devised
color coding system, proved. to be useful throughout. the
sampling process).

One thousand, seven hundred and three students (grades
one through eleven) were listed on the enrollment sheets for

1958-59. After all students were numbered in a specific

44
group, (i.e. grades one and two), a table of random numbers
was utilized to identify students from that group for the
sample. Thirty students from each group was used to comprise
the sample. This would produce a total of 180 students, an
appropriate representative number in respect to the total
school enrollment figures for 1958-59.

The next step, locating the sample participants, was the
most difficult. The primary sources of information were
family members and friends who still resided in Prince Edward
County. Collecting information involved many hours of
telephone calls and personal visits. Retired teachers living
in the area also proved to be extremely helpful as contact
persons during the search process.

Two retired teachers were able to identify a significant
number of students who resided in the county, and knew the
correct names for most female students in the sample who had
married. They were also able to tell the researcher about
family connections-a cousin or aunt who might know where a
particular student could be reached.

.A Farmville funeral director provided invaluable
assistance by sharing her records which often included
addresses for many students who resided out of the area. A
community leader gave his list of alumni from Moton High,
which included many students in the sample, and contributed
his personal knowledge about the whereabouts of certain

individuals.

45

A local attorney, the beneficiary of intervention by the
American Friends Service Committee, produced a list of
students involved in the placement program sponsored by the
American Friends. Comparisons of lists indicated that some
students who were randomly selected in the original sample
were participants in the American Friends project. In such
situations, the student was removed from the "Out of School”
group and placed in a separate group which composed the
American Friends (or "In School") group.

With the support of individuals such as those mentioned
above, addresses for all one hundred eighty students in the
”Out of School" sample were obtained two and one half months
after the initiation of the search.

Thirty students from each group comprised a total of 180
students in.grades one through eleven (groups 1 through 6) for
the random sample labeled "Out of School". The number of
students identified on the American Friends Service Committee
list (labeled "In School") was sixty-six. IFifteen.students in
the randomly selected sample were recognized as American
Friends students and were expunged from the "Out of School"
group. ‘This decreased the total number in the "Out of School"
group to 165.

Addresses for all 165 students in the "Out of School"
group were located, but addresses for 21 of the "In School"
group were unavailable. The final total of the sample was

therefore 165 "Out of School", 45 "In School".

46

Instrument

A self-administered questionnaire was designed to test
the research questions. Babie (1986) identified several
strengths in this research method, including reduced
interviewer bias, standardization of data, and privacy for
respondents. The school closing remains a sensitive issue for
many people who were involved in it, and it was believed that
participation in a study via questionnaire would be less
threatening.

In light. of ‘weaknesses inherent in survey’ research
(Babie, 1986), such as the inability to explore complex
topics, respondents were provided an opportunity to talk
directly with the researcher if they so chose. The telephone
or face-to-face interview, initiated by the respondent on the
returned questionnaire, provided an opportunity to discuss in
more depth items on the questionnaire and other related
issues.

The questionnaire included both questions and statements
in order to provide more flexibility and interest (Dillman,
1978). The total number of items was forty-three. Of this
number, thirty-eight items were multiple-choice, and five
items were open-ended questions. The open-ended questions were
viewed not only as valuable sources of information, but
responses (or lack of response) to them would act as a prelude

during the personal interview.

47

In order to access current demographic information,
questions about age, gender, income level, marital status and
highest educational level attained were included in the
questionnaire. Occupation was coded using a standardized
classification scheme based on the 1980 Standard Occupational
Classification. Information that focused more on attitudinal
leanings was presented in a four point bi-polar scale designed
to determine if respondent agreed or disagreed with the
statement. (Table 2 provides an overview of the general
categories covered in the questionnaire and related survey
items. A complete questionnaire can be found in Appendix C).
Research Question 1 (survey question 6) sought to determine if
the level of educational attainment was the same for the two
groups (In School vs Out of School) in this study.
Educational attainment (furnished by the respondent), was
measured on a scale that began with a low rating (eighth grade
or less) and ended with a high rating (college graduate).
Responses of the two groups were compared and percentages
calculated.

Research Question 2 (survey questions 32 and 36) sought
information on income and occupations. Income was coded on a
five point scale that ranged from a low of under $20,00 to a
high of over $50,000. Responses to the question about work
role were coded using a standardized occupational

classification scheme where several occupational areas (i.e.

48

Table 2
General Categories on Questionnaire and
Related Items

 

Categories Items

 

 

Age, gender, marital....... 6, 8, 23, 24,
Demographics status, income, # of 25, 33, 36
children, etc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Attitudes Prince Edward County...... 11, 14, 17, 22
about the 1959 school closing.... 7, 12
the value of education ... 9, 10, 18, 31,
41, 42
Educational activities.... 13, 15, 19, 20,
Personal 37, 38
Involvement Community &/or political...26, 27, 28, 29
with organizations
Experiences What happened, who........ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
during closing helped, etc. 34, 35, 39, 40
16, 21, 3O
Optimism

 

 

postmaster, lawyer, social worker) are grouped under their
appropriate occupational title (i.e. Professional and
Managerial). For example, "Professional and Managerial" was
the title that included jobs which generally required a higher
level of preparation and.provided.higher levels of income. In

general, it is agreed that higher levels of educational

49
attainment lead to more options in career and lifestyle
(Wegmann, Chapman, & Johnson, 1989; Stolzenberg, 1978), but
beyond that provides individuals with the necessary tools to
make significant contributions to society.

Research Question 3 (survey questions 8, 11, 14, 17 and
22) attempted to discover if there was a relationship between
the school closing and the decision to leave Prince Edward
County. Answers to questions that assessed attitudes toward
the county (in terms of racial climate and the current
educational system) were cross-tabulated to determine if there
was any difference between respondents who reported that they
had chosen to live elsewhere and respondents who stayed in the
county.

Research Question 4 (survey questions 16, 26, and 27)
sought information on how members of both groups felt about
current race relations. This was tested by comparing the
answers of the two groups on questions about racial issues.
Only African American students were denied schooling in Prince
Edward. County for the ‘period described earlier. Their
optimism, in ‘terms of race relations, could. promote. or
decrease their activities as community members and/or adult
learners.

Research Question 5 (survey questions 28 and 29) focused
on participation in community based activities. Involvement
in church, civic, and volunteer organizations as well as any

public office service was of interest. Citizens participation

50

is often viewed as a means for bringing about social changes
or as a method of "giving back" to the community.

Research Question 6 (survey questions 9, 10, 18, 19, 20,
30, and 37) was designed to look at adult learning patterns.
The national study conducted by Aslanian and Brickell (1983)
reported that adults with higher incomes, with better
educations, and those employed in professional and technical
occupations were more likely to participate in learning
activities. Both groups were compared on their involvement in

learning activities.

W

Addresses for all 165 students in the "Out of School"
group were located, but addresses for 21 of the "In School"
group were unavailable. The final total of the sample was
therefore 210; 165 ”Out of School", 45 "In School".

A letter from the researcher, a letter of support signed
by two retired teachers who had been active in the system for
many years prior to the school closings (Appendix B), the
questionnaire (Appendix C), a pencil which was stenciled "I
helped Margaret get a Ph.D.", and a self-addressed stamped
envelope were mailed to all 210 subjects. The need for
follow-up precluded assurances of anonymity to the subject;
however, the lack of anonymity does not ordinarily present a

serious research problem (Borg & Gall, 1971; Moser & Kalton,

51
1974). However, confidentiality was assured in the letter
from the researcher.

Two weeks after the initial mailing a total of 64
completed questionnaires had been returned. At this point, a
follow-up letter, a questionnaire and another self-addressed,
stamped envelope was mailed to one hundred forty-six
individuals who had not responded.

A total of twelve packets were returned as undeliverable.
Ten of this number were for subjects in the "Out of School"
group, and two were for subjects in the "In School" group.
The final number of usable questionnaires that were returned
was one hundred and fifteen (94 "Out of School", 21 "In
School"). This represents a return rate of 55%.

Telephone calls were made to individuals who had agreed
to a personal interview. The agreement was confirmed by
completion of a sheet included with the questionnaire. This
sheet asked for complete name (including maiden name if
married), address, phone number, and best time to call. It
also included a statement of understanding that would permit
the researcher to include information or quotations from this
conversation. Respondents signed and dated this sheet to
verify their understanding and agreement. (Appendix D).

Personal and telephone interviews were unstructured and
were designed to provide further insight into the impact of
the school closing on the individual being interviewed” IFill-

in answers or questions left blank on the questionnaire were

52
generally excellent lead-ins (i.e. "I was very interested in
your answer to. . ." or "I noticed that you skipped question _
about_,") . Individuals were eager to talk, and many offered
touching expressions of appreciation at an opportunity to
discuss the school closings. (Interview Summaries Appendix E) .
W

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS-X)
was used to analyzed the data. Frequencies and percentages
were calculated for each questionnaire item having a fixed
response category. Where open-ended responses were permitted,
all such responses were recorded and categorized so that
frequencies and percentages could be calculated.

A significant amount of the data collected on the
questionnaire was measured at the ordinal level, that is,
values of variables could be logically rank ordered. With
ordinal scaling, nonparametric statistical tests are most
appropriate for testing the hypotheses (Siegel, 1956).

Nonparametrics also provide a number of other appropriate
characteristics in light of this study: they provide a method
for testing small sample sizes; may be used with ordinal data;
do not require the same conditions of the population
parameters as do parametric statistical tests.

The Mann-Whitney test (which identifies differences in
central tendency) was utilized in this study because it is
effective with small samples and its statistic - U - is

transformed into a normally distributed statistic z for larger

53
samples. The U statistic is a measure of the difference
between the ranked observations of the two samples. The
computed z score is corrected for ties within ranks.

The level of significance for rejection of the null
hypotheses was set at .05. Therefore, if the observed value
of U has an associated probability equal to or less that .05,
the null hypothesis would be rejected.

Information gathered from the personal interviews was
qualitative and could not be reduced to numerical data.
Therefore transcripts were scrutinized for similar issues that
were raised or discussed at length during the interview, and
categories or "themes" were identified. Detailed findings
regarding the interviews will be presented in Chapter IV and

Appendix E.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The intent of this study is to investigate the impact. of
the five year closing of public schools in Prince Edward
County, Virginia, on African American students who would have
been enrolled during the period of 1959 through 1964. Two
groups of students were identified: students who were placed
in out of state schools by the American Friends Service
Committee (a Quaker organization) and students who were left
in the county when the schools closed.

Students who did not participate in the American Friends
Service Committee placement program had few options: some who
remained in the county may have provided what schooling they
could for themselves and younger siblings, worked for parents
or other family members, or simply found ways to occupy their
time; others attended the Centers established by Reverend
Griffin and community leaders and/or took part in the summer
programs provided (see Chapter 1); many non-American Friends
Service committee students were able eventually to leave the
county to live with relatives in other states or in other

Virginia counties.

54

55
Table 3 presents the breakdown of respondent’s grade
levels when the public schools closedi "In School" represents
participants in the American Friends program, "Out of School"

signifies students who remained in Prince Edward County.

Table 3
Respondents by Group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Out of School In School
Group H u
I (Grades 18 0
1 & 2)
II (Grades 11 1
3 & 4)
III (Grades 22 2
5 & 6)
IV (Grades 20 6
7 & 8)
V (Grades 16 8
9 & 10)
VI (Grade 7 4
11)
N=94 N=21

A.review'of the:general demographics of the sample reveal
the following data (See.Table 3): In the "In School" group (21
respondents), 10 were women and 11 were men. Gender breakdown
in the "Out of School" group (94 repondents) was 53 women and
41 men, The age range was greater in the Out of School group,

with 19 respondants between 36-40 years of age, 46 between 41

56
and 45, and 29 between 46 and 50. In the American Friends
group no respondants were in the 36-40 age group, 7 were in
the 41-45 age range, 14 placed in the 46-50 category.

