. n u . . _ HER”: MICHIGAN STATE H l (”H ”I” W nu“ m1 WI 5 0152 TI"! 3 1293 00 I! 'I'hisistocertifythatthe dissertation entitled A Descriptive Study of the Collegiate Experiences of Three Freshman Student- Athletes Who Were Ruled Academically Ineligible for Competition by The National Collegiate Athletic Association pnmmfiadby Gregory Croxton has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein College and University Administration Date May 10, 1993 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 \_ LIBRARY Michigan State University ‘ } PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or betore date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE MAP 3 1 1097 EM F t- ‘ L r, {.4 FE?" ’ MOI ME 5 S ’" MSU II An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity lnfliiuiion eWmS-e.| A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE COLLEGIATE EXPERIENCES OF THREE FRESHMAN STUDENT-ATHLETES HHO HERE RULED ACADEMICALLY INELIGIBLE FOR COMPETITION BY THE NATIONAL COLLEGIATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION By Gregory Croxton A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1993 ABSTRACT A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE COLLEGIATE EXPERIENCES OF THREE FRESHMAN STUDENT-ATHLETES WHO HERE RULED ACADEMICALLY INELIGIBLE FOR COMPETITION BY THE NATIONAL COLLEGIATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION By Gregory Croxton The researcher’s purpose in this study was to describe the collegiate experiences of three male first-year student-athletes deemed academically ineligible according to NCAA By-law 14.3. These athletes were recruited to play football and enrolled at a Big Ten university fall term of ‘the 1991-92 school year but were subsequently ruled ineligible. Specifically, four important aspects of these student-athletes’ college experiences were investigated in this study: (a) academics, (b) financial aid, (c) athletic career, and (d) interactions with the university community. This was done by analyzing the major events, activities, behaviors, and interactions that were a part of the sample members’ university experience. An ethnographic approach, using the field methods of participant observation and interviewing, was used to gather the data for this study. The researcher’s observations were supplemented by interviews with the student-athletes and their Gregory Croxton coaches and entries in the personal journals completed by the subjects. The major findings indicated that the first-year student- athletes’ academic performance was enhanced as a result of not competing in sports during their freshman year. However, the subjects suffered major disadvantages in terms of financial aid and their athletic careers as a result of their ineligibility for competition. Their interactions. within the university' community were not affected as much as were the other three areas of their collegiate lives as a result of NCAA By-law 14.3. Because the subjects were ineligible to compete for academic reasons, they developed a strong desire to prove themselves academically and made a successful transition from high school to college in terms of academic achievement. Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Roger Niemeyer Copyright by GREGORY CROXTON 1993 To Dr. Gloria Smith Through her guidance and wisdom, she taught me to believe in myself and gave me the confidence I needed to fulfill my educational goals. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Some very special people supported me in various ways throughout my doctoral studies. First, I want to acknowledge Dr. Gloria Smith, who has been my academic advisor since Spring 1972. She has been one of the most positive influences in my life, and she instilled in me the confidence I needed to earn this degree. I hope that some day I can make her as proud of me as I am of her. Another very special person is my boss in the Athletic Department, Coach George Perles. Coach Perles had enough confidence in me to give me a full-time position in the Athletic Department as an Athletic Academic Advisor for football. This position provided necessary income while allowing me the time to complete my master’s and doctoral degrees. Coach Perles also holds a special place in my heart. The other individuals who made this accomplishment possible are the members of my doctoral committee. Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker, committee chairperson, not only taught me, but he also befriended me and was available whenever I needed him. I also want to thank Dr. Louis Hekhuis, who instructed me in various courses and made it possible for me to study at the doctoral level. Dr. Roger Niemeyer, whom I have known for many years, helped me understand and organize the methodology used in this study. I also want to thank Dr. John vi DiBiaggio, former President of Michigan State University. He made me feel important by serving on my doctoral committee. He was always available to me, and he never hesitated to take the time to discuss my concerns throughout the doctoral program. This study would not have been possible without the cooperation of the three student-athletes who volunteered to share their college experience with me. These young men have earned the respect of their peers and should be successful, whether it be on the gridiron or in the classroom. Their excitement about having their story told was an inspiration to me throughout the project. In addition, the staff at the Duffy Daugherty Football Building, where I have worked for the past ten years, provided me with the flexibility I needed to be a student and an employee. Finally, I wish to recognize the word-processing skills of Cynthia Forbes, who prepared the initial draft of the dissertation manuscript. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ....................... xi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY .............. 1 Introduction and Background of the Problem . . . . 1 Purpose of the Study ............... 5 Research Questions ................ 8 Importance of the Study .............. ll Oelimitations and Limitations ........... 12 Generalizability ................. 13 Definition of Terms ................ 14 Overview ..................... 16 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .............. 18 Introduction ................... 18 Definition of the Student-Athlete ......... 18 Early Influences on Children to Participate in Sports ..................... 19 Rationale for Participating in Sports ....... 20 Benefits of Participating in Sports ........ 22 Student-Athletes and Their Values ......... 24 The National Collegiate Athletic Association . . . 25 Introduction .................. 25 History of the NCAA ............... 27 Functions of the NCAA .............. 29 Attitudes of University Personnel Toward Freshman Eligibility .............. 31 III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............... 33 Introduction ................... 33 Theoretical Sampling ............... 34 Theoretical Framework ............... 36 The Qualitative Research Method .......... 38 Data-Collection Procedures ............ 41 viii Observation .................. Personal Interviews .............. Journals ................... Introduction .................. Early Fall Camp for Student-Athletes ...... Orientation for New Students .......... Student-Athletes’ Study Table .......... Personal Characteristics of the Three Student- Athletes ................... Henry Temple ................. Mark Blue ................... David Perfect ................. Financial Aid .................. The Athletes’ Academic Experiences ....... The Subjects’ Athletic Careers ......... Interactions With the University Community Interactions With Peers ............ Interactions With Faculty ........... Interactions With Academic Advisors ...... Campus Services and Programs .......... Academic Affairs ............... Campus Activities ............... Student Affairs and Services ......... Developing a Sense of Belonging ......... Summary ..................... V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS .................. Introduction ................... Findings and Conclusions ............. Recommendations .................. General Recommendations ............. Specific Recommendations ............ Recommendations for Further Research ...... Reflections .................... APPENDICES A. APPROVAL LETTER FROM UCRIHS AND SUBJECT CONSENT FORM .................... B. RAH DATA ...................... ix C. "DO’S AND DON’TS FOR PROPOSITION 4B STUDENT- ATHLETES ...................... REFERENCES LIST OF TABLES Table Page 81. Academic Data on the Three Student-Athletes in the Study Sample .................. 95 82. Financial Data on the Three Student-Athletes in the Study Sample .................. 98 83. Athletic-Career Data on the Three Student-Athletes in the Study Sample ................ 103 C1. Do’s and Don’ts for Proposition 48 Student-Athletes . 105 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Introduction and Background of the Problem The participation of freshman student—athletes in college sports has long been a concern of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The rules and regulations that, govern the participation of freshman student-athletes have changed many times during the existence of the NCAA. The argument about whether or not freshmen should be allowed to participate in college sports dates back to the beginning of intercollegiate athletics, early in the nineteenth century. NCAA 8y-law 14.3 governs the eligibility for practice, competition, and financial aid of student-athletes who enroll in Division I or Division II institutions as freshmen with no previous full-time college attendance. To understand the role this by-law has played in the eligibility debate, it is important to understand the role that freshmen have played in college athletics throughout history. Ronald Smith and Jay Helman of Pennsylvania State University compiled a history of the freshman-eligibility question. Their findings were reported in an article entitled "The Voice of College Sports" (Falla, 1989). Smith and Helman concluded that the eligibility debate has focused on three major issues: 1. The desire for competitive equity among competing institu- tions. 2. Financial considerations. 3. The pressure to preserve academic integrity at institutions of higher education. Throughout history, arguments for' and against freshman eligibility have been based on the above-mentioned three concerns. Whichever issue was deemed most important at a particular time and place would sway the decision about whether freshmen would be allowed to compete. From the inception of the debate, the strongest argument against freshman eligibility has centered on the issue of academic integrity. It was thought that freshmen needed to spend their first year of college getting used to the collegiate academic life style and should not spend a large portion of their time concentrating on athletics. Proponents of this view have long maintained that student-athletes should learn to be students first, and athletes second. In fact, Harvard University President Charles Eliot first propounded this view in 1889, when he asserted that freshmen should not be allowed to participate in athletics. At the time, Eliot was unable to convince the Harvard student body to comply with his recommendation, but when the Big Ten Conference was established in 1895, its leaders agreed with Eliot’s view and determined that the conference would not allow freshman eligibility. Then, in 1903, 14 years after Eliot broached the subject, Harvard University decided to outlaw freshman eligibility. From that time until the late 19605, most four-year schools had rules barring freshmen from competing in athletics. (Exceptions were made during the two world wars and the Korean War, when the number of young men attending college was severely depleted and many schools needed to use freshmen to round out the teams in certain sports.) Most of the arguments these institutions have used to keep freshmen from playing have centered on the belief that the schools’ academic integrity would be compromised if freshmen were allowed to participate in an activity that is as time consuming and nonacademic as sports. The issue of competitive equity also has been raised as an argument for not allowing freshmen to participate in athletics. Historically, it was claimed that, if schools allowed freshman eligibility, they could admit "ringers" who did not have to prove themselves academically for a year before being allowed on the playing field. This was seen as giving such schools an unfair advantage over ‘those that allowed only "true students" to participate in athletics. It was thought that, 'if freshman eligibility were outlawed, it would curtail the use of these "tramp athletes" (NCAA, 1984, p. 14). The terms "ringer" and "tramp athlete" were used more than half a century ago. Those who oppose freshman eligibility today refer to these students as "special admits"--gifted freshman athletes whom some schools focus on to strengthen their teams immediately. Even though the argument concerning competitive equity has been used to deny freshman eligibility, it has been used more often to support freshman eligibility. Smaller colleges have argued that the only way they can compete with larger institutions is to allow freshmen to play. They have asserted that large schools can talk about academic integrity and the like because they can easily field a team, whether or not they allow freshmen to play. However, to stay competitive, some smaller colleges need to play all of their students who are receiving athletic scholarships. For many years, there was no unified national policy on freshman athletic eligibility because the NCAA was established as an advisory organization, and not as the enforcement agency it has become. Although the early NCAA advised against freshman eligibility, many schools thought that advice was not in their best interest. Thus, they ignored the NCAA counsel and allowed freshmen on the athletic playing fields. This lack of a national policy concerning freshman eligibility resulted in diverse regional policies that had some important effects. Some» conferences allowed freshman eligibility; whereas others did not. As a result, institutions aligned themselves with other schools that had similar regulations concerning freshman eligibility (NCAA, 1984). Today’s Ivy League, Big Ten, Big Eight, Southwest, and Atlantic Coast Conferences did not allow freshmen to participate in sports. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) can trace its roots to a battle over the freshman-eligibility issue. All of the schools that were charter members of the ACC had originally been members of the old Southern Conference. But in 1953 the University of South Carolina, Duke, the University of North Carolina, Wake Forest, North Carolina State, and the University of Maryland left the Southern Conference as a result of a disagreement over freshman eligibility (NCAA, 1984). They formed the ACC, a conference that did not allow freshmen to participate, and were soon joined by the University of Virginia. Thus, it can be seen that, historically, conferences were formed simply because a group of schools took the same stand on the freshman-eligibility issue and wanted to form ties with and compete against schools with similar policies. Currently, freshman eligibility is governed by NCAA By-law 14.3, which stipulates that: A student athlete who enrolls in a Division I or II institution as an entering freshman with no previous full-time college attendance shall meet the following academic requirements, and any applicable institutional and conference regulations, to be considered a qualifier and thus be eligible for financial aid, practice, and competition during the first year in residence: (a) A minimum [high school] cumulative grade point average of 2.0 (based on a maximum of 4.0) in a successfully completed core curriculum of at least 11 academic courses, including at least the following: English--3 years, Mathematics-—2 years, Social Science-~2 years, and Natural Sciences--2 years (including at least one laboratory course, if offered by the school). (b) A minimum of 700 combined score on the SAT verbal and math sections, or a minimum composite score on the ACT of 15 (if taken prior to October 28, 1989) or 18 (if taken subsequent to October 29, 1989). Purpose of the Study Student-athletes themselves are a very diverse group, but they are all governed by the same rules and regulations--those of the NCAA. Although these rules and regulations affect each athlete differently, those students deemed ineligible for competition under NCAA 8y-law 14.3 share similar consequences. Because of the controversy surrounding this by-law, the effects of this rule on those who are governed by it need to be investigated. Thus, the researcher’s purpose in this study was to describe the collegiate experiences of three male first-year student-athletes deemed academically ineligible according to NCAA 8y-law 14.3. These athletes were recruited to play football and enrolled at a Big Ten university fall term of the 1991-92 school year but were subsequently ruled ineligible. Two of the student-athletes, Mark Blue and David Perfect, were not allowed to receive athletic scholarships because they failed to earn a composite score of at least _1_8_ on the American College Test (ACT), which was a prerequisite for all student-athletes who planned to enter college during the 1990-91 academic year. Henry Temple was deemed ineligible because he failed to successfully complete a high school core curriculum of at least 11 academic courses that are specifically outlined by the NCAA Rules Committee. The student-athletes’ lives during their first year of college were studied by using a technique known as ethnography or the field method of participant observation. This researcher knows of no better way to learn about a group of students and their experience in a university setting than to participate in their collegiate experience. The participant observer gathers data by participating in the daily lives of the subjects being studied (Becker, 1958). Bogdan and Biklen (1982) described this method by saying, "The researcher enters the world of the people he or she plans to study, gets to know ‘them, and systematically keeps a detailed written record of what is heard and observed” (p. 2). In this study, the researcher watched and participated with three first—year student-athletes to see what situations they ordinarily encountered and how they behaved in those circumstances (Becker, 1958). Moreover, the researcher entered discussions and conversations with the student-athletes in hopes of discovering their interpretations of the events with which they were confronted. Becker (1958) stated, "The first thing we note about participant observation research is ‘that analysis is carried on sequentially, important parts of the analysis being made while the researcher is still gathering his data" (p. 653). Consequently, as data were being collected, a kind of provisional analysis of those data determined what additional information was needed. .According to Bogdan and Biklen (1982), "You are not putting together a puzzle, whose picture you already know. You are constructing a picture which takes shape as you collect and examine the parts" (p. 29). Therefore, sequential analysis dictated what to study next, and it also determined which field method (participant observation, observation, or interviewing) would be the most appropriate in gathering the data desired. The researcher took part in or observed every important aspect of the first-year college experiences of the three student-athletes in the sample. As a result, the researcher experienced with the participants four important aspects of their college experiences: (a) academics, (b) financial aid, (c) athletic career, and (d) interactions with the university community. Research Questions To accomplish the study purpose, the following research questions were posed, which provided a framework for this investigation: 1. How is NCAA By-law 14.3 viewed by the three student- gthletes who took part in this study? "It is widely known that the Presidents and chancellors of historically Black institutions vehemently opposed [By-law l4.3]" (Humphries, 1983). In effect, the by-law punishes the victims of inadequate academic preparation for college, many of whom are black. Although the by-law affects both black and white student-athletes, it adversely affects a disproportionate percentage of black males because "55% of the black males who take the SAT score below 700 and 70% score below 15 on the ACT" (Humphries, 1983). Lederman (1991) corroborated the statement that black male athletes are most affected by this by—law. 2. When and how do the first-year student-athletes in this study develop a sense of belonging. both academicallx and athletically? Because most colleges and universities are committed to educating the whole student, it is important to understand whether and how first-year student-athletes begin to develop a sense of belonging, both academically and athletically. Sports promote and reinforce the American value system and have been characterized as a microcosm of“ American society (Amdur, 1971; Frost, 1973; Sage, 1978). Therefore, as the value system of sports changes, the nature of sports changes, as do the values that adults teaching sports transmit to children. Coaches believe that sports develop certain desirable social values in participating athletes (Edwards, 1973; Frost, 1973; Keller, 1965). The commonly mentioned traits include kindness, cooperation, truthfulness, courage, loyalty, friendliness, and character. But whether sports actually transmit these values to the participants, or whether they do so more effectively than other pursuits, has been debated by coaches, sociologists, psychologists, and educators (Corbin, 1971). 