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I: ti.“ 5...: .313312: lav r. .15.. 5.1.... in. .21 .1 ..: ‘ .l. t a p \l . . wl‘ u.d..IJ 1......1o‘sl03vatl‘tdnJfli... a.....‘.uuu1|lxl.fl|vl.€.v~ilni..>fiufl xL..1~.2-l. .21...t.!ru.7v|.......!vu\ 3.5.1.. .1915. L:I~ .. . I. . .4. Wt». .I rt. .5 . v P. :1.-. $3.? . ‘ 1 A . . , ‘ . . - , ‘ ‘ 1 .. ‘ u u» i . ... . .. y, ‘ 7 ,.. I. . ‘ . 4 «.. .. A H . (b "' ‘ " ! " ‘l.' |' l CH lGAN STéTIE UNIVERSITY LIBRAHI III”I III ”I11I III| IIII III IIIIIIII 31293 00885 7157 IIIIII IIIIIII This is to certify that the dissertation entitled The Relationship Between Cultural Recreation and Cultural Identity Among Greek Immigrants of Toronto presented by George Karlis has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctoral degree in Park and Recreation Resources Major profe . or Date May 26, 1993 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 LIBRARY Mlchlgan State unworthy PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE El '5, 4 M .- i’fi'q‘b . ’3‘; . l——————— ________— ________—— If. ’4 MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution W ”3.94 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL RECREATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY AMONG GREEK IMMIGRANTS OF TORONTO BY George Karlis A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Park and Recreation Resources 1993 ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL RECREATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY AMONG GREEK IMMIGRANTS OF TORONTO By George Karlis This study focuses on the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity, namely, ethnic culture in multicultural societies. Specifically, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between preferences for cultural recreation activities, participation in cultural recreation activities, and cultural identity among Greek immigrants of Toronto. The two key independent variables identified in this study are: (l) preferences for cultural recreation activities, and (2) participation in cultural recreation activities. The dependent variable is cultural identity. It is hypothesized that a relationship exists between preferences and participation in cultural recreation activities and cultural identity for Greek immigrants of Toronto. A sample of 500 Greek immigrants of Toronto were randomly selected from the Greek Telephone Directory of Toronto and were mailed questionnaires. From the 200 respondents 99 were identified as born in Greece and having both parents born in Greece. These were classified "Greek immigrants" and made up the useable sample of this study. The questionnaire contains four sections: section one focuses on information concerning participation in cultural recreation activities, section two focuses on preferences for cultural recreation activities, section three focuses on information about cultural identity, and section four focuses on information concerning the background of subjects. The correlation coefficients for cultural recreation activity preferences (.320) and participation in cultural recreation activities (.224) with cultural identity were both found to be positive. Yet, when entered into a planned stepwise regression analysis, the results revealed that cultural recreation is not significantly related with cultural identity. When entered into the equation with religion and language, the other cultural factors supported by the literature, only religion was found to contribute significantly to cultural identity. Thus, the hypothesis of this study was not supported. Since cultural recreation was not found to contribute significantly to cultural identity in the regression analysis, it could be concluded that a relationship was not found to exist in this case. However, the positive correlations between preferences and participation in cultural recreation activities with cultural identity do reveal an association between cultural recreation and cultural identity, meriting the need to further explore this relationship. Copyright by GEORGE KARLIS 1993 Dedicated To My Father, Nicholaos Karlis and To My Mother, annna (Papoulias) Karlis ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Without doubt, completing a doctoral program, including this dissertation, has been the most difficult task I have accomplished in my life. If it were not for the assistance received from a number of individuals this task would not have been possible. First, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Joseph Fridgen. If it were not for his guidance, understanding, assistance, and patience the completion of this dissertation would have been much more difficult. I thank him for continuing to believe in me throughout the Ph.D program. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Frank Fear, Dr. Dan Ferguson, and Dr. Gloria Smith. The direction and support received is very much appreciated. A very special thank you to my external committee member, Dr. Don Dawson. Words cannot express my gratitude, not only for help received with this program and dissertation, but also for the assistance and guidance throughout my academic career. I thank him wholeheartedly. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Peter Chimbos, Dr. Gregory Papanicos, Dr. Effie Tastsoglou, and Mr. Savvas Lithopoulos for assistance received. Special appreciation is also extended to Mr. Stephen Carlson, Mrs. Sheauhsing Hsieh, Mr. Nicos Louka Kartakoullis, Mr. Ju-Hee Imee, and Mr. Fumito Yokohama for support received. A very special note of appreciation to Dr. Alex Wright iii for Opening the academic door to me. I also thank him for the continued support and encouragement received throughout my academic career. I would also like to express my gratitude to the many members of the Greek Communities of Toronto and Ottawa. In particular, Reverend Nicholas Alexandris, Dr. A. Karantonis, and Mrs. Evangelia Maglaras. A very special thank you to Miss Eugenia Gritziotis. Thank you for the support, encouragement and understanding. Thank you also to my close friends, Mr. Themis Boutziouvis, Mr. Tony Capordelis, Mr. John Halikas, Mr. Nick Karadimitriou, Mr. Nicos Lafkas, Mr. Chris Mouroukas, Mr. Kostaki Pezoulas, Mr. Tasso Vasilas, and Mr. Peter Zourdos for being there when needed. I am most grateful to my extended family, for the support received throughout my life. A heartfelt thank you to my grandfather, Mr. Demetrios Elias Papoulias, who continues to be my greatest advisor in life. Special appreciation also to my sister in-law, Mrs. Georgina Karlis, my uncles and aunts, Mr. Louis Papoulias, Mrs. Maria Papoulias, Mr. Aristidis Iliopoulos, Mrs. Georgina Iliopoulos, and my cousins, Mr. Dino Iliopoulos, Mr. Taki Papoulias, Mrs. Tammy Papoulias, Mr. Spero Papoulias, Mr. Demetrios Iliopoulos, and Mr. Steven Papoulias. Acknowledgement would not be complete without mention (of family members deceased. My grandmother, Mrs. Maria iv Papoulias, whom I was blessed to share 31 years of my life with, provided me with the drive, inspiration and love that I needed to progress. My grandmother, Mrs. Georgina Karlis, whom I shared only eleven years of my life with, left me with determination. My grandfather, Mr. Demetrios Karlis, whom I never met, passed on through my father to me, the desire to succeed academically. A very special acknowledgement to my brother Mr. James Karlis. If it were not for Jim, this program would have never been completed. I thank him for encouraging and supporting me at all times. I am the luckiest brother in the world. Most of all, I would like to thank my parents, Mr. Nicholaos Karlis, and Mrs. annna Karlis. Thank you, to my father, who penniless at 16 years of age immigrated to Canada on his own, and struggled through laborious jobs to not only bring the family from Greece, but to also support them as well. Thank you to my mother, who at 12 years of age had to leave school to help economically support her family, and who continued to work in laborious jobs throughout her life to make ends meet. Despite a lifetime of hardships they continued to endure, love, and encourage. This doctoral program has been completed through their economic, social, emotional, and spiritual support. I dedicate this dissertation to them. In my heart they will always be the true Dr. Karlis'. Chapter 1 - Introduction .............................. Chapter 2 - Chapter 3 - Chapter 4 — TABLE OF CONTENTS Importance of the Research Problem ....... Limitations .............................. Theoretical Models1and Hypotheses ........ Theories of Cultural Integration ......... Park’s Theory ......................... Gordon’s Theory ....................... Atkinson, Morten and Sue’s Theory ..... Theories of Cultural Maintenance ......... Breton's Theory ....................... Isajiw’s Theory ....................... Driedger's Theory .................... Synopsis of the Theories of Cultural Integration and the Theories of Cultural Maintenance ............................. The Theoretical Basis of This Study ..... Hypotheses .............................. Review of Literature .................... Culture and Ethnicity ................... Culture and Recreation .................. Canadian Culture and Canadian Cultural Recreation Activities ................... Greek Culture and Greek Cultural Recreation Activities ................... Greek Cultural Recreation ............ Greek Orthodox Religion .............. Greek Language ....................... Synopsis of Greek Culture ............ Preferences for and Participation in Cultural Activities and Cultural Identity ................................ Other Factors Which May Have An Impact on Cultural Identity .................... Methodology and Procedures .............. ‘Subject Population ...................... Test Instrument ......................... Participation in Cultural Activities Preferences for Cultural Activities Cultural Identity .................... Background (Demographics) ............ vi Page: 1 «>000 . 15 l6 16 19 22 31 33 34 35 35 41 48 50 52 S4 57 59 ./ 1//Construction of Questionnaire ...... ..... .. 94 €1,91stribution of Test Instrument ...... ..... 99 I, Chapter 5 - Analysis of Data ................. ......... 101 Demographic Profile of Respondents ........ 101 Preferences for Cultural Activities of Sampled Greek Immigrants Among Toronto .... 107 Participation in Cultural Activities of Sampled Greek Immigrants of Toronto ....... 113 Cultural Recreation ....................... 118 Cultural Identity of Respondents .......... 121 The Relationship Between Preferences for and Participation in Cultural Recreation Activities and Cultural Identity .......... 126 Analysis of Data for the Hypotheses of this Study ...................... ....... 127 Chapter 6 - Summary and Conclusions ................... 141 Summary of the Results of the Hypotheses Testing 00000000000000 0000000000 0000 0000000 141 Conclusions of the Results for the Hypotheses Tested ................. ........ 144 Further Findings 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000 146 Descriptive Findings of Recreation ........ 150 Implications, Limitations and Recommendations ......... ...... ..... ....... 151 Implications ........ ..... .............. 151 Limitations and Recommendations ........ 154 Bibliography ........ . ..... . ........................... 160 Appendices ... ......................................... 180 AppendiXA000000000000 0000000000000 0000000000000 000000 181 Instrument 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000000000 0 0 00000000000 182 Appendj-XB0000000000000000000000 00000 000000 00000000000 202 Authorization Letter From UCRIHS .......... 203 List of Tables Table 1 - Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Scale for Participation in Cultural Recreation Activities .... ....... .......... 77 Table 2 - Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Sub-Scale for Participation in Cultural Media Activities .......... ..... .. 79 vii Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Sub-Scale for Participation in Cultural Social Activities ................ 80 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Sub-Scale for Participation in Cultural Arts Activities .................. 81 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Scale for Participation in Cultural Religious Activities ...................... 82 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Scale for Cultural Language Use ... 83 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Scale for Preferences for Cultural Recreation Activities ..................... 86 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Sub-Scale for Preferences for Cultural Media Activities ................. 88 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Sub-Scale for Preferences for Cultural Social Activities ................ 89 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Sub-Scale for Preferences for Cultural Arts Activities .................. 89 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Scale for Preferences for Cultural Religious Activities ...................... 91 Correlation Matrix and Reliability Analysis for the Scale for Preferences for Cultural Language Use .............................. 91 Place of Birth (Nationality) of All Respondents ............................... 102 Demographic Profile of Greek Immigrants Sampled ................................... 103 Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Scale for Preferences for Cultural Recreation ................................ 108 Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Scale for Preferences for Cultural Religion .................................. 109 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 'Table l7 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Scale for Preferences for Cultural Language Use .............................. Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Sub-Scale for Preferences for Cultural Media Activities ................. Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Sub-Scale for Preferences for Cultural Social Activities ... ............. Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Sub—Scale for Preferences for Cultural Arts Activities ..... ..... . ....... Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Scale for Participation in Cultural Recreation Activities ..................... Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Scale for Participation in Cultural Religion .................................. Means and Standard Deviations for the Items for the Scale for Cultural Language Use Means and Standard Deviations for Items of the Sub-Scale for Participation in Cultural Media Activities .......................... Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Sub—Scale for Participation in Cultural Social Activities ................ Means and Standard Deviations for the Items of the Sub-Scale for Participation in Cultural Arts Activities .................. Importance of Cultural Recreation, Recreation and Free Time .................. Participating in Cultural Activities Reason for Recreation ..................... Participation in the Greek Community Organization of Toronto ................... Cultural Identity of the Sample of Greek Immigrants of Toronto ix 110 111 112 112 114 114 115 116 117 Table Table Table Table Table Table 31 32 33 34 35 36 Means, Standard Deviations and Correlation Matrix for Items Related to Cultural Identity .................................. Zero-Order Correlation Matrix of All Variables ................................. Stepwise Regression Analysis for Cultural Religion and Cultural Identity ............ Stepwise Regression Analysis for Cultural Religion, Cultural Language and Cultural Identity .................................. Stepwise Regression Analysis for Cultural Religion, Cultural Language, Cultural Recreation and Cultural Identity .......... Stepwise Regression Analysis for Cultural Religion, Cultural Language, Cultural Recreation, and Other Variables ........... 126 133 135 137 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Canada is a pluralistic society comprised of many different nationalities and races (Vallee, 1975). Approximately one-third of the Canadian population consists of immigrants or their immediate descendants (Burnet and Palmer, 1988). The short history of Canada as a nation, in addition to the large influx of immigrants from 1950 to 1970, precipitated the conditions for the evolution of Canada as a multicultural society. Indeed, ethnic groups have been provided with the means and opportunity to establish their own churches, social centers, and recreation facilities to address the spiritual, intellectual and social needs necessary to practice their ethnic heritage. One of the first to acknowledge the need for the provision of opportunities to address the reality of a multicultural Canada was former Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, who more than a quarter century ago stated that Canada was 'a garden into which has been transplanted the hardiest and brightest flowers from many lands, each retaining in its new environment the best of the qualities for which it was loved and prized in its native land" (Secretary of State of Canada, 1987, p.7). The opportunity to practice one's ethnic heritage flourished after gaining further support from another former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, whose statement on multiculturalism emphasized an 2 expanded opportunity for Canadians to preserve their ethnic heritage (House of Commons Debates: Official Report, Volume VIII, October 8, 1971). Recently, current Prime Minister Brian Mulroney has confirmed Canada’s commitment to multiculturalism by stating that: Multiculturalism is an affirmation of our commitment that Canadians of all ethnic and racial backgrounds have the right to equal recognition and equal opportunity in this country. Thus multiculturalism lies at the very heart of the idea of Canada, of our sense of country. As with our commitment to official languages, it reflects where we have come from and where we are going (Secretary of the State of Canada, 1987, p. 7-8). Canada has thus attempted to provide ethnic groups with an environment in which they can identify with the culture of their choice. Canadians have the option of participating in activities of their ethnic heritage, activities of the dominant culture, or a combination of both. Multiculturalism provides Canadians with the opportunity to not only participate in the cultural activities they prefer, but also with the right to shape their cultural identity as they please through freedom of choice. 3 Studies of ethnicity tend to define culture as based upon three cultural activities: recreation, religion, and language (Gordon, 1964; McCrae, 1972; Burnet and Palmer, 1988; Fishman, 1972; and Karlis and Dawson, 1990; Korey, 1979). These cultural activities, which take distinguishable forms for most ethnic groups, are used to identify ethnic groups from each other. Studies focusing on the distinguishable activities of ethnic groups have indicated that it may be the level of involvement in these cultural activities which represents the degree to which one is likely to identify with an ethnic group (Karlis and Dawson, 1990; Karlis, 1987). Studies such as these underline the probability that a number of variables are related to the culture with which one identifies. Variables such as preferences for and participation in the cultural activities of recreation, religion, and language may all be related to cultural identity. Yet, few studies have examined the relationship between preferences for cultural activities, participation in cultural activities and cultural identity. Most studies concerned with examining the relationship between cultural activities and cultural identity have focused primarily on the cultural variables of religion and language, while viewing recreation as secondarily related to cultural identity (Gavaki, 1986; 1983a; Chimbos, 1980a). 4 Since recreation has been viewed as being secondary in importance to cultural religion and language for the analysis of cultural identity, an exploration of the relationship between cultural recreation activities and cultural identity is undertaken. This study will assist in affirming whether this is indeed the case. The question to be addressed is: what is the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity. Specifically, what is the relationship between preferences for cultural recreation activities, participation in cultural recreation activities and cultural identity? The exploration of such relationships will provide information about the relevance of cultural recreation activities to one's cultural identity. Furthermore, the exploration of such a relationship will make it possible to compare the relationship of cultural recreation activities and cultural identity, with the relationships of cultural religion and cultural language to cultural identity. This comparison will assist in the assessment of the relative importance of the relationship between cultural recreation activities and cultural identity. The objective of this study therefore is to explore the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity. More specifically, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between preferences for cultural recreation activities, participation in cultural recreation 5 activities, and the cultural identity of Greek immigrants of Toronto. Although recreation is often considered to be a cultural activity, there is a lack of culturally related research that includes recreation behaviour of ethnic groups as a variable (Ujimoto, 1985; Horna, 1987a; Crowther and Kahn, 1983; Kew, 1981; Hutchison, 1988; O'Leary and Benjamin, 1982; O’Leary and Benjamin, 1981; Aguilar, 1990a; Ekpo, 1991). The fact that recreation has traditionally been viewed as activity from an individual rather than a collective perspective (Godbey, 1980; Iso-Ahola, 1980; Parker, 1983; Goodale and Witt, 1980; Neulinger, 1984; Farina, 1969; Kelly, 1982; Russell, 1982) may provide evidence as to why the analysis of cultural recreation behaviour has received less attention. A recent survey reviewing literature concerned with the association of recreation to culture has confirmed that little research has evolved out of Canada, the United States, Australia, or England to substantiate this relationship (Karlis, and Bolla, 1989). This view has been further substantiated in studies conducted by Horna (1989) and Dawson (1989; 1990). From the limited amount of existing research it has been found that recreation is important for bringing people together to experience activities of common interest (Iso— Ahola, 1980; Godbey, 1980). According to Godbey (1980), recreation is important for bringing individuals together to 6 practice the elements of their culture. Recreation activities addressing the aspects of a particular culture can be used as a means to enhance group cohesiveness. That is, recreation activities addressing cultural elements can be used to not only bring people of a common cultural background together, but to also act as a common point of interest through which group bonding can be sustained, and cultural identity shaped. On the other hand, recreation activities featuring elements of the dominant culture within a pluralistic society, can act as a means to integrate or assimilate ethnic individuals into the dominant, hegemonic society (Jepperson and Meyer, 1979). The rejection of activities representative of one’s ethnic culture may lead to the rejection of one's ethnic heritage (Gavaki, 1979). The rejection of ethnic heritage is signified through non- participation in the activities of one’s ethnic culture and preferences for the culture of dominant society. Individuals rejecting participation in their ethnic culture may thus in turn identify with the dominant culture. Selected studies support the view that recreation, being a distinct element of culture, cannot be separated from culture (Breton, Reitz and Valentine, 1980; Horna, 1987a; Munro, 1987; Sarantakos, 1980; Chase and Cheek, 1979; Carpenter and Howe, 1985; Heron, 1990). Conversely, other studies argue that culture and recreation are distinct, one 7 from the other. These researchers claim that cultural recreation activities can be sought while other distinguishable elements of the culture are ignored (Vlachos, 1968; Chimbos, 1980a; 1980b; Ontario Ministry of Tourism and Recreation, 1984; Cheska, 1987a; 1987b; Elias, 1978; Dunning, 1973). Regardless of the perspective, both support the notion that recreation may play an important role in culture, and that recreation can play a role in the acceptance or rejection of ethnic cultural identity. Indeed, as Pieper (1952) argued long ago, leisure may well be the basis of culture. In order to examine the specific research problem of this study, the Greek community of the City of Toronto will be investigated as a case study. The sample group that will be used to fulfil the objective of this study consists of Greek immigrants living in Toronto. Toronto, with a metropolitan population of well over 2,000,000 is the largest city in Canada and as such offers a wide variety of recreation opportunities addressing activities representative of the Greek and Canadian cultures. Greek immigrants living in Toronto have therefore been selected as the target population because: (1) Toronto consists of one of the largest Greek populations in Canada making it possible to randomly select an appropriate sample size, (2) Toronto consists of a Greek community which provides a wide variety of ethnic culturally specific opportunities, 8 including the opportunity to practice the Greek Orthodox Faith, the Greek language, and Greek cultural recreational activities, and (3) Toronto has an identifiable 'Greektown' in which ethnic culture and ethnic cultural recreational needs can be fulfilled. Importance of the Research Problem It is important to study this problem for the following reasons: 1. Such research will make it possible to obtain information concerning the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity (Aguilar, 1990a; Karlis and Dawson, 1990). In order to lay the basis for the programming of recreation services for culturally plural societies, this kind of information is required. It will address the call by Multiculturalism Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Tourism and Recreation to enhance research on the relationship between recreation, culture and ethnicity (Hall and Rhyme, 1989; Dembrowski, 1988; Burnet and Palmer, 1988; Bolla and Dawson, 1989; Bolla, Dawson, and Karlis, 1991). 