The lack of students in the youngest age range for the
American friends group is not surprising. The American
Friends were looking for more mature students who would adapt
to new surroundings; parents were probably less willing to
allow younger children to leave home to live with strangers;

younger students may have been less willing to leave home.

Table 4

Demographics by percentages

 

 

 

Gender Age Marital Status
Out of School F=56% 36-40=20% Married 72%
(N=94) M=44% 41-45=49% Single 28%
46-50=31%
In School F=48% 36-40= 0% Married 71%
(N=21) M=52% 41-45=33% Single 29%
46-50=67%
Reseaggh Question t;

Do the students who did not leave Prince Edward County
during the shut-down of public schools show lower levels
of educational attainment when compared to students who
participated in the American Friends program?

57
Data obtained on the questionnaire (See Appendix C)
indicates that students who were placed by the American
Friends have higher levels of academic preparation than
students listed.as "Out of School". Table 5 shows the results

of the self-reported information.

Table 5

Highest Grade Attained Group Comparisons

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Out of School In School
(N = 94) (N = 21)

12 or less

51% 24%
Some college

20% 19%
Four year ,
college grad 29% 57%

Totals 100% 100%

Slightly over one half of the Out of School group reported
obtaining twelve years or less of formal education. Only 24%
of students who were placed by the American Friends fall in
the "12 years or less" category. When the categories of
"Some college" and "College graduate" are combined, the Out of
School group totals 49% as compared to the American Friends
group's combined total of 76%. Not only were the American
Friends group more likely to go to college, they were much

more likely to complete a degree.

58

In order to collect information that would provide deeper
insight into the experience of the former students,
respondents were asked questions directly related to their
experiences during and feelings about the school closing. A
majority of those individuals who answered and returned the
questionnaire appear to have received formal schooling
(elsewhere) at some time during the five years that public

schools were closed in Prince Edward County (See Tables 6 &

 

7).
Table 6
What did you do when the schools closed?
Out of school In school

Public school another county 20% 0%
Public school another state 19% 32%
Private school in Virginia 0% 10%
Private school another state 03% 48%
Center &/or summer programs 19%
Combination outside county 15% 10%
Not in school during closings 24%

N=93 N=21

 

The characteristics of the education that the groups
participated in during the school closings ianrince Edward is
worthy of attention. Many members of the In School group
entered schools (and households) that were integrated. As

participants in the.American Friends program, over half of the

59
In School students were placed in private schools, thereby
gaining exposure to excellent resources and opportunities not
available in Prince Edward County.
In School students reported.that they were in school for
longer periods of time during the Prince Edward closings.
When the statistical test was applied to years in school, the

difference was significant at .05.

Table 7

How many years in school after public schools
closed in Prince Edward County?

 

Out of school In school

 

Did not attend school 34% 0%
In school 1 year or less 13% 19%
In school 2 years 20% 33%
In school 3 years 15% 38%
In school 4 years 18% 10%
N = 91 N 8 21
Mean Rank 53.5 69.1

Mann-Whitney U = 689 p = .02

Former students were asked directly for their opinions
about the personal impact of the school closing. Question 7
asked "...how do you think it affected your life?" and
question 39 asked "...how did you feel when the schools closed

in 1959?". Answers to question 7 were grouped generally as

60
positive effect, negative effect, no effect, both positive and

negative effect (See Table 8).

Table 8
As you look back on the school closing, how do
you think it affected your life?

 

Out of School In School

 

 

Effect N=94 N=20
No Effect 1% 5%
Both Positive 5 Negative 22% 20%
Negative 37% 10%
Positive 40% 65%
Mean Rank 56.1 63.9

Mann Whitey U 8 810 p = .14

Answers reported as both positive and negative effects
included statements that could not be clearly weighted in one
direction or the other (i.e. It probably reduced my
opportunity for a better life [and] It probably increased my
determination to fight segregation; or It made me bitter
towards society in general [and] It probably enhanced my
determination to succeed).

Results of the statistical test indicate that there is no
significant difference in how the two groups perceive the
effect of the school closings on their lives. However, the
higher mean rank for the In School group reflects more

positive responses from them than the Out of School group.

61

Question 39 asked former students, "In general, how did
you feel when the schools closed in 1959?" (Table 9). The
emotion reported most often by the In School group was "hurt".
Disappointment was the leading emotion reported by the Out of
School group. It is interesting to note that the Out of
School respondents reported some feelings that. were not
mentioned by the In School respondents. Disappointment,
feeling ashamed, being happy at first when the schools closed,
and being too young to understand were feelings described by
the Out of Schoolers but not by the In School group.

A majority of the In School students were in higher
grades when the public schools were closed in 1959. The age
differences may therefore reflect the differences in feelings
expressed when the two groups are compared. Older students
were accustomed to attending school, and recognized what role
education could play in determing one's future. Younger
students may not have reached a level of maturity and
understanding to grasp just what it was they were losing.

An attempt was made to measure the range of emotions in
more quantitative terms. Anger was considered the strongest
emotion on the scale which was constructed. Too young to
understand, don't recall, and other were grouped together and
placed at the lowest end of the scale.

The results of the Mann-Whitney U showed no significant
difference in the emotions reported by both groups. The

trend, however, as reflected in the mean.ranks, indicates that

62
members of the In School group listed stronger emotions more
often then Out of School students. These results support
information provided in Table 9.
Table 9

In general, how did you feel when the
schools closed in 1959?

 

 

 

Emotion Out of School In School

N = 82 N = 19
Other 14% 15%
Don't recall feelings 1% 11%
Too young to understand 13% 0%
Happy at first 6% 0%
Disbelief 10% 5%
Confused 6% 16%
Disappointed 26% 0%
Hurt 9% 32%
Angry 15% 21%

N = 82 N = 19

Mean Rank 49.4 57.6

Mann-Whitney U = 652 p = .12

A comparison of Tables 8 and 9 reveals that members of
the In School group feel more positive about how the school
closing affected their lives, however, they report feeling

angry and hurt more often than Out of School group members.

63
WW
Are the occupational and income levels lower for students
who did not participate in the American Friends program
when compared to students who did?
Table 10 reflects percentages of the population in each
of six occupational categories: Managers and Professionals;

Technicians, Sales, and Administrative Support; Service; Farm;

Production, Craft and Repairers; Operators and Laborers.

Table 10

Occupations held by percentages

 

Managers Tech.,Sales Service Farm Prod. Operators

 

 

 

 

 

 

Profess. Adm support C&R Laborers
Out
of School 24% 26% 12% 2% 8% 27%
(N = 84)
In School 37% 42% 5% 0% 0% 16%
(N 8 l9)

 

 

A majority of respondents in the In School group work
in occupations that fall under the "Manager and Professionals"
and "Technical, Sales and.Administrative Support" categories.
Jobs under this heading cover a broad range of skill
requirements, and include such careers as office supervisors,
secretaries, computer operators, sales persons, technicians in
the engineering, health and science fields, as well as postal
clerks, telephone operators and receptionists. A higher

percentage of the In School group report occupations in the

64
Managerial and Professional category. Occupations under this
heading include such careers as administrators, physicians
and dentists, teachers, lawyers, engineers and professors.

Former students in.the.Out of School group appear to‘work
in a broader range of occupations and report work in lower
ranked occupations in higher numbers than members of the In
School group.

Closely related to occupational level is the issue of
income. Table 11 reflects the individual income for former
students in both groups. A comparison of income levels for
the two groups indicates that a higher percentage of the Out
of School group falls in the lower income ranges than do the
American Friends students.

Table 11

Individual Income Levels by Percentages

 

 

Out of School In School
(N=90) (N=19)
Income Below $ 20,000 41% 16%
$21,000 - 30,000 28% 32%
Levels 31,000 - 40,000 23% 10%
41,000 - 50,000 03% 10%
Over $ 50,000 05% 32%

 

The In School group were older and at a high grade level when
the schools closed and they moved to participate in the

American Friends education program. Comparing the total

65
population could confound the data. Therefore, only students
in grades seven and above were subjected to statistical tests
on three items. These items, (level of educational attainment,
occupational level, and income), and the results of the Mann—

Whitney U are reported in Table 12.

Table 12
Mann-Whitney U applied to
Research Questions 1, 2, & 3
Grades 7 and Above
Both Groups

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Question Item Group *Mean Rank TI bp
#1 Highest grade In = 19 40.2 242 .004
attained Out= 43 27.6
#2 Occupational level In = 17 22.1 224 .041
Out= 37 29.9
Income level In = 17 36.7 242 .02
Out =42 27.2
fMann-Whitney bp=.05 level of significance

*Low to high (or high to low) ranking of variables determines direction
of difference.

The resulting probabilities indicate a significant difference
in level of education and income level when the In School and
Out of School groups are compared. There is also a
significant difference between the two groups in occupational
levels. Related means indicate that the Out of School group
was lower than the In School group on the three variables.
It is important to note that when the statistical test

was run on each question for the total population, there were

66
significant.differences at the .05 level. ‘Therefore, there is
no particular evidence of bias due to the differences in age/

grade levels of the two groups.

W

Is the decision to reside in Prince Edward County as an

adult higher for individuals who were deprived of an

formal public schooling for five years than for
individuals who did not share the experience?

Table 13 shows that former students in the Out of School
group remained in Prince Edward County at a higher percentage
than did the students placed by the American Friends. Over
half (52%) of the students in the In School group have resided
out of the state of Virginia for the last twenty years. This

is nearly a mirror image of the Out of School group who report

living in Prince Edward County at a 59% rate.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 13
Percentages of Migration Out of County
by Group
Out of School In School
N = 94 N = 21
Out of VA 21% 52%
In Virginia 20% 29%
Out of VA 59% 19%
Total 100% 100%
Mean Rank 53.3 78.6

Mann-Whitney U= 553 =.003

67
Results of the Mann-Whitney U indicate that the difference
between the two groups on choice of residence is significant
at the .05 level.

Other items included in this research question assessed
current attitudes toward Prince Edward County (Tables 14
through 17) . When asked about the current public school
system in Prince Edward County, a majority in both groups
agreed that children currently could obtain a good education
there. (See Table 14). While about one fifth of the Out of
School respondents were not confident about the quality of
education provided by the Prince Edward County public schools
today, there was no significant difference between the groups

when the statistical test was applied.

Table 14

Children can get a good education in
the public schools of Prince Edward County today.
Percentages of agree or disagree

 

 

 

Out of School In School
N = 91 N = 19
% Agree 82% 100%
% Disagree 18% 0%
Mean Rank 51.4 54.8
Mann-Whitney U = 714 p = .30

Respondents in both groups appear to believe that
memories of the school closings still exist in Prince Edward

Countyu According to data as reported in Table 15, over three

68
quarters of the former students in the In School and Out of
School groups disagreed with a statement that said most county
residents had forgotten about ‘the school closingu 'The
statistical test indicates that there was no significant

difference in how the groups answered this question.

Table 15

Most of the people now in Prince Edward County
have forgotten about the school closings.

 

 

 

Out of School In School
(N = 85) (N = 18)
% Agree 24% 16%
% Disagree 76% 84%
Mean Rank 55.7 54.1
Mann-Whitney U = 839 p = .41

Questions that asked about the political climate and
racism in Prince Edward County drew a smaller response rate
from both groups (Table 16). For those respondents in the
American Friends group, (who report a higher rate of living
out of the state), this may reflect a lack of more
recent personal experience within the county. Overall results
interestingly are nearly the same for both groups with the
majority of those answering reporting a negative view of the

current political climate in Prince Edward County. The Mann-

69
Whitney U indicates that there is no significant difference in
how' the ‘two groups answered. questions about racism .and

political climate in Prince Edward County today.