3. How often do the first;year student;athletes in this study ggtgract with peers.fcoaches. and other university person- An important aspect of the college experience is meeting other students and forming new friendships (Wilmes & Quade, 1986). This is sometimes a problem for student-athletes because of the amount of time demanded by practice and other responsibilities related to athletics. Because By-law 14.3 does not allow ineligible freshmen to participate in athletics-related events during their first year in college, they' might develop relationships more readily with others outside of athletics, which enhances their university experience. On the other hand, how does the student-athletes’ ineligibility affect their relationships with coaches and other university personnel? Do they lose the opportunity to interact with lO coaches and support staff because of their ineligibility under By- law 14.3? 4. How does By-law 14.3 affect the student:athletes in this study academically? How do their grades compare to those of their peers? According to Astin (1984), "The most precious institutional resource may be the students’ time" (p. 301). He confirmed that there are many demands on students’ time and that educators are competing with other forces in students’ lives for a share of that finite time and energy. This situation is particularly true for the student-athlete, who spends numerous hours each week on practice, in addition to the time spent attending classes and studying. By-law 14.3 was designed to give student-athletes more time to devote to their studies and thus to help them improve their grades. The researcher was interested in examining whether this was indeed the outcome with the subjects in this study. 5. How does By-law 14.3 affect the athleticgreers of the student-athletes in this study? Student-athletes who are deemed ineligible under By-law 14.3 cannot practice or participate in their sport during their freshman year in college. Therefore, the researcher thought it was important to know whether and to what extent the athletic careers of student- athletes are affected by this ruling. This information could be useful to policy makers in the NCAA and also to student-athletes in their planning during the first year of college. These data should also be useful to other researchers investigating NCAA policies regarding student-athletes. 11 6. What financial effects does By-law 14.3_have on the student-athletes in this study? Because student-athletes who are deemed ineligible for competition under By-law 14.3 cannot receive athletic scholarships, they' must find other' means of financing their education. The researcher was interested in determining the financial ramifications of By-law 14.3 on the student-athletes in the study sample and how those students dealt with their financial situations. Importance of the Study Because participation in athletics plays such an important role in the development of young men and women, the effects of any rule that deprives certain individuals of the opportunity to take part in college athletics need to be studied. Being declared ineligible under By-law 14.3 could severely influence the financial aid many of these students receive. Hence, this investigation is important because many young men and women with athletic ability are being deprived of the opportunity to reap substantial financial rewards and to acquire something that is exceedingly more valuable than money: a college education. One reason that young people are encouraged to take part in athletics is that sports participation is fundamentally designed to keep young children on the proper course as they progress through life (Underwood, 1984). Similarly, Schaffer (1978) said that sports help to conserve the established society by indoctrinating young athletes into the adult value system at an early age. Thus, because of the sociocultural importance of participating in sports, a study 12 of the effects on student-athletes of being declared ineligible to participate is important. Delimitations and Limitations The study sample was delimited to three male first-year student-athletes at a Big Ten university in the Midwest. Because of the large quantity of data collected in an ethnographic study of this sort, it was necessary that the sample be of a manageable size. Football players were chosen because the researcher was most interested in these athletes. The study was further delimited to an examination of four aspects of the subjects’ collegiate experience: academics, finan- cial aid, athletic career, and interactions with the university community. One perceived limitation of qualitative or descriptive studies is that they do not contain quantifiable data, nor are they subjected to standard tests of validity and reliabilityu However, Cusick (1973) did not see this as a limitation. He stated: As one lives close to a situation, his description and explanation of it have a first-person quality which other methodologies lack. As he continues to live close to and move deeper into that situation, his perceptions have a validity that is simply unapproachable by any so-called standardized method. Likewise, as his validity becomes better, his reliability, which is an extension of his actual instrument, becomes more aware, more valid, so he must become more reliable. The real proof, however, is in the presentation of the data. For that reason, one reporting such a study must present his findings in an extensive, narrative form. It is especially important to avoid over-inferring in the data chapter. The writer must allow the reader to draw his/her own conclusions from the data as he presents [those] data in as realistic and complete a manner as possible. (p. 233) 13 A further limitation inherent in studies of this nature is that the researcher’s personal bias might interfere with the reporting of actual fact (McCall & Simmons, 1969). However, the researcher made every effort to be accurate in reporting the findings by comparing the responses each subject gave during the first and second interview sessions and cross-checking the information the subjects shared with the researcher with that contained in their records at the university. Generalizability Glaser and Strauss (1967) addressed the issue of generalizability in qualitative studies as follows: "Conventional theorizing claims generality of scope; that is, one assumes that if the relationship holds for one group under certain conditions, it will probably hold for others under the same conditions" (p. 106). Other qualitative researchers "concern themselves not with the question of whether their findings are generalizable, but rather with the question of to which other settings and subjects they are generalizable" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p. 41). Because of the small sample included in the present study, the findings may be generalizable only to male first-year student-athletes with the same characteristics as those who took part in this study. A further limitation is the possibility that the researcher’s presence as an observer might have influenced the actions of the subjects he was observing. "The mere presence of the observer means that movements are developed toward him which wouLd not otherwise 14 have occurred” (McCall a Simmons, 1969, p. 94). The observer effect was not a problem at first, but as the researcher began to spend more time with the subjects, he detected that they were acting in ways intended to gain his approval. Also, because the subjects knew the researcher was employed by the university’s Athletic Department, they were probably trying to be on their best behavior when they were being observed. One way the researcher tried to alleviate this problem was to train a female student to take notes on the subjects’ behavior in class. Definition of Terms The following key terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this study: Big Ten. An athletic conference within the National Collegiate Athletic Association. By-law 14.3: The NCAA regulation that governs student-athletes who have been declared academically ineligible for practice, competition, and financial aid. Before becoming a by-law, this legislation was known as Proposition 48. Core course. An academic course recognized by the NCAA. Divisions IinIyyand III. Groups of conference members of the NCAA, which are grouped into divisions for the purposes of by-law legislation and competition in NCAA championships. Ethnoqraphy. A type of qualitative research involving the field methods of participating observation, direct observation, and interviewing. 15 Financial aid. Funds provided to student-athletes from various sources to pay or assist in paying the cost of their education at the institution in which they are enrolled. As used in NCAA legislation, the term "financial aid" includes all institutional financial aid and other permissible financial aid as set forth by the NCAA (NCAA Manual, 1991-92). National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The organiza- tion that governs the athletic programs of member institutions. A basic purpose of this association is to maintain intercol- legiate athletics as an integral part of the educational program and the athlete as an integral part of the student body and, by so doing, retain a clear line of demarcation between intercollegiate athletics and professional sports. (NCAA, 1991, p. 1) Partial qualifier. A student who does not meet all of the requirements for a qualifier but who, at the time of graduation from high school, has a cumulative grade point average of at least 2.0 on a 4.0 scale. Qualifier. A high school graduate who has a minimum GPA of 2.0 in 11 core courses during high school, a minimum score of 700 on the SAT, and/or a score of at least 18 on the ACT. Sanity rules. Rules and regulations of the NCAA governing the recruitment of and financial aid awarded to student-athletes since World War 11. Special admit. A student-athlete who is given special consid- eration for admittance to a college or university. Student-athlete. A full-time college or university student who was recruited by the school to be a member of an athletic team. 16 True student. The average college student. Overview Chapter 1 contained an introduction to the study and the background of the problem. The purpose of the study was set forth next, and the research questions were stated. The importance of the study was addressed next. The delimitations and limitations of the study, as well as the generalizability of the study findings, also were discussed. Key terms used throughout the study were defined. Chapter 11 contains a review of the literature relevant to this study. Included are a definition of the student—athlete and writings concerning early influences on children to participate in sports, the rationale for and benefits gained from participating in sports, and student-athletes and their values. Next, the history of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the NCAA by-laws governing athletic eligibility are reviewed. The attitudes of selected university personnel toward freshman eligibility also are discussed. The study design and methodology are explained in Chapter III. The qualitative research approach, the advantages of the observational and interview methods (H’ data collection, and theoretical sampling are discussed. The selection of the actual sample for this study is explained, and personal characteristics of the three student-athletes chosen for the sample are set forth. Procedures used in collecting the data for this study are described, as are the methods used in analyzing the data. 17 The findings gleaned from the observations, interviews, and subjects’ journals are presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V contains a summary of the study, major findings regarding the research questions, conclusions drawn the findings, recommendations for practice and further research, and the writer’s reflections. CHAPTER 11 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The researcher’s primary purpose in this study was to investigate the collegiate experiences of three first-year male student-athletes who were deemed academically ineligible for competition according to NCAA By-law 14.3. This chapter begins with a review of the literature on student-athletes. Included are a definition of the student-athlete, early influences on children to participate in sports, the rationale for and benefits gained from participating in sports, and student-athletes and their values. Next, the history of the NCAA is discussed. The NCAA by-laws governing athletic eligibility also are reviewed. The attitudes of selected university personnel toward freshman eligibility also are discussed. -& Definition of the Student-Athlete The term "student-athlete" is a very broad one and can be used to describe almost any student who participates in sports. However, for the purpose of this study, the more specific definition used by the NCAA (1990-91) was employed. According to By-law 12.02.6 of the NCAA Manual, A student-athlete is a student whose enrollment was solicited by a member of the athletics staff or other representative of 18 l9 athletic interests with a view toward the student’s ultimate participation ‘Hl the intercollegiate athletics program. Any other student becomes a student-athlete only when the student reports for an intercollegiate squad that is under the jurisdictions of’ the athletics department, as specified in [sections] 3.2 [and] 4.4. A student is not deemed a student athlete solely on the basis of prior high school athletics participation. (p. 57) According to Underwood (1984), "there are more than a half million college students who participate yearly in intercollegiate athletics at two- and four-year institutions" (p. 3). Early Influences on Children to Participate in Sports Many young children are influenced early on to participate in sports. "Sports are environmentally cultivated and provide opportunities to satisfy the strong human drives for recognition and achievement" (Gilbert, 1974, p. 121). Athletic accomplishments are applauded by peers, family, coaches, teachers, and especially the news media. "A five-year study of 500 freshman male and female student-athletes, conducted at Michigan State University, found that 62% of the students were encouraged to play sports at an early age by their fathers. Others having significant influence ("1 athletic achievement included older brothers (24%), male friends (6%), mothers (5%), or teachers/coaches (3%)" (Underwood, 1984, p. 94). For the most part, male role models have been found to have the greatest influence on steering young people toward sports (Underwood, 1984). Before the late 19605, women did not compete in great numbers, so it is understandable that men served as the most influential role models during that period. Women competed 20 primarily in such sports as golf, swimming, and tennis. Since 1972, women’s participation in sports has grown, due in part to a federal law (Title IX) prohibiting discrimination in school athletic programs. As a result, women now compete in almost every sport on college campuses and are influential in all phases of both amateur and professional athletics. Rationale for Participating in Sports It is well known that adult role models encourage children to participate in sports at an early age. Youngsters are encouraged to play and to learn certain skills through practice. Underwood (1984) suggested that "sports participation is fhndamentally designed to keep young children on the straight and narrow as they progress through life" (p. 5). This is done through the overt and covert teaching of appropriate attitudes, values, norms, and behavioral patterns. Sage (1978) supported this view, arguing that sports serve as social agents to inculcate in children the American value system. Likewise, Schaffer (1978) contended that sports help conserve the established society by indoctrinating young athletes into the adult value system at an early age. Another explanation of why some adults persuade children to be involved in sports is that parents wish to compensate for their own athletic failure and to experience vicariously their children’s success in sports in which they themselves had failed (Campbell, 1974; Tunis, 1958). In such instances, the welfare and personal 21 interests of the children are subordinate to the frustrated needs of the parents. Sports promote and reinforce the American value system and have been characterized as a microcosm of American society (Amdur, 1971; Frost, 1973; Sage, 1978). Therefore, as the American value system changes, the nature of sports changes, as do the societal values that the adults teaching sports transmit to children. Butt (1976) noted that multinational corporations have a great influence on forming and sustaining people’s values. Growth, mastery, independence, profit, and technology are highly promoted in American corporations and are fostered by coaches through intercollegiate athletics. These values have helped bring about the commercialization of college sports, putting emphasis (”1 training athletes not only to bring glory to the school, but also to win and to bring in needed revenue. Given the prevalent belief that parents, coaches, and other role models have about the benefits that sports transmit to children, as well as some adults’ need for self-aggrandizement, one can understand that adults use sports as a laboratory to help prepare youngsters for the perceived requisites of adulthood, such as discipline, aggressiveness, courage, and £1 competitive spirit. Children participate in organized sports for a variety of reasons, but the traditional values of playing for fun and seeing sports as simply a good way to pass leisure time are not top priorities today (Cramer, 1973). Gilbert (1974) elaborated some of the reasons high school and college students participate in sports: 22 Athletics are essentially selfish activities. One participates in sports not for* altruistic reasons, but for oneself--for stimulation, excitement, recognition, and