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PESTICIDE USE INFORMATION FLOWS AND COMPETENCIES'
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PESTICIDE USE INFORMATION FLOWS AND COMPETENCIES
OF AGRITEX EXTENSION AGENTS IN THE MIDLANDS AND

MASHONALAND CENTRAL PROVINCES OF ZIMBABWE

By

Raymond Tafungiswa Kujeke

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Agricultural and Extension Education

1993

John Bobbitt, Advisor

 

 

ABSTRACT

PESTICIDE USE INFORMATION FLOWS AND COMPETENCIES
OF AGRITEX EXTENSION AGENTS IN THE MIDLANDS AND

MASHONALAND CENTRAL PROVINCES OF ZIMBABWE
By
Raymond Tafungiswa Kujeke

There is an insufficient knowledge base on the effectiveness of public extension
systems in developing countries. Specifically, little is known about the interaction of
technology use by small-scale farmers and the extension organizational behavior, and, the
technical competencies required of extension agents. The main objective of this study was
to determine the nature of information flows and the technical competencies of public
extension agents in Zimbabwe with respect to pesticide use.

Data were collected from a sample of 209 Agritex extension agents in the Midlands
and Mashonaland Central provinces using a questionnaire. The data related to extension
agent technical competence, use of information sources and channels, attitudes, and
technical support needs with respect to pesticide use.

There was wide variance in technical competence. Using multiple regression, the
following independent variables had a significant influence on variation in competence
scores: age, gender, level of in-service training received, contact and use of private sector

representatives as information sources. There were no significant relationships between

 

 

Cepyright by
RAYMOND TAFUNGISWA KUJEKE

1993

This work is dedicated to Mashoko Alfred Kujeke,

alias Mao, who would have been first.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. John "Frank" Bobbitt for his support as my major advisor and
chairperson of the dissertation committee. The support from the other committee members,
Dr Richard Bernsten, Dr. Jake Wamhoff and Dr. James Dearing is also appreciated.

I am indebted to the Rotary Foundation and The World Bank for sponsoring my
doctoral studies. Special thanks to the counsellors Cheryl Kane and Dr. Ron Nichols for
all the help. The field research was sponsored in part by Shell Developments (Zimbabwe);

thanks to Frank Dyson for extending resources during the field work in Zimbabwe.
Various people provided useful critic and feedback during the study. I benefited

from attending and interacting with faculty and fellow doctoral candidates at the Summer
Institute for African Agricultural Research at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Thanks
also to Dr. Olivia Muchena of the University of Zimbabwe for useful insights during the

fieldwork.
The study was made possible by the cooperation of the Zimbabwe Ministry of Lands,

Agriculture and Water Development, the Agritex director, and all the Agritex extension staff

who took the time to participate despite the arduous drought conditions at the time.

Last my appreciation and love go to my wife, Noline, and family (especially Gogo -
pure Murozvi weWedza!) for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout this

endeavor. I hope this inspires and makes them proud.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Rae

LIST OF TABLES ................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................. xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................... xiii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION .................................................... 1
Problem Statement ............................................. 3

Study Objectives ............................................... 4
Research Questions ............................................. 5
Research Hypotheses ............................................ 5
Assumptions and Limitations of the Study ............................ 7
Definition of Terms ............................................. 8
Scope and Significance of the Study ................................. 9
Overview of the Dissertation ..................................... 10

CHAPTER II

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...................................... 11
Conceptual Framework ......................................... 11

The Technology Transfer Paradigm .......................... 12

The Non-formal Agricultural Education Paradigm ............... 15
Organizational Behavior ................................... 18
Organizational Communication ............................. 20

Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries ....................... 21
Public Sector Extension ................................... 22

Private Sector Extension .................................. 23

Extension Organization ................................... 24

Problems with Public Extension Systems ...................... 25

Country Setting ............................................... 27
Agriculture ............................................. 27

Extension .............................................. 29

Pesticide Use ........................................... 34

Summary .................................................... 36

vii

 

Table of Contents (cont’d)

Pa e
CHAPTER III ‘2‘
LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................. 37
Information Needs and Sources ................................... 37
Farmer Pesticide Use Information Needs and Sources ............ 42
Agritex Pesticide Use Information Needs and Sources ............ 45
Prrvate Sector Pestrcrde Use Information Needs and Sources ....... 47
PPRI Pesticide Use Information Needs and Sources ............. 48
Information Channels ..................................... 50
Mass Media Channels .................................... 54
Technical Competence .......................................... 56
Factors Influencing Performance ............................ 59
Extension Agent Technical Support Needs ........................... 63
Training ............................................... 63
Attitudes to Pesticide Use ............... - ........................ 66
Summary .................................................... 67
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH PROCEDURES ........................................... 70
Study Design ................................................. 70
Target Population ............................................. 71
Sampling .................................................... 72
Development of Survey Instrument ................................ 74
Validity ..................................................... 75
Reliability ................................................... 77
Distribution and Collection of the Questionnaire ...................... 78
Data Analysis ................................................ 79
N ull Hypotheses ......................................... 80
CHAPTER V
STUDY FINDINGS .................................................. 83
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ........................ 83
Technical Competence .......................................... 92
Regression Analysis ...................................... 95
Information Sources and Channels ....................... . ......... 102
Information Sources for Pesticide Use ........................ 102
Use of Information Sources ................................ 104
Contact with Pesticide Companies ........................... 107
Comments on Information Sources .......................... 110
Attitudes toward Pesticide Use ................................... 111
Technical Support Needs ........................................ 121
Summary of Written Comments .................................. 125

viii

 

 

Table of Contents (cont’d)

Bags:
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 126
Summary .................................................... 126
The Research Problem .................................... 126
Research Questions ...................................... 127
Methodology ........................................... 129
Assumptions and Limitations of the Study .................... 130
Study Findings .......................................... 131
Conclusions and Implications ..................................... 137
Recommendations ............................................. 142
Areas for Further Study ......................................... 147
APPENDICES
Agritex: Research Approval Letter ................................ 148
Letters to Chief Agricultural Officers ...... - ........................ 149
Agritex Organizational Chart ..................................... 150
Agritex Field Staff by Gender .................................... 151
UCRIHS Approval Letter ....................................... 152
Cover Letter and Questionnaire .................................. 157
Comments on Information Sources ................................ 169
Factor Analysis of Attitude Variables .............................. 172
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................... 176

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.3.92
1. Zimbabwe - Land Use Categories .................................... 28
2. Agritex - Technical and Extension Personnel ............................ 33
3. Agritex - Budget Allocations and Expenditure (1982-87) ................... 63
4. Extension Agent Sample by Rank in Organization ........................ 72
5. Extension Agent Sample by Location ......................... . ......... 73
6. Correlation Matrix of Extension Agent Demographic Variables .............. 92
7. Extension Agent Pesticide Application Skills ............................ 93
8. Extension Agent Pesticide Products Knowledge . .i ........................ 93
9. Extension Agent Knowledge of General Pest Management ................. 94
10. Withdrawn/Banned Products Mentioned in Product Recommendations ....... 95
11. Semi-partial Multiple Regression Coefficients for Independent Variable Sets . . . 96

12. Units of Measurement, Means and Standard Deviations for Independent

Variables in the Regression Analysis ............................... 97
13. Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables on Extension Agent

Competency Score ............................................. 98
14. Importance of Pesticide Use Information Sources Mentioned by Extension
Agents ...................................................... 102
15. Extension Agents’ Perceived Importance of Agritex Officers and Sales
Representatives/ Dealers as Pesticide Use Information Sources ........... 103
16. Ranking of Information Sources based on Frequency of Use ................ 104
17. Extension Agents’ Frequency of Use of Formal and Informal Channels for
Pesticide Use Information ....................................... 105

List of Tables (cont’d)

11le Page
18. Extension Agents’ Frequency of Use of Rich and Lean Media Channels ....... 106

19. Extension Agents’ Contact with Pesticide Company Representatives (1991-92) . . 108

20. Analysis of Variance for Extension Agents’ Use of the Radio and Demographic

Variables .................................................... 109
21. Extension Agents’ Attitudes toward Agritex ............................. 112

22. Means, F-values, and Significance of F -va1ues for Extension Agent Attitudes to
Agritex Variables ...................... - ........................ 113
24. Means, F -values, and Significance of F-values for Extension Agent Attitudes to
Pesticide Company and Representative Variables ..................... 115
25. Extension Agents’ Attitudes toward Small-scale Farmers ................... 116
26. Means, F—values, and Significance of F-values for Extension Agent Attitudes to
Farmer Variables .............................................. 117
27. Extension Agent Attitudes toward Pesticide Use Information and Knowledge . . . 119

28. Means, F-values, and Significance of F-values for Extension Agent Attitudes to

Information and Knowledge Variables .............................. 120
29. Extension Agent Attendance at Agritex In-service Training Courses .......... 122
30. Availability of Bools and other Print Materials for Extension Agents ......... 123
31. Availability of Protective Clothing for Extension Agents ................... 124
32. Frequency of Preferred Topics listed by Extension Agents .................. 125

 

LIST OF FIGURES

Saute Rage
1. Conceptual Framework ............................................ 35
2. Conceptual Framework of Agricultural Knowledge Systems ................. 40
3. Categories of Decision-makers in Pest Management in Zimbabwe ............ 41
4. Hierarchy of Media Richness ....................................... 52
5. Components of Extension Agent Performance Assessment ................. 61
6. Extension Agent Age Distribution .................................... 84
7. Extension Agent Gender ........................................... 86
9. Highest Agricultural Qualification Attained .............. . .............. 88
10. Position in Agritex ................................................ 89

90

11. Extension Agent Length of Service ...................................

 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AGRITEX - Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services
CILCA - International Liaison Committee for Food Crops Programs
CSO - Central Statistical Office
DCC - Drug Control Council
DR&SS - Department of Research and Specialist Services
ESAP - Economic Structural Adjustment Program
EW - Extension Worker
HSB - Hazardous Substances Board
1PM - Integrated Pest Management
MLAWD - Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Water Development
MTU . Mobile Training Unit (Agritex)
NARS - National Agricultural Research Systems
NGO - Non-governmental Organization
PPRI - Plant Protection Research Institute
PVO - Private Voluntary Organization
PSC - Public Service Commission
SMS - Subject Matter Specialist
T&V - Training and Visit System of Extension
ZFC - Zimbabwe Fertilizer Corporation

ZIDS - Zimbabwe Institute of Development Studies

 

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

There is an abundance of literature on the shortcomings of importing agricultural
technology for small-scale farmers in the developing world. Agricultural technology, like
machinery and agricultural chemicals, has often led to spectacular increases in farm
production and improvements in the quality of life in industrially-developed countries.
However, it has somehow failed to prove itself when put to the test in developing countries.
The common reasons for this failure include the inappropriateness of the technology, and,
a lack of compatibility between the technology and the social environmental setting in which
it is used. The technology transfer systems of most developing countries are inappropriate.
A common assumption in most transfer systems is that there is a natural, and inevitable,
unidirectional relationship between the formal research process and the process of
transferring the research know-how and its adoption by farmers.

Research emphasis has now broadened from focusing on why agricultural technology
does or does not diffuse in these environments, to ways of understanding and developing
the institutions responsible for technology transfer, and on the indigenous knowledge
systems of different farmers. This is an acknowledgement of the obvious findings that
knowledge transfer is not always a unilateral movement from the research system to the
farmer, and, of the need for research on communication as a process.

Farmers and service institutions generate knowledge which also needs to be
developed and disseminated by extension organizations. Extension, the conscious use of

communication of information, and the institutions responsible for technology transfer are

2

important elements in the diffusion process. There is a need for better understanding of
the processes of technological innovation and dissemination of useful technical knowledge
within the extension systems of developing countries. Human resource development and
multidimensional technology transfer capacity are critical areas in determining the
effectiveness of public agricultural extension systems.

Pesticides, by controlling pest populations directly or reducing/ preventing pest
damage, provide a novel and relatively fast technology for increasing agricultural production.
While there is evidence that pesticides alone do not lead to sustainable pest management
in agriculture, most developing countries experience constraints in resources to generate a
body of knowledge on alternate pest management strategies. The use of pesticides and
other agricultural inputs by small-scale farmers in Zimbabwe is increasing. This increase
is likely to continue before other means of pest control become cost-effective for small-scale
users.

There is still an inadequate empirical base on the subject of agricultural service
provision in developing countries. Specifically, little is known about the manner in which
organization network structure affects information flow. Knowledge about the relationship
between agricultural extension organization structures and information flow has remained
at a global level because there has been a paucity of research attempts to address,
empirically, the features of organizational systems and the flow of specific information.

The goal of this study was to identify and / or generate useful information for the
improvement of the technical competencies of Zimbabwean extension agents through the
development of more appropriate training and technical information networks. The study

focused on pesticide use, as one example of agricultural technology, to assess the technical

3

competency of extension agents, and the technical information flows within the public

extension organization, Agritex.

Problem Statement

It has been shown that the efficient use of agricultural chemicals by farmers requires
adequate support from extension. The technical competence of agricultural extension agents
regarding appropriate pesticide use is an important factor in their ability to meet the
technical advisory needs of farmers. Technical competency of extension agents is likely to
be influenced by a variety of factors, such as their educational qualifications, the quantity
and quality of in-service training they receive, and the availability of relevant technical
information and/or other resources to assist and update.

The formal qualifications of public extension agents in Zimbabwe, as in other
developing countries, are relatively low, especially as one goes down the ranks of the
organizational hierarchy. Small-scale farmers tend to have limited interaction with the
extension system, and specifically with adequately trained extension agents. There is no
formal evaluation of extension agents for specific knowledge or skills regarding the use of
pesticides. Private companies manufacture and market agricultural chemicals with minor
formal obligations regarding both farmer and extension agent knowledge and skills. The

technical support provided by pesticide companies to farmers is narrow, generally limited
to the purchased products, and not extended to the broader range of agricultural production
and management problems.

The promotion of improved agricultural practices, is, and will likely remain, primarily

a public sector function. Agritex is the predominant public agricultural extension

4
organization in Zimbabwe. Agritex’s ability to create and/or disseminate relevant technical

information is therefore critical. For an "external" technology like pesticides, this ability is
influenced by the strength of its communication links with pesticide research, manufacturing,
and, marketing organizations.

The knowledge levels of extension agents, and the technical, funding and
administrative limitations of Agritex to facilitate the flow of technical information, are key
factors in determining the level of effectiveness of technical support for pesticide use
available to small-scale farmers. Extension efforts have generally been inadequate in

promoting learning of agricultural technology by extension agents.

Study Objectives

The primary purpose of this study was to determine the nature of technical
information flows, and the technical competencies and needs of selected Agritex field
extension agents regarding the use of pesticides. The secondary purpose was to evaluate
the perceptions of key personnel in the pesticide industry, pesticide use organizations, and
senior Agritex personnel regarding the technical support needs of Agritex field extension

agents.

5

Research Questions

To meet the purposes of the study, the major questions that guided the research

process were:

1. What are the technical competencies of Agritex extension agents regarding

pesticide use?

2. What sources and channels are used to disseminate technical information related

to pesticide use within Agritex?

3. What are the attitudes of Agritex extension agents toward pesticide use?

4. What are the technical support needs of Agritex extension agents regarding

pesticide use management?

Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses were set a priori, and tested in an attempt to

provide answers to the research questions:

0 es' ' -.t .. Collo't‘ ‘o _ esio ents 'waop " .- s
(1) Technical competence is related to the extension agents’ formal qualifications.

(2) Technical competence is related to the level of in-service training received by

extension agents.

6

(3) Technical competence is related to the extension agents’ level of on-the-job

experience.

(4) Technical competence is related to other demographic characteristics of

extension agents.

a'oS esa a

(1) Other organizations are perceived 'by extension agents as more important

sources of information than Agritex.

(2) Extension agents use formal more than informal channels in the acquisition of

pesticide use information.

(3) Media richness affects the extension agents’ use of pesticide information sources

and channels.

(4) Use of information sources and channels is related to the extension agents’

demographic characteristics.

3 ' ‘ s' s’ ' s w est' 'd s
(1) Extension agents’ attitudes toward pesticide use are related to demographic

characteristics.

4' hn' u 0 Needs e ardin Pestic'de se Marta e

(1) There is a need to improve technical support to Agritex field extension agents

regarding pesticide management.

(2) Agritex should be responsible for supporting field extension agents in pesticide

use management.

7

(3) Pesticide companies should be responsible for supporting extension agents in
pesticide use management.

(4) There is a need for formal communication between field extension agents and

the pesticide company’s technical specialists.

Assumptions and Limitations of the Study

The main focus of the study was limited to Agritex extension agents for practical and
financial considerations. Data was not collected from other extension agents, for example
those in the private sector, or farmers, who are the primary end-users of pesticides.
Because of the severity of the drought at the time of data collection, only two of Zimbabwe’s
eight provinces were selected for the study. There was selection bias in that the two
provinces, Midlands and Mashonaland Central, were somewhat less affected by the drought,
and, are usually more productive. The findings are therefore not generalizable nationally,
and also may have been influenced by the unusual environmental conditions at the time of
data collection.

The study was limited to management and use of pesticide information. The
findings, conclusions and recommendations are bound to the characteristics of this
technology, which may not be applicable to other types of agricultural technology.

Assessment of the extension agents’ technical competence was by proxy, using
responses to written questions. Lack of a more practical assessment of competence was
therefore a methodological limitation. The underlying assumption was that written

responses could provide a reliable measure of competence, and further, that honest

responses would be disclosed.

8
Definition of Terms

WWW - a chemical used to control pest populations

(including weeds) directly, or to reduce or prevent pest damage.

Attitude - a general and enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object or

issue.
Communication — the process of creating shared meaning among two or more people
through verbal and nonverbal transaction.

Competengg - an underlying characteristic of a person that results in effective and/ or
superior performance in a job.

Electmnigmegja - used broadly to refer to radio, telephone, television and computers.
W - Agritex personnel employed in the field and technical divisions.

W - the style of action within an extension system.

W - an extension organization, such as a ministry of agriculture extension

system or university-based extension system.

W - the chosen course of action, such as multi-step information flow strategy

or multimedia strategy.

W - educational techniques used by the extension system, particularly by

its field staff in communicating with farmers.

W - official paths of message/ information flow prescribed by the

organization’s chain of command.

W - unofficial and informal networks (”the grapevine”) used by organization

members for message/ information flow.

9
Wang! - a means of passage, for example verbal, print or electronic media, for

transmitting a message from one point to another.

W - the transmission of messages between two or more persons, or, discrete

points in a system.

[W199 - a person or point of origin, such as an individual or organization, that
provides or initiates a message.