Table 16
The political climate in Prince Edward County
is now positive for Black American
Percentages who agree or disagree

 

Out of School

In School

 

 

N = 88 N = 12
% Agree 28% 25%
% Disagree 72% 75%
Mean Rank 50.3 51.3
Mann-Whitney U = 517 p = .45

The question about racism in the county drew a nearly
100% response rate from the Out of School sample, and more
former students in the American Friends group answered this
question. In Table 17 it appears that both groups believe
that racism is active in the county today.
Table 17

There is little racism in Prince Edward County today.
Percentages of agree or disagree

 

 

 

Out of School In School
N = 91 N = 15
% Agree 23% 7%
% Disagree 77% 93%
Mean Rank 54.0 50.0

Mann-Whitney U = 631

p=.30

70

W

Do students who were deprived of public education for

five years hold less positive attitudes and beliefs about

race relations than students who did not experience a

five year disruption in their education?

Two questions were designed to investigate feelings about
race relations. Tables 18 through 19 give results of answers
to each question.

Table 18 reveals that the Out of School group is nearly
equally divided on the question of opportunities for
success. The responses of the American Friends group reflect
a clear majority who are more positive about opportunities for
success.

Table 18
At the present time there are as many opportunities

for success available to me as there are for anyone else.
Percentages of agree or disagree

 

 

 

Out of School In School

(N = 91) (N = 21)
% Agree 51% 81%
% Disagree 49% 19%
Mean Rank 53.6 68.9

Mann-Whitney U = 695 p = .02

Table 19 reports the responses of both groups to the
question about the effect of desegregated schools on Black
Americans. Slightly over 10% of the Out of School group and

the American Friends group chose not to answer this particular

71
question. A comparison of the results indicate that former
American Friends students appear to feel better about
desegregated schools than do their counterparts who were
without public education for five years. There is, however,

no significant difference at the .05 level.

Table 19

Have desegregated schools helped or hindered the education
of Black Americans?

 

 

 

Percentages
Out of School In School
N = 84 N = 19
Helped 40% 63%
Hindered 24% 11%
Not Sure 36% 26%
Mean Rank 53.9 43.3
Mann-Whitney U = 634 p = .06

W

Are participation rates in community activities lower
for individuals who did not have public education for
five years than for individuals who had continuous
education?

Responses to the two questions which assessed community
involvement asked about particular activities, such as
participation in church, volunteer and civic organizations,
and attendance at community meetings are recorded in Tables 20

and 21. Table 20 indicates the level of involvement in

multiple community activities.

72

 

 

 

 

Table 20
Involved in community activities
Percentages
Out of School In School
N 8 84 N = 19

Church only 32% 11%
Volunteer, Civic

and Church 49% 58%
Civic or Volunteer 14% 31%
Run for office 05% 0%
Mean Rank 50.6 57.8

Mann-Whitney U = 686 p = .14

There may be some differences in how respondents interpreted
involvement. Some may have
membership versus actual participation.
that nearly half of the respondants to a question about

attendance at community meetings report that they attend

interpreted

involvement

Table 21 indicates

"sometimes" as opposed to attending on a regular basis.

Table 21

Percentages of attendance at

community meetings

 

 

 

Out of School In School
N = 84 N = 20
Regular attend 20% 40%
Sometimes attend 49% 45%
Never attend 29% 20%
Mean Rank 59.8 46.5

Mann-Whitney U =

721

p=.03

73
Politics and resulting policies help shape a community.
The voting practices of this population were therefore of
interest in this study. Table 22 provides information on
registration and participation in last election. Voting

appears to be important for both groups.

Table 22

Registered voters and voted
in last election by Group

 

 

 

 

 

Registered voter Out of School In School
N = 94 N = 21
Yes 93% 100%
NO 7% 0%
Mean Rank 57.2 61.5
Mann-Whitney U = 913 p = .10
Vote in last election N=93 N=21
Yes 90% 100%
NO 10% 0%
Mean Rank 56.4 62.0
Mann Whitney U = 882 p = .06
WW

Are there lower rates of post-high school
endeavors for individuals who did not have public
education for five years as compared to those who did?
Actual behaviors as well as attitudes about higher
education were investigated. Table 23 provides an overview
of responses about education. All the former students in the

American Friends sample believe that education is the key to

progress and all but a small percentage of the Out of School

74

group concurred. A majority of both groups also agree that

most people should have an education beyond high school.

Almost half of the Out of School group agreed that uneducated

people work.harder than people with.an education, but only 19%

of the In School group agreed with that statement. Both

groups appear to have positive feelings about their abilities

and/or benefits of schooling at this point in their lives.

Attitudes toward education

Table 23

 

Out of School

 

Obtaining education is
the way to progress...

Educated people don't
work as hard as
uneducated people.

Most people should have
education beyond high
school.

 

 

Would do well in school now

Would do well w/hard work

School too difficult now

Agree
(n =
96%
(n =

43%

(n

91%

Disagree
92)

4%
91)

52%

91)

09%

 

—

—

(n=93)

31%

53%

11%

Past point where school helpful 5%

 

 

In School
Agree Disagree
(n = 21)
100% 0%
(n = 21)
19% 81%
(n = 21)
90% 10%
(n=20)
65%
35%
0%
0%

 

75

However, over half of the Out of School group believe
they would have to work hard to achieve that success as
compared to about one third of the In School students. A
few people in the Out of School group appear to have negative
feelings about their abilities and/or benefits of schooling at
this point in their lives.

Table 24-A reveals that over half of both groups have
been involved in some kind of formal educational endeavors
since they left school, ZMembers of the In School group report
higher rates of participation in post high school educational
activities. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test indicate that
the differences between the two groups on rates of
participation in formal educational activities are significant
at the .05 level.

When asked about the nature of that education (Table 24-
B), the respondents in the In School sample appeared to have
more work related training and college courses (85%). Sixty
percent of the Out of School group report taking college
courses and involvement in work related training. The Out of
School respondents listed more GED and vocational/trades
training (35%) than did the In School group (10%). In the Out
of School sample, 5% reported that they were currently in a

degree program.

76

 

 

 

Table 24-A
Percentages involved in formal educational
activities
Out of School In School
(n=87) (n=20)
‘ Involved in formal educational 59% 81%
activity in last year
” Involved in formal educational 59% 81%
activity in last 2 years
' Mean Rank 51.3 65.5
Mann-Whitney U = 640 p = .02
" Mean Rank 51.7 64.0
Mann-Whitney U = 670 p = .04
Table 24-B

Type of educational activity

 

 

Type of Out of School In School
Activity (n=21) (n=55)
GED 13% 05%
Improve reading skills 0% 05%
Job specific training 27% 65%
College courses 33% 20%
Enrolled in degree program 05% 0%
Trade/technical program 22% 05%

 

 

Table 25 provides a summary of findings on research
questions 3 through 6. A detailed discussion is presented in

Chapter V.

Mann-Whitney U applied to

Table 25

Research Questions 3 through 6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Research Item Group Mean U p
Question Rank

# 3 Migration rates In = 21 78.6 553 .00
Out= 94 53.3

I 4 Opportunities In = 21 68.9 695 .02
Out= 91 53.6

Political climate In = 12 51.3 517 .45
Out= 88 50.3

Racism in RFC In = 15 50.0 631 .30
Out= 91 54.0

Desegregation In 8 19 43.3 634 .06
Out =84 53.9

# 5 Community activities In = 19 57.8 686 .14
Out= 84 50.6

Attend meetings In = 20 46.5 721 .03
Out= 94 59.8

Registered voter In = 21 61.5 913 .10
Out= 94 57.2

Vote last election In = 21 62.0 882 .06
Out= 93 56.4

f 6 Education past year In = 20 65.5 640 .02
Out= 87 51.3

Education past 2 years In = 20 64.0 670 .04
Out =87 51.7

 

The above table reveals the following:

0 In School students left Prince Edward County at

higher rates than did Out of School students. The

difference was significant at .05.
0 on the question of attitudes and beliefs, the two

groups differ significantly on only one issue. In

School students were more optismistic than Out of

School students about their opportunities for success;

0 the twolgroups do not differ significantly on.the issue

of community involvement,

except in their rate of

78
attendance at meetings. In School students attend
meetings more regularly than do Out of School students.
0 the In School students have higher rates of post-high
school educational activities than do Out of School

students. The difference was significant at .05.

Intentim

Several themes were identified as interview contents were
reviewed, Themes were: (1) Dreams - hopes and.goals that were
changed.or affected by the school closing; (2) Relationships -
with family and friends; (3) Experiences in the Centers -
facilities operated by the African American community in an
attempt to provide educational experiences for children who
remained in the county; (4) Opinions about Farmville today;
(5) Prince Edward Academy - the private school which was
opened to serve White children when public schools closed; (6)
Attitudes - general expressions of emotions; and (7)
Historical insights - memories about the county and town
during the school closing era.

Following are excerpts from the collection of interviews
which allow a comparison of what members of the two groups
discussed. Appendix E provides an unabridged report of the

interviews.

Out of School

 

'I went into shock, I was the next
to the oldest so I went to work to
help support the family. I
couldn't stand it, seeing my
dreams going. So, I started making
excuses, or I should say I changed
the direction in my thoughts about
what the value of school was. I
decided ‘that school wasn't all
that important in life, that
marriage was the'way to go. I just
changed direction.in my dreams and
thoughts. I never graduated. I got
married too soon, I know that. If
the schools had stayed open this
wouldn't have happened. I know it
changed my life for the worse."

'I had wanted to go to college but
lost interest.”

"The closing threw' me back. I
stayed out for a year and helped
with my Dad, who was injured. I
didn't graduate. When the schools
reopened things were different. I
got married.“

“It ruined my life, period. The
choices I might have made I didn't
have any more. I went to work on a
farm. I always talk to my kids
about the closing. I tell them how
important it is to take advantage
of every opportunity available. I
can't help my kids and it bothers
me a lot."

79

In School

 

E TION

Out of School

 

"I attended the Center at First
Baptist. My sister was sent to New
York. My parents were not making
a lot of money, so they couldn't
afford to send all the children
away. There were twelve kids in
the family. When the schools
closed we played school in our
playhouse. But the closing broke a
special bond I had with my sister.
When she left I lost my best
friend. I wondered how could this
have happened."

“Mother was a teacher in the
county and when school closed we
moved to Maryland. Dad stayed in
the county. It broke the
continuity of friendships and the
whole concept of having a home
town. I haven't stayed in one
place for more than three years,
and I believe that this started
the pattern. Even though I stayed
in school, there was a disruption
in something much more permanent. "

"During the time right after the
closing there was chaos, no sense
of structure. Some families
couldn't move. I was sneaked into
the adjoining county (Cumberland)
to live with my grandparents. In
about a year I would sneak home
overnight or on the weekends. We
were a very close family. Hadn't
anticipated anything like this. At
the time I was a sophomore-looking
forward to walking down the aisle
of that new school at graduation.
Wanted to go to Kittrell, but Mom
said no, I wasn't mature enough.
So I was sent to grandparents. I
didn't make the adjustment. Too
far in the country, no
electricity, no indoor bathroom.
No help with lessons."

'I was able to stay in school, but
I had to leave my friends and

family. I had to leave behind my
plans, the football team,
graduating from Moton. People

forget that we had connections. We
were kids, but we had
connections."

80

P8

In School

 

”First of all, I had to make the
choice of whether to go with the
American Friends or not. I went to
Ohio. My grandparents didn't want
me to leave, but my aunts and
uncles were of the mind that I
should complete my education.
After a year out of school and
working the farm I was ready to go
back to school. It was very
difficult for me. The first family
I lived with was Black but they
were vegetarians. There were other
differences that made things
difficult. I called home many
times asking to come back, but I
was told that I needed to be
strong and to tough it out. After
two years in Ohio there was no
sponsor and I was sent to
Cambridge [MA]. I lived with a
White family there. It was
difficult building ‘trust, value
systems not the same, but I did
form a relationship with that
family. After graduation I went
home to work before going to
college. I wanted to be with
family, my family. I fell in love
and got married. In a hurry to
rebuild family after being away so
long. It was a mistake.”

