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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

The Effects of Preperformance Imagery
And Preperformance Positive Affirmations
On the Performance of a Golf Putting

Tas k presented by

Alan S. Kornspan

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Masters S 0
degree in p rt Psychology

 

 

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MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution
c.

NIH-1

THE EFFECTS OF PREPERFORMANCE IMAGERY
AND PREPERFORMANCE POSITIVE AFFIRMATIONS
ON THE PERFORMANCE OF A GOLF PUTTING
TASK

By

Alan S. Kornspan

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michgan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Physical Education
And Exercise Science

1993

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECT OF PREPERFORMANCE IMAGERY AND
PREPERFORMANCE AFFIRMATIONS ON THE
PERFORMANCE OF THE GOLF PUTTING TASK

BY

Alan S. Kornspan

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effectiveness of using
mental preparation strategies to enhance performance over to control groups.
40 students participated in the experiment for course credit. The 40 subjects
performed the basal measure and were then randomly assigned to one of four
groups, a no practice control group (NPC), a practice control group(PI), a
preperformance positive affirmation group (PA), and a preperformance
positive imagery group (PI). The PI, PA, and PC groups putted on days 2-5. The
NPC only putted on the last day. Results of the study revealed that all groups
did not improve from pre to post test at a significant level. The PI, PA, and PC
were found to to be significantly different from the NPC pre to post test in

performance measures, DUI ROI in accuracy measures.

IN MEMORY OF SHIRLEY KORNSPAN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Lynnette Overby for her advice and guidance on
the thesis project. Thank you for all your time and help.

I would also like to thank Dr. Ewing and Dr. Smith for their guidance on the
thesis. Their advice was very helpful in guiding me in the correct direction. I
am very grateful to have received guidance from three of the leading editors
in sport psychology, physical education, and dance.

Thanks to my dad, Don Kornspan, for supporting me through hard times,
and making this a possible reality for me.

Thanks to Lisa Weisman for always being there when I needed to talk, and
giving me the support I needed. Also, thanks to her mom and dad, Mr. and Mrs.
Murray Weisman for motivating me to get moving on my thesis.

I would like to thank my brother and sister-in-law Richard and Joy
Kornspan, and my sister Susan Kornspan for always supporting me in my
efforts.

I would like to thank Ken Fanger, Kevin Mergens, Juilian Ambriez, Joel
Speyer, Steve Bernstein, Steve Kostylyck, Ahmeed, and Stone, for being good
friends during the thesis and helping me with computer applications and the
filming of the positive affirmation video.

Most of all thanks to my mom, Shirley Komspan, for always being a loving

and supportive mother, and showing me how to be strong and never give up.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of tables ................................................. vii

List of figures ................................................ viii
Chapter I: Introduction .................................... . 1
Background Research ................................. . 3
Purpose of the Study ................................ 4
Research Hypotheses .................................... 6
Limitations ............................................ 8
Assumptions ........................................... 9
Definitions ............................................ 9

Chapter II Review of Literature ............................. 13

Imagery .............................................. 14

Experiential Evidence For Imagery use .............. 14

Imagery in Sport Psychology Research ............. 15

Mental Practice History ........................... 16

Conclusions of Mental Practice Literature .......... 18

The Use Of Imagery as a Psyching Up Technique ...... 19

Theories of Imagery and Mental Practice ............ 21

Psychoneuromuscular Theory ............... 21

Symbolic Learning Theory ................... 22

Other Theories ............................... 23

Positive Affirmations .................................... 23

Self-Talk in Sport ................................. 24

iii

Confidence and Performance .....................
Self-Efficacy Theory .............................

Psyching Up Research .................................
Correlational Studies .............................

The First Psyching Up Studies .....................

Specific Psyching Up Strategies Involving Strength .

Psyching Up Strategies Involving Motor

Performance ....................................

Conclusion of the Review of Literature .............
Chapter III Methods .......................................

Subjects .............................................

Apparatus ............................................
Procedure ............................................
Orientation ...........................................
Experimental Phase ...................................

Control Phase .........................................

Educational Phase for PA ...............................
Post Experimental Questionnaire and Assessment ..........
Debriefing ............................................
Treatment of Data ......................................
Chapter IV Results and Discussion ............................
Results ................................................
Demographic Information .........................

Performance Results ..............................

iv

25
26

29
29

32
34

36
4o
42
42
43
43
45
45
45
49
50
50
50
51
51
51
53
53
53
54

Accuracy Results ...............................
Post-Experimental Manipulation Check for
Strategy Use ....................................
Responses To The Imagery Probe ..................
Discussion ..........................................
Performance and Accuracy Measures
For the Putting Task ............................
Belief in the Mental Preparation Strategy .........
Responses To The Imagery Qustions ...............
General Discussion .............................
Chapter V Summary, Conclusions, and Suggestions
For Future Study ................................
Conclusions ..........................................
Suggestions For Future Study ..........................
Appendices .................................................
Appendix A: Informed Consent .........................
Appendix B: Background Questionnaire .................
Appendix C: Introducing Imagery To The Participants . . . .
Appendix D: ..........................................
Basic Imagery Exposue Exercises ..................
Imagery Vividness Exposure ......................
Imagery Controllability Exposure .................
Appendix E: Exposure Phase for PI ......................
Appendix F: Educational Affirmation Exposure ...........
Appendix G: Basic Affirmation Exposures PA .............
Appendix H: Skill Specific Exposure Phase for PA ........

Appendix 1: Post Experimental Questionnaire ..............

S8

61
62
65

65
68
7O
71

74
75
76
78
79
78
8O
82
82
82
83
85
87
89
92
93

Appendix J: Debriefing ...............................
Appendix K: Means and Standard Deviations for Performance
and Accuracy for All Days .............................

List of References ....................................

94

95
99

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Summary Table for Day 1 ........................
Table 2: Summary for PI on Day 2 .....................
Table 3: Summary for PA on Day 2 .....................
Table 4: Summary for NPC on Day 2 and PC on Day 2-5 . . . .
Table 5: Summary for PIG on Day 3 -6 ...................
Table 6: Summary for PAC on Day 3 -6 ...................
Table 7: Means and Standard Deviations for the Pre/ Post

Performance Scores for the PI, PA, PC, NPC .........
Table 8: Means and Standard deviations for the

Pre/ post accuracy scores for the PI, PA, PC, NPC .....
Table 9: Percentage of Time the Preperformance Imagery Group

and Preperformance Affirmation Group Reported using

given Strategy ...................................
Table 10 Response to the Imagery Questions ...............
Table 11: Means and Standard Deviations for the PI

Group Over Days .(Performance) ...................
Table 12: Means and Standard Deviations for the PA

Group Over Days .(Performance) ....................
Table 13: Means and Standard Deviations for the PC

Group Over Days . (Performance) ....................
Table 14: Means and Standard Deviations for the NPC

Group Over Days . (Performance) ...................

vii

46

47

47

48

48

49

56

59

61

63

95

95

96

96

Table 15 Means and Standard Deviations for the
PI Group Over Days (Accuracy) ..................... 97
Table 16: Means and Standard Deviations for the PA
Group Over Days . .(Accuracy) ...................... 97
Table 17: Means and Standard Deviations for the

PC Group Over Days .(Accuracy) ..................... 98

viii

Figure 1:

Figure 2:

Figure 3:

Figure 4:

Figure 5:

LIST OF FIGURES

Mean Baseline Performance Scores of the NPC,

PC,PIG, PAG ........................................
The Performance Means of the NPC, PC, PI, and PA

From Pre to Post Test ................................
The Interaction of Groups by Pre/ Post Performance

for All groups. (Performance) ............................
The Accuracy Mean Scores of the NPC, PC, PIG, and

PAG From Pre to Post Test ...............................
The Interaction of Groups by Pre/ Post Performance

for All groups (Accuracy) .............................

ix

54

S7

S7

60

60

Chapter I
Introduction

Athletes often allude to using mental preparation in order to excel in
athletics (Graham, 1991; Martens, 1987; Nicklaus, 1974; Orlick, 1990; Weinberg,
1984). However, only recently have an increasing number of sport
psychologists systematically begun researching mental preparation
techniques in sport and physical activity (Gould, 1990; Weinberg, 1984).
Although there has been a recent surge in the study of sport psychology, in
North America the beginnings can be traced to the seminal work of Coleman
Griffith in the 1920's (Gould, 1990; Whelan, Mahoney, & Myers, 1991). In the
1960's and early 1970's new organizations and research began to rejuvenate
the field. During the 1960's and early 1970's research issues in sport
psychology focused on non intervention issues, such as social facilitation and
the arousal-performance relationship (Feltz, 1992). In the late 1970's, with the
seminal work of Mahoney and Avener (1977), cognitive interventions in sport
began to receive attention from researchers in both psychology and physical
education (McCauley, 1992). In recent years, investigators have been using
the field of sport and physical activity as an arena for studying the effects of
interventions on performance (Greenspan & Feltz, 1989).

To aid athletes in performing optimally in the athletic arena, sport
practitioners and researchers have developed specific performance
enhancement cognitive strategies (Martens, 1987; Orlick, 1986). Two specific
cognitive strategies are mental imagery and positive self-talk, i.e., positive
affirmations (Weinberg, 1984).

Vandel, Clugston and Davis (1943) and Twinning (1949) were the first
researchers to employ the mental practice design. Both studies found mental

practice to positively influence performance (Richardson, 1967). Throughout

the years, imagery has been researched extensively, and reviewed by many
(Corbin, 1972; Feltz & Landers, 1983; Hinshaw, 1991; Oslin, 1985; Richardson,
1967). Feltz and Landers (1983) found that mental practice is better than no
practice at all. Expanding the body of imagery knowledge, researchers have
begun studying imagery as a preperformance strategy for physical tasks (Elko

& Ostrow, 1992; Epstein, 1980; Gould, Weinberg, & Jackson, 1980; Lutkus, 1975;
Tynes & McFatter, 1987; Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, & Barnes, 1980; Woolfolk,
Parish, & Murphy, 1985).

Positive affirmations have also been investigated as a mental preparation
strategy that can be used directly before performance (Weinberg, 1984; Wilkes
& Summers, 1984). Athletes have often alluded to the power of positive
thinking, however, research has been sparse on using this technique in sport
and physical activity (Feltz, 1988). There has been recent research on positive
affirmations (saying positive thoughts to yourself before performance) in the
"psyching up" literature (Tynes & McFatter, 1987; Weinberg, Gould, Jackson &
Barnes, 1980; Wilkes & Summers, 1984)

Imagery and positive affirmations have recently become a topic of research
in sport psychology mainly because of the initial correlational studies
comparing successful athletes to nonsuccessful athletes (Gould, Weiss, &
Weinberg, 1981; Highlen & Bennett, 1979, 1983; Mahoney & Avener, 1977;
Meyers, Cooke, Cullen & Lilies, 1979; Rotella, Gansender, Ojala & Billing, 1980).
As a result of these initial studies, researchers designed studies allowing
subjects a choice of psyching up strategies before performance (Caudill,
Weinberg, & Jackson, 1983; Shelton & Mahoney, 1978, Weinberg, Gould &
Jackson, 1980, 1981). However, these studies did not allow the researcher to
identify which strategy produced the best performance (Murphy, 1990;

Murphy & Jowdy, 1992). Subsequently, investigators designed experiments in

which the subjects were asked to utilize a psyching up strategy before
performance (Gould, Weinberg, & Jackson, 1981; Epstein, 1980; Weinberg,
Gould, Jackson, 8: Barnes, 1980; Wilkes & Summers, 1984; Woolfolk, Parrish, &
Murphy, 1985).

Results of studies asking subjects to use a specific psyching up technique
have been equivocal. Research on imagery and positive affirmations as
preperformance mental strategies have been slow to develop in the last fifteen
years. This lack of information has created a need for more research on
preperformance mental strategies which may add to the development of a body
of knowledge. This type of research will allow assessment of the effects of
using imagery and positive affirmations directly before performance.
Therefore, more studies are needed to investigate the effects of
preperformance mental strategies on the effects of motor skill acquisition and
performance. This study specifically focused on the assessment of both
preperformance positive affirmations and preperformance imagery on the
effects of golf putting performance and accuracy.

Backgmundfleseanch

Recent research has shown preperformance cognitive strategies to
enhance performance of a motor skill (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985)
while other research has not shown this effect (Gould, Weinberg, & Jackson,
1980; Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, & Aitken, 1985). Anecdotal evidence from
athletes have attested to the fact that certain cognitive strategies helped them
attain high levels of performance (Nicklaus, 1974; Ungerleider & Golding,
1992). Therefore, using a cognitive strategy directly before performance may
help novice golfers improve their performance on the simple motor skill of

golf putting.

Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy (1985) assessed the effects of positive
imagery instructions on a simple closed motor skill task of golf putting. Thirty
students were blocked by ability and randomly assigned to one of three
conditions: (a) positive imagery, (b) negative imagery, and (c) a control
condition. Subjects in the positive imagery group imagined the ball going in
before each putt, while the negative imagery group imagined the ball
narrowly missing before every putt. The control group did not use a
preperformance strategy before attempting each putt. Results of the study
found that the positive imagery instruction group improved performance
while the negative imagery instruction group showed a performance
decrement.

Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, and Aitken (1985) conducted a
methodologically similar investigation of the effect of imagery instructions on
the simple closed motor skill of golf putting. Fifty students were randomly
assigned to one of five imagery conditions. The subjects were told to use their
assigned imagery strategy before each putt. Consistent with past research
(Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985), preperformance negative imagery was
found to cause performance decrement. However, this study was inconsistent
with past research (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985) which found positive
imagery to enhance performance. The authors (Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld,
& Aitken, 1985) suggested that future research try to establish the conditions
in which positive imagery instructions may or may not show increased
performance.

W
The results of the Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy (1985) study and the
Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, and Aitken (1985) study illustrate the

inconsistencies of the findings in the positive imagery and cognitive strategy

literature. Thus, the purpose of this study was to partially replicate and extend
certain aspects of the Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy (1985) study and the
Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, and Aitken, (1985) study by investigating the
effects of imaging and positive affirmations. The aspects of these studies that
were replicated are (a) the use of a golf putting task, and (b) the use of the
same positive performance outcome imagery instructions. This study extended
the Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy (1985) study and the Woolfolk, Murphy,
Gottesfeld, and Aitken, (1985) studies by adding additional general and specific
training exposure phases for the experimental groups and another strategy
group and control group which were: (a) inclusion of an educational exposure
phase for the imagery group, (b) basic imagery exposure exercises, (c) a skill
specific imagery exposure exercise (d) the inclusion of a positive affirmation
statement group, (e) an educational exposure phase for the positive
affirmation group, (f) a basic affirmation exposure exercises, (g) a skill
specific affirmation exposure exercise and, (h) a no practice control group.