Witness - the capacity of a medium to facilitate shared meaning. Rich media (for
example, face-to-face communication or telephone) has the highest capacity to facilitate
shared meaning. Lean media (newspapers or journals) has the lowest capacity.

Sales representati g - person employed in a sales capacity by or for a pesticide company.

WIS - farmers engaged in agricultural activities in the communal and
resettlement areas. Used synonymously with communal farmers.

WWI.“ - implies an understanding of, and proficiency in, a specific kind

of activity, particularly one involving methods, processes, procedures or techniques.

W - in a broad sense, information that is put to use.

Scope and Significance of the Study

There is growing concern regarding the cost-effectiveness of public agricultural
services in developing countries. With increasing competition for public resources,
agricultural extension organizations have to show their relevance in more specific terms,
rather than the old adage of attempting to help all farmers, everywhere, with all their needs.
This may require refocusing public extension programs to doing only that which they are

capable of doing. One potential alternative to the traditional public extension system is

10

greater involvement and cooperation with private extension. Attempts at revamping public
extension systems require closer scrutiny of what they are currently doing and a listing of
their specific capabilities and needs in the various facets of extension programming. The
study considered the case of pesticide use amongst small-scale farmers in Zimbabwe, and
attempted to evaluate the role of the public extension system and the competencies of its
field extension staff. The general aim was to add more knowledge and insights for
strengthening the extension system, especially in the area of extension agent performance

and integrating public and private extension.

Overview of the Dissertation

Chapter I has provided a brief introduction, statement of the problem, and the major
research questions and hypotheses that guided the study. The key assumptions and
limitations of the study were summarized. Chapter 11 sets the conceptual framework, gives
an overview of pertinent issues related to extension and extension organizations in
developing countries. The chapter concludes with a brief description of Zimbabwe,
background information on the public extension organization, Agritex, and lastly, pesticide
use.

Chapter III is a review of literature related to the research problem. The research
design and procedures used in the study are detailed in Chapter IV. Chapter V presents

details of the study findings. The final Chapter is a summary of the study, the conclusions,
and recommendations. Copies of the main protocol documents, and relevant and / or lengthy

secondary and primary data items are listed in the appendices.

CHAPTER II

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

This chapter begins by setting out the conceptual framework for the research
problem. A discussion of some key concepts and issues related to the provision of
agricultural extension services in developing countries follows. The chapter concludes with
some background information on Zimbabwe and its agricultural systems, the public

extension organization, Agritex, and, lastly pesticide use.

Conceptual Framework

While there is almost universal agreement on the need for extension in agricultural
development, there are diverse views on extension organization and functions. A key
criterion for this divergence is how one defines extension. Extension can be viewed as a
purely technology transfer function, or, as a non-formal agricultural education or rural
human capital development function (Maalouf, 1991). How one defines extension is an
important consideration in planning, implementing and evaluating interventions aimed at

improving agricultural performance.

11

12

The Technology Transfer Paradigm

The phrase ”technology transfer" often has different interpretations to different
writers, and in different disciplines. Most definitions of technology transfer tend to
emphasize the physical product(s) and its attributes. The concept of technology transfer
is broader than the common, narrow notion of the product and / or its features. It includes
the process of knowledge transfer. The knowledge and skills of extension agents regarding
agricultural chemical use, for example, should be considered as technology. In this context,
the movement of technical information between the organization’s members, formally or
otherwise, can therefore be viewed as technology transfer. Technology transfer can be
broadly defined as the communication of information that is put to use (Dearing, 1993).
Thus theories from organizational communication are useful in understanding how
technology and organizations interact. To make technology transfer successful requires
overcoming the many barriers to communication encountered when individuals use different
vocabularies, have different motives, represent organizations of widely differing cultures, and
when the referents of the transactions may vary from highly abstract concepts to concrete
products (Williams and Gibson, 1990). The underlying assumption of most extension
programs in Africa has been that the main cause of farmer resistance to new technologies
is psychological (Lele, 1976).

The adoption and use of new technologies is necessary for the achievement of food
security (UNDP, 1991). Rukuni (1991), identifies new technology produced by public and
private investments in agricultural research, as one of five "prime movers" necessary for
sustainable agricultural development. The need for technology and its adoption differs

greatly within the diverse agricultural systems and farmers of developing regions. The

13

technological innovations promoted by extension agents are seldom aimed at resource-poor
farmers (Kesseba, 1989). The absence of a specific policy framework for an effective
technology generation and transfer system in public extension institutions leads to
inadequate organizational and institutional arrangements for meeting extension goals.
There are many cases of failed technology in developing countries. The material
impact of this failure is illustrated by broken-down machinery in the rural countryside, for
example. The lack of ownership, or access to technology, is not the central element
contributing to the poverty of small farmers (Kesseba, 1989). Technological developments
also have psychological effects; if imported technology seems all-powerful, people may feel
that their efforts to improve the land and grow better crops are futile (IDS, 1991). While
a strong case can be made against the negative impact of "external” technology, especially
if this involves ignoring resource constraints and the capacity of farmers to generate

knowledge, there is also danger in being unreceptive to outside innovations.

lt ov '

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers, 1983). Rogers describes
it as a special type of communication in that the messages are concerned with new ideas.
Agricultural extension services are a common form of public-sector support of knowledge
diffusion (Birkhaeuser, 1991). Early work on diffusion of agricultural innovations tended

to focus on the innovation and the adoptersl. Innovation was thought to be the best single

1Rogers (1983) and F eder (1985) provide reviews of adoption and diffusion of
agricultural innovations studies.

14
indicator of the multi—faceted dimension called modernization, the individual-level equivalent
of development (Rogers, 1976).

In most diffusion studies, information is collected from the potential adopters,
commonly farmers, to access the pattern of acceptance or rejection of an innovation. The
pro-innovation bias of most diffusion studies is reflected in the terminology used to describe
the spread of an innovation. Typically those who accept the innovation early are referred
to as pioneers, innovators and / or progressive. Conversely, those taking up the innovation
either late or not at all are called laggard, resistant to change, backward, and, a variety of
other terms that blame them for not taking up the innovation.

Mahajan and Peterson (1985) provide quantitative explanations of various diffusion
models. They argue that for the basic diffusion model, the rate of diffusion of an innovation
at any given time is a function of the gap between the total number of possible adopters at
that time, and the number of previous adopters. The classical diffusion model is inadequate
for explaining multiple adoptions, innovation modifications, and discontinuancez.

Research findings on the specific effects of access to agricultural information on.
adoption behavior are limited. Thomas, et a1. (1990) argue that part of the difficulty of
specifying the effects of information is due to researchers’ use of few types of information
sources, or their lumping of information sources into a single construct. The source or
system in which diffusion occurs has generally been given less attention for most agricultural

innovations. A common underlying assumption is that the social system is static relative to

the innovation. Diffusion was, and in some cases still is, conceived as a unidirectional

2Mahajan & Peterson (1985) discuss these limitations and provide extensions and
refinements of the classical diffusion model.

15

process in which knowledge and the desire to change originates in the research and/or
extension systems, and then "diffuses" to the potential adopters.

It is only recently that communication networks within agricultural organizations
have begun to be regarded as an important criterion of organizational efficiency in diffusing
technical innovations. The processes of organizational communication are critical in
determining the efficiency of information flow. Within the organization, the interaction
between technology development sources and receivers, both in and out of the organization,
will differ and thus affect the knowledge transfer process. Rogers ( 1983) contends that
agricultural diffusion is relatively centralized, in that key decisions about which innovations
to diffuse, how to diffuse them, and to whom, are made by a small number of technically

expert officials near the top of a diffusion system.

The Non—formal Agricultural Education Paradigm

Since most people cannot come to school, school must go to them.
Anonymous.
Technology is not a sufficient condition for increasing agricultural productivity. The
premise of non-formal education is the existence of knowledge differences between what the
farmer knows and available knowledge. New technology in not a necessary condition for
improving productivity if farmer practices lag behind available knowledge. Extension is
therefore primarily a deliberate intervention aimed at raising the knowledge level of

farmers.

16
W

Theories of learning provide a philosophical basis of the non-formal education
paradigm. Many education experts have observed that understanding how a person learns,
and helping people understand how to learn is a major requisite for a successful educational
program3. This understanding is especially important for adult education programs since
participants have different needs than those in more conventional learning situations (Pigg
et aL, 1980). On the value of learning theories, Hill (1977) notes that theories do not give
us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding
solutions.

Learning theories abound in the literature of psychology and education, a situation
that reflects both the variety of approaches taken in conceptualizing learning and the lack
of consensus on any one of them (Griffith, 1984). Three areas of direct relevance to the
non-formal education paradigm are the ideas of behaviorist, cognitive and experiential
learning theorists“.

Behaviorists emphasize the need for carefully studying the changes associated with
attempting to change the learner’s ways of doing things using stimulus-response studies.
Most notable amongst the early behaviorists was Pavlov and his famous work demonstrating
the effects of ”conditioned" and ”unconditioned” stimulus on dogs. Pavlov also advanced the
concept of inhibition which illustrated how learners can be distracted by external stimuli or
if the conditioned stimulus is repeated without a reward. Skinner developed the latter to
the concept of Operant conditioning, which is the process of presenting and withholding

rewards to shape behavior. Another behaviorist, Thorndike put less emphasis on the role

 

3See for example Knowles (1973).

4Bower & Hilgard (1981) provide a comprehensive review of learning theories.

17

of understanding, but on the bonds between sense impressions and impulses to act. This
bond, commonly called connectionism, stresses the importance of practice because it permits
the power of the reward to strengthen the bond between the stimulus and the response.

Cognitive theorists emphasize the organization of experience within the mind of the
learner as a major variable of learning. The Gestalt and functionalism are two prominent
cognitive theories. Gestalt theory deals with the ways experience is recorded in the mind
and how it is used to provide solutions to problems and conflicts. Learning is viewed, not
as an isolated event, but a process occurring within the larger context of the learner’s
experience. Extension education programs should therefore be guided by the learner’s
background of experience in the presentation of new information. John Dewey was one of
the more prominent advocates of the functionalism theory which asserts that human beings
solve problems through thoughtful interaction with their environment (Griffith, 1984).
Extension educators are most helpful when they teach their clients approaches to problem-
solving instead of simply giving answers to their questions.

Experiential learning theory defines learning as a sequence of events with one or
more identified learning objectives, requiring active involvement by participants in one or
more points in the sequence (Walter & Marks, 1981). Active involvement requires
experience-based training and engages learners in deciding what is to be learned, how it is
to be learned and how their achievement is to be assessed. Unlike the other learning
theories, experiential learning is normative and expresses a value position.

The non-formal education agricultural paradigm emphasizes the value of change
through teaching. It falters in not explicitly examining the basis for choosing the changes

to be promoted. Education is not a neutral experience. Every educative experience

18
expresses a value position either explicitly or implicitly (Griffith, 1984). Paulo Freire (1990)

sums up the nature of knowledge transfer:

Knowledge is not extended from those who consider that they know to those who

consider that they do not know. Knowledge is built up in the relations between

human beings and the world, relations of transformation, and perfects itself in the

critical problematization of these relations.

The research problem was also conceptualized as arising from other general areas
in extension and agricultural development. The following background reviews concepts and

issues from three areas: (1) organizational behavior and communication, (2) agricultural

extension in developing countries, (3) the country setting and Agritex.
Organizational Behavior

Understanding how organizations work provides insights into possible ways in which
they can be more effective. Organizational issues are of central importance when reviewing
reasons for the low productivity of Africa’s present extension services (Moris, 1991). To
analyze the issue of administrative and management incapacity, for the improvement of

communication networks, it is necessary to examine how organizations function and how
they respond to internal and external problems. Bureaucracy is the most common form of
public organizational structure in developing countries.

There is an abundance of literature on the characteristics of bureaucracies. The
concept of “bureaucracy” is commonly used to describe huge, inflexible and impersonal
organizations. Max Weber is credited with specifying the characteristics of the bureaucracy,
as an ideal organizational form (Schermerhorn et al., 1988). The reasons for this assertion

lie in the bureaucracy’s organizational form. Using Weber’s criteria, the ideal bureaucracy

19

is not hindered by the personal whims of the leader or by traditional procedures since the
means used are those which will best achieve stated goals. The typical bureaucracy also has
a well defined hierarchy of authority, which ranks members of the organization in terms of
power and a system of rules. The result is a highly efficient system of coordination and
control. This system perspective can be developed further to the contingency theory of
behavior. The basic proposition of contingency theory is that there are no universal
principles of management that can be applied uncritically (Gannon, 1979). Each situation
needs to be analyzed in terms of such key variables as technology and external
environmental uncertainty before an appropriate course of action is taken. This is the
essence of the situational theory of behavior.

Weber’s concept of an ideal bureaucracy has been criticized for a number of reasons.
Mullins (1985) lists some of the criticisms. In the case of public sector bureaucracies there
is a demand for uniformity of treatment, regularity of procedures and accountability for
their operations. The overemphasis on rules and procedures, record-keeping and paperwork
may become more important in its own right, than as a means to an end. Officials may
develop a dependence upon bureaucratic status, symbols and rules. Initiative may be stifled
and when a situation is not covered by a complete set of rules or procedures there is a lack
of flexibility or adaptation to changing circumstances. Position and responsrbilities in the
organization can lead to officious bureaucratic behavior. There also may be a tendency to
conceal administrative procedures from outsiders. Impersonal relations can lead to
stereotyped behavior and a lack of responsiveness to individual incidents or problems.

Other critics of Weber’s work have also indicated its lack of attention to the informal
organization and the development of groups with goals of their own. Argyris (1964) claims

that bureaucracies restrict the psychological growth of the individual and cause a feeling of

20

failure, frustration and conflict. In most bureaucracies there is a tendency toward "goal
displacement," where the means become ends in themselves and more important than the
actual goals.

Schwartz (1991) argues that the administration of a public sector extension service
requires some bureaucracy but the critical question is its appropriate size. She notes that
bureaucracies expand far more easily than they contract; between 1959 and 1980 African
countries added 1,000 new extension agents per year. The public extension system in
Zimbabwe increased its personnel by 40% during the period 1981-90 (Pazvakavambwa,
1991). In 1990 the Zimbabwean government initiated economic reforms which include a
25% reduction in the size of the civil service (Zimbabwe Government, 1991). Agritex is not
”immune" to the reductions and organizational changes proposed in the World Bank-
initiated economic structural adjustment program (ESAP) in Zimbabwes. The key question
is whether the organization can remain focused on the substance of extension, given the

difficulties bureaucracies have in implementing significant organizational changes.
Organizational Communication

Communication is a process in which participants create and share information with
one another in order to reach mutual understanding (Rogers, 1983). Mutual understanding
or shared meaning occurs when information is placed within a context. There are three

basic models of communication: linear, interactional and transactional.

*

5C. Chidavanyika, World Bank Harare Office, personal communication (December,
1992).

21

The linear model provides the simplest description of the communication process.
It represents communication as the one-way flow of a message from a source to a receiver.
A source transmits a message through a channel to a receiver. The source must encode the
message and the receiver must decode it. The linear model is similar to, and is often
described as, radio transmission. The interactional model emphasizes the two-way nature
of communication. The receiver provides feedback to the source, therefore reversing or
exchanging roles during the process. The transactional model emphasizes communication
as mutual and reciprocal. Both parties are equally important and influential in determining
the outcome of the communication process. Encoding and decoding is a simultaneous
process and not step-wise as in the interactional model. There is therefore no sharp
distinction between source and receiver roles.

The models of communication used in an organization are key factors influencing
the learning styles of its members and consequently its clientele, the credibility of the
organization and the messages transmitted, and, the relative use of formal and informal
sources and channels of information.

Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries

Extension is a key component of the development strategies for the agricultural
sector in most developing countries. Agricultural extension services were established
throughout Africa during the colonial period (Eicher & Baker, 1982). During this period,
the role of the extension agents was essentially coercive. With independence, the focus of
most extension services in African countries has shifted to a more persuasive approach, and,

on increasing the availability of extension services to farmers. Despite the numerous efforts

22

to improve the effectiveness of national extension programs, resources invested in extension
services generally have a low return (Arnon, 1989; Gill, 1989).

An extension approach is the style of action within a system (Axinn, 1988; Contado,
1990). There are various approaches to the provision of extension. Differences in extension
approaches are influenced by the source of funds. and the type of organization responsible
for organizing extension activities (UNDP, 1990). The major extension approaches can be

broadly divided into those provided by public and private sector organizations.
Public Sector Extension

Most public sector extension in developing countries is provided through government
ministries of agriculture or rural development. The justification for government assuming
responsibility for extension is that the extension program, though aimed at improving the
efficiency of agricultural production, can actually contribute to general economic growth and
in many cases to export earnings (Arnon, 1989). Ministries of rural development tend to
emphasize socioeconomic goals, while those of agriculture are more production and
technology transfer oriented (UNDP, 1990). The general ministry-based agricultural
extension approach is the most widely found type of extension service in Sub-Saharan Africa
(FAQ, 1990; Kesseba, 1989; Moris, 1991). There is however, great variability between
countries and different systems within each country. For example, in Francophone Africa,
the Ministry of Agriculture often does not have major implementation responsibilities
(Moris, 1991).

The ministry-based approach is typically multi-purpose and multi-functional, and the

extension agents are frequently the only continuing governmental presence in their service

23

area (UNDP, 1990). The staff in public extension systems tend to see themselves as civil
servants rather than farmers’ advisers; typically they spend a significant amount of time on
"non-extension" activities. It is partly for this reason that management systems like the
World Bank-promoted Training and Visit System (T&V) have been introduced in a number
of public extension systems in developing countries. To a lesser extent, public extension in
Sub-Saharan Africa is organized through University-based, Commodity-based, and,
Integrated approaches.

Public sector extension was criticized in the 19805 for not doing enough, not doing
it well, and for not being relevant (Rivera, 1991). Rivera further argues that there were at
least three major responses to the criticism of public extension. First were the efforts to
improve or revitalize these systems; second were the moves to privatize public extension.

The third response was to encourage alternative diffusion practices.
Private Sector Extension

Private sector extension tends to focus on technology transfer. The UNDP (1990)
classifies private sector extension into four categories: commodity, input, knowledge, and
client group served. Commodity-based extension systems are usually organized through
quasi-government organizations or private sector companies for an important cash or export
crop. Input-supply systems are typically organized by private firms offering technical advice
on the use of a specific agricultural input(s), such as pesticides, seed varieties or equipment.