W

Out of School

 

'[I] stayed at home two years.
Went to First Baptist for class.
It.wasn't school-like. We did some
class work, but more
entertainment. Games, some board
work like arithmetic, not a lot of
reading. [I] think all were
volunteers-not teachers."

“The Center was good, but we had
to sit in chairs that were
uncomfortable. No desks. There
wasn't enough learning. We got out
early. We didn't have proper
schooling. We didn't have a
teacher, but Mrs. Reid did the
best she could. She fussed because
we didn't have supplies. It was a
happy time because we had
something better than nothing."

'I picked up a few things when
attending the Centers. Area people
taught. About twenty-five to
thirty kids met at a school.
Didn't notice much difference
between school and the Center. I
attended a Center in Meherrin. It
was like a day care center some
times."

“I attended one of the Centers in
Prospect and it was not like
school, that's for sure. We were
taught a little, but it was mostly
play. There was one adult .for
about twenty-five to thirty kids
in the same age group. It was
mostly supervised play.”

81

In School

 

82

W

Out of School

 

I'Things are not much different
now. Job opportunities are
limited. The Whites get the best
opporunities. I rely on my family
to learn new skills. Take problems
to my spouse, or someone I know
and trust."

"I was hurt to think White people
were so mean. Still that way now,
to some extent. Uneducated Blacks
here bend over for Whites. It is
just ignorant. They will do
anything to stay in good with
Whites. The school closing has had
an effect on this I think."

'I don't like to think about it.
Had to leave home to go to school.
I think a lot of people here wish
things were still like that. You
know, us in our place, afraid to
think on our own.”

'I feel like this. Even though
they talk to you they still have
hate in them. Just in talking to
one lady about a year ago I asked
her, just kidding around'with her,
I said what would you say to the
fact if one of her sons married a
Black woman. She said and I quote,
"Not while I'm alive." This is
what I mean. Just because they
smile with you doesn't mean
they're not smiling at you also. I
clean house for one lady now that
doesn't let one hour go bwaithout
saying something about the Black
race even the famous ones like
basketball players, actors,
football players, if they're Black
she has something bad to say about
them.“

”Farmville is still in the dark
ages, it is no place to raise a
family".

”I saw to what extent people's
hatred can go. I can't live in
Farmville, too limited. People
still live in the past. Don't want
to progress.”

In School

 

"I was home in July ('91) for the
reunion. On the surface people are
friendly, but there is a
separation between the people that
finished their education and'those
that didn't. The ones that did
have the cars and homes, and sort
of look down on the others. There
isn't the sense of closeness-
family-that used to exist when I
was growing up.”

"Some people in the county have
not moved past this event. Some
have a "they're coming to take
over out school“ mentality. I
think more Whites than Blacks have
moved ahead to integration.”

"I feel that the renaming of most
of the schools that were named for
Black Americans took away some of
the Black identity as well as some
of the role models who were
instrumental in shaping the
history of America.”

 

83

 

W
Out of School In School
“They still have the private

school here so there are still
those around who would shut the
schools down again if they could."

“I don't hate anyone, but this is
a part of me, and it is a
nightmare. I also believe that the
educational system here will
always be tainted as long as the
Academy is around."

"The Academy is still separate and
it puts a diversion in the races.

More so because it keeps us
separate. They think by being
separate they have something
better.”

"The Whites still support the
Academy. They are only in the

public school because they can't
afford to send their kids to the
Academy.”

”When.you went through what we did
you are on guard. You can't trust
them. Give them the chance and
they would shut the school down
again. The Academy is there just
to keep Whites away from us. They
built it to avoid education with
us and today it is the same. My
girls played basketball against
them and you could just see it.
One of the Academy girls told my
daughter, "Don't touch me!"

"For me, I think they ought to
close that Academy. It just helps
to keep people apart. I wonder if
the kids in public school really
think they are getting a poorer
education because the Academy is
here-and if the Academy kids think
they are better. I bet they do.”

”I can't believe the Academy is
still functioning. Talk.about your
die-hard racists.”

Out of School

 

“I didn't go anywhere and I want
to say I was a miserable soul. I
went to the Center for a while,
but that wasn't for me. I just
felt like something was wrong with
me, with us, that they would close
our schools down rather than go
with us. I mean, how can you trust
people that would do that to
children?"

'I left the county to go to school
but came back when the Free School
opened. This is home. I realized
that education was a must, and I
just finished a BA degree (5/91).
I could see that I needed to do
that, but I was a little worried
about my skills. I know that some
of that lack.of confidence was due
to the closing, even though I got
away for most of it. So many
didn't. I see them all the time. I
don't think they encourage their
kids much."

"I stayed to help on the farm. It
was difficult for my parents to
send their children away. They
resented it. But our family was
split up. I went to a Center in
Green Bay [VA]. Adults from the
comunity and college students
from up north came to teach there.
I remember a White male student
asked us if we were angry about
the school closing and I couldn't
answer then or now. I was never
angry. People in power thought
that integration was wrong. Waste
of time to be angry."

84

In School

 

"When they closed the schools they
did me the biggest damn favor
anyone ever did.”

"Personally it might have been a
good thing because it made me
realize just how suppressed we
were. My father was a self-
employed business person and we
didn't have to rely on a White
employer. However, this was not
something we could control and
made us realize that we were still
vulnerable."

8T RIC

Out of School

 

“On August 18, 1959, I was told
that the schools were closed,
officially. Grandma said that
there would be no school, and that
same day I caught the bus to
Washington, D.C. According to
Allen Scott, a neighbor, the‘White
people in Farmville had a run on
the bank. What they were doing
was getting tax dollars back,
getting ready for the voucher
system.”

"Longwood didn't have the kind of
influence it should have. Hampden-
Sydney was more progressive. They
did some things for Blacks in
their area. They made sure that
discarded sports equipment got to
Black kids. They sent food. We
would use their athletic areas
when students were gone."

“The Klan was here. They were at
the A E P store. Maybe one of the
workers there was a member. But
anyway, there they were, in full
dress, marching back and forth. I
was astonished to see them. I will
never forget, I was petrified. I
remember their black shiny shoes.

Just the appearance ‘was
intimidating. They didn't bother
us, but those black shiny
shoes..."

85

IRS 63 8

In School

 

"In the height of it if you would
walk down Main Street you would
think it was a model town for
racial issues. People talking,
expressions of concern. All was
well if you knew your place."

”I played on the high school
football team and we had the

entire team returning for my
senior year , except two players
graduating. Football was

everything to most of the boys at
R.R. Moton High School. We looked
out for each other, shared meal
tickets, used peer-pressure to
keep a player in school and his
grades up. We were influenced by
nearby Hampden-Sydney College. We
would go there on Saturday
afternoons and watch them play
football. We liked going to
Hampden-Sydney because we could go
down on the field and stand under
the goal post with the grounds
keepers and cooks (all Black). The
coach at Hampden-Sydney would give
some of our players used special
equipment, extra large helmets,
shoes, etc. If we went to
Farmville High School Friday night
games, we had to go behind the
school, stand on the sidewalk, and
peek through the hedge. You had
better not walk on the grass."

"I recall that right before the
schools were closed a Black.man in
Pamplin had words with some Whites
at a store, and they caught him by
the train tracks and mangled his
body. People were really afraid.
Nothing in the paper, all word of
mouth. Everyone tried to keep it
from the kids, but we heard. There
was a lot of fear."

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

Inmgtion
The closing of public schools in Prince Edward County,

Virginia, could be cited as just one more example of the
social turmoil that existed during the "Civil Rights Era".
Yet, unlike the cities of Selma, Little Rock, or Birmingham,
no fire hoses or vicious dogs were unleashed in Farmville; no
burly man blocked the doors of the schools; no hate-filled
mobs hurled obscenities and missiles at those gathered in the
name of passive resistance. The turmoil in Farmville and the
rest of Prince Edward County involved no outward displays of
violence or televised images of terror and hate.

However, some would argue that a more cunning type of
violence took place in Prince Edward. A violence made more
treacherous because it was couched in terms of "individual
rights", "freedom of choice", and "justice", and because its
target was innocent children.

Under’ the 1956 "Massive IResistance" laws jpassed in
Virginia, the governor was authorized to close any school

ordered by the courts to desegregate. The first test of this

86

87

came when Governor J. Lindsay Almond contacted Warren County
Superintendent of Schools Q. D. Gasque in September, 1958,
with orders to close the doors of Warren County High School.
This event gave a green light to the Foundation private school
movement in Front Royal, Virginia (Warren County), and similar
reactions followed in Norfolk, Charlottesville, and Prince
Edward County (Gates, 1964; Dabney, 1971).

Norfolk, Virginia, was the first to open the doors of its
Foundation school. A few days later the Front Royal Academy
in Warren County was ready for students. Public schools were
closed in the Fall of 1958 in Norfolk, Charlottesville, and
Warren County. But all of these communities re-opened public
schools in the Spring of 1959. It appears that staunch
segregationists in these communities accepted that the
integration of public schools was inevitable. The Foundation
schools would, however, be there for the "best people" in
Virginia who Jhad always sent their children to jprivate
schools. Foundation private schools would be there to fight
against the damage caused by "progressive education",
"subversive ideas", and to promote "individual liberty" and
the ”purity" of the race.13

In Prince Edward County, however, the political power

structure and Foundation leaders (generally one and the same)

 

uGoodman, Mary Ellen "Why Private Schools”. Position paper
submitted to the American Friends Service Committee, 1960.
Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

88

remained uncompromising and adamant on the question of
integrated public schools. Unlike the rest of Virginia,
Prince Edward held the distinction of being included in the
original Brown vs Board of Education suit, and was therefore
fighting at the Federal rather then heeding State level
doctrine. When the decision to close public schools was made
in Prince Edward, it.was with the intent of never seeing White
and Black children in school together. For five years White
leaders were able to maintain their position. From the Fall of
1959 to the Fall of 1964 no school-aged child in Prince Edward
County, Virginia had access to a public education system.
White children in the county were educated in the privately
financed Prince Edward Academy. African American children
were essentially left without any options in the county.
findings

The intent of the study was to investigate the impact of
the five year public school closing on the African American
children who were school-aged during the years 1959 through
1964. A total of 115 former students responded to the mailed
questionnaire. Of this number, 21 were students who were
placed in out of state homes by the American Friends Service
Committee, and 94 were students who remained in the county.

Six research questions were presented and the resulting
data were analyzed.

1. The students who did not leave Prince Edward
County during the shut-down of public schools

showed lower levels of educational attainment when
compared to students who participated in the

89

American Friends program.
(Difference significant at .05)

On the question of WW students who

were placed by the American Friends Service Committee (In
School group) reached higher levels of education. More of
them attended college and completed a four year college degree
program. More students in the Out of School group were
likely to have only a high school diploma or to have never
completed high school. This may mean that students found work
after the schools closed, or could not make the adjustment
once the schools reopened, .After taking on the responsibility
of bread-winner or financial contributor to the family some
young people may have changed their ideas about the value of
continuing their education in light of a tangible reward for
hard work.

The issue of age also is an important factor. Former
students may have felt that they were too old to return to the
classroom, or would be embarrassed to be surrounded by younger
classmates who were scholastically their equals.

The students who were placed by the American Friends were
distanced, physically, from the general tone and events within
the county. The opportunity for them to become
psychologically demoralized about their futures, at least in
terms of educational benefits, was less a possibility than for
those students who remained in the county. Whereas in the

county, students daily experienced the fact that the public

90
schools were closed, including the emotions and politics
associated with that act.
2. Occupational and income levels were lower for
students who did not participate in the American
Friends program when public schools closed when
compared to students who did.
(Results for both occupation and income were

significant at .05)

Research question two assumed that members of the Out of
School group would hold W and ineemee of lower
levels than did former students in the In School group.