The present study investigated the effects of two intervention strategies, (1)
positive affirmation instructions, and (2) positive imagery instructions, on
the putting performance of novice golfers. The dependent measures were
performance assessed by how many putts were made, and accuracy assessed by
how many feet the golf ball stopped from the aluminum putting cup. The
independent variable was based upon the specific intervention group or
experimental group to which subjects were assigned, i.e., a preperformance
imagery group (PI), a preperformance positive affirmation group (PA), a
practice control group (PC), or a no physical or mental practice control group
(NPC).

The present study was designed to test the effects of preperformance

strategies on the performance of a closed motor skill. The study was designed

specifically to test the effect of various strategies on performance of golf
putting. One experimental group was tested using preperformance imagery
(PI), the second experimental group was instructed to use preperformance
positive affirmation statements (PA). The practice control group (PC) was
tested on golf putting without being instructed to use any mental preparation
directly before performance. The no practice control group (NPC) was tested
on only two days without physical or mental practice.
Reseamhflmmhem

Given the findings and procedures of the Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy
(1985) and Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, and Aitken (1985) study, the
following hypotheses were developed to provide a framework for determining
the performance differences based on the effect of preperformance imagery
and preperformance positive affirmations.

1. There will be statistically significant differences between
pre and post performance scores for the PI, PA, and the PC
groups.

2. There will be no statistically significant differences between
pre and post performance scores for the NPC group.

3. There will be a statistically significant difference
between the scores of the PI group and the NPC group with
the PI group having higher performance scores on the post
test.

4. There will be a statistically significant difference
between the scores of the PA group and the NPC group with
the PA group having higher performance scores on the post

test.

. There will be a statistically significant difference

between the scores of the PI group and the PC group with the

PI having higher performance scores on the post test.

. There will be a statistically significant difference

between the scores of the PA group and the PC group

with the PA group having higher performance scores on the

post test.

. There will be a statistically significant difference

between the scores of the PC group and the NPC group with

the PC group having higher performance scores on the post

test.

. There will be no significant differences between the

performance scores of the PI group and the PA group.
Exploratory Hypotheses

. There will be statistically significant differences between

pre and post accuracy scores for the PI, PA, and the PC groups.

. There will be no statistically significant differences between

pre and post accuracy scores for the NPC group.

. There will be a statistically significant difference between the

scores of the PIG group and the NPC group with the PI group

having lower accuracy scores on the post test.

. There will be a statistically significant difference between the

scores of the PA group and the NPC group with the PA group

having lower accuracy scores on the post test.

. There will be a statistically significant difference between

the scores of the PI group and the PC group with the PI group

having lower accuracy scores on the post test.

6. There will be a statistically significant difference
between the scores of the PA group and the PC group
with the PA group having lower accuracy scores on the post
test.

7. There will be a statistically significant difference between the
accuracy scores of the PC group and the NPC group with the PC

group having lower accuracy scores on the post test.
8. There will be no significant differences between the
accuracy scores of the PI group and PA group.

limitations

This study was limited to students enrolled in the introductory psychology
classes at Michigan State University. The results of this study will only
generalize to subjects having characteristics similar to the participants in this
study. Another limitation of this study is that assessment techniques to
determine if the subject used the cognitive intervention strategies were a
post-experimental questionnaire and verbal assessments. Therefore, there is
no way of knowing for sure if the intervention was used. Another concern
and limitation of the study is that athletes who use imagery, and positive
affirmations are usually motivated to excel and achieve performance
excellence. Subsequently, these athletes may go through lengthy systematic
training programs to improve these psychological skills. No attempt was made
in this thesis to employ a systematic training program, over many weeks.
Therefore a limitation in this study was the lack of time that was given to the

subjects in order to learn their assigned psychological skill.

Assumptions

An assumption made in the partial replication of the Woolfolk, Parrish, and
Murphy (1985) study, and the Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottsfeld, and Aitken (1985)
study is that negative imagery and negative affirmations would degrade the
performance of novice golf putters. Therefore a negative imagery instruction
group and negative affirmation group was not included in this study.

Another major assumption in this study was that the imagery exposure time,
and the affirmation exposure time would be long to introduce imagery and
positive affirmations to the subjects. Because all groups will have putted the
golf ball a total of twenty times before the exposure phase, assumptions were
made that the participants would be familiar with the skill. The rationale
behind the assumption that this was enough time to be exposed to the
psychological skills was based on previous research which has found limited
imagery and affirmation exposure to enhance the performance of strength
and motor skills in novice participants (Wilkes & Summers, 1984; Woolfolk,
Parrish, & Murphy, 1985).

Esxchinaun

The term psyching up has been used in a variety of ways throughout the
anecdotal and experimental literature. For the present study the term
psyching up is defined as mental preparation directly before performance

(Weinberg, Jackson, & Seaboume, 1985).

10

Throughout the literature positive affirmations refer to thought in many
different contexts. For the purposes of this paper, positive affirmations will be
defined as a cognitive strategy which can influence one's feelings of self-
efficacy through verbal persuasion (Weinberg, 1986).

Imam

Richardson (1969) suggests, "Mental imagery refers to all of those quasi-
sensory and quasi-perceptual experiences of which we are self-consciously
aware and which exist for us in the absence of those stimulus conditions that
are known to produce their genuine sensory or perceptual counterparts" (pp.
2-3).

Strategies that may assist in helping subjects or athletes improve
performance (Mahoney, 1984).
W

Using imagery to see a successful outcome of performance (Murphy &
Jowdy, 1992). For example in the present study, positive imagery is seeing the
ball roll into the hole.

Wm

Using imagery to see an unsuccessful outcome of performance (Murphy &
Jowdy, 1992).

W

A skill performed in a predictable relatively stable environment in which
the performers execute the movement at their own pace (Singer, 1988). An
example of a closed motor skill would be the a putt or a basketball free throw.

The present study used the closed motor skill of golf putting.

11

W

A skill performed in an unpredictable, relatively unstable environment in
which the performer executes the movement in reaction to the changing
environment (Singer, 1988). An example of a open motor skill would be
passing or dribbling in a game .
IntemaLImaaem

Internal imagery is when a person visualizes from a perspective inside
their own body. The image is much like you are seeing through your own
eyes, yourself performing the task (Mahoney & Avener, 1977).
Extemallmaaem

This is when a person visualizes from a perspective of outside their own
body. The image is much like you are watching yourself perform on a film or
videotape (Mahoney & Avener, 1977).
Eerieunance

For the purposes of this thesis performance is defined by the number of
putts that remain in the metal cup.
Accuracy

For the purposes of this thesis, accuracy is defined by the number of feet
the putt is left from the hole (between each circle is 12 inches). For example
by using concentric circles, if the putt is made it is scored a 0. If the putt is
left between the first circle (1 ft. from the cup) the accuracy score is a one. If
the putt is left between the second circle and the first, the accuracy score is
two. If the putt is left between the third circle and the second, the accuracy
score is three. If the putt is left between the fourth circle and the third, the
accuracy score is four. If the putt is left between the fifth circle and the
fourth, the accuracy score is five. If the putt is left beyond the fifth circle,

the accuracy measure is scored a six.

12

In sum, the first chapter has set out the problem and theoretical
background to the problem. In the next chapter literature is reviewed which

provides a rationale for each of the variables used in the study.

Chapter II

Review of Literature

This chapter will review the literature on the use of the specific psyching
up techniques of imagery and positive affirmations. The psyching up
literature will be broken into three sections, (a) imagery, (b) positive
affirmations, and (c) psyching up research. The first section will be
concerned with the research of mental practice and imagery. A historical
overview will be provided, immediately followed by both positive and negative
evidence of the efficacy of mental practice in motor performance. Following a
discussion of the studies showing relationships of imagery to motor
performance, an overview of the use of imagery as a preperformance
strategy will be documented. Next, theoretical explanations for the positive
results of imagery will be presented. The second section of this chapter will
provide an historical and theoretical overview of positive affirmations and
confidence as related to performance enhancement of motor skills. Specific
studies involving the use of positive affirmation statements will be discussed
in detail. The third section and the major focus of this thesis will provide the
background of the research leading up to this study. The third section will
begin with a discussion of the correlational research which provided the
framework for the "psyching up" studies. Following the correlational studies,
the first psyching up studies will be described. The last component of the final
section will discuss past research dealing with the specific "psyching up"
strategies of imagery and positive affirmations. Thus, the present chapter has
three main purposes: (a) to introduce the area of mental practice, and describe
historical and theoretical issues related to imagery, (b) to present the area of

positive affirmations, and describe historical and theoretical issues related to

13

14

positive affirmations, and (c) to review literature on psyching up techniques

and suggest further areas for research study.

Imagery

Richardson (1969) suggests, "Mental imagery refers to all of those quasi-
sensory and quasi-perceptual experiences of which we are self-consciously
aware and which exist for us in the absence of those stimulus conditions that
are known to produce their genuine sensory or perceptual counterparts" (pp.
2-3). This definition can be applied to many situations. For example, a golfer
may see the putter moving back, striking the ball and the ball rolling into the
hole. The golfer does not need to be on the golf course for imagery to occur.
Throughout the literature, imagery has also been referred to as "symbolic
rehearsal, visualization, modeling, covert practice, cognitive rehearsal,
imaginal practice, hallucinations, hypnosis, visuomotor training,
introspective rehearsal, implicit practice, ideomotor training, and even sofa
training (Murphy & Jowdy, 1992 p. 222).

Famous athletes allude to using imagery as a tool for enhancing and
facilitating quality of performance (Weinberg, 1984). Jack Nicklaus (1974)
suggests that he never hits a shot without going to the movies. First, he
visualizes a positive outcome. Secondly, he images perfect trajectory of ball
flight. Finally, he visualizes the swing that will allow him to perform the
perfect shot. Another athlete who alludes to having used imagery to enhance
performance is Dick Fosbury, a world famous high jumper, and innovator of
the Fosbury flop. Before every jump Fosbury went through a mental imagery

routine (Ungerleider & Golding, 1992). Therefore, If some of the greatest

15

athletes of all time uses preperformance imagery, then it may be possible to
aid the average performer through the teaching of imagery.

There are many questions that remain to be answered about how
preperformance imagery affects sport performance. For example, does this
type of imagery enhance self confidence, have a neuro muscular effect,
degrade performance, or have no effect at all?
WWII

Murphy (1990) recently suggested that imagery has been used by sport
psychology researchers in two ways. The two applications of mental imagery
are mental practice and psyching up. The mental practice research is based
upon the premise that if athletes can improve their performance by physical
practice of a skill, then the possibility may exist that mental practice of a skill
can also aid in improving performance (Hall, Buckoltz, & Fishburne, 1992;
Richardson, 1967; Weinberg, 1981). For example, before going to bed an
athlete can mentally practice putting a golf ball. This would be in addition to
the physical practice performed earlier in the day (Murphy & Jowdy, 1992).

Research studies have used the above mental practice paradigm of
comparing one group that practices mentally, a physical practice group, a
combination physical practice and mental practice group, and a control group
that receives no practice. The research on mental practice has shown that
physical practice is still best, but mental practice is better than no practice at
all (Feltz & Landers, 1983).

Alternatively, imagery has been used and researched as a preperformance
mental training technique often called psyching up. A typical design
compares one, all or a combination of five groups who use imagery,
preparatory arousal, relaxation, self-efficacy statements, attentional focus , or

a control condition.

16

i I | I E |° II' |

Perhaps the first mental practice studies specifically related to sport were
conducted by physical educator William Anderson. Research by Anderson
(cited in Wiggins, 1984) was conducted to test whether or not muscles could be
trained to perform gymnastics skills if the movements were not physically
rehearsed, but only thought about instead. After several research
investigations, Anderson suggested that gymnastic movements could be
learned through the training of the mind (Wiggins, 1984).

After Anderson's initial work, Washbum (1916) suggested that when
imaging a movement, the muscle activity that occurs is basically the same,
although of lesser magnitude, as the actual movement. In 1932, Jacobson used
a physiological technique and deciphered that when imaging movement,
minute muscle activation is created. Hence, Jacobson provided evidence for
what came to be called the psychoneuromuscular hypothesis. Following
Jacobson, Sackett (1934) conducted an imagery experiment using a maze task,
and suggested that motor imagery was more useful for cognitive tasks than
motor tasks. Perry (1939) conducted a study of five different tasks and found
that imaginary practice was effective in improving performance in pegboard,
symbol digit distribution, and card sorting.

Vandel, Clugston, and Davis (1943) conducted two classic studies utilizing
basketball free throws and dart throwing. One group physically practiced on
only the first and last day, a second group practiced physically everyday. The
third group physically practiced on the first and last day and mentally
practiced on every day in between. The results of the study showed that
mental practice was almost as effective as physical practice. However, the

study was marred by the fact that no statistical analysis was completed.

l7

Twinning (1949), in order to expand the findings of the above study, used
the ring-toss, in a similar design as the Vandel et a1. (1943) investigation, and
found that the physical practice group improved the most, the two-day
physical practice group showed no improvement. The mental practice group
improved significantly over the two-day practice group, but, improved much
less than the everyday physical practice group. Throughout the 1950's and
1960's studies were conducted in mental practice research that were concerned
about the efficacy of mental practice as a helpful aid to improving
performance.

Vandel et a1. (1943) found that dart throwing and basketball shooting were
improved by using mental practice. Twinning (1949) found that mental
practice could improve performance in ring tossing. Bowling performance
was also shown to be improved by mental practice (Waterland, 1956, as cited in
Richardson, 1967), as was a basketball task (Clark, 1960; Start, 1962).
Additional evidence that supports the idea that mental practice can improve
performance comes form the works of Egstrom (1964) and Kelsey (1961).
Egstrom (1964) suggested that mentally practicing a skill (ball-strike) was
effective in improving performance, but not as effective as physical practice.
Kelsey (1961) found that mentally practicing sit-ups daily for five minutes
increased the muscular endurance of the abdominal and thigh flexor muscles.
However, Kelsey, found that physical practice was significantly better than
mental practice. Mendoza and Wichman (1978) found that mental practice
improved the performance for dart throwers. Supporting evidence for the use
of mental practice also comes from outside the sport literature. For instance,

in 1985 Ross found that mental practice improved the performance of college

trombonists.

18

Obviously this is only a collection of a few studies that have produced
positive mental practice results. Fairly consistent evidence exists for the
positive effects of mental practice, however, not all studies have found a
relationship between mental practice and improved performance. Steel (1952)
did not find a positive relationship between mental practice and the acquiring
of a baseball skill. Corbin (1967) found mental practice to be ineffective in
improving wand juggling. Stebbins (1968) also found mental practice
ineffective in improving the task of throwing rubber balls at a target. Shick
(1970) did not find a positive relationship of mental practice and performance
when the tasks were volleyball serving or wall volley. In accordance with
Schick, Stebbins, and Corbin, Smyth (1975) did not find a positive relationship
of mental practice on the tasks of mirror drawing and a pursuit rotor. More
recently, mental practice has been shown not to have a positive relationship
in improving performance of dart throwing (Epstein, 1980) or figure skating
(Mumford & Hall, 1985).