9 Limitations The following factors may have an impact on the results of this study: 1. Only the Greek population of the city of Toronto is utilized. The Greek population of Toronto may not be representative of the universe of Greek immigrants in Canada. The Greek population of Toronto may not be truly representative of the universe of all ethnic groups in Canada. Indicators of preferences and participation patterns may not be constant for some or all subjects. Because needs change, individuals who prefer and participate in certain cultural activities today may not do so tomorrow. All individuals are different. Although, for example, two subjects may report their identity as being "Greek", one may be more Greek than the other. This study does not account for greater specificity within the categories of the self- labelling process. Operational Definitions Culture: The way of life of a particular group of people within society shaped from the acceptance of shared norms, attitudes and values 10 (Gordon, 1964). Ethnicity: Emerges out of culture and refers to the cultural affiliation of a society subscribing to a particular way of life (Watson, 1983). These societies are distinguishable via their cultural activities (i.e., recreation, religion, and language). Ethnic Culture: The way of life of a particular ethnic group in a multicultural society (Chimbos, 1980a). This concept refers to the minority group in dominant society. For the purpose of this study, the Greek culture is referred to as the ethnic culture. Dominant Culture: The way of life of the dominant group of the multicultural society (Chimbos, 1980a). For the purpose of this study, Canadian culture is referred to as the dominant culture. Cultural Identity: The psychological attachment to the shared norms, values and behaviours of a particular group of people (Aguilar, 1990a; Herberg, 1989). The following three cultural identities are referred to in this study: Greek identity, a combination of Greek and Canadian identity, and Canadian identity. Cultural identity will be identified using a cultural identity measure developed by Gavaki (1983a; ll 1983b) and the cultural identity measure used by Isajiw (1981). Preferences for Cultural Activities: The preferred selection of activities that are representative of one or more cultures (Wildavsky, 1987). For the purpose of this study, preferences for cultural activities are referred to as being either: Greek, a combination of both Greek and Canadian, or Canadian. These will be identified using a cultural activity preference measure adapted from a measure by Aguilar (1990b). Participation in Cultural Activities: Engagement in activities that are representative of one or more cultures (Wildavsky, 1987). For the purpose of this study, this definition refers to participation in the cultural activities of Greek culture, a combination of Greek and Canadian culture, or Canadian culture. These will be identified using a cultural participation measure adapted after the work of Aguilar (1990a; 1990b). Time Since Immigration: Refers to how long (in years) immigrants have been in Canada. The time period in which immigrants have lived in Canada up to and until the present date. Greek Cultural Activities: The activities that are unique or distinguish the Greek cultural 10. ll. 12. 12 group from other cultural groups (Chimbos, 1980a). These activities are the Greek Orthodox Faith, the Greek language, and Greek cultural recreational activities (Chimbos, 1980b; Gavaki, 1983a; Kourvetaries, 1976). Canadian Cultural Activities: The activities that are unique or distinguish the Canadian cultural group from other cultural groups. These activities are the Catholic and Protestant religions, the English and French languages, and the cultural recreational activities representative of mainstream Canadian culture (Careless, 1970). Cultural Recreation Activities: The recreational media, arts and social activities that are cultural in nature. In this study, this concept refers to activities of Canadian and Greek culture. Greek Cultural Recreation Activities: The media, social, and arts activities that are unique to Greek culture. Media activities refers to listening to Greek radio programs, reading Greek newspapers and magazines, and watching Greek television; social activities refers to dining at Greek restaurants, participating in Greek social clubs, and going to Greek parties and dances; and, l3. 14. 15. 13 arts activities refer to attending Greek concerts, attending Greek festivals, and participating in Greek folk dances. Canadian Cultural Recreation Activities: The media, social and arts activities that are unique to Canadian culture. Media activities refer to listening to the radio, reading newspapers and magazines, and watching television; social activities refer to dining at restaurants, participating in social clubs, going to parties and dances, and attending private parties; whereas, arts activities refer to attending concerts, attending festivals, and participating in folk dances. Cultural Religious Activities: Refers to religious activities which are representative of a specific culture. For the purpose of this study, cultural religious activities is used to refer to the Greek Orthodox Faith and the Dominant religions of Canadian society, that is, Catholicism and Protestanism. Greek Orthodox Faith and Religion: The norms, values, and practices of Greek Orthodoxy. These are centered around the worship of the Holy Trinity and Patron Saints (Ware, 1981; Chimbos, 1980a). 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 14 Dominant Canadian Religions: Refers to the norms, values and practices of the Catholic and Protestant faiths (Careless, 1970; Statistics Canada, 1986). Cultural Language: Refers to the language or languages that are used by specific cultural groups. For the purpose of this study, this notion tends to refer to the Greek language and the dominant Canadian languages of English and French. Greek Language: The 'demotiki" (demotic or popular Greek) dialect that comprises the Greek language utilized in Greece today (Chimbos, 1980a). Canadian Languages: Refers to the languages of English and French constitutionalized as the two official languages of Canada (Van Loon and Whittington, 1976). Greek Immigrants: Individuals who have immigrated from Greece to Canada (Chimbos, 1980a). These individuals were born in Greece but have decided to live in Canada. The parents of these individuals were also born in Greece. For the purpose of this study, Greek immigrants refer to those who now dwell in Canadian society. CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL MODELS AND HYPOTHESES This chapter reviews the theories of cultural integration and cultural maintenance. These theories precipitate out of the fields of sociology and anthropology. The theories of cultural integration that are most pertinent to this study include the theories of Park (1950), Gordon (1964), and Atkinson, Morten and Sue (1979). The theories of cultural maintenance that are most pertinent to this study include those of Breton (1964), Isajiw (1981), and Driedger (1975). All of these theories have been used in past research to make up the basis of the analysis for the relationship of cultural activities to cultural identity. For the purpose of this study, these theories have been integrated into a whole to create the theoretical base for this study. The null hypotheses tested in this study are also presented in this chapter. Thus, this chapter has been divided into five parts: (1) theories of cultural integration, (2) theories of cultural maintenance, (3) synopsis of the theories of cultural integration and the theories of cultural maintenance, (4) the theoretical foundation of this study, and (5) the hypotheses. 15 l6 THEORIES OF CULTURAL INTEGRATION Although a wide variety of theories of cultural integration can be found in the social sciences, the basic premises for each of these theories overlap. The basic ideology of these theories is formed around the concept that ethnic individuals can either maintain their ethnic culture while living in a multicultural society, or assimilate into the dominant society. ggrk's Theory: It is believed that the pioneer of cultural integration theory as it stands today was John Park (1950). Park's theory has acted as a basis for the development of subsequent cultural integration theories. Although Park’s theory was originally designed for racial assimilation, sociologists have adapted it to cultural assimilation as well. Park's theory is based on the understanding that eventually all individuals of ethnic descent, including the children and grandchildren of immigrants, become assimilated into dominant society. In order to reach the assimilation stage however, individuals of ethnic descent must proceed through the stages of the integration process which may take more than one generation to complete. However, despite the stages of assimilation, it is the preferences and participation patterns in cultural activities which determines the culture one identifies with. That is, at any stage during the assimilation process, 17 identification with the ethnic or the host culture is possible, thus determining the identity with which one associates. In this regard, emphasis is placed on the individual with respect to the determination of one's cultural identity. Park has claimed that the assimilation process consists of four processes or phases: (1) the initial contact phase, (2) the competition phase, (3) the accommodation phase, and (4) the assimilation phase. The first phase is the initial contact phase, the time when first contact is made with dominant society. This period is one of adjustment in which immigrants become accustomed to their new surroundings. Immigrants find themselves entering not only a new land, but a new social setting as well. This is a stage of adaptation in dominant society in which identification with ethnic culture persists in order to eliminate the fear of losing ethnic culture and to continue to interact in the activities representative of the homeland culture. In the second phase, the competition phase, individuals experience duo-identities. During this phase, a conflict occurs between maintenance of ethnic culture and acceptance of the culture of dominant society. It is during this stage that immigrants explore the social arena of dominant society and start to compare it with that of their ethnic heritage. During this stage, decisions are made about preferred 18 cultural activities. Immigrants begin to contemplate participating, and in some cases actually do participate in the activities of dominant culture. The third phase, the accommodation phase, is the one in which a decision is usually reached by the immigrant as to the acceptance or rejection of ethnic and/or dominant society's cultural activities. It is during this phase that an accommodation may take place and that some or all of the cultural activities of both the ethnic and the dominant society may be engaged in. The final stage, the assimilation phase, is the one in which preferences and participation in ethnic cultural activities have been eliminated, and have been influenced by preferences and participation patterns in the activities of the dominant culture. It is during this stage when all association with ethnic ties are removed. In sum, it is relevant to note that the competition phase is one in which preferences for and participation in ethnic cultural activities are associated with identification with ethnic culture. The accommodation phase has been referred to as one in which preferences for and participation in the cultural activities of both the ethnic and the dominant societies are moderately equal, with cultural identification also being moderately equal. The final phase, the assimilation phase, has been referred to as being one in which preferences and participation in the l9 cultural activities of dominant society and identification with dominant society are related, whereas ties with ethnic culture are omitted. The unique contribution of Park’s theory is that it set the stage for further research. Research conducted by Gordon (1964) and Atkinson, Morten and Sue (1979) have addressed the ideas initiated by Park. It is relevant to note that although Gordon’s theory is coined the “assimilation theory“ the major premise is “integration specific“ (with only limited attention given to ethnic cultural maintenance), and does abide by the conceptualiza- tion laid out by Park. Qgrgon’s Theory: The most renown of all cultural integration theories to date is that of Gordon which he enunciated in 1964. Similar ' to Park's theory, Gordon's is one which consists of a series of stages leading to the ultimate outcome of assimilation. Unlike Park’s theory however, Gordon's theory includes factors such as the availability of ethnic community organizations, age of immigrants at immigration, and time since immigration on the adjustment of immigrants into dominant society. That is, Gordon's analysis of cultural integration goes beyond Park’s by noting other factors which may mediate the ultimate assimilation outcome. Yet despite the broad perspective of Gordon’s theory in comparison to Park's theory, the emphasis of the importance 20 of preferences and participation in cultural activities remains consistent. That is, despite the time—specificity of the various stages of the assimilation process, all immigrants are not subject to the same pace of assimilation because of individual differences. However, preferences for specific cultural activities and participation in these may ultimately be responsible for shaping the cultural identity one associates with. According to Gordon (1964), assimilation or the gradual distinctiveness of ethnic groups being absorbed into dominant society may be the result of cultural, structural (i.e., formal organizations such as ethnic community centers), marital or identification factors, each having an impact on the way of life of these individuals. As McCall (1973) stated in relation to Gordon's view, four factors can be identified which may cause immigrants to assimilate into dominant society. These are: (1) the nature of the ethnic culture, (2) the pressure to succeed in the dominant society, (3) the role of institutional pathways in dominant society, and (4) the reaction of the host society. Regardless of the reasons for integration, Gordon’s theory claims that assimilation is ultimately inevitable once initial contact is made with the dominant society. Gordon (1964), has claimed that the process of cultural integration consists of a number of steps commencing from contact with dominant society and leading to assimilation. 21 Gordon's process of integration can be summarized and presented as consisting of three major stages after contact has taken place: cultural continuity, cultural change, and assimilation. Cultural continuity is the stage in which ethnic identity and traditions are dominant; feelings, behaviours and relations are geared towards the ethnic group. This is the stage in which preferences and participation in the activities of the ethnic culture dominate, whereas adaptation to the host culture is very restricted. Cultural change is the stage in which adoption of the host society is dominant, and ethnic identity and culture is limited to the private domain. During this stage, preferences and participation in a combination of the cultural activities of both the ethnic and the dominant culture take place. Engagement solely in ethnic activities has declined, and as a result identification with both the ethnic and dominant cultures takes place. Assimilation is the stage in which the culture of the host society is totally accepted, and no elements that distinguish ethnic identity, feelings and individual relations remain. It is during this stage when ethnic individuals wish to identify only with dominant society while omitting any association or participation with compatriots of the same ethnic background. 22 In sum, Gordon's theory distinguishes immigrants, and other individuals of ethnic descent such as the children and grandchildren of immigrants born in the host society, into three classifications: (1) those who identify themselves with their ethnicity, (2) those who identify themselves with both their ethnicity and the dominant culture, and (3) those who identify themselves only with the dominant culture. Each of these stages is determined at least in part by preferences for and participation in cultural activities. Atkinson, Morten and Sue's theory of cultural integration builds on Gordon’s theory by expanding to five stages instead of three. Atkinson, Morten and Sue's Theory: Atkinson, Morten and Sue (1979) have presented a model of cultural integration which attempts to encapsulate the entire process in five conditional stages. The process of integration, and subsequently cultural identity, as presented by Atkinson et al. (1979) tends to not only conform to the notions of Park and Gordon, but to also present the conditional relationship of all phases in the integration process, that is, the sequential importance of each step leading to assimilation. Unlike the models of Park and Gordon, which claim that one step in the integration process may be omitted while assimilation continues to be inevitable, the model of Atkinson et al. (1979) tends to assume that each stage must be experienced 23 in sequential order in order for the assimilation stage to eventually evolve. The five stages of cultural integration according to Atkinson et a1. (1979) are: (1) synergetic articulation and awareness, (2) introspection, (3) resistance and emergence, (4) conflict between self-depreciating and self—appreciating identification with ethnic culture, and (5) conformity. The first stage, synergetic articulation and awareness, refers to the self—appreciating identification with ethnic culture by immigrants. It is during this stage that immigrants are not only proud to refer to themselves with their ethnic culture, but also try to engage in as many ethno-specific activities as possible in order to promote their ethnic culture. Limited if any association takes place with the activities or the attributes which are representative of dominant society during this stage. The second stage, introspection, refers to one in which concern with the basis of self-appreciation towards identification with ethnic culture takes place. It is during this stage that immigrants tend to grasp the jpotential negative implications associated with their ethnic label, such as negative stereotypes imposed by some members (of dominant society restricting integration into mainstream society (i.e., the labor force, social and housing conditions encouraged by the host society). During this stage, some initiating effort may be placed by immigrants on 24 accepting or participating in the activities of the dominant society. The third phase, resistance and emergence, is one in which self-appreciating identification is revitalized. Immigrants fear that perhaps they will lose their background if they keep integrating at a moderate pace into dominant society. The integration process is thus slowed down, and appreciation, identification, and participation for both the ethnic and the dominant culture commences to evolve. The fourth phase, conflict, is one in which appreciation for the dominant society continues to grow while identification with the ethnic culture declines or remains the same. Identification with both cultures continues to predominate, however the magnitude of identification with dominant culture prevails over that of ethnic culture. The fifth stage, conformity, is one in which self— appreciating identity towards dominant culture persists. Although some self-appreciation towards ethnic culture may still exist, appreciation, preferences and participation are geared towards the activities of dominant society. Few immigrants are found at this stage. Most individuals found in this stage tend to be the children and grandchildren of immigrants born in the host society. In sum, unlike Park’s and Gordon's theories, Atkinson, Morten and Sue's theory presents a greater tolerance for the 25 maintenance of ethnicity. Park and Gordon present the viewpoint that assimilation is inevitable, yet also place importance on the individual to determine their specific cultural identity through preferences and participation in cultural activities. Atkinson, Morten and Sue present the ideology that some appreciation, preference and participation in ethnic cultural activities may continue to persist despite the onset of assimilation. That is, Atkinson, Morten and Sue’s theory provides for the theoretical conceptualization of cultural maintenance. In this case, assimilation is not viewed as being a terminal condition with the dying of ethnic identification, but is rather viewed as a state in which a minimal form of ethnic identification persists