Former students in the Out of School group show lower
percentages in the higher status occupational groups. They
also report work in two lower ranking occupational groups
(Farm and Production, Craft & Repairers) that none of the In
School group report. There is also a higher percentage of the
Out of School students who work as Operator/Laborers than for
the In School students.

The fact that additional earnings in the labor market are
generally associated with additional amounts of formal
schooling is widely documented (Hanoch, 1967; Beaton, 1975;
Juster, 1975). Respondents from the Out of School group tend
to work in occupations that provide less income. Their
reported educational levels indicate that opportunities for
promotion into higher ranking (and higher paying) positions

are more limited.

91
The information gathered about occupations and incomes
seems credible in light of the fact that Prince Edward County
provides few opportunities for highly ranked occupations, such
as executives, physicians, architects. The two local colleges
and the public schools system tend to provide the majority of
positions for the upwardly mobile. Such positions, however,

also require a high level of education.

3. The decision to reside in Prince Edward County
as an adult was higher for individuals who were
deprived of formal public schooling for five years
than for individuals who did not share the
experience. (Significant at .05) However, there

was nLaignifipsnuifferm in attitudes toward

the county.

Migzeeien out of the county was the basis of research
question three. It was expected that students who were placed
by the American.Friends Service Committee*would.chose to live,
(for a variety of reasons) someplace other than Prince Edward
County.

Nearly two-thirds of the respondents from the Out of
School group report that they have resided in Prince Edward
County for the last twenty years. Over half of the In School
group have lived outside of Virginia for this same period of
time.

That members of the In School group chose to live away
from Prince Edward County may not be a surprising finding when
one looks at the past economic base and industrial history of

the county. Prince Edward had traditionally been recognized

92
as a tobacco and lumber production area. Wages and required
educational levels for workers in these two industries are at
the lower end of the economic and educational scale. These
factors may have been more appealing (or less threatening) to
individuals with little formal education.

.According to some records, Prince Edward lost
opportunities to attract new industries because of the school
closing (Smith, 1965), although some leaders attempted to
dismiss any relationship between the two.“ Students who
completed their education under the auspices of the American
Friends may have found themselves overqualified for a majority
of jobs available in the county. Their exposure to other
opportunities and possibilities in terms of jobs and careers
may also have been a deciding factor in their choice of
residence.

Four questions were included to assess attitudes toward
the county (in terms of racial climate and the current
educational system). Students who participated in the
American Friends program were expected to hold less positive
views of Prince Edward County which could influence their
decision to reside elsewhere.

A) Children can get a good education in the public

schools of Prince Edward County today.
(No significance at .05)

 

“flfid

93

The public school system in Prince Edward County received
a vote of confidence from a majority of former students in
both groups. A few, (about one fifth), of the Out of School
respondents did not agree that the public schools in Prince
Edward County were doing a good job. Their answers may
reflect concerns about recent allegations of tracking (and
other issues) in the public school system (p 23).

However, respondents from the In School group (American
Friends participants), all agreed with the majority of Out of
School students that children are being well served by the
public school system now.

There might be some question as to the candor of these
positive responses. Some respondents may be unwilling to
express displeasure with the public school system because
they may believe complaints provide ammunition to supporters
of the private school. They might also perceive that any
criticism of the public school system is a criticism of
the children who comprise the majority of public school
enrollment -- their children -- African American children.

B) Most of the people now in Prince Edward County

have forgotten about the school closings.
(No significance at .05)

Over 75% of the former students in both groups report
that they believe memories of the school closings still exist
in Prince Edward County residents. Respondents may expect
that memories of the school closings live because those most

affected by the closings, the former students, live. The

94
event which so permeated their lives and insured for
themselves and their home county a unique place in history is
evidently not easily forgotten.

Furthermore, buildings that housed.Mary E. Branch, R. R.
Moton High School, Prince Edward Academy, and Farmville High
School still stand, and while some have been renamed, in many
cases they continue to function in their original capacities.
These physical monuments to the closings may play a role in
why most respondents believe the school closings are
remembered.

C) The political climate in Prince Edward County is now

positive for Black Americans.
(No significance .05 and trend in expected
direction).

Five percent of the.Out of School students did.not answer
this question, and nearly half of the In School students
skipped it as well.

It is understandable for those people who live away from
Prince Edward could not respond to this question. The number
of Out of School respondents who did not answer this
particular question may also represent individuals who do not
live in the county.

The answers to the question about political climate in
Prince Edward were nearly identical for both groups. Only 28%
of the Out of School students and 25% of the In School group
felt that the political climate In Prince Edward is now

positive for African Americans.

95

D) There is little racism in Prince Edward County
today.
(No significance .05 and trend in expected
direction).

When respondents were asked about contemporary';eeiem_in
W, nearly one third of the In School
students declined to answer. This more than likely is an
indication that those individuals did not reside in the
county, and therefore felt that they were unqualified to
discuss the issue. .All but three members of the Out of School
group did answer this question. This may indicate that they
believed they could accurately address this particular issue.

Individuals who did answer this question, in both groups,
clearly do not believe that racism is dead in Prince Edward
County, Virginia. Interestingly, a higher percentage of the
In School (93%) than Out of School respondents (77%) believe
that racism is alive and well in the county.

This finding may be the result of "hearing" about the
county as opposed to actually "experiencing" it. For
individuals who must daily live in Prince Edward, that living
is less frustrating (and less threatening) if one can see
factors other than racism when community and/or interpersonal
problems and challenges arise.

This is in contrast to individuals who have nothing to
lose by retaining more antagonistic feelings about Prince
Edward. Their families, friends, and livelihoods are not

effected if they maintain that Prince Edward County is a

96
hotbed of racism. They do not shop at the stores, attend
meetings, or utilize services in the county, and therefore
have no personal investment in "getting along".

Former students who do not live in Prince Edward County
may also be relying on their memories, and therefore could be
basing their opinions on the environment that existed when
they were actually residents in Prince Edward.

Some respondents indicated that students who left the
county were often looked upon almost as traitors, or at least
that some barriers seemed to exist between members of the two
groups. These feelings of alienation may have played a larger
role in the decision to live elsewhere than is immediately
observable.

4. There is mixed evidence that students who
were deprived of public education for five years
held less positive attitudes and beliefs about race
relations than students who did not experience a
five year disruption in their education.

(For the question that looked at more general
perceptions there was no significant difference.

For the question that addressed subject's personal
attitude, there was a significant difference at .05)

AW about race relations were the focus

of research question four. It was supposed that former
students who remained in the county (Out of School) would have
less positive attitudes and beliefs about race relations than
their In School counterparts.

The motive for the closing of public schools in Prince

Edward County, Virginia, was, in fact, the desire to keep the

97
races separate. Racism, under the guise of freedom of choice
and state's rights, guided the actions of the political power
machine in the county.

The expectation that students who remained in Prince
Edward would hold less positive attitudes and beliefs about
race relations was developed because: (1) the county continues
to experience anxiety about African American children in the
public school system; (2) the Prince Edward Academy still
functions in the county as a reminder of the school closing;
and (3) the division of races in the county is a still very
much a reality.

There were two questions asked that were designed to
investigate feelings about race relations:

A) At the present time there are as many opportunities

available to me as there are for anyone else.
(Significant at .05)

Over three-fourths of the students placed by the American
Friends, (In School group) agreed that opportunities for
success were the same for them as anyone. In comparison, just
slightly over one half of the Out of School respondents were
optimistic about opportunities for success.

B) In your opinion, have desegregated schools
helped or hindered the education of Black
Americans?

(No significance .05 and trend in expected
direction).

The second question included in the research question

about race relations sought information about the effect of

98
geeegzegeeeg_eeheeie. More In School students believe that
desegregated schools have helped African Americans than do Out
of School students. Twice as many Out of School students
indicated that desegregated schools have hindered African
Americans.

When members of the In School group were placed in Quaker
homes, they generally found themselves living in White
communities, with White "foster parents", and attending
predominately or all White schools. During these kinds of
experiences, they discovered that people of differing races
could and did live and learn together. Desegregation was a
reality for them.

The attitude toward desegregated schools as expressed by
students who remained in Prince Edward is probably due to the
fact that Whites in the county did not embrace integration
once the public schools reopened. Although the county still
remains about half White, the public school enrollment does
not refect this fact.

The fact that the Academy remains open may be interpreted
by members of the Out of School students who reside in Prince
Edward County that many people there still support separation
of the races. Added to this are their concerns that
administrators and teachers in the public school system often
do not treat African American students fairly. Desegregation
for them has, in a manner of speaking, caused more problems

than it solved.

99
5. There are mixed results that participation rates
in community activities lower for individuals
who did not have public education for five years
than for individuals who had continuous education.
(On question of membership, no significance .05;

On question of attendance, significant .05; On
question of voting, no significance .05).

Research question five presumed that Out of School
students would show lower rates of inyeiyemen§_in_eemmeni§y
activities. It was expected that individuals who had been out
of school during the closing would be less confident about
their abilities to participate in decision-making or
leadership roles.

While more Out of School than In School respondents
report that they work with church only (32% vs 11%), about
half of both.groups are more likely to be involved in multiple
community activities.

When asked about attending community meetings, some of
the numbers were similar. Most of the respondents reported
that they sometimes attend meetings, (45% In School, 49% Out
of School). Members of the In School group, however, reported
higher rates of regular attendance at community meetings (40%
as opposed to 20% for Out of School).

Politics is a very potent ingredient in the flavor of a
community. Respondents were asked if they were registered
voters and if they voted in the last election. All of the In
School respondents are registered and voted in the last

election. Ninety-three percent of the Out of School

100
respondents report that they are registered, and 90% voted in
the last election.
6. There are lower rates of post-high school
endeavors for individuals who did not have public
education for five years as compared to those
who did.
(Significant .05).

Research question six was an inquiry into re;ee_ef_pee§:
nigh_eeneei_engeeye;§ for the two'groups. ‘The In School group
was expected to have higher rates of educational activity past
high school.

The justification for this stance was based on Green's
(1964) assertion that the students who were left in the county
would probably remain academically stunted, and the research
from adult learner literature which indicates that more highly
educated adults are the ones most likely to seek. more
education (Aslanian & Brickel, 1980).

When percentages were calculated for the former
students who answered the first question, ("During the past
year I have participated in some kind of class or structured
learning experience"), it appeared that the assumption about
the groups was accurate.

Eighty-five percent of In School group as compared to
fifty-six percent of the Out of School group report
participating in a class or structured learning experience
within the past year. These percentages stayed exactly the

same when the time frame was extended to include the past two

years.

101
EBEEQIY

The findings indicate that the two groups of students
differ significantly in several ways. Members of the In School
group (students placed by the American Friends) have higher
incomes, have completed higher levels of education, and hold
better jobs than members of the Out of School (students who
remained in the county) group.

There is also a significant difference between the groups
on the issue of residence. Out of School students tended to
remain in Prince Edward County while In School students did
not. However attitudes about Prince Edward County do not
appear to be a factor in why students chose to live elsewhere.

Members from both groups tended to share similar points
of views about contemporary Prince Edward.Countyu They agreed
that the public school system there provides a good education,
and that current residents of the county remember when the
public schools were closed.

When asked about the political climate in Prince Edward
County, former students in both groups agreed.that the climate
was not positive for Black citizens. They also agreed that
racism continues to exist in Prince Edward County.

Two issues received mixed results. The first focused on
race relations, and responses indicated that from a more
general perspective the two groups hold similar viewpoints.
However, when the respondents answered the one question that

addressed personal feelings about racism, members of the In

102
School group were more positive. The difference on more
personal perspective was significant at .05.

The second issue with mixed results was that of community
involvement. Both groups report that they are members in
various community organizations, however, when questioned
about attendance, the In School group appears to be more
active than the Out of School group. The difference between
the two was significant at .05. Voting, however, seems to be
very important to both groups. There was no significant

difference in registration and/or reported voting behavior.