rewards. Therefore, probably the soundest advice anyone can give a young athlete is to consider all offers, possibilities, and choices in terms of what will it do for me. If this were done more commonly, there would probably be less frustration, disillusionment, and disappointment in the wonderful world of sports. Certainly there would be a great deal less hypocrisy. (pp. 121-122) Benefits of Participating in Sports According to Edwards (1973), Kneller (1965), and Frost (1973), participating in sports develops certain values in the athletes involved. The most commonly cited traits that are developed through sports are kfindness, cooperation, truthfulness, courage, loyalty, friendliness, and character. Whether or not sports actually transmit these values to the participants or do so more effectively than other vehicles has been debated by coaches, sociologists, psychologists, and educators (Corbin, 1971; Ogilvie, 1971; Wohl, 1970). Most young children develop attitudes about the value of sports at an early age, according to a study done by Vander, Velden, and Mantel (1971). These researchers reported that children who participate in organized sports perceive the most important reasons for doing so as skill development and winning, whereas nonathletes view sports as a way of learning to be fair toward one’s opponents. After reviewing several studies that dealt with whether sports build character in young people, Singer (1972) concluded that sports do not build character. He found that more gifted athletes demonstrated worse character traits than nonathletes with regard to 23 fair play and sportsmanship. Singer was not sure whether these gifted athletes brought such negative traits to the game, or whether sports produced them. However, he did agree that athletics have given many student-athletes the opportunity to attend colleges and universities who otherwisei might not have been able to do so. Numerous student-athletes from impoverished families who have received athletic scholarships have completed college and contributed to society (Blackburn & Nylkos, 1974). Regardless of whether athletics is viewed as preparing youngsters for adult life, as a selfish activity, or as an opportunity to learn the value of winning, researchers have tended to agree that there are more positive benefits (such as recognition, achievement, and financial remuneration) to be derived from participation in athletics than there are negative factors (Edwards, 1973). If there are negative aspects, they are a result of the way sports are organized and taught. Sports can be a "double-edged sword," depending on the motives and goals of the institution and the coaches leading the athletes. Many accounts in the media dehumanize athletes and portray them as immoral, selfish, and spoiled individuals. Researchers have suggested that the reason for this situation is that sports today are organized around the needs of frustrated adults and the commercialization of the games and the resultant emphasis on revenue and winning, rather than around the values of the sandlot, high school, and college participants (Underwood, 1984). 24 Student-Athletes and Their Values During the 19605, American society struggled through drastic changes as a result of the Vietnanl War and various liberation movements. During this time, sports and athletics were undergoing changes as well. The traditional values—authoritarian structure and subjugation of the individual gave rise to a search for individual autonomy and self-fulfillment among college football players. The new breed of athlete was conscious of racism, violence, and commercialism in sports such as football. The role of the student-athlete and his attempt to define his identity ran counter to group needs. (Underwood, 1984, p. 11) According to Underwood, The various liberation movements in the 19605 fostering egalitarianism caused a gap between coach and player, just as they did between professor and student, and boss and employee. Some players simply quit their teams; some coaches had to alter their coaching styles. Some extolled the permanent, positive values gained from athletic competition and attributed fUture success to it, as did now ex-President Gerald R. Ford. (p. 12) Former President Ford played football at the University of Michigan during the Depression, in 1932 and 1933. In an interview with Sports Illustrated in 1974, he told what football meant to him. He said, "The game can be applied to the rest of your life and can be drawn from freely" (p. 12). An important value football taught him was the importance of winning. "It was not enough to just compete, winning was very important, maybe more important than ever before" (Underwood, 1984, p. 12). Recently, the media have been criticizing the emphasis of college football on negative values, exploitation of athletes, and academic problems. Moreover, such negative aspects as recruiting 25 scandals, the philosophy of winning at all costs, the glorification of violence, and the dehumanization of players have been widely publicized. Whether or not varsity football players belong within the walls of academia is an ongoing controversy. Supporters of college football have called attention to its positive contributions to the institution, the identification felt by alumni and students with the institution as a result of the team’s boosting of school spirit, and the prestige a winning team brings to the school. Participants, they argue, benefit from the discipline imposed by college football and gain in maturity because of that discipline. Supporters also maintain that the values of football players are not contrary to those of nonfootball players. Critics of college football, on the other hand, view the competition for entertainment dollars and the overemphasis on winning as destructive of the more traditional values formerly inherent in football. The traditional teacher-student relationship, which should be the model for the coach-athlete interaction, has been replaced in many instances by the employer-employee association. Parental pressure, high alumni expectations, and the avoidance of responsibility by top-level academic administrators have been blamed for this situation (Underwood, 1984). The National Collegiate Athletic Association Introduction The NCAA is the organization through which colleges and universities speak and act on athletic matters at the national 26 level. It is a voluntary association whose members are devoted to the sound administration of intercollegiate athletics. The competitive athletic programs of the National Collegiate Athletic Association member institutions are designed to be a critical part of the educational system. A basic purpose of the National Collegiate Athletic Association is to maintain intercollegiate athletics as an integral part of the educational program and the athlete as an integral part of the student body, and by doing so, retain a clear line of demarcation between intercollegiate athletics and professional sports. (NCAA, 1990-91, p. 1) The NCAA has grown dramatically in the past 40 years; in fact, the Association has gained more than 650 new members since 1950. The final authority on intercollegiate athletic issues is the NCAA annual convention, which is held in January. Each participating conference member holds one vote on all convention issues. The 46- member NCAA national council establishes and directs the Association’s policy between conventions. Council members include the president, secretary, treasurer, 22 Division I representatives, and 11 representatives each from Divisions II and 111. All of these council members are elected by the general membership at the annual convention. The council acts as a single body to deal with the overall policy and matters that involve all divisions, but council members from each division also compose the Division I, II and III steering committees, which consider and act on matters relating only to their respective divisions. A two-thirds vote of the full council can overturn an action of the steering committee. The 14-member NCAA executive committee, which includes the president, secretary, treasurer, and three division vice-presidents, 27 transacts NCAA financial matters and oversees its championships. The five officers are elected at the annual convention, and the other executive committee members are elected by the council. Special committees and subcommittees often are appointed by the council and the executive committee to undertake specific projects. Currently, there are ten such special committees and subcommittees. History of the NCAA According to the NCAA General Information Handbook of 1991-92, "It was the flying wedge, football’s major offense in 1905, that spurred the formation of the NCAA" (p. 1). Because of the rugged nature of football, typified by mass formations and gang tackling, which resulted in numerous injuries, many institutions were prompted to discontinue the sport. Others urged that football be reformed or banned from intercollegiate athletics. President Theodore Roosevelt summoned college athletic leaders to White House conferences to encourage such reforms. In early December 1905, Chancellor Henry M. McCraken of New York University convened a meeting of 13 institutions to initiate changes in football playing rules. At a subsequent meeting in New York City, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS) was founded by 62 members. The IAAUS officially was established on March 31, 1906; it took its present name (NCAA) in 1910. At first, the NCAA was a discussion group that made rules governing intercollegiate athletics. Then, in 1921, the first NCAA national championship event-—the National Collegiate Track and Field 28 Championship--was held. Gradually, more rule committees were formed, and more championships were held. After World War II, the "Sanity Code" was adopted because of a series of crises that brought the NCAA to a crossroads. The Sanity Code established guidelines for recruiting and financial aid, but it failed to alleviate abuses involving student-athletes. ‘The number of postseason football games was increasing rapidly, and schools were becoming more concerned about the effects of unrestricted television coverage on attendance at football games than about abuses concerning student—athletes. The complexity and scope of these problems, along with the growth in membership and championships, demonstrated the NCAA’s increasing need for full-time professional leadership. In 1951, Walter Byers, who previously had served as part-time executive assistant of the NCAA, was named executive director. A national headquarters was established in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1952. Subsequently, a program to control live television broadcasts of football games. was approved. The) national convention delegated enforcement powers to the NCAA’s council, and legislation was adopted governing postseason bowl games. The Association’s membership was divided into three legislative and competitive divisions in 1973, at the first special convention that was ever held. Women joined the NCAA’s activities in 1980, when Divisions II and III established ten women’s championships for 1981-82. A year 29 later, participants at the historic 75th annual convention adopted an extensive plan to include women’s athletic programs, services, and representation in NCAA activities. The delegates expanded the women’s championship program by adding 19 more events. The President’s Commission of the NCAA, created in 1984, called a landmark special convention in June 1985, at which the membership took decisive actions to strengthen the Association’s compliance and enforcement efforts. The Commission called another special meeting in June 1989, which was used to launch an 18-month national forum on critical questions regarding intercollegiate athletics. Walter Byers retired on October 1, 1987, after 36 years as the Association’s executive director; he was replaced by Richard D. Schultz. Today, the NCAA’s national office staff of more than 200 employees is based in Overland Park, Kansas. Functions of the NCAA According to the NCAA Maflgfl for 1991-92, the Association serves as a governance and administrative structure through which its members: 1. enact legislation to deal with athletic problems when member institutions conclude that national action is needed. 2. interpret legislation adopted by the membership. 3. represent intercollegiate athletics in legislative and regulative matters at the state and federal levels, such as federal taxes and anti-bribery and gambling laws affecting sports and physical education. 30 4. provide financial assistance and other help to groups that are interested in promoting and advancing intercollegiate athletics. 5. promote their championship events and all intercollegiate athletics through planned activities of the NCAA National Office. In addition to general public relations activities, the Association publishes the NCAA News and other publications on behalf of its members. 6. compile and distribute football, basketball, baseball, and women’s softball statistics. The NCAA also maintains regular season records. 7. maintain committees to write and interpret playing rules in 12 sports. 8. conduct research as a way to find solutions to athletic problems. 9. annually produce special programs for television. 10. maintain a central clearing house and counseling agency to answer questions about intercollegiate athletics and athletics administration. 11. administer insurance programs. 12. promote and participate in international sports planning and competition through membership on the U.S. Olympic Committee. 13. sanction postseason competition and certify certain noncollegiate contests to protect their institutional interests and those of student-athletes. 14. administer community service programs. 31 15. administer national and international marketing and licensing programs to enhance intercollegiate athletics and to expand youth development programs. Attitudes of University Personnel Toward Freshman Eligibility In an article in The Chronicle of Higher Educatign (Lederman, 1989), the President of the University of Iowa vowed to bar freshmen from playing intercollegiate sports if such a step was not taken at the national or regional level within three years. As a result of this vow, ”President Hunter R. Rawlings III was condemned by Iowa’s governor, and the university’s football coach threatened to resign" (p. A-33). According to Lederman, "Mr. Rawlings, who first commented about freshman ineligibility in the Des Moines Register, said in an interview last week that in speaking out, he was seeking to focus attention not so much on the hypothetical question of what we might do, as on working hard to stimulate change nationally" (p. A-33). He said he believed college presidents must be willing to take strong stands if big-time college sports are to be reformed. In the same article, the President of Southern Methodist University, A. Kenneth Pye, was quoted as saying that barring freshmen from practice and limiting players to three years’ eligibility would be a "sham" unless these restrictions were applied to all sports (Lederman, 1989). Pye believed that, if the NCAA decided to rule all freshmen ineligible to complete, this would be penalizing the schools that have high academic standards and that play freshmen who graduate within four years. 32 Donna Loplano, Director of Women’s Athletics at the University of Texas at Austin, called an overall ban on freshman eligibility a "shot-gun approach” (Lederman, 1989, p. A-33). She said that colleges should try to shield academically-at-risk athletes from excessive competitive pressures by protecting those students, not by barring all athletes. Thus, it can be seen that the issue of freshman eligibility is still the subject of much debate. The present study was undertaken to discover some of the effects on student-athletes of being declared ineligible to participate in intercollegiate athletics. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction The researcher’s primary purpose in this study was to describe the collegiate experiences of three male student-athletes deemed academically ineligible to participate in intercollegiate athletics according to NCAA By-law 14.3 because they did not meet the academic criteria stipulated in that by-law. These athletes were recruited to play football and enrolled at a Big Ten university during fall term 1991-92 but were subsequently ruled ineligible. Four aspects of these athletes’ collegiate experience were the main focus of this descriptive study: (a) academics, (b) financial aid, (c) athletic career, and (d) interactions with the university community. To gain an understanding of the collegiate experiences of these student-athletes from their own perspective, the researcher used an ethnographic or field-work approach. According to Spradley (1979), "In doing field work, ethnographers make cultural inferences from three sources: (1) from the way people act, (2) from what people say, [and] (3) from the artifacts people use" (p. 8). ‘Thus, the researcher employed observations, interviews, and the subjects’ personal journals as sources of data from which to make cultural inferences. 33 34 In this chapter, the design and methodology of the study are explained. Theoretical sampling is discussed first, followed by a description of ‘the ‘theoretical framework for the study and the features of qualitative research. An overview of the data- collection procedures is then provided. The methods used in analyzing the data also are described. Theoretical Sampling "The specific organization or situation to be investigated along with the substantive topic of research are the two most important decisions that must be made when using field methods or ethnography" (McCall & Simmons, 1969, p. 65). A large Big Ten university in the Midwest was chosen as the research setting. The college experience of three first-year student athletes deemed academically ineligible according to NCAA By—law 14.3 was the substantive topic of research. Theoretical sampling was used in making initial decisions regarding the study sample. "Theoretical sampling is the process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect next, and where to find them in order to develop his theory as it emerges” (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 105). According to Glaser and Strauss, "theoretical sampling is done to discover categories and their properties, and to suggest the interrelationship into a theory" (p. 105). Therefore, the process for sampling and data collection is dictated by the emerging theory 35 --in the case of this investigation, the description of the collegiate experiences of three first-year student-athletes in terms of 'their' academics, financial aid, athletic careers, and inter- actions with the university community. Unlike theoretical sampling, statistical (random) sampling "is done to obtain evidence on distributions of people among categories to be used in descriptions or verifications" (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 106). Therefore, according to Glaser and Strauss: An adequate sample for one type of research would be very different from another type. One who generates theory does not need to combine random sampling with theoretical sampling when setting forth relationships among categories and properties. (p. 106) Hammersley and Atkinson (1990) stated that there are two complementary strategies 1%": using the theoretical-sampling approach, which were also discussed by Glaser and Strauss. First, the researcher should try to minimize the differences between cases, in order to highlight basic properties of a particular category; then he or she should maximize the differences between cases so as to increase the "density of the properties relating to core categories" (p. 4). By using the above-mentioned theoretical-sampling strategies, the present researcher first had to narrow the first-year student athlete population to individuals sharing some similar characteristics, so as to minimize the differences among cases. Therefore, student athletes deemed academically ineligible for competition under NCAA By-law 14.3 were selected to constitute the study population. After that decision was made, the researcher 36 wanted to maximize the differences among cases so that sample members would represent various economic backgrounds, educational experiences, athletic achievements, social values, and academic achievements. The actual sample selected for this study consisted of three first-year male student-athletes. Personal characteristics of the three subjects are described in Chapter IV. Throughout this report, pseudonyms are used to preserve the subjects’ anonymity. Theoretical Framework Symbolic interaction was the fundamental theory underlying the observational approach used irI this study. The researcher’s description of the interactions between the first-year student- athletes and the university community they encountered was based on the theory of symbolic interaction. The term symbolic interaction refers to the distinctive and peculiar character of interaction as it takes place between human beings. The peculiarity consists in the fact that human beings interpret or define each other’s actions instead of merely reacting to each other’s actions. Their response is not made directly to the actions of one another, but instead is based on the meaning which they attach to some actions. Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of one another’s actions. (Blumer, 1962, p. 97) In accord with the symbolic-interaction theory, the researcher, in attempting to describe the first-year collegiate experience of three student-athletes, first had to determine the meaning the participants themselves placed on the various interactions and experiences they encountered. "People do not act towards these things, but toward their meanings" (Spradley, 1979, p. 6). 37 Becker (1958) expressed a note of caution to the observer/ researcher in discussing what he termed the observer-informant group equation: A person may say or do something when alone with the observer or when other members of the group are also present. The evidential value of an observation of this behavior depends on the observer’s judgment as to whether the behavior is equally likely to occur in both situations. 0n the one hand, an informant may say and do things when alone with the observer that accurately reflect his perspective, but which would be inhibited by the presence of the group. On the other hand, the presence of others may call forth behavior which reveals more accurately the person’s perspective but would not be enacted in the presence of the observer alone. (p. 652) To minimize the drawbacks of the observer-informant group equation described by Becker, the researcher decided to limit the focus of the study to four aspects of the subjects’ collegiate experience: (a) academics, (b) financial aid, (c) athletic career, and (d) interactions with the university community. The researcher believed that much of the observational information he gathered on these four aspects could be documented, which would allow him to determine the accuracy of his interpretation of certain occurrences. For instance, the subjects’ grade reports were used to verify the researcher’s interpretation of the academic aspect of these student- athletes’ experience. To understand the students in this study, the researcher had to determine how they viewed themselves in their new campus environ- ment. According to Blumer (1962), [The subject] can act towards himself as he might act toward others. Each of us is familiar with actions of this sort in which the human being gets angry with himself, rebuffs himself, takes pride in himself, argues with himself, tries to bolster 38 his own courage, tells himself that he should ”do this" or not "do that," sets goals for himself, makes compromises with himself, and plans what he is going to do. (p. 98) The researcher also had to remember that the student-athletes’ perspectives would not remain static but could change as they experienced college life. The Qualitative Research Method A qualitative rather than a quantitative approach was used in carrying out this study. Qualitative research has several unique features. First, ”qualitative research has the natural setting as the direct source of data, and the researcher is the key instrument" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p. 27). The present study was conducted on the university campus where the participants lived and studied. The campus was the "natural setting" in which the subjects’ collegiate experience needed to be understood. Therefore, because this setting was the direct source of data, the researcher occasionally went to the subjects’ classes, spent time with them between classes, went to organized conditioning classes (set Lu) by the strength-and- conditioning coach for the football team), spent some leisure time just socializing with the subjects and their friends, occasionally ate lunch in the dorms, and attended financial aid meetings with the subjects’ advisors in the Student Affairs Office. Another feature of qualitative research is that it is descriptive in nature. "Data [are] collected in the form of words and pictures rather than numbers and statistics" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p. 28). In this study, the researcher collected data through 39 field notes, interview transcripts, participants’ journals, and other relevant university documents and records. A third feature of qualitative research is that the researcher is concerned with the process rather than simply with outcomes or products. . . . How do people negotiate meaning? How do certain terms and labels come to be applied? How do certain notions come to be taken as part of what we know as common sense? What is the natural history of the activity or events under study? (Bogdan a Biklen, 1982, p. 28) A fourth characteristic of qualitative research is that "qualitative researchers tend to analyze their data inductively” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p. 29). According to Glaser and Strauss (1967), They do not search out data or evidence to prove or disprove hypotheses they hold before entering the study; rather, the abstractions are built as the particulars that have been gathered are grouped together. Theory developed this way emerges from the bottom up (rather than from the top down) from many disparate pieces of collected evidence that are interconnected. This is called grounded theory. (p. 105) The direction the research will take begins to emerge after the researcher has spent some time with the subjects and collected some of the data. An overall picture of the study takes shape as the researcher collects data and examines the various components. The qualitative researcher plans to use the preliminary part of the study to learn what the important questions are. The researcher does not assume that he or she knows enough to recognize all of the important concerns before undertaking the investigation. In conclusion, to discover the meaning of something is the essential concern in the qualitative approach (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982). According to Cusick (1973): 40 The methodology works at two levels. . . . The researcher on the scene describes what he reads, sees, and hears and then expands his descriptions from the accounts of the situation by his subjects’ observations, and by further searching and questioning of informants, he obtains the explanation of the situation from the actors. (p. 230) Writers have cited a number of advantages of using the qualitative research techniques of’ observation and interviewing. For' one thing, using these techniques allows the researcher to change direction in terms of how he or she conducts the research. "A major characteristic of observation and interviewing in the field is its nonstandardization" (McCall & Simmons, 1969, p. 20). The research is carried on sequentially, allowing the direction of the research to be changed at any time, and making it possible to pursue emerging assumptions along with other topics. Many researchers using other methods (especially survey techniques) have little flexibility in terms of the topics they choose to investigate. "A second characteristic of observation and interviewing is that it makes effective use of the relationships the researcher establishes with informants in the field for eliciting data" (McCall & Simmons, 1969, p. 20). After this researcher was able to gain the confidence and trust of the participants, they were more open about discussing their personal experiences. This might not occur with other research methods that do not allow the researcher and subjects to develop a personal relationship. In this study, because of the personal relationships that developed between the researcher and the subjects, the subjects realized that they were the most important aspects of the research. They commented that they hoped their 41 contribution would help other student-athletes in the future, and they requested a copy of the completed report. This indicated to the researcher that the subjects had a ‘vested interest in the project and that they cared about the outcome. Also, the subjects’ journal entries reflected their interest in the project. A third advantage of observation and interviewing, according to McCall and Simmons (1969), is that ”the researcher is better able to avoid misleading or meaningless questions" (p. 22). Also, if a subject seems to have evaded a question or simply did not understand it, the researcher can rephrase it. As a result of having nearly daily contact with the subjects and establishing a high degree of trust and rapport with them, the researcher is able to elicit personal insights that can be obtained only when subjects are willing to share such information (McCall & Simmons, 1969, p. 23). Each participant was also asked to maintain a personal journal, to supplement the information gathered through observations and interviews. These methods of data collection are discussed in detail in the following section. Data-Collection Procedures Before collecting the data for this study, the researcher sought the approval of the Michigan State University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). UCRIHS reviewed the research proposal and granted approval to conduct the study (see Appendix A for approval letter). Upon receiving this approval, the 42 researcher proceeded to collect the necessary data, using the procedures described in the following paragraphs. Obsegyation Participant observation. In participant observation, a social situation is described through the senses of the researcher and the subjects, and the situation is explained from the point of view of both the researcher and the subjects (Cusick, 1983). Thus, in the present study, the researcher entered into the everyday lives of three student-athletes to investigate four aspects of their collegiate experience. To participate in and hence to understand the experience of the three subjects, the researcher first had to be accepted by them. To establish this trust and acceptance, The observer participates in the everyday life of the people and situation he/she wishes to understand. He speaks with them, jokes with them, and shares their concerns and accomplishments. His goal is to see the world as the subjects conceive it. He enters the experience of his subjects by sharing experiences with them. (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p. 3) At the beginning of the study, the researcher concentrated on establishing a working relationship with the three student-athletes. He wanted the subjects to feel they had the freedom to say and do what came naturally to them in each situation. Schedules were made a day in advance so that the researcher and the participants could agree on a time and place on campus to meet. In an effort to gain acceptance and to be allowed to share the personal lives of the subjects, the researcher dressed, talked, and occasionally acted like a first-year college student. 43 The researcher could tell that he was making progress toward being accepted by the subjects in the way they accepted him and allowed him to enter their world and to describe their experiences. Another sign of acceptance was the participants’ willingness to share with the researcher their personal feelings about certain experiences they had. According to McCall and Simmons (1969), It is important that the investigator does not maintain situations iri which he is 'hi conflict with the observed, provokes excessive anxiety in them or demonstrates disrespectful attitudes toward them. In addition, it is essential that he recognize the importance of participating with the observed on a "simply human" level. (p. 94) Thus, the observer and observed are bound together through sharing the common role of human being. When the observed become convinced that the observer’s attitude toward them is one of respect and interest in them as human beings as well as research subjects, they will feel less need for concealing, withholding, or distorting information (McCall & Simmons, 1969). ”The substance of systematic, objective, and analytical participant observation lies in reaping detailed, accurate and complete notes" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1972, p. 39). The researcher carried a notebook or pocket tape recorder with him at all times to increase the accuracy of the field notes. After each interaction with the subjects, the researcher transcribed his field notes. Most of the notes were made soon after he interacted with the subjects, while the events were fresh in the researcher’s memory. 44 The participant-observation sessions were scheduled throughout the school year when the researcher had no other job responsibilities. This gave the researcher plenty of time to complete field notes while that details were still fresh. The researcher jotted down key words or statements during the obser- vations to help in remembering pertinent information to record in detail after the participant-observation sessions. All of the researcher’s notes were kept in chronological order. The date, subject’s name, and place and time of the involvement were noted at the beginning of each observational session. The researcher attempted to record everything that might be important about the session. He took note of the physical setting in which the observations took place, and recorded detailed information about the pe0ple with whom the subjects interacted. Complete observmon. Complete observation was also used to gather data for this study. In such observation, the researcher did not actually take part in the activities with the subjects. "The complete observer has no contact at all with those he or she is observing" (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1990, p. 95). At the beginning of the study, the researcher informed the participants that they might be observed at various times throughout the term. The participants gave the researcher their class schedules so that he would know where the subjects were throughout the day. Before doing classroom observations, the researcher obtained the professor’s permission to attend classes. The student- 45 athletes were not informed of which classes the researcher would be attending. The researcher attended classes unannounced and sat in the back of the classroom, so as to be less noticeable. However, after attending several classes of the three student-athletes in the study, the researcher noticed that the actions and behaviors of the subjects were not in any way natural. To try to alleviate this problem, the researcher employed a female student-trainee to attend certain lecture sessions attended by large numbers of students. The student-trainee was taught how to collect observational data on the three subjects while they attended these lecture sessions and interacted with peers and instructors. 'This student-trainee knew the researcher and was familiar with the purpose of the study. The student-trainee’s role was limited to observing the subjects in the classroom; her participation was used as a means of keeping the students ”honest" in terms of their actions and interactions with others. Most of the time, the subjects did not know the researcher was present because of the large number of students in the lecture halls. Also, it was easy for the researcher to take notes inconspicuously because everyone else in the class was doing so. The researcher noted where the subjects sat, to whom they spoke, and whether they asked the instructor questions. In the smaller laboratory sessions of the subjects’ classes, the researcher’s presence was obvious. Therefore, the researcher let the subjects know beforehand that he would be observing, and he 46 also obtained permission from the instructor to attend. The researcher did not tell the instructor which student or students were being observed. However, on one occasion, the instructor asked who was being observed, and the researcher told him. The classroom setting and activities seemed to change once the instructor knew who was being observed. In particular, the instructor made remarks to the researcher, and as a result the students in the class also focused more attention on the researcher. Personal Interviews The third method used to collect data for this study was the personal interview. Before the study was undertaken, pilot interviews were conducted with three upperclassmen who, like the subjects of this study, were student-athletes deemed academically ineligible under NCAA By-law 14.3. The pilot interviews were suggested by one of the researcher’s committee members as a means of helping develop interview questions for the study. Conducting the pilot interviews gave the researcher an idea of the topics it would be valuable to explore in the actual investigation. Six general research questions were developed as a result of the pilot interviews. With minor modifications in wording, these questions formed the basis of the interviews with the student- athletes who took part in the study. The researcher used nondirective questions to stimulate the respondents to discuss the broader issues of ‘their unique experiences. .As Hammersley and Atkinson (1990) stated, "non-directive questions are relatively 47 open-ended, rather than requiring the interviewee to provide a specific piece of information or, at the extreme, simply to reply ’yes’ or ’no’” (p. 113). Because each subject gave a unique description of his own personal experience, the interviews were guided by what subjects related about those experiences. The researcher, however, conducted the interviews 50 that the issues important to the study were covered. Hammersley and Atkinson advised that "the interviewer must listen to what is being said in order to assess how it relates to the research focus and how it may reflect the circumstances of the interview" (p. 113). The interviews, which lasted approximately 45 minutes, all took place in private or semi—private places on campus, usually in the subjects’ dorm rooms or in the researcher’s office during the evening. All interviews were tape recorded to ensure accuracy and completeness of the transcription. In Interviewing: Stra_tag_y_,, Techniques. and 'Tactics, Gorden (1975) listed several precautions that one should take when tape recording personal interviews: 1. The use of the recording machine should be explained in a forthright and matter- of- fact way. 2. The physical setting should be arranged, if possible, so that the tape recorder is out of the respondent’s sight. 3. The microphone should be inconspicuous and out of the direct line of sight as the interviewer and the respondent face each other. 