including minimal preferences and participation in ethnic activities (Montero, 1981; Schoen and Cohen, 1980). Atkinson, Morten and Sue's theory, supporting the ideology that ethnic individuals never completely assimilate into dominant society, is more closely related to theories of cultural maintenance. The following section reviews some of the most pertinent theories of cultural maintenance. THEORIES OF CULTURAL MAINTENANCE In the aforementioned section three models of cultural integration have been presented. These would not be complete without some mention of similar theories which have developed from a different ideological perspective, that is 26 from a ethnic-group cultural maintenance perspective. These theories are attributed to Breton, Isajiw, and Driedger and are differentiated from cultural integration perspectives by the fact that maintenance theories focus on cultural continuity among ethnic individuals. These theories focus on highlighting the importance of preferences and participation patterns in cultural activities for the maintenance of ethnic identity while living in multicultural society. Breton's Theory: Breton (1964) examining the degree of cohesion of ethnic groups in Montreal derived the term "institutional completeness'. The compartmentalization of an ethnic group, that is, the degree to which an ethnic group in a particular locale has developed a set of institutions of its own paralleling those of dominant society, is what Breton has called “institutional completeness". Ethnic groups are institutionally complete when they resist integration into dominant society. According to Breton, this refers to the social structure (i.e., religious ethnic communities such as the Amish, or ethnic community centers) which promote maintenance of ethnicity in dominant society. For Breton, these social structures refer to the existence of social boundaries which bind ethno-racial-religious groups and distinguish them from other groups. This enclosure also 27 refers to the networks used by a group to maintain intergroup boundaries, networks such as recreation, religion and language. Yet the parameters of “institutional completeness'I may have limitations, particularly if the “institutionally complete' forces of dominate society have a stronger appeal to immigrants. It may be that for immigrants who immigrated at a younger age and dwelled for a long period of time in dominant society, ethnic institutions have a less powerful appeal. Such immigrants may prefer to abide with the more powerful social institutions of dominant culture, limiting or omitting association with ethnic culture. Thus, unlike the theories of integration wherein assimilation appears inevitable, Breton believes that the maintenance of ethnicity depends on the power of cultural institutions and the cultural activity patterns of its ethnic members. That is, ethnicity will be maintained if ethnic institutions (i.e., church, community organizations) are more powerful (i.e., such as those providing the greatest resources, opportunities), better organized and subsequently preferred by immigrants more than those of dominant society. Through preference and participation in ethnic and/or dominant activities and institutions, identity evolves. It is possible in Breton's theory for immigrants to belong to both institutions simultaneously, while identifying with 28 both cultures. For Breton therefore, the maintenance of ethnicity depends primarily on one's preferences and participation in cultural activities, and the availability of ethnic institutions and Opportunities. He claims that it is possible to prefer and participate in not only ethnic activities but also in the activities of the host culture, thus subsequently identifying with both cultures. Isajiw's Theory: According to Isajiw (1981), the ethno-racial-religious bonds of ethnic individuals always persist in the form of intrinsic feelings, thus ethnicity is maintained while some attachment to ethnic groups remains. The ethno-racial- religious bonds contribute to personal and collective ethnic identity through transmission of the sense of personal attachment. That is, the primary source of ethno-racial— religious identity in Canada is the sense of belonging one derives from membership in an ethnic group, a racial group, and/or a religious group. Isajiw’s theory purports that immigrants identify with their background because of involvement in ethnic activities which provides them with a feeling of competence and acceptance. As long as ethnic social institutions continue to have an appealing role for immigrants, ethnicity will be maintained and identification with ethnic groups will exist. Intrinsic feelings of immigrants are such that time (i.e. age of-immigrants at immigration, time since 29 immigration) cannot diminish them completely. The personal attachment towards an activity of an ethnic culture, such as religion, is often so strong that integration into dominant society, no matter how strong the social forces (i.e., the appeal of a competing religion of dominant society), will not occur. Therefore, according to Isajiw it is these intrinsic beliefs which make one prefer and identify with ethnic and/or dominant culture. Furthermore, it is these intrinsic feelings which make one participate and identify with ethnic and, or, dominant culture. Thus it is preferences and participation in cultural activities which determine cultural identity. Driedger's Theory: Driedger, in a series of publications (1975; 1976; 1977a; 1977b; Driedger and Church, 1974; Driedger, Thaker, and Currie, 1982), has offered a conceptualization of ethnic maintenance similar to Breton and Isajiw. However, Driedger extends his analysis beyond that of Breton and Isajiw. Driedger postulates that ethnic group identity performs a role which today is conceptualized differently from what it was in the past. Although the potential importance of religion, recreation and language still persists for the preservation of ethnicity, adaptations to the living conditions of today's society may take place while not having a negative impact on association with ethnicity. It 30 is possible for ethnic immigrants to adjust and partake in the social institutions of Canadian society (i.e. work and play) while maintaining their sense of value for ethnicity. Ethnicity is something that is intrinsically valued and as such is culturally maintained. Similarly to Isajiw, Driedger purports that intrinsic bonds towards ethnicity, or one or more of the activities of ethnic culture, cannot be diminished despite the inevitable process of assimilation. Personal attachment to an ethnicity will remain, although identification with dominant society may prevail. It is the intrinsic bond with ethnic identity which may never be broken, thus in turn restricting complete assimilation from taking place. The critical differentiation between Driedger’s and Isajiw's theories is that Driedger, unlike Isajiw, places less emphasis on the importance of participation in cultural activities for cultural maintenance. According to Driedger, it may be possible to maintain ethnicity without involvement in ethnic activities as long as a strong intrinsic bond with ethnic culture exists. Driedger supports the perspective that preferences and participation for the dominant culture can take place while identification with both ethnic and dominant culture continues to exist. In sum, Driedger has placed less emphasis on the importance of formal social settings (i.e. ethnic community centers) than Isajiw and even less emphasis than Breton. 31 Driedger places more emphasis on the importance of intrinsic bonds with ethnic culture for the maintenance of ethnicity in comparison to Isajiw and Breton. Of note however is the fact that these intrinsic bonds may entice one to prefer and participate in certain cultural activities. Despite the differing perspectives of Breton, Isajiw, and Driedger, all support the ideology that cultural maintenance can take place as long as personal attachment to ethnic culture remains strong. Furthermore, all support the ideology that preferences and participation in cultural activities can shape cultural identity. In sum, all three of these theories of cultural maintenance suggest preferences or participation in cultural activities can be important for cultural maintenance and cultural identification. SYNOPSIS OF THE THEORIES OF CULTURAL INTEGRATION AND THE THEORIES OF CULTURAL MAINTENANCE The previous two sections of this chapter review theories of cultural integration and cultural maintenance. Cultural maintenance can be viewed as a component of the theories of cultural integration. This component is evident in Gordon’s presentation of the stage of cultural continuity indicating the assimilation of ethnic individual into dominant society. From this perspective, theories of cultural maintenance are perceived to be limited in scope focusing mostly on the dimension of cultural maintenance. 32 Theories of integration tend to be more comprehensive, highlighting the alternatives in which not only cultural maintenance can take place, but also presenting the means in which cultural change and assimilation take place. Integration theories reflect an ideology that it is possible for immigrants to become assimilated into dominant society, identifying solely with the dominant culture. Theories of cultural integration include the same basic ideologies with limited variations in terminology. Although they assume to adhere to the principle that assimilation is inevitable, like theories of cultural maintenance, they refer to the potential importance of cultural activities as mediators to cultural identity. To analyze the relationship between cultural activities and cultural identity, the theories of cultural integration reviewed here have been used and can be summarized as having three stages. The first stage features preferences for cultural activities, participation in cultural activities, and identification with ethnic culture. The second stage refers to a combination of preferences for ethnic and dominant cultural activities, participation in ethnic and dominant cultural activities, and identification with both ethnic and dominant cultures. The third stage refers to preferences for dominant cultural activities, participation in dominant cultural activities, and identification with dominant culture. 33 All theories of cultural integration are time specific. That is, it takes a certain amount of time to go through each stage. Based upon the literature, it usually takes two to three generations to go through these stages (Gavaki, 1979; Vlachos, 1968), yet it is possible that this process of integration can occur within the same generation (Chimbos, 1980a). The contact stage for all theories is defined as one in which the immigrant lands in the dominant society. Although it has been found in literature that immigrants who have dwelled longer in dominant culture and immigrated at a younger age, tend to be more culturally integrated in dominant society than those who have been in contact for less time and experienced first contact at an older age (Jepperson and Meyer, 1987), subsequent literature reveals that time is not the major indicator of cultural change, rather cultural change depends more on preferences for and participation in cultural activities (Gavaki, 1979; Vlachos, 1968; Chimbos, 1980a). THE THEORETICAL BASE OF THIS STUDY The theoretical base for this study is drawn from the tenets of cultural integration and maintenance theories reviewed previously. The assumption drawn from these theories is that preferences and participation in cultural activities may be related to the culture an immigrant identifies with. The reviewed theories reveal that the cultural activity preferred and engaged in tends to be 34 related to the culture with which one identifies. From this perspective, the relationship of preferences for cultural recreation activities, participation in cultural recreation activities and cultural identity will be investigated. HYPOTHESES From the aforementioned theories, the null hypotheses of this study are derived. These null hypotheses are as follows: ,flgll Hypothesis 1: No relationship exists between preferences for cultural recreation activities and cultural identity among Greek immigrants of Toronto. ggll Hypothesis g: No relationship exists between participation levels in Cultural recreation activities and cultural identity among Greek immigrants of Toronto. CHAPTER 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter reviews the literature used to complement the theoretical framework for the study. In this chapter, five areas of research have been reviewed. The first section presents the concepts of culture and ethnicity. The second section presents the research which has been conducted in regards to culture and recreation. The third section presents a description of Canadian culture and Canadian cultural recreation activities. The fourth section presents a description of Greek culture and Greek cultural recreation activities. Finally, the fifth section reviews the literature highlighting preferences for cultural activities, participation in cultural activities, and cultural identity. CULTURE AND ETHNICITY According to Bavington, Lithwick, Sproule and Thompson (1976), culture is something that provides collective identity as well as being an indicator of the attitudes and values of a society. To a great extent it determines the way people act and behave (Wood and Remnant, 1980; Stadler, 1983). Moreover, through culture different types of needs will be fulfilled and fulfilled in distinct manners (Abrams, 1969; D’Amours, 1989). Culture refers to a set of socially acquired behavioral patterns common to members of a 35 36 particular society or group (Fairchild, 1970). Culture can therefore be said to be the style Of life of a particular society (Wood and Remnant, 1980). Gordon (1964: 32-33) in his seminal book Assimilation in America, has defined culture as: A way of life of a society, and if analyzed further is seen to consist of prescribed ways of behaving or norms of conduct, beliefs, values and skills, along with the behavioral patterns and uniformities based on these categories - all this we call 'non-material culture“ - plus, in an extension of the term artifacts created by these skills and values, which we call “material culture. From the variety of existing definitions of culture, three general categories of culture can be depicted: ideal; documentary; and social (Williams, 1981). Ideal culture refers to the state or process of human perfection in tenms of certain or absolute universal values (Williams, 1981). Documentary culture refers to the body of intellectual and imaginative work in which human thought and experience is processed (Williams, 1981). Whereas, social culture refers to the description of a particular way of life expressing meanings and values in institutions and ordinary behaviour (Williams, 1981; Olsen, 1978; and Herskovits, 1967). 37 Ethnicity emerges out of culture. Ethnicity refers to the similarity and affiliation Of peOple who are part of a larger society (Carpenter and Howe, 1985). The members of an ethnic group share a historical, cultural, linguistic, religious, and recreational background which distinguishes it from.other groups (Carpenter and Howe, 1985). The ancestry of a group of individuals according to country of origin, rather than nationality, is a defining feature of membership of an ethnic group (Kew, 1981). Watson (1983), with reference to supporting literature, has presented two definitional categories of ethnicity: primodial loyalties and a political approach. Both of these categories describe “ethnicity“ in terms of the attitudes of individuals and group formation. Primodial loyalties (Issacs, 1975) refers to a type of ethnicity in which primal unchanging attachments exist to a particular social category. In this case, ethnicity stems out of a shared culture with strong feelings towards the ethnic group, and the resulting ethnic identity prevails despite the influence of the dominant society (Watson, 1983). That is, one who has been raised in a particular society, continues to identify with it despite moving to a new homeland. The political approach, on the other hand, describes ethnic groups as “informal interest groups“, each maintaining cohesiveness in order to satisfy ethnic needs (Cohen, 1969). These groups have strong associations and 38 strive to attain power in dominant society via the cohesive promotion of common culture (Cohen, 1969). The Objective of the political approach is thus based on the premise that grouping together increases power in society. That is, the larger the number, the greater the likelihood of having interests fulfilled by the decision makers of society. It should be noted that both the primodial and political categories of culture are seen to form only a small fraction of what is commonly referred to as “ethnicity“. That is, the term ethnicity tends to expand in scope beyond the primodial and political categories. Although the term “ethnicity“ is used to refer to a group of individuals, it is important to recognize the cultural activities that are pertinent to the definition of ethnicity. Ethnicity or ethnic groups, when considered minority groups, tend to be classified according to race, religion, language, or national origin (Watson, 1983; Elliot, 1983). In order for ethnicity or ethnic groups to exist, at least one of these cultural activities must be present, recognized and promoted by a group of people. It is also important to note that ethnicity stems from.cultural identity, that is, unique cultural activities which cannot be duplicated by the average members of dominant society (DeVos and Romanucci-Ross, 1982). Subsequently, all definitions of ethnicity include at least some reference to the cultural traits of particular groups. 39 As previously noted, from ethnicity, arises the notion of the “ethnic group“. An ethnic group refers to a collectivity of people within the larger society having a shared culture and background (O'Leary and Benjamdn, 1982). It should be noted that from this perspective ethnic groups are largely determined by social definitions (O'Leary and Benjamin, 1982). Bahr, Chadwick, and Stauss (1979:4) for example, provide the following description of ethnic groups from a social perspective: The essential determinant of ethnic group membership is social identification. If the group defines a person as similar enough to belong to it, and if that person identifies with that group, then he or she belongs to that group, whatever his or her real ancestry may be. Like ethnic groups, racial groups may also stem.out of culture. For this reason racial groups are sometimes confused with ethnic groups in the literature. In fact, both groups refer to quite different notions. Racial groups arise out of distinguishable physical characteristics such as colour of skin or hair that are unique to a particular group (O'Leary and Benjamin, 1982). Clearly, it is inaccurate to claim that this notion is the principle determinant of ethnic groups. Common ancestry and cultural 40 activities are principle characteristics in the determination of ethnic groups, whereas common racial characteristics are secondary characteristics. This is so because the “way of life“ of a group, its values and beliefs, determine behaviour rather than skin colour, although skin colour may enhance identifiability and cohesion. Bahr et al. (1979) provide an instructive analysis of this position in the following statement: As is by now widely recognized, there is no society in the world which ranks people on the basis of biological race, i.e., on the basis of anything a competent geneticist would call “race,“ which means on the basis of distinctive shared genetic makeup derived from a common gene pool. “Race,“ as a basis for social rank is always a socially defined phenomenon which at most only very imperfectly corresponds to genetically transmitted tracts and then, of course, only to phenotypes rather than genotypes (Bahr et a1, 1979:?) Although the idea of ethnicity has been analyzed in this review of literature, ethnic culture is the concept that will be referred to in this study. The term culture will be used to refer to the “way of life“, that is, the 41 composition of individuals who share a common national or ethnic heritage, (i.e. Greeks, Italians, Jews, etc). Race, has been recognized as being a sub-component of culture (i.e. Black-Jews) and will be treated as such. Thus, in this study, culture and recreation will be analyzed from.a cultural identity perspective rather than from a racial identity perspective. CULTURE AND RECREATION A clear understanding of the difference between culture and race is important because a review of the literature associated with culture and recreation reveals a tendency to confuse these notions. Within the recreation field, much of the literature depicts racial groups as if they were cultural groups with their significance being socially determined. Yet race, in literature associated with culture, has been highlighted as a cultural attribute to the same extent that language and religion represent distinguishable elements of culture. Nevertheless, from the existing literature concerned with recreation and culture, several analytical perspectives can be identified. Each perspective arises largely as a consequence of the political and social framework of the particular society in question. In Canada it was not until the 1970's that the issue of culture developed as an identifiable subject within the recreation and leisure studies field. An investigation conducted by Malpass (1973) led him to the revelation that 42 the “total“ community included minority culture groups. This study was one of the first to reveal that immigrants did not have equal access to recreation resources in Canada because, in part, municipal services failed to take into account the recreation needs of immigrants. The national statement on multiculturalism by Prime Minister Trudeau in 1971 (emphasizing an expanded opportunity for Canadian people to preserve ethnic cultural heritage), lead to increased recognition of the needs of ethnic Canadians. Within the Canadian multicultural framework, ethnic cultural recreational activities have come to be characterized as “complimentary“ to majority recreation practices (Horna, 1980). Although the need for increased provision of ethno— specific recreation resources has become apparent in the 1970's, research in this area has grown at a minimal rate (Karlis, 1990c; Hall, 1988). Research that currently exists has primarily focused on analyzing the relationship between recreation and culture with culture being considered as but one contributing factor. Reviews by Horna (1987a) Mundy (1990), and Ekpo (1991), for example, reveal that race and ethnicity along with socio-economic, cultural and psychological factors represent some of the major dimensions in the selection of recreation experiences. Furthermore, Karlis (1989; 1990a; 1990b; 1990d; 1992a; 1992b) and Dawson (1990), have illustrated that cultural perceptions can be 43 key determinants of recreation participation for ethnic individuals (Horna, 1987b; Ekpo, 1991). A few Canadian studies exist which clarify the relationship between recreation activities and culture (Gavaki, 1979; Jansen, 1978; Kirsh, Dixon and Bond, 1973; Schliewan, 1977; Karlis and Dawson, 1992; 1991; 1990; 1989; Karlis and Kartakoullis, 1992; Karlis, 1990a; Kay and Mannell, 1990; Whitson, 1990; Butler, 1990; Rublee and Shaw, 1990; Bolla and Dawson, 1989). It is important to note however that the principle focus of some of these studies is with larger cultural matters and that recreation participation and behavioral patterns receive secondary analytical consideration. The need to expand research on recreation and culture is clearly articulated by Horna (1987a) and Hall and Rhyme (1989). This concern stems from.the view that not enough is known about the recreation behaviour of individuals belonging to ethnic cultural groups (Orthner, 1990; Ferguson, 1990; Hartzog, 1990). It also stems from the fact that despite the stated belief of the Canadian government that much recreation is culturally specific (Hall and Rhyme, 1989; Dembrowski, 1988; Munro, 1987; Malpass, 1973), minimal attention has been given to ascertaining the relationship between participation in recreation activities and culture. In the United States, empirical and theoretical research concerned with ethnicity and recreation has shown steady growth since the 1960's (O'Leary and Benjamin, 1981). 