As documented by Richardson (1967) and Corbin (1972) the mental practice
literature indicates that in spite of numerous methodological inadequacies,
most published studies show improved performance after engaging in mental
practice. Recent meta-analyses ( Feltz & Landers, 1983; Hinshaw, 1991; Oslin,
1985) have suggested that mental practice may benefit athletic performance.
In an effort to statistically test mental practice effects, Feltz and Landers
(1983) conducted a meta-analysis of sixty studies and concluded that "mentally
practicing a motor skill influences performance somewhat better than no
practice at all."(p. 25). The summary of Feltz and Landers (1983) research
includes the following: (a) "mental practice effects are primarily associated

with cognitive symbolic rather than motor elements of the task" (p.45), (b)

19

"mental practice effects are not just limited to early learning, they are found

in early and later stages of learning and may be task specific" (p.46), (c) "it is
doubtful that mental practice effects are produced by low gain innervations of
muscles that will be used during actual performance" (p. 48), and ((1) "mental
practice functions to assist the performer in psychologically preparing for

the skill to be performed" (p.50).
W

The mental practice research to date has rarely utilized mental imagery as a
preperformance routine strategy. However, the psyching up literature does
use imagery as a preperformance routine. For example, a high jumper, before
attempting a jump would mentally see himself/ herself clearing the bar.
Another example would be the golfer imaging before every shot. At present,
the psyching up research appears to be equivocal on the effects of utilizing
imagery before performance. The full studies will be reviewed in the
psyching up section, however, the imagery effect immediately prior to
performance will be reviewed in this section.

Lutkus (1975) found that imaging immediately prior to performance led to
significantly faster times and less errors in the task of mirror drawing.
Waterland (1956) found that imaging before a ten pin bowling task improved
performance. Gould, Weinberg, and Jackson (1980) found that imagery
improved performance on a leg kick task. Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, and
Barnes (1980) found that imaging before attempting a tennis serve did not
improve performance over a control group. Epstein (1980) using imaging
immediately before dart throwing did not find that imagery improved
performance. In 1984, Wilkes and Summers found imagery did not improve
performance on a leg kick task. Woolfolk, Parrish and Murphy (1985) found

that preperformance imagery improved golf putting performance. However,

20

in a follow up study by Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottsfeld, & Aitken (1985), golf
putting performance was found not to be improved by preperformance
imagery. Tynes and McFatter (1987) found that imagery before completing a
weightlifting task improved performance over a control group. Recently, Elko
and Ostrow (1992) found that imaging immediately prior to performing a hand
grip dynamometer task significantly improved performance.

The results of using imaging before performing a motor task have shown
equivocal results. However adding an educational and general imagery
training to psyching up research may help ascertain an understanding of the
psyching-performance relationship. A good example of brief skill specific
exposure is the Epstein (1980) study. However, exposure sessions may be aided
by basic imagery exercises such as the ones written by Vealey (1986). Of
course, a much longer training session may (see Vealey, 1986, for a full
description of an imagery training program) allow imagery to be practiced
and learned by the subjects over many weeks or months. This may produce
enhanced controllability of images, Vividness of imagery, as well as improved
performance. This type of study would require subjects who had the
motivation to excel in a selected activity. This type of experiment would take
much more time than the currently published psyching up investigations
(Murphy & Jowdy, 1992).

The present investigation chose to briefly expose the subjects to an imagery
educational exposure and basic training as an extension of the Woolfolk,
Murphy,and Parrish (1985) study, and the Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, &
Aitken (1985) study. The lack of exposure and lack of belief in the imagery
strategies may have been one of the reasons that equivocal results were found

in studies (Vealey, 1986; Weinberg, 1986).

21

After studying the effects of imagery on performance, it is necessary to test
specific theories of preperformance imagery. The next section discusses
theories that researchers have developed to try and explain the positive and
negative effects of mental practice, and imagery.

WW

Maltz (1960) has hypothesized that imagery is used in a very complicated
way and that our brain and nervous system combine to seek a goal. Therefore,
imagery acts to set the goal then the brain and nervous system automatically
take over. Although Maltz's theory may seem reasonable, there is little
scientific evidence to support these notions.

Marks (1977) suggested that "imagined stimuli and perceptual or real
stimuli have a qualitatively similar status in our conscious mental life" (p.285).
Martens (1987) suggested that this is a significant conclusion because in
normal processes we take in things from the environment and process then in
our brain. By also using our own memory, we can create our own internal
environment which our brain processes.

There are many theories proposed on how imagery works, nevertheless, the
psychoneuromuscular theory and the symbolic learning theory have received
the most focus from the sport psychology researchers. The following sections
define and detail the research behind these two important theories.
Emhoneummuscnlaflhem

The psychoneuromuscular theory is supported by Jacobson (1932).
Jacobson suggested that actually visualizing events may stimulate minute
muscular firings to the part of the body that is performing the activity.
Jacobson showed that when visualizing the activity, electromyographic

responses accompany the imaging. Since Jacobson's initial exploration,

22

researchers have found that minute muscle activation does occur when
imaging.

In 1981, Hale found minute muscle activation when subjects used imagery of
a biceps curl. Suinn (1980) found that a skier using imagery showed minute
muscle activation when imaging rather than only thinking about the skill.
Bird (1984) recorded Emg's for five athletes and also found minute muscle
activation. Although minute muscle activation has been shown, Murphy and
Jowdy (1992) stated that "there is very little direct evidence to suggest
feedback to the premotor cortex from minute innervations of the peripheral
musculature causes mental practice effects"(p.233).
SymbolmLeaminglhem

Sackett (1934) was one of the first researchers to propose the symbolic
learning theory which suggests that mental practice improves performance
because athletes can use cognition's to prepare and plan for performance
(Murphy & Jowdy, 1992; Hinshaw, 1991). Sackett (1934) found that subjects
who imagined maze tracing performed better than verbal or overt practice
groups. Perry (193 9) found that mental practice improved the primarily
cognitive skills of pegboard, symbol digit substitution, and card sorting.
However, the primary motor tasks of mirror tracing and tapping were less
improved by mental practice. Wrisberg and Ragsdale (1979) found that mental
practice showed greater effects on a highly symbolic task, as opposed to a low
symbolic task. More recently, Ryan and Simmons (1981) found that the mental
practice group on a highly cognitive task (dial-a-maze) improved
performance. However, in the same study these researchers found that in a
primarily motor task (stablometer) mental practice did not improve
performance. In their meta-analysis Feltz and Landers (1983) found trends to

support the symbolic learning hypothesis. However, they suggest that

23

classification of motor tasks into primarily motor tasks or primarily cognitive
tasks may be artificial.
cherlhemies

Although the preceding two theories, the pscyhoneuromuscular theory and
the Symbolic learning theory, are the most popular in sport psychology
literature, other theories and suggestions exist. Schmidt (1982) suggests that it
may be possible that the " performer is merely preparing for the action,
setting the arousal level, and generally getting prepared for competition"
(p.520). The lower minimal tension levels may allow the performer to perform
optimally. This explanation incorporates physiological and cognitive aspects
of mental imagery. Feltz and Landers (1983) suggest that imagery allows the
athlete to set physiological arousal at optimal levels. The cognitive aspect of
this explanation suggests that imagery may help athletes focus on the task at
hand. Although this theory has much appeal, there is little evidence to lend
support (Hecker & Kaczor, 1988).

Recently, Pavio (1985) posits that imagery may act as a motivational or
cognitive function. The performer imagines a goal, and then the behavior
that needs to be produced. When imaging success of skills, a positive feeling
which increases confidence is created. In summary, imagery may motivate a
performer through enhancement of self-confidence and an increase of

positive self-talk (Pavio, 1985).

Positive Affirmations
Positive affirmations or self efficacy statements are other techniques like
imagery that sport psychologists have suggested may improve performance in
athletic tasks (Bunker & Williams, 1986). Psychologists have recently begun

to investigate the phenomenon of positive affirmations in physical tasks

24

(Wilkes & Summers, 1984). Positive affirmations are defined as a cognitive
strategy which can influence one's feelings of self-efficacy through verbal
persuasion (Weinberg, 1986). A positive affirmation strategy consists of an
individual repeating such statements as "I can make that putt", "I can do it", or
"I can win" to foster confidence in the individuals ability to successfully
complete the task (Weinberg, 1986). The positive affirmation strategy can be
applied directly before performance or during the performance.

Although the study of inner thoughts is a recent area of study in sport
psychology, the usage and study of affirmations have been studied for
thousands of years (Van Noord, 1984). Bhuddists and Hindus have used
affirmations for life improvement for a long time. Sir Francis Galton
attempted to analyze thoughts that barely crossed his mind. Emile Coue'
instructed his patients to use statements such as "Every day in every way I'm
getting better and better" (Van Noord, 1984).

mm

"It has been said many times that the only difference between the best
performance and the worst performance is the variation in our self-talk and
our self-thoughts and attitudes" (Harris & Harris, 1984, p. 101). Wiren, Coop,
and Sheehan (1979) lent support to this quote. They suggest that often the
good professional golf teachers can successfully execute difficult shots when
conducting a clinic. For example, they can fade or draw on command. This
may suggest that the power of positive self-efficacy suggestions can increase
performance. This example supports positive affirmations in that the golf
professionals are thinking only about positive outcomes when they are
conducting a clinic.

Wiren, Coop and Sheehan (1979) also describe the phenomenal putting of

former Oklahoma State University golf coach, Labron Harris Sr. His technique

25

was not overly impressive. The authors suggested that Harris' positive self-
confidence in performing the putt may have allowed him to be a great putter.
Wiren and Coop (1979) also state, "Finally we realized it was his attitude, not his
method, that let him sink so many putts. His faith in himself was total. He said
he was a great putter, he believed it and he was"(p.101).

To illustrate how positively affirming oneself can affect an athlete's
behavior, the following is an account of a past golf tournament (Wiren, Coop,
& Sheehan, 1979). Curtis Strange, now a great professional golfer, hit a great 1
iron approach shot to help his team win the NCAA golf title. However, the
following year while trying to qualify for the PGA tour Strange used a six iron
to hit his shot into a bunker. Needless to say, Strange missed qualifying by one
shot. Strange recalls his thought as he hit both shots. On the first shot he
thought "hit the best shot for the team". However, as he addressed the crucial
six iron shot in the qualifying event, "he thought do not miss the shot". Both
positive self-efficacy and negative self-efficacy statements may have been
major determinants in the athletic performance of professional golfer Curtis
Strange.

Confldenceandierformance

Weinberg (1986) suggested that the premise that how confident an athlete
is can significantly affect subsequent performance is not a new idea. Coaches
and athletes have talked of the importance of confidence, however, only
recently have sport psychologists begun to research the confidence-
performance relationship. A few studies have been conducted to illustrate
how positive thinking and negative thinking can influence behavior. Nelson
and Furst (1972) conducted an investigation to test the effects of confidence on
performance. First, male subjects were tested for arm strength, and then

asked to estimate their strength relative to their peers. Secondly, subjects

26

were matched with someone who was clearly stronger. However, both subjects
believed that the weaker subject was stronger. The results showed that the
objectively weaker subject won the arm wrestling competition 83 percent of
the time. A possibility exists that if subjects believe they will win, they
perform at a higher level.

Ness and Patton (1979) also conducted an investigation of whether weight
lifting was influenced by how much the person thought was being lifted.
Results showed that participants lifted more weight when they believed it to be
less than it was.

Feltz (1988) suggested that the sport literature shows a significant
relationship between self-efficacy and performance. Research that usually
investigates sport confidence often tests Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory (Feltz,
1988).

W

Self Efficacy can be defined as an individuals belief that he or she can
successfully execute the behavior that is needed to produce a desired outcome
(Bandura, 1977). Self efficacy theory refers to a situationally specific self-
confidence that can change depending on many factors such as the task, skill
level of the individual, or the situation. Bandura suggested that there are
expectations of personal efficacy which are referred to as the four major
sources of efficacy information; namely past performances, vicarious
experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The strongest source
of self-efficacy information, past performance, refers to how one performed
in a specific situation. The second strongest efficacy information source,
vicarious experiences, derives information through imaging or observing
others performing the task. Persuasive techniques, although less powerful

than vicarious techniques are often used by teachers, peers, and coaches as

27

well as the individual. Lastly, physiological arousal can influence
performance.

Performance accomplishments have been shown to enhance self-efficacy
and performance (Brody, Hatfield & Spalding, 1988; Feltz, Landers, & Raeder,
1979; Hogan & Stantomeir, 1984). Relationships have been similar to
performance accomplishments, however, weaker when vicarious techniques
are used (Corbin, Laurie, Gruger, & Smiley, 1984, Gould & Weiss, 1981;
Weinberg, Gould & Jackson, 1979). Self-efficacy research when manipulated
as a persuasive technique has revealed mixed results (Weinberg, Gould,
Jackson, & Barnes, 1980; Wilkes & Summers, 1984). Feltz (1988) posits that often
when studies do not use a performance based treatment as a source of efficacy
information, lack of effects may be caused by a confounding of treatment and
actual performance. For example, if a study has multiple trials, the performer
may miss the first couple of shots or putts, and then do poorly because of their
first couple of performances; irregardless of the fact that the treatment is
trying to persuade the subject to do well.

Persuasive self-efficacy statement techniques, testing Bandura's theory,
have been studied in sport and physical activity. A line of research was
started because of the correlational studies which linked a relationship
between positive thoughts and confidence of elite successful athletes. These
studies ( Higlen & Bennett, 1979, 1983; Meyers, Cooke, Cullen, & Lillies, 1979)
found that positive thoughts were used by successful competitors, and hence
psyching up studies began to use self efficacy statements as mental
preparation. These studies ( Higlen & Bennet, 1979, 1983; Meyers, Cooke,
Cullen, & Lillies, 1979) will be reviewed in the psyching up section. However,
in this section three studies using positive affirmations in sport will be

reviewed.

28

Rushall (1984), using a case study design with a rower, investigated the
effects of positive self-efficacy statements on the performance of a rower. The
subject completed a six minute rowing ergometer task while saying positive
self-statements every fifteen seconds. Rushall found self-efficacy statements
increased performance. Rushall suggested that not only was the performance
enhanced but the nature of the performance was changed. The performance
was more consistent and did not display the usual decrease in performance
that occurs in the latter half of such a test.

In 1984, Weinberg, Smith, Jackson, and Gould conducted a study with the
purpose of comparing associative, dissociative and positive affirmation
psyching interventions in the performance of running for thirty minutes.