Limitations

1. This study is limited to students affected by school
closings during the period 1959 through 1964 in Prince Edward
County, Virginia.

2. It is a survey of perceptions.

3. Respondents were asked to recall an event that took
place over thirty years ago.

4. This study focuses one an unique event in American
history, and therefore results cannot be generalized to other
populations or localities.

Slightly related could be the not so uncommon events of
school disruption caused by war. In countries like Ireland,
Palestine, and Iraq, war is often the natural state of things.

Although an extensive literature search was performed,

103
research which examined how the educational systems in these
countries cope with war or the impact of educational
disruption on the children from those countries was not
located. When war is involved, children may be more affected
by the impact of violence.

If early research presented by Burton (1991) is proved to
be the herald of a nation-wide trend, then findings from the
Prince Edward study may be related to the school disruption
experienced by some inner city children today. Burton has
discovered that where drug addiction is a familial issue, some
children have taken on the role of care-giver for younger
siblings, (and sometimes for debilitated parents), and
therefore may not attend school for extended periods of time.

Further investigations into this phenomenon are required
before any relationship between the Prince Edward experience
and the experiences of these young nurturers can be
determined.

5. The difficulty in locating a sizable sample was a
limitation.

Almost all of the sample was found through.direct.contact
with family and/or friends. This was a very time consuming
and somewhat expensive task, as often a face-to-face visit was
required with county residents who "might" know where a sample
member could be found. Frequently, a trip into the country,
a detailed explanation of who the researcher was, and why she

wanted to get in touch with the sample member was required.

104

Although over two hundred individuals were located, a
larger sample would have helped with attrition due to out of
date addresses and lack of interest in participating.

6. Prior to beginning official research, the researcher
(who had lived in the county for two years), had.opportunities
to talk informally with many people who were involved in the
school closing. During these discussions another potential
limitation was discovered. Former teachers and students often
did not encourage study. Statements which inferred that the
study would create "bad feelings" were not uncommon. Some
former students said they didn't like to think about the
closing because it made them:recall.what.they lost, what.White
people did to them, and what deficiencies they had.

It is difficult to know just what impact this particular
issue had on the number of questionnaires that were not
returned.

7. Another limitation was identified after considering
predictions made by Green (1964). If, in fact, many of the
students who had stayed in the county remained at very low
reading levels, then completing a written questionnaire might
prove to be a somewhat intimidating endeavor.

In the best possible scenario, a larger sample would be
drawn, and the questionnaires would be completed during a
personal interview. This method of data collection would

eliminate possible discomfort with a written instrument.

105
8. A final potential limitation is that is was not
possible to obtain access to the academic records or test
scores of the sample. Thus one ‘might argue that the
differences in academic ability account for the significant
difference in educational attainment and occupational levels
of the two groups. However, such an explanation is unlikely

given the sampling procedure used in this study.

Implitstiens

Although the individuals who form the core of this study
were unwilling participants in a singular phenomenon, their
experiences may provide a unique opportunity to understand the
importance of early educational access.

It is important for the reader to remember that the
findings reveal that a majority of the Out of School students
were able to attend school, somewhere, during the five year
period of the school closings in. Prince Edward County,
Virginia. About two-thirds of the Out of School respondents
report one year or more of formal schooling during the period
of the school closing. .

However, the results of the study also provide data that
indicate that a one or two year interruption in their
educational activities did make a difference. Implications

from this study can be summarized as follows:

106

1. Results from the Prince Edward study are very much in
line*with the findings provided by others in the area of adult
learning. As in the research of Johnstone and Rivera (1965),
there is a positive relationship between income level and
learning. That is, individuals with higher incomes tend to
participate more in learning activities than do individuals
with lower incomes.

2. A similar’ kind. of relationship exists between
occupational levels and adult learning activities. Aslanian
and Brickell (1980) found that learning "in order to acquire,
to advance in, or simply keep up with one's job" were
motivating factors most often for professionals and.managers,
while sales/clerical workers, craftspersons, and service
workers cite career issues second most often.

In the Prince Edward study, students who were included in
the Out of School group were less likely to have entered or
completed college, were often in lower ranking jobs, and
generally had lower incomes. Students in the In School group
generally had higher ranking occupations and reported learning
activities at a higher percentage than did Out of School
students.

3. However, in this study, unlike the findings of
Aslanian and Brickell (1980), it would appear that
socioeconomic factors :rather' than. race .are ‘the stronger

indicators of adult learning participation, More research on

107
the learning patterns of adult African Americans may provide
further enlightenment into this issue.

4. Based on their reported circumstances and
characteristics, the Out of School respondents who still
reside in Prince Edward.County'would.be.excellent subjects for
testing Cross' assumptions about "barriers" to adult learning.

Situationally, they earn lower incomes and therefore are
less likely to hold educational dollars. Generally they work
in occupations were the need for job related learning is less
frequent.

Institutional barriers may include their attitudes about
and towards the local co-educational four year institution.
Although Longwood College was a state teacher's college during
the school closings, all but one of it’s representatives
remained silent throughout the crisis. The institution took
no stance. While the contemporary Longwood College recently
took action to ease entrance requirements for adults (1988—
89), efforts to identify, assess, and/or respond to the
educational needs of the Prince Edward school closing
population have not been made.

Dispositional barriers include self-confidence levels in
the structured educational setting. Although a majority of
the Out of School students report that they would do well if
they took classes, there remains the fact that most of them
are not involved in formal learning activities. It would be

interesting to discover why this condition exists.

108

5. A sense of community is built upon feelings of
inclusion and trust. It would appear that many of the
respondents do not believe that Farmville promotes a receptive
and progressive environment. If former students do not
believe that their efforts to improve their circumstances
through learning will have any tangible pay-off, than they are
less likely to become involved in such activities.

Dean and Dowling (1987) believe that adult educators
could assist groups learn, grow, and control their own futures
by utilizing the community development model. They see the
community development process as one means for solving social
problems, and feel that a model focused on the "learning
outcomes from increased knowledge of society and participatory
aspects" would provide an action guide for adult educators.

Based on the findings of the Prince Edward study, the
community development model suggested by Dean and Dowling
might be helpful in improving community relationships and
thereby providing a means to identify learning needs of the

school closing students who live in the county.

W

Possible avenues for future investigation with this
population might include:

1. What they learn: Obtaining more detailed information
about the current learning activities of the Prince Edward

students is one possible avenue of inquiry. Research from the

109
adult learning area has primarily focused on the White middle
class (Brookfield, 1984) , and while the Prince Edward students
represent a unique population, it would be interesting to
compare their experiences with African Americans from other
locales.

2. How they learn: A verification study on self-
directed learning might prove enlightening. Some research
about self-directed learning activities among "hard.to reach”
groups is available for base-line data (Kratz, 1978; Leean &
Sisco, 1981). Shackelford's (1983) study'which.deals just with
African American subjects could also prove useful. He found
that his subjects tended to participate in self-directed
learning activities which focused on home and family life,
(i.e. "do-it-yourself" home repairs books; church sponsored
seminars/workshops such as marriage encounter) rather than
activities geared to improving professional competencies. One
criticism of Shackelford's research was that his population
was drawn from lists of church-going African Americans. The
findings of this study indicate that a majority of the Prince
Edward respondents participate in church. Therefore,
Shackelford's work might prove especially useful.

3. Children: The scope of the present study could not
include an in depth investigation into the effect of the
parent’s educational experience on their children. It would

be interesting to know more about parental attitudes towards

110
education in general, and the impact that these attitudes
might have had on their children.

4. The impact of race: This study focused only on
African Americans in Prince Edward County, Virginia, because
the educational system that served them was eliminated in
1959. The closing of their schools was based on racist
motives, and many of this study's respondents appear to
believe that Prince Edward County has not moved far in terms
of race relations in the last 33 years.

The decision of the Supreme Court in 1954 brought forth
the realization of Myrdal's (1944) assertion that "The whole
system of discrimination in education in the South is not only
tremendously harmful to the Negroes, but it is flagrantly
illegal, and can easily be so proven in the courts."

However, Myrdal also believed that African Americans
would continue to start out at a disadvantage because
discrimination against them was rooted in their past roles as
slaves. Their economic exploitation was the purpose for which
they were brought to America. "When slavery disappeared,"
Myrdal wrote, "caste remained."

According to Hacker (1992), the caste system in America
continues to keep African Americans at a disadvantage. In his
book, 1149 Neeions, he provides a wealth of data to support his
argument that African Americans continued to be viewed by
White Americans as "an inferior species...unsuited for

equality".

111

This perception, Hacker says, is in part due to the
rationalizations promoted to make slavery palatable. Today,
descendants of African slaves continue to suffer from what
Myrdal described as an assigned "badge of inferiority", and
what Hacker reports nearly fifty years later as an imposed
stigma.

African Americans have traditionally perceived education
as the vehicle that would transport them into higher economic
and social stations. The education of African Americans
however, as Dollard (1937) pointed out, threatened the very
foundations of the caste system.

The caste system in Prince Edward County was alleged to
have been particularly strong. According to C. G. Gordon
Moss, Dean of Longwood College in 1963, Whites in Prince
Edward County maintained an extreme paternalistic attitude
toward the African American residents. "This attitude," Moss
stated, "is an attitude of love for the Negro, if the Negro
will accept everything from the white rulers-if he will, to
use common southern language, "stay in his place." But I would
say that this paternalistic attitude toward the Negro is
probably stronger in this particular locality than generally
throughout Virginia." Moss, who was born fifty miles away
from Farmville in Lynchburg, Virginia, based his observations
on his nearly forty year association with Prince Edward

County.

112

If we are, in fact, talking about extremes--in how
important the caste system was for Whites Prince Edward
County; in how important education was perceived to be by
African Americans in Prince Edward County--then the
willingness to close public schools becomes less of a mystery,
and on-going suspicions more understandable.

A study which would investigate the impact of race on all
residents of Prince Edward County could provide knowledge
about how to improve the total environment for all county
citizens, thereby diminishing existing barriers that block
healthy co-existence. Local educational institutions and
adult educators could contribute valuable resources and
expertise in the planning and execution of such "community

cohesion" projects.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Correspondence

119
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

OFFICE OF VICE PRESIDENT FOR RESEARCH EAST LANSING e memo“ e 488244046
AND DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

November 26, 1990

Margaret E. Smith
P.0. Box 217
Farmville, VA 23901

RE: THE EFFECT OF EARLY EDUCATIONAL DISRUPTION ON THE BELIEF SYSTEMS AND
EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES OF ADULTS: WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR ADULT AND
CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS, IRB# 90-489

Dear Ms. Smith:

The above project is exempt from full UCRIHS review. I have reviewed the
pr0posed research protocol and find that the rights and welfare of human
subjects appear to be protected. You have approval to conduct the research.

You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you
plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for
obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval one month prior to November 16. 1991-

Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the
UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified
promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving
human subjects during the course of the work.

Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any
future help, please do not hesitate to let us know.

Sincerely,

  

   

David E. Wright,
C air, UCRIHS

DEW/ deo

cc: Dr. Cas Heilman

MSU it an Affirmative Adios/Equal Opportunity Institution

APPENDIX B

Letter of Support and Cover Letter

120

May 1, 1991

Dear Friend,

This letter is sent in support of the research in progress
by Mrs. Margaret Hale-Smith. we, the undersigned, wish to
encourage you to participate in this study by completing and
returning the questionnaire you will find enclosed in this
packet.

Although it has been over thirty years since the public
schools were closed in Prince Edward County, that event is still
something that we can all recall with great feelings. This study

is an opportunity to express what the school closing has meant in
your life.

Please take the few moments required to answer the
questionnaire. Contact Mrs. Hale-Smith if you have any questions
or difficulties with anything you find on it. We thank you for
your time and cooperation.