4. The interviewer should become thoroughly familiar with the machine so that he or she does not feel insecure in its use or devote too much attention to it. 5. Once the interview begins, the interviewer should show no awareness of the tape recorder’s presence. (p. 275) 48 The researcher followed these suggestions, to ensure that the tape recordings of the interviews would be of the best quality possible. Before each interview, the researcher tested the tape recorder for distance and clarity. Once the tape recorder regis- tered the researcher’s voice at a normal tone, the recorder was placed out of the subjects’ direct line of sight. Responses from the first round of personal interviews were clarified and/or amplified during the second round of interviews at the end of the study. In addition, some new issues emerged during the second interviews, such as work-study jobs and repaying loans; these concerns needed to be discussed and dealt with because of their potential effect on the participants’ college experience. According to Garden (1975), using an interview rather than a questionnaire to gather data has the following advantages: 1. The interview provides more opportunity to motivate the respondent to supply accurate and complete information immediately. 2. The interview allows greater flexibility in questioning the respondent. 3. The interview provides more opportunity to guide the respondent in his interpretation of the questions. 4. The interview provides a greater opportunity to evaluate the validity of the information by observing the respondent’s nonverbal manifestations of his attitude toward supplying the information. (pp. 76, 79) The researcher transcribed all of the tape-recorded interviews in their entirety. While transcribing the tapes of the interviews, the researcher listened to the recording of each session repeatedly to ensure that nothing had been left out of the transcription. In 49 doing this, the researcher gained a better understanding of what the participants were trying to relate. In addition to interviewing the student-athletes who were the subjects of this investigation, the researcher also interviewed the student-athletes’ coaches and ‘trainers. Responses during these interview sessions provided further insights that were helpful in answering the research questions. Journals In addition to the observations and interviews, the researcher asked each participant to keep a journal of his college experience as a final method of data collection. The journals were kept throughout the duration of the study. The subjects were asked to write in their journals at least twice a week and to date each journal entry. They could write about any activities, events, people, ideas, fears, emotions, mistakes, confusion, good things, and bad things--anything they thought was significant to their college experience. Because the researcher could not be with the subjects all of the time, the journals helped supply useful information that otherwise Inight have been missed. In reviewing these personal accounts of the participants’ experiences, the researcher could tell that they contained information that had not been discovered through any of the other data-collection methods used in this study. 50 Data-Analysis Procedures In ethnography, data analysis is an ongoing process, rather than a distinct or separate stage. In fact, analyzing the data actually begins when the researcher starts formulating and clarifying the research questions that provide the early foundation or framework for the study. These research questions provide some general themes to investigate. The researcher established a filing system to keep the pages of data in order. As the aggregation of data grew, new file categories were developed. A separate file was kept for each participant. All information that was collected regarding a particular subject was placed in his file. Participants’ files contained letters of consent, personal information sheets, field notes the researcher took during the observations, and transcriptions of the personal interview tapes. The subjects’ journals were added to their files at the end of the study. The techniques employed in analyzing the data were as follows. First, the researcher read through all of the data that had been collected, in an attempt to test certain assumptions and ideas that had emerged during the study. This helped the researcher review the data carefully as the various themes that were important to the study were finalized. Second, the researcher developed a short summary of each of the student-athletes. These summaries contained information that was unique to each student that could have had an influence on the student’s collegiate experience, as well as general themes and ideas 51 that were common to the three student-athletes who were part of this study. Last, the researcher' made copies of all field notes, tape transcriptions, and student journals. These copies were used in coding and categorizing the information, to make it more manageable. Different colors were used to identify and categorize information that pertained to the various themes examined in the study. The data collected in this study are reported in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS Introduction The researcher’s purpose in this study was to describe the collegiate» experiences of three male first-year student-athletes deemed academically ineligible according to NCAA By-law 14.3. These athletes were recruited to play football and enrolled at a Big Ten university fall term 1991-92 but were subsequently ruled ineligible. Four important aspects of these student-athletes’ first-year college experiences were investigated in this study: (a) academics, (b) financial aid, (c) athletic career, and (d) interactions with the university community. An ethnographic or field-study approach, using observations, interviews, and subjects’ journals, was used in gathering data for the study. The following questions provided a framework for the study: 1. How is NCAA By- law 14. 3 viewed by the three student- athletes who took part in this study? 2. When and how do the first-year student athletes in this study develop a sense of belonging, both academically and athletically? . 3. How often do the first-year student-athletes in this study interact with peers, coaches, and other university person- nel? 52 53 4. How does By-law 14.3 affect the student-athletes in this study academically? How do their grades compare to those of their peers? 5. How does By-law 14.3 affect the athletic careers of the student-athletes in this study? 6. What financial effects does By-law 14.3 have on the student-athletes in this study? Early Fall Camp for Student-Athletes At the university where the study took place, student-athletes were required to report to training camp on August 18, 1991. By this time, most of the entering freshmen had already been through orientation, had their fall term class schedules, and were gearing up to begin practice for the upcoming football season. All new freshmen and upperclassmen were required to register for fall term classes during training camp; by doing so, these student-athletes had priority over other students in terms of class selection. This is the first disadvantage that the three-student-athletes in this study encountered during their first-year collegiate experience. Because they were not allowed to practice with the team, they were not given the same advantages, such as early registration, as the other student-athletes on the football team. The rationale behind giving student-athletes priority in registering for classes is to allow them the first shot at taking classes that will allow them time for practice and time to travel to away contests without the threat of having to miss certain classes and other university obligations. 54 The three student-athletes in the sample reported to campus on September 22, 1991, and they went through orientation on September 23 and 24. After orientation came registration, which is when the subjects’ financial problems began. Once they had borrowed enough money for tuition, books, and room and board, they were ready to begin their classes. Fall term was a very difficult time for the three student- athletes, primarily because they were being denied the opportunity to do the one thing they loved the most: play football. They would have to sit back and watch their team go to battle without their help; they were not even allowed to attend team meetings. In addition, they lost out on the guidance of the head coach and his assistants by being denied the privilege to interact with them and benefit from 'their ‘leadership during what. was perhaps the most crucial time of their college experience. Orientation for New Students Although the three student-athletes who took part in this study had already gone through orientation by the time this study began, the researcher thought it would be beneficial to review the orientation process for new students at the university the subjects attended. At this midwestern university, the orientation process begins with a letter congratulating the student on becoming a member of the school’s student body. The student is asked to select the date of the summer academic orientation session he or she would like to 55 attend and to return that information to the orientation office, which is located in the administration building. The schedule of activities during the summer academic orientation at this university was as follows: First Day: 10:30 a.m.-11:15 a.m. 11:30-12:15 p.m. 12:15-1:50 p.m. 1:05-1:50 p.m. 1:05-1:50 p.m. 1:30-2:10 p.m. 2:15-3:00 p.m. 3:10-3:55 p.m. 3:10-3z55 p.m. 4:00-4:50 p.m. 5:00-5:30 p.m. 5:30-6z30 p.m. 5:30-6:30 p.m. Check-in in the main lobby of one of the residence halls Welcome and overview of the academic orientation program Orientation testing Writing essay Foreign language placement test (Session 1) Break and refreshments The college classroom: talk by one of the professors from the university Discussion session: what every college student wants to know Foreign language placement test (Session 11) College presentations; students should attend the college presentation of their declared major Floor meeting: relax and meet your resident assistant Major changes: students who wish to change majors must do so before meeting with their advisors Dinner 6:45-7:25 p.m. 7:30-8:00 p.m. 8:00-9:15 p.m. 9:30-10:00 p.m. 10:00-11:45 p.m. Second Day 6:45-7:30 a.m. 7:45-8:00 a.m. 8:00-8:15 a.m. 8:15-11:30 a.m. 1:00 p.m. 56 Choice of 5 sessions: All students are to attend one of these sessions: 1. Academic Survival From a Professor’s Viewpoint 2 Honors College meeting 3 College Achievement Admissions Program (CAAP) meeting 4. Army ROTC presentation 5 Air Force ROTC presentation Your out-of-class education: Discussion of what to expect in the fall Presentation on schedule building/computer enrollment Break Social activity followed by return to residence hall Breakfast Pick up orientation test results and personal access number Session on test interpretation Completion of activities listed and session with an academic advisor Residence hall tour Student-Athletes’ Study Table The study table for football players is held in the Football Building on campus from 8:00 to l0:OO p.m., Monday through Thursday. All freshman and transfer student-athletes are required to attend each study session. The student-athletes’ study table is one of the few activities supported by the Athletic Department that the 57 three student-athletes in this study were allowed to attend (see "Do’s and Don’ts for Proposition 48 Student Athletes,” Appendix C). During the first year, study table is meant to provide structured study time along with individual tutoring for any student-athlete who wants or needs the help. One full-time academic advisor, a group coordinator, and six group leaders provide help to students during these sessions. The group leaders work closely with the coordinator in helping the student-athletes with course assignments and study-time management, and they give tutorial assistance when necessary. Weekly progress reports are written on each student-athlete and are reviewed by the athletic advisor and the Assistant Athletic Director in charge of academics. The athletic advisor then counsels the student-athletes in one-on-one sessions and prepares a report for the head coach and the Assistant Athletic Director for academics. Through an early warning system, the Athletic Department is notified of the student-athletes’ class progress, attendance, and test grades after the first three weeks of classes and again at the end of the seventh week, of classes. The student-athletes are required to meet with each of their professors at least twice before the final exam. The three student-athletes involved in this study benefited immensely from this academic support, as evidenced by their grades for the first school year (see Table 81, Appendix B). This researcher was the academic advisor for the student-athletes’ study table. But, because of a possible conflict of interest between his 58 being the academic advisor for the subjects while he was conducting the study, the researcher asked for and received permission from the Athletic Department not to advise the three student-athletes involved in this research project. As a result, the three student- athletes were required to report to the Assistant Athletic Director for academics during their year-long involvement in this investigation (see Appendix A for consent form). Personal Characteristics of the Three Student-Athlete; Personal characteristics and the researcher’s general observa- tions about each 10f ‘the student-athletes are presented in this section. Henry Temple Henry was 19 years old and had graduated from a Catholic high school in Illinois. Before coming to the university, he lived with his mother and father and two sisters. Henry’s hobbies were fishing and basketball. His academic goal was to graduate from college and, as he put it, his personal goal was to "be the best." Henry’s athletic honors included All State, All American, All City, All Metro, and All East Side player in football. He also led the nation in rushing yardage in 1990, with 3,015 yards in 309 attempts. Henry’s academic situation was unique because he had met every requirement stipulated by the NCAA. His problems began when an admissions officer at the university refused to accept one of Henry’s high school math classes, questioning the content of the 59 course in terms of what percentage was actually algebra. The admissions officer and the officials at Henry’s high school argued back and forth until the NCAA finally was called on to make a decision. They decided in favor of the admissions officer, and the university thus ruled Henry academically ineligible for participa- tion. Henry became what the NCAA refers to as a partial qualifier. According to By-law 14.02.9.2 of the NCAA Manual (1990-91), A partial qualifier is a student who does not meet the requirements for a qualifier but who at the time of graduation from high school presents a cumulative grade point average of at least 2.0 (based on a 4.0 scale). (p. 1) This rule also had a devastating effect on Henry’s financial situation because, as a result of being ruled a partial qualifier, he was not allowed to receive any athletic financial aid from the university. Mark Blue Mark Blue was 19 years old and had graduated from a public high school in Kentucky. Mark’s family consisted of his two parents and one brother. Hunting and sports were this student-athlete’s hobbies. Mark’s academic goal was to earn a degree in international business; his personal goals were to play professional football and learn to speak Japanese. This student-athlete had earned All State honors his junior and senior years in high school. Also, he was a three-year starter on his high school’s varsity football team. Mark’s first-year experience in college was almost cut short when he was accused of date-raping a female student in the dorm. 60 This painful ordeal happened during the latter part of Mark’s first term in college. He and the female student had quickly formed an intimate friendship, and the situation got out of control. In her statement, the coed claimed that she gave Mark permission to have sex with her and then changed her mind. They continued to have a sexual relationship after that first incident until Mark refused to go out with her one night. She then filed charges of date-rape with the dorm advisor, and Mark was eventually dismissed from school. Mark and the researcher appealed the dismissal and convinced the Vice-President of Student Services to place Mark on probation, which allowed him to remain in school for the rest of the year. This experience had a negative effect on Mark, and at times he became so upset that the researcher spent most of their time together reassuring the youth that things would work out. It was hard for Mark to stay focused on his school work, but because of his participation in ‘this study, he and 'the researcher occasionally spent as much as six hours together in one day, and the researcher was able to refocus Mark’s attention on academics and his athletic career. This was one case in which the researcher’s presence and intervention helped save a student from losing the chance of a lifetime. By working together, the researcher and this student-athlete were able to turn a negative situation into a positive one. For example, the researcher constantly reinforced the fact that Mark’s academic progress would be an important factor in his completing the probationary period successfully. Not only did Mark have to prove 61 himself academically in order to earn an athletic scholarship, but he also had to convince the Vice-President that he was serious about his academic performance and was committed to earning a college degree. This he did, finishing his freshman year with an overall GPA of 2.55. David Perfect Nineteen-year-old David Perfect had graduated from a vocational high school in Illinois. Before entering the university, David lived with his parents and two brothers. He said bowling was his hobby. Although David did not mention an academic goal, his personal goal was to start at linebacker for the university. David was considered the best prep linebacker in the country as a high school senior and was the Number 9 player in the Midwest, according to a recruiting expert. In 1990, while in high school, David amassed 150 tackles and 7 quarterback sacks. David was a likable young man who knew what he wanted out of life. It was delightful to work with David because he was so personable and made the best of what he had. The never complained about his situation and always seemed to have a smile on his face. David could have attended any college or university in the United States, but he chose this midwestern school because of the family relationship between the coaches and players. David’s summer was marred because he did not receive help from the coaching staff in finding a good job. This was another disadvantage of being ineligible under By-law 14.3--coaches are not 62 allowed to help ineligible student-athletes like David during their freshman year. As a consequence, David did not work all summer, and at one point he almost decided to leave school. Financial Aid Because the three student-athletes who participated in this study were academically ineligible under NCAA By-law 14.3, they were denied athletic financial aid from the university during their first year. In essence, this denial of financial aid constituted the most negative effect By-law 14.3 had on these three student-athletes. Each subject finished his first year of college with a substantial debt, which had to be repaid before graduation. One was denied all financial aid that could be administered by the university, whereas the other two student-athletes in the study could receive all of the financial aid the university could offer. The three subjects owed from $4,000 to $10,000 in student loans that they obtained from both institutional and private sources (see Appendix 8). They would have to work during their summer vacations to repay their loans because, once they were placed on full scholarships, they would not be allowed to work during