The subjects were randomly assigned to groups, including a positive self-talk
group. Specifically, the positive affirmation group received these
instructions, "While you perform I would like you to constantly talk to and
encourage yourself that I can do it, I can make it, I can go for a longer time; It
hurts but I can do it, I'll keep it up. Repeat statements like these throughout
the entire performance." As a manipulation check of interventions subjects
were asked the following question. What percentage of time did you use the
cognitive strategy that the experimenter presented to you? They used a rating
scale from O to 100%. Results of the manipulation check revealed that the
mean of the subjects using the intervention was 71.5 96. Results found no
significant differences in the mean number of laps run by subjects in
different groups.

The above mentioned studies demonstrate how self-efficacy statements have
been used while the performance has been taking place. These experimental
studies have shown that self efficacy statements can improve performance

(Rushall, 1984; Weinberg, 1984). Recent research has also looked at the effects

29

of self-efficacy statements immediately prior to performance. This research
will be reviewed in the psyching up literature section. However, a good
example of using self efficacy statements is the Wilkes and Summers (1984)
investigation. In this research 60 male volunteers were randomly assigned to
one of five mental preparation groups: arousal, attention, imagery, self-
efficacy statements, and a control. All subjects first completed 3 pretest trials
in which they were told to do the best they could do. Then during the
experimental phase, the subjects were told to use the cognitive strategies
instructed to them. Specifically, the positive self-efficacy group was given
these instructions, "tell yourself how confident you are that you will do well at
this leg extension; that is I want you to think only that you are good at this
task and that you are going to put in a good performance. Think of absolutely
nothing except that you are going to really succeed at this." The results of this
study demonstrated that self-efficacy statements and arousal improved

performance over the control group.

Psyching Up Research

W

Research has recently been conducted that has tested the effects of self-
efficacy statements and imagery on the effects of performance. Most of this
research has been conducted under "psyching up research." This line of
research began when Mahoney and Avener (1977) conducted an exploratory
study on elite athletes. Subjects in this study were twelve male gymnasts who
were attempting to qualify for the Olympic team. Success in this study was
determined by who made the Olympic team, and failure was defined as those

athletes who were cut from the team. The procedure in this study was to

30

interview the 12 remaining male athletes left to try out for the 1976 Olympic
team. The authors were looking for a correlation in cognitive strategies
between the 6 who were successful and the 6 who were unsuccessful. The
results of this study were considered astonishing by the authors. They found
the more successful gymnasts to be more self confident, and that the more
successful gymnasts reported using self-talk in training and competition.

They also found that athletes who used internal imagery as opposed to external
imagery were more successful.

Meyers, Cooke, Cullen, and Lillies (1979) attempted to replicate the findings
(Mahoney & Avener, 1977) that successful Olympic gymnasts showed different
psychological characteristics than nonsuccessful gymnasts with college
racquetball players. Racquetball members completed one questionnaire in the
middle of the season and one at the end. Results revealed that the more skilled
racquetball players used more self-talk in training and competition. Also,
more successful competitors were found to have more clarity of imagery and
an easier time in controlling images.

As a follow up to the Mahoney and Avener (1977) study, Highlen and
Bennett (1979) looked at specific influences which may have separated
successful and unsuccessful wrestlers. Subjects in this study were 39 elite
wrestlers who were trying to qualify for positions on one of three national
teams. A successful wrestler was defined as an athlete who was selected to
compete on at least one of three national teams. Wrestlers completed a
questionnaire that inquired about psychological factors which affected
training and competition. Results of the study found that responses to imagery
and self-talk questions were similar among the nonsuccessful and successful

athletes. The authors (Highlen & Bennett, 1979) suggested that imagery and

31

self-talk were only used to a moderate degree. Imagery and self-talk did not
seem to characterize any differences between winners and losers.

Highlen and Bennett (1979) also suggested that gymnastics, a closed skill
sport which was the focus of the Mahoney and Avener (1977) study, may be
more conducive to imagery than wrestling which is an open skilled sport.
Subsequently, Highlen and Bennett (1983) conducted a study which examined
the psychological techniques used by open versus closed skilled athletes.

Highlen and Bennett (1983) administered a questionnaire to 39 divers and
44 wrestlers. This survey was similar to the Mahoney and Avener (1977) study
and the Highlen and Bennett (1979) study. The researchers specifically were
looking for factors that separated the successful and unsuccessful athletes in
each sport. Also, they were assessing psychological factors associated with
training and competition. The results of the study found the successful divers
to use imagery more often than the nonqualifiers. Divers were not found to
use more imagery strategies than wrestlers and self-talk was used more for
the successful divers than the unsuccessful divers. Self-talk was not found to
differentiate elite divers from elite wrestlers.

Gould, Weiss, and Weinberg (1981) attempted to replicate the research of
Highlen and Bennett (1979). Forty-nine subjects completed a questionnaire.
Results of this study indicated that self-talk, imagery, attentional focus, and
arousal were the strategies most often used. Also, subjects were asked to
respond to the question, "How often do you use self -talk and imagery as a
prematch preparation technique?" Utilizing a scale of 1 (not at all) to 11
(almost always), a mean of 7.46 was reported for the self talk group, and 7.74
was reported for the imagery group.

As a group these studies have shown that elite level athletes use self-talk

and imagery during training and competition. This type of cognitive strategy

32

may have aided their performance. However, one can not imply that any of
these strategies caused an elite athlete to become successful (Murphy, 1990).

The first study using "psyching up" strategies before performance was the
Shelton and Mahoney (1978) study. These investigators conducted a study
using thirty male weight lifters who were participating in an Olympic style
weight lifting competition. The subjects were tested for strength on a Lafyette
pneumatic hand dynamoter. The procedures for the experiment included (a)
conducting a baseline trial, (b) having subjects count backward by sevens
before testing for strength (control condition), (c) having subjects "psych up"
before testing for strength ((1) and conducting post experimental interviews.
Interviews indicated that when asked to choose a psyching up technique, the
participants chose techniques that ranged across the following four
categories: (1) attentional focus (2) preparatory arousal (3) imagery and (4)
self-efficacy statements. Attentional focus was the most popular technique
followed by self-efficacy statements. Results indicated that the "psyching up"
group showed large increases in strength performance compared to a decrease
by the control group subjects.

In a follow up study Weinberg, Gould, and Jackson (1980) used a psyching
up design with the purpose of extending the results of the Shelton and
Mahoney study (1978). The investigation specifically researched tasks that
required speed, strength, and balance. In the first experiment 20 subjects
were used to perform the task of balancing on a stabliometer. All subjects
performed in both the psyching up and control conditions. Subjects in the
experimental group were told to mentally prepare themselves for maximum
performance. In the control condition, subjects were told to count backwards

by sevens from a four-digit number. Results of this experiment found that

33

balancing on the stabliometer was not facilitated by the use of the psyching
up technique. The other two experiments in this study used the same design,
but used the tasks of strength on a Cybex orthotron and a speed of arm
movement task. Results showed that only the strength task was facilitated
when using a psyching up technique. In all of the experiments the psyching
up techniques seemed to fall into the following categories: (1) attentional
focus, (2) imagery (3) self-talk, (4) preparatory arousal, and (5) relaxation.
The findings from this study are consistent with those of Shelton and Mahoney
(1978) in terms of strength performance.

Weinberg, Gould, and Jackson (1981) investigated the relationship of
"psyching up" techniques on the performance of a leg strength task. All
subjects performed one trial under the control condition, and four more trials
under the "psyching up" condition. Results of the study demonstrated that
"psyching up" enhanced performance of the leg strength task.

Caudill, Weinberg, and Jackson (1983) examined the use of psyching up
techniques in a field setting. The sample used in the study were male and
female hurdlers and sprinters from a university track team. Subjects
performed under both the psych up and control conditions. The psyching up
subjects were told to psych-up one minute before the race. Results revealed
that the psyching up group improved running speed performance
significantly over a control group. Also, this study was consistent with other
research which found that the psyching up techniques fell into the categories
of imagery, self-efficacy statements, attentional focus, and preparatory
arousal.

Recently, Weinberg, Hankes, and Jackson (1991) examined the relationship
of psyching up techniques on the performance of an open skill task of timed

basketball shooting performance from beyond fifteen feet. One hundred and

34

five university students who had previous basketball experience participated
in this experiment. Each subject chose their psyching up technique before
performance. The results of the study indicated that imagery, attentional
focus, preparatory arousal, relaxation and positive self-talk were all used as
psyching up techniques.

These initial studies demonstrate support for the finding that when asked to
use a psyching up strategy before performance, athletes used one of five
strategies. The five mental preparation techniques used were positive self-
talk, attentional focus, preparatory arousal, imagery, and relaxation.

Psyching up studies seemed to influence the performance of strength skills
(Shelton & Mahoney, 1978; Gould, Weinberg & Jackson, 1980). A problem with
the original design of Shelton and Mahoney (1980) is that it allowed the
subject the choice of choosing a psyching up strategy (Murphy & Jowdy, 1992;
Wilkes & Summers, 1984; Murphy, 1990). These designs may show that a
preperformance mental preparation strategy may improve performance,
however these studies do not make an attempt to specifically identify which
strategies influenced the performance (Murphy & Jowdy, 1992; Murphy, 1990).

In an attempt to identify the type of psyching up strategy that was
responsible for enhanced performance, Gould, Weinberg and Jackson (1980)
conducted one of the first specified psyching up investigations. Two
experiments were conducted. In the first experiment subjects performed on a
Cybex Orthotron machine under five different strategies of attentional focus,
imagery, preparatory arousal, a rest condition, and a control group who
counted backwards. Results showed that the preparatory arousal group was
not significantly different from the other, however, the preparatory arousal

group produced greater performance than the other three conditions. In the

35

second experiment, subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups,
preparatory arousal, imagery, or a control condition. The experimental
groups mentally prepared before performing on the Cybex Orthotron #7120.
The preparatory arousal strategy was shown to increase performance,
however, the imagery group's performance did not improve.

Caudill and Weinberg (1983) conducted an investigation to test the effects of
imagery, focus of attention, and preparatory arousal, on the performance of
the bench press. Subjects were tested on a universal bench press machine.
Subjects performed under the following conditions: (a) imagery (b)
preparatory arousal (c) focus of attention, or (d) a control condition. Results
of this study revealed that all experimental "psych up" conditions improved
over a control condition. As in other studies there was no significant
difference between experimental groups in enhancing performance.

Wilkes and Summers (1984), as noted in the positive affirmation section,
found that the psyching up techniques of self-efficacy statements and
preparatory arousal produced significantly greater strength performance
than the control group.

Weinberg, Jackson, and Seaboume (1985) conducted a study to test if
imagery, preparatory arousal, or a non-specific "psych-up" condition most
enhanced the performance of sit-ups, pushups, pull ups, and the standing long
jump. The subjects performed each task using each condition. This study
demonstrated that a non-specific strategy improved performance over a
control strategy. The specific strategies of imagery and preparatory arousal
also enhanced performance more than the control group.

Tynes and McFatter (1987) conducted an investigation using 36 experienced
weight lifters. The weight lifters completed a weightlifting task under one of

five conditions: self-efficacy, attentional focus, imagery, preparatory arousal,

36

or a control condition. Results showed that only preparatory arousal increased
performance.

Elko and Ostrow (1992) conducted a study to examine three psyching up
strategies on the hand grip strength of college age and older subjects. The
older subjects and younger subjects each performed the experiment in three
separate categories, an imagery group, a preparatory arousal group, and a
control counting backwards group. The subjects were told to employ the
strategy to the best of their ability for twenty seconds. The subjects performed
three trials under each condition. Results showed that mental imagery
increased performance in both the younger and older adults. Elko and Ostrow
concluded that age has no influence on the effectiveness of the mental
strategies used.

Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, and Barnes (1980) investigated the effects of
cognitive strategies on the influence of a tennis serve. Forty subjects were
told they would serve using four different mental preparation strategies.

These strategies were imagery, statements of positive self-efficacy, attentional
focus, and no strategy. The results of the study found that psyching up
techniques did not influence the performance of the serves for the subjects.

Positive effects of imagery were not found in an investigation of dart
throwing (Epstein, 1980). Subjects were assigned to one of three conditions, an
external imagery, internal imagery, or a control group that did not receive
mental training and the instructions to mentally rehearse before each throw.
The experimental group was given a training session which included two
minutes of imaging dart throwing. Subjects were then told to mentally
rehearse their performance before throwing the darts. Results of the study

did not find a difference between any of the groups.

37

McFadden (1982) conducted a study to examine the effects of imagery
rehearsal strategies in order to improve goaltending performance. Sixty-
three fourteen to 18 year old Toronto area ice hockey goaltenders participated
in the study. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of four of the following
groups: (a) an internal imagery condition, (b) an external imagery condition,
(c) a delayed training control group, or (d) a film placebo condition. Subjects
were tested on a "reaction tunnel" device which simulates a puck being fired
at prime areas of the goal. The subjects first completed a thirty shot baseline
measure. Next experimental groups received sixty minutes of external or
internal imagery training over four days. After the last training session,
participants in the experimental conditions, completed two sets of 30 shots on
goal. Before each set of thirty shots subjects in the experimental group were
asked to "psych-up" for five minutes. McFadden (1982) suggested that the
findings show that imagery used as a psyching up technique was very
effective in enhancing skilled goaltending performance.

Lutkus (1975) used imagery before performance in a mirror drawing test.
Subjects in the control condition were to try and trace their figure using the
mirror as a guide. Subjects in the experimental imagery condition were told
to form an image of the figure in their minds before performing the mirror
drawing. Results of the study found that the imagery groups significantly
improved their performance over the control group. The imaging group
showed faster times and fewer errors than the control group.

Waterland (cited in Richardson,1967) conducted an investigation using
preperformance imagery before bowling practice. There were two groups, a
mental practice group and a control condition. The mental practice

kinesthetic imagery group was found to produce a smoother action, greater

38

speed of delivery, and a higher score than the control group while bowling
under standard conditions.

Woolfolk, Parish and Murphy (1985) conducted a study to test the effects of
preperformance imagery on the golf putting task. Subjects were thirty
university students randomly assigned to one of three groups, a positive
outcome imagery group, negative outcome imagery group, and non imagery
control group. Before each shot, the positive outcome imagery group was told
to imagine themselves making a " gentle but firm backswing and stroking the
putt smoothly down the target line." Then they were told to imagine the ball
"rolling, rolling right into the cup"(p. 337). The negative outcome group was
given the same instructions except that they were told to imagine the ball,
"rolling, rolling toward the cup but at the last second narrowly
missing"(p.337). The control group was told to try and sink each putt. The
results of the study found that the positive outcome group significantly
improved their performance and performed significantly better than the
other two groups.

Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, and Aitken (1985) conducted a similar
investigation of the effect of imagery instructions on the simple motor skill of
golf putting. Fifty students were randomly assigned to one of five imagery
conditions. Subjects used their assigned imagery strategy before each putt.
Consistent with past research (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985), negative
imagery was shown to cause performance decrement. This study was
inconsistent with past research (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985) which
found positive imagery to enhance performance. The authors (Woolfolk,
Murphy, Gottesfeld, & Aitken, 1985) suggested that future research try to
establish the conditions in which positive imagery instructions may or may

not show increased performance.