44 However, similar to its development in Canada, this growth has been slow. Research on culture and recreation in the United States arose out of a concern with the programming of recreation services for underprivaledged individuals and groups (Hutchison, 1973). There were calls, for example, for “compensatory recreation“ for the “culturally deprived“ of the ghetto (Gray, 1973). Attention has since focused upon enriching existing programs and services in order to enhance the quality of life of mdnority groups in general (Karlis, Bolla and Dawson, 1990; Karlis, 1990c; 1991; Cheek, Field and Burdge, 1976). American research into culture and recreation has taken a different dimension in comparison to that carried out in Canada because most research carried out in the United States is concerned with racial differences and understanding the impact of urbanization on minority leisure behaviour (Chew, 1984; Crowther and Kahn, 1983; Kelly, 1982; West, 1989; Robinson, 1987; and Klobus-Edwards, 1981). It has not been until recently that the need to understand the relationship between recreation and culture of other groups beyond black/white differences has been recognized (DeWall, 1984). This shift may be attributed to the increased sympathy for multiculturalism and the weakening of the traditional melting pot ideology which has apparently been widely embraced in the past by American recreation policy makers (Carpenter and Howe, 1985). 45 To date, many American researchers have claimed that other factors, such as social class: may be more critical determinants of recreation participation than cultural factors (McDonald and Hutchison, 1987). Others such as West (1989), in analyzing the activity patterns of blacks and whites have further contributed to this position by claiming that socio-cultural differences between the races do not seem to have a direct impact on recreation participation in general. However, others have concluded that there are indeed observable differences in recreation participation patterns between cultural groups in the U.S.A. (Stamps and Stamps, 1985; Klobus-Edwards, 1981; and Woodward, 1988) and that the relationship between recreation and culture must be more clearly understood (Aguilar 1990a; Hall and Rhyme, 1989; Irwin, Gartner and Phelps, 1990). Nevertheless, from the American literature one can identify four theories concerned with culture and recreation that have evolved. These are as follows: (1) socioeconomic demographic theory - attributes similarities and differences in recreation participation to social class affiliation of cultural groups (McMillen, 1983); (2) theory of marginality - based on the notion that cultural underparticipation in recreation results from preventative factors, such as racial discrimination (Yancey and Snell, 1971); (3) opportunity theory - attributes variations in ethnic recreation patterns to disparities in the availability and accessibility of 46 recreation resources (Kelly, 1987; 1982; Lindsay and Ogle, 1977), and (4) ethnicity perspective theory - ascribes differences in recreation participation to subcultural recreation norms and values while describing cultural variations in recreation participation patterns as a function of social organization, and an outcome with respect to what social behaviour is considered appropriate by the respective society in question (Washburne, 1978). Although many of these theories were originally concerned with racial black/white differences, recently they have been extended to the analysis of recreation patterns of other cultural groups. Hutchison (1988) has assailed the confusion of culture and race and has noted that the application of these theories to other cultural groups should be approached with caution. Thus, the need to establish generic theories to link recreation with other cultural groups has been recognized, since reliance cannot be placed on the applicability of racially derived theories. Literature from abroad has been even more limited, with most research coming from Australia and Great Britain. Neglect of analyzing the relationship between culture and recreation is now recognized in studies coming out of Britain (Carrington, Chivers and Williams, 1987; Kew, 1981). It is only recently that culture has come to be generally accepted as being related to leisure in Britain. The main impetus for the recent concern is an attempt to clarify the 47 extent to which recreation participation impacts social behaviour of members of minority groups. The emerging consensus coming out of the United Kingdom is that recreation reinforces culture and that recreation can be used to either integrate ethnic immigrants or to preserve distinctive ethnic cultural identities. In Australia, research on the planning process of recreational services has resulted in the provision of multicultural recreation opportunities (Sarantakos, 1980; Grassby, 1981). Australian planners increasingly accept that recreation is an important dimension in formulating multicultural policies and programs. Researchers recognize the unique identity of ethnic cultural groups and the importance of planning specifically for each group. Nevertheless, many issues have yet to be sufficiently addressed by political decision-makers. The challenge is to make Australia's social policies more sensitive to the ethno-specific leisure needs of its people. In order to do so, Sarantakos (1980) recommends that decision-makers first recognize the ethno-cultural pluralism of Australian society and the pluralistic facets of recreation. To do this, it is necessary however to first understand the relationship between culture and recreation from a theoretical perspective. As this review demonstrates, there has in the past been some neglect in examining the relationship between culture 48 and recreation in Canada, the United States and abroad. This neglect can partially be attributed to the lack of an adequate theoretical base depicting the relevance of the relationship between culture and recreation to integration into domdnant multicultural societies. Indeed, no theoretical base such as this has been established to examine the importance of and role played by cultural recreational activities in the maintenance of ethnic cultural groups in multicultural societies. CANADIAN CULTURE AND CANADIAN CULTURAL RECREATION ACTIVITIES Canada, as a multicultural society, provides opportunities for ethnic individuals to participate in the recreation and cultural activities of their preference, either ethno—specific or from the dominant culture. But what are recreation activities of Canadian culture? Furthermore, what is Canadian culture? Canada, although originally inhabited by Native Indians and Eskimos, was occupied by the British and French during the mid-1800's (Careless, 1970; Van Loon and Whittington, 1976). Along with this occupation, the British and French brought the traditions and values of their homelands. As a result Canadian culture as it stands today was formulated around the traditions of these two “occupying groups“ (Careless, 1970). It is because of these two occupying groups that Canada has now been recognized as being officially bilingual having two national languages, French 49 and English. The traditions of the British and French are reflected in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and have thus become important attributes of Canadian culture. The traditions of the British and French have focused around Christianity, more specifically the Protestant and Catholic churches, and served to shape the cultural identity of Canadian society. These religious traditions, in addition to the English and French language, have become distinguishable cultural elements of the Canadian “way of life“ (Statistics Canada, 1986; House, 1992). The British throne, and its adaptation in Canadian society should also be mentioned as being a key determinant in shaping the institutions of Canadian society. For example, Canada, has adopted the British parliamentary traditions to its own system of government. Recreation activities of Canadians tend to be partially representative of North American culture as a whole. Access to media coming out of the United States has lead to the evolution of a partially shared recreational base between Canada and the United States. Activities such as disco dancing and rock music are equally representative of both Canadian and American societies. Yet other activities would appear to be uniquely Canadian, although they may have counterparts in the United States. Examples of such recreation activities are the festivals which portray 50 elements of French Canadian culture (i.e. Quebec Carnival), the exhibition of uniquely Canadian artists (i.e. The Group of Seven), and the social and service clubs that are wholly Canadian (i.e. the Canadian Legion). To participate in activities such as these does not necessarily make one a Canadian. Yet to participate primarily in these activities, while neglecting participation in activities that are representative of one's ethnic group, enhances the probability of accepting the traditions of Canada while rejecting or minimizing involvement in the traditions of the respective ethnic culture. Multicultural policy as well as immigration law in Canada, makes it possible for someone to identify with two or more cultures (with one being Canadian) and to have dual or more national citizenship statuses (with one being Canadian). This freedom not only provides individuals with a cultural choice, but also with the freedom to accept or reject the activities of particular cultures as well. GREEK CULTURE AND GREEK CULTURAL RECREATION ACTIVITIES The Greek ethnic group has often been called an ethno- religious group (Vlassis, 1953; Chimbos, 1980a; The Ottawa Cirizen, July 14, 1990). The primary attribute of Greek culture that makes it distinguishable from other ethnic groups is its tie to the Greek Orthodox Faith. The Greek language is another unique attribute of the Greek group which makes it culturally distinguishable (Gavaki, 1983a). 51 The influx of Greek immigrants into Canada not only brought its people, but also brought the Greek culture and way of life. As a result, immigrants became introduced to a different culture and found themselves in a state of ethnic marginality with “one foot in the homeland, and one foot in the new land“ (Martin and Franklin, 1973). Greek ethnic institutions were therefore established not only to provide for the cultural needs that were brought over from.the homeland, but to also preserve the Greek culture in the face of the new society. The general objective of Greek community organizations is to work hand-in-hand with individuals and their families in order to transmit the cultural symbols of Greece (Gavaki, 1983a). In order that assimilation be avoided, it is reasonable to assume that ethnic groups such as Greeks, must preserve and transmit some or all of the traditions and values of their homeland. Since social, psychological, and socio-psychological support systems were left behind in Greece (Gavaki, 1983a), it would appear that Greek immigrants would have a difficult time preserving their culture. This however does not seem to be the case. Greek immigrants in both Canada and the United States (Gavaki, 1983a; Mayone Stycos, 1965) do not appear to have had difficulty maintaining their culture. That is, their appears to be a high determination amongst immigrants to preserve Greek culture (Chimbos, 1980a; Chimbos, 1980b). 52 Perhaps this successful maintenance of culture is a result, due in part to participation in Greek cultural recreation activities. In order to understand the relevance of this assumption, a comprehension of the three main activities of Greek culture, that is recreation, religion and language, is necessary. Below is a review of literature emphasizing how it is possible for each of these activities to have an impact on ethnic group maintenance or assimilation. Greek Cultural Recreation: Greek cultural recreation activities consist of those activities that are unique to Greek culture. Recreation activities representative of Greek culture include the Greek media which portray aspects from Greek society or from Greece; recreational clubs that are unique to the Greek population (i.e. activities representing various residential districts in Greece); and Greek folk dances and festivals connoting different special occasions or celebrations of Greek culture. Gavaki (1979) has shown that for Greek families in which parents and children are Canadian born, identification tends to be more Canadian oriented and involvement in Greek manifestations is occasional. That is, descendants tend to be happy with dual identity and do not feel that they have to act in the Greek way (Gavaki, 1983b), which includes participating in Greek recreational activities. In respect to this finding The Ottawa Citizen (July 25, 1986), with 53 reference to the Greek Community of Ottawa, has claimed that Canada Day, a cultural recreation activity is comparable in importance as the celebration of Greek Independence Day to the Greek group. That is, significant Canadian recreation activities tend to match Greek recreation activities in level of importance by the Greek group and for many of the Greek immigrants as well. This however is not necessarily the case for Greek immigrants who according to Chimbos (1980a) identify to a greater extent with Greek culture rather than Canadian culture. Participation in Greek cultural recreational activities depends not only on the preferences of individuals, but also on the propensity of these activities to fulfil needs (Chimbos, 1980a; Karlis, 1990c). Recreational experiences must satisfy the basic physical, spiritual, mental, creative and cultural needs of individuals if they are to be participated in (Kraus, 1977; Swartz, 1990). When the basic recreational needs are fulfilled by an ethnic group, identification with the culture of that group may take place. The Greek group is no exception. It may thus be the case that the greater participation in Greek cultural recreation activities, the greater cultural identification with Greek ethnicity, and the greater the resistance to participating in the functions of dominant society. Greek cultural recreational activities, being a part of Greek culture, may act as a means to preserve culture 54 (Chimbos, 1987; 1986; Karlis, 1990c). The actual relationship between participation in recreation activities and cultural identity has not been adequately addressed by researchers who have examined Greek culture (Gavaki, 1979; 1983a; 1983b; Mayone Stycos, 1965; Saloutos, 1964; Stathopoulos, 1971; Vlassis, 1953; and Chimbos, 1980a). Although Greek cultural recreation activities can be highlighted as a unique part of Greek culture, no research has focused specifically on determining the relevance of recreation per se. Greek Orthodox Religion: Religion has been recognized as being a fundamental element for ethnic group identity (Burnet and Palmer, 1988). Religion is a means which bonds peOple together on certain beliefs and practices concerning the supernatural while in some cases distinguishing a certain group from others who identify with differing beliefs (Burnet and Palmer, 1988). To this extent, some religions are explicitly ethnic while others are de-ethnicizing. Religions that are explicitly ethnic may partially focus on addressing the concerns of the ethnic group in question, while religions that are de— ethnicizing tend to focus on the concerns of society as a whole. Jansen (1978) referring to explicit ethnic religions, has stated that the Church provides continuity between the old life in the ethnic society and the new life in the SS dominant society. Since the Church reduces contact with outsiders (Breton, Reitz, and Valentine, 1980) and dominant society, religion can be recognized as a means of ethnic group maintenance (Jansen, 1978; The Ottawa Citizen, January 6, 1991). It may thus be the case that a relationship exists between religion and the maintenance of ethnic culture for some ethnic groups. Contrary to these findings, Scourby (1984) has noted that community studies reveal a growing dichotomy between nationalism and religion. That is, a separation exists between nationhood and religion. It may be possible to preserve religion without ethnicity and ethnicity without religion. In this case, the respective religions of different ethnic groups can be said to overlap in regards to common principles and practices and thus become a force of de-ethnicizing ethnic groups. The contradictory viewpoints concerning the relationship between religion and the preservation of ethnicity make it feasible to assume that a relationship between the two will greatly depend on the type of ethnic group and its identification to religion. Gavaki (1983a) has stated that maintenance of “Greekness' refers to the preservation of the Greek Orthodox Faith. In other words, Hellenism is the combination of Greek culture and the Greek Orthodox tradition (Gavaki, 1893a; Schultz, 1978; Mayone Stycos, 1965; Chimbos, 1980a). To this extent, the Greek 56 Orthodox Faith has become largely explicitly ethnic (Burnet and Palmer, 1988). On the other hand however, the findings of Vlachos (1968), indicating a return of the third generation to Greek identification, offers the assumption that Greek culture can be maintained without religion. That is, people can identify themselves as being Greek without having any ties to the Greek Orthodox Faith. The preservation and practice of Greek Orthodoxy has been easy for Greeks in Greece because of the dominant appeal of religion. Despite the fact that only 1.5% of the total population is Eastern Orthodox (Statistics Canada, 1986), Greek immigrants appear to have an increased level of religiosity in Canada because of the fear of losing their identity (Stathopoulos, 1971; Saloutos, 1964). Nagata (1969) believes that in order for the Greek Orthodox Faith to survive newcomers must subscribe to its beliefs. It is through ethnic community organizations and' private institutions that individuals and families transmit the Greek Orthodox Faith (Gavaki, 1983a). According to Chimbos (1986), it is the Greek Orthodox Church which continues to play an important role in satisfying the spiritual needs of community members while reinforcing the Greek identity. An article in The Ottawa Citizen (July 25, 1986) claims that the rallying point of the Greek Community of Ottawa heading towards the third generation appears to be the Church. It is the immigrants who must therefore 57 maintain the Church in order to pass its traditions down to future generations. Favorable preferences and participation patterns of immigrants towards the Church will increase the probability that this institution, and the likelihood of the sustainability of a level of Greek cultural identification, will be sustained. Greek Language: The literature on cultural language reveals that as the time since immigration increases, the maintenance and practice of ethnic language will continue to decrease (Reitz and Ashton, 1980; Crispino, 1980; Sawaie and Fishman, 1985; Saint Jacques, 1976; and von Raffler Engel, 1979). As time in dominant society also increases, immigrants utilize and practice their ethnic tongue to a lesser extent choosing to communicate more frequently in the language of the dominant society. According to Wardhaugh (1983) and Edwards and Shearn (1987), if language was the essential attribute of ethnic group survival, language loss would mean the loss of ethnic cultural identity. If this is the case, immigrants who immigrated at a younger age, and have dwelled in dominant society for a long period of time, will be more likely to identify with the culture of dominant society, particularly if they have become integrated into the host culture.- Notwithstanding this however, research has revealed that ethnicity can survive without language retention (Fishman, 1972; Lieberson, 1970). 58 It can therefore be said that the preservation of language depends on the preferences and participation patterns of individuals toward the use of the language in question. HofmanJand Cais (1984) believe that the language of origin is positively associated with favorable intrinsic motives, sentiments and habits. Preferences for the ethnic tongue will likely enhance its use. According to Reitz (1974), the maintenance of language is important for the preservation of ethnicity, but as mentioned above it may not be essential. However, if language is not practiced, it may be that the other cultural activities are not powerful enough to sustain ethnic groups (Stadler, 1983; Lieberson, 1970). That is, it may be that religion and recreation are not powerful enough for the maintenance of ethnicity in multicultural societies. Although the Greek ethnic group appears to be strongly in favor of language retention (Chimbos, 1980a; Chimbos, 1980b; Gavaki, 1979), the integration of the English language into community functions such as Church services (The Ottawa Citizen, July 25, 1986) indicates that preferences toward the preservation of the Greek language may not be all that strong. Studies by Kourvetaries (1976) and Gavaki (1983b) appear to support this finding by claiming that English language use has increased among Greek immigrants. On the other hand, Statistics Canada (1981) indicates that 75% of Greeks in Montreal speak Greek at 59 home, whereas only 22% speak English and 3% speak French. Since statistics from Statistics Canada are representative of the nation-wide Greek population of Canada, the results suggest that cultural language tends to be important for most Greek families in Canada. This trend appears to be related to the findings for the Ottawa-Carleton Greek group, they found that approximately 66% of Greeks claim Greek as their first language (The Ottawa Citirgr, July 25, 1986). Although some literature claims that language may not be important for the preservation of cultural identity, most research tends to indicate that it is at least associated with cultural identity. In conclusion, there is limited data to suggest language may be important for the preservation of identity. With regards to the Greek community, the Greek language represents a distinguishable part of Greek culture enhancing Greek identity. Synopsis of Greek Culture: The review of literature on Greek culture reveals that it may be possible to maintain the culture of this ethnic group only through the adherence to one cultural activity.° Yet it may be assumed that the acceptance of more than one cultural activity would probably enhance the degree of attachment to Greek culture. Although recreation, religion and language all appear to be important for the maintenance of Greek culture in multicultural society, the literature reveals that each is important in its own way for making the 60 Greek culture identifiable. That is, each cultural activity, both individually and as a whole, has an impact on the degree of maintenance of Greek culture.