the school year. Also, until they repaid these loans, the students would not be allowed to borrow any more money from the government or the university. All three subjects faced difficulties with registration and financial aid each term. They also encountered problems organizing their class schedules because of their financial situation. For example, one subject’s mother had agreed to take out a bank loan, 63 but by the time the paper work had been processed, he had dropped his winter-term classes. Because he did not get the money in time, the university policy on registration was enforced, and he had to scramble to get into the classes he needed for the term. Each subject visited the financial aid office at least three times a tenn. If it had not been for an especially caring financial aid advisor at the university, the subjects might well not have made it through their first year. This advisor spent countless hours working with the student-athletes and communicating with their parents, to ensure that they received the money they needed to stay in school. The Athletes’ Academic Experiences According to Jacoby (1989), the classroom may be one of the few places where students can meet their peers and get to know their professors. When class sizes are small, students have a greater opportunity to engage in class assignments and projects that promote such interactions. The researcher and the student-trainee visited many classes on campus to observe the three student-athletes in the study. The numbers of students in classes in which the subjects were enrolled varied considerably. The writing or American Thought and Language (ATL) classes were usually the smallest; by contrast, most introductory-level courses in other subjects were very large. These large classes were held in lecture halls that seated hundreds of students. Iii most of these classes, instructors used overhead 64 projectors and microphones to present the course material. David Perfect’s experience in HCP 130 is typical of what the other two subjects encountered in these large lecture-hall classes. David arrived at the class right before it started and sat in the back row--that is, at the top of the lecture hall. Although there were other student-athletes in the class, they did not tend to sit together. David did not talk to any of his classmates, even though many other student-athletes were present. Using a microphone, the instructor introduced a guest speaker to the class. The speaker used an overhead projector to illustrate important points, and he, too, used a microphone so that students sitting in the back of the lecture hall could hear lfinL At times during the presentation, the speaker asked class members to comment on their experiences related to the topic under discussion. David raised his hand and mentioned a group project he and some other students were doing. About 15 minutes into the lecture, the researcher observed that several students who were sitting in the back rows near David were talking and not paying attention to the speaker. However, others in the back rows were observed to be taking notes and listening to the speaker. This class was scheduled from 8:00 to 9:50 p.m. By 9:00, most of the students, including David, were showing signs of fatigue and/or boredom. Many of them were yawning and displaying negative body language, like fidgeting in their chairs. In an attempt to 65 regain the class’s attention, the instructor announced a 10-minute break. The students jumped to their feet and began to stretch and move about the class toward the hallway. Throughout this almost- two-hour lecture, student participation was minimal. The guest speaker lectured the entire time. About 5 to 10 minutes before the class was over, students started closing their notebooks, putting on their coats, and preparing to leave. At that point, the speaker concluded his speech and proceeded to dismiss the class. David left the lecture hall with two other student-athletes. The scenario was altogether different in the small classes, such as ATL 1154. Most of these classes consisted of 20 to 30 students. The student-athletes in the sample interacted more with their peers in these small classes and sometimes talked to their professors before and after class. Mark Blue’s experience in ATL 1154 was similar to that of the other subjects in their small classes. The researcher met Mark at his ATL class; the student was 15 minutes early. Mark did not have his books for the class because his financial aid had not yet come through. The classroom was very small--only 19 students were present. The class was split into six groups, each of which had to choose a topic to discuss within the group. Mark was still troubled by the accusation of date-rape, and he told the researcher that the girl who had accused him had been dismissed from school. Mark said he was having trouble understanding the professor 66 because he was a native-speaking Indian and spoke English with a heavy' accent. After the instructor' had explained the homework assignment and dismissed the class for the day, Mark and the researcher walked over to the financial aid office and met with a financial aid advisor to discuss Mark’s financial aid package fer winter term (see Appendix 8). David’s ATL class was similar in structure to Mark’s, but his professor was an American and was much easier to understand. The class had about 16 students and met three times a week from 11:30 a.m. to 12:20 p.m. The professor began the class by discussing his grading scale for the course and talking about his expectations of students enrolled in the class. David was sitting by the window when the researcher entered the room. The class had just started, and the students were taking notes. The professor divided the class into three discussion groups. The students sat at small tables instead of individual desks. The instructor moved from group to group, monitoring their discussions and occasionally making comments. The instructor even made a comment to the researcher about the course work and asked what types of notes the researcher was taking. The students shared information with each other and asked the professor questions about the homework assignments. The classroom was filled with discussion. Some of it was about the class assignment, and some of it was personal. When the class assignment was over, the instructor passed back some of the students’ work. He knew who the students were, so 67 he was able to place each student’s paper on the correct table. When the class ended, several students approached the researcher and asked who he was and why he was taking notes. Comments from the student-athletes in the sample suggested that they were more satisfied with small classes than they were with the large lecture classes. For instance, Henry Temple said that he felt more comfortable asking questions in his Natural Science lab than in the lecture because there were only 20 students in the lab section. "I’m learning the material better, and I’m getting to know the professor and what she expects from me," he said. According to Henry, Natural Science was getting better because he was becoming more comfortable asking questions in a smaller group. Small classes seemed to make the learning experience easier and more enjoyable because there were fewer people and more interaction. The most positive result of By-law 14.3 seemed to be in the area of academics, as evidenced by the fact that each of the student-athletes in this study achieved a solid GPA (see Appendix 8 for specific course grades). Upon completing his first term in college, Henry Temple had achieved a 2.65 GPA and had earned 10 credits toward graduation. The second term, Henry dropped slightly to a 2.58 GPA and earned 9 credits. Spring term was his best term; he earned 18 credits and achieved a 3.16 GPA. Henry finished the year with a 2.73 overall GPA and enough credits (37) to establish his athletic eligibility for the next year. In addition, he qualified for a full athletic scholarship for the fellowing year. In an interview with the sports writer of a local newspaper, Henry 68 was quoted as saying that the university’s refusal to count the math course served as his motivation to achieve. Mark Blue also did quite well academically. He finished his first term with a 2.40 GPA and earned 10 credits. Winter term he earned 9 credits and had a GPA of 3.04. Mark earned 15 credits spring term and had a GPA of 2.46 for the term. He had a 2.63 overall GPA for his freshman year and earned 34 credits toward graduation. During his first term, David struggled to achieve a 2.04 GPA; in fact, he failed one of his four courses. However, he did earn 8 credits. Winter term David was much more successful, earning a 3.08 GPA. He also did above-average work spring term and had a GPA of 2.66. David failed the aquatics class he took during summer school, so he finished his first year of college with an overall GPA of 2.55 and 32 credits toward graduation. This allowed him to be placed on a full athletic scholarship with the football team the following year. By-law 14.3 was meant to give student-athletes an Opportunity to prove that they could compete academically at the college level, and that was the outcome for the student-athletes in this study. Each participant earned a 2.5 or better overall GPA and finished the freshman year on solid ground academically. 69 The Subjects’ Athletic Careers In this section, the subjects’ athletic careers in football are described in terms of the medical, physical, and practice aspects of these student-athletes’ first-year collegiate experience. Two of the subjects sustained injuries because they were not in good physical condition. David Perfect injured his foot during a conditioning class he took winter term. Upon investigating the circumstances surrounding the injury, the researcher discovered that, because David was under By-law 14.3, he could not receive athletic equipment such as running shoes. The head athletic trainer for all sports said, ”I believe that the lack of proper equipment and the fact that David and the other student-athletes under [By-law 14.3] are denied participation in practice and conditioning sessions has contributed greatly to David being overweight, which in turn has led to the physical problem that David is now having with his foot." In other' words, the trainer believed that David and the other subjects in this study suffered physically as a result of their ineligibility. The researcher also interviewed the head athletic trainer, who mentioned that the three students in the study were not allowed to have physical examinations at the beginning of the term, which also put them at a disadvantage in terms of medical and physical growth throughout their first year of college. The» weight-training and conditioning coach agreed with the above-mentioned trainer about the detrimental effects By-law 14.3 had on the three student-athletes both medically and physically. He stated that, because of the layoff and not being allowed to compete, 70 the student-athletes lacked the necessary motivation and competitive attitudes he thought were two main factors contributing to both the physical and conditioning growth of student-athletes. Further evidence of this assertion surfaced when David Perfect claimed that it was hard to be motivated to work out, knowing he was not going to play. The other two subjects made similar comments. The student-athletes’ lack of conditioning was apparent during the physical test they were required to take the following fall, when they reported to early football camp. When comparing the subjects’ results on the physical exams with those of their teammates who had not been ineligible the previous year, it was apparent that the three subjects were far behind the other student- athletes (see Appendix B). The subjects’ scores were less than half those of the other student-athletes who took the identical physical exam at the same time. This is compelling evidence of the negative effect of By-law 14.3 on the medical and physical aspects of the first-year collegiate experience of these subjects. Interactions With the University Community Through observations, interviews, and the subjects’ journal entries, the researcher gathered information on the three student- athletes’ interactions with their peers, coaches, and other university personnel. The findings are reported in the following paragraphs. 71 Interactions With Peers Meeting and being accepted by their peers was probably one of the most important aspects of the college experience of the three student-athletes in this study. All of the participants conversed with fellow students in their classes and made new friends in the dormitory. However, making the transition from star athlete to "regular" student was difficult and painful for each participant. Henry Temple expressed this sentiment in an interview with the researcher: I really don’t feel like I’m a part of the [football] team. Most of the other players don’t know me, and I don’t know them. I can’t wait until next year. They’ll see what I can do with a football, and I’ll lead the team to a Big Ten Championship and the Rose Bowl. The fact that Henry did not feel accepted by his teammates was apparent when the researcher had lunch with him in the dorm. Although several other student-athletes were present in the cafeteria, Henry said he felt more comfortable eating with other students with whom he had made friends. Another subject, David Perfect, had an easier time making friends because his best friend from high school was also on the football team and the two of them roomed together in the dorm. They did everything with each other except practice football. During an interview in the dorm, David said of his friend: Frank gives me confidence, and he encourages me to be strong. We lift weights together after he finishes practice, and we run and play basketball at the IM gym together. Having him as my roommate was one reason I decided to come here to school, so that we would be together and help each other out. We have been friends for a long time, and without him here, it would really be lonely. 72 One of the friends Mark Blue made almost cost him his enrollment at the university; this friend was the female student who accused him of date-rape. Mark had a difficult time for two terms until he was finally given a year’s probation and a second chance to be a student-athlete. While the student judicial conmittee was investigating the case, Mark was ordered to move out of the dorm, and he was not allowed to eat in the dorm or use any of its facilities. The researcher probably spent more time with Mark than any of the other subjects because of the problems the youth was having. He had been expelled from the dorm, was not allowed to eat in the cafeteria, and had nowhere on campus to sleep cu“ keep his belongings. Because there was another student-athlete on the football team from Mark’s home town in Kentucky, Mark was able to live with him until he could move into an apartment complex adjacent to campus. Mark became bitter about the situation and at times wanted to just give up and transfer to another school. He said: I can’t believe that this girl is doing this to me. II have proof that she is lying, but yet I have been ordered to move out of the dorm, even before there is a hearing on the facts of what happened that night. I should just quit and go back to Kentucky and go to school. Because of the relationship he had established with the subject, the researcher was able to participate in the student- athlete’s defense process, and eventually the young man was allowed to remain in school. Because of the level of participation involved in this type of research, the relationship between the researcher 73 and subject benefited the subject and allowed the researcher access to information on the student that he would not have been able to gather through other data-collection methods. Interactions With Faculty The student-athletes in the study had some interaction with faculty members; most of this contact was required by their academic advisor in the Athletic Department. Student-athletes must visit their academic advisors and their professors at least three times each term, according ix) the Assistant Athletic Director for academics. The Assistant Athletic Director with whom the researcher spoke oversees the academic affairs of all student-athletes in 25 men’s and women’s sports at the university where this study was conducted. Each time the researcher accompanied the subjects to office visits with their professors, some type of deficit was discovered in terms of their class progress and/or grades, and the personal meetings with the professors helped the subjects get on the right track in meeting the professors’ requirements. Henry Temple and the researcher visited his Natural Science professor in her office during fall term. It was discovered that Henry was behind in his coursework because he had added the course after classes had begun. The professor allowed Henry to hand in the two assignments he had missed without being penalized for tardiness. Henry shared with the researcher his feelings about this faculty- student interaction: 74 I was kind of scared at first because I knew I had missed some classes and some assignments, but now I know that if you have a legitimate reason for missing, the professors will help you if they can. I’m glad I decided to see her in her office. The meetings with his professors in their offices also proved beneficial to David Perfect, who stated: I feel that the teacher is talking directly to me during lecture, now that I took the time to visit him in his office. I feel that I know him better, and I even feel more motivated to learn. Most classes that first-year students take are very large, and it can be intimidating to them to talk with a professor in his office. Mark Blue voiced this concern: "I wouldn’t know what to say to my professors, and besides, what if they ask a question and I haven’t done the reading and don’t know the answer?" The researcher told Mark what had happened when the other subjects went to their professors’ offices and convinced him not to be afraid to visit his professors. Interactions With Academic Advisors Academic advising is very important for student-athletes. Most of them would be at a serious disadvantage academically if it were not for the assistance they receive from the academic advisors in the Athletic Department. As Underwood (1984) asserted: Since some student-athletes are admitted with less than adequate academic skills and lack the necessary discipline to study systematically on their own, and because they have considerable time restraints placed upon them by their involvement in the athletic program, the university has the responsibility to provide maximum opportunities for all admitted students to study effectively. (p. 131) 75 The amount and quality of time the student-athletes in this study spent with their academic advisors varied. In general, however, the subjects were monitored closely by the Academic Department and were required to attend study table, to have tutoring help, and to visit their professors at least three times a term. Study table progress reports were sent to the students’ academic advisors, as well. The student newspaper published information about early enrollment for the following term about halfway into fall term. The article said that students should make an appointment with their academic advisors to plan their schedules before they early-enrolled for the next term. Also, students in some majors received a notice in the mail, advising them to make an appointment with their advisors to schedule classes for the following term. In addition to these announcements and notices, student-athletes were assigned special dates when some advisors (such as No Preference) would meet only with student-athletes. Mark Blue said that he found this scheduling to be very helpful. As he hated to wait in long lines, having time set aside just for student-athletes motivated