39

To summarize the findings in the psyching up literature, strength seems to
be enhanced when a psyching up technique is used. Specific psyching up
strategies of imagery have been found to increase strength in a hand grip
dynometer task (Elko & Ostrow, 1992) and a leg kick task (Gould, Weinberg &
Jackson, 1980). However, other studies have found imagery to be less efficient
in a strength task (Tynes & McFatter, 1987). Positive affirmation statements
seem to have improved performance in one study (Wilkes & Summers, 1984) of
strength performance. However, in gross-motor tasks the use of
preperformance self-efficacy statements have shown negative results in the
performance enhancement of a tennis serve (Weinberg, Gould, Jackson &
Barnes, 1980), and positive results in endurance performance (Weinberg,
Smith, Jackson & Gould, 1984). Imagery when used as a psyching up technique
for a gross-motor skill has been shown to influence positively the
performance of golf putting (Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985), bowling
(cited in Richardson, 1967), mirror drawing (Lutkus, 1975). Imagery used as a
psyching up technique for an accuracy and precision skill was not found to
enhance performance in dart throwing (Epstein, 1980).

The results of the psyching up literature have been equivocal when using a
specific preperformance strategy before a motor skill. We do know that
mental activity can work either degrade, enhance, or have no effect directly
before performance (Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, & Barnes, 1980; Woolfolk,
Murphy, Gottesfeld, & Aitken 1985; Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985).

The research provides a detailed description of what subjects will be told to
imagine, and say to themselves. Most studies do not provide the reader with a
detailed description of what the subjects were told to imagine (Murphy, 1990;
Murphy & Jowdy, 1992). Psyching up literature often only provides a few

sentences of intervention descriptions (Murphy & Jowdy, 1992).

40

As previously stated, the present research is designed as a partial
replication and extension of the Woolfolk, Parish, and Murphy (1985) study,
and the Woolfolk, Murphy, Gottesfeld, and, Aitken (1985) study which found
that preperformance mental activity may influence the performance of a golf
putt. The replicated aspects of these studies are the use of a golf putting task,
and the same positive outcome imagery instructions. Extensions of the studies
are the inclusion of an exposure phase for the positive imagery group (P1),
and the inclusion of a positive affirmation group (PA), and affirmation
exposure. No study to my knowledge has used the cognitive strategy of positive
affirmations directly before golf putting. Often anecdotal reports are given by
professional golfers that the difference between the best and worst putts are
just a belief that the putt will go in. Since no studies have tested the effect of
preperformance positive affirmations before a putt, this strategy was
included. Psyching up experiments often use more than two strategies,
however, these two strategies were thought to be most important to golfers.

This review of literature shows that mental imagery and positive
affirmations have begun to receive attention from athletes and researchers.
Specifically, researchers have moved from testing for a mental practice effect
as compared to physical practice to applying mental practice (i.e., imagery and
positive affirmations) directly before performance. However, theories have
been slow to develop on the psyching up performance relationship. This is
unlike the mental practice research which has many theories on why a
mental practice effect is found. Theories such as the symbolic learning theory
and the psychneuromuscular theory have been developed to attempt to explain
mental practice findings. Positive affirmations are also based on a theory,

Bandura’s self-efficacy theory.

41

This review of literature indicates that psyching up effects can have
positive, negative, or no effects on the performance of a closed motor skill.
What remains to be determined is what illicits a psyching up effect. A
psyching up effect may be task specific. However, the effect on performance
may not be the major reason to use a psyching up technique. It may be that
the major reason one should use a psyching strategy is so that the skill
becomes automatic. A strategy or routine may also help ease the stress of a
performer during competition, and allow the specific motor skills to run off
automatically.

In summary this chapter presented a review of the literature discussing
specifically, mental practice and imagery, positive affirmations and self
efficacy theory, and studies dealing with "psyching up” and athletic
performance. In the third chapter, the methodology of the experiment will be

discussed.

Chapter III
Methods

In this chapter the experimental procedure will be described in terms of (a)
Subjects, (b) Experimental design, (c) Task, (d) Procedure, (e) Experimental
phase, (f) Exposure phase, (g) Post experimental questionnaire, (h)
Debriefing, and (i) Treatment of Data.

The purpose of this study was to replicate and extend the Woolfolk, Parrish,

and Murphy (1985) study, and the Woolfolk, Murphy Gottesfeld, Aitkens (1985)
study. This study was designed specifically to test the effects of
preperformance positive affirmation and preperformance imagery on the
performance accuracy of golf putting.
Subjects
Participants were forty university students who signed formal consents before
participating in the experiment (see Appendix A). They ranged in age from
18-23 years of age. The average age of the subjects in this study was M= 19.55.
Of the 40 Subjects, 9 were females, and 31 were males. Thirteen subjects
described themselves as novices, 20 described themselves as intermediate, and
7 described their golfing ability as never played Subjects were assigned with
10 to each condition. Only subjects who indicated on the pre-experimental
questionnaire that they were beginners to intermediate skill level, and who
made between 30 to 70 percent on the baseline putting task from their
assigned distance were used in this analyses. Twenty subjects were assigned to
putt from 5 feet, 18 subjects putted from 7 feet and 2 subjects putted from 8
feet. Forty subjects were assigned to one of four groups, a preperformance
imagery group (PIG), a preperformance affirmation group (PA), a practice
control group (PC), and a no practice control group (NPC). Although random

assignment was stringently tried for, 4 subjects dropped out of the PA group, 5

42

43

subjects dropped out of the PI group, 1 subject dropped out of the NPC, and 1
subject dropped out of the PC before beginning the experimental sessions due
to having fulfilled the required number of experimental credits needed.
Therefore, 11 subjects were then recruited and assigned to one of the four
groups. This assignment procedure was deemed successful since there were no
initial significant differences on performance and accuracy scores of the
baseline measures. Also, all eleven fit the criteria for participation in the
experiment.
W

The design for this study was a 4X2 (Group X pre/ post) design. One group
received, imagery exposure, a second received positive affirmation exposure.
The groups in the control conditions performed the experiment in the
absence of mental preparation. In order for the data to be reliable, pilot
testing was conducted before beginning the study. Special care was taken to
make sure the equipment was usable for the study. Also, data collection
procedures were assessed in order to make sure data was being measured
correctly.
Task

Accuracy and performance on the golf putting task was used as the
dependent measures. Each subject putted from an assigned distance. The
actual assignment procedure for the golf putting task was similar to the
procedures described by Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy (1985), Woolfolk,
Murphy, Gottesfeld, and Aitken (1985), and Murphy and Woolfolk (1987).
Previous research has shown these procedures to reduce floor and ceiling
effects (Woolfolk, Parrish & Murphy, 1985; Woolfolk, Murphy,Gottesfeld, &
Aitken, 1985; Murphy & Woolfolk, 1987). The golf putting task was performed a

total number of 110 times over eleven different blocks (8 experimental, 1 pre-

44

baseline, and 2 baseline). A zero was scored for each putt made, if the putt
landed between 0 to 1 feet from the hole a 1 was scored, a miss of 1—2 feet was
scored as a 2, a miss of 2-3 feet was scored as a 3, a miss of 3-4 feet was scored as
a 4, a miss of 4-5 feet was scored as a 5, over 5 feet was scored as a 6. The
experimenter picked up all golf shots immediately after recording the score.
Before hitting the shot, the subject placed a golf ball on the line then took and
then hit the ball.
Apparatus

The apparatus for the golf putting task was a knight putting cup. The
putters were a knight 35-inch putter, model number 300 or a 33 inch Knight
model number 300 putter. The golf balls were 432 Matrix surlyn Wilson 90
compression golf balls.
Emednm

The study lasted for five sessions on five data collection days(an extra sixth
session was needed for the experimental groups general affirmation and
imagery training, and the NPC group was tested on the first and last days).
Each subject was tested on ten putts for ten blocks. First the subjects were
tested and assigned to putt from a specific distance to assure no individual
differences. After subjects were assigned to putt from an assigned distance,
the first twenty putts were used without a "psyching up" strategy, to secure a
baseline. Then two blocks of ten trials were conducted on the second day, with
two more blocks of ten trials conducted on the third thru fifth day.
Quentation

Subjects reported to the Center for The Study of Human performance where
the requirements for participation were explained and a informed consent was
signed (See Appendix A). Subjects then completed a brief background

questionnaire similar to the background questionnaire (see Appendix B) used

45

by Weinberg and his associates (1991). After completing the questionnaire,
the subject was given a putter and golf balls. The subject was asked to putt a
golf ball across a putting surface a total of ten times from a distance of six feet.
Each subject was allowed three practice putts before each block. Subjects were
told that these putts were to allow them to become familiar with the task. How
a subject performed on the first ten putts determined the final distance from
which the subject putted for the remainder of the experiment. Subjects who
made between 8-10 putts were assigned to putt from eight feet. Subjects who
made between 4-7 putts were assigned to putt from a distance of seven feet.
Subjects who only made between zero and three shots from six feet were
assigned to putt from a distance of 5 feet (this method of assignment is similar
to the procedures of Woolfolk, Parrish, and Murphy, 1985, and Woolfolk,
Murphy, Gottesfeld, and Aitkens, 1985 and Murphy and Woolfolk, 1987). After
the subject was assigned to the appropriate putting distance, the subject
performed a basal measure of twenty putts from their assigned distances. After
completion of the twenty putts the subjects were thanked (See Table 1 for
summary). Subjects were then randomly assigned to either the PI group, PA
group, PC group or the NPC group. Following random assignment,
experimental exposure (See Tables 2 and 3) was given to the experimental
subjects and no exposure was given to the control subjects on the second day.
The second through fifth day of the experiment consisted of the educational
exposure phase and the skill specific exposure phase for the experimental
condition, and then two blocks of ten putts each (See Tables 5 and 6). The
practice control group did not receive an exposure phase but performed two
blocks of ten putts each on the second thru fifth day (See Table 4). The no
practice control group also did not receive an exposure phase, but performed

two blocks of ten putts on the last day (See Table 4). Upon completion of the

46

experiment on each data collection day, experimental subjects completed a
post-experimental questionnaire which addressed whether or not they

actually used the mental preparation strategy before they putted the golf ball.

Table 1

SummanLIableJQLDaLl

 

Day One (Same For All Groups)

 

1. Sign informed consent form and explain requirements of the
students
Complete Background questionnaire

Perform prebaseline performance task

PEN!"

Rest one minute, and assign subject to putting distance

5. Perform ten putts from assigned putting distance using no
assigned mental preparation strategy

6. Rest one minute

7. Perform ten putts form assigned putting distance using no

assigned mental preparation strategy

 

47

Table 2

WWW

 

WWW

 

1.Watch videotape (Visualization: What You See is What You Get).
2. Group discussion

3. Guided general imagery exercises
4. Guided skill specific imagery

5. Putting with imagery strategy

 

Table 3
S E E E Eff . G D 2

 

WW

 

1.Watch Videotape

2. Group Discussion

3. General affirmation exercises

4. Guided skill specific affirmations

5. Putting with affirmation strategy

 

48

Table 4

 

’ l. - .no \0 '«vq ‘ or o o o \' D.

 

1. Subjects reminded that we are testing the effects of
repeated practice on a task

2. Ten putts using no assigned mental preparation strategy

3. Rest 1 minute

4. Ten putts using no assigned mental preparation strategy

 

W

 

W

 

Review imagery education- have subjects reread
Practice guided skill specific imagery

Remind Subjects to use imagery before each putt
Ten putts using imagery strategy

Rest 1 minute

Ten putts using imagery strategy

NEPVP‘PNT‘

Subjects completed post experimental questions

 

49

 

 

1. Review affirmation education- have subjects reread
2. Reread skill specific affirmations
. Remind Subjects to use affirmations before each putt

3
4. Ten putts using affirmation strategy

(It

. Rest 1 minute
6. Ten putts using affirmation strategy

7. Subjects completed post experimental questions

 

ExuerimentaLEhase

After the educational sessions, subjects in the PI group were told to imagine
themselves before each shot making a "gentle but firm back swing" and
stroking the putt straight towards the hole. Then they were told "to imagine
the ball rolling, rolling, right into the cup." They were told to employ their
strategy before each subsequent putt. The PA group were told to tell
themselves before every putt that they are a good putter and could succeed at
this putting task. They then were told to employ their strategy before every
putt. As in the baseline condition each subject was given three practice putts
before every block of ten. Each subject completed three practice putts and the

ten performance putts. Subjects were given one minute to rest, and then the

50

sequence was repeated. This identical experimental session was conducted on
the third through fifth days. At the end of the tenth block on the fifth day the
experimenter thanked the subject, and asked the subjects to indicate where the
results of the test should be sent.
Contmmhase

The identical procedure was used with the control group. However, subjects
did not receive educational sessions and were not instructed to use a mental
preparation strategy before each putt. Subjects in the control condition were
instructed to try and sink each putt. They were also informed that they were
participating in the study to examine the effects on performance of repeated
practice on a task.
W

The imagery group received an educational exposure (see Appendix C),
basic imagery exposure(see Appendix D), and skill specific imagery exposure
(see Appendix E), on the second day, which lasted a total of thirty minutes. On
the third through sixth day of the experiment the PI group reread the
educational exposure section. The skill specific exposure was read to the
subjects on the third through sixth day.
W

The affirmation group received an educational exposure (see Appendix E),
basic affirmation exposure (see Appendix F), and skill specific affirmation
exposure (see Appendix G), on the second day, which lasted a total of twenty
minutes. On the third through sixth day of the experiment the PA group
reread the educational exposure section. The skill specific exposure was read

by the subjects on the third thru sixth day.

51

Immediately following the final trial subjects in the experimental groups
were asked questions pertaining to the experiment (a copy of the
questionnaire can be found in Appendix H). The first question asked was a
manipulation check to decipher how often and whether or not the participant
used the psyching up technique they were instructed to use. This question was
as follows, "What percentage of the time did you use the mental preparation
strategy presented to you on a scale from 0 -100%. The remaining questions
were asked to explore whether the technique was effective. Following the
written questionnaire, verbal assessments of the imagery group were asked on
the last day of the experiment. The imagery group was asked in an
exploratory nature to explain what they saw directly before performance.
Debriefing

After completing the post experimental questionnaire the subjects in the
experimental conditions were debriefed. Subjects in the control groups were
debriefed as soon as the last trial of the experimental testing was completed on
the last day. For a copy of what was read to the subjects during the debriefing
(see Appendix I).