- PREFERENCES FOR AND PARTICIPATION IN CULTURAL ACTIVITIES AND CULTURAL IDENTITY An element of cultural theory, cultural identity, has often been equated with national pride. To acknowledge cultural identity, one must have some emotional attachment to the cultural group in question. To have some emotional attachment with a cultural heritage, one must engage in some participation in the activities representative of the culture and/or have positive preferences toward the features of a particular culture (Issacs, 1975; Vallee, 1975; Driedger and Peters, 1977; Reitz and Ashton, 1980; and McGivern, 1979; Aguilar, 1990a; Harrington, 1991). According to Wildavsky (1987) preferences come from living with other people. In multicultural societies, the opportunity to interact with those belonging to one's ethnic group and those belonging to the dominant group, brings about the decision to select the culture of one's preference. From this premise, it can be said that support for and opposition to different ways of life plus the shared values legitimizing social relations, are the generators of preference (Wildavsky, 1987). Preferences come from the interests people have (Wildavsky, 1987; Bindle, Bank and Slavings, 1987). 61 Individuals presumably size up the situation, distinguish interests, and choose their preferred behaviour (Wildavsky, 1987; Harrington, 1991). Although evidence suggests that a relationship exists between preferences and behaviour (Bindle, Bank, Anderson, Hauge, Keats, Keats, Marlin and Valentin, 1985; Adler, 1983; Murphy and Lithopoulos, 1988), little research has evolved concerning the relationship between preferences, participation, and cultural identity (Bindle, Bank and Slavings, 1987). Yet from the literature that exists, a relationship has been noted between identity and participation (Gecas, 1982; Rosenberg, 1979; 1981; Stryker, 1985; wylie, 1979; Blanck, 1989; Aguilar, 1990a). Despite this, researchers have differed over the years about the central conceptual processes that formulate social behaviour (Bindle, Bank and Slavings, 1987). To conceptualize the relationship between preferences, participation and identity, three theories of preferences should be pinpointed. These theories make it possible to acknowledge the cognitive thrusts which precipitate choice. These theories are the economic, political, and cultural theories of preference (Wildavsky, 1987). The economic theory of preference assumes that choice is external. Preferences come from or are “shaped“ by exogenous factors, external to the individual being considered. Under this train of thought, preferences are tastes which lead to action or some form of behavioral 62 participation leading to monetary benefits (Michael and Becker, 1976). That is, a choice exists, and the preferred selection reflects the outcome which is perceived to be the most beneficial within economic reason (Tse, Lee, Vertinsky, and Wehrung, 1988). According to Wildavsky (1987), if preferences are fixed and have a direct effect on the process of choice, as stated in economic theory, then no formal means of inquiry can be made as to how decision- making evolves. In other words, preferences or “actions“ are based on economic benefits, and the feasibility of monetary gain. Political theory claims that preferences are modelled through political experiences (March and Olsen, 1984). That is, preferences are formed through opposing and supporting institutions. Preferences are formed by the philosophies of external agents and these result in the acceptance of a particular behaviour and identification of a group of people. This is evident through the assumption that the activities one participates in are likely to be influenced by the political philosophy one acknowledges. Thus, political theory assumes that action and preferences precipitate out of accepted ideologies (i.e. such as those of a particular ethnic group) prescribing a certain norm of behaviour . Cultural theory, on the other hand, asserts the notion that when individuals make important decisions these choices 63 are made simultaneously with choices of culture, that is, shared values legitimating different patterns of social practices (Wildavsky, 1987). The basic dimensions of cultural theory are based on answers to two questions: Who am.I?, and What should I do? This implies that the basic dimensions of cultural theory are founded on finding out what one prefers, what one participates in, and who one thinks one is, thus making it possible to conceptualize a broad perspective of the individuals' way of life. As soon as one subscribes to a certain way of life, preferences and decisions leading to certain behaviours evolve out of what action is deemed as conforming to that particular situation or selected way of life. Preferences are thus partially shaped by the social forces of a culture that prescribe what is appropriate behavior. Similar to the conceptualizations of the economic and political theories, the principle ideology of cultural theory suggests preferences and participation are related to the identity of the individual. The relationship of these three theories can thus be said to form the cognitive basis from.which preferences evolve. Preferences, leading to participation, should be related to identity, specifically cultural identity. According to Rotheram and Phinney (1987), cultural identity is defined as “one's sense of belonging to an ethnic group and the part of one's thinking, perceptions 64 feelings and behaviour that is due to ethnic group membership“ (p. 13). Literature concerned with cultural identity reveals that the measurement of this variable consists of recognizing the emotional attachment of individuals to the national group (Gavaki, 1991; Jackson, 1990; Issacs, 1975; Vallee, 1975; and Driedger and Peters, 1977). That is, a cognitive framework has been used to analyze cultural identity or the degree of attachment of individuals to ethnicity (Phinney, 1989; Bernal, Knight, Garcia, Ocampo, and Cota, 1990). As a means of measuring identification with culture, past studies have focused on collecting information concerning the closeness of ties to one's nationality, the importance one attaches to national identity, and the use of a cultural identity label to describe oneself (see Gavaki, 1983). In other words, “self— labelling“ (Aguilar, 1990a; 1990b) has been used as a means by which immigrants identity themselves. Cultural identity as it reflects the “self-labelling“ of immigrants consists of three dimensions: collective identity, individual identity, and external identity (Herberg, 1989). Collective identity refers to cultural practices such as those which precipitate out of preferences and participation in cultural activities such as religion, language and recreation. External identity consists of factors in which the individual has no control over, such as age at immigration and time since immigration as situations 65 which are ongoing and cannot be controlled. Whereas, individual identity refers to the emotional attachment within the individual which is shaped towards a particular ethnic group. To this extent, it is possible that individual perceptions shaping cultural identity can be shaped by collective, intrinsic or external factors. That is to say, cultural identity is a product of the feelings of people towards aspects of a certain culture and how elements of a particular culture (i.e. social institutions such as political structures) influence or convince one to undertake certain actions or feelings. According to Issacs (1975), cultural identity is developed through participation in any cultural activity representative of the particular cultural group, including recreation. Singh (1977), for example, claims that the cultural activities of a second language, preparation of ethnic foods, listening to ethnic music, having ethnic friends, and reading ethnic literature are related to ethnic identity. The activities of culture, such as religion, language and recreation, may thus in whole or in part be representative of cultural identity. An attachment to any one of these cultural activities may retard integration into the dominant society. If an attachment to some or all of the activities of ethnic culture are maintained, integration becomes retarded to a greater degree. Yet, studies show that in order to maintain cultural identity, only one 66 attribute of ethnic culture need be maintained (Issacs, 1975; Stadler, 1983). To depict the relationship of cultural identity to the activities of culture, cultural analysis studies have focused on understanding the relevance of cultural activity preferences and participation patterns to identification. In order to ascertain that a relationship exists between cultural activities and cultural identity, an analysis of the preferences and participation patterns of the activities of the culture in question must be conducted. Yet it is also relevant to note that a number of other factors may have an impact on the culture one identifies with. Factors such as age, time since immigration from the ethnic homeland, nationality and cultural identify of friends, and nationality and cultural identity of the family one is living with. Factors such as these however tend to be secondary in importance when compared to the factors of cultural activities for cultural identity (Gavaki, 1983a; Kourvetaries, 1976; Isajiw, 1981; 1978; Melville, 1980). For this reason, only a brief review of these other factors which may have an impact on cultural identity will be presented in this literature review. Other Factors Which May Have An Impact on Cgltural Identity: To understand the impact of preferences in cultural activities and participation in cultural activities on cultural identity, it is helpful to be cognizant of external 67 conditions such as age of immigrants at the time of immigration and time since immigration on the self— identification of such individuals. Integration theory denotes that the longer immigrants have been in dominant society, and the younger their age at immigration, the less likely they are to identify with their ethnic culture (Gordon, 1964; Park, 1950; Atkinson, Morten and Sue, 1979; Monos, 1986; Gelfand, 1982; Montero, 1981). Furthermore, immigrants who integrated at a young age, are presently older in age, and have been in dominant society for a longer time period, are more likely to be more integrated into dominant society. To more comprehensively understand the impact of preferences for cultural activities and participation in cultural activities on cultural identity, the external factors of age at immigration and time since immigration should also be studied. Social conditions that have an impact on the ethnic cultural identity of individuals include household composition (such as birthplace and nationality of spouse, birthplace and age of children, and presence of immigrant parents) and the social makeup of the workplace (such as nationality of co—workers and customers). Birthplace and nationality of spouse are often cited as being important variables for the maintenance of cultural identity by immigrants. According to Kobayashi (1991), immigrants who have married outside their cultural group 68 have decreased their involvement in the cultural pursuits of the ethnic group. Furthermore, of immigrants who have married outside their cultural group, those who have children are probably more likely to be integrated into dominant society than immigrants who have married outside their cultural group but have no children. Marriage outside one's cultural group could affect immigrants“ identity. Spouse's of immigrants who are a part of the dominant society will probably have a stronger impact on the integration of immigrants into dominant society, than spouses who are a part of other ethnic groups (Kourvetaries, 1976; Mayone Stycos, 1965). Immigrants who have children, particularly school age children, are more likely to have stronger ties with ethnicity than immigrants who have no children (Adamopoulos, 1991). Yet this finding may be questioned since immigrants who have children born in the dominant society are more likely to feel the acculturation affects of their children and in turn become more integrated into dominant society. Despite these findings, immigrants who take the initiative and promote ethnic culture to their children are more likely to have favorable preferences towards the activities of ethnicity and subsequently identify with their respective ethnic culture (Chimbos, 1990). The presence of ethnic parents of immigrants living in the same households could also have an effect on association 69 with ethnic culture. Immigrants who have one or both of their parents living with them are more likely to have more favorable opinions towards the ethnic culture due to the impact of the presence of their parents. The parents of immigrants often act as agents of ethnic cultural transmission, even if they do not promote ethnic culture, by sharing the memories that they bring with them concerned with ethnic culture (Chimbos, 1990). The nationality of co-workers (or even customers to places where immigrants are employed), in addition to the nature of the place of employment (i.e. producing or selling ethnic products) could also have an impact on the attachment of immigrants to ethnic culture (Griffith, 1990; Chimbos, 1987). Immigrants who work with ethnic compatriots, and produce or sell products representative of ethnic culture, are more likely to favor the activities of ethnic culture (McCall, 1973; Wacquant and Wilson, 1988). According to Dawson (1986) employment, and subsequently the workplace, is the source by which individuals identify themselves. Immigrants who work in areas representative of some aspect of their culture are more likely to identify with their ethnic culture. The aforementioned is a list of only a few additional variables which may be related with one's cultural identity. Thus, a number of variables extending beyond the variables of cultural activities may have an impact on cultural 70 identity. The impact of variables other than those of cultural activities tend to be external to the immigrant, that is, for the most part may be affected by involuntary conditions occurring outside of the free choice of the individual (Herberg, 1989). On the other hand, the varia- bles of cultural activities tend to be collective, relying on the voluntary, free choice efforts of the individual (Herberg, 1989). For this study, the focus of collective identity centered on the voluntary, free choice efforts of the immigrant will be highlighted to examine cultural identity. The cultural activities “preferred“ and actually “participated“ in by immigrants will be studied. CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES The specific research objective of this study is to examine if a relationship exists between preferences for cultural recreation activities, participation in cultural recreation activities, and cultural identity of Greek immigrants of Toronto. This chapter presents the methodology and procedures that were utilized to undertake this research. It is divided into four parts: subject population, test instrument, distribution of test instrument, and data analysis. Subject Population: The Greek population of the City of Toronto consists of approximately 12,000 people, within this number are included immigrants, their descendants, and the children of descendants (Ontario’s Greek Telephone Guide, 1990). For the purpose of this study, individuals, whose family names are Greek and appear in the “City of Toronto“ section of Ontario's Greek Telephone Guide 1990 (published by T.T. Milionis Ltd.) have been used. This directory, which is derived from a census count of Greek individuals living in this region, was used because it is the most comprehensive listing available that can be used as a mailing list for the Greek population of Toronto. It is relevant to note that the population group is made up only of individuals living in the City of Toronto. 71 72 Individuals living in the surrounding neighbouring municipalities of Toronto such as Mississauga, Ajax, Scarborough, and North York have been excluded from this study. These municipalities were excluded because it is believed that individuals living in these outlying areas do not have the same access to Greek culturally specific activities and services as do those living in the City of Toronto itself; the municipality in which an identifiable "Greektown" is located. Using the data available from the aforementioned Greek telephone directory, 12,000 potential members of the target population were identified. These individuals were chosen not only because of the availability of the population list, but also because it is assumed that such an exhaustive and encompassing list will eliminate any bias that would prevail if only a selected segment of the population were chosen (i.e., such as focusing those belonging to one of the twelve Greek associations which make up the Greek Community of Toronto). Such a limited segment would not be representative of the Greek population of Toronto as a whole. A total of 500 subjects were randomly selected. The final sample group consists of those subjects who are immigrants conforming to the following characteristics: (1) they were born in Greece, and (2) both of their parents were born in Greece. These restrictions have been applied in an 73 attempt to eliminate bias that might be caused by factors such as subjects being born in Canada but listed in the Toronto section of Ontario’s Greek Telephone Guide; or subjects having one parent born in Canada and listed in this guide. Questionnaires were addressed to the names of the selected individuals as listed in this directory. Respondents were mostly male because of the primarily "male- name“ dominated telephone directory utilized by the Greek Community of Toronto. Test Instrument: The test instrument consists of four sections: section one focuses on information concerning participation in cultural activities; section two focuses on information about preferences for cultural activities; section three focuses on information about cultural identity; and section four focuses on information concerning the background (demographics) of subjects. Participation in Cultural Activities: This section of the test instrument presents information having to do with participation in cultural activities, that is, the activities of recreation, religion and language. The focus of this section is on participation of Greek immigrants in cultural recreation activities. It is here that information is collected concerning the independent variable of participation in cultural recreation activities. The objective is to find out whether or not '3 (7' ,. u. 74 Greek immigrants participate in only Greek cultural recreation activities, a combination of both Greek and Canadian cultural recreation activities, or only Canadian cultural recreational activities. The scale used by Aguilar (1990a: 1990b) to measure participation in cultural activities (including recreation activities) is the primary instrument adapted for the construction of this section of the questionnaire. The scale of ethnic culture used to measure cultural involvement by Gavaki (1983a; 1983b) and a similar cultural perception and participation scale constructed by Karlis (1987) have also been used to develop this part of the instrument. The scales of Aguilar, Gavaki and Karlis have been designed to analyze the cultural participation patterns of ethnic individuals. In Aguilar’s scale for example, the self reported measure of participation involvement of Mexican-Americans in activities of either Mexican culture or American culture have been compared. Aguilar’s scale ranges from participation in activities that are representative of: (1) only American culture, (2) both American and Mexican culture, and (3) only Mexican culture. Similarly, Gavaki's and Karlis’ scales also focus on comparing participation patterns in culture activities. In both of these scales, the emphasis is placed on comparing the self reported measure of participation involvement of Greek immigrants by utilizing the classifications of either 75 "only Canadian“, “a combination of Canadian and Greek“, and "only Greek“ activities. More specifically, both of these scales identify participation in culture as ranging from: (1) only non-Greek, (2) mostly non-Greek, (3) an equal amount of non-Greek and Greek, (4) mostly Greek, and (5) only Greek. Based on these scales used previously, participation in cultural activities, including the cultural activities of recreation, were measured and scored according to the following response format: (1) only non—Greek, (2) mostly non-Greek, (3) equal non—Greek and Greek, (4) mostly Greek, and (5) only Greek. The scale used in this study to measure participation in cultural recreation activities consists of nine items. These nine items make up questions one to nine in the section of the test instrument entitled “Participation in Cultural Activities“ (Appendix A). These items consist of three questions having to do with cultural media activities, three dealing with cultural social activities, and three on cultural arts activities. For all multi—item scales, the simple sum of the item scores was used to arrive at the final scale score. To illustrate the relationship between items a correlation matrix of the nine items is presented in Table 1. As can be seen in Table 1, reasonably strong inter—item correlations exist between most of the items. The 76 correlation coefficients for the most part fall between .20 and .40, thus indicating acceptable inter-item correlations. The highest inter-item correlation is between parties and dances (.602). The lowest inter-item correlation is between clubs and restaurants (.106). Since most items presented in this scale reveal consistent correlation coefficient scores between .20 and .40, it was decided that all should be considered in the development of the scale. The scale for participation in cultural recreation activities, being a multi—item scale consisting of nine items, was tested for reliability. Through the use of the alpha model (Table l), a maximum estimate of the reliability coefficient was obtained. The reliability coefficients revealed that in fact the scale used for participation in cultural recreational activities was reliable. A alpha score of .834 and a standardized alpha score of .834 both indicate a high degree of internal consistency. It was concluded that all items should be used to form the scale for participation in cultural recreation activities. For the purpose of further analysis, five additional scales were constructed from questions posed in the "Participation in Cultural Activities“ section of the questionnaire (Appendix A). 