him to make an appointment to see his advisor. Mark felt very positive after visiting with his advisor; he said: "The advisor really seemed to know what she was talking about. She made me feel comfortable and gave me a selection of different courses to choose from, before setting my schedule for the winter term.” Mark added that he planned to visit with his academic 76 advisor at other times to set goals and discuss his graduation and degree requirements. In contrast to Mark’s positive response to meeting with his academic advisor, Henry Temple described the experience with his advisor as being somewhat disappointing because he did not like the courses he was advised to take: I don’t want to take these classes because I don’t feel that they will count toward my degree. I don’t see why I have to take these social science classes when what I want is to major in criminal justice. David Perfect met the person he thought would be his academic advisor during his first official visit to the campus. David later received a letter telling him where to report for advising when he arrived for orientation. When David went to that location, he was told to meet with another advisor whom he had never met. The first meeting lasted only a few minutes, during which the advisor told David to prepare for the transition from terms to semesters, which was to take place the following academic year. Campus Servicesyand Program; A number of services and programs are provided for all students on campus. Yet, in general, the student-athletes in this study did not use these offerings as much as they could have done. The academic-related services used most frequently by the subjects in this study were probably those provided by the financial aid office. Naturally, the subjects regularly used the cafeterias and recreational facilities on campus, as well. 77 Henry Temple wrote in his journal, "I have lunch early and go over to the IM Circle and play basketball while the football team is having practice. That’s how I spend most of my time between classes and study table." Mark Blue indicated that the services offered at the main library were particularly helpful to him. ”I would go to the library during study table, and my tutor and I would do research or complete my ATL assignments. Most of my classes require that I spend time in the library completing homework assignments." David Perfect thought that the Office of Financial Aid had served him the best; he said, "I will have to pay back a great deal of money when my first year is over, but because of the work-study program offered through the Office of Student Services, I can work. during the evenings and use that money towards paying my loans back." Agademic Affairs The Undergraduate University Division, commonly referred to as UUD, is administratively responsible for all freshmen and sophomores except those 'hi Lyman Briggs School and James Madison College. Students remain in UUD until they earn 85 credits and attain junior- class standing. (To continue at the university, a student must be accepted in a nmjor by one of the colleges offering baccalaureate degree programs.) Freshmen and sophomores without a major (no- preference students) are advised by the staff of UUD (Student Life, 1991-92). All three subjects were enrolled as no-preference students their first year, and all of them used the services UUD offered at 78 various times during the year. All of the courses taken by the subjects were reconmended by an advisor in UUD. In addition to advising students on what courses to take, UUD provides many services through its student academic affairs offices. However, the subjects made little use of these other services during the course of the study. Campus Activities There are more than 350 student organizations on the campus where this research was conducted. Other than the recreational and athletics-related groups, however, the subjects in this study did not have much contact with such organizations. All three participants attended athletic events during their freshman year; while attending football games, each one expressed resentment about not being allowed to participate. During one of the home games, David Perfect decided to return to the dorm because he could not stand to watch from the sidelines. "It hurts not to be able to throw down with your boys in the heat of battle," he said. Mark Blue cried during one of the games and left at half-time because, as he put it, "I feel helpless and ashamed that I can’t help my team." Henry Temple watched the football games on television and went home on weekends when the team played at home. He told the researcher, "I’ll be glad when the season is over with. I don’t really miss it until game day. That’s when it hurts, so I go home and visit my mom and girl when the weekend comes." 79 Student Affairs and Services The primary purpose of the Division of Student Affairs and Services is to assist and support students in the pursuit of their educational goals. Some of the services provided by this division are as follows: Legal services Personal security 10. Recreation 11. Services for special groups 12. Transportation 13. Judicial systems 1. Employment 2. Financial aid 3. Food services 4. Governance 5. Health services 6. Housing 7. Information 8. 9. The Vice-President for Student Affairs and Services is the Chief Student Personnel Officer for the university and reports to the university President. This person’s responsibilities include planning, administration, and evaluation of' student services and student development programs of the university. This Vice-President meets regularly with student leaders, as well as individual students, to maintain continued awareness of issues that are of concern to students (Student Life, 1991-92). Mark Blue discovered first hand how important and powerful the Division of Student Affairs and Services is. At one point during the judicial process on the date-rape charge, Mark was dismissed from the dormitory without having a hearing and eventually was expelled from the university. He appealed this decision to the Vice-President for Student Affairs and Services and was granted a 80 one-year probationary period and permission to remain in school. One can only imagine how frightened and concerned Mark was during these proceedings, which lasted almost two terms. Because of the unique researcher-subject relationship that had developed, the researcher could identify with the hurt and humiliation that Mark experienced. The student was fortunate to receive a second chance, and he cemented afterwards: I'I would never force myself on any female. I feel sorry that this ever happened, and I am really thankful that you [the researcher] were with me through this. Thank God for field research." Developingaa Sense of Belongimg By the end of their second term in college, the subjects in the study felt they had developed a sense of belonging or being a part of the university. However, they did not feel a sense of belonging to the football team. Thus, the sense of belonging was more in terms of the university rather than the team or Athletic Department. For instance, Mark Blue felt a sense of belonging in some of his classes. As he put it, "When I work with other students in my classes, doing group projects and things like that, I feel like I belong, but when I go over to the football building or I see one of the coaches I feel like a stranger.” David Perfect said he felt closer to people in the dorms than he did to his football teammates: I never get to spend much time with the guys on the team because they are either at practice or on the road playing games on the weekends. I see the people in the dorms at 81 breakfast, lunch, and dinner, so I get to interact with them every day. Henry Temple expressed a feeling of not belonging at all: I sometimes feel like I made the wrong decision in coming to this school. It is nothing like I thought it would be. Even the coaches act like they don’t know me, but you just wait until next year when I put on my uniform and they watch me run the rock. They’ll know who I am then! All three subjects indicated they had something to prove in order to be accepted by their peers in the Athletic Department. As it turned out, this seemed to stimulate the subjects to achieve, both academically and athletically. Summar The findings gathered through observations, interviews, and student journal entries were presented in this chapter. The early fall camp for student-athletes and orientation for new students were discussed, as well as student-athletes’ study table. Personal characteristics of the student-athletes in the sample were presented next. Findings pertaining to the subjects’ first-year college experience with regard to financial aid, academics, athletic careers, and interactions within the university community were presented. The subjects’ development of a sense of belonging also was discussed. Chapter V contains a summary of the study, major findings and conclusions drawn from the findings, recommendations, and the researcher’s reflections. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS Introduction This chapter contains a summary of the study, the major findings, and the conclusions drawn from the findings. General and specific recommendations are offered, as are recommendations for further research and the writer’s reflections. The researcher’s purpose in this study was to describe the collegiate. experiences of three male first-year student-athletes deemed academically ineligible according to NCAA By-law 14.3. These athletes were recruited to play football and enrolled at a Big Ten university fall term of ‘the I991-92 school year but were subsequently ruled ineligible. Specifically, four important aspects of these student-athletes’ college experiences were investigated in this study: (a) academics, (b) financial aid, (c) athletic career, and (d) interactions with the university community. This was done by analyzing the major events, activities, behaviors, and interactions that were a part of the sample members’ university experience. The following questions provided a framework for the study: 1. How is NCAA By-law 14.3 viewed by the three student- athletes who took part in this study? 82 83 2. When and how do the first-year student-athletes in this study develop a sense of belonging, both academically and athletically? 3. How often do the first-year student-athletes in this study interact with peers, coaches, and other university person- nel? 4. How does By-law 14.3 affect the student-athletes in this study academically? How do their grades compare to those of their peers? 5. How does By-law 14.3 affect the athletic careers of the student-athletes in this study? 6. What financial effects does By-law 14.3 have on the student-athletes in this study? An ethnographic approach, using the field methods of participant observation and interviewing, was used to gather the data. for this study. The researcher’s observations were supplemented by interviews with the student-athletes and their coaches and entries in the personal journals completed by the subjects. It appears that By-law 14.3 did accomplish the stated goal of encouraging academic achievement among these student- athletes. But the researcher cautions that this academic achievement may have been due to the special interest the research application may have unavoidably generated. Thus, a thoughtful program within each institution should be implemented (see General Recommendation 4). Findings and Conclusions 1. The three subjects who were deemed academically ineligible for> competition under By-law' 14.3 achieved grade point averages that were as good as or better than those of their peers who were allowed to participate in their sport during their first year of college. 84 After observing the three first-year student-athletes’ academic life for three terms, the researcher concluded that their academic performance was enhanced as a result of not competing in sports during their freshman year. The evidence gathered during this research indicated that not allowing these student-athletes to compete during their first year of college caused them to be more serious about their studies than they might otherwise have been. Consequently, these individuals achieved grades that made them academically eligible to compete in sports the following year. Determining whether they achieved higher grades as a result of not being allowed to participate was not the purpose of this study. The researcher’s intention was solely to report these students’ experiences for one year. The researcher found that, because the subjects were excluded from all competitive athletics, they were constantly reminded of their status and hence could not forget the academic reason for their ineligibility. Thus, the researcher concluded that the student-athletes in this study remained conscious of the fact that their academic performance in high school had led to their ineligibility, and the only way they would be allowed to participate in college sports would be to achieve a 2.0 GPA their freshman year. As a result, the subjects set personal academic goals, which gave them the motivation they needed to succeed academically. Also, the fact that these three student-athletes had more time to devote to studying and tutoring sessions ultimately led to their academic success during the first year of college. The support 85 these student-athletes received from the Athletic Department in terms of academic advising and monitoring their progress in each class also contributed greatly to their academic success. Being a student-athlete requires much time and discipline. The researcher believes that NCAA By-law 14.3 was intended to give student-athletes more time for their studies, which should lead to better grades. That was the outcome for the three subjects in the present study. 2. The student-athletes in this study were found to be at a significant disadvantage financially as compared to their peers who were on football scholarships. The subjects will have to repay the substantial loans they received during the first year of college. Because the student-athletes were not allowed to receive an athletic scholarship until they achieved a 2.0 overall GPA for one academic year, they were placed at a disadvantage financially. NCAA By-law 14.3 stipulates that any student-athlete who fails to meet the academic requirements set forth by the NCAA cannot receive financial aid from any of its member institutions during the first year of school. Consequently, if academically ineligible student- athletes go ahead with their plans to attend college, they must obtain financial aid from the government or pay the necessary costs themselves. During the complicated process of securing government loans, student-athletes usually have to borrow money from private lending institutions to pay for tuition, books, and room and board. The following are the most common problems associated with financial aid that the student-athletes in this study encountered. 86 1. Students applying for financial aid must file the appropriate forms during their senior year in high school. Henry Temple was not told until July that he would not be receiving an athletic scholarship; this was just a few' weeks before school started in the fall. 2. Parents’ income must meet certain standards, and appropriate forms must be filed with the office of financial aid before students are granted a loan. Mark Blue’s mother had problems co-signing for her son because she did not have a steady income with which to repay the loan. 3. Often, students are assigned to work-study programs in which they are paid to work a certain number of hours on campus. David Perfect was assigned to a work-study program and worked as a custodian in a classroom building. As a consequence, David had to work late hours and missed study table. 3. The subjects were at a disadvantage athletically (being at a disadvantage athletically means that one has been kept out of competition with his peers and his physical condition is not. comparable to that of his teammates) because they were not allowed to practice and condition with their teammates and could not participate in the football games. After investigating the athletically related aspects of the three student-athletes’ first-year college experience, the researcher concluded that, because the subjects were not allowed to practice or condition with other team members, they were at a tremendous disadvantage physically after they had sat out for three terms. As a result of not being allowed to practice, condition, and compete, the subjects gained weight, did not run as fast, and were 87 weaker in the area of weight training than their peers who played comparable positions on the team. What this means is that these student-athletes will be at a disadvantage when competing with other athletes for starting positions the following season. .Also, with regard to opportunities to play professional football, the subjects in the study will be at a disadvantage when compared to their peers because, by not competing for a season, they will not be able to amass as impressive statistics, which are used to judge college athletes’ ability to compete in the professional ranks. This might limit their chances for a career in professional football. 4. in terms of interactions, the subjects also were placed at a disadvantage their first year because of their academic ineligibility. (That is to say, by locking the three student-athletes out of certain meetings and events, NCAA By-law 14.3 hampered them in terms of the knowledge they might gain through personal interaction with both athletic staff members and their peers.) Some of the more significant drawbacks with regard to interac- tions that the subjects experienced were as follows: 1. By not being allowed to attend practice and team meetings, the subjects missed out on the leadership and guidance of the head football coach and his staff. 2. The subjects could not benefit from the knowledge gained by the athletic trainers regarding the student-athletes’ physical ability and how best to treat their injuries. 3. The subjects did not have a sense of belonging to the team. 88 4. The subjects had not learned the plays and the system used by the coaching staff, nor did they get to know the position coach who would be coaching them. 5. They were denied the experience of traveling with the team to away games. 6. The subjects did not benefit from interacting with the media and press people or with alumni and certain support groups. Recommendations The following recommendations for practice, which stem from the research findings and the researcher’s experience in working with student-athletes, are offered to the university at which this study was conducted, as well as the NCAA. Recommendations also are made for further research. General Recommendations 1. All students should be able to participate in extracurricular activities such as sports and other pastimes. After all, sports are just as much a part of a college student’s life as are books. All of these things are part of one’s interaction with the university as a whole. 2. If the financial aid agency within the university is willing to pay for a student’s room, board, and tuition, as is the case with the athletic department in terms of football scholarships for student-athletes, the student-athlete should be allowed to receive that financial support any time during his or her collegiate experience. 89 3. Consideration should be given to requiring student-athletes to complete the financial aid package at the time they complete their college admission application. This action would encourage financial security in the event the student-athlete was not awarded an athletic scholarship. 4. The coaches who recruit student-athletes should be held more accountable for these students’ academic success. Coaches need to interact more with the student-athletes to encourage psychosocial develOpmentu Also, athletic departments should articulate what interaction is possible within the guidelines of NCAA By-law 14.3 (see Appendix C). 