W

A 4X2 (GroupXPre/ Post) analysis of variance was performed with repeated
measures on the last factor, to test the hypotheses that: (a) there will be a
statistically significant difference between the performance scores of the PI,
PA, PC, NPC (b) there will be no significant differences between the
performance scores of the PI group and the PA group (c) there will be
statistically significant differences between pre and post performance scores
for the PI group, PA group, and the PC groups ((1) there will be no statistically

significant differences between pre and post performance scores for the NPC

52

group. A one way analysis of variance using the newman keuls post hoc
analysis was conducted to decipher which groups significantly differed from
each other on the post test.

A 4X2 (GroupXPre/ Post) analysis of variance was performed with repeated
measures on the last factor, to test the hypotheses that: (a) there will be a
statistically significant difference between the accuracy scores of the PI, PA,
PC, and NPC groups (b) there will be no significant differences between the
accuracy scores of the PI group and the PA group (c) there will be statistically
significant differences between pre and post accuracy scores for the PI group,
PA group, and the PC groups ((1) there will be no statistically significant

differences between pre and post accuracy scores for the NPC group.

Chapter IV

Results and Discussion

The results are presented in four sections. Section one covers the
background information for subjects in the experiment. The second section
pertains to the golf putting performance results. The third section pertains to
the golf putting accuracy results. Finally, the fourth section presents the
results of the post-experimental questionnaire.

A 4 X 2 (groups X Pre/ Post) analysis of variance with repeated measures on
the last factor was employed to analyze the data for main and interaction
effects. The criterion for all analyses performed was p < .05.
Qemcgmnhiclnfcrmatian

The results from the pre-experimental questionnaire revealed that the
average age of the subjects in this study were M: 19.55. Of the 40 Subjects, 9
were females, and 31 were males. Thirteen subjects described themselves as
novices, 20 described themselves as intermediate, and 7 described their golfing
ability as never played. In response to the question , "Have you ever been
taught a mental preparation technique to improve sports performance? ", 14
subjects answered yes, while the 26 responded that they have never used or
been taught a mental preparation technique to improve sports performance.
Of the fourteen that answered Yes, not one of the subjects had ever been
taught a mental preparation technique specifically for golf performance. In
response to the question, "have you taken any golf classes at MSU, only 1 out of
40 subjects had, and the one subject took the intermediate class. Of the 40
subjects, 24 owned their own clubs, while only 4 of them played on their high
school team for an average of one year. Only 2 of the 40 subjects responded

that they had participated in a city league or scramble. Five of the 40 subjects

53

54

answered yes in response to the question "Have you ever received private
instruction from a golf teaching professional?".
W

After the subjects were randomly assigned to groups a one-way analysis of
variance was conducted to test if the group performance means on the basal
measure differed by a significant amount. Results of the analysis of variance

were not significant, F(3,36) = .8015, p < .5012 (see Figure 1).

Pre Test

.5
o

Putting
O N A a: (D

 

if E E

Groups

Peri rmence

Figure 1. Mean Baseline Performance Scores of the W

Mmmmmmmmmmfimmmmm
WW
m

To test performance results a 4X2 (Groups by pre-post) analysis of variance
with repeated measures on the last factor was conducted. Results revealed a

significant main effect, F(3,36) = 7.5, pg .001. Therefore, a one way anova using

the newman keuls post hoc analysis was conducted. Results revealed a

55

significant effect, p<.001, with the PI group, PA group, and PC group all
significantly different from the NPC group. Results did not reveal a
significant group by pre/post interaction effect, F(3,36) = 2.36, p< .088. The
means and standard deviations for the pre/ post scores for the PI, PA, PC, NPC,
are presented in table 7 and graphically represented in Figure 2 (See
Appendix J for performance means and standard deviations for all groups).
The group by pre/ post performance interaction is graphically represented in

figure 3.

56

 

 

Table 7
(1'. no ._.e.o|°.ou ’ '0 "Count
W.
Pretest Post-test
M SD M SD
PI 8.9 2.183 13.7 2.627
PA 8.9 1.912 13.4 3.204
PC 10.1 2.079 13.4 2.413
NPC 8.2 1.874 9.0 3.232

 

57

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

o
O
C
o
E
o
'5 I Pre Test
a.

D Post Test
a
E
‘5
0- -i-—-i

E

 

Figure 2. The Performance Means of the NE, PC, El, and PA
m from Pre to Post Test

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

o
0 14
5 13
E I
3 1 2 Pre
'5 1 1 Test
a. 1 0
u 9 —5— Post
.5 3 Test
3 7
9- 6 . i t i i :

g a a 55

Groups

Figure 3. The Interaction of Groups by Pre/Post Performance for

All Groups

58

In summary, the PI, PA, and PC groups improved performance
significantly more than the NPC groups. The results of the group by pre/post
interaction revealed that the NPC, PC, PI, and PA groups did not significantly
improve their scores from pre to post test. In conclusion, there was a
significant difference in performance between the NPC, PI, PA, and PC with
the PI, PA, and PC groups improving significantly more then the NPC on the
post test.
Wanna

A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to test whether or not the
group accuracy means on the baseline measure differed by a significant
amount. Results of the analysis of variance were not significant, F(3,36) =
.8015 p< .5012. Therefore, further analyses using repeated measures were
conducted. To test accuracy results a 4X2 (Groups by pre/ post) analysis of
variance with repeated measures on the last factor was conducted. Results did
not reveal a significant main effect for groups, F(3,36) = 1.61 p< .203. Results
also did not reveal a significant group by pre/ post interaction, F(3,36) = 2.11 p<
.116..The means and standard deviations for the pre/ post accuracy scores for
the PI, PA, PC, NPC, are presented in table 12, and the performance means from
pre to post test are graphically represented in figure 7(See AppendixJ for
accuracy means and standard deviations for all groups). The group by

pre/ post accuracy interaction is graphically represented in figure 5.

59

 

 

Table 8
u . .e .0 ., e I o r o c ' ' 0 . Q . 0
Wm
Pretest Post-test
M SD M SD
PI 31.4 9.38 15.4 6.518
PA 36.3 9.38 17.3 8.512
PC 30.0 12.01 19.1 10.214

NPC 33.4 7.23 26.2 7.983

 

40
35
30
25
20
15
10

 

I Pre Test

D Post Test

 

 

 

Putting Accuracy

   

 

g 8 E E
Groups

Figure 4. The Accuracy Mean Scores of the NE, E, EL and PA

Groups From Pre to Post Test

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

:- 4° .
a 35 .
8 30 \uv-‘J/ ' Pre
0
< 25 Test

20
g 15 +Post
E 10 Test
3 5

0 u i i i i i

g 83 E E
Groups

Figure 5. The Interaction of Groups by Pre/Post Accuracy for All

Groups

61

In summary, the PI, PA, and PC groups did not improve accuracy
significantly more than the NPC groups. The results of pre/ post interaction
revealed that the NPC, PC, PI, and PA groups did not significantly improve
their accuracy scores from pre to post test. In conclusion, there was not a
significant difference in performance between the NPC, PI, PA, and PC in
terms of accuracy.

Two manipulation questions were asked of the experimental groups at the
end of each experimental question. Question one asked the subject how often
they used the mental preparation strategy presented to them, and question two
asked the subjects if they believed in the ability of this mental preparation
strategy to improve performance. Results of the day by day manipulation

checks for strategy use are shown in Table 9.

Table 9

 

 

I ° 0 u c ‘D’IOOII-J ' an"; o u.” 'o'eoou.u '
Wm
Group day 2 day3 day 4 day 5
PI 88 77 76 86

PA 89.5 81 89 74

 

62

Results of asking the subjects if they believed the strategy was helpful in
improving performance are as follows. Ninety percent of subjects in the PA
group answered that the strategy was helpful in improving performance on
the first day, as compared to 100% of the subjects in the PI group. On the
second through fifth day of putting 100% of the subjects in both groups
answered that the strategy was helpful in improving performance (see Figure

6).

 

 

 

 

33.»
is: 100
65
3:5 93
mm; 96
‘63; 94 IPI
”29- 92
62‘ 90 EPA
“0°
28> 88
302 86
5:9-
u 84
dig or town)

a a a a

D D D 0

Days

Figure 6. Percentage of Subjects Who Believed the Strategy Helped

Improve Performance

W
Subjects in this study answered open ended questions about how they used

imagery. Table 10 is a summary of their responses.

63

Table 10
ResponsesJtheJmaeenLQuestions

It helped me concentrate, know what I was planning, it helps to relax, I saw
myself and it helped my confidence. The images were clear.

Basically I kind of thought with my breathing. When I inhaled it was like I
was going back, and when I exhaled it was like I was going forward. That's
what I saw and I did that and then visualized it going toward the thing. It was
not hard to visualize.

Sometimes if I closed my eyes I could see myself do the actual putting. If I
didn't it was more of feeling the motion. That seemed to work best, and I could
hear it always hitting the little metal thing. So I thought it kind of helped me.
It wasn't necessarily seeing it but more of feeling it. The hands went straight
back. It works if you concentrate on it.

Well when I walked up I actually pictured myself actually playing my
friends, pictured myself on the green like when we play for money, and I
pictured myself beating them. I could really hear the two sounds like the ball
hitting the putter, and the I heard the metal when the ball went into the hole.
I wasn't really aware of anything around me and seemed really focused.

I saw myself bringing the putter back, not to firm and holding the putter
nice and gentle in my hands. If I pushed or pulled the previous one I would
always try to see the ball going straight, I could always hear the ball hitting
the aluminum cup.

I saw myself holding the putter and taking it back and hitting the shot and
once I actually did it I thought I could get myself into a zone and just keep
doing it even if I missed, I would try to erase this shot and keep trying until I
found the perfect shot. I didn't have to do it every time. Doing it once or twice,
once if I made it I would keep going like if I made three in a row, but if I
missed I would replay it.

I mainly concentrated on bringing the putter straight back and hitting the
back of the ball.

I saw myself taking the backswing hitting the ball, and seeing the ball roll
into the hole. The images were vivid, I could see it clear. I saw myself from
outside my body.

I saw myself putting the ball, more I saw the putter going back and imagined
the ball rolling straight toward the target. I didn't see myself, I felt the
motion, and I saw the ball and concentrated on the ball.

I first imagined what I saw in front of my face, which was that aluminum
cup and the ball below me, and the putter looking down but in my mind it was
like the putt in progress. The wing contacted the ball and the ball rolling into
the cup regardless if I made or missed the shot before. I basically tried to get a
feel of how I did it in my mind, and then just let go and did it without thinking.

 

64

Self-Confidence. Subjects in the study reported feelings of confidence
while putting the golf ball. The statement by one subject portrays the image
of confidence, “It helped me concentrate, know what I was planning, it helps
me to relax, and it helped my confidence.” Another subject said, “I thought I
could get myself into a zone, and just keep doing it even if I missed.”

Kinesthetic Imagery. Subjects reported using feeling oriented
imagery. One subject stated, “Sometimes if I closed my eyes I could see myself
do the actual putting. If I didn’t it was more of feeling the motion. That
seemed to work best.” Others stated, “ I didn’t see myself, I felt the motion.” “I
basically tried to get a feel of how I did it in my mind and then just let go and
did it without thinking."

Visual Imagery. The subjects reported seeing the ball roll into the
hole. For example, one subject stated, “ I could really hear the two sounds like
the ball hitting the putter, and I heard the metal when the ball went into the
hole.”

External Imagery. A few subjects seemed to experience the imagery
from a perspective of seeing their own body perform the putting task. This is
best exemplified by the following quote, “ I saw myself taking the backswing,
hitting the ball, and seeing the ball roll into the hole. The images were vivid, I
could see it clear, I saw it from outside my body.

Internal Imagery. A few subjects seemed to experience the imagery
from a perspective internally, as if they were seeing the putting task as if it
were actually happening. This is best exemplified by the following quote, “ I
first imagined what I saw in front of my face, which was that aluminum cup
and the ball below me, and the putter looking down, but in my mind it was like

the putt in progress.”

65

Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of using a
mental preparation strategy (i.e, preperformance positive imagery,
preperformance positive affirmations) in improving golf putting
performance and accuracy over a no practice control group and practice
control group. Additionally, an attempt was made to study the effects of using
an educational phase, general phase and specific phase on adherence to using
the strategy, and belief in the mental preparation strategy to help improve
performance.

Results of the study showed that the preperformance imagery group (PI)
and the preperformance affirmation group (PA) group did not improve
significantly on either of the two measures when compared to a practice
control group who was not given a strategy to use. As expected, both mental
preparation groups did improve performance significantly when compared to
a no practice control group who only putted on the first and last days. In
general the hypotheses stated in Chapter I have been partially supported.

The discussion section of this chapter will be presented in three sections.
The first section will describe the analysis on the performance and accuracy
measures for the golf putting task. The second section will analyze and
describe the results of the post-experimental questionnaire and the
manipulation checks. Finally the third section will present a general
discussion of the findings.
Wk

The first hypotheses in this study predicted that there will be a statistically
significant difference between pre and post performance scores for the PI,

PA, and the PC groups. After analyzing the results the analysis did not support

this hypotheses. Although nonsignificant, the PI group improved from an

66

average of 8.9 putts made to an average of 13.7 putts made on the last day. The
PA group improved from an average of 8.9 putts on the first day to an average
of 13.4 putts on the last day. These results are not consistent with past
research (Caudill & Weinberg, 1983; Weinberg, Smith, Jackson, & Gould, 1984;
Weinberg, Jackson, Seaboume, 1985; Wilkes & Summers, 1984; Woolfolk,
Parrish, & Murphy, 1985) in which the imagery or positive affirmation group
improved their performance from pre to post test. However, these results are
in accordance with past research (Epstein, 1980; Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, &
Barnes, 1980; Woolfolk, Parrish, Gottsfeld, & Aitken,1985) that has found
imagery or affirmations to not lead to statistically significant differences
between pre and post performance scores.

The data partially supported the hypothesis that there would be a
statistically significant difference between the scores of the PI, PA, PC, and
NPC groups with the PI, and PA groups having higher post test performance
scores than the PC and NPC groups. Findings showed that the PI, and PA
groups improved significantly greater than the NPC group, but not better than
the PC group. This finding however is not in accordance with the Woolfolk,
Parrish, and Murphy (1985) study which found that the mental preparation
strategy group improved significantly greater than a practice control group
which putted on all six days. However, the finding that the preperformance
mental preparation groups did not significantly improve performance as
compared to a practice control group in this study do concur with past
research (Epstein, 1980; Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, & Barnes, 1980; Woolfolk,
Parrish, Gottsfeld, & Aitken,1985) Although the PI and PA groups did not
improve performance significantly over the practice control group it should

be noted that on average from pre/ post test the imagery group and the

67

affirmation group improved more than the PC group on performance
measures.

The first two exploratory hypotheses in this study that there will be a
statistically significant difference between pre and post accuracy scores for
the PI, PA, and the PC groups. After analyzing the results the analysis did not
support this hypotheses. The PI group improved an average of 31.4 to an
average of 15.4 the last day. The PA group improved from an average of 36.3
the first day to an average of 17.3 on the last day.