Knowledge systems are often provided by consultants who provide specialized technical and
managerial advice and services on a fee basis. Such specialized services are generally

tailored to large-scale specialized firms and individuals and do not cater for most small-scale

24

producers. Client-based systems are generally provided by private voluntary organizations
(PVOs) or nongovernmental organizations (N 603).

Input supply companies consider extension services as part of the backstopping and
promotion activities of their enterprise (Cornelissen, 1991). Cornelissen estimates that input
supply firms in Zimbabwe employ approximately 160 representatives / extension workers who
generally spend 8 months a year on extension services; these firms spend a total of about
239.6 million per year on extension services". The private sector is playing an increasingly
important role in agricultural research and technology transfer in developing countries and,

in general spends more money on linking the two activities, than is the case in the public

sector (Pray & Echeverria, 1990).

Extension Organization

Most government extension services are organized as territorial hierarchies, with
headquarters staff in the capital city, subordinate levels at province, region or district, and
a broad base of geographically dispersed field workers in the lowest sub-areas (Arnon,
1989). The conventional extension model is based on ”top-down” diffusion of technical
innovations, from research or other external sources, and down through the ranks of the
extension organization.

Extension services in most developing countries are provided in a complex
environment, making it difficult and usually inappropriate, to focus on a few specific aspects.
Moris (1991) discusses the complexity of the organizational contexts of agricultural extension

in developing countries. Agricultural extension can be analyzed from a policy, social, or

—_

‘Estimate includes extension services in commercial and small-scale agricultural sectors.

25

natural science perspective. For example, those who conceive of extension as technology
transfer may focus on communicating information about new technology like pesticides to
farmers; those who deal with community problems could emphasize issues like leadership,
empowerment and participation within the community; while the natural scientist may

analyze trends using a geographical or biological approach.
Problems with Public Extension Systems

Public extension organizations in developing countries face a variety of problems.

The effects of specific problems will vary between organizations and also at different times
in the development process. Common problems of public extension organizations include
organizational defects and operational weaknesses, ineffective extension personnel, economic
constraints, deficient linkages with other institutions involved in development and, political,
cultural, social and institutional constraints (Arnon, 1989). Within the organizational and
operational sphere, specific problems include (1) insufficient numbers of well-trained
extension personnel, (2) extension services that emphasize the higher potential areas and
well-to-do farmers, (3) lack of adequate transportation, facilities, and equipment for the
extension field staff, (4) lack of career development opportunities and adequate incentives
for good work, (5) poor organization and management of resources, (6) insufficient linkage
between extension and research, and with other rural service agencies, and, (7) the failure

of extension to reach small-scale subsistence farmers, especially women-headed farm

households and young families, with appropriate technology and other effective services

(FAO, 1990).

26

Many factors contribute to these problems, making it difficult to design simple
strategies for strengthening public agricultural systems. The World Bank concedes that
".....evaluations of its own efiorti indicated that extension systems were poorly managed and that
the technology being promoted was often irrelevant" (Cleaver, 1992). A significant number of
these problems originate from within the extension organization, not from the external
environment (Orie, 1982). This would indicate a need for the improvement of both
administrative and technical capacity within the public agricultural extension organizations
in developing countries.

Evidence shows that the low professional competencies of extension agents, common
in developing countries, are a key factor that limits their effectiveness. Without adequate
well-trained staff members, extension organizations are limited in their ability to plan and
execute sound educational programs and related technology transfer activities. The
educational qualifications of extension personnel in most developing countries tend to be
very low in relation to the assignments and responsibilities they are expected to carry out
(FAO, 1990).

The capacity of the educational institutions is limited and not well linked to
extension. Recommendations after studies of the Kenyan extension system, point to "an
urgent need to catalog the technical competencies needed by the extension personnel in
their various work areas" (Ongondo, 1984). There is need to put more emphasis on the

quality of staff rather than focus only on the quantitative issue of extension agent to farmer
ratio. There is evidence to indicate that even when the agent : farmer ratio is favorable,

extension workers tend to seek out a minority of better-off farmers (Moris, 1991).

27
Country Setting

Zimbabwe is a land-locked country situated between the Zambezi and Limpopo
rivers in southern Africa. The total land area is 389,370 square kilometers (150,333 square
miles), which is about the same size as Japan or. California. The population in 1992 was
estimated at 10.4 million, with an annual growth rate of 3.1% (Daily Gazette, 1992). By
developing country standards, Zimbabwe has a well diversified economy with advanced
industrial and monetary sectors. With an estimated per capita income of US $670 in 1989,
it is classified as a lower-middle income country (World Bank, 1992). The country has a
markedly dualistic economy with a strong, modern sector that produces most of the
consumer goods found in industrialized countries accompanied by massive urban
unemployment (Muir, 1991). The annual inflation rate averaged about 15% per annum in

the 1980-90 decade.

Agriculture

Zimbabwe is divided into five natural regions on the basis of soil type, rainfall and
other climatic factors. The first three regions are suitable for intensive crop and livestock
production whereas the remaining two offer limited scope for agricultural development
(C80, 1985). Agriculture is divided into three main sub-sectors, large-scale commercial,
small-scale commercial, and, communal and resettlement. Large-scale commercial farms
occupy most of the intensive farming regions, while the communal and resettlement are
located in semi-intensive and extensive farming regions. Commercial famtland is privately

owned, while communal and resettlement land is farmed under a traditional tenure system.

28

At least 60% of the national population resides on communal and resettlement land under
traditional tenure rights. The division of Zimbabwe’s farmland, summarized in Table 1, is
estimated as 58% communal (including resettlement areas), 38% large-scale commercial,
and 4% small-scale commercial (former Purchase Areas). Land distribution per person is
highly skewed in favor of large-scale commercial farming. Land resettlement and policy
issues are possibly the most central critical issue in the agricultural sector. For example,

there are proposals for the resettlement of 110,000 families on about 5 million hectares

 

currently in the large-scale commercial sector, and also the possibility of a higher land tax 1

for under-utilized land to bring more land onto the market (Zimbabwe Government, 1991).

Table 1: Zimbabwe - Land Use Categories

 

 

 

Sector Total area % of total % of Families
(million ha) area arable land
Non-agricultural 5.84 15.0 - -
Large-scale commercial 12.65 32.5 38.3 4300
Small-scale commercial 1.42 3.7 4.3 8530
Communal & Resettlement 18.99 48.8 57.5 900,120
TOTAL 38.90 100 100 912,950

 

Sources: Central Statistical Office, 1985; Agritex, 1990.

29

Since independence in 1980, the volume of agricultural production has been
increasing at an erratic pace, with an average annual growth rate of 4.5% between 1979 and
1985 (Zimbabwe Government, 1986). Agriculture is a priority sector of government policy,
with the small-scale farming sub-sector identified as a key area of focus. This policy is
aimed at redressing imbalances resulting from thecountry’s pre-independence, colonial era.
The agricultural sector is coordinated by the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Water
Development (MLAWD). Through its departments and parastatals (quasi-government
corporations), the ministry is responsible for the entire array of agricultural activities
(Zimbabwe Government, 1986). The budget for the ministry averaged 6.2% of the national

budget for the period 1985-927.

Extension

The dominant agricultural extension system in Zimbabwe can be classified as a
general, ministry-based approach. There are a number of other extension systems, such as
the commodity-centered system for tobacco, private sector extension centered on agricultural
inputs, and, many relatively small nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) using a variety
of extension approaches. The different systems are mainly a result of political and economic
factors, and the diverse nature of the agricultural sector in agro-ecological potential,
clientele character and production systems.

The major agricultural extension organization is the Department of Agricultural,

Technical and Extension Services (Agritex), based in the MLAWD. Agritex’s main objective

 

7Calculated from data in World Bank Agriculture Sector Memorandum, May 1991.

30
is the implementation of government agricultural policy through the provision of technical

and extension services. Agritex (1990) states its official mandate as:

To assist in the implementation of the policy of government in relation to the
development of the agricultural industry of the country, taking into consideration the
rural development essential for successful, productive and stable agriculture.

Increase the productivity of agriculture with special emphasis on the communal,

resettlement, cooperatives, small-scale farmer and large scale farmers in that priority
order.

\

Stimulate the adoption of appropriate proven agricultural conservation and
management practices leading to increased, sustained and profitable production.

Promote the development of people on the land, thus improving the standard of
living and the quality of life.

(a 3)

Its target clientele, in order of priority, are: communal and resettlement area
farmers, small-scale commercial area farmers, and large-scale commercial area farmers
(Agritex, 1990). Before independence in 1980, two separate extension systems served the
communal and commercial farmers, respectively. Agritex is a relatively new organization,

7 created in 1981 after the merger of the two extension departmentss. Although Agritex is
the only government department with a widespread representation at grass roots level, it

covers only about 60% of communal area farmers (Cornelissen, 1991).

Like other departments in the public sector, Agritex has undergone many substantial

policy changes since 1980. There has been a shift away from the coercive and prescriptive

approach that was typical of the colonial era.

—_

8Agritex was created through the amalgamation of the Dept. of Conversation and
Extension (CONEX) within the former Ministry of Agriculture, the Dept. of Agricultural
Development (DEVAG) within the former Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Rural
Development. Under the previous structure, CONEX was responsible for providing technical

and extension services to commercial and former African Purchase Land farmers, while
DEVAG provided those services in the former Tribal Trust Lands.

31

Agritex obtains most of its funding from government budgetary allocations. For the
period 1981-92, Agritex budget allocations were approximately 0.6% and 11% of the national
and MLAWD budgets, respectively. In the 1990-91 fiscal year, about 80% of the
departmental budget was spent on personnel costs; 65-70% is considered as a workable
maximum percentage to ensure sufficient funds for extension activities (Cornelissen, 1991).

Agritex is headed by a director, assisted by three deputy directors, each responsible
for a division. These divisions are Technical, Field and Irrigation services (Appendix 2).
The technical services division is made up of six specialist branches: crop production,
livestock production, planning, training, agricultural engineering, and agricultural
management services. It serves as the main link between agricultural research and the field
extension services. The field services division is mainly engaged in communication of
extension messages to farmers. It is also tasked with liaising with other government and
non-government organizations in the agricultural sector. The irrigation division is relatively
new, created in 1985, specifically to address, the issue of stabilizing production in low rainfall
areas (Zimbabwe Government, 1986).

The department employs approximately 2,500 field technical and extension personnel
Human resources in Agritex are decentralized with over 90% of the field stafi stationed at
provincial or district offices. Most the field staff are frontline extension workers and
supervisors, who reside within the small-scale farmers’ community. At the officer level, the
staff is divided into administrative and technical. The administrative staff, like regional and
agricultural officers are responsible for the day-to-day management activities while technical
staff are more engaged in advising and training within their respective specialist areas. With

an extension worker to farmer ratio of 1 to 485, Zimbabwe has a higher intensity of

32

extension coverage than the 1 to 1,809 average for Sub-Saharan Africa9 (Ashworth, 1990;
FAO, 1990). Female field extension agents comprise about 10% of the total field staff,
which is slightly higher than the average for Sub«Saharan Africa of 7% (Appendix 2; FAQ,
1990). The breakdown of Agritex staff in the technical and field divisions by their official
ranks, is shown in Table 2. ,

In 1983 the government obtained a World Bank/IFAD loan to strengthen
agricultural research and extension (World Bank, 1983). Agritex experimented with the
World Bank-promoted Training and Visit System (T&V) during the early 1980s. After
assessment of the impact of the T&V system in. the two districts (Shurugwi and
Chiwundura) in which the system was tried, the department does not intend to adopt the
major components of the system”. Pazvakavambwa (in press) summarizes the main
concerns with the pilot T&V as:

The Training & Visit system of extension is more suitable in the case where

extension staff are not previously trained in agriculture.

The system is too rigid in approach and lacks the flexibility to make it more relevant
to the needs and environment of the small scale farmer.

The system is too mechanical in its implementation and does not allow for multiple
diversity in cropping enterprise as is characteristic of the small farmers.

Training and Visit is heavy on resources, some of which are extremely limiting e.g.
transport. Although Zimbabwe has a good network of rural roads, the provision of
adequate transport facilities for the extension service is still to be achieved.

Pazvakavambwa concludes that the pilot T&V system had limited success and needs to be

modified to suit clientele needs by injecting sufficient flexibility to match available resources.

 

9Ratio for Zimbabwe includes extension supervisors.

1"J. Makadho, Agritex Director, personal communication, October, 1992.

 

33
Table 2: Agritex - Technical and Extension Personnel11

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rank Number %

Director ‘ 1 2

Assistant Directors (Field, Technical & Ag. Engineering) 3

Chief Agricultural Extension Officers 9

Chief Agricultural Specialists 8

Principal Agricultural Extension Officers 2 ‘ 16

Principal Agricultural Specialists 8

District Agricultural Extension Officers 49 2

Subject Matter Specialists 164 6.5

Agricultural Extension Officers 211 8

Agricultural Extension Supervisors 322 13

Technicians , 29

Research Assistants 10 1'5
:gricultural Extension Workers 1 679 67

TOTAL 2 509 100

 

nSource: Hakutangwi, 1992; staff numbers exclude the engineering division and
administrative section.

 

34

Pesticide Use

Pesticide use is regulated mostly by the Plant Protection Research Institute (PPRI)
which is a branch of the Department of Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS) in the
MLAWD. All pesticides offered for sale and distribution, except for veterinary remedies,
fall under the Pesticides Regulations of the Fertilizer, Farm Feeds and Remedies
Parliamentary Act of 1977. The Hazardous Substances and Articles Regulations of 1985
specify the policies for the safe use of pesticides. The official purpose of registration is to
ensure the least hazardous and most efficient use for all sectors of the community (Allcock
& Leece, 1980).

The agro-chemical industry has about 14 companies, of which 6 are subsidiaries of
international corporations. The Agricultural Chemicals Industry Association (ACIA)
represents the interests of pesticide companies. All pesticides for agricultural use require
a license from the DR&SS before their release onto the market. Efficacy evaluation of new
pesticides is a prerequisite for licensing. Efficacy evaluation is conducted by several
organizations including the PPRI, the Cotton Research Institute, the Department of
Veterinary Services, the University of Zimbabwe, the Tobacco Research Board, and
pesticide companies.

There are over 450 registered pesticides in the country and it is estimated that the
country uses pesticides worth Z$250 million per annum (Financial Gazette, 1992). Eighty
percent of the pesticides are used directly in agriculture (FAO, 1991). Small-scale farmers
account for only about 5% of pesticide sales; the bulk of the pesticides are used in the large-
scale commercial sector and state farms. Only one pesticide, copper oxychloride, is wholly
manufactured in the country; the active ingredients for the rest of the pesticides are

imported, using scarce foreign exchange, and only the formulation takes place locally.

35

 

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5039.3: \BcoEwNEoucO
5996 croouxm

‘geaoaezooh

¥EO>>w§<Cu .._<D._.n_m_OZOO

    

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Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

36

Summary

Extension is neither a purely technology transfer nor a rural human capital
development function. Figure 1 provides a schematic view of the issues considered in the
conceptual framework. In conceptualizing the research problem elements of both paradigms
guided the general direction of the study. Knowledge transfer and stimulation of problem-
solving capacity are important issues for more effective extension programs. Concepts from
organizational behavior and the specific setting in terms of the country and it’s agricultural

and technological systems were incorporated for greater focus.

- CHAPTER III
LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter details the pertinent issues that guided the research process. While
there is overlap in some relevant articles identified during the literature search, this review
discusses and summarizes the issues with specific reference to pesticides and pesticide use
in developing regions. The review is structured to cover five main areas: (1) information
needs and sources, (2) information channels, (3) technical competence, (4) extension agent
technical support needs, and, (5) attitudes to pesticide use. The chapter concludes with

some findings and insights from the secondary data search.
Information Needs and Sources

New technology is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for increased farm
productivity with given natural resources (Feder & Slade, 1985). It is not a necessary
condition if there is a gap between available knowledge and typical farmer practices. A
major constraint in improving pest management in developing countries is the gap between
knowledge needed at the farm and that of which the farmer is aware. This gap may be due
to lack of provision of the required information, poor dissemination or poor reception
(Hoeng, 1989). The collection, management and distribution of pesticide information may
serve many purposes. For example, lack of information, uncertainty,iand perceived risks

inhibit adoption decision-making (Abelson & Levi, 1985). Wete (1991) argues that progress

37

38

in agriculture is based on information and its transfer; information transfer is therefore the
main function of extension.

Information management is a complex process that has many stages and components.
The process should be considered as holistic since the stages and components are inter-
related. Articles included in this review focus on pesticide use information in problem-
focused, solution-generating decisions. To improve farmers’ pest management practices, it
is important to examine the flow of information to farmers.

For sometime now, it has been recognized that the flow of information between
researchers, extension workers and farmers, has been, inadequate (Kinara, 1984; Merrill-
Sands & Kaimowitz, 1990). In some extension systems there is little evidence of interaction
and collaboration between these sub-components in the processes of knowledge generation
and utilization (Dandhanin, 1984). For example, in Pakistan research findings show that
interaction and communication between researchers and extension agents, and, between
researchers and farmers are ”tenuous and scarce" (Malik, 1988).

Analysis of the information needs of researchers, extension agents and farmers will
help identify constraints in the flow of knowledge and ways in which it might be improved.
The primary sources of technical information for pesticides are organizations involved in
pesticide research, development, manufacturing and marketing. Most of these sources are
multinational corporations, research institutions and universities located in industrialized
countries.

Hoeng (1989) uses an information systems model to illustrate the transmission of
agricultural knowledge. The model has four functional sub-systems: (1) basic research, (2)

applied research and development, (3) practice, and, (4) consumption. Hoeng concludes

that effective knowledge utilization takes place when the sub-systems are inter-related and

 

39

coordinated into one system. Formal links are not always enough to ensure effective links
between the sub-systems. Eponou (1990) argues that the effectiveness of an information
system depends not only on structural interdependence, but also on goal consensus.
There are several other conceptual models of knowledge transmission. Figure 2
illustrates the evolution of a conceptual framework of agricultural knowledge transmission
systems. Agricultural knowledge systems began with a unidirectional researcher-to-farmer
view with no feedback (I). A two-way flow of information between scientists and farmers
was recognized with extension playing a mediator-facilitator role (11). Gradually, it became
evident that direct contact between researchers and farmers would be useful because
feedback from extension on farmers’ needs and problems is often inadequate (111). Then
more emphasis was placed on the exchange of knowledge among researchers, extension
workers and farmers as equal partners (IV). The latest concept is overlapping functions of
research, extension and farmers (V), such as the farmer-back-to-farmer model (Hoeng,

1989).

 

40

 

III R <1:::::::c:::::::)- E -::::::::::t::::::>F

 

 

 

R = Research, F = Farmers, E = Extension.