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These are .830 and .837 respectively. Moreover, the correlations for the variables participation in cultural social activities and participation in cultural arts activities reveal very high correlation coefficients with participation in cultural recreation, .813 and .846 respectively. As mentioned by Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner and Bent (1975), a correlation coefficient between .800 and 1.000 implies that variables are measuring the same thing, thus presenting a risk of multicollinearity. Since this is so, and due to the fact that some were not reliable, the sub- scales for preferences and participation in cultural recreation were not utilized for further analysis in this study. Furthermore, the additional variables revealed in literature as having a relationship with cultural identity were also included in the correlation matrix. Two of these variables indicated a positive relationship with cultural identity, yet both of these correlation coefficients were very low, age at immigration with cultural identity (.092), and participation in the recreation activities of the Greek community of Toronto with cultural identity (.027). The 131 other variables indicated a low negative score, -.073 for the correlation coefficient of time since immigration with cultural identity. Thus the correlation coefficients for these three additional variables reveal that all three do not have a strong zero order relationship with cultural identity. To explore these further, however, it was decided that these variables should be included in the data analysis. For the purpose of the analysis, it was deemed that the planned stepwise regression technique was most suitable for this study. The literature reveals that religion and language tend to be consistently related to cultural identity. To affirm these relationships, these two variables represented by four scales would be used first as independent variables in the regression analysis. Then, by adding recreation to these independent variables, it would be possible to examine how much recreation contributes to the understanding of cultural identity. Thus, the planned stepwise regression technique allows for variables to be entered into a regression analysis individually. It is therefore possible to examine the degree to which each of these has an impact on the dependent variable. It should be noted that throughout this study, the relationship between preferences for cultural recreation activities and cultural identity, and the relationship 132 between participation in cultural recreation activities and cultural identity, were examined independently. This is so because the literature reveals that it is possible to participate in a activity while not necessarily preferring it over others (Wildavsky, 1987; Bindle, Bank and Slavings, 1987). The literature also reveals that it is possible to prefer an activity while not participating in it (Wildavsky, 1987; Bindle, Bank and Slavings, 1987). As seen in the correlation matrix, correlations between preferences and participation scales are strong but in no case were any of these above .80. Grant that there is not a one-to—one relationship between the preference scales and the participation scales both would be included in further analyses. As a starting point, the variables for cultural religion were entered into the stepwise regression. Cultural religion was selected to be entered first because the correlation coefficient for preference in cultural religion exceeded the correlation coefficients for cultural language. Table 33 presents the results of the stepwise analysis for cultural religion. This table reveals a multiple R between cultural identity and preferences and participation in cultural religion of .345. Thus there is an R square of .119, which is the explanatory power of the regression, indicating the proportion of variance in the dependent 133 variable that is explained by the independent variables. Table 33 reveals a significant T score (2.858) for preferences in cultural religion. Thus this variable is significantly related to cultural identity. On the other hand, the variable of participation in cultural religion is not statistically significant, with a t—value of -.819. TABLE 33 STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR CULTURAL RELIGION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY Dependent Variable: Cultural Identity Variable Entered on Step: 1. Preferences in Cultural Religion 2. Participation in Cultural Religion Multiple R .345 R Square .119 Adjusted R Square .100 Standard Error 1.038 DF Sum of Squares Mean Square Regression 2 13.297 6.648 Residual 91 98.074 1.077 F = 6.169 Significant F = .003 Variable B SE B Beta T Sig T 1. .569 .199 .428 2.858 .005 2. -.134 .163 -.122 —.819 .414 (Constant) 1.704 .619 2.752 .007 The beta score for preferences in cultural religion is .428, whereas the beta score for participation in cultural religion is -.122. The beta score for preferences in cultural religion indicates that a differences of one 134 standard deviations in preferences in cultural religion is predicted to cause a difference of .428 standard deviations in cultural identity. Because the correlation coefficient is positive, it reveals that a higher score of preferences is equated with a higher score of cultural identity. Table 34 presents the second step of the planned stepwise regression analysis. In this table, the variables for cultural language are included in the analysis with the variables for cultural religion. The results reveal a multiple R of .392 and an R square of .154. Both of these have increased, from the previous analysis as a result of the addition of the variable cultural language. Of note, R square which presents the explanatory power of the regression indicates that the proportion of variance explained in the dependent variable has increased as a result of the inclusion of the variable cultural identity. Thus, the explained variance in cultural identity increased from 11.9% (R Square = .119 in Table 33) to 15.4% (R Square = .154 in Table 34). The scale for preferences for cultural religion is still significant as seen in Table 34. Although this is not as significant as the previous analysis focusing only on cultural religion (p<.005), this variable continues to be significant beyond the .05 level. As a result of the addition of cultural language, the beta score for preferences in cultural religion also lowered to .380, yet 135 this continues to reveal a modestly high positive score indicating a favourable relationship between cultural identification and cultural religion. For participation in cultural religion, a non—significant T score remained and a negative beta continued after the inclusion of cultural language to the analysis. Again, this reveals no significant relationship between participation in cultural religion and cultural identity. TABLE 34 STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR CULTURAL RELIGION, CULTURAL LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL IDENTITY Dependent Variable: Cultural Identity Variable Entered on Step: 1. Preferences in Cultural Religion 2. Participation in Cultural Religion 3. Cultural Language Use 4. Preferences in Cultural Language Use Multiple R .392 R Square .154 Adjusted R Square .114 Standard Error 1.042 DF Sum of Squares Mean Square Regression 4 16.677 4.169 Residual 84 91.367 1.087 F = 3.833 Significant F = .006 Variable B SE B Beta T Sig T 1. .513 .227 .380 2.253 .026 2. -.142 .167 -.130 -.851 .397 3. .104 .128 .108 .811 .419 4. .048 .123 .050 .390 .697 (Constant) 1.486 .642 2.313 .023 136 For preferences in cultural language use and cultural language use, significance levels of .419 and .637 were found respectively. In addition, both of these variables presented low beta scores, with .108 for cultural language use and .050 for preferences in cultural language use. It was thus concluded that a significant relationship does not exist between preferences in cultural language and cultural identity, and cultural language use and cultural identity. The third step in the planned stepwise regression analysis focused on the inclusion of cultural recreation with the variables of cultural religion and cultural language. This analysis is presented in Table 35. This table reveals that as a result of the inclusion of the variables of preferences for cultural recreation and participation in cultural recreation, the multiple R score has increased to .420 from .392. Furthermore, as a result of the addition of the cultural recreation, the R square has also increased from .154 to .177. This reveals that the proportion of variance explained in cultural identity has increased as a result of adding cultural recreation from 15.4% to 17.7%. As was the case in the previous two analysis, the variable for preferences in cultural religion is found to be significantly related to cultural identity at the .05 level with a significant T score of 2.219. The beta for this variable remains consistently high indicating a relationship 137 between preferences in Greek cultural religion and cultural identity. The variables for participation in cultural religion, cultural language use, and preferences in cultural language use, as revealed in the previous two analysis, were not found to be significantly related to cultural identity. Each of these also present low negative beta scores. TABLE 35 STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR CULTURAL RELIGION, CULTURAL LANGUAGE, CULTURAL RECREATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY Dependent Variable: Cultural Identity Variable Entered on Step: Preferences in Cultural Religion Participation in Cultural Religion Cultural Language Use Preferences in Cultural Language Use Preferences in Cultural Recreation Participation in Cultural Recreation aunt-paws» Multiple R .420 R Square .177 Adjusted R Square .116 Standard Error 1.041 DF Sum of Squares Mean Square Regression 6 19.142 3.190 Residual 82 88.902 1.084 F = 2.942 Significant F = .011 Variable B SE B Beta T Sig T 1. .505 .227 .375 2.219 .029 2. —.182 .171 —.166 -1.061 .291 3. -.005 .153 -.005 .034 .973 4. -.074 .148 -.078 .500 .618 5. .331 .223 .309 1.483 .142 6. -.053 .174 -.050 -.309 .758 (Constant) 1.423 .643 2.214 .029 138 Both preferences in cultural recreation and participation in cultural recreation were not found to contribute significantly to the equation. However, in comparison to other scales the beta score for the preferences in cultural recreation variable was found to be positive (.309) and the t-test was marginal (p<.142). The variable participation in cultural recreation activities is not significant (p=.758) and has a low negative beta (—.050). This reveals that this scale does not contribute significantly to the equation. A fourth step was taken in the analysis of data. The objective of this step was to include other variables related to cultural identity as revealed in the literature. These variables, age at immigration, time since immigration, and participation in the recreation services of ethnic communities (in this case the Greek Community of Toronto), did not reveal high positive correlation coefficients in the first—order matrix, yet in order to provide further exploration of their impact on cultural identity, they were included in the regression analysis. Table 36 presents the stepwise regression analysis and the inclusion of these variables. This table reveals that as a result of the addition of these variables, the multiple R and R squared have decreased to .397 and .158 respectively. Furthermore, the significance of T and the beta scores have also decreased 139 for each variable. Of note, preferences in cultural religion and preferences in cultural recreation, still are the two variables with the highest scores, but neither is now significant according to the T scores. TABLE 36 STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR CULTURAL RELIGION, CULTURAL LANGUAGE, AND CULTURAL RECREATION AND OTHER VARIABLES Dependent Variable: Cultural Identity Variable Entered on Step: 1. Preferences in Cultural Religion Participation in Cultural Religion Cultural Language Use Preferences in Cultural Language Use Preferences in Cultural Recreation Participation in Cultural Recreation . Age at Immigration Participation in the Recreation Activities of the Greek Community of Toronto 9. Time Since Immigration ooqoxmpww Multiple R .397 R Square .158 Adjusted R Square .039 Standard Error 1.050 DF Sum of Squares Mean Square Regression 9 13.291 1.476 Residual 64 70.668 1.104 F = 1.337 Significant F = .235 Variable B SE B Beta T Sig T 1. .422 .255 .305 1.656 .102 2. -.178 .186 -.166 -.960 .340 3. .014 .179 .015 .081 .935 4. .035 .178 .037 .199 .842 5. .259 .270 .246 .961 .340 6. -.059 .190 -.059 -.312 .756 7. -.002 .186 -.166 -.960 .340 8. -.033 .110 -.037 —.307 .759 9. —.237 256 —.114 .927 .357 (Constant) 2.990 1 440 2.076 .042 140 Each of the three variables that were added in this step were not found to be significantly related with cultural identity. Moreover, these variables of age at immigration (-.166), participation in the recreation activities of the Greek community of Toronto (-.037), and time since imnmgration (-.114) all revealed negative beta scores. Coupled with the fact that both the multiple R and the R squared were slightly reduced as a result of the inclusion of these additional variables, it was concluded that the variables of age at immigration, participation in the recreation activities of the Greek Community of Toronto, and time since immigration did not contribute substantially to an understanding of the variance in cultural identity. CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this study was to examine if a relationship exists between cultural recreation and cultural identity for Greek immigrants of Toronto. More ' specifically, the study was conducted to examine the nature of two key relationships: that a relationship exists between preferences for cultural recreation and cultural identity; and that a relationship exists between participation in cultural recreation and cultural identity. This chapter presents the summary and conclusions of this study, as well as implications, limitations and recommendations for future studies. The chapter is organized in the following manner: (1) a summary of the results for the hypotheses of this study, (2) conclusions of the results of the hypotheses testing, (3) further findings, (4) descriptive findings of recreation, and (5) recommendations, limitations and implications. Summary of the Results for the Hypotheses Tested: The null hypotheses of this study were stated as follows: Null Hypothesis 1: No relationship exists between preferences for cultural recreation activities and cultural identity for Greek immigrants of Toronto. 141 142 Null Hypothesis 2: No relationship exists between participation levels in cultural recreation activities and cultural identity for Greek immigrants of Toronto. Religion and language have been viewed as the two cultural variables most likely to determine cultural identity, hence their relationship to identity was examined as well. As cited in the review of literature, recreation has been viewed as being at most secondary in importance to the cultural variables of religion and language in cultural research. This study provides a means to determine whether or not recreation is related to cultural identity. Thus, the premise behind the analysis of this study was to first examine the cultural variables traditionally associated with cultural identity, and, second, add the variable of cultural recreation to determine its relationship with cultural identity. This would make it possible to compare the contribution of cultural recreation with that of the cultural variables of religion and language. To test the hypotheses, a planned stepwise regression analysis technique was utilized. This procedure consisted of the following steps: (1) entering the variable of cultural religion to the analysis; (2) entering the variable of cultural language into the analysis; (3) entering the variable of cultural recreation into the analysis; and (4) 143 entering other variables presented in the literature as contributing to cultural identity (age at immigration, time since immigration, and participation in the recreation services of ethnic community organizations). The results of this analysis make it difficult to conclude that cultural recreation makes a contribution to the variance in cultural identity. When entered in a regression analysis with cultural religion and cultural language, the strength of the correlation with cultural identity increased, yet this increase is only minimal. The multiple R and R square did increase from the previous steps which included only religion and language. The increase for the multiple R was from .392 to .420, and the increase in the R square was from .154 to .177. The inclusion of cultural recreation, therefore, adds a small, but not significant proportion of the variance in understanding self reported cultural identity. To this end, it can be concluded that recreation did not contribute significantly to cultural identity beyond the contribution already made by traditional variables. Preferences in cultural religion continued to be a significant contributing variable in each equation. The addition of other theoretically related variables to the equation (time since immigration, age at immigration, and participation in the recreation services of ethnic community organizations) did not improve the equation and 144 offered little additional information. Thus, the results of this analysis reveal that preferences for cultural recreation and participation in cultural recreation did not reveal significant relationships with cultural identity in this set of regression equations. Nonetheless, the zero-order correlation between cultural identity and preferences for cultural recreation was modest at .302, suggesting some limited level of association between the two variables. Conclusions of the Results for the Hypotheses Tested: The review of literature (Chapter 3), indicated that not all past research has completely overlooked recreation as an element of culture. Some studies have claimed that cultural recreation is not only an important element of culture as a whole, but may also be relevant to the culture, more specifically the ethnic culture, with which one identifies (Hall and Rhyme, 1989; Malpass, 1973; Dembrowski, 1988; Hartzog, 1990). The results of this study make it difficult to support the findings of Breton, Reitz and Valentine (1980), Horna (1987a), Munro (1987), Sarantakos (1980), Chase and Cheek (1979), Carpenter and Howe (1985), and Heron (1990) which suggest that cultural recreation is directly associated to cultural identity. The results of this study also lend little support to the studies of Aguilar (1990a) Chimbos (1986), and Karlis (1990c) claiming that preferences for cultural recreation activities may be 145 associated with cultural identity. The intent of this study was to further address the need in Canada to examine the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity as originally suggested by Malpass (1973). The results of this study based on the contribution of recreation to the regression analysis, and the modest zero-order correlation of this variable with cultural identity, make it difficult to support the view that there is an important association of cultural recreation to cultural identity. It does, however, respond to the call for expanded research made by government agencies such as Multiculturalism Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Tourism and Recreation (Hall and Rhyme, 1989; Dembrowski, 1988; Burnet and Palmer, 1988; Bolla and Dawson, 1989). Studies such as those of Kraus (1977) and Swartz (1990) claim that physical, spiritual, mental and creative needs of culture are more important than “cultural recreation" per se. Their view is that other elements of culture such as religion and language are more important for the determination of cultural identity than is recreation. Indeed, one can conclude from the results of this study that religion tends to be more closely associated to cultural identity than recreation. This does not mean, however, that the effect of recreation can be completely dismissed as negligible. It does however suggest that alternative 146 explanations could account for the results of this study. From literature having to do with the theories of cultural maintenance and cultural integration, it was posited that recreation preferences and participation patterns can influence cultural identity, and subsequently whether or not immigrants will maintain their ethnic culture or assimilate into mainstream society (Gordon, 1964; Atkinson, Morten and Sue, 1979; Breton, 1964: Isajiw, 1981; Driedger, 1975). While reflecting upon the relevant information presented in these theories (see Chapter 2), the results of this study make it difficult to conclude that cultural recreation is an important variable for either maintaining ethnic identity or adopting the identity of the dominant society. Further research is needed, particularly in respect to drawing a direct linkage between cultural identity and the stages of cultural integration. Further Findings: The major focus of this study is on recreation as an element of culture. To assist in exploring this focus, however, emphasis was also placed on two other important cultural variables; religion and language. As a means of comparing the main findings of this study with the findings of other cultural studies, preferences and participation in cultural religion, and preferences in cultural language use and actual cultural language use for Greek immigrants were 147 examined. In respect to these other cultural variables, this study showed a significant relationship to exist only between preferences for cultural religion and cultural identity. This result supports the findings from studies of Jansen (1978), Shultz (1978), Mayone Stycos (1965), and Chimbos (1980a) claiming that cultural religion is related to cultural identity. In other words, cultural religion can help determine the culture with which one identifies. The findings of studies such as Scourby (1984) and Karlis (1987) claiming that cultural religion is not important for the determination of cultural identity, were not supported by the results of this study. Studies such as these present the possibility that one's cultural identity can be determined without any involvement in cultural religion. Despite the existence of a number of studies claiming that a relationship does not exist between cultural religion and cultural identity, most studies tend to claim that such a relationship does exist. The results of this study provide at least some support to past studies claiming that a relationship exists between cultural religion and cultural identity. Furthermore, the results for cultural language and cultural identity are not strong enough to offer support to the findings by Wardhaugh (1983), Reitz (1974), and 148 Lieberson (1970). These studies stem from the common base which supports the existence of a relationship between cultural language use and cultural identity. Moreover, the results of this study support the findings from the research of Fishman (1972) and Lieberson (1970) which claim that cultural language use is not necessarily related with cultural identity. That is, an ethnic individual living in a multicultural society can still identify with his or her ethnic culture without speaking the ethnic language. According to Fishman (1972) and Lieberson (1970), it is possible to identify with a culture without practising its language. Thus preference in language use, and actual language use, may not be related to cultural identity. Further findings revealed that the inclusion of the variables, time since immigration, age at immigration, and participation in the recreation services of ethnic community organizations, did not present a significant relationship with cultural identity. Rather, the inclusion of these variables reduced the scores of multiple R and R squared (Table 36). These results do not concur with the studies of Gordon (1964), Park (1950) and Atkinson, Morten and Sue (1981) which make the assumption that the longer immigrants have been in the host society, the less likely they are to identify with their ethnic culture. Rather, these results 149 support the findings of Isajiw (1981) claiming that factors such as time since immigration may not have an impact on the cultural identity of individuals. Moreover, these findings do not support the findings of Karlis (1987) which showed that older immigrants do not necessarily identify with their ethnic culture. On the other hand, the findings of the present study support the research of Driedger (1975) claiming that age does not have a direct correlation with cultural identity. Finally, the findings of this study do not directly support the claims of Breton (1964), Gavaki (1979) and Bolla and Dawson (1989), that participation in the organized cultural recreation services of ethnic community organizations lead to the determination of cultural identification. Rather, the findings of the current study can be seen to lend support to the findings of Isajiw (1981), who claims that cultural identity can be substantially influenced by factors from outside the ethnic community. It can, therefore, be said that although considerable literature claims that time since immigration, age at immigration, and participation in the cultural recreation services of ethnic community organizations may be associated with cultural identity, the findings of this study do not offer support for this View. Although these factors may well contribute to shaping one’s cultural identity for some 150 members of some ethnic groups, the selected group of subjects examined in this study of the Greek Community of Toronto did not collectively exhibit such a relationship. Descriptive Findings of Recreation: Further findings concerned with recreation revealed that most Greek immigrants examined in this study perceived "recreation" as being moderately or very important to them (see Table 27). Likewise, most Greek immigrants perceived "free-time“ as being moderately or very important (Table 27). In addition, most agreed or strongly agreed that Greek cultural recreation is important for the maintenance of Greek culture while living in Canada (Table 27). Most Greek immigrants also indicated that the reason they participate in Greek cultural recreation activities is to “maintain Greek culture“ or 'to be with friends" (Table 28). It is relevant to note that most Greek immigrants indicated to either not participate in Canadian cultural recreation activities or, on the other hand, to participate in them purely “for enjoyment“ (Table 28). To this end, it was no surprise that most Greek immigrants tended to participate in recreation activities with mostly or only Greeks (Table 28). In respect to recreation and the Greek community of Toronto, it should be mentioned that most Greek immigrants sampled thought that it was moderately or very important to participate in the organized recreation activities of the 151 Greek community of Toronto (Table 29). In this regard, it was found that most Greek immigrants participate at least once a month in the recreation activities offered by Greek community organizations of Toronto (Table 29). The value of recreation and free-time seems to therefore be well recognized by Greek immigrants of Toronto. Not only is recreation and free-time perceived to be important in general, it also seems to be valued in helping to maintain ethnicity and to improve quality of life (Table 27). For Greek immigrants coming from a land in which a strong "recreation“ and “leisure“ ethic exists (Chimbos, 1980a; Brademas, 1986), these findings are not surprising. Thus, this sampled group of Greek immigrants value recreation, and participate, at least somewhat, in Greek cultural recreation activities. This is not to say that cultural recreation is related to cultural identity, it is merely to report that the descriptive findings of this study reveal that recreation, and Greek cultural recreation, appear to be important for this group. In addition, they have perceptions of linkages between their recreation activities and cultural connections and maintenance. Implications, Limitations and Recommendations: Implications: The results of this study do not lend full support for a case to be made for the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity. The results of this study 152 do suggest a modest zero-order relationship does exist between cultural recreation and cultural identity in the case of recreation preferences. By understanding the relevance of cultural recreation to culture as a whole, researchers and practitioners will be in a better position to not only address the needs and desires of the whole of society, but also to better understand the role recreation plays in relation to cultural identity. Moreover, researchers and practitioners will be in a position to better understand the cultural, including recreational, needs and desires of individuals living in multicultural societies. In the case of Canada, researchers and practitioners in the public, private and non-profit sectors will gain by focusing on the cultural dimension of recreation. A multicultural society such as Canada's, which is currently struggling to maintain cohesiveness amongst its diverse and pluralistic population (see The Star Phoenix, Thursday, February 14, 1991) would do well to focus on I'cultural recreation“ as a means of assisting in the maintenance of harmony and unity. A greater emphasis on social programs which encourage and provide opportunities to experience the cultural recreational activities of one’s choice would help enhance quality of life and social interaction. As Iona Campagnolo, the former Minister of Fitness and Amateur Sport in Canada, stated in her classic Policy Statement on 153 recreation in Canada in 1979, the purpose of recreation is to: (1) improve social functioning, (2) assist individual and community development, and (3) enhance quality of life. This can be specifically applied to cultural recreation. To benefit multicultural Canada from a holistic perspective (individual and societal), cultural recreation can be used to fulfil the purposes of recreation as stated by the Government of Canada, thus allowing a more complete lifestyle for all Canadians. With respect to the field of recreation and leisure studies, researchers and practitioners can no longer rely on research coming out of other fields for information concerning cultural recreation. The field of recreation and leisure studies from an academic and research perspective has reached a point in its evolution where it must provide that information which is of direct relation to the concepts of recreation and leisure. The time has come for recreation and leisure professionals to take a lead role in conducting cultural research related to the field. Action must be taken by all those concerned with recreation to expand the research focus of the field. Research focusing on the area of ethnicity, culture and recreation is no exception. More research is needed from all perspectives concerning the interrelationship of culture and recreation. More researchers and practitioners in the field of recreation and leisure studies have to not only become 154 cognizant of this growing need, but to also become more actively involved in research and the promotion of greater understanding of cultural recreation. This study reveals through the descriptive examination of preferences and participation in cultural activities (Tables 15 and 21) that preferences and participation towards Greek cultural recreation is indeed favourable. Greek cultural recreation is thus desired and needs to be fulfilled by the selected sample of Greek immigrants of Toronto. For the Greek group of Toronto this need is not a problem since opportunities exist for participants to be active in the recreational pursuits of either Canadian or Greek culture. For smaller, newer immigrant groups such as the Ethiopians and Somalians living in urban centers such as Ottawa, these opportunities are much more limited (Karlis, 1992b). That is, there are few opportunities to participate in the recreation activities representative of their respective ethnic cultures. Recreation researchers and practitioners should therefore take leadership roles and attempt to not only recognize groups such as these, but to also attempt to help fulfil the cultural recreation needs of all Canadians. Limitations and Recommendations: It is important to note that this study was limited Only to a select group of Greek immigrants of Toronto. The Study was restricted to the population of Greek immigrants 155 living in Toronto whose parents were both born in Greece. Furthermore, the study was conducted using a limited sample group, and had a low overall response rate of 40%. To this extent, it is difficult to draw any generalizations. The use of a larger sample group may have altered the results. A higher response rate would have provided more data, which subsequently may have altered the results. Although the findings of this study do make a minimal case for the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity, it is difficult to generalize the results for all ethnic groups. Similar studies should be conducted using a larger sample size of Greek immigrants of Toronto before it can concluded with a great deal of accuracy that a general relationship exists or does not exist between cultural recreation and cultural identity for Greek immigrants of Toronto. Furthermore, similar studies should also be conducted using Greek populations of other urban regions in Canada, and other ethnic groups in multicultural societies, to further examine the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity. Future studies should also consider the use of other measures for cultural variables. Emphasis should be placed on developing preference and participation scales for cultural recreation which could provide a higher validity and reliability than the scales used in this study. Moreover, further studies should be conducted utilizing a 156 multi-item cultural identity scale to replace the more traditionally single item cultural identity measure. Although literature does suggest that the single item measure is sufficient, it may indeed have limitations reflective of the fact that an individual’s stated, self- reported identity may not be an accurate representation of the actual culture to which one cognitively attaches oneself. To this end, it may be that the development of further cultural identity items will contribute to the construction of a more fruitful measure. Future studies may be conducted using means other than mailed surveys for data collection. Perhaps a higher response rate would have been received if interviews or case studies were conducted. The use of researchers who are members of the community may have also helped increase the response rate. Studies on ethnicity by Hinch and Delamere (1993), Reid (1993), and Aguilar (1990a) reveal that case studies and interviews using researchers from the ethnic community are effective ways of conducting ethnic research. In the case of the current study, the financial constraints of the researcher and the budget limitations of the Greek community of Toronto restricted data collection to mailed surveys. The response rate may have been enhanced if a letter of support by an influencial religious leader such as the Bishop of the Greek Community of Toronto was used. Only one 157 letter of support was enclosed with the questionnaire package, this was signed by the President of the community. Since the Greek community is ethno-religious (Chimbos, 1980a), a letter of support from a religious leader may have helped encourage responses. Perhaps the results are related to the response bias, where the one's who actually responded to the questionnaire were more likely to consider themselves as Greek. Immigrants who did not respond may be the one’s who do not wish to have any association with Greek culture. It would also be enlightening to examine the relationship between cultural recreation and cultural identity for the descendants of immigrants, and, even the children of these descendants. This would provide a flavour as to how important cultural identity is for second and third generations, and how a more expanded contact with the host culture, including being born in dominant society, shapes preferences and participation patterns. Emphasis should also be placed on exploring the relationship between recreation and the cultural activities of religion and language. The zero-order correlation matrix reveals that the correlation coefficients between recreation with religion, and recreation and language tend to be higher than the correlation coefficients between the main variables of this study and cultural identity (Table 32). For instance, the correlation coefficient for preferences for 158 cultural recreation with cultural identity is .320, whereas the correlation coefficients for preferences for cultural religion with cultural identity and preferences for cultural language use and cultural identity are .525 and .742 respectively. This indicates that cultural recreation is more closely related to religion and language than cultural identity. Further research however is needed to explore these relationships. Although only a limited sample size was used in this study the results may be useful for the Greek Community of Toronto from the perspective that findings reveal preferences and participation patterns leaning towards the Greek cultural activities of recreation and religion for members of the community surveyed. It may be beneficial for those responsible for providing services to this community to focus on fulfilling the recreation and religious needs of immigrant members. Furthermore, if the preservation of Greek culture is important for this community organization, planning and programming efforts should be coordinated to continue to address the needs of this immigrant group, while not underestimating the potential importance of Greek cultural religion and recreation for participants of this community. The results of this study reveal that a high proportion of the select group of Greek immigrants of Toronto continue to prefer and participate in the recreation and cultural 159 activities representative of their homeland culture. If this finding is supported by future studies, and if the government of Canada abides by the principles of its Multiculturalism Policy, then Canada should consider taking action to assure that all ethnic individuals have greater equality of opportunity to experience ethnic cultural activities if so desired. The government of Canada should recognize the potential of cultural recreation and look into further examining the need to enhance the provision of cultural recreational opportunities. It may be wise, therefore, for government to encourage and support more research in the area of ethnicity, culture and recreation. In conclusion, therefore, it is recommended that more research be conducted in the area of culture and recreation. 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(1981). “The self-concept: Social product and social force“. In Rosenberg, M., & Turner, R. H., (Eds.). Social Psychology: Social Perspectives. New York: Basic Books. Rotherham, M. J., & Phinney, J. S. (1987). “Introduction: Definitions and perspectives in the study of childrens ethnic socialization.“ In Phinney, J. S., & Rotherham, M. J. (Eds.). Childrens Ethnic Socialization. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage. Rowntree, D. (1981). Statistics Without Tears. Charles Scribner's Sons: New York. Rublee, C., & Shaw, S. M. (1990) “Constraints on leisure and community participation of immigrant woman: Implications for social integration.“ Proceedings: Sixth Canadian Congress on Leisure Research, Waterloo, Ontario. Russell, R. V. (1982). Planning Programs in Recreation. St.Louis, MI: C.V. Mosby. Saint Jacques, B. (1976). Aspects Sociolinguistigues de Bilinguisme Canadien. Quebec: Centre International de Recherche sur le Bilinguisme, Universite Laval, Collection: Travaux du CIRB. Serie B. Saloutos, T. (1964). The Greeks in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Sarantakos, S. (1980). “Family leisure“. The Australian Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation, 88, pp. 20-27. Sawaie, M., & Fishman, J. A. (1985). “Arabic-language maintenance efforts in the United States“. The Journal of Ethnic Studies, 13, No. 2, pp. 33-49. Schliewan, R. (1977). A Leisure Study: Canada, 1975. Ottawa: Government of Canada. 176 Schultz, S. L. (1978). “Intermarriage in a Greek-American community: An analysis of ethnic boundaries“ (Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Arizona). Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 6806-7A. Schoen, R., & Cohen, L. E. (1980). “Ethnic endogamy among Mexican-American grooms: A reanalysis of generational and occupational effects“. American Journal of Sociology, gg, (September), pp. 359- 366. Scourby, A. (1984). The Greeks Americans. Boston: Twayne Pub. Secretary of State of Canada. (1987). Multiculturalism. 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Saturday Night, (September), pp. 72-74. The Ottawa Citizen. “Area Greeks seek to integrate with dignity“. Newspaper article by T. MacCharles, Friday July 25, 1986. 177 The Ottawa Citizen. “Orthodox Church leader begins U.S. tour“. Newspaper article by D. Lattin. Saturday July 14, 1990. The Ottawa Citizen. “Ancient identities“. Newspaper article by D. McManus, & R. Wright. Sunday January 6, 1991. The Star Phoenix. “PM Begins Restructuring Canada“. Newspaper article by W. Johnson, Thursday February 14, 1991. Tse, D. K., Lee, K., Vertinsky, I., & Wehrung, D. A. (1988). “Does culture matter? A cross-cultural study of executives' choice, decisiveness, and risk adjustment in international marketing“. Journal of Marketing, (October), pp. 81-95. Tull, D. S., & Hawkins, D. I. (1987). Marketing Research: Measurement and Method. New York: Macmillan. Ujimoto, K. V. (1985). “The allocation of time to social and leisure activities as social indicators for the integration of aged ethnic minorities“. Social Indicators Research, 11, No. 3, pp. 253-266. Wacquant, L. J. D., & Wilson, W. J. (February 1988). Beyond Welfare Reform: Poverty, Jobless, and the Social Transformation in the Inner City. A Paper Presented at the Rockefeller Foundation Conference on Welfare Reform, Williamsburg, Virginia. Wardhaugh, R. (1983). Language and Nationhood: The Canadian Experience. Vancouver: New Star Books. Ware, T. 1981. The Orthodox Church. New York: Penguin. Washburne, R. (1978). “Black under-participation in wildland recreation: Alternative explanations“. Leisure Sciences, 1, No. 2, pp. 175-189. Watson, J. L. (1983). Between Two Cultures: Migrants and Minorities in Britain. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. West, P. C. (1989). “Urban region parks and black minorities: Subculture, marginality, and interracial relations in park use in the Detroit metropolitan area“. Leisure Sciences, 11, pp. 11- 28. 178 Whitson, D. (1990). “Cultural studies: New Dimensions in the study of gender relations.“ Proceedings: Sixth Canadian Congress on Leisure Research, Waterloo, Ontario. Wildavsky, A. (1987). “Choosing preferences by constructing institutions: A cultural theory of preference formation“. American Political Science Review, 8;, No. 1, pp. 3-21. Williams, R. (1981). The analysis of culture. In Bennet, T., Martin, G.,. Mercer, C., & Woollacott, J., (Eds.). CultureLyIdeology and Social Process. Great Britain: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. Wood, D., & Remnant, R. (1980). The People We Are: Canada's Multicultural Society. Toronto: Gage. Woodward, M. (1988). “Class, regionality, and leisure among urban Black Americans: The post-civil rights era". Journal of Leisure Research, 2Q, No. 2, pp. 87- 105. ' Wylie, R. (1979). The Self-Concept: Theory and Research on Selected Topics. Lincoln, NE: Nebraska University Press. Vallee, F. G. (1975). “Multi-ethnic societies: The issues of identity and inequality“. In Forcese, D., & Richer, S. (Eds.). Issues in Canadian Society: An Introduction to Sociology, Scarborough: Prentice Hall. Van Loon, R. J., & Whittington, M. J. (1976). The Canadian Political System: Environment, Structure and Process. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. von Raffler Engel, W. (1979). “The language of immigrant children“. In Chambers, J. K., (Ed.). The Languages of Canada. Ottawa: Didier. Vlachos, E. G. (1968). The Assimilation of Greeks in the United States (With Special Reference to the Greek Community of Andersony Indiana). Athens: National Center for Social Researches (E.K.K.E.). Vlassis, G. (1953). The Greeks in America. Ottawa: Leclerc Printers. 179 Yancey, W. L., & Snell, J. (1971). Parks as Aspects of Leisure in the Inner City: An Exploratopy Investigation. Paper Presented at the American Association for the Advancement of Science Meetings, Philadelphia. APPENDICES APPENDIX A 182 The Greek Community of Metropolitan m........u.p...o.... Toronto Inc. ”M'ZM'SK I‘IMQSJII‘ Office of the Pvt-idem November 7, 1990 Aygnnté Euunarptérn: Me To ypduun no: auto, aéAouue vo ad; naooxoléoouuc via tn ouunoadoroan rnv noooudacto rou x. rtwpyou Kaoxn, usronruxtanou oorrnrn, o onoioc CDYdCETQL ornv 6L6axrootxn rou Btarptfin nou oxeriCerut u: rnv EAAnvan xouArofipo. Enctbn aurfi n ueAérn cévgt ueydlnc onouéotorntog rooo YLQ rov Ftéovo, 600 not YLQ rnv EAAnVLxfi Konvornro rou Toodvro, 3o uoéncr va anavrfiocr: cs 61:: rLc COmTfiOCLC rou eowrnua~ toléytou. Ha store BéBotOL 6r; 8g xoornaci anéxutn exeu635ta. FL' auto ouc nuoaxaloéuc Stand, awtcoéore ACYO xoovo KQL ouunknpéors to eowrnuaroloyto rou Ftéoyou cite 01o cAAnvad site are AYYALXd, KQL roxuéooueiorc To grow cooxAcLoro wducAAo to goyorcoo uéxot rt; 17 NoeuBoCou, 1990. Euxaotord YLg rnv OUVEOYgng cog. Me Hold extiunon, \l‘ «Ml-M5 Ao.AvaardOLog Kgogvrovng nooeooog Dear Fellow Compatriot: This letter has been written in support of George Karlis, a Greek-Canadian working on a doctoral thesis concerned with Greek culture. Because of the relevance of the study both to George and the Greek Community of Metropolitan Toronto, it is of the greatest importance that all questions in the questionnaire be answered. It is assured that confidentiality will be preserved. We kindly request that you take a few minutes to complete George's questionniare in either Greek or English, place the completed portion in the self-addressed stamped envelope, and drop it in a mailbox. This will take only a few minutes of your time. Please complete this right away and mail it to George by November 17, 1990. Thank you for your cooperation in this very important matter. Si cerely Yours, l 0‘ I73 \V Dr. A. Karantonis PreSident, 183 The Greek Community November 7, 1990 Dear fellow Compatriot: I am a graduate student working on a doctoral thesis concerned with the Greek Community of Metropolitan Toronto. More specifically, the purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between ethniCity, Greek culture and recreation. You have been selected to participate in this study from a listing of the Greek population of Toronto. "hat 1 am kindly requesting of you is to complete the enclosed questionnaire and to forward it in the self-addressed stamped envelope. This will only take 10-15 minutes of your time and you may answer the questionnaire in the language of your choice (either English or Greek). Your participation in this study is very important and much appreciated. You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning this questionnaire. I assure you confidentiality will be preserved and you will remain anonymous in research tindinga. Thank You. Sin , ca ge Karlis PrinCiple Researcher 0f MC‘TOPOIH.“ )o Ian-mu rm rim. one, 0am... Toronlo Inc. "‘ .... .... teltidl) in.» 184 W (1) THIS QUESTIONNAIRE CONSISTS OP POUR PARTS. PLEASE TRY TO ANSNER ALL QUESTIONS IN ALL FOUR PARTS. (2) PLEASE nor: rune PART i auo PART 2 srar: onrransur oursrions. ran? 1 accuses on “311m. rant 2 focuses on m. rtsass auswza aoru rants. (3) areas: auswra THE gussrious IN sleaze anatisa on cases (NQI_1N IQIH). (4) PLACE OIL! THE COHPLETED QUESTIONNAIRE IN TNE SELF‘ADDRESSED STAHPEO RETURN ENVELOPE. (5) DROP TNE SELP-ADDRESSED STANPED ENVELOPE IN A NAIL BOX.HA1L T03 George Karlis 1050 Broadview Ave. 0 601 Toronto, Ontario NQK 283 THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATIONI 185 CULTURAL RECREATION SURVEY PART I: The following questions have been designed to find out about your,pgxfiigipgpipn_ in certain activities. We would like to know what you actually do. For each question, please circle one nuaber, the one which best represents your artici ation. For exaaple, it you participate in only non-Greek activities, cIrcIe a one. On the other hand, it you participate in only Greek activities, circle a five. It the question is not applicable to you, circle a nine. Only Wostly Equal non-Greek Nostly Greek Only Greek Wot non-Greek non-Greek and Greek APPIAC‘PIP l 2 J 4 5 9 1. What radio progress do you listen to? 1 2 3 4 5 9 2. What newspapers and sagazines do you read? 1 2 3 4 s 9 3. What T.V. progress do you watch? 1 2 3 4 5 9 4. What restaurants do you dine at? 1 2 3 4 5 9 5. What social clubs (Church clubs, con-unity clubs etc.) do you participate in? l 2 3 4 5 9 6. What parties or dances do you attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 7. What concerts do you attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 a. What festivals do you attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 9. What kinds of dancing do you participate in? 1 3 3 4 5 9 10. What Sunday Church Services do you attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 11. What Special Day Church Services (Christ-as, Easter) do you attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 12. What religious traditions do you practice? 1 2 3 4 5 9 13. What language do you speak? 1 2 3 4 5 9 14. What language do you read? 1 2 1 4 5 9 15. What language do you write? 1 2 3 4 5 9 186 PART 2: The following questions have been designed to find out about your W for certain activities. We would like to know what you prefer if you had the opportunity. For each question, please circle one nusber, the one which best represents your references. For exasple, if you prefer non-Greek activities, circle a one. On the oEEer hand, if you prefer Greek activities, circle a five. If the question is not applicable to you, circle a nine. Only hostly Equal non-Greek. Hostly Greek Only Greek Not non-Greek non-Greek and Greek . Applicable 1 2 J 4 5 9 1. What radio prograss would you prefer to listen to? 1 2 3 4 5 9 2. What T.V. prograss would you prefer to watch? 1 2 3 4 5 9 3. What newspapers and sagasines would you prefer to read? 1. 2 3 9 ’ 4. What restaurants would you prefer to dine at? 1 2 3 4 S 9 5. What social clubs (Church clubs, con-unity clubs etc.) would you prefer to participate in? l 2 3 4 5 9 6. What parties or dances would you prefer to attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 7. What concerts would you prefer to attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 a. What festivals would you prefer to attend? 1 2 3 4 5 9 9. What kinds of dancing would you prefer to participate in? 1 2 3 4 5 9 10. What Sunday Church Services would you prefer to attend? l 2 3 4 5 9 11. What Special Day Church Services (Christsas, Easter) would you prefer to attend? 1 2 3 4 5 -9 12. What religious traditions would you prefer to practice? 1 2 3 4 5' 9 13. What language would you prefer to speak? 1 2 3 4 5 9 14. What language would you prefer to read? 1 2 3 4 5 9 15. What language would you prefer to write? 1 2 3 4 5 9 187 PART 3: J The following questions have been designed to find out inforsation‘about gglggge . Please circle only one response for each question, the one that e best describes you. 1. How do you think of yourself? hostly as a ... 2. how closely do you identify with Greek culture? 3. how closely do you identify with Canadian culture? 4. Wow isportant is Greek culture to you? 5. How isportant is Canadian culture to you? 6. Wow isportant is it for you to saintain your Greek identity while living in Canada? 7. How isportant is recreation to you personally? a. How isportant is free tise to you personally? .UbUNH “bunt-a usuuu «sou».- WOUNH abut).- 'IAUNH Canadian Canadian of Greek descent Canadian-Greek Greek-Canadian creek None of the above. please specify Wot at all close Sosewhat close hoderately close Very close Extresely close Extresely close Very close Moderately close Sosewhat close Wot at all close Wot at all isportant Sosewhat isportant hoderately isportant Vary isportant Extra-sly isportant Extra-sly isportant Very isportant hoderately isportant Sosswhat isportant lot at all isportant Wot at all isportant Sosewhat isportant moderately isportant Very isportant Extra-sly isportant Wot at all isportant Sonewhst isportant Hoderately isportant Very isportant lxtresely isportant Not at all isportant Sosewhat isportant Moderately isportant Vary isportant Extresely isportant 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 1138 How isportant is it for you to participate in the recreation activities offered by Greek Cos-unity Organizations? Do you feel that your involvesent in Greek social, cultural, and recreational activities helps you preserve Greek culture while living in Canada? When you engage in social, cultural or recreation activities, do you do so with? If you participate in Greek recreation activities, why do you do so? (please circle only one, the one which sost causes you to participate): If you participate in Canadian recreation activities, why do you do so? (please circle only one, the one which sost causes you to participate): For you personally, which of the following do you feel best represents Greek culture? (please rank each according to importance: 1 for sost isportant, 2 for second sost important and 3 for third most important) On average, how sany tisee a aonth do you participate in the recreation activities offered by Greek Cosnunity Organizations? U‘.UNH MOUNH UNH NH UNH Not at all isportant Sosewhat isportant Moderately isportant Very isportant Extra-ely isportant Do not agree Sosewhat agree Moderately agree Agree Strongly agree Only non-Greeks Mostly non-Greeks Equally with non-Greeks and Greeks Mostly Greeks Only Greeks for enjoyment to be with friends to be a part of a Greek group to saintain Greek culture other, please specify do not partiCipate for enjoy-ant to be with friends to be a part of a Canadian group to integrate into Canadian society other, please specify do not participate the Greek language the Greek social, cultural activities the Greek Orthodox faith timesa month 189 rear 4: 5 The following questions have been designed to find out about your.bgghg;ggng. Please circle the one sost appropriate response for each question. )0. ll. 12: 13. What is your place of birth? Was your bother born in Greece? Was your father born in Greece? Are you... What is your sarital status? If you are sarried, is your spouse of Greek descent? Do you have school age children? If you have children, do they or have they attended Greek school in Canada? If you have children, do they or have they participated in a Greek dance group? If you have children, do they or have they attended Greek Orthodox Sunday school? Do you live in or near the 'Greektown' Danforth Area? Do your parents live with you? Do you hope to save back to Greece in the future? .UND’ NH NO! NH UNH NH UNI‘ UN“ HUD-i NH NH .9”.- UNH Greece Canada Other Yes Mo Yes Mo Male resale Single Married Divorced/Separated Widowed Yes No Yes Me Yes No Do not have children Yes NO Do not have children Yes No Do not have children Yes Mo My sother only My father only Ioth sy sother and father Meither ey sother or father Yes Mo Not sure l4. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 190 Are your friends... If you work, is your place of esploysent owned by Greeks or yourself? if you work, are your co-workers... If you work, does your place of esploysent specialize in producing or selling Greek products? If you work, how sany hours a week do you work on average? it you work, what is your occupation? What is the highest level Of education that you have completed? If you were born in Greece, what year did you issigrate to Canada? how long have you lived in the Metropolitan Toronto region? Where did you live before saving to Metropolitan Toronto? When were you born? What is your household incose? All non-Greek Mostly non-Greek Equally non-Greek and Greek Mostly Greek All Greek tfibidhow Yes Mo Mot sure UN“ All non-Greek Mostly non-Greek Equally non-Greek and Greek Mostly Greek All Greek WOUNH Yes No NH hours Sose elementary Eleaentary Soae high school high school Sose college or university College or university Otflbldhaw 19 years (city/ country) l9 Less than 20,000 20,000 to 29,999 30,000 to 39,999 40,000 to 49,999 50,000 to 59,999 60,000 to 69,999 70,000 or more d atlhddhau 191 The Greek Community 7 Nocqufiou 1990 Avonnté Euundtptérn: Etna: wourntnc xaL soydCouaL nde urn 6L6autoptufi uou brarptfin, n onoio oxeriCsrdL u: rnv EAAnVLxfi Kocvbtnta rou MntponoALtLuou Topdvro. ELGLuétspa, ouonoc outnc Inc épcuvuc eivat va eEerdocL TLC oxéOELc uetaEO cavLuotnroc, cAAnVLufic xoulroupac not wuxdyuysioc. 'Exctc enileyci,va ouquIéxcts o' autfi rnv épcuva, ano touc cAAnVLuouc nataloyouc tou Topovro. ea naela va cog napaxaléom onmc ouunlnpéoere to eoéuACLoro cou— tnuatvoYLo not to raxuépoufiOCIc xonOLuonoLévrac rov coéuletoro wducllo. ea anooxolnoeL udvo 10—15 lentd duo tov xpévo oac, no; unopcitc vo anavrnosrc urn yloooa tnc uporuunaeéc on: (oyyltud n cAAnVLxd). H ouuuctoxfi oac orn ucAérn uutfi éxci ueydln onuaaio. Tnv caconrLufi oac ouuuConfi onlovcte us to Va ouunxnpéoete qu vo EflLOTDéWCIC auto to cputnuatoloyio. 20c Bcfiatévw OIL 3a undpEEL nlfipnc excuOSCLa not do usivcrc uvévuuoc are cupfiuara Inc épcuvag. Me an :>/// //:2: PLé 0g Koplfig K0 Log Epcuvntfig 0f Metropolitan 10 Thomcliiic Pm 0m: Toronto Inc. ”"113? '73: (4:5)425-2413 (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) 192 0 A H F I E E AYTO TO EPOTHHATOAOFIO AHOTEAEITB ADO TEEZEPA MEPH. HAPAKAAQ HPOEUAOEIETE NA AHANTHEBTE OAEE T18 EPQTHEEIE KAI ETA TEEEEPA HEP". “APAKAAQ EHMEIDETE OTI TO MEPOZ l KAI TO MEPOZ 2 ANAOEPONTAI EB AIAOOPETIKEE EPQTHZEIZ. TO HEPOE l ANA¢EPETAI ET" EYMMETOXH, T0 MEPOE 2 ANAOEPETAI ZTIB flPOTIMHEEIE. HAPAKAAO AHANTEIEETE KAI ETA AYO MEPH. nAPAKAAQ AflAHTEItTE ETIX BPQTHtEIz BAAHNIKA h AFFAIKA ( 0x1 KAI ETIE AYO ). TOHOOBTEIETE HQNQ T0 EYMHAHPQMENO EPQTHMATOAOFIO ETON OAKEAAO TOY HAPAAHDTH. TAXYAPOMDIETE TO ETON: ( Ptéoyo KaoAn 1050 Broedview Ave. C 607 Toronto, Ontario M4K 283 EYXAPIETQ PIA THN EYNEPFAEIA BAX! 193 Ecliba l EPOTHHATOAOPIO‘ 8E2 "OAITIIZTIKBE KAI UYXAPOI‘IKEE BKAIIAOEEIS TMHMA 1: 0L nopaudru apathetic oroxsfiouv vo sptuvfioouv to Octetn gunnglgxfi; on; as ouyusuptuuévsc boaarnpidrntsc. Os Oélaus vo yvupiCouue It udvsrc (arr: ouyusxpiuuévcc nepinréastc). Pia adds spérnon nopaualouus onusiéore évov ubulo yépm«and £vav dpLOuO, suslvov o ouofoc ovttnpo- census: tn auuusrnxfi oac. rto.nopdbsiyuo, av ouuuctéxstc udvo as un sllnvtuéc donornptdrnrsc onustéatc tvov uuwlo.oro tva (1), 6 av ouuus- téxsre as udvov sllnvtuéc boaornpidrnrsc Onuttéors évov uuulo oro névzs (5). Av n epérnon odc elven doxsrn anustéore évov woulo ato svv o (9). ' . . Kupluc (ad un cllnvtwd Kuptwc Movo daxsro Mn ellnvixd un sklnvtud (on ckknvixd skknvtwd sAAnvtud i 2 3 4 5 9 1. TL pabtonpoypduuata auourc: l 2 3 4 5 9 2. TL sonucpibcc not nepuobmxd buodeste: l 2 3 4 5 9 3. TL tnlsonttwd npovpduuata napauoloubctts: 1 2 3 4 5 9 4. to It coriordpio roots: 1 2 3 4 S 9 5. Be It uouvwvtxéc oudbsc ouuusréxtts: 1 2 3 4 S 9 (cuxlnotsc-WOLvOtntsc ark). 6. to It xopouc n yioptéc ndtc: l 2 3 4 5 9 7. Es It ouvaullcc ndrc: 1 2 3 4 S 9 8. to It ocattbdl ndrs: 1 2 3 4 5 9 9. TL xopouc xopcuerc; l 2 3 4 S 9 10. to It KUOLQMdILMCC Islets: nopsupiousoae; l 2 3 4 5 9 11. to It apnoucuriuéc yLoptéc napsuptousoas; l 2 3 4 S 9 (XpLOIOOYCVVQ - ndoxo). 12. noud apnoueurtxd taupe oxolouaeirs: 1 2 3 4 S 9 13. TL yléooo urldrc: l 2 3 4 5 9 14. 2: hard yléooo 6LaBdCerc; l 2 3 4 5 9 15. 2c nOLd yléooo ypdwcre; 1 2 3 4 S 9 194 Esxiba 2 TMBMA 2: 0L napaxdtm>spmmfioch oroxsfiouv va sosuvnoouv to bsiutn negrtggofi; an; as auyusxpLuuévsc Gpaoranotnrsc. ea aélaus va yvmptCouus tnv noortunofl aac av stxats va 6LaAéEsts. PLa udbs spétnan napaualo onusLéats évav MGMAO Yucatand rov apLduo sustvov nou avthpoownsusL tnv orC aac. rLa napdfistvua. av uporLudxs un sAAnvaéc 60a— ornoL rntec OnHELéors uuulo oro éva (l) 6 av noctLudts sAAnvLuéc GoaOtnoLotntsc onusLéors uuulo arc névts (5). Av n spétnon ads sivaL doxsrn onustéors évav uuulo oro svvéa (9). Mn sklnvtwd Kupiwc (da un sAAnVLud Kuptoc Movo doxsto uh sAAnVLud (0a sAAnVLud sAAnvLud sAAnVLud l 2 3 4 5 9 1. TL pabLonpoypduuata 8a Sélats va auoéts; 1 2. TL ewnuspiosc uaL nspLoéLud 8a Sélats 1 va 6LaBdCsts: 3. TL tnlsontLud noovoduuara 8a aélats va 1 2 3 4 S 9 - naoauolouesCts: 4. Es tL sortatooLa 30.3élate va roots: 1 2 3 9 5. ts tL uOvavLuéc oudbsc 8a Oélars va 1 2 3 auuustéxsts: (sunlnotsc-uOvarnrsc win.) 6. 8s tL x0006: fl yLoptéc 3a Oélars va ndrs: 1 2 3 4 S 9 7. as tL auvavltsc 8a aélats va ndts: l 2 3 4 S 9 8. Es tL osctLBdA 3a Oélars va ndts: 1 2 3 4 S 9 9. TL xoooéc 8a aékats va xoosusrs: 1 2 3 4 S 9 10. Be rL KuoLauerusc tslstéc 8a Séhats 1 2 3 4 S 9 va maosuotousoes; l 2 3 4 5 9 11. 8s tL apnousUILuéc yLooréc 8a Sélars va napsuptousoas: (XpLorouysvva-ndoxa). 12. HOLd OpnousUtLud éaLua 3a Sélats va 1 2 3 4 S 9 aonouSstts; - 13. TL yléooa 8a aélats va uLAdrs: l 14. 8s nOLd vkéooa 8a Sélats va 6La6d§sts; i 2 3 4 15. 8s nOLd yléooa Ba aélats va ypdwsts; l 2 3 4 S 19S TMHMA 3: Esliba 3 0L napaudtw spurnoch oroxséouv ornv aEauoiBwon nlnoooooLév oxserd us tnv uoultoupa uaL tnv wuxavoyta. flapaxalé onuCLéOts tvav ufiulo as uLa andvtnon vLa udas spétnon sxsivn n onoia 0a: avthpooonsusL aanBéOtsoa. 1. no: ouéntsoas tov saurd oac, oav.... UU.UNH e 2. "600 orsvd ouvrauritsors us rnv sllnvLun woultoépa: 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 3. nooo orsvd ouvrauriCsors us rnv 1. Kavaben xouktoupa: 2. 3. 4. 5. 4. "600 onuthLun stvaL yLa oac n l. sAlnvafi uouAtoupa: ?. 3. 4. 5. S. "600 onuaerufi stvaL n KavaoLxfi l. uouAtoupa yLa one: 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. H600 onuaerxo sivaL YLO 0a: to va 1. 6Latnofiosts tnv sllnvan 0a: taurérnra 2. své [sits orov Kavabd: 3. 4. 5. 7. "600 onuaerxd sivaL n nooowann ca; 1. wuxaywyia. 2. 3. 4. S. Kavabé/n Kavabé/n sAAnvanc uararmvfic Kavabo-éklnva-sllnviba Eklnvouavabd - on 'BAAnva-Ellnviba Tinors ano ta napandvo napaualé tEHYECOts Kaaolou orsvd Kano; arsvd Etsvd "016 Otsvd ndoa noAu orsvd ndoa nolo atsvd nolu orsvd ttsvd Kdnw; orsvd KaSOAou orsvd 'Kaadlou onuaernn demc onuavthn Enuaerufi nolfi onuaerufi ndpa nolu onuaerufl ndpa nolu onuthLun "old anuaerun Enuaerufi Kdnwc onuavthn KaSélou onuaernn Kaaolou onuaerxd Kano: onuaerno tnuaerno nolfi onuaerkd ndoa nolu Ofluoeruo KaSOAou onuaerxfi Kdnwc onuaerufi Enuaerwfi nolo onuavthn ndpa nolO onuaerxn 10. ll. l2. l3. 14. 15. 196 £ck£ba 4 noao anuaeruéc sivaL o slsfiaspoc xpovoc 1. Kaaolou anuavtLuOC yLa aa; npoaunLud; 2. Kano; anuavtLuoc 3. Enuavthdc 4. Halo anuaerudc 5. ndpa hold anuaerudc noao anuaerwd stvaL yLa an: to va népvsts uépoc as woxayunyéc subnléach nou 6Lapyavé- 1' Kaaélou a“”°”““6 vouv ta sllnvLud uOLvorLud auuarsia- 2' Kdnuc 0"“0Vt‘“6 ~ ' 3. EnuavtLuo 4. Bold anuaeruo 5. Hope [1016 anuavnuo nLarsfists er, n auuusroxn do: as slAnVLuéc 1. Asv auuouvé xOLvuVLnéc, nolLtLarLuéc uaL wmxayuyLwéc, 2. Euuwuvé liyo sxonléach, aac Bonaouv ato va.6Latnpsits 3. Exsoov auuowvé rnv sAlnvLun uoultoupa své [sits arov Kavaéd; 4. Euuouvé S. Euuwuvé andlura Zuuustéxsts as uovavLuéc, nolLrLatLuéc n 1. Mdvo us {Alnvsc wuxayunyéc subnléach us ...... 2. UspLaaétspo un éllnvsg 3. MLad un éAAnvsc Mat uLad élknvsc 4. flspLaaorspo éllnvsg 5. Mdvo éllnvsc AV naipvsrs uépoc as cllnvaéc wuxayoyLué; l. PLa 6Laauéoaan ooaarandrntsc yLari ro xdvsrs: (napaxald) 2. PLa va Basso us wilaug onusLéars évav xuxlo nova arnv andvtnan aurn 3. PLa va siuaL uépoc In; nou aac udvsL va auuusréxsrs). SAAHvLufiC oudéag 4. PLa va 6Latnodaw tnv sllnvafi xoultoupa 5. dAloL AOyOL, napaualé sEnvsiars. 9. Asv naipvu uépoc Av naipvsts uépoc as Kavabeéc WUXQYwYtKéC l. PLa 6Laau66aan opaarandrnrsc yLari to udvsrs; (napaxaldi 2. rLa va Bpsfié us oiloug anusLéats évav uuulo udvo arnv andvrnan aurfi 3. PLa va siuaL uépac Inc nou aac udvsL va auuustéxsts). KavabLunc oudéag 4. PLa va avausané us tnv xavaéLufi uOLvuvia 5. dAAOL AOVOL, napaualé sEnvsiars. 9. Asv naipvu uépoc Eaag npoaunLud nOLd and to andloufia vouigsrs.___.fl slinVLun yléaaa or. aernpoaunsfiouv rnv slanan uoultoOoa; 0L sAAnVLuég HOvavaég (napaxalé ypdwts ts us tn astd nooriuLonc) a nolLrLatLuég suonléas H sAlnvafi Opfibbofin epnaxsia. float; wooég rov ufiva nspinou, naipvsts uépog as wuxaywnyd npoypduuara nou 6LopyavévsL l. wopég TO ufiva n sAAnvad KOLvérnta; 197 Esliba 5 TMHMA 4: 0L auélouasc spwtnach atoxsuouv atnv aEaupiBman nlnooooaLév axstLud us tnv uatayuyfiyaag. flapaualé, yLa udOs soéonan anusLéats évav xuxlo as uia andvtnan, aUtn nou aac avthpoamnsusL ualutspa. 1. flab ysvvnenuats: l. Elldoa 2. Kavaéd 3. Allou 2. H untépa aac ysvvfianxs atn Elldéa; l. NaL 2. 'OxL 3. 0 natépac aac ysvvnanxs atn Elldba; 1. NaL ' 2. 'OxL 4. Avnusts ato .... l. Aoavaxo 0010 2. enluuo @610 S. HOLd sivaL n 0onysvsLaxfi oag uatdataan; l. AvunavtOOL 2. flavtpsuéVOL 3. ALaCsuyuévOL/XmoLauévOL 4. XfiDOL 6.'Av £(OTC navtosuévOL, 07n auguyog aag sivaL sAAnvLung uaravwvfig' 1' MaL ' 2. OxL 7. 'Exsts naLoLd aonLxfig nleCag; l. NaL 2. 'OxL 8. 'Av éxsts naLéLd, nnyaivouv n nfiyav as l. NaL sllnvao aonsfio atov Kavaoa: 2. 'OxL 3. Asv éxw naLoLd 9. 'Av éxsts naLéLd auuustéxouv fl auuustsixav l. NaL as sAAnvLun xoasUtLun oudoa; 2. 'OxL 3. Asv éxm naL6Ld 10. 'Av éxsts naLoLd unyaivouv n nfivav as l. NaL sAAnvLuo OpSééoEo Katnxnthé axolsio; 2. 'OxL 3. Asv éxw naLéLd 11. KataLusits uéaa n novtd atnv "sllnvounoln” l. NaL tn; nsoLoxflc Danforth; 2. 'OxL 1. Ms tnv untéoa uou 2. Ms tov natéoa uou 3. Ms tnv untéoa MOL tov natéoa uou 4. Ms Havévav ano toug bub 12. EUYMaIOLusCts us toug yovsig 00;: 13. EAniCsts va snLatoéwsts atnv Elldoa l. NaL YLQ uOvLun 6Lauovn: 2. 'OxL 3. Asv siuaL oéyouoog/n l4. l5. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 198 EivaL 0L otAOL aac Av soydCsats, avnst n sansipnan as 'Ellnvsc n sivaL 5Lufl aac: 'Av spydisats, sivaL 0L auvspydwsc aac 'Av spydCsats, n sansipnan aac sLéLususts atnv napayuyn uaL uaravdlman slAnVLxév npotovtuv: 'Av spydCsats,.néasc ops; tnv saboudéa soydCsats nsainou; 'Av spydCsats, nOLo sivaL to snéyyslud aag; Ti uépoman éxsts; 'Av ysvvnanuats atn Elldoa nOLd xpovoloyia ustavaatsfiaats atav Kavaod; ndaa xpovLa watOLustrs (Csfits) atnv nspL- oépsLa tau MntponoALrLuoo Topdvtou; n06 xatOonéaats anv ustaxouiasts ato Topévto; néts ysvvnanxats; ”0L6 CCVQL to EtfiOLo OLHOYEVCLano 00g sL066nua; Eskioa 6 1. 'OAOL un éAAnvsc 2. 0L nspLaaotsOOL un sllnv 3. MLad un élknvsc uLad éllnvsg 4. nspLaadtsOOL éllnvsc 5. 'OAOL éAAnvsc l. N0L 2. 'OxL 3. Asv siuaL aiyoupoc/n 1. 'OAOL un éllnvsc 2. UspLaaotspo un éllnvsc 3. MLaoi un éllnvsc MQL uLOOC éAAnvsc 4. usaLaadtsoo éllnvsc 5. 'OlaL éllnvsc l. N0L 2. 'OxL 1. épsc l. l. Aiya xpévLa AnuOIono 2. AnuOtho 3. Aiya xpOVLa Oto FuuvdoLo 4. PuuvdaLo (sEatdELo) 5. Aiya xpdea as KolléyLo n flavsnLatnuLo 6. KoAAéyLo 6 navsnLatfiuLo l9 xpovLa (néln / x600) l9 ALyétspo and 20,000 20,000 - 29,999 30,000 - 39,999 50,000 - 59.999 60.000 - 69.999 70,000 unL nsotnnotsnn \JONUN-uwa-fi 199 see YUENGYMIEH eee pguynpgg see 18 NosuBoiov 1990 November l8, 1990 Ayannté EvunatpLétn: Upoaoata ldBats 5La uéaou taxuooousfau éva sowtnuatoléyLo to onoto axsriCstaL us tnv sAAnvafi uoultoéoa. Eéuomva us touc nataloyauc uac 6sv AdBaus auoun andvtnah aac. H auunlfipwan auroé tou sowtnuatoloyiou ést noAO usydln anuaafia YLG aUtfl tn usAétn. flaoaualé, 6La0éasts Afiyo ano tov xoovo aac afiusoa ( av auoun 6sv to éxsts udvsL ) auunlnoéats xaL taxuéoousiats auto to sowtnua- toldYLo. H auunapdataan aac 3a sxtLunSsC amdvtaata. EuxaoLaté. Dear Fellow Compatriot: Recently you were mails.” ‘-. ,.--'. .:1" ‘.'..‘.‘.’..... . , . . . culture. According to our records, we have yet to receive your response. Your completion of this questionnaire is very important for this study. Please take a few minutes today (if you have not already done so) to complete and mail this questionnaire. We appreciate your cooperation. Thank You. Ms sxttunan, Sincerely, f2; , a" y‘ rLooYos Kaolfis George Karlis KépLog Eosuvntfig Principle Researcher 200 December 5, 1990 Dear Fellow Compatriot: Recently you were mailed a questionnaire concerned with Greek culture. According to our records, we have yet to receive this from you. Your participation is very important for the completion of this study. All you have to do to help us is to complete and mail the enclosed questionnaire. This will only take a few minutes of your time. Please act on this immediately as time for the completion of this study is limited. Your participation is greatly appreciated. Thank You. Sins ely. cad? arlis Principle Researcher Ayannté ouunaroLétn: nooaoata AdBars taxuéoouLxdg éva somtnuatoloyLa nou axstLCdtav us tnv sAAnvan uoultoépa, to onoio oumg auoun 6sv uou ést snLatoaosi. H auuustoxn aag sst usydln anuaaia YLa tnv rsAsLonoCnan aUtnc tn; épsuvag. To uovo nou éxsts va udvsts YLQ va nag Bonfifiasts, szaL va auunlnpéats xaL va raxuépousiats to saéuAsLato sowtnuatvoYLo. ea ndpsL ubvo Afiya Asntd and tov xcévo aag. HapaxaAoOus, svspysiats ausamg, YLati o xpovog outng tng sosuvag sivaL nsoLooLauévog. H ouuustoxn aag 3a unvoYLaasC aodvtaata. EuxaoLaté. Ms sutiunon, //7// ," / (71.. .1" / Fmeyog Kaolng KOoLog Eosuvnrng 201. January 16, 1991 Dear Fellow Compatriot: Recently you were mailed a questionnaire concerned with Greek culture. According to our records, we have yet to receive this from you. Your participation is.very important for the completion of this study. All you have to do to help us is to complete and mail the enclosed questionnaire. This will only take a few minutes of your time. Please act on this immediately as time for the completion of this study is limited. Your participation is greatly appreciated. Thank You. Sincerely. Ugorge Karlis Principle Researcher Ayannté avunatoLétn: Hoéowata AdBats taxuéoouLxé; éva sowtnuatoAéYLo nou axstLCotav us tnv sAAnvan wouAtoOoa, to onoio éum; axoun 6sv uou ést snLatoamsi. H auuustoxn aa; ést usYdAn Unuaaéa YLQ tnv tsAsLonoCnan aUtn; tn; éosuvag. To nova nou éxsts va KdVETE YLQ va ua; Bananasts, szaL va auunlnooats KQL va TOXUGOOHECOTC to saéwAsLato sowtnuatvoYLo. 8a ndpsL uovo liya Asntd and tov xpovo aa;. Haoaxalodus, sszYsiats ausowc, YLatC o xoovo; avtn; tn; éosuva; ECvQL nsoLooLouévo;. H auuustoxn do; So unvoYLOSCC awdvtaata. EuxaoLaté. Ms sxtiunan, FLQOYo; Kaoln; KOOLo; Eosuvntfig APPENDIX B 203 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSUY comm ON RENO! INVOLVING FAST lANSlNG ' MICHIGAN ' 48834-1046 HUMAN sumac: (0011145) 232 ADMINISTRAnON BUILDING (shaman September 21, 1990 Mr. George Karlis Dept. of Park & Recreation Resources IRE” 90 385 131 Natural Resources Building Dear Mr. Karlis: RE: YOUR PROPOSAL ENTITLED: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE, TIME OF IMMIGRATION, PREFERENCE AND PARTICIPATION IN CULTURAL RECREATION ACTIVITIES AND CULTURAL IDENTITY 0F GREEK IMMIGRANTS 0F TORONTO - IRBP 90-385 The above project is exempt from full UCRIHS review. I have reviewed the prOposed research protocol and find that the rights and welfare of human subjects appear to be protected. You have approval to conduct the research. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval one month prior to September 21, 1991. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems (uneXpected side effects, complaints. etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely, avid E. Wright, air, ucnms DEW/ deo cc: Dr. Joseph D. Fridges MwamWWWlm 155 "11111111111119"