4 5. , Mz/ [0,,%M/a:y

Mrs. Connie Rawlins Mrs. Ethel Wilson Fisher
PEC Teacher/Retired PEC Teacher/Retired

Sincerely,

121

May 1, 1991

Dear Former Prince Edward County student,

In 1959 you were a participant in an event that made
history. You were one of the students denied a public
education in your home county, Prince Edward County, Virginia.
i am asking your support as I conduct a follow-up study that
will look at the impact of the five year public school closing
on the Black American students.

I am conducting this research in connection with my
graduate studies at Michigan State University. As a
participant in the study, you are assured complete
confidentiality. This means that your answers will be treated
with strict confidence, and that your identity will remain
unknown in any report of the research findings.

Included with this letter is a questionnaire. It will
take about 15 minutes to answer. When completed, please
return the questionnaire in the enclosed self-addressed,
stamped envelop. Your participation in the study is
voluntary, therefore you do not have to complete the
questionnaire, or ‘you. may“ choose not to answer certain

questions in the questionnaire. zieaee ihdicate gee; voiehten
eggeement to partieipate hy eohpieEing end getughihg ghig
Questionnaire...

There is a separate page at the back of the questionnaire
where you share your name, address, and phone number if you
are willing to offer further information in a telephone or
face-to-face interview. This interview would allow us to talk
about the issue of the public school closing in a more
personal manner not allowed by the questionnaire. Your
identity will be protected if any of the conversation is used
in the research study.

Please feel free to contact.me by phone at (804) 395-2226
or at P. O. Box 217, Farmville, VA 23901 if you have questions
or concerns about the questionnaire or the study. Thank you
for your willingness to share your opinions and feelings about
how the school closing affected your life.

Sincerely,-

Mrs. Margaret Hale-Smith

APPENDIX C

Questionnaire

122

 

QUESTIONNAIRE - Prince Edward county School Closing

1959 - 1963

Were you enrolled in a Prince Edward County school before
the schools were closed in 1959? (Please circle the
letter of the correct response).

a. Yes
b. No, I was too young.

If yes to #1 above, what grade were you in when the
schools closed? (Please circle the letter of the correct
response).

a. Kindergarten

b. 1st grade

c. 2nd grade

d. 3rd grade

e. 4th grade

f. 5th grade

g. 6th - 7th - 8th grade
h. 9th or 10th grade

i. 11th or 12th grade

What did you do after the public school closed?
(Please circle the letter of the appropriate response).

a. Attended public school in another county

b. Attended public school in another state

c. Attended private school in Virginia

d. Attended private school in another state

e. attended one of the centers in Prince Edward County
f. Attended the summer programs in Farmville

g. I was not in school during the school closings

h . Other (Please explain)

 

Did you attend the Free School in 1963? (Please circle
letter of correct response).

a. Yes
b. No

Did you attend the Prince Edward County Public Schools
after they reopened in 1964? (Please circle letter of
correct response).

a . Yes

b.

123

NO

6. What was the highest grade you completed in school?
(Please circle letter of appropriate response).

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

g.
7. AS

8th grade or less

9th grade

10th grade

11th grade

12th grade

Some college or other schooling after high school
College graduate

you look back on the school closing, how do you think

 

 

it affected your life? (Answer more than one if you
wish).
a. No effect
b. It probably reduced my opportunity for a better
life.
c. It probably enhanced my determination to succeed.
d. It made me bitter towards society in general.
e. It made me distrust school board officials.
f. It increased.my determination to fight segregation.
g. I probably became more discouraged about changing
discrimination and segregation.
h. Other (please indicate; use other side of this sheet
if necessary)
8. Where have you lived most of the time since 1970?
a. Prince Edward County
b. Other Virginia County
c. Large city in Virginia
d. Small town out of Virginia
e. rural area out of Virginia
f. Large city out of Virginia

PLEASE READ EACH OF THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS AND INDICATE IF
YOU 4-STRONGLY AGREE 3-AGREE 2-DISAGREE 1-STRONGLY DISAGREE
BY DRAWING A CIRCLE AROUND THE MATCHING NUMBER.

9. Obtaining an education is the way 4 3 2 1
to progress in this country.

10. Educated people don’t work as hard 4 3 2 1
as people without an education.

11. Children can get a good education in 4 3 2 1
the public schools of Prince Edward

 

124
County today.
12. The school closing had no impact on my 4 3 2 1

current level of educational completion.

PLEASE READ EACH OF THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS AND INDICATE IF
YOU 4-STRONGLY AGREE 3-AGREE 2-DISAGREE l-STRONGLY AGREE
BY DRAWING A CIRCLE AROUND THE MATCHING NUMBER.

13. I am more involved in my child(ren)'s 4 3 2 1
education than my parent's were in mine.

14. Most of the people now in Prince Edward 4 3 2 1
County have forgotten about the school

closings.

15. I help my children often with their 4 3 2 1
homework.

16. At the present time there are as many 4 3 2 1

opportunities for success available to
me as there are for anyone else.

17. The political climate in Prince Edward 4 3 2 1
County is now positive for Black Americans.

18. Most people should have education beyond 4 3 2 1
the high school level.

19. During the past year I have participated 4 3 2 1
in some kind of class (or structured)
learning experience.

20. During the past two years I have 4 3 2 1
participated in some kind of class (or
structured learning experience).

21. My reading skills prevent me from 4 3 2 1
participating in some jobs or activities.

22. There is little racism in Prince Edward 4 3 2 1
County today.

23. What is your current age? (Please circle the
appropriate letter).

a. 30-35
h. 36-40
C. 41-45

d. 46-50

 

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

125

What is your marital status? (Please circle the
appropriate letter).

a. Married

b. Single
c. Divorced
d. Widowed

If you have children, how many? (Please circle the
appropriate letter).

a. None
b. 1 - 2
c. 3 - 4
d. 5 or more

Are you a registered voter? (Please circle the
appropriate letter).

a. Yes
b. No

If Yes in #26 above, did you vote in the last election?
(Please circle the appropriate letter).

a. Yes
b. No

Please circle the letter for all of the following that
apply to you.

a. I have served as an elected or appointed public
official.

b. I have run for public office.

c. I have served as a church officer or member of a

church organization.
d. I have participated in civic organizations (i.e.
Masons, Eastern Star, Elks, Voter's League).

e. I have held some office or been an active
participant in some volunteer and/or community
organization.

How often do you attend community meetings, such as PTA,
school board, city or town meetings? (Please circle the
letter of the most appropriate response).

a. Regularly
b. Sometimes
c. Never

Please circle the letter of the answer that hes; reflects

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

126
your feelings.

a. If I went to school now I would do very well.

b. If I went to school now I would do well, but I
would have to work hard.

c. Doing school work now would be too difficult because
of my age.

d. I am past the point in my life where going to
school would be helpful.

If you have children, what level of education do you
expect them to achieve? (Please circle the letter of
the most appropriate response).

a. I have no children

b. Some high school

c. High school graduate

d. Some college

e. College graduate

f. Graduate or professional school

What is your income level? (Please circle the letter
of the most appropriate response).

a. Under $20,000
b. $21,000 - $30,000
c. $31,000 - $40,000
d. $41,000 - $50,000
e. Over $50,000

Are you male or female? (Please circle the letter of
the correct response).

a. Female
b. Male

If you were able to attend school while the public
schools were closed, how many years did you do so?
(Please circle the letter of most accurate response).

a. I was in school 1 year or less
b. I was in school 2 years

c. I was in school 3 years

d. I was in school all 4 years

e. I did not attend school

If you did not go to a regular school during the
four years, did you have any informal schooling
during this period? (Please circle letter of most
accurate response).

a. Yes, my family taught me some school subjects

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

127

like reading and arithmetic.

b. Yes, some other people, like neighbors, other
relatives, or church members taught me for short
periods during the four years.

c. I received no school instruction.

What type of work have you done most of the time
since you finished school?

 

 

Have you taken any further education since you finished
your regular schooling? (Please circle letter of correct
response).

a. Yes
b. No

If you answered Yes to #37 above, what was the nature of
the education? (Please use back of this page if more
space needed).

 

 

In general, how did you feel when the schools closed in
1959? (Please use back of this page if more space
needed).

 

 

 

 

In your opinion, who was to blame for the school closing?
(Please use back of this page if more space needed).

 

 

 

 

In your opinion, have desegregated schools helped or

42.

43.

128

hindered the education of Black Americans? (Please
circle letter of most accurate response).

a. Helped
b. Hindered
c. Not sure

Please explain your answer to #41 above. (Please use the
back of this page if more space needed).

 

 

 

If you wish, please tell.me any observations or reactions
you have to the Prince Edward County school closing that
have not been addressed by any of the above questions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX D

Information Sheet/Agreement
to Participate in Interview

129

INFORMATION SHEET-Prince Edward School Closing Study

Instructions: Please complete this sheet ONLY if you wish
to talk directly with the researcher. Your
identity shall remain secret if any informa-
tion you share is used in the research study.

NAME

 

Maiden Name (if applicable)

 

ADDRESS

Zip code

 

 

TELEPHONE # Area Code ( )

 

BEST TIMES TO CALL

 

 

 

 

I agree to be interviewed by the researcher and understand
that quotations from our discussions may be included in the
research studyu I am aware that.my identity will be protected
if such quotations are utilized.

 

 

Signature Date

APPENDIX E

Interviews

132

bothers me a lot." (Out of School).

Another major theme that appear during the course of

interviews was the impact that the school closing had on

reletienenine-

"I attended the center at First Baptist. My sister was
sent to New York. My parents were not making a lot of
money, so they couldn't afford to send all the children
away. There were twelve kids in the family. When the
schools closed we played school in our playhouse. But
the closing broke a special bond I had with my sister.
When she left I lost my best friend. I wondered how
could this have happened." (Out of School).

"During the time right after the closing there was chaos,
no sense of structure. Some families couldn't move. I
was sneaked into the adjoining county (Cumberland) to
live with my grandparents. In about a year I would sneak
home overnight or on the weekends. We were a very close
family. Hadn’t anticipated anything like this. At the
time I was a sophomore - looking forward to walking down
the aisle of that new school at graduation. Wanted to go
Kittrell, but Mom said no, I wasn't mature enough. So I
was sent to grandparents. I didn't make the adjustment.
Too far in the country, no electricity, no indoor bath-
room. No help with lessons." (Out of School).

"Mother was a teacher in the county and when school
closed we moved to Maryland. Dad stayed in the county.
It broke the continuity of friendships and the whole
concept of having a home town. I haven’t stayed in one
place for more than three years and I believe that this
started the pattern. Even though I stayed in school,
there was a disruption in something much more permanent. "
(Out of School).

"I was able to stay in school, but I had to leave my
friends and family. I had to leave behind my plans, the
football team, graduating from Moton. People forget that
we had connections. We were kids, but we had
connections." (In School-American Friends).

"I feel that the closing of the schools stole my child-
hood of any hope of having anything close to a normal
one. It denied me of the relationships that kids all
over America enjoyed with other kids, teachers,
principals. Experiences that are normal were only

133

dreams to me. They took something from me that could
never be replaced by anything but disgust and at times
hate.” (Out of School).

"First of all I had to make the choice of whether to go
with the American Friends or not. I went to Ohio. My
grandparents didn't want me to leave, but my aunts and
uncles were of the mind that I should complete my ed-
ucation. After a year out of school and working the farm
I was ready to go back to school. It was very difficult
for me, The first family I lived.with.was Black but they
were vegetarians. There were other differences that made
things difficult. I called home many times asking to
come back, but I was told that I needed to be strong and
to tough it out. After two years in Ohio there was no
sponsor and I was sent to Cambridge [MA]. I lived with
a white family there. It was difficult building trust,
value systems not the same, but.I did form.a relationship
with that family. After graduation I went home to work
before going to college. I wanted to be with family, my
family. I fell in love and got married. In a hurry to
rebuild family after being away so long. It was a
mistake". (In School-American Friends).

Many of the former students who agreed.to be interviewed
talked about their experiences in the Centens provided when
public schools closed.