The data did not support the hypothesis that there will be a statistically
significant difference between the accuracy scores of the PI, PA, PC, and NPC
groups with the PI group, and PA groups having higher accuracy scores than
the PC and NPC groups. Although these hypotheses were not supported at a
significant level it should be noted that on average from pre/post test the
imagery group and the affirmation group improved more than the PC or NPC
on accuracy measures.

Subjects using preperformance imagery and preperformance affirmations,
although showing the best overall average improvement across the five
blocks, did not improve their scores significantly when compared to a practice
control group over five days. Explanations are offered to describe this finding
by looking at the past results of the studies most similar.

The performance and accuracy results of the present study do not exactly
replicate the findings of the Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy (1985) study that
showed a preperformance mental preparation strategy did significantly better
than a control group from pre/post test. Although it is difficult to explain why
there are discrepancies in the results of the two studies, they both offer
minimal support to the belief that a positive image or thought immediately

prior to performance is associated with performance enhancement.

68

One possible explanation for the discrepancy in results is that the practice
control group improved a great deal more in the present study than the
former study. A reason for the improvement of the practice control group
may have been that the numbers of trials in the present study were much
greater. The present study conducted 40 more trials than the 1985 study which
may have allowed the main predictor of self-efficacy in Bandura's theory to
have taken place. By having practiced so much, the practice control group
may have started to feel more positive and hence through performance
accomplishments of repeated practice, improved performance almost as much
as the PI, and PA groups. However, failure to directly assess the practice
control's possible self-initiated mental preparation in this study was a
weakness and should be assessed in future studies of this nature. It was
apparent from a few subjects in the practice control group that they were
using both positive and negative affirmations. Occasionally, subjects in the
practice control group made statements such as, "damn I missed", or "UMMph",
or "C'mon I can make this shot." Although there was a failure in this study to
assess the self-initiated cognitive techniques employed by the practice control
group, this was not the major concern of this investigation. Of major concern
was whether subjects in the PI, and PA groups improved performance, and
whether they believed the mental preparation strategies helped them improve
performance.

WWW

Many factors have been studied when trying to test if psyching up
improves performance or to explain findings. Most studies have found
inconsistent results, however elite athletes continue to give reports of using
psyching up strategies to enhance performance. Vealey (1986) has suggested

that imagery and mental preparation strategies have a better chance to be

69

successful if the subjects or athletes believe that these strategies will help
them. In testing this suggestion an educational phase was used based on the
suggestions of Vealey (1986).

The present study was unique from other psyching up studies in that it
included an educational phase for the PI and PA groups to persuade subjects to
believe that this strategy could help them improve their performance. Before
each experimental session subjects read an informative 2 page persuasive
essay suggesting that the mental preparation strategy improves performance.
The present investigation found that the subjects reported that they believed
in the mental preparation strategies ability to help improve performance.
Results of the physical dependent measures support that the contention that
belief in mental preparation will be associated with enhanced performance.
However, this strategy and belief in the strategy was not helpful in producing
significantly higher performance and accuracy scores than the NPC and PC
groups.

One possible explanation for these findings may have been due to the fact
that these techniques were perceived as different and strange. Subjects may
have remained skeptical throughout the experiment even though they stated
that they believed that these techniques were helpful in improving
performance. In addition, subjects did not have a choice of choosing another
strategy, even if they felt that it helped improve performance. Subjects were
not able to choose another strategy that may have been more effective for
them to use based on individual and personal style. One note of importance is
the percent of time the subjects used the strategy taught to them. Subjects for
the most part used the strategy most of the time. This, indicated that subjects
believed that the strategy may have been helping them improve their

performance.

70

WW

Self-Confidence. Many of authors have suggested that self-confidence
is one of the most important aspects of excellence in sport (Feltz, 1988; Highlen
& Bennett, 1979, 1983; Mahoney & Avener, 1977). Only a few golfers reported
associating the imagery strategy with self-confidence. However, of
importance in Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory (1977) is whether imagery
strategies can vicariously create heightened confidence. Future research
should carefully decipher if confidence is heightened by using imagery as a
preperformance mental preparation strategy. The results of imagery probe in
this study would suggest that imagery may heighten confidence for some
subject and not for others.

Kinesthetic Imagery. Many of the subjects reported that they used
more of a feeling oriented imagery instead of visualizing or seeing anything.
The imagery literature documents the benefits of using this type of imagery
(Martens, 1987; Orlick, 1990). It is believed that this imagery may be related
greatly to the psychoneuromuscular hypothesis. Future studies should ask
subjects about feeling oriented imagery so that we can begin to understand the
processes of this type of imagery.

Positive Imagery. Subjects all seemed to be able to use imagery either
kinesthetically or visually. Also, the subjects focus seemed to be on the ball
rolling into the hole. This shows that the subjects focused on what they were
persuaded to focus on. However, future studies should decipher if the subjects
would focus on the ball rolling into the hole if they were not told to do this.

Imagery Perspective. Subjects visualized using both perspectives.

They seemed to choose a perspective based on personal preference. Studies
have been equivocal on whether one perspective is better than another

(Murphy & Jowdy, 1992).

71

Qeneraldiscnssion

The data from this experiment minimally support the belief that using a
mental preparation strategy can improve performance over time.
Furthermore, the results support prior lab research (Woolfolk, Parrish, and
Murphy, 1985, Wilkes & Summers, 1984) and anecdotal literature that say that
positive thinking and positive imagery can help aid in improving closed motor
skills. Also, the present research is consistent with Weinberg, Gould, Jackson,
& Barnes (1980) who found that mental preparation including imagery and
positive affirmation statements did not improve performance of beginning
and advanced tennis players significantly over the control condition.

A possible explanation to explain why significant results over the practice
control group did not occur may be that using mental preparation techniques
is task specific and only seems to show significant improvement over a
control group in strength tasks (Shelton & Mahoney, 197 8; Weinberg, Gould, &
Jackson, 1980).

Because the golf putting task is not a strength task and requires accuracy
and precision, it may have been difficult to show immediate positive effects of
using affirmations and imagery over a practice control group. However using
those strategies may have been laying the groundwork for future success. It
was thought that five days would be long enough to show an effect for golf
putting because of the results of a previous study (Woolfolk, Parrish, &
Murphy, 1985). However, affirmations and imagery may work best for causing
immediate effects for strength tasks such as those done in recent lab studies
(Wilkes & Summers, 1984; Tynnes & McFatter, 1987).

Another general possible explanation for not finding performance and
accuracy results significantly better than the practice control group could

have been that subjects did not have enough practice in using the technique.

72

Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, and Barnes (1980) suggested that practicing a
strategy may be more advantageous than just telling subjects to use various
cognitive strategies. It could be that for a cognitive strategy to be effective,
considerable practice may be needed. Because of this, the present study
introduced an educational, general, and specific phase to the experimental
group based on the suggestions of previous researchers (Vealey, 1986;
Weinberg, Gould, Jackson, & Barnes, 1980). In the present study it was thought
that enough education and practice was given to the experimental group since
the Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy (1985) study did not have these phases, and
were still able to show significant improvement. From a psychological
standpoint the educational exposure was long enough to persuade subjects to
believe the cognitive technique was helpful in improving performance.
However, from a physical standpoint more general and specific training may
be needed than what was given in the present study.

Because all practice groups improved performance over days, instructors
and golfers may want to reevaluate strategies used in putting. It seems that
subjects similar to the ones in this study can improve performance by
utilizing a mental preparation strategy or through continued practice.
Typically, instructors say that practice makes perfect and that the traditional
thought on how to improve is repetition. However, a new philosophy is to use
mental preparation. Although one strategy may not lead to better results in a
lab setting over five days, the fact that subjects in the experimental group
believed they could make the putt is very important from a practical
standpoint. For example, when subjects have a pressure putt, if they use
imagery or self-talk it may feel automatic and they may have a better chance

than just putting and letting fear disrupt the effortlessness of the putt.

73

Considering the results of this study, using imagery and positive
affirmations may not be for everybody. However, we should educate learners
about these techniques. Golfers may not need to be told how to think, although
the results of the study do not show that it hurts performance. Instructors
should present golfers with the mental strategy but not force them to use it.

In summary, the data analysis seem to show that preperformance imagery
and preperformance affirmations can be considered a useful adjunct to
helping improve performance. Also, equally effective was the practice group
in which the subjects were not instructed to use a mental practice strategy.
Therefore, these techniques should be offered to novices and let them choose

the one that they enjoy most.

Chapter V
Summary, Conclusions, and Suggestions

For Future Study

The overall purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of using
preperformance mental preparation strategies in order to enhance
performance and accuracy over a practice control group and a no practice
control group in a closed motor skill. Specifically, the four groups included a
no practice control group, a practice control group, a preperformance
imagery group and a preperformance positive affirmation group. An
experiment using the golf putting task was used. The data helped add to an
understanding of the utilization of mental preparation strategies.

The present study investigated the effects of using preperformance mental
preparation strategies in order to enhance performance and accuracy over a
practice control group and a no practice control group in a closed motor skill.
Subjects in the study were 40 introductory psychology students who
participated in the experiment for course credit. The 40 subjects all performed
the basal measure on the golf putting task and were then randomly assigned to
one of four groups, a no practice control group (NPC), a practice control group
(PI), a preperformance positive affirmation group (PA), and preperformance
positive imagery group (PI). The PA and PI groups were then given a group
session in which they were shown videos about their strategy, and presented
with general exercises introducing them to the strategy they were to use. The
PC and NPC were not given a group session. On the second through fifth day of
putting the PC group putted twenty shots without being instructed to use a
mental preparation strategy. The NPC only putted one more session of twenty

putts without being instructed to use a mental preparation strategy. The PI

74

75

and the PA groups, on the second through fifth day of putting were instructed
to use their assigned mental preparation strategy. The PI and PA groups
following each day filled out manipulation strategy checks to assess how often
they used the strategy and whether or not they believed the strategy helped
them improve performance.

Results of the present study revealed that the PI, PA, PC and NPC, did not
improve performance and accuracy from pre to post test at a significant level.
Also, the PI, PA, PC were found to be significantly different from the NPC pre
to post test in performance measures, but not in accuracy measures. However
no differences between the PI, PA, and PC groups were found. Possible
explanations for the PI, and PA groups not improving at a statistically
significant level over the PC group may be that not enough practice of the
mental preparation strategy was given to the PI, and PA, and also maybe
mental preparation is most effective when a strength task is used as the task
for the dependent measure. Of importance in this study is that the subjects in
both experimental groups believed that the mental preparation strategy was
helpful in improving performance, possibly indicating that the educational
exposure manipulation was successful.

Conclusions

Based on the findings of this study with regard to the research hypotheses,
the following conclusions are made:

1. Preperformance imagery and preperformance affirmations may aid
in enhancing the performance of the golf putting task,over a group that does
not practice.

2. Practice over five days may aid in enhancing the performance of the

golf putting task, over a group that does not practice the task.

76

3. Subjects believed that the mental preparation strategies were helpful
in improving golf putting performance.

4. Among the PC, PI, PA groups, all were equally effective in enhancing
the performance of the golf putting task.

5. No support was provided to show that mental preparation strategies
significantly increased performance and accuracy over a control group that
physically practiced the same amount of days.

Suggestions For Future Study
The findings of the present study seem to warrant these following
suggestions for future study.

1. One research direction in this area should probably be to further
examine what type of intervention elicits performance improvement over a
practice control group.

2. Of interest would be a study in which subjects are screened for both
motivational factors and belief in the mental preparation strategy to help
improve performance.

3. In order to test if psyching up performance measures are task
specific, as this study may suggest, two tasks for each group could be used, to
further address this question.

4. A future suggestion in the next study is to have one group read the
persuasive literature everyday and have another group using the same
intervention not read the persuasive literature. This could possibly test how
important it is for subjects to believe in the mental preparation strategy that
they are using. It would be hypothesized that the persuasive literature with
intervention groups would have a higher belief in the mental preparation

strategy due to the mere exposure effect.

77

5. In accordance with many of the researchers in motor learning and
sport psychology, the next step in this type of research is to use athletes who
are participating in junior golf, high school golf, or college golf in an applied
field setting. Therefore, researchers would begin to understand how using
these techniques affect advanced, motivated golfers. Questions that could be
considered are would the strategy disrupt the normal routine of an advanced
player? Would these players find these strategies as helpful as those in this
study who were less advanced players.

6. Finally, what is of major need is a longitudinal study in which mental
preparation strategies are used to determine psychological and physical
effects. A longer study will allow for teaching and learning of the strategy in

great detail.

78

Appendix A
Informed Consent
I give my informed consent to participate in this study of how
psychological techniques influence sport performance. I agree to the
publication of the results of this study as long as the information is kept
confidential so that no individual identification can be made. I also
understand that a record will be kept of my having participated in the
experiment, but my individual data of having participated will only be able to
be identified by number only.

(1) I have been informed that my participation in this
experiment will involve using a psychological process

before golf putting.

(2) I have been informed that the general purpose of this
experiment is to investigate how participants use
psychological techniques in performing sport skills.

(3) I have been informed that there are no known risks or
discomforts involved in my participation in this
experiment.

(4) I have been told that there are no "disguised" procedures
in this experiment. Procedures in this study can be

taken at face value.

(5) I have been informed that the investigator will take the
time to answer any questions about the procedures, at
any point in the testing session.

(6) I have been informed that at any time I am free to

discontinue my participation at any time during the
experiment.

If you have any concerns about any procedures or aspects of the
study, you are referred to the UCRIHS Committee, 232 Administration Building,
Michigan State University.

 

 

(experimenter signature) (participant signature and date)

Directions: Please complete the following background questions to

79

Appendix B

Background Questionnaire

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

the best of your ability:
1. Age:
2. Sex: m f
3. Please circle the following statement which best describes your
golf putting ability:
novice intermediate advanced
4. Have you ever used or been taught any mental preparation
techniques to improve sports performance.
Yes No
5. Have you taken golf classes at MSU? __Yes NO
If Yes, beginner __ intermediate
6. Do you own your own golf clubs? Yes NO
7. Did you play on a golf team in high school? Yes NO
If yes How many years _—., avg. score, Handicap
8. Have you played in golf tournaments Yes NO
9. Have you had private golf instruction lessons from a Professional?
Yes No

 

Thank you for completing the questionnaire.

80

Appendix C

I i . I I II E . . |

What is imagery? Imagery is using your imagination to rehearse
something in your mind. For example, you may have had the experience of
making an important phone call that you were scared to make. Before you
actually made the phone call you rehearsed what you were going to say.
Another imagery experience may have been when someone asked you for
directions. When giving the directions you may have imagined yourself
driving the route. Or before putting a golf ball you may have imagined a putt
falling in to the hole. Imagery is rehearsal in your mind of a skill you are
about to perform. You may be asking well then how do we know that imagery
works. The evidence is outstanding. Great athletes speak of using imagery to
obtain optimal levels of performance. Dwight Stones a three time Olympian
high jumper used imagery before every jump. Many other athletes have used
imagery in athletics. Such famous athletes as Fran Tarkenton, Chris Evert,
Dick Fosburry, and O.J. Simpson all say they have used imagery to improve
their performance.