4. More recognition should be given to those student-athletes who graduate within the time limits of their athletic eligibility. 5. If a student-athlete has to sit out a year for academic reasons, he or she should be allowed to recover that year before the college eligibility runs out. This would give the student’s athletic career a chance to be more productive. Specific Recommendations 1. Low standardized test scores and the lack of certain core courses selected by the NCAA should not keep a student-athlete from attending a university. After all, a university education is an opportunity of a lifetime, which many individuals do not achieve. 2. Any student-athlete who is deemed ineligible under NCAA By- law 14.3 should be allowed to attend summer school at the university he or she plans to attend the coming fall and enroll for college 90 courses on a credit/no credit basis. If the student passes these courses, his or her eligibility should be reinstated for the fall season of competition. If the student does not pass the courses, he or she would remain ineligible for a full academic year. 3. The NCAA should allow student-athletes to receive full grant-in-aid scholarships even though they are declared academically ineligible for competition. 4. Student-athletes who are ineligible under NCAA By-law 14.3 should be allowed to practice with their prospective teams during the season the teams are in competition. 5. Student-athletes should be allowed to receive any and all financial aid for which any other nonathlete student might qualify. 6. The NCAA should work closely with high school personnel to develop a more comprehensive support program within high schools to help prepare student-athletes for college entrance exams. The support program should include counseling and advising students with regard to meeting all of the NCAA requirements for college competition. 7. The NCAA should require all of its member institutions to have an academic advisor who is assigned to work exclusively with student-athletes. Recommendations for Further Research 1. There is a need for further research on whether not competing athletically during the freshman year actually leads to 91 better grades, or whether there are other factors that contribute to academic success during the first year of college. 2. Because NCAA By-law 14.3 has been in effect for only six years, little information is available on its influence on student- athletes’ college experience. Therefore, more field studies and observational research should be conducted to supply more information for consideration in this highly publicized area of major college sports. 3. A longitudinal study of a group of student-athletes for the duration of their college careers should be conducted to corroborate or refute the findings from the present study. 4. The effect of being declared ineligible under NCAA By-law 14.3 on student-athletes’ completion of a college degree and their professional athletic careers should be studied. 5. This was an exploratory study. Thus, a follow-up study should be conducted to discover how the three student-athletes who were part of this study are doing in terms of their academics, athletic careers, financial aid, and interactions. with the university community. Reflections Student-athletes should be allowed the same opportunities to develop their careers as are afforded to other students. Often, student-athletes who are declared ineligible under NCAA By-law 14.3 are blacks or other minorities whose high school education did not prepare them to meet the stringent academic rules set forth by the 92 NCAA. The NCAA should not punish the victims of inadequate high school preparation, but rather should focus on helping these student-athletes by ensuring that they have the same opportunities to attend college as any other students might have. The NCAA also needs to adjust to the 19905 and come to grips with what the definition of a professional player really is and stop treating the student-athlete like an amateur. According to the NCAA Manual (1990-91), The competitive athletics programs of member institutions are designed to be a vital part of the educational system. A basic purpose of this association is to maintain intercollegiate athletics as an integral part of the educational program and the athlete as an integral part of the student body and, by so doing, retain. a clear line of demarcation between intercol- legiate athletics and professional sports. (p. 1) How can the NCAA justify calling student-athletes amateurs when their educations are paid for through athletic scholarships and the universities’ athletic departments gross millions of dollars each year from gate receipts and television revenues? College sports generate millions of dollars of revenue, and the student- athletes should realize some of the rewards of that income. College athletes have been highly exploited and cheated in terms of compensation for services rendered. Is it time for the NCAA to do away with the constraints that are hindering young athletes from being all they can be? APPENDICES APPENDIX A APPROVAL LETTER FROM UCRIHS AND SUBJECT CONSENT FORM 93 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY mammroem EASI’MNSING'WANOWI“ ANDDIANGTHIGIADUATISO'IOOI. December 12, 1991 Gregory Croxton 117 Duffy Deugherty Footbell Bldg. RE: THE COLLEGIATE EXPERIENCE OF FIRST TERI! STUDENT ATHLETES (FOOTBALL) THAT ARE INELIGIBLE TO COMPETE DURING THEIR FIRST YEAR OI" SCHOOL. IRE '91-498 Deer Iir . Croxton: The ebove project is exempt from full UCRIHS review. I heve reviewed the proposed reseerch protocol end find that the rights end welfare of humen subjects eppeer to be protected. You heve epprovel to conduct the reseerch. You ere reminded the: UCRIHS epprovel is velid for one celender yeer. If you plen to continue this project beyond one yeer, pleese meke provisions for obteining eppropriete UCRIHS epprovel one month prior to November 27, 1992. Any chenges in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initietion of the chenge. UCRIHS must else be notified promptly of eny problems (unexpected side effects. complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Then]: you for bringing this project to our ettencion. If we can be of any future help, pleese do not hesitete to let us know. Sincere 1y, evid E. Wright, Ph. Cheir, UCRIHS DEW/dad cc: Dr. Eldon Nonnemeker mé-WWWW 94 LETTER 0’ consent The purposezof this study is to describe end explain the first year collegiate experience of four first year student athletes at Michigan State University. The study will contain detailed analysis of classes, events, activities, and behavior of first year student athletes who are under NCAA regulation. This NCAA regulation denies eligibility to compete or accept financial aid from the university during their first term of college residence. Also the interactions they encounter along the way with their athletic career objective will be investigated in this study. Theses observations will be supplemented by the accounts and interpretations received through interviews with the students who participate in the study. Students who volunteer as participants in this study will be observed during the entire first year of their college experience. The researcher will observe each participant between one and three times per week. The hours of each observation will vary depending on the student's schedule and planned activity. The researcher does, however, anticipate that most observations will be between one and three hours. All observations will be of public behavior that takes place on campus. Consequently, the researcher may observe participants during day or evening campus activities. .All observation times will be arranged between the researcher and each student participant in advance. To protect the individual privacy of participants, the names of students who participate will not be used in reports or publications that result from this research project. An alias will be used in place of each student's real name. Students' "real identities will be known only by the researcher. It is hoped that this research study will, in some way, help educators understand what it is like to be a student athlete on a large midwestern university campus whose first year of collegiate experience is governed.by'NCAA By-Law 14.3. A detailed description and analysis of a portion of the student athlete’s experience might broaden the perspective, as well as sensitize individuals who themselves have not experienced college as a student athlete whose college experience is controlled by NCAA By-Law 14.3. If you would like to participate in this study and,contribute to the knowledge and understanding of the first year of the By Law student athlete experience, please sign your name on the line below. Individuals who participate in this study are free to decline participation or to withdraw from the research at any time. it‘titi0****fi**i*fiiiiiifi*iiittifiiiflfiiiiiiiiiiii********************* Yes, I would like to participate in this study of first year student athletes governed by By Law 14.3 of the NCAA. I have read this letter of consent and understand my role as a participant in this study. Signature Date APPENDIX 8 RAW DATA 95 Table B1.-~Academic data on the three student-athletes in the study sample. Course Title Course No. Credits Grade MARK BLUE Fall 1991 ATL Writing Laboratory 1 0142 0 2.5 ATL Developmental Writing 1 1144 3 2.5 HCP Prof Perspectives 130~ 1 3.0 HCP Track and Field Coaching 358 3 3.0 Cd Introd. to Criminal Justice 110 3 1.5 Overall Average 2.40 Cumulative Credits 10 Winter 1992 ATL Writing Laboratory 2 0152 0 2.0 ATL Developmental Writing 2 1154 3 2.0 HCP Team Sports 1080 l 4.0 HCP Team Sports 108U 1 4.0 $5 Racism and Ethnocentrism 252 4 3.0 Overall Average 2.75 Cumulative Credits 19 Term Average 3.04 Spring 1992 AEE Am Agrarian Movement 203 3 1.5 ATL Writing Laboratory 3 0162 0 2.5 ATL Developmental Writing 3 1164 3 2.5 HCP Adv. Football Coach 372 3 3.0 HCP Supervis. Teaching 390 2 4.0 $5 Minor. Amer. Cities 253 4 2.0 Overall Average 2.63 Cumulative Credits 34 Term Average 2.46 96 Table Bl.--Continued. Course Title Course No. Credits Grade DAVID PERFECT Fall 1991 ATL Writing Laboratory 1 0152 0 2.5 ATL Developmental Writing 1 1144 3 2.5 IAH Integ Std Art & Hum 240A 4 3.0 HCP Prof Perspectives 130 1 3.0 Cd Introd. to Criminal Justice 110 3 0.0 Overall Average 2.04 Cumulative Credits 8 Winter 1992 ATL Writing Laboratory 2 0152 0 1.5 ATL Developmental Writing 2 1154 3 1.5 HCP Team Sports 1080 1 4.0 HCP Team Sports 108U 1 4.0 SS Racism & Ethnocentrism 252 4 3.5 Overall Average 2.58 Cumulative Credits 17 Term Average 3.08 Spring 1992 AEE Am Agrarian 203 3 2.0 ATL Writing Laboratory 3 0162 0 3.0 ATL Developmental Writing 3 1164 3 3.0 HCP Adv. Football Coach 372 3 3.0 HCP Supervis. Teaching 390 2 4.0 SS Minor. American Cities 253 4 2.0 Overall Average 2.61 Cumulative Credits 32 Term Average 2.66 97 Table Bl.--Continued. Course Title Course No. Credits Grade HENRY TEMPLE fall 1991 ATL Writing Laboratory 1 0142 0 2.5 ATL Developmental Writing 1 1144 3 2.5 HCP Prof. Perspectives 130 l 4.0 HCP Track and Field Coach 358 3 3.5 CJ Introd. to Criminal Justice 110 3 1.5 Overall Average 2.65 Cumulative Credits 10 Winter 1992 HCP Team Sports 1080 l 4.0 HCP Team Sports 108U 1 4.0 HCP First Aid Emerg. Care 125 3 0.0 NS Natural Science 1824 4 1.5 Overall Average 2.73 Cumulative Credits 19 Term Average 2.16 Sprinq 1992 ATL Writing Laboratory 0162 0 2.0 ATL Developmental Writing 1164 3 2.0 TC Basic Telecom. 310 4 3.0 HCP Team Sports 108U 1 4.0 HCP Adv. Football Coach 372 3 3.0 HCP Supervis. Teaching 390 3 4.0 SS Minor. American Cities 253 4 3.5 Overall Average 2.73 Cumulative Credits 37 Term Average 3.16 Table BZ.--Financial data on the three student-athletes in the study sample 98 Budget - Family contribution a Veterans benefits - Original need - Total award - Remaining need = Funds Awarded College Work-Study Prog Perkins Loan 992 Stafford Loan PLUS loan (mother owes) ram MARK Student Equal Opportunity Grant Pell Grant Cost Per Term Fall Term Housing Tuition Books Winter Term Housing Tuition Books Sprinq Term Housing Tuition Books Loans Taken Out Short term 1/09/92 Short term 1/27/92 Short term 3/03/92 Short term 3/18/92 Short term 5/13/92 Ul-hWNu—I I $1,135. $2,350. $ 160. $1,135. $2,721. $ 160. $1,135. $3,279. $ 160. $1, 5 $ $1, 5 BLUE $13,710 $1,935 $1,500 $2,625 $3,800 $1,500 $2,350 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 632. 600.00 837.62 505.00 400.00 25 (repaid March 3, 1992) (repaid April 16, 1992) (repaid April 16, 1992) (repaid April 16, 1992) (due October 5, 1992) 99 Table 82.--Continued. HARK BLUE (Continued) Total Cost After Each Term and After First Year Fall $3,645.00 Winter $4,016.75 Spring $4,574.00 Total cost of school $12,240.00 Total financial aid $13,710.00 Total owed after lst yr $7,925.00 Note: Hark. Blue was a nonqualifier. Therefore, he could not receive any institutional financial aid. DAVID PERFECT Budget - $13,710 Family contribution = $0 Veterans benefits = $0 Original need - $13,710 Total award a $10,060 Remaining need = $ 3,650 Funds Awarded College Work-Study Program $1,935 Perkins Loan 1992 $1,500 Stafford Loan $2,625 PLUS loan (parents owe) $4,000 Additional need $3,649 Cost Per Term Fall Term Housing $1,135.00 Tuition $2,536.00 Books $ 160.00 Winter Term Housing $1,135.00 Tuition $2,536.00 Books $ 160.00 Table BZ.--Continued. 100 DAVID PERFECT (Continued) Sprinq Term Housing $1,135.00 Tuition $2,536.00 Books $ 160.00 Summer Term Tuition $ Loans Taken Out 1. Short term 9/25/91 2. Short term 6/25/92 3. Short term Summer 92 282.50 $1,403.25 (repaid January 9, 1992) $ 302.19 $4,172.66 Total Cost After Each Term,and After First Yea: Fall Winter Spring Total cost of school Total financial aid Total owed after lst yr $3,671.00 $3,856.75 $4,474.85 $11,941.75 $ 8,125.00 $ 4,172.66 Note: David Perfect was a nonqualifier. Therefore, he could not receive any institutional financial aid. Table BZ.--Continued. 101 Budget - Family contribution = Veterans benefits a Original need - Total award a Remaining need = Funds Awarded HENRY TEMPLE College Work-Study ProgramC Perkins Loan 992 Stafford Loan Pell Grant Supplemental loan for students Additional need Cost Per Term Fall Term Housing Tuition Books Winter Term Housing Tuition Books Sprinq Term Housing Tuition Books oansgIaken Out Short term 9/25/91 Short term 1/07/92 Short term 2/07/92 Short term 3/31/92 Short term 6/02/92 U'I-hWNv—I $1,135. $2,350. $ 160. $1,305. $2,350. $ 160. $1,305. $3,836. $ 160. $1, $1, 5 $1, $4, $13,710 5 $ 700 0 $13,010 $ 9,025 $ 3,985 $2,625 $2,400 $4,000 $2,400 00 00 00 00 00 00 036.00 668.50 655.90 505.00 411.61 (repaid January 9, 1992) (repaid April 2, 1992) (repaid April 2, 1992) (repaid June 2, 1992) (repaid $300) 102 Table 82.--Continued. HENRY TEHPLE (Continued) Total Cost After Each Term and After First Year Fall $3,645.00 Winter $3,645.00 Spring $5,301.25 Total cost of school $12,591.00 Total financial aid $ 9,025.00 Total owed after lst yr $10,736.00 Note: Henry Temple was a partial qualifier. Therefore, he could not receive any athletic financial aid. aThis loan has a 5% interest rate and must be paid back six months after graduation. bThis loan has an 8% interest rate and must be paid back six months after graduation. CNot eligible because of being a nonqualifier. 103 Table B3.--Athletic-career data on the three student-athletes in the study sample. HARK BLUE Medical History. beanninq 1/13/92 Height 6’5” Weight 295 pounds Physical problems None Physical Fitness Test (8/19/921 Height 6’4" Weight 275 pounds Bench press 225 pounds, 15 times Stress test 10,8,6, and 4 yard dashes consecutively Agility test By positiona Total points gained 38 out of a possible 60 Football Career Practice Not eligible Meetings Not eligible Games Not eligible Bowl games Not eligible Equipment Not eligible Medical expenses Not eligible Coaches’ leadership Not eligible DAVID PERFECT MedicalaHistory. beqinninq71/13/92 Height 6’2-1/2” Weight 271 pounds Physical problems Shoulder problem (1/13/92) Foot injury (9/14/92) Physical Fitness Test (8/19/921 Height 6’2-1/2" Weight 268 pounds Bench press 225 pounds, 20 times Stress test 10,8,6, and 4 yard dashes consecutively Agility test By positiona Total points gained 28 out of a possible 60 104 Table B3.--Continued. DAVID PERFECT (Continued) Football Career Practice Not eligible Meetings Not eligible Games Not eligible Bowl games Not eligible Equipment Not eligible Medical expenses Not eligible Coaches’ leadership Not eligible HENRY TEMPLE Medical History. beqinninq 1/13/92 Height 5’11" Weight 188 pounds Physical problems Occasional ankle problems stemming from high school injury; otherwise, good physical condition Physical Fitness Test (8/19/921 Height 5’11" Weight 190 pounds Bench press 225 pounds, 9 times Stress test 10 IOO-yard dashes, 8 100-yard dashes, 6 60-yard dashes, and 4 40-yard dashes consecutively Agility test By positiona Total points gained 42 out of a possible 60 Football Career Practice Not eligible Meetings Not eligible Games Not eligible Bowl games Not eligible Equipment Not eligible Medical expenses Not eligible Coaches’ leadership Not eligible aEach position coach uses a different set of drills that are directly related to the types of techniques used at their position. Each part of the test is worth 20 points. APPENDIX C DO’S AND DON’TS FOR PROPOSITION 48 STUDENT-ATHLETES 105 Table Cl -- Do's and Don'ts for Proposition 48 Student-Athletes low current legislation (NCAA.lylaw 14.3) affects student-athletes during their initial year of college attendance. Partial Are they eligible for... Qualifier' Qualifier longealifier Academic/tutoring services Yes Yes Yes Competition Yes No No Complimentary admissions One for self; all regular- Yes Yes Yes season home athletics contests Four for relatives, fellow Yes lo lo students; home or away contests in the student-athlete's sport Conditioning program.(including Yes Yes (super- Yes (supervised workout apparel) vised only by only by institution's institution's strength coach strength coach or trainer) or trainer) Drug rehabilitation expenses Yes Yes Yes Financial aid Regular term Yes Yes (in Div. '0 (in Div. 1 I, if recr. if recr. per per 13.02.9, l3.02.9); Yes aid must be (in Div. II if based on fin. aid is unrelated need and may to athletics not be from ability) an athletics source) Summer orientation program Yes Yes Yes (subject to the conditions of bylaw 15.2.7.1.2) Su-er reco-ended reading No No No materials Su-er school prior to initial Yes Yes Yes year (subject to the conditions of Bylaw l5.2.7.l.2) Training table Yes No in Div. I No (unless (unless student-athlete student-athlete pays full cost) pays full cost); Yes in Div. II Insurance, athletics medical Yes Yes Yes Iable Cl (continued) 106 fartial Are they eligible for... Qualifier Qualifier longeslifier Outside competition (basketball) During the season No No (except No (except intramurala) intramurals) During remainder of the No No (except No (except academic year (other than intramurals) intramurals) during the season) Outside competition (basketball) Summer after initial academic Yes (in Yes (in Yes (in year approved approved approved summer summer summer league only) league only) league only) Tryouts for NCAA-approved Yes Yes Yes outside teams Outside competition (sports other than basketball) During the season In (except lo (except No (except intramurals intramurals intramurels and individual and individual and individual competition) competition) competition) During the remainder of the Yes No (except No (except academic year (other than intramurals intramurals during the season) and individual and individual competition competition) Summer after initial aced. year Yes Yes Yes Tryouts for NCAA-approved Yes Yes Yes outside teams Practice Yes No No Promotional materials, inclusion Yes Yes Yes of photos in media guide, game programs, brochures, et. 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