"[I] stayed.at home two years, ‘Went to First Baptist for
class. It wasn't school-like. We did some class work,
but more entertainment. Games, some board work like
arithmetic, not a lot of reading. [I] think all were
volunteers - not teachers." (Out of School).

"The Center was good, but we had to sit in chairs that
were uncomfortable. No desks. There wasn't enough
learning. We got out early. We didn't have proper
schooling. We didn’t have a teacher, but Mrs. Reid did
the best she could. She fussed because we didn't have
supplies. It was a happy time because we had something
better than nothing." (Out of School).

"I picked up a few things when attending the Centers.
Area people taught. About twenty-five to thirty kids met
at a school. Didn' t notice much difference between
school and the Center. I attended a Center in Meherrin.
It was like a day care center some times.” (Out of
School).

134

"I attended one of the Centers in Prospect and it was
not like school, that's for sure. We were taught a
little, but it was mostly play. There was one adult for
about twenty-five to thirty kids in the same age group.
It was mostly supervised play." (Out of School).

During the course of the interviews, many former Prince

Edward students discussed their WE now.
Often, they saw Farmville in a negative light.

"I was home in July ('91) for the reunion. On the
surface people are friendly, but there is a separation
between the people that finished their education and
those that didn't. The ones that did have the cars and
homes, and sort of look down on the others. There isn’t
the sense of closeness - family - that used to exist
when I was growing up." (In School-American Friends).

"Farmville is still in the dark ages, it is no place to
raise a family." (Out of School).

"I saw to what extent people's hatred can go. I can’t
live in Farmville, too limited. People still live in
the past. Don't want to progress." (Out of School).

"Things are not much different now. Job opportunities

are limited. The whites get the best opportunities. I
rely on my family to learn new skills. Take problems to
my spouse, or someone I know and trust." (Out of School).

"I was hurt to think white people were so mean. Still
that way now, to some extent. Uneducated Blacks here
bend over for whites. ‘It is just ignorant. They will do
anything to stay in good with whites. The school closing
has had an effect on this I think." (Out of School).

"I don’t like to think about.it, Had to leave home to~go
to school. I think a lot of people here wish things were
still like that. You know, us in our place, afraid to
think on our own." (Out of School).

"I feel like this. Even though they talk to you they
still have hate in them. Just in talking to one lady
about a year ago I asked her, just kidding around with
her, I said what would you say to the fact if one of her
sons married a Black woman. She said and I quote, "Not
while I'm alive." This is what I mean. Just because
they smile with you doesn’t mean they're not smiling at
you also. I clean house for one lady now that doesn't
let one hour go by without saying something about the

135

Black race even the famous ones like basketball players,
actors, football players, if they're Black she has some-
thing bad to say about them." (Out of School).

The public school system in Farmville also raised questions.

”Though I do not reside in Prince Edward County now, I
regret that the names of our schools were changed. Mary
E. Branch and Robert R. Moton were outstanding Black
Americans and I feel that the schools named for them
should have remained that way even after desegregation.
They were Americans worthy of recognition. The white
student who attends those schools should be allowed to
know and recognize the contributions these Black
Americans have made, and celebrate, with Blacks, what
these hnezieene have done and who they are." (In School-
American Friends).

"I feel that the renaming of most of the schools that
were named for Black Americans took away some of the

Black identity as well as some of the role models who
were instrumental in shaping the history of America."
(In School-American Friends).

"The closing of the schools show the power of white over
us. I don't think Farmville has yet recovered. I heard
a couple of years ago that there are still problems in
the school. The Blacks aren't treated fairly." (In
School-American Friends).

Other former students didn't see the White populace of
Farmville as villainous as some of their peers appear to,

"Some people in the county have not moved past this
event. Some have a "they're coming to take over our
school" mentality. I think more whites than Blacks have
moved ahead to integration." (In School-American
Friends).

and at least two former students were hopeful.
"With more people moving in the die hard attitudes will
disappear. Every year more new faces, and also those
who controlled things are dying out." (Out of School).
"I guess we have to wait for more time for the things

to change here. New people coming into the county should
help." (Out of School).

The presence of the.Eninee_§gge;g_heegeny also drew the

136

attention of several interviewees.

"They still have the private school here so there are
still those around who would shut the schools down again
if they could.” (Out of School).

”I don't hate anyone, but this is a part of me, and it is
a nightmare. I also believe that the educational system
here will always be tainted as long as the Academy is
around." (Out of School).

”The Academy is still separate and it puts a diversion
in the races. More so because it keeps us separate.
They think by being separate they have something better. "
(Out of School).

"The whites still support the Academy. They are only in
the public school because they can't afford to send their
kids to the Academy.” (Out of School).

"When you went through.what.we did.you are on.guard, You
can't trust them. Give them the chance and they would

shut the school down again. The Academy is there just to
keep whites away from us. They built it to avoid educa-
tion with us and today it is the same. My girls played
basketball against them and you could just see it. One
of the Academy girls told my daughter, "Don't touch me!"
(Out of School).

”For me, I think they ought to close that Academy. It
just helps to keep people apart. I wonder if the kids
in public school really think they are getting a poorer
education because the Academy is here - and if the
Academy kids think they are better. I bet they do."
(Out of School).

"I can't believe the Academy is still functioning. Talk
about your die-hard racists." (In School-American
Friends).

Grouped under the heading of Ahtitudes are those issues
which include general expressions of feelings (and emotions)
that former students discussed.

”I didn' t go anywhere and I want to say I was a miserable

soul. I went to the Center for a while, but that wasn't

for me. I just felt like something was wrong with me,

with us, that they would close our schools down rather
than go with us. I mean, how can you trust people that

137
would do that to children?" (Out of School).

"I left the county to go to school but came back when the
Free School opened. This is home. I realized that
education was a must, and I just finished a BA degree
(5/91). I could see that I needed to do that, but I was
a little worried about my skills. I know that some of
that lack of confidence was due to the closing, even
though I got away for most of it. So many didn't. I
see them all the time. I don't think they encourage
their kids much." (Out of School).

”It was tragic. It still bothers me. I was so blessed
to be able to go off but many didn't." (In School-
American Friends).

"When school closed that was it. I didn't do anything-
stayed home, tried to help, but mainly tried to be the
best I could be. When I went back I was so angry that
I decided that nothing would stop me. I got to college,
and I teach. It troubles me that so many don't know or
remember the Prince Edward story." (Out of School).

"I stayed to help on the farm. It was difficult for my
parents to send their children away. They resented it.
But our family was split up. I‘went to a Center in Green
Bay. Adults from the community and college students from
up North came to teach there. I remember a white male
student asked us if we were angry about the school
closing and I couldn't answer then or now. I was never
angry. People in power thought that integration was
wrong. Waste of time to be angry." (Out of School).

"It was a while before I realized that schools wouldn't
reopen. I attended the summer programs, and my family

did what they could to teach me. I think this is what

made the difference for me. The value of education was
the issue. And even though the schools were closed they
were making an effort to do something for us. That
really made an impression on me." (Out of School).

"After the shock wore off I was left bitter, resentful.
My parents didn't agree to my leaving the area to attend
other schools. I found out later why this attitude was
taken by my parents, especially my father who at this

time had a terminal illness, which we knew nothing of

until [the] previous two weeks before his death, approxi-
mately one and one half years later. The impact of the
school closing was so great that in order for me to cope
with the situation I had to reverse thoughts and dreams
about education in other directions because life did not

138
look so bright ahead.” (Out of School).

"Many people feel because the school was closed so many
years ago that it's in the past and should stay in the
past. But that is further from the truth. As long as
people like me that experienced it live, it will never
be forgotten in their hearts and minds. Many children
in school today are the children of parents who were
denied their education. Therefore bitterness and anger
have been imbedded in them intentionally or
unintentionally by the parent. The parents are unable
to help them with their homework because they never had
the opportunity to learn it themselves. I myself never
discuss the closing of the schools to my child for at
least until they were about twelve years old because I
didn’t want to transfer the bitterness, anger and hurt
and I always was careful of what I said - no name call-
ing - and how I said it around them concerning the
closing of the schools. I resent even today the fact

I never could help my children with algebra and geometry,
because I never had a school year of it taught to me."
(Out of School).

Three interviewees though, had different opinions about

the school closing.

"When they closed the schools they did me the biggest
damn favor anyone ever did." (In School-American
Friends).

"For a few of Prince Edward students the closing was a
blessing in disguise. My sister was one of the students
that went out West, lived with Quakers, finished high
school, went on to college, and became an outstanding
citizen. If the schools had not closed her chances of
going to college were very remote." (Out of School).

"Personally it might have been a good thing because it
made me realize just how suppressed we were. My father
was a self-employed business person and we didn’t have
to rely on a white employer. However, this was not
something we could control and made us realize that we
were still vulnerable." (In School-American Friends).

Some of the former students provided information about
events and activities that provide hisgericei insighe into the

environment of their childhoods.

139

"On August 18, 1959, I was told that the schools were
closed, officially. Grandma said that there would be
no school, and that same day I caught the bus to
Washington, D.C. According to Allen Scott, a neighbor,
the white people in Farmville had a run on the bank.
What they were doing was getting tax dollars back,
getting ready for the voucher system." (Out of School).

"My parents traveled to five counties to ask about
putting us kids in school. My parents got the idea
that other counties (at least principals) had been told
not to help us (Prince Edward County). It seemed that
the idea was if we make it difficult for them to go

any place else than they’ll be forced to go back. My
father brought up the fact that the school board kept
taxing at the same level even after the schools closed.
No accounting was given for why taxes weren’t decreased.
My father was very vocal about the school closing, he
even‘wrote to the State Board of Education, lNo response.
I remember that the bank tried to put a lot of pressure
on him, but this drew my family closer. He worked three
jobs and.Mom took on domestic work." (In School-American
Friends).

"In the height of it if you would walk down Main Street
you would think it was a model town for racial issues.
People talking, expressions of concern. All was well if
you knew your place." (In School-American Friends).

The two local colleges in the county were also mentioned.

"Longwood didn't have the kind of influence it should
have. Hampden-Sydney was more progressive. They did
some things for Blacks in their area. They made sure
that discarded sports equipment got to Black kids. They
sent food. We would use their athletic areas when
students were gone." (In School-American Friends).

"I played on the high school football team and.we had the
entire team returning for my senior year, except two
players graduating. Football was everything to most of
the boys at R. R. Moton High School. We looked out for
each other, shared meal tickets, used peer-pressure to
keep a player in school and his grades up. We were
influenced by nearby Hampden-Sydney College. We would
go there on Saturday afternoons and watch them play
football. We liked going to Hampden-Sydney because we
could go down on the field and stand under the goal post
with the grounds keepers and cooks (all Black). The
coach at Hampden-Sydney would give some of our players
used special equipment, extra large helmets, shoes, etc.

140

If we went to Farmville High School Friday night games,
we had to go behind the school, stand on the sidewalk,
and peek through the hedge. You had better not walk on
the grass." (Out of School).

It is ironic that Hampden-Sydney assumed a more progressive

posture in the face of this crisis. Ironic because when it

was founded in 1776, Hampden-Sydney was originally named

Prince Edward Academy (Buck, 1952).

this

Other students recalled more frightening events during
period.

"The Klan was here. They were at the A.& P store. IMaybe
one of the workers there was armembera But anyway, there
they were, in full dress, marching back and forth, I*was
astonished to see them. I will never forget, I was
petrified. I remember their black shiny shoes. Just the
appearance was intimidating. They didn't bother us, but
those black shiny shoes....." (Out of School).

"I recall that right before the schools were closed a
Black man in Pamplin had words with some whites at a
store, and they caught him by the train tracks and
mangled his body. People were really afraid. Nothing
in the paper, all word of mouth. Everyone tried to keep
it from the kids, but we heard. There was a lot of
fear." (In School-American Friends).