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of Agricultural Knowledge Systems

41

Pesticide use information is required by a variety of users for decision-making in
pest management. The decision-makers can be divided into four main categories: farmers,
extension services, legislation and regulation services, and the private sector. Figure 3
illustrates the main categories and institutions requiring pesticide use information for the

small-scale agricultural sector in Zimbabwe.

 

 

 

SMALL-SCALE FARMERS ‘ REGULATORY SERVICES
(Communal & Resettlement) (PPRI, DCC & HSB)
"‘ Cost-effective control " Monitoring
" Marketing and technical information " Regulation
‘ Legislation
EXTENSION SERVICES PRIVATE SECTOR
(Agritex, Company reps & others) (Pesticide companies)
" Advisory service “ Manufacturing
‘ Education " Marketing
* Monitoring * Research

 

 

 

 

Figure 3: Categories of Decision-makers in Pest Management in Zimbabwe

42
Each category can be further sub—divided in terms of their specific requirements: why

they need the information, what kind of information they need, how it should be managed
and distributed, and how best to ensure that it is cost-effective and focused on practical
decision-making (Putter & Van der Graaff, 1989). For information gaps to be reduced, it

is necessary first, to identify the information needs of users.
Farmer Pesticide Use Information Needs and Sources

In the forefront of pest management is the farmer, who is supported by state
institutions and the private sector. While there is now substantial literature on the need for
farmer involvement, Roling argues that understanding the need for farmer participation is
often clouded by the metaphors used to describe the process by which technology is
developed and delivered:

Farmers tend to be seen as passive recipients - users of technology developed by

other people. At best, it is acknowledged that some feedback on farmers’ reactions

to a new technology is desirable in order to refine that technology, but this is likely
to be regarded as a need for mere fine-tuning

Roling, 1989.

About 15% of the estimated 900,000 families in the communal and resettlement
areas use chemicals or pesticides for pest and disease control on their crops. Use of
pesticides and other inputs is greater in the higher potential agro-ecological zones (Chipika,
1990). Most of the pesticide use is on maize and cotton where 85% and 50% of the small-
scale farmers growing these respective crops in 1989 applied pesticides (Sunga et al., 1990).
The most common pesticide for maize pests is Thiodan (endosulfan), which is used for

\

controlling stalkborer, M M. At' 3%, herbicide use has had one of the lowest

43

adoption rates; most small-scale farmers continue to practice hand weeding using family or
hired labor (Chipika, 1990). A survey of communal farmers in Makonde district estimated
that 70% of the respondents needed instruction in the use of agro-chemicals (Mutuma et
al., 1987). Technical information on pesticide use in small-scale farming areas is limited,
and, generally unreliable.

Research on the relationship between farmer awareness of specific technologies and

. agricultural productivity is limited. Studies by Govereh (1991) on the impact of technology
adoption in marginal rainfall areas of Zimbabwe showed a positive relationship between
farmer awareness of recommended technologies and maize yields. Awareness and use of
recommended technologies contributed for about 15.3% of the variation in maize yields
(Govereh, 1991). Studies of small-scale farmers in Transkei showed significant positive
correlations between total crop yield and three communication factors: extension contact,
group media contact and mass media contact (Brembridge, 1986).

An economic study of cotton farmers in Tanzania concluded that there is a positive
correlation between knowledge of cotton-growing recommendations and technical efficiency
but no significant correlation between technical efficiency and seeking agricultural
information (Shapiro & Muller, 1977). In a survey of the Training and Visit (T&V) Project
in Shurugwi and Chiwundura districts of the Midlands province in Zimbabwe, 12.5% of
farmers in the T&V groups attributed lack of knowledge about pest control and pesticide
use as the main reason for not using pesticides (Agritex, 1992). The proportion was higher

(25.8%) for farmers who were not in T&V groups.

Errors in farmer’s estimates of the productivity of pesticides result from uncertainty
about the levels and effects of pest populations, or, uncertainty about the effectiveness of

pest control. Pingali and Carlson (1985) modelled behavior in a sample of apple farmers

 

44

in North Carolina (U.S.A.) in an uncertain environment, and identified the human capital
variables with the largest effect in reducing subjective errors as farmer experience (age),
formal schooling, data collection time (scouting), and, attendance at specialized extension
training sessions.

Many communication channels can be used to provide links between farmers and the
external sources of information. Choice of the most appropriate channel will depend on
farmers’ access and their ability to use the channel. Illiteracy is a common problem limiting
the information channels farmers can use. In developing technical information for farmers,
emphasis needs to be placed on unambiguous design and on tailoring the content for
particular target groups (Hoeng, 1989).

Sophisticated pest management techniques like integrated pest management (IPM)
are relatively more knowledge-intensive. Studies by Hanneman and Farnsworth (1981) on
crop input use decisions, found information to be the major determinant in the decision to
adopt IPM for cotton farmers in California. Adoption of IPM in less developed regions also
could be facilitated by improving the flow of information to farmers. Thomas et al. (1990)
propose an adoption—agrisystem model using diffusion theory and aspects of farming systems

theory. Using this model they found significant relationships between sources of
information, personal and farm characteristics, and beliefs about IPM amongst Texas cotton

growers.

45

Agritex Pesticide Use Information Needs and Sources

Contact between Agritex extension agents and communal area farmers varies. A
1990 nationwide survey by the Zimbabwe Institute of Development Studies (ZIDS) reports
that less than half of communal area farmers have some contact with extension (ZIDS,
1990). A 1982 study of four districts however showed a higher level of contact (55%)
between communal farmers and Agritex extension workers (Bratton, 1986)”. Bratton
noted that membership in farmer organizations was the major factor explaining differences
in the level of contact; 86% for group members compared to 31% for individual farmers.

There is limited empirical research on the content and appropriateness of extension
messages to communal farmers. Historically, the tendency within Agritex has been to
import, wholesale, the recommendations for the resource-endowed commercial sector.
Studies by Agritex (1985), Ashworth (1990) and Govereh (1991) indicate that the extension
advice given to small-scale farmers is biased toward better-off farmers in the more
productive agro-ecological zones.

Most of the extension workers’ advice to farmers is given for management practices
that occur early in the agricultural season (Agritex, 1983). Relatively less attention is given
to mid- and late-season practices like weeding, pest control and harvesting. Results from
an Agritex/Cilca Project in Wedza found that 62.7% of the farmers surveyed considered
extension worker advice as inappropriate especially with regard to labor and financial
requirements (Agritex, 1985). There is evidence showing that overall, Agritex extension

efforts have a positive influence on communal farmer productivity; there is also evidence

12Guruve, Wedza, Gum and Dande districts.

 

46

that some of the recommendations are not sensitive to the diverse agricultural production
patterns and resource endowments of small-scale farmers.

Field extension agents require a great variety of pesticide use information to meet

the technical needs of farmers. Information is needed on: (3) symptoms of pest attack, (b)
field diagnosis of pests, (c) life cycles of pests, . (d) pest frequency, (e) pest movement
between countries and regions, (f) survey methods, (g) data collection and processing, (h)
safe and efficient pesticide use, and, (i) pesticides application methods. The potential
farmer demand for information on pest management is therefore very high. It is not likely
that an individual extension agent will have adequate and first-hand information on all the
aspects of pests and pest management. Field extension agents are therefore likely to require
support from their colleagues, technical experts and other sources to meet their information
requirements.

With specialization and diversification, the information needs of Agritex will
increase. Cornelissen (1991) contends that Agritex will not be able to expand horizontally
(number of activities) and vertically (level of sophistication) sufficiently to cope with the
increasing information requirements. This increasing inability might affect Agritex’s
credibility. Ashworth (1990) expresses concern with respect to the content of a variety of
extension messages delivered by Agritex, indicating that the credibility of extension is at risk
when communal area farmers view many recommendations as inappropriate.

Agritex extension agents are frequently the only links between the rural community
and outside organizations. They tend to be involved in "non-extension” activities like

organizing the supply of agricultural chemicals on behalf of farmers. Agritex extension
agents are involved in facilitating farmer "Supply Marketing Groups" as part of their work

activities. In 1990, a total of 175 supply marketing group meetings were organized by

47
Agritex field staff; 36 of these meetings were in Mashonaland Central province13 (Agritex,

1990). Such meetings reduce the time available for educational activities on input use
between extension agents and their clients. Where production and distribution facilities are
inadequate, technology transfer agents tend to concentrate more on input delivery than on
information dissemination, which inevitably weakens the research-technology links (Merrill-

Sands & Kairnowitz, 1989).
Private Sector Pesticide Use Information Needs and Sources

The pesticide industry in Zimbabwe has about 14 companies that are affiliated to
the Agricultural Chemicals Industry Association (ACIA). The primary need for technical
information by pesticide companies is to secure local registration for their products, which
is a prerequisite for distribution and sale. To meet this end, companies require information
from the developers and manufacturers of the pesticide, and also data on the product’s
efficacy.

Private sector extension activities vary widely and tend to be closely aligned with
marketing activities. Private sector input and extension services are biased toward the larger
and more commercially-oriented farmers. Since information has a value and can be
marketed (the price is determined by the merits of the information to the user), the
knowledge generated by the private sector will not always be diffused or made a public good
(Cornelissen, 1991).

After meeting the requirements for pesticide registration, commercial firms are

under no legal obligation to provide more technical information on their product, except that

“—

13No figures were reported for Midlands province.

48
on the product label. In general, very little technical information is provided by marketing

companies to Agritex extension agents and small-scale farmers; companies tend to provide

advertising or other marketing information to support product sales.
PPRI Pesticide Use Information Needs and Sources

The Plant Protection Research Institute (PPRI), a branch of the Department of
Research and Specialist Services (DR&SS) in the MLAWD, is the major legislation and
regulation organization for pesticide use in Zimbabwe. The Drug Control Council (DCC)
in the Ministry of Health and Child Care regulates the use of veterinary remedies like cattle
and dog dips that are also used by farmers. The main requirements for pesticide
registration are:

(a) Phytotoxicity data, short and long-term toxicological information for the specific

pesticide,

(b) Registration of the pesticide in the manufacturer’s country of origin,

(c) Local evaluation of the new pesticide for efficacy; were possible a pesticide
registered for similar pests is used for comparison in the evaluation trials, and,

(d) Registration of the applicant(s) as a commercial company in Zimbabwe.

Allcock & Leece, 1980; Dzemwa & Muchenal4

A substantial amount of technical information, especially on efficacy against local
pests, is generated through local evaluation of new pesticides. The information generated

is however more applicable to large-scale commercial farms and research stations, where

1“Ms Dzemwa, Pesticide Registration Ofl‘icer & Dr. Muchena, former head of the Plant
Protection Research Institute, DR&SS, personal communication, October, 1992.

49

most evaluation and registration trials are conducted. No pesticide registration trials are
conducted in small-scale farming areas although representatives of pesticide companies
occasionally put in demonstration trials in communal areas.

The enforcement of pesticide legislation is a general problem throughout the
southern Africa sub-region (FAO, 1991). The Pesticides Regulations in the Fertilizer, Farm
Feeds and Remedies Act of 1977 are the basis for public policy and strategy decisions
regarding pesticide use in Zimbabwe. This legislation was formulated before the initiation
of the Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP), which recommends the gradual
deregulation of most imports. There are some "loopholes" in the current legislation on
pesticide use. Inadequacies in the current pesticide policies include:

(1) Lack of a clear policy governing the importation of pesticides by individual

users, especially in view of the recently introduced open general import license

(OGIL), and,

(2) There is no legal requirement for a minimum level of competence for both users

(farmers and other applicators) and technical advisers (for example extension agents

and representatiVes of commercial companies).

Post-registration activities are necessary to ensure the effectiveness of a registration
scheme. The FAO (1991) lists such activities as including: monitoring the quality of
pesticides in the market, determination of residue levels on food crops, evaluation of
compliance to labelling requirements, environmental effects, enforcement of regulations,
training programs on safe use of pesticides, licensing of various activities pertaining to

pesticides, disposal of unwanted pesticides, and control of advertisements. The PPRI is

50

involved in very limited post-registration activities, and has generally depended on the
goodwill of pesticide companies for compliance with the regulations.

In summary, the issue of the most appropriate source of information for small-scale
farmers is complex and therefore debatable. Cornelissen (1991) argues that neither the
public sector nor the private sector will provide farmers with unbiased information. The
public sector tends to be influenced by national priorities and goals, and by its bureaucratic
agenda. Private sector information is usually tied to the sale of a product, limited to specific
commodities, or to religious and / or political objectives (common in NGOs). For this study,
the researcher decided it would not be feasible to collect adequate information directly from
all four categories of decision-makers; primary data collection was limited to ranking
currently used, and preferred sources of information sources from selected Agritex extension

agents.
Information Channels

Channel or media choice involves more than simple common sense; it is a complex
process that is influenced by the interplay of messages, symbols and contextual influence
(Trevino et al., 1990). The main channel for public sector dissemination of agricultural
knowledge is usually the extension service (Feder & Slade, 1985). Common channels used
for transmitting pesticide information to farmers include:

(a) mass media, such as radio, television, newspaper, and leaflets from government and
commercial sources,
(b) personal contact with extension agents, dealers, stockists and representatives of

commercial firms, either on an individual basis or in groups, and,

51

(c) personal contact with other farmers.
The capacity of a medium to facilitate communication is called media richness (Trevino et
al., 1990). Media richness can be classified based on a blend of four criteria:
1. The availability of m’ stant feedback, making it possible for communicators to
converge quickly upon a common interpretation or understanding.

2. The capacity of the medium to transmit W such as body language,
voice tone, and inflection, to convey interpretations.

3. The use of W rather than numbers, to convey subtleties.

4. The W of the medium.
Trevino et al., 1990.

To assess the role of various channels of information diffusion, it is necessary to
review farmers’ ranking of information sources for that particular technology. Because the
main characteristic of new technology is the lack of familiarity by farmers, public
involvement through the utilization of agricultural extension and mass media is an obvious
policy tool (Feder & Slade, 1985). Studies conducted in the 1950s and 1960s to evaluate
different types of media in agriculture concluded that no one medium is best, but the
selected medium must be adapted to the message, target audience, and social environment
(Wete, 1991). There is general agreement in the literature that media should be used as
a complement to personal contact with front line extension staff (Schwartz, 1991). Face-to-
face communication is considered as the richest media or channel for transmitting messages

(Figure 4).

52

 

MEDIA RICHNESS MEDIUM

A

HIGH Face-to-face
Telephone
Letters
Memos

Special reports

Newspapers
Technical bulletins
Technical journals

LOW

 

Adapted from Trevino et al. (1990)

Figure 4: Hierarchy of Media Richness

Use of face-to-face communication in agriculture is limited because of the relative
dispersion of researchers, extension agents and farmers, which make it very inefficient and
at times impractical, for transmitting technical messages. Studies by Feder & Slade in
Northwest India indicate that the more available extension agents are, the more likely they
are to be the main source of technical information. Irrespective of the availability of
extension, the more complex or risky practices have a higher tendency to be learned from
extension. This implies that for complex practices, extension agents should try to maximize
their direct interaction with farmers, while simpler practices can be diffused through contact

farmers (Feder & Slade, 1985).

53

Because of the limitations of face-to-face communication in field extension, mass
media has an important role to play in supporting extension activities. Participants at a
World Bank African extension specialists’ workshop agreed that:
(a) mass media is very effective in creating awareness and farmers can always
approach the extension agent for details, .

(b) media, such as radio, can efficiently reinforce the convictions of farmers that new
technologies are worthwhile,

(c) an environment for adoptiOn can be promoted through mass media,

(d) mass media can be a morale-booster for the farmers, when the extension
recommendations confirm what the farmers themselves have been doing, and,

(e) mass media provides the quickest way of reaching a large number of farmers in
a very short time and would therefore be very useful in times of emergencies, such

as a large-scale pest attack.
Venkatesan & Schwartz, 1992.(p. 59).
Communication devices such as publications, audio-visual materials, radio programs,
training courses and seminars can be used to disseminate information in a variety of.
situations. They require careful planning, adequate funding, and strong commitment; in
many cases they require specific skills and creative talents (Merrill-Sands & Kaimowitz,
1989). Information about relatively simple technologies, such as seed varieties, can often
be disseminated through informal channels since they generally do not entail major changes
in the production system. More complex technologies require formal links, such as training

technology transfer agents and producing detailed information materials. Such technologies

may therefore require a larger direct role from extension agents (Bindlish & Evenson, 1993).

54
Mass Media Channels

In SubSaharan countries, mass media channels are generally controlled by
government and managed by ministries or departments other than those of agriculture.
Radio is the oldest communication technology used for the transfer of agricultural
information, and also the most diversified and widely accessible of all modern mass media
(Wete, 1991). It is the most common mass media vehicle in many African countries. Radio
has a relatively low cost, high potential reach and the capacity to transcend literacy and
language barriers. In Zimbabwe, the stateocontrolled Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation
(ZBC) has an exclusive educational channel, Radio Four, which occasionally broadcasts
agricultural programs.
Agritex beams regular radio programs on various topics aimed at communal farmers.
A survey of farmers in Makonde district found that 37.5% had access to a radio; 34% of the
farmers with access found the programs educative, informative and useful (Mutuma, et al.
1987). Sixty-six percent of the respondents felt that the radio programs were not worthwhile
due to scheduling constraints, and lack of access to a radio or to the resources advised in
the programs. Although radio can be an effective tool for communication with field staff
and farmers, it is for the most part one-way. Since most of the target audience is generally
unavailable during normal working hours, there may be scheduling constraints and
competition from the usual entertainments channels or programs. Though Agritex has
promoted radio listening groups, the existence of information / communication systems

becomes practically negligible in the more remote communal area regions (Moyo & Page,

1992).

55

Television, like radio, is useful for one-way transmission of messages. It has the
added advantage of providing visual images that enhance the quality of the message.
Television’s main limitation is cost, which severely limits coverage for rural communities.
There are relatively few examples of the successful application of television in agricultural
information transfer (Wete, 1991). Wete concludes that until cost-effective solutions to
production, distribution and maintenance problems are found, television will remain an
elitist medium favoring wealthier consumers and urban over rural areas. Within the Agritex
Training Branch there is a Mobile Training Unit (MTU), which uses audio-visual aids for
farmer training. To make the program content appropriate for specific areas, the actual
production of video tapes is decentralized; this approach requires training staff all over the
country in the use of equipment and has led to some problems with equipment maintenance
(Schwartz, 1991). Evaluations of the programs of the MTU indicate that the visits by the
unit are too infrequent for tangible results, and that the conditions in which farmers are
shown the audio-visual aids are not conducive to learning (Gwekwerere, 1991).