You may be wondering if any famous golfers have used the skill of imagery.
The answer is clearly yes. Many of today's top professionals use this technique
to obtain great performance. Jack Nicklaus is probably the most famous
athlete to attest to using imagery before every shot he ever hit in golf. He
described imagery as going to the movies before every shot. Nicklaus says that
before every shot he sees were the ball is to finish, secondly he sees the ball
roll or fly to the intended target, and finally, he imagines the swing that will
get him the intended results. You are probably wondering how we know that
imagery works. Imagery works because your muscles cannot distinguish

between something that actually occurred and something that is imagined.

81

Therefore, if you imagine putting the golf ball before putting you are actually
building the correct mental machine to perform the skill. As a result of
imaging the putt, our strokes become more fluid and automatic.
WWW

Golfers of all ability should use imagery before every putt for three reasons
(1) Imagery builds a mental machine and helps the stoke become fluid and
automatic, (2) Imagery improves concentration (by visualizing yourself
making a putt prior to attempting it). You are in a sense stopping your mind
from wandering and thinking irrelevant thoughts, (3) Using imagery before
putting builds self—confidence in your putting stroke. You must remember
that imagery is not magic. It is a skill that must be practiced to be effective.
Using imagery before every putt will give you a better chance to make each

putt.

82

Appendix D
W

It is important to understand the formation of using basic images before
using imagery in sport. There are two components of imagery we are now
going to practice. The first component is Vividness, and the second component
is controllability.

W
The following exercise is taken from Vealey (1986).
Exercise 1

Pick a close friend or someone that you are around quite often. Have the
person sit in a chair in front of you. Try to get a sharp image of the person.
Try to visualize the details of the person: facial features, body build,
mannerisms, clothes, etc.

Now imagine that person talking. Still focusing on the person's face, try to
hear his or hear voice. Imagine all of the person's facial expressions as he or
she talks.

Think about how you feel about the person. Try to recreate the emotions
you feel toward him or her whether they be warm friendship, deep love, or
admiration and respect.

The following exercises were taken from Bump (1989).
Exercise two

"Think back to the bedroom you had when you were 12 years old. Do you
know what it looked like. Create a picture in your mind's eye of that bedroom.
You are standing in the doorway looking in. Notice the color of the walls...and
see the floor. Focus on the texture and color of the floor covering. Now step
into your room and look around. See your dresser, you desk, the chair, and the

windows; see the pictures and all of your favorite things. Now focus on your

83

bed. Notice the wood finish. The look at the bed spread; notice its color, its
texture, the way it hangs on the bed. in your minds eye reach out and touch
the bedspread. Is it smooth or knobby, fluffy or flat? now step back and take
one last look around. The windows are open and a cool breeze brings the
outdoor smells to your attention. Focus on those smells. Hear the sounds of
your family and friends gathering. Now, focus on the feelings you had when
you lived in that room."(Bump, 1989, p.100).
imagemfinntmflabilitxfixnosunc
The following exercises will be practices as training for controllability
Exercise 3

"The exercise begins with a good friend. Try to create a truly vivid image of
this friend. Now imagine that you have sprinkled that friend with "Ratio" a
magical potion that allows you to change his or her size. Gradually shrink the
person you have selected down to the size of a soda can. Try to see a gradual
change. After you shrink your subject, return him or her to normal size.
Then go the other way. Make your friend into a giant. Before you finish,
always return your friend to his or her normal size."(Bump, 1989, p. 100)
Exercise 4

"Imagine that you are holding a bucket in your right hand and extend your
arm straight out to the side at shoulder level. Feel the weight of the bucket as
you hold it straight out to the side. Now imagine someone pouring 5 pounds of
sand into the bucket. Feel how heavy your arm begins to feel. Focus on how
much heavier the bucket feels as an additional five pounds of sand is added.
Let yourself feel the heaviness of your bucket as your arm gets more and more
tired. Feel your arm getting heavier and heavier... very, very heavy.

Focus on the heaviness of your arm. Now someone takes the heavy bucket

from you. Tell yourself that your hand and arm feel pretty normal again. Let

84

your hand and arm come back down to your side and relax." (Bump, 1989, p.
100)

Now some more general imagery exercises will be given: The following
exercises were taken from Harris & Harris (1984).

Exercise 5

"In your mind's eye visualize a spot of color such as red, zoom in until your
whole visual field is covered with red, zoom out again until it recedes into
blackness.

Change the color to blue and repeat, continue this exercise using several
colors. Each time start with a small dot of color, let it approach you like an
oncoming light until it engulfs your entire visual field, then reverse direction
until it disappears."(p. 110).

Exercise 6

"In your mind's eye pick up a lemon. Feel the texture of the oiliness.

Smell the lemon, roll it on the table, take a bite out of the end and taste the
juice. Note all the ways you can experience a lemon in your imagination"(p.

111).

85

Appendix E

W

The imagery group will receive the following exposure session similar to
Epstein (1980). This following will be read to each subject. I will now ask you
to form images that are related to the task of golf putting. As previously
indicated this technique is called mental imagery, and it has been used by
great athletes such as Jack Nicklaus, Fran Tarkenton, and Greg Lougainis, to
enhance performance in sport skills. First I will describe to you a scene, and I
want you to try and imagine it as clearly as possible. If you are experiencing
trouble in imaging the description, relax, and remember it is time to become
familiar with the task. When imaging try to stay inside your body as if you are
actually performing the putting technique. Try and see things through your
own eyes. Try to pretend you are making the putt. It is only important now
that you understand that your goal is to try and mentally image as clearly as
possible. Now I want you to imagine seeing yourself walking up to the golf
ball. Try and see the line of the putt. Try to visualize yourself holding the
putter in your hand. Now visualize making a gentle but firm backswing and
stroking the putt smoothly down the target line seeing the ball rolling, rolling
right into the cup. Let's put the golf ball again. Visualize another golf ball
lying on the putting surface below you. This time really concentrate on
taking the club straight back and try to see the ball rolling, rolling straight
into the cup. Now let's do it in slow motion. Visualize the ball before you. This
time really concentrate on seeing the ball rolling, rolling right into the cup.
For about 5 or 10 more times I would like you to practice in your mind seeing
the ball and then taking the putter back and striking the back of the ball, as
the ball is rolling, rolling, right into the hole. While you are practicing really

focus on seeing the ball roll into the hole. Practice as many putts in your

86

mind as you want but remember to try and see the ball rolling, rolling into the
hole. Like many other sports, imaging the golf putt in your mind will become

easier with time. Go ahead and start practicing putting until I tell you to stop.

87

Appendix F

Affirmations are what you say to yourself. For example have you ever gone
into a test knowing that you were not prepared. Chances are you may have
said to yourself, "I think I am not going to do very well." This statement is a
negative affirmation. Or maybe you have had the experience where you knew
everything you were going to do would turn out well. Maybe you knew you
were going to get an A on the test, So before you took the test you said to
yourself, " I think I am going to do well on the test." This is an example of a
positive affirmation. Maybe a sport specific example would be more
interesting. Say the Spartans are in the NCAA finals with the score tied and
the Spartans worst free throw shooter is on the line. Do you think he should
say to himself, "I can make it" before he shoots? Many basketball players and
golfers would tell you that the most important thing in shooting a free throw
or making a golf putt is to believe you are going to make it. If you can make
one then you must have the skill to put it in the hole. One athlete that would
agree with using positive affirmations is David Graham. He always believes he
can make the putt. Before hitting a shot, the golfer who holds the all time low
record for a round in golf, Chip Beck says to himself, "Just Perfect." He then
knows he has given the shot the best possible chance of going in. Pro golfer
Jeff Thomsen says before every shot, "I can make this shot." And Peter
Jacobsen says before every shot, "Knock it close." It is important to use
Positive statements so that no negative thoughts enter your mind. Like if you
say to yourself, "I hope I do not miss, You are really only hearing I hope I
miss. For example, Don't be aware of your breathing? Pause. Most people
immediately become aware of their breathing. So if a golfer makes a negative

statement before putting. The negative statement usually comes true. There

88

are two main reasons why you should use positive affirmations: (1) When you
say a positive affirmation to yourself it improves concentration to focus on the
task at hand. (2) Your confidence will be heightened which may lead to an
automatic stroke. It is important to remember to only say positive affirmations
before the skill. Remember, it is best when actually putting to have no

thoughts in your mind.

89

Appendix G

Basic Affirmation Exposures (PA)

Now we will go over some basic affirmation exercises.

I would like you to now read the following affirmations to yourself. Please

read each one ten times.

Every day in every way I am greater and greater
I like who I am

I trust myself

I am relaxed

I forgive my errors

I can do it

I enjoy life

I am on my side

I always do the best job I can

I am proud of my efforts

I can do anything I choose to do

Basic affirmations can make you feel good about who you are.

The second exercise we are going to do is to fill in these statements:

Iamagood

I am an efficient

I am a creative

90

I am a relaxed

I am a courageous
I am a strong

I am a purposeful

I am a graceful

The third exercise is an activity about a golfer who is trying out for a the

Spartan Golf team.

George is a very talented golfer. Over the course of his career he has been
quite successful, compiling above average scores. As a high schooler he was
awesome. Now he is trying to make the Michigan State University Golf-team.
He is not on a scholarship. As George got to the West course for his first day of
tryouts, the senior and junior golfers hung out together, while George was
alone waiting for his name to be called so he could tee off. While practicing on
the putting green George began to question his ability to make the team.

While warming up he continually saw the members of the golf team making
almost every putt they attempted. Then a little while later at the driving
range, George began to dwell on how far and accurate the members of the golf
team hit the ball. George began to think to himself, " I can't possibly beat
these guys." As you probably would guess this thought made things worse.
Then the following thoughts passed through his mind

What will my parents and friends think of me if I lose

What if I can't hit the ball straight

What if I can't make any putts

What if I slice the first shot in the water.

91

Because these thoughts took over George's mind, he was not at all ready for the
competition. He then heard his name called to tee off, and got an uneasy
feeling in his stomach.

Now answer the following questions:

1. What was the causes of George's nervousness?

2. What negative statements may have George been making to himself?

3. What could George say to himself to focus on the present and not worry

about others?

92

Appendix H

W

I will now ask you to tell yourself you are a good putter. Positively reaffirm
to yourself that you are a good putter and that you can be successful at this
task. Also, tell yourself that if you do not make the putt, that does not mean
that you were not successful. You will be able to putt again shortly. I am
asking you to think positive about golf putting because professional and low
handicap golfers allude to becoming great putters by thinking positively.
They often say that anyone can putt with any technique, but the putter's who
think they can make the putt are usually the best. Also, there once was a
legendary former Oklahoma State University golf coach who was one of the
best putters. However, his technique was not that impressive. There was
nothing special about what he did. Gary Wiren a former golf professional and
sport psychologist Richard Coop state, " It was his attitude, not his method, that
let him sink so many putts. His faith in himself was total. He said he was a
great putter, he believed it. And he was. At this time I would like you to
repeat these statements to yourself. "I am a good putter, (pause), I am a good
putter,", I am a successful person". Now go ahead for the next minute and tell

yourself that you are a good putter.

93

Post Experimental (haestionnaire (Appendix I)
Directions : Please answer the questions to the best of your ability. In the
following questions, please circle the appropriate number or answer
corresponding to the question asked.

1. What percentage of the time did you use the mental preparation strategy
presented to you? (Please estimate)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

2. Do you believe the mental preparation strategy taught to you was helpful in
improving performance?

Yes No
3. Would you consider using this strategy in other sports or facets of life?
Yes No

Please elaborate:

 

 

 

4. When you missed a putt how often did you think you would not make the
next putt because you missed the putt directly before?

never sometimes often always
5. Did missing a putt make you try harder to make the next putt?
Yes No
6. When you missed a putt how often did you think that the mental
preparation routine taught to you was not working?

never sometimes often always

Thank you for completing the questionnaire.

94

Appendix J

Debriefing

The purpose of this investigation was to increase understanding about
using mental preparation immediately before performing a motor skill. This
investigation tested the hypothesis that using psychological processes directly
before performance will increase performance over a control group. Four
groups participated in the experiment. In one group subjects were asked to
perform the skill in their mind directly before executing the skill. In a second
group participants were asked to say to themselves before putting, I think I
can make this putt" directly before performance. The control groups were
only instructed to try and sink each putt. It is expected that the two
experimental groups will improve performance over the control groups. If
you have any questions, please do not hesitate to ask the investigator. If you
would like a copy of the summary of results of this experiment when
completed, please leave your name and address with the experimenter. Thanks

for participating in this experiment.

95

Appendix K

Means and Standard Deviations for Performance and Accuracy for All Days

Table 11

 

 

 

 

 

u .0 .0 .0 0| 0' 0 0" 0 00" D "000:... -
day1(pre) day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5(post)
Means 8.9 11.3 10.6 13.2 13.7
Std dev. 1.91 2.7 3.65 3.19 2.627
Table 12
u .0 00 .,u0._0l' 00 0 0 ’. o 0. I "'00"... '
day1(pre) day 2 day3 day 4 day 5(post)
Means 8.9 11.3 11.1 13.1 13.4
Std dev. 2.183 2.710 2.6 2.56 2.413

 

Table 13

96

 

 

 

 

 

u (0 .0 .0 0| 0. I’k 0 0. D "Icon... ’
day1(pre) day 2 day3 day 4 day 5(post)
Means 10.1 9.9 11.6 12.9 13.4
Std dev. 2.08 3.75 2.17 2.85 2.413
Table 14
u ._. .0 .0._0l' 0. .‘s' 0 001 "00ou.,u ‘
Day1(pre) Day 2(post)
Means 8.2 9.0
Std dev. 1.874 3.204

 

Table 15

97

 

 

 

 

 

U a. 10 10 0. 00 0 0" o 08" I. gqng
day1(pre) day 2 day3 day 4 day 5(post)
Means 31.4 24.0 28.6 16.2 15.4
Std dev. 9.38 7.61 11.52 6.877 6.518
Table 16
u . . . 0 . 0 0 D 0 . 0 . ’ . 0 0 O l . q q
day1(pre) day 2 day3 day 4 day 5(post)
Means 36.3 25.5 25.6 22.2 17.3
Std dev. 9.38 7.66 6.293 8.364 8.512

 

98

 

 

Table 17
U I u 0 o 0 0 I 1 ' o 1 o u a o 0 I I .
day1(pre) day 2 day3 day 4 day 5(post)
Means 30.0 29.3 25.2 19.7 19.1

Stddev. 12.02 14.56 10.61 8.945 10.214

 

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