The emergence of new forms of electronic media like TV, audio and video cassettes,
has led to the neglect of the potential role of print media in information transfer. Print
media has a distinct cost advantage over electronic media. It is less subject to scheduling
constraints and the messages in print can usually be retrieved for future use. The usefulness
of print media is subject to the level of literacy of the audience. Illiteracy of the audience

reduces the potential for print media to diagrams and pictorial forms.

There is an inadequate empirical base on the subject of agricultural information

sources and channels for small-scale farmers in Zimbabwe. Much of the focus has been on
generating new knowledge with little regard for how, and if, the knowledge is transmitted.

This study used self-appraisal to identify the sources and channels available to extension

56

agents for pesticide use information, and, also to rank these and other preferred modes of

information transfer.

Technical Competence

Competence is commonly determined by a person’s being able to perform a given
task. It implies an understanding of, and proficiency in, a specific kind of activity,
particularly one involving methods, processes, procedures or techniques. Task performance
provides an indication of the required competencies, but does not define the competencies
directly.

There are many ways of defining competence. The most popular and dangerous
technique for defining competence is to accept the judgement of experts, as happens in
expert consensus (Pottinger, 1979). Selective perception, beliefs and value systems
contaminate objectivity. Colley (1989) defines competence as ”skills developed through
learned knowledge that will be applied in a practical and meaningful way.” Klemp (1980)
defines job competency as an underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective
and/or superior performance in a job. An underlying characteristic, in a sense, may be
knowledge, skill, trait, self-schema or motive which a person may possess. Klemp (1979)
defines these underlying characteristics as:

Ell-QM is a set of usable information organized around a specific content area,

for example, knowledge of mathematics.

Skill is the ability to demonstrate a set of related behaviors or processes, like logical
thinking.

W is a person’s image of himself or herself, and his or her evaluation of
that image, for example self image as a professional.

57

M9112: is a recurrent concern for a goal state or condition which drives, selects, and
directs behavior of the individual, for example the need for efficacy.

. (p. 43)

These underlying characteristics are referenced to an external performance criteria. The
idea that a competence is causally related to. effective performance means that the
development of competency should lead to increased effectiveness. Therefore competence
precedes performance.

Academic and other professional credentials are the major criteria for the
recruitment of public extension agents. In spite of significant empirical evidence that
credentials are not causally related to, and often not even correlated with performance in
the world of work, the common sense notion that an academic credential represents at least
a minimal level of competence is hard to overcome (Pottinger, 1979).

The method by which a competency is measured becomes the Operational definition
of that competency. For example, an operational definition of competence might be the
score obtained on an assessment instrument. According to Pottinger (1979) it is necessary
to differentiate measuring techniques according to two separate but important dimensions
to predict who will be competent performers. First, it is necessary to differentiate
techniques which identify critical dimensions of the job from those that identify critical
characteristics of job performers. Second, one must differentiate techniques that identify

critical job or performer characteristics that are task, situation, or level specific from those
which identify critical job or performer characteristics that are broad or generalizable across
job situations and widely varied career performance levels.

There have been some studies conducted to evaluate the competence of extension

agents in public extension systems in deveIOping countries. Most studies are centered on

58

perceptions and/or ranking of a variety of broad job or performer characteristics that are
related to performance. Using a list of 150 competencies divided into nine categories, a
case study of public extension agents in Swaziland found no differences in the perceptions
of the professional extension competency categories when examined by the individual’s
demographic characteristics (Easter, 1985). In Nigeria, Ayewon (1983) surveyed public
extension agents in Bendel State to assess the needed competencies using perceptions to 61
professional competency statements. Respondents indicated that 98.4% of the competency
statements were highly needed, and that they should be learned on the job or through in-
service training.
In a survey in Uganda, extension agents, supervisors and trainers considered 31
competencies as important, with the competency "Iatowing sources of desired technical
infomration, " ranked as the most important; few significant relationships were found between
the professional competencies and the respondents’ demographic characteristics (McCaslin
& Najjingo, 1991). The researchers concluded that the needs for professional competencies
were independent of the type of extension worker in the region. Skill areas Nigerian
extension agents indicated most competency, were not necessarily the most important to
them; in other words there, there was no perfect match or convergence between skills and
competencies presented and the importance of such skill areas for extension work (Igodan

et al., 1990).

 

59

Factors Influencing Performance

Job perfonnance is the single most pervasive outcome van'able in micro-organizational

research.
Slaw, I984.

Waldman and Spangler (1989) provide a comprehensive review of the theory and
research of the determinants of job performance. They note that job performance has been
researched from different subject areas like abilities, motivation, leadership, group processes
and feedback, with little attempt to piece together these subject areas together into an
overall model. They propose an integrated model of job performance with three areas:

ability, motivation and opportunity”. Zuidema (1989) suggests a simpler framework,

consisting of five categories of factors that influence performance:

1. Eggnsipp agent attrjbptg - these include the personal characteristics and traits

that contribute to the behaviors and attitudes of the agent; many civil service
appraisal systems focus on these characteristics and traits.

2. WM - these include the technical knowledge and

skills resulting from education and experience, and, the professional skills achieved
through training and experience.

3. WW — these are personnel policies (including

remuneration) that influence motivation, and, organizational procedures that set the
conditions for the work environment; they can have significant influence on
extension agent performance.

4. Management and support services - this includes the level of financial support for

important inputs for extension activities.

5. floggam opportunities and activities - the mandates and defined programs of the

extension organization set the limits for extension agents and form the basis for
allocation of resources.

1S’Opportunity variables are factors in the individual’s work environment such as tools
& mformation, work conditions, leadership behavior, and, rules & procedures.

60

Figure 5 illustrates the components of extension agent performance assessment and
demonstrates the relationship of these five factors to the results and impact of extension
efforts. The inputs are the extension agents (personal attributes, knowledge, and skills),
organizational policies and procedures, and, management and support services. These
inputs are applied to the processes that correspond to the program activities of extension

agents. The activities result in outputs and eventually outcomes. Performance assessments

can, and often do, take account of all these components (Zuidema, 1989).

61

 

 

Extension Agents
*Personal
characteristics
*Knovledge &
skills

 

 

 

 

Program

 

 

 

 

Organizational
Policies and
Procedures

Activities

 

of Results Iurpact

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Extension

 

 

 

 

 

Management and
Support Services

 

 

 

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUT ' ourcoua

 

 

 

Adapted from Zuidema, 1989.

' Figure 5: Components of Extension Agent Performance Assessment

62

There is a need for more job performance research in the extension institutions of
developing countries. As suggested by Waldman and Spangler (1989), research should
include causal modelling with an appropriate mix of antecedent variables, longitudinal
studies to assess the effects of interventions, and, investigations of the causal differences
between various aspects of performance. This study was limited to assessing abilities and
the interactions between antecedent variables and abilities in one specific performance area.

For this study, variation in extension agent competence regarding pesticide use (Y)
was conceived as dependent on three general independent variables: demographic
characteristics (X1), training (X2), and access to information sources and channels (X3).
Each general variable was composed of a set of specific variables identified in the literature
review or judged to be potentially influential to the competence variable.

Therefore:

Extension agent competency, Y = f { X1, X2, X3 }

The extension agents’ age, gender, formal qualifications (academic and agricultural),
position in the organization and length of experience were included in the demographic
variable set. The training variable set included both pre- and in-service formal training in
pest management. The information variable set consisted of items measuring the level and
frequency of contact between extension agents and various sources and channels of pesticide

use information.

 

63

Extension Agent Technical Support Needs

Training

Extension staff training is coordinated by. the Training Branch in Agritex. Almost
all of the department’s funding for training comes from government budgetary allocations.
For the period 1982 to 1987, only about 4% of the Agritex budget was allocated for training,
field trials and irrigation (Table 3). During the same period, over 70% of the government

budget allocation was used for staff salaries, wages and allowances.

Table 3: Agritex - Budget Allocations and Expenditure (1982-87)a

 

 

 

82/83 83/84 84/85 85/86 86/87
Government Sources 14,642 17,302 19,988 23,406 27,724
External Sources 149 344 2,064 3,895 "
Salaries, Wages, Allowances 11,559 12,860 15,150 17,857 21,404
Subsistence and Transpbrt 2,000 3,000 3,473 4,037 4,367
Incidental Expenses 360 400 380 385 425
Training, field trials, Irrigation 600 867 748 854 1,250
Land use Planning 25 25 41 50 75
Farm Running Expenses 18 30 49 57 63
Buildings & equipment 130 120 147 165 140

 

Source: Ndimande, 1988.
a - ZS ’000
" - figures not available

64

Most extension agents participate in at least one Agritex course every year. During
the period 1981-91, the Training Branch offered 28 different types of in-service courses with
a total of 3,895 participants (Cornelissen, 1991). The average duration of Agritex courses
is 4 days (Agritex, 1990). The Training Branch also produces an in-house magazine, "News
and Views.”

There are very few documented studies evaluating the quality of Agritex staff
training in the department. While the services provided by Agritex expanded tremendously
during the 1980’s, particularly in the small-holder sector, the quality of service has been
steadily deteriorating and coverage has been inadequate mainly as a result of underfinancing
of the department’s operational budget (Cornelissen, 1991). The services have also suffered
from high staff turnover caused by the unattractive conditions of service prevailing in the
civil service (Cornelissen, 1991). Pazvakavambwa (1991) claims that Agritex has a very
strong in-service training branch which ".....has almost dispensed of the need to follow the
Training and Visit guidelines. "

The technical support needs of extension agents depend on the tasks they are to
perform, their basic training, and their ability to upgrade and update knowledge and skills
on the job. The basic training for extension workers in Agritex is a two or three-year
agricultural certificate or diploma. There is evidence indicating that extension agents often
receive adequate technical training, but with minimum preparation in communication skills
and extension methodology (Lindley & Gonzalez, 1983). Hakutangwi (1990) contends that
basic training at certificate, diploma and graduate levels is inadequate in preparing
personnel for extension, and that there is a limit to which in-service training can correct the
inadequacies of basic training. There may therefore be a gap between the curriculum in

agricultural training institutions and the knowledge and skills required of extension agents.

65
For example, this gap is reflected by the lack of a full course in agricultural extension in the
certificate and diploma level agricultural institutions (Dengu, 1988). Further, there is no
comprehensive course in crop protection in the current curricula for the agricultural
certificate course. Hakutangwi (1990) concludes that the need for more formal links
between Agritex and the agricultural training institutions is critical.

At the pre-service level, training must emphasize extension methodology,
communication skills, understanding human behavior and the development of a clear
philosophical approach to the principles of extension (Lindley & Gonzalez, 1983). A study
by Brooks (1982) of the in-service training needs of county extension agents in Florida
concluded that, overall, a greater degree of competence perception was found associated
with greater number of years employed. However, a greater degree of competence
perception was associated with least man/ days of training annually. Research in Sierra
Leone refutes the importance of formal training alone in job performance. Using a Job-
Design, Satisfaction, and Performance (DSP) Model to evaluate village extension workers
(VEWs) in India, Lakoh (1988) concludes:

More technical training in agriculture and high social status did not relate positively
with job satisfaction. Similarly, a high level of formal training in agriculture does not
necessarily mean that job performance is also high. The findings show that VEWs
with a more formal training in agriculture and high social status are less likely to
make frequent visits to farmers. Those who are well-versed with local dialects and
well-skilled in establishing interpersonal relations perform well in their job. They are
likely to make more frequent contacts with farmers.

This finding suggests that relational analysis of homophily (similarity) and

heterophily (dissimilarity) between extension agents and farmers may require closer

consideration since they influence performance. Rogers and Bhowmik (1970) discuss some

66

propositions on the utilization of homophily and heterophily as "sensitizing concepts" in
different communication situations.

With increasing diversification and specialization, Agritex will not be able to provide
specialist services and should therefore discontinue to pretend delivering services on "all
crops everywhere" (Cornelissen, 1991). Cornelissen recommends that Agritex demarcates
areas of competence for their own services and for those which could be provided by the
private sector, without creating parallel structures, but only a continuum of complementary
functions. Such services could include subccontracting for mass media programs and inviting
the private sector for the sponsorship of disseminationmaterials, formal joint ventures for
applied research, demonstration fields, field days, and, the training of Agritex extension
agents (Cornelissen, 1991).

For this study, pesticide use technical support needs for extension agents were
assessed from extension agents’ responses on the questionnaire, and, person-to-person
interviews with available senior personnel in Agritex, PPRI, the MLAWD, and the pesticide

industry.

Attitudes to Pesticide Use

Attitude can be defined as a general positive or negative feeling about some person,
object or issue (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981). Attitude and its measurement are common
features of social science research. O’Keefe (1990) notes that there are three underlying

points of consensus concerning the concept of attitude:

67

(1) Attitudes are learned, as opposed to being innate. Attitudes are generally taken
to be a function of the sorts of experiences a person has; with changing experiences,
a person’s attitude may change.

(2) Attitudes are taken to be [elatjvply enduring, as distinct from a temporary
emotional state like a mood.

(3) Attitudes are taken to inflpencp condug. Attitudes exert an influence on
behavior. This influence may not be simple and direct but attitudes are presumed

to play some role in action.
(p. 18)

There are a variety of techniques for measuring attitudes. Measuring procedures
can be divided into two major categories: direct and indirect (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981).
With direct procedures, a person is asked to provide a self-report of his or her attitude.
With indirect procedures, an attempt is made to measure a person’s attitude without the
person knowing it. For this study, the direct procedure, using a Likert-type scale for opinion
statements, was used to assess the attitudes of extension agents to aspects of pesticide use

amongst small-scale farmers.
Summary

A major constraint in improving pest management in developing countries is the gap
between knowledge needed at the farm and that of which the farmer is aware. This gap
may be due to lack of provision of required information, poor dissemination or poor
reception. There is some evidence from Zimbabwe and other developing countries that
awareness, and use of technical information on pesticide use, has a direct impact on farm
productivity. The four broad categories of pesticide information users are farmers,

regulatory agencies, extension services and private companies.

68
About 15% of the estimated 900,000 small-scale farmers in Zimbabwe use

agricultural chemicals. Pesticide use is greater in the higher potential agro-ecological zones.
Most of the pesticide use is on cotton and maize. There is evidence of farmer adaptation
of the technological recommendations from extension agents. Technical information on
pesticide use for small-scale farmers is limited and generally unreliable. Agritex has the
most widely spread extension service catering for about 60% of the small-scale farmers. It
uses a variety of information channels for dissemination of information.

The extension service has minimal involvement in the pesticide registration system.
Most of the Agritex recommendations for pesticide use are based on commercial application
rates. A small portion of the department budget is used for staff training. There is a
paucity of empirical studies on the professional and technical competencies of Agritex
extension agents regarding the tasks they are expected to perform.

There are about 14 companies involved in formulating and marketing pesticides.
After meeting the requirement for registration, companies have few obligations to provide
more technical information on their products. The small-scale farming sector accounts for
only about 5% of pesticide sales, making it unattractive for companies to invest heavily in
this sub-market. Pesticide companies tend to get involved in the small-scale sector for
political rather than profit reasons.

The pesticide registration and monitoring services in Zimbabwe are generally better
than in most other SuboSaharan African countries. With the current deregulation of the
economy there are however some weaknesses in the pesticide registration and post-
registration policies and procedures.

There are relatively few knowledge-attitude-practice (KAP) studies of extension

agents in Zimbabwe. Specifically, there are few documented studies evaluating the attitudes

69

of Agritex extension agents to technoloy, farmer practices and know-how, and, the

extension organization.

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH PROCEDURES

This chapter details the research procedures used for addressing the study objectives.
It consists of the following eight sections in order: study design, target population and
sampling, development of the survey instrument, instrument validity and reliability,
distribution and collection of the questionnaire, and, data analysis. The research hypotheses

listed in Chapter 1 are restated as null hypotheses in the data analysis section.

Study Design

The primary purpose of this study was to determine the nature of pesticide use
information flows, and the technical competencies and needs of selected Agritex field
extension agents. A descriptive research design was chosen as appropriate. Descriptive
research is concerned with “what is” (Borg & Gall, 1983). It is aimed at describing
systematically a situation or area of interest factually and accurately. Quantitative and
qualitative data was collected through a survey of selected extension agents in two provinces
and interviews with senior personnel in organizations involved in pesticide use. The author
conducted the survey in Zimbabwe over a five-month period, from August to December of
1992.

During the time of the survey, the country was going through a severe drought which
necessitated some changes in the research design. Time and scheduling constraints

precluded the possibility of formal and systematic interviews with all relevant senior officers

70

71

in the Agritex. The study therefore focused on junior officers although some relevant
comments from the available senior officers are incorporated in the discussion sections of
the study findings chapter. Most field extension agents were actively involved in drought
relief activities, like organizing food handouts, which limited the time available for them to
participate in the study. To increase efficiency in data collection, the questionnaire was

administered to groups of respondents wherever possible.

Target Population

After consulting with senior Agritex staff on the details of conducting the fieldwork,
two alterations were made to the original research design. First, it was decided to select
two, rather than four, of the country’s eight provinces, Midlands and Mashonaland Central,
as the primary areas of focus. This was mainly because the effects of the drought in these
two provinces were relatively less severe, therefore increasing the likelihood of finding field
staff available to participate in the study. In normal rainfall years these two provinCes are
relatively more productive with a higher proportion of small-scale farmers engaged in
market agriculture. Consequently the inferences from the final sample are limited to
Midlands and Mashonaland Central provinces, and not generalizable nationally. Secondly,
it was decided to focus on junior extension staff as they are the primary contacts for
farmers; senior field staff are stationed at district or provincial offices and their
responsibilities, though varied, tend to be more administrative.
The target population was Agritex field extension agents stationed in the Midlands

and Mashonaland Central provinces of Zimbabwe. This population has approximately 500

72

male and female extension agents working in the eleven districts that make up the two

provinces.

Sampling

A probability-proportional-to-size (PPS) sample was used to select respondents in
Midlands province. Respondents were randomly selected from the districts using the staff
lists at the provincial office as a sampling frame. In Mashonaland Central province, the
sample consisted of available extension agents in five of the six districts. The latter sampling
technique in Mashonaland Central province was adopted due to difficulties encountered in
attempting to select respondents randomly. Most Agritex personnel were engaged in
drought-related activities, and consequently no responses could be obtained from Guruve
district. The final sample was 209 extension agents; 133 from Midlands province and 76
from Mashonaland Central (Tables 4 & 5). Two extension agents declined to respond to

the questionnaire; one was due to a personal bereavement, and the other had less than one

day as an employee of Agritex.

Table 4: Extension Agent Sample by Rank in Organization

 

 

 

Rank ' Population Sample
Extension officers 52 15
Senior extension supervisors 12 3
Extension supervisors 55 18
Extension workers 375 160
TOTAL 494 1961‘

—_

—_

1‘5'Ihirteen respondents did not indicate their rank in the questionnaire.

73

Table 5: Extension Agent Sample by location

 

 

 

 

 

 

Province District” Population18 Sample Sampling
fraction

Mvuma ‘ 29 15 .52

Zvishavane 21 15 .71

Gokwe 107 40 .37

MIDLANDS

Kwekwe 38 20 .52

Mberengwa 38 20 .52

Shurugwi/Gweru . 56 23 .41

Sub-total 289 133 .46

Bindura 28 3 .11

CBNTRAI. Guruve 35 0 -

Darwin/Rushinga 50 31 .62

Centenary 11 6 .55

Shamva 25 16 .64

__ Sub-total 172 76 .44

TOTAL 461 209 .45

 

1"Based on Agritex and not administrative boundaries. '

18From provincial staff lists as at October, 1992.

74

Development of Survey Instrument

In surveys it is usually not possible to assess the correctness of the respondents’
answer(s). Accuracy or “veridicafity' of recall is a major concern in survey methodology
(Strube, 1987). Determination of an appropriatesurvey instrument was based on a review
of the information needs of the study, an assessment of the costs and available resources,
and the likely environment to be encountered by the researcher in the survey area.

Agritex extension agents were considered as the primary information source for the
study. The limited agricultural activities due to the drought, and other resource constraints,
reduced the opportunity for field observation or interviews as alternate information sources.
Time and cost factors favored the use of a structured questionnaire as the data collection
instrument. Agritex is a typical bureaucratic government agency with a top-down
management approach. Consequently, both written and a verbal explanation of the
objectives of the study were provided for most respondents by the author (an outsider), to
minimize the potential bias and suspicion in subject responses.

A self-administered questionnaire was selected as a convenient data collection
method. The questionnaire was developed from the research questions and hypotheses
listed in Chapter I. The questionnaire was structured as four sections, to solicit responses
as per the basic research questions. A copy of the questionnaire, the cover letter and
explanation used in the field is included in Appendix 4. The survey instrument was
submitted to, and approved by, the Michigan State University Committee on Research

Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) prior to data collection (Appendix 3).

75
Validity

Validity is a descriptive term that the instrument accurately reflects the concept that
it is intended to measure (Babbie, 1986). A survey is considered valid to the extent that it
measures what, and only what it is supposed to measure. Validity attempts to measure the
degree to which the survey data or results are free from systematic bias. To be valid the
instrument must not be affected by extraneous factors that systematically "push” or "pull” the
results in one particular direction (Alreck & Settle, 1985). There are four types of validity
that are generally considered in competency assessment (Klemp, 1979). These are content,
construct, concurrent and predictive validity.

Content validity, the most common measure, emphasizes the extent to which the
indicators measure the different aspects of the concept. To insure content validity of the
questionnaire, the following steps were taken:

(a) A panel of experts comprising of the members of the author’s dissertation

committee, and other selected faculty at Michigan State University were engaged to

assess the content validity of the instrument.

(b) Senior Agritex personnel and faculty from the University of Zimbabwe reviewed

and made comments on the drafts of the questionnaire.

(c) Discussions were held with respondents in two pre-test groups and with other

researchers to determine the appropriateness of the level of language used, and to

modify aspects of language use to local norms.

Construct validity is the degree to which a test relates statistically to other tests of
the same competency or to tests of different competencies with which it is expected to have

a theoretical relationship. The objective in gathering construct evidence is to determine

76

what psychological construct is being measured by a test and how well it is being measured
(Ary et al., 1990). It combines both a logical and an empirical approach.

Two aspects of the logical approach are, to ask if the elements the test measures are
the elements that make up the construct, and, to inspect the items to determine if they seem
appropriate for assessing the elements in the construct (Ary et al., 1990). The empirical
approach was incorporated into the instrument by adapting some of the sample questions
used in the Michigan Certification of Applicators Test (CBS, 1991).

Concurrent validity is a measure of statistical correlation between test performance
and the criterion measure of interest, in this case, job performance (Klemp, 1979).
Concurrent validity was assessed by determining the correlation between product knowledge
test scores and self-assessment of job performance items on the questionnaire. This
procedure yielded a significant correlation of .52 (p< .001). According to Klemp (1979), if
construct validity has been established and the concurrent validity is high, there is evidence
that the competency has been 'operationalized" correctly and its measurement is related to
performance.

Evidence of prediCtive validity is demonstrated if an intervention aimed at increasing
a competency led to both higher test scores and a greater performance effectiveness in
relation to the external criterion. Predictive validity was not established since no
intervention was planned for in the study objectives. It is seldom possible to obtain
predictive validity in educational settings and concurrent validity is a more practical measure

(Klemp, 1979).

77
Reliability

Reliability means the freedom from random error (Alreck & Settle, 1985). The key
question in determining reliability is whether the same data values would be obtained each
time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon. A test that is unreliable will show
variation in scores due more to weaknesses of the test itself than to differences among the
people taking it.

The respondents’ ability to recall specific items/issues was of particular concern
because of the drought which had suppressed most agricultural activity in the preceding
season. Questions that required the respondent to assess the frequency of repeatedly
eXperienced events, or time dating of events were therefore kept to a minimum. Since there
had been few farming activities in the survey area in the preceding agricultural season,
questions of the "have you ever" type were preferred to those of the "how often" or "when
did you last” type. This is because the latter type of questioning increases memory load and
requires a complicated judgement step (Strube, 1987).

The questionnaire was pilot tested on two groups of respondents similar to, but not
included in the final sample. After each session, a discussion was held with each group to
obtain feedback on aspects of the questionnaire. This included determining that the
questions were clear and appropriately structured, for example avoiding double questions
and negatives, and threatening and/ or sensitive questions. An attempt was made to ensure
that the questionnaire terminology and expected knowledge was at a level appropriate for
the respondents.

Reliability was also assessed by the consistency of responses using item-item

correlations. Cronbach’s alpha, a measure of internal consistency, was used as a measure

78
of reliability on selected Likert-type questions. Cronbach’s alpha computed for the selected

items ranged from .70‘ to .89, which is acceptable. A split-half reliability model based on

eight attitudinal items yielded the following acceptable coefficients:

Correlations between forms a- .71
Equal-length Spearman-Brown = .83
Guttman split-half = .77

Correlation between forms is the correlation between the two halves. The equal
length Spearman-Brown coefficient is what the reliability would be if it was made up of two
equal parts that have a four-item reliability of .71. The, Guttman split-half is the coefficient
if no assumption is made about equal reliability or variance between the two halves. A
disadvantage of split-half coefficients is that the results depend on the allocation of items

to halves (Norusis, 1988).
Distribution and Collection of the Questionnaire

After meeting with the Agritex director, and the chief of crop production,
introduction letters and a summary of the research procedures were sent to the provincial
heads of extension in Midlands and Mashonaland Central provinces (Appendix 1). Meetings
were then held with the provincial heads to clarify any outstanding issues and to finalize
‘ plans for data collection. Wherever possible the author administered the questionnaire
during regular staff meetings at district and provincial offices. When this was not feasible,
the author requested the assistance of the district agricultural extension officer (DAEO) of
that area to administer the questionnaires. About sixty percent of the questionnaires were

administered by the author. In all cases, respondents were not allowed to communicate with

79

one another, or to have access to secondary material (for example books and technical
bulletins) since most of the objective-type questions in the instrument were simple and
readily available from manuals or books.

All questionnaires were collected by the researcher or the DAEO after completion
by the respondents. On average, the respondents took approximately thirty minutes to
complete the questionnaire. The questionnaires were manually checked and the data
entered into a computer soon after collection; the period from data collection to entry was
four days on average.

Non-response error was insignificant in Midlands since only two of the selected
agents did not respond. In Mashonaland Central it was not possible to estimate the non-

response error since the sampling plan was compromised to selecting available agents. This

was an inevitable limitation of the study design.
Data Analysis

Before data analysis, consideration was given to the question of inference of the
findings in Mashonaland province as the sample was not totally random due to constraints
in accessing all the selected subjects. Statistical tests revealed no significant differences in
extension agents’ demographic characteristics between the two provinces, and within the five
districts of Mashonaland Central sampled. The author considered that the reasons for lack

of randomness (the unforeseen drought relief commitments of the target population in
Mashonaland Central, and, the study’s timing and resource constraints) were unlikely to
have introduced obvious bias in subject selection given the high sampling fraction (40%).

Further there was no uniqueness in the Mashonaland Central sub-sample demographic

A

80

characteristics when compared with Midlands province and some available population
parameters. The author’s subjective judgement was that the results were likely to be
applicable to all the extension agents in Mashonaland Central province. However, statistical
tests were conducted separately for the two sub-samples and are reported as such where the
results and/or conclusions were different.

SPSS PC+ Version 4.0 statistical analysis package was used for data entry and
analysis. The first part of the analysis was a description of the sample using basic
distributional characteristics like response frequencies, means and standard deviations.
Relationships between selected variables, for example demographic characteristics and

attitudes, were also analyzed.

The second part of the analysis involved testing the following null hypotheses for

each research question stated in Chapter 1.

Null Hypotheses

t' ' ec' tne' e'ide sa
(1) There is no significant difference in extension agents’ technical competence
related to the formal qualifications attained.
(2) There is no significant difference in extension agents’ technical competence
related to the level of in-service training in pesticide use received.
(3) There is no significant difference in extension agents’ technical competence
related to the level of on-the-job experience.
(4) There is no significant difference in extension agents’ technical competence

related to other demographic characteristics.

81

Qngn'pn 2: Pesticide Use Information Spurces and Channels

( 1) There is no significant difference between extension agents’ perception of
Agritex and pesticide companies as sources of pesticide use information.
(2) There is no significant difference between extension agents’ use of formal and
informal channels in the acquisition of pesticide use information.
(3) There is no significant difference in extension agents’ acquisition of pesticide
use information related to media richness.
(4) There are no significant differences in extension agents’ use of information

sources and channels related to other demographic characteristics.
3' ’ t' estwr es'id se

(1) There are no significant differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide

use related to age.

(2) There are no significant differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide

use related to gender.

(3) There are no significant differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide

use related to formal qualifications.

(4) There are no significant differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide

use related to position in Agritex.

(5) There are no significant differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide

use related to length of service in Agritex.

82

'o : ech ' Su 0 ee 5 Re ar in Pesticide Use Ma ement

(1) There is a need to improve technical support to Agritex field extension agents
regarding pesticide management.

(2) Agritex should be responsible for supporting field extension agents in pesticide
use management.

(3) Pesticide companies should be responsible for supporting extension agents in
pesticide use management.

(4) There is a need for formal communication between field extension agents and

the pesticide company’s technical specialists.

Factor analysis was used to identify and aggregate item responses to attitudinal
questions using item-item correlations. Semi-partial and stepwise multiple linear regression
analysis were used to identify specific independent variables which contributed to the
variance in extension agents’ competency scores. Throughout the analysis, a .05 probability

level was used as the basis for testing hypotheses.

CHAPTER V
STUDY FINDINGS

The major objectives of this study were to determine the nature of technical
information flows, and the technical competencies of selected Agritex extension agents in
the Midlands and Mashonaland Central provinces of Zimbabwe regarding the appropriate
use of pesticides. This chapter presents the study findings. The findings are presented and
discussed in six major sections: (a) Demographic characteristics of respondents, (b)
Extension agent technical competence, (c) Information. sources and channels, (d) Attitudes
to pesticide use, (e) Pesticide use technical support needs, and, (f) Comments on the

questionnaire. The results for the null hypotheses listed in Chapter IV are presented in the

respective sections for the research question.
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The usable sample consisted of 209 extension agents. Demographic variables provide
some insights into the characteristics of Agritex extension agents. This section summarizes
the following demographic characteristics of the respondents: age, gender, formal '

qualifications (academic and agricultural), position and years of service in Agritex.

83

 

84
Extension Agent Age

The average age of extension agents in the sample was 39 years. The average for
female agents was lower at 29 years. There was a wide range in age, with the youngest
agent being 21, and the oldest 60 years of age; the range for female agents was 23 to 40
years. Figure 6 shows the age distribution for all the respondents. About 30% of agents
were in the 31 to 40 age range. The normal retirement age for Agritex personnel, like other
civil servants is 65 years. Early voluntary retirement is one option being considered for the

proposed reduction in the size of the civil service (Zimbabwe Government, 1991).

Extension Agent Age

 

 

41-50 51-60

21-30 31-40
Age (years)

Figure 6: Extension Agent Age Distribution

 

85

Gender

There were 20 (10%) female extension agents in the sample (Figure 7). This
proportion is similar to the overall representation of females within the field division
(Appendix 2). Agritex started actively recruiting female extension agents in the 1980s when
the agricultural institutions increased their intakes of female students. Most of the
communal farmers serviced by extension agents are female”. There are few empirical
studies on farmers’ gender preferences for Agritex extension support. A survey of women
farmers in Makonde district by Mutuma, et al. ( 1987) found that while communication was
perceived as better with female than male extension workers, 41.9% of the respondents were

indifferent to the gender of the agent. Validity of gender-based studies is limited since the

majority of farmers in communal areas have never been serviced by a female extension

agent.

Academic Qualifications

Over half of the respondents had attained an ”ordinary level" (11 years) of schooling
or higher. An ordinary level certificate, with passes in English and science, was the current
minimum qualification for entry into the agricultural certificate-granting institutions”. For
the diploma-granting colleges (Chibero and Gwebi), the minimum entry qualification was

at least two "advanced level" passes. Since the late 1980s, the recruitment tendency has been

 

19Mutuma, et al. (1987) estimate the number of female farmers as 60-70% of all
communal farmers; due mainly to labor migrancy, an average of 45% of rural households

are headed by females.
20There are 4 institutions: Mlezu, Kushinga Phikelela, Rio Tinto and Esigodini.

 

86
to select candidates with higher academic grades due to a tremendous increase in

applications”. Figure 8 shows the highest academic level attained for the total sample.

The 27 respondents (13.4%) with the lowest academic qualification (Grade 7 or Standard

6) were all males.

Gender of Respondents

Figure 7: Extension Agent Gender

Male
90%

  

Female
10%

 

 

21In 1987 Chibero College received 10,800 applications for about 70 places (Mutuma et
al., 1987).

87

Academic Qualifications

0 Frequency s

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Form 2/J.C. Form 4/‘0' ’Form 4
Qualification

Grade 7/Std 6

Figure 8: Highest Academic Level Attained

Agricultural Qualifications

Most extension agents, 92%, are agricultural certificate holders (Figure 9). Those

with an agricultural diploma and / or university degree have the rank of agricultural extension
officer or higher. The entry qualifications for the agricultural certificate training institutions

were raised in the early 19805. The extension agents recruited since then have higher

academic qualifications than their predecessors.

88

Agricultural Qualifications

  
  
 

Degree 2%
....... Diploma 6%

Figure 9: Highest Agricultural Qualification Attained

Rank in Agritex

Most of the extension agents sampled were extension workers (Figure 10).
Extension workers are the front-line extension agents who have relatively close contact with
farmers. All extension workers reside in the communal areas in which they work. Like
Other government departments, the entry position, promotions and other conditions of
service are governed by the Public Service Commission (PSC). There are two distinct entry

level positions, extension worker or officer. Public service regulations stipulate that

 

89

agricultural certificate holders cannot be promoted to the rank of agricultural extension
officer without attaining a higher academic qualification, such as a diploma or university
degree. Therefore most extension workers are likely to remain at the same rank for the rest

of their careers within the organization.

Extension Agent Ranks

 
  
  

Extenslon workers
8295

Officers
8%

Supervleors
11%

Figure 10: Position in Agritex

90
Length of Working Experience

The average length of working experience in Agritex was 13.7 years. There was a
wide range, 37 years (0.4 to 38), in the length of service between the extension agents.

About 46% of the agents had worked in the department for less than 10 years (Figure 11).

Length of Working Experience

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

«to 10-20 21-30 >30
Years employed in Agritex

Figure 11: Extension Agent Length of Service

91

Relationships Between Demographic Characteristics

There was a high frequency of correlation between the demographic variables
measured in the questionnaire. Table 6 summarizes the relationships between demographic
characteristics for the total sample. There was a relationship between gender and age (.33),
and between gender and the length of service in the organization (.32). Female extension
agents were significantly younger than their male counterparts. This was to be expected
because Agritex started recruiting female agents in the 1980s. There was a strong negative
correlation (-.70) between age and the highest level of schooling attained, and a moderate
negative correlation between age and highest agricultural qualification attained (-.19).
Younger extension agents had higher academic and agricultural qualifications overall. The
minimum entry qualifications for the agricultural certificate training institutions (Mlezu,
Esigodini, Rio Tinto and Kushinga Phikelela) were raised from junior certificate (form 2)
to ordinary level (form 4), during the 19803. The negative correlations between length of
service and the level of schooling, and the former and level of basic agricultural training
indicates that in general, extension agents do not attain higher formal credentials on the job.
Agritex policy on long-term formal training is to support only selected extension officers who
already have diplomas or degrees for post-graduate training”.

The correlation between the various demographic variables made it necessary to use

statistical tests that simultaneously account for other compounding variables.

22Hakutangwi, Agritex Chief Training Officer, personal communication, September, 1992.

Table 6: Correlation Matrix of Extension Agent Demographic Variables

92

 

 

 

Age Gender Schooling Training Rank Service

Age 1.0 .33“ -.70** -.19"' .01 .91"

Gender 1.0 -.25" -.05 .03 .32“

Schooling 1.0 .48" .26" -.69"*

Training 1.0 .83" -.18*

Rank 1.0 .03
finice 1.0
‘<p .01 "<p.001 n - 192

Technical Competence

The operational definition of technical competence was the respondent’s total score

on questions related to pesticide application skills, knowledge of recommended products for

Specific pests and crops, and, general pest management. Proficiency in pesticide application

skills was based on respondent’s self assessment on the questionnaire. The total scores for

Specific pesticide application skills are summarized in Table 7. Most of the extension agents

were skilled in insecticide skills; the majority were unable to calibrate a tractor-mounted

Sprayer. An average of 72% of the respondents rated themselves as capable of various

pesticide application skills.

93

Table 7: Extension Agent Pesticide Application Skills

 

 

 

Skill # capable“ %
Insecticide application 196 94
Calibration of knapsack sprayer _ 180 86
Calibration of ultra-low-volume (ULV) sprayer 169 81
General calibration calculations 140 78
Herbicide application 117 56
Calibration of tractor-mounted sprayer 73 35

AVE RAGE - 150 72

 

"‘ - Based on responses to self-assessment questions N - 209

An average of 60% of the extension agents provided correct responses to pesticide
product knowledge questions. Knowledge of recommended products for maize, cotton and

other crops are summarized in Table 8. Most of the pesticides used by small-scale farmers

are for cotton and maize pests.

Table 8: Extension Agent Pesticide Products Knowledge

 

 

 

iroducts Frequency of correct responses %
Maize pesticides 146 70
Cotton pesticides 132 63
_O*ther pesticides 96 46
_ AVERAGE 125 60

 

* Calculated from knowledge-type questions N= 209

94

The results for responses to pest management questions are summarized in Table
9. The average percentage of correct responses to general pest management questions was
64. About 43% of the extension agents were unable to provide correct responses to terms

like "annual and perennial weeds," which are frequently used on product labels.

Table 9: Extension Agent Knowledge of General Pest Management

 

 

 

 

Pest Management Frequency of Correct Responses %
Pesticide use safety 146 70
Plant biology A 119 57
AVERAGE 134 64

‘ Calculated from knowledge-type questions N - 209

Analysis of incorrect responses to product knowledge questions shows that 41
respondents (20%) mentioned a product that had been withdrawn from the market (Table
10). This lack of awareness of de-registered products by field extension agents indicates
some inadequacies in the pesticide information system. Most extension agents do not have
a comprehensive list of registered pesticides. At the .05 level, there were no significant
relationships between respondents who mentioned de-registered products and demographic

characteristics.

95

Table 10: Withdrawn/Banned Products Mentioned in Product Recommendations Test

 

 

 

 

Trade Name Common Name Frequency %
Morocide (b) binapacryl 29 71
Hostathion (w) triazophos 7 17
Aldrin / Shelldrite (b) aldrin 3 7
Planavin (w) nitralin 2 4

TOTAL 41 100

b = banned, w = withdrawn. N =209
Regression Analysis

Competence was computed by adding each respondent’s score in the three sub-areas:
application skills, product knowledge and pest management. The technical competence ”test"
had a total of 18 items. The average score for the sample was 66%, with a range of 2.94
standard deviations. Because of the significant relationships between independent variables,
multiple regression analysis was used to control for simultaneous interaction effects.
Multiple regression analysis can be viewed as method of adjusting a set of correlated
variables so that they become uncorrelated (Kerlinger & Pedhazur, 1982). Semi-partial
multiple regression analysis was used to determine the amount of variance explained in the
competency score by three sets of independent variables: demographic characteristics,
training, and access to pesticide use information sources and channels (Table 11). Each set

was composed of independent variables which were then regressed on the dependent

variable. The three sets were significantly related to the dependent variable, with the

96

demographic variable set explaining about one-fifth of the variance (sR2 =.18 ). The total

R2 was .41.

Table 11: Semi-partial Multiple Regression Coefficients for Independent Variable Sets

 

 

Variable Set K. K, st F

Demographic Variables 5 2 .18 9.51“
Training Variables 6 2 .13 4.75“
Information Variables 18 4 .15 2.60*

 

R2 = .41; *p<.05, "p<.001
KI = no. of variables controlled, Kb =- no. of variables in set.
11 = 190

Stepwise multiple regression was used to determine the combination of variables that
best described variation in extension agent competency in pesticide use. Categorical
variables were entered into the equation as dummy- or effect-coded variables. Units of
measurement, means and standard deviations for the independent variables used in the
regression analysis are listed in Table 12.

Variables found to significantly influence competency scores were: age of the
respondent (X1), the level in-service training received (X2), gender of the respondent (X3),
use of sales representatives as information sources (X4), contact with a sales representative

in the preceding year (X5) (Table 13). The age of respondents was highly correlated (.91
<p .001) with length of employment in the organization, thus presenting a multicollinearity
problem in the specification of the equation; length of employment in Agritex was removed

from the analysis. There was a negative relationship between competency score and age;

97

positive relationships between the score and level on in-service training, contact with, and
use of sales representatives. Female extension agents scored significantly higher than their

male counterparts.

Table 12: Units of Measurement, Means and Standard Deviations for Independent Variables

in the Regression Analysis

 

 

Variable(s) Unit of Measurement Mean SD.
Age years 38.9 10.3
Academic qualifications years of formal schooling 9.9 1.7
Agricultural qualifications ordinal (cert., diploma or degree) - .36
In-service training courses attended 1.1 .85
Use of sales reps/Agritex categorical (yes/no; male/female) - -

officers/publications/ Gender
Contact with sales reps frequency of contact /year .5 .5

Position in Agritex ordinal (ext. worker, - .98
supervisor or officer)

 

As a group the variables in the equation explained 30.5% of the variance in the

dependent variable. The equation for estimating the competency score was:

Y = 12.92 - .13x, + 2.33x2 + .77x, + 1.25x4 + .81x5

98
Table 13: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables on Extension Agent

 

 

 

 

Competency Score
Variables in the Equation
Variable b A ,6 t-value
Age of respondent (X1) -.13 -.47 -6.66"
Gender (X2) 2.33 .26 3.77"
In-service training (x3) .77 ' .23 V 3.17"
Use of Sales Reps (X4) 1.25 .18 2.68"
Contact with Sales Reps (X5) .81 .14 2.16*
Constant 12.92 __ __
Variables not in the Equation

Use of Agritex Publications - .06 .896
Use of Agritex Officers _ .02 .228
Academic Qualifications - -.03 -.538
Agricultural Qualifications - -.03 -.484
Position in Agritex - --04 -.672

"p<.01, a"p<.05
b - Unstandardized coefficient, [3 - Standardized coefficient.
n = 190

99
Null fincthesis 1,1: Ilhere is no significant difference in mension agants’ tghaical
competaacg [elated to fogmal gualifigations attained.

Formal qualifications were considered as the extension agent’s highest academic and
agricultural credentials. The range in number of years of formal school was 9 years (7-16).
Forty nine percent of the respondents had attended 11 years of formal school. There was
no relationship between the respondent’s academic qualification and score on the
competency assessment test (Table 13). Three categories of agricultural qualification were
considered and entered as effect-coded variables. In ascending order these are certificate,
diploma and university degree. There was no relationship between the respondent’s
agricultural qualification and score on the competency assessment test (Table 13).
Therefore there was no evidence to support the alternate hypothesis.

Mn; At the .05 level, there is no significant relationship between the extension

agent’s formal qualification and technical competency in pesticide use.

11 - 109.188 ‘ * e '8 no s'u' c t d'ffer - ° exte sio aents’ tni.
.0 u at - - elatd to th ev . ii-s 'ce rai i -' 9' t‘c'- s _- 'ved.

Three formal in-service training courses were identified: (1) the safe use of
pesticides course, (2) the cotton production training course at Cotton Training Centre, and
(3) formal courses offered by some pesticide companies. The safe use of pesticides course
is an Agritex 2-day course covering the basics of pesticide use and safety. It is an optional
course for extension staff”. The cotton production course at Kadoma Training Centre is

an intensive course that covers the major aspects of cotton production. Pesticide companies

 

23In-service courses provided by the Agritex Training Branch are divided into obligatory
and optional; extension agents do not have to attend the optional courses.

100

occasionally offer some training sessions for Agritex extension agents. The most intensive
of these courses was the "Kohwa Pakuru Program" initiated in the early 1980s by the Cibav
Geigy Corporation. This program has since been terminated and there was no notable
training on pesticide use offered for Agritex staff by pesticide companies. There was no
relationship between attendance at the pesticide company courses and the competency score.
Attendance at the safe use of pesticides and the cotton training courses were significantly
related to the competency scores. Therefore there was enough evidence to reject the null
hypothesis (Table 13).

m At the .05 level, there is a significant positive relationship between the level of
in-service training in pesticide use and the extension agent’s technical competency in
pesticide use. Respondents who had attended the safe use of pesticides course and cotton
production training courses had higher competency scores.

a, .1,” if - 1.» - ' ,. ~"u.. ‘51 y;- 11"; 1163.1!!! 2‘61 ech; .
et rela d t - -'

The level of on-the-job experience was measured by the number of years each
reSpondent had been employed in Agritex. There was a wide range (.4 to 38) in the number
of years employed. There was a moderate negative correlation (r = -.32, p < .001) between
the number of years employed and the competency score. There was no other evidence to
corroborate this result but one speculation could be that on-the-job experience is not
necessarily related to experience with pesticide use. Extension agent competence could

therefore be associated with other issues like farmer pesticide adoption and usage patterns,

Which were not considered in the study. Alternately, it could be age rather than working

101

experience effects since there was a very high correlation (r=.91, p<.001) between
respondent age and working experience.

Maggy; At 95% confidence interval, there is a significant relationship between the level
of experience on the job and extension agents’ technical competence in pesticide use.
Extension agents with longer service in Agritex had lower competence scores in pesticide

use than those who had shorter service.

 

com t ce elatedt er de a lo characterist'cs.

The following demographic characteristics were included in the regression equation
to determine relationships with the dependent variable: age, gender, and the extension
agent’s rank within Agritex (Table 13). At .05 chance probability, there was a significant
negative relationship between the age and the competency score (t = -6.60 <p.001). Older
extension agents scored lower than their younger counterparts on the competency test.
There was a significant relationship between gender and the competency score (t= 3.70
<p.002). The mean score for female extension agents was significantly higher than that for
males. Three ranks or positions in the organization were included in the sample: (1)
extension workers, (2) extension supervisors and senior extension supervisors, and, (3)
agricultural extension officers. When entered as an effect-coded variable, there were no
significant relationships at alpha = .05, between the rank of the extension agent in Agritex

and the respective competency score.

102

Information Sources and Channels

Information Sources for Pesticide Use

Extension agents listed a variety of sources they use to obtain information on
pesticide use (Table 14). Agritex, pesticide company sales representatives and / or dealers,
and, printed materials were the three most frequently mentioned sources of pesticide use
information. Sales representatives, publications and product labels were the main supply-

side information sources listed. Radio and television were the most frequently mentioned

mass media sources.

Table 14: Importance of Pesticide Use Information Sources Mentioned by Extension Agents

 

 

 

Source Total’I %
Agritex 107.6 36
Sales reps/Dealers 98.2 33
Publications 44.6 15
Product labels 24.3 8
Mass media 15.4 5
Otherb 10.0 3
TOTAL 100

 

a - Responses weighted for the order of relative importance (first=1, second= .5, third= .3).
b - DR&SS, field days and college course-notes.
n = 190

 

Agitax aad pestigida cgmpaaies a§ sources of pesticide use jnformatioa.

Extension agents’ perception of information sources was measured using a Likert

type scale for attitudinal questions. Both Agritex officers and sales representatives/ dealers
were perceived as important sources of pesticide use information (Table 15). At the .05
level, paired t-tests of the mean values for the two groups showed a significant difference
in the perceived level of importance. Although Agritex officers and pesticide company sales
representatives/ dealers were both perceived favorably, the latter were perceived as

significantly more important than the former.

Table 15: Extension Agents’ Perceived Importance of Agritex Officers and Sales

Representatives/Dealers as Pesticide Use Information Sources

 

 

Source Mean1 SD. t-value p
Agritex Officers 3.61 1.21 -5.09 .001
Sales reps/Dealers ' 4.17 1.04

 

1 - Based on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
n = 191 '

Cgaglusjoa; At the .05 level, there is a significant difference between the perceived
importance of Agritex and pesticide companies as sources of pesticide use information.
Extension agents perceive sales representatives and dealers as more important sources of

pesticide use information compared to Agritex officers.

104

Use of Information Sources

Use of information sources was calculated from the responses to a set of information
sources provided in the questionnaire. Overall, Agritex publications were the most
frequently mentioned source of information on pesticide use (Table 16). A surprising 18.8%
of the respondents indicated that they used television as a pesticide information source.
Farmers were generally not used as a source of information, being ranked last of the 7

alternative information sources listed in the questionnaire.

Table 16: Ranking of Information Sources based on Frequency of Use

 

 

Source Frequency. % Rank
Agritex publications 178 90.8 1
Sales representatives 159 80.7 2
Agritex officers 127 64.5 3
Newspapers / magazines 110 56.1 4
Radio 102 51.8 5
Television 37 18.8 6
Farmers 15 7.8 7
Other sources 7 3.7 8

 

O
- Sources not mutually excluswe.

n=191

105
1 1111- t. ' 1‘ " . ' '1: tier ebe e-1 “e1sio .-1-et’uso
faunal and infgnnal channels in tha amuisition gf nasticide intonation.

Formal channels were defined as the official paths of message/ information flow
prescribed by the organization’s chain of command. Included in this group were Agritex
officers and publications, and, sales representatives. Informal channels were defined as
unofficial and informal networks used by the extension agents as sources for pesticide use
information. Newspapers and magazines, radio, television and farmers were considered as
informal channels of pesticide use information acquisition. This definition is atypical;
informal channels are generally regarded as person-to-person interactions outside of the
prescribed communications within the organization.

About 72% of the respondents used at least one formal channel compared with 32%
for the informal channels (Table 17). Formal channels were used significantly more than

informal ones in the acquisition of pesticide information.

Table 17: Extension Agents’ Frequency of Use of Formal and Informal Channels for

Pesticide Use Information

 

 

Channel Frequency t-value p
Formal 150 20.09 .001
_Ir_1formal 64

 

n=190

106
Qanglgaign; At the .05 level, there is a significant difference between the use of formal and

informal channels in the acquisition of pesticide use information. Extension agents use

more formal than informal channels in the acquisition of pesticide use information.

1.1 ,1. 1101;; ' Ire . 11 si' , 1 t .- e e 1 e1e11a1- s’ .1111' 't'01 of
nestig' ide use infonmation channals ralated to media nichness

Media richness is the capacity of a medium to facilitate shared meaning (Trevino

et al, 1990). Rich media was classified as that which allows for a two-way flow of

information. Person-to-person medium (Agritex officers, sales representatives and farmers)

were grouped as rich media. Lean media was classified as one-way information flow with

no interaction between the sender(s) and receiver(s). Lean media included Agritex

publications, newspapers and magazines, radio and television.

Table 18: Extension Agents’ Frequency of Use of Rich and Lean Media Channels

 

 

 

Channel Frequency t-value p
Rich media 103 1.29 .20
Ean media 97
n = 191

Conclnsinn: At the .05 level, there is no significant difference in the use of pesticide
information channels by extension agents related to media richness. Rich and lean media
sources are both used by extension agents. Lack of a distinct media preference could be

related to the general inadequacy of regular information sources.

107

Contact with Pesticide Companies

Contact with pesticide company representatives was estimated from the 1991-92
agricultural season. This period was particularly unusual due to the serious drought in the
survey area which had literally halted most agricultural activities. For reliability concerns
discussed in the research design chapter, respondents were asked only about whether or not
they had contact with pesticide company representatives in the preceding agricultural season.
Half the respondents had at least one contact with a pesticide company representative in
the preceding year. Agricura, Zimbabwe Fertilizer Corporation (Z.F.C.) and Windmill were
the most frequently mentioned companies (Table 19). The level of contact between Agritex
extension agents and sales representatives is consistent with market shares for the pesticide
companies“. Contact between extension agents and pesticide company representatives is
likely to be higher in normal rainfall years due to increased agricultural activities.

Contact between sales representatives and extension agents does not necessarily
translate to transfer of technical information. Results from the attitudinal questions indicate
that pesticide company sales representatives are more likely to contact extension agents for
sales rather than technical information. The variations in estimates for extension agent-
pesticide company representative contact may therefore be more of an indication of
marketing aggressiveness rather than an indication of the level of extension activities of

pesticide companies.

 

”Kietzman, W. (Agrochemicals Manager, Shell Developments Zimbabwe), personal
communication, September 1993.

108
Table 19: Extension Agents’ Contact with Pesticide Company Representatives (1991-92)

 

 

 

Company Frequency % Total Contact
Agricura 44 31.9
Z.F.C. 40 29.0
Windmill ' 38 27.5
Shell Chemicals 5 3.6
Sprayquip 4 2.9
Other‘ 7 5.1
Total 138 100

 

' - Cooper/Welleome, Pfizer Hoechst, Farmer’s Co-op, Farm-Aid and Ciba-Geigy

1,111 1- ' 4' her .. '11 s" cant .' ere ces' extensi01ae1s’ e of o-estic'-
in a 'on our s and cha els lated t other de 0 a hi c a acteri tics.

Use of sources and channels of pesticide use information by extension agents was
assessed for relationships with demographic variables. At the .05 level, there was no
relationship between demographic variables and use of Agritex officers and publications,
sales representatives, newspapers and magazines, farmers, and television. Only use of the
radio had some significant variations with demographic variables (Table 20). There was a
positive relationship (F=5.51 <p.001) between use of the radio as a source of pesticide use
information and the age of the respondent; older extension agents use radio as an
information source more than younger extension agents. There was also a negative
relationship (F = 6.27 < p.001) between radio and the highest academic qualification attained;

agents with higher academic qualifications use the radio less as a source of pesticide use

information.

109
Table 20: Analysis of Variance between Extension Agents’ Use of the Radio and

Demographic Variables

 

 

Variables F ~value Signif of F
Age (years): 5.51 l .00
Gender: .79 .37
Schooling: 6.27 .00
Training: 1.57 .21
Position: 1. 14 .32
Length of service (years): 6.19 .00

 

Using Anova, the demographic variables were also assessed against the information
sources and channels variables grouped into the following categories: formal and informal,
and, rich and lean. Older extension agents use significantly more informal sources and
channels of than younger ones (F = 3.53 <p.02). Extension supervisors use more lean
media sources than their subordinate extension workers (F = 4.88 <p.003).

Conclusjgn: At the .05 level, there are some relationships between use of pesticide
information sources and channels and demographic variables. There is a significant
relationship between the use of radio as a channel for pesticide information and the age of
the extension agent, and, the highest academic qualification attained. Older extension

agents use more informal channels than younger agents in the acquisition of pesticide use

110

information. There are no significant relationships between the use of Agritex officers and
publications, sales representatives, newspapers and magazines, farmers, television, and the

demographic variables. Extension supervisors have greater access to lean media sources

than extension workers.

Comments on Information Sources

Ninety-seven respondents, 46%, wrote comments on information sources. Twenty
of the comments alluded to a shortage of print media information sources for pest
management. Preferred information channels mentioned were pamphlets, product manuals
and posters. There were some comments on the need for training of field staff by both
Agritex and pesticide companies. Three respondents raised concern about the sale and/ or
use of products with no product expiry dates or with expired dates. In one instance, there
was a request for all pesticides to have a readable expiry date rather than a code on the
product label. One respondent suggested that all pesticide information be provided in the

vernacular language. Comments on information sources, edited from the questionnaire are

listed in Appendix 5.

11 1
Attitudes toward Pesticide Use

The extension agents’ attitudes toward aspects of pesticide use was measured using
responses to statements in the questionnaire. Responses were assessed using a 5-point
Likert scale with the range: strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), undecided (3), agree (4), and,
strongly agree (5). Attitudes of extension agents were assessed with respect to the following
constructs: Agritex, small-scale farmers, pesticide companies and their representatives, and,

pesticide use information and knowledge. Factor analysis was used to determine the

attitude statements for each construct (Appendix 6).

v 1001;. 'Ii‘ ‘1. '10 °' .110...“1S'

e o ' v ' es
Extension agent attitudes to Agritex, small-scale farmers, pesticide companies and
their representatives, and pesticide use information sources and channels were tested against
demographic variables. The demographic variables included were age, gender, highest level
of schooling, highest level of agricultural training, position in the organization, length of
experience in the organization. Tables 21 to 28 provide summaries and discussions of the

mean responses to attitude statements, and the results of Anova tests.
Attitudes toward Agritex

Respondents had moderate to strongly favorable attitudes to Agritex, its officers and
their role in pesticide use information management (Table 21). One exception is the nature

of the contact between officers and extension workers. Most extension workers disagreed

112

with the statement that Agritex officers contacted them for pesticide use information,

indicating that the flow of information is essentially one-way, from senior to junior members

of the organization.

Table 21: Extension Agents’ Attitudes toward Agritex

 

 

Statement Meanll
Agritex should provide more courses on pesticide use for EWs. 4.52
I contact my superior officer(s) for help with pesticide use problems. 4.23
I contact a SMS for help with pesticide use problems. 4.02
I contact other Agritex officers for pesticide use information. 3.90
My superiors in Agritex should be responsible for obtaining information. 3.65
Agn'tex officers are an important source of pesticide use information. 3.62
2.31

Agritex officers contact me when they need pesticide use information“.

 

" - Based on 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.

b - Excluded from the analysis because inter-item correlations with other variables were
< .10.

113

Differences in Attitudes Toward Agritex

One way analysis of variance (Anova) was used to test for relationships between

extension agents’ attitudes toward Agritex and demographic characteristics (Table 22).

Table 22: Means, F-values, and Significance of F-values for Extension Agent Attitudes to
Agritex Variables

 

 

Variables Mean“ F-value Signif of F
Age (yeansl:
21-30 3.67 .96 .41
31-40 3.83
41-50 3.81
51-60 3.76
fianden:
Female 3.87 .70 .40
Male 3.75
o ' '
Grade 7/Standard 6 3.84 .76 .52
Form 2/J.C. 3.76
Form 4/"O" Level 3.77
Form 6/"A" Level and above 3.45
I . . .
Certificate 3.76 .72 .40
Diploma 3.88
Degree 3.88
E . . .
Extension worker 3.74 .19 .83
Extension supervisor 3.75
Extension officer 3.84
s ' a :
Less than 10 3.73 .47 .62
11-20 3.83
lore than 21 3.78

 

" - Based on 5-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
n = 191

114

At the .05 level, there were no significant differences in attitudes to Agritex variables
with respect to age, gender, highest level of schooling and agricultural training, position in

Agritex, and years of experience (Table 22).

Attitudes toward Pesticide Companies and Sales Representatives

Pesticide company sales representatives were generally considered as important
sources of pesticide use information (Table 23). However sales representatives were more
likely to contact extension agents for sales information rather than pesticide use information.
The extension agents felt that sales representatives did not provide adequate training on
pesticide use for small-scale farmers. They were generally favorable to the statement that

pesticide companies should provide courses on pesticide use for extension workers.

Table 23: Extension Agents’ Attitudes toward Pesticide Companies and Representatives

 

‘

 

_Statement Mean‘I
Pesticide companies should provide courses on pesticide use for EWs. 4.28
Sales reps are an important source of pesticide use information. 4.16
I contact sales reps for pesticide use information. 3.75
Sales reps contact me when they need sales information. 3.33
Sales reps provide information on the products they are selling in my area. 3.13
I consult with sales reps for information on pesticides. 3.07
Sales reps provide farmers with adequate training on pesticide use. 2.38

1.88

Sales reps contact me when they need pesticide use information.

 

' - Based on S-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
11 = 191

 

115

Differences in Attitudes toward Pesticide Companies and Representatives

One way analysis of variance (Anova) was used to test for relationships between

extension agents attitudes toward pesticide companies and demographic characteristics.

Table 24: Means, F-values, and Significance of F-values for Extension Agent Attitudes to
Pesticide Company and Representative Variables

 

 

Variables Mean F-value Signif of F
Age (yaarsl;

21-30 3.21 .16 .92
31-40 3.25

41-50 3.19

51-60 3.27

Slender:

Female 3.18 .16 .69
Male 3.24

Grade 7 /Standard 6 3.19 .61 .61
Form 2/J.C. 3.29

Form 4/"O" Level 3.20

Form 6/"A' Level and above 3.00

Certificate 3.21 .93 .34
Diploma 3.35

Degree 3.35

Extension worker 3.21 .36 .70
Extension supervisor 3.25

Extension officer 3.33

Langth gf aervjce (years):

Less than 10 3.15 1.68 .19
11-20 3.34

More than 21 3.28

 

' - Based on 5—point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.

116

At the .05 level, there were no significant differences found in attitudes toward
pesticide companies and sales representative variables with respect to the age, gender,
highest level of schooling and agricultural training, position and years of service in Agritex

of the extension agents.

Attitudes toward Small-scale Farmers

Attitudes of extension agents toward their farmer-clients as sources of pesticide
information were generally unfavorable (Table 25). Extension agents did not regard farmers
as an important source of information on pesticides and/or pesticide use. In general,
extension agents did not contact farmers for pesticide use information and they believed that

most of the farmers in their respective work areas did not know how to use pesticides

correctly.

Table 25: Extension Agents’ Attitudes toward Small-scale Farmers

 

k

 

flatement Mean

Training of farmers in pesticide use should be my responsibility. 4.09
Sales reps should be responsible for training farmers. 3.33
Farmers should seek pesticide use information from sales reps“. 2.48
Most of the farmers in my area know how to use pesticides correctly. 2.19
Farmers are a useful source of technical information on pesticides. 1.91
Farmers are an important source of pesticide use information. 1.85

1.82

I contact farmers for pesticide use information.

 

a - Excluded from factor analysis because inter-item correlations with other factor variables
were < .10.

117

Differences in Attitudes toward Small-scale Farmers

One way analysis of variance (Anova) was used to test for relationships between

extension agents attitudes toward small-scale farmers and demographic characteristics.

Table 26: Means, F-values, and Significance of F-values for Extension Agent Attitudes to
Farmer Variables

 

 

Variables Mean F-value Signif of F
AW); ~

21-30 2.52 1.14 .33
31-40 2.52

41-50 2.57

51-60 2.35

Gender:

Female 2.31 2.76 .10
Male 2.53

o ' -

Grade 7/Standard 6 2.49 .85 .47
Form 2/J.C. 2.57

Form 4/"O” Level 2.47

Form 6/"A" Level and above 2.75

I . . .

Certificate 2.50 2.51 .12
Diploma 2.71 '

Degree ' 2.71

Eosiiion;

Extension worker 2.49 1.39 .25
Extension supervisor 2.46

Extension officer 2.73

Lgngth 9f sawing (years):

Less than 10 2.51 1.61 .20
11-20 2.60

More than 21 2.40

 

“ - Based on 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
n = 191

118

At the .05 level, there were no significant differences in extension agent attitudes
toward small-scale farmer variables with respect to age, gender, highest level of schooling

and agricultural training, position in Agritex, and years of experience (Table 26).

Attitudes toward Pesticide Use Information and Knowledge

The attitudes of most extension agents are favorable toward the need for
understanding the technical aspects of pesticide use. Most of the extension agents
responded that they got pesticide use information when they needed it, although they
considered the pesticide books and other print materials they have as inadequate (Table 27).
On average, they disagreed with the statement that technical information on pesticides is
difficult to understand but were generally agreeable to the need for, and importance of,
pesticide use information and knowledge in their work activities. Surprisingly, most
extension agents were agreeable to the statement that they should be required to pass a test
in pesticide use. This indicates that an accreditation system involving formal evaluation of

- extension workers for competency may be favorable to extension workers.

 

119

Table 27: Extension Agents’ Attitudes toward Pesticide Use Information and Knowledge

 

 

Statement Mean
Knowledge about pesticide use is important for EWs. 4.74
In my job, it is necessary to know the technical aspects of pesticide use. 4.57
The ”Safe Use of Pesticides" course should be obligatory for all EWs. 4.47
In my job, it is necessary to have items of protective clothing. 4.44
All EWs should be required to pass a test in pesticide use. 4.07
I get pesticide use information when I need it. 3.63
I have adequate books and other literature on pesticide use“. 2.39
1.91

Technical information on pesticides is difficult to understand.

 

“ - Excluded from factor analysis because inter-item correlations with other factor variables

were <.10.

Differences in Attitudes toward Pesticide Use Information and Knowledge

One way analysis of variance (Anova) was used to test for relationships between
extension agents attitudes toward small-scale farmers and demographic characteristics. At
the .05 level, there were no significant differences in attitudes toward pesticide use

information and knowledge variables with respect to the extension agent’s age, gender,

highest level of schooling and agricultural training, position and years of experience in

Agritex (Table 28).

120
Table 28: Means, F-values, and Significance of F-values for Extension Agent Attitudes to

Information and Knowledge Variables

 

 

Variables Mean F ~value Signif of F
Age (yaansl:
21—30 3.83 .67 .57
31-40 3.83
41-50 3.74
51-60 3.76
Gender:
Female 3.80 _ .00 .98
Male 3.80
ginooling:
Grade 7/Standard 6 3.76 .30 .82
Form 2/J.C. 3.82
Form 4/"O" Level 3.79
Form 6/"A" Level and above 3.94
Iltaining:
Certificate 3.81 1.40 .24
Diploma 3.68
Degree 3.68
aniiinn;
Extension worker 3.82 1.45 .24
Extension supervisor 3.74
Extension officer 3.64
h service ears :
Less than 10 3.85 2.08 .13
11-20 3.75
More than 21 3.72

 

“ - Based on 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
n = 191

121
Qanglnaign; At the .05 level of significance, there is no evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
There is no significant difference in extension agent attitudes related to the following

variables: age, gender, level of formal training, position and length of service in Agritex.
Technical Support Needs

Technical support needs of field extension agents regarding pesticide use
management were assessed from the responses on the questionnaire and interviews with
available senior Agritex officers, and managers of pesticide companies. Within the public
sector semi-structured interviews were held with the Agritex director, five chief agricultural
extension officers, the head of the PPRI, and the pesticide registration officer (PPRI). In

the private sector interviews were held with one chief executive officer, and 4 senior

managers working for pesticide companies”.

Small-scale farmers seek the Agritex extension agents for advice on pesticide use.
Ninety-eight percent of the extension agents sampled have been asked by farmers for advice
on pesticide use. Eighty-one percent of the respondents had conducted at least one short
course or training session on pests and pest management for farmers. There is a need for

establishing a minimum level of competence in pesticide use for extension agents before

they conduct farmer training.

 

7‘SCompanies represented were Shell Chemicals, Windmill, Ciba-Geigy and Bayer.

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Extension Agent Pre-service Training

Seventy-seven percent of the respondents took a course covering pesticide use while
in training. Seventy-eight percent of the respondents with no pre-service training in

‘ pesticide use were extension workers (Table 29).. Only one female agent had not taken a

course in pesticide use while in college.

Table 29: Extension Agent Attendance at Agritex In-service Training Courses

 

 

Course Frequency % Rank
Cotton Production (Kadoma) 128 63.4 1
Safe Use of Pesticide 53 26.2 2
Pesticide company courses 34 16.7 3

 

Availability of books and other literature

About 70% of the respondents indicated that they have inadequate books and other
print materials like posters and pamphlets (Table 29). Interviews with some senior Agritex
officers revealed that in general, print materials of good quality are expensive for the
department to produce, so they rely on those provided by pesticide companies. Some of the
materials provided by the companies are not locally relevant or are more applicable to large-
scale commercial farming (for example with respect to equipment and the products).
Materials provided by companies tend to be related to marketing activities for new products.

The pesticide industry association, ACIA, is working toward producing more generic

123
materials especially for pesticide safety“. The PPRI produces a updated list of registered

products annually. Copies of the list are provided for the Agritex head office, but

circulation is limited. Pesticide companies have supported efforts to produce a

comprehensive manual of all registered products and their specific uses. Most extension

agents do not have access to this manual.

Table 30: Availability of Books and other Print Materials for Extension Agents

 

 

Availability of books Frequency“ %*
Inadequate 140 (114) 69.3 (72.6)
Neutral 4 (2) 2.0 (1.3)
Adequate 58 (41) 28.7 (26.1)
Total 202 (157) 100 (100)

 

"‘ Figures in parentheses are for extension workers only

Availability of Protective Clothing

The PPRI provides guidelines for the protective items required for use with specific
pesticides. These items are generally expensive for small-scale users, and there are some
concerns regarding their suitability in hot environments. Protective clothing regulations are
generally not enforced in small-scale farming areas. Agritex extension agents and pesticide
company representatives promote safe practices in the use of pesticides. Extension agents

therefore require items of protective clothing as teaching aids. About 44.5% of the

 

2“ Chittenden, Chairperson, ACIA pesticide committee, personal communication,
September, 1992.

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respondents do not have any items of protective clothing for pesticide use; 79% of this

group are extension workers and supervisors (Table 31).

Table 31: Availability of Protective Clothing for Extension Agents

 

 

 

Items Frequency“ %*
None 54 (47) 31.8 (35.1)
1 or 2 items 39 (31) 22.9 (23.1)
Basic kit 77 (56) 45.3 (41.8)
Total 170 (134) 100 (100)

 

* - Figures in parentheses are values for extension workers only

" - Basic kit consists of at least protective shoes (gum boots), overalls, gloves and hat
specifically designed for pesticide use.

Pesticide Topics for Future Courses

Topics to be addressed in future courses in pesticide use were listed in the
questionnaire by 161 (77%) respondents. The tOpics listed were grouped into three general
areas: pesticide safety, calibration and pesticide information. Over half of the respondents

requested each of these areas to be included in future in-service training sessions (Table 32).

125

Table 32: Frequency of Preferred Topics listed by Extension Agents“

 

 

Topic Frequency % of sample
Pesticide safety 116 55.5
Calibration 1 12 53.6
Pesticide information ' 107 51.2

 

' - Topics were not mutually exclusive. 99 respondents (47%) listed more than one topic;
75 respondents (36%) listed all three.

Summary of Written Comments

F orty-nine respondents ( 17%) made comments on the questionnaire and other issues
related to pesticide use. Four respondents mentioned the need for action after the
collection and analysis of data. Three respondents suggested that protective clothing be
supplied to all field staff to support teaching of pesticide safety to small-scale farmers.
Three comments asked about the relevance of collecting demographic information. One
respondent wrote that they felt the questionnaire was vague. Comments on the

questionnaire and other pesticide use issues are listed in Appendix 5.

 

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Research Problem

The efficient use of technology by small-scale farmers requires support from
agricultural service institutions. There is a limited knowledge base on the technology
transfer systems of agricultural extension organizations in developing countries. Specifically,
little is known about the interaction of the organizational system, in terms of communication
and information flows, and, the technical competence of extension agents. External
technology like pesticide use is developed and marketed by multinational corporations with
minor obligations to neither small-scale users nor the extension system. Typical of large

agricultural extension organizations in Sub-Saharan Africa, Agritex is a publicly-funded

126

 

factors contribute to the extension agents’ ability to meet these needs. The study sought to
address the issue of extension agent competence, and also the interactions between public

and private extension institutions with respect to agricultural technology.

Research Questions

The major questions and hypotheses that guided the research process were:

Question 1: What are the technical competencies of Agritex extension agents regarding

pesticide use?

(a) There is no difference in extension agents’ technical competence related to the

forma qualifications attained.

128

(b) There is no difi’erence in extension agents’ technical competence related to the
level of in-service training in pesticide use received.

(c) There is no difference in extension agents’ technical competence related to the
level of on-the-job eXperience.

(d) There are no differences in extension agents’ technical competence related to

other demographic characteristics.

Question 2: What sources and channels are used to disseminate technical information
related to pesticide use within Agritex?
(a) There is no difference between extension agents’ perception of Agritex and
pesticide companies as sources of pesticide use information.
(b) There is no difference between extension agents’ use of formal and informal
channels in the acquisition of pesticide use information.
(c) There is no difference in extension agents’ acquisition of pesticide use
information related to media richness.
(d) There are no differences in extension agents’ use of information sources and

I

channels related to other demographic characteristics.

Question 3: What are the attitudes of Agritex extension agents toward pesticide use?
(a) There are no differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide use related
to age.
(b) There are no differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide use related

to gender.

129

(c) There are no differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide use related
to formal qualifications.

(d) There are no differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide use related
to position in Agritex.

(e) There are no differences in extension agents’ attitudes to pesticide use related

to length of working experience in Agritex.

Question 4: What are the technical support needs of Agritex field extension agents
regarding pesticide use management.
(a) There is a need to improve technical support to Agritex field extension agents
regarding pesticide management.
(b) Agritex should be responsible for supporting field extension agents in pesticide
use management.
(c) Pesticide companies should be responsible for supporting extension agents in
pesticide use management.
(d) There is a need for formal communication between field extension agents and

the pesticide company technical specialists.

Methodology

The study used a descriptive research design. Primary data was collected from
selected Agritex extension agents using a self-administered questionnaire. The instrument,
which was developed from the research questions and hypotheses, was tested for validity and

reliability before administration. It was also pilot tested on a group of similar respondents.

130

The questionnaire consisted of four sections: competence in pesticide use, information
sources and channels, attitudes to pesticide use, and lastly, demographic characteristics. The
questionnaire was administered by the author or the respective Agritex regional agricultural
extension officer for the district. The usable sample consisted of 209 respondents from
Midlands and Mashonaland Central provinces. Due to problems associated with the drought
in the survey area, the sub-sample from Mashonaland Central province was not totally
random but consisted of available extension agents in some districts.

Data was analyzed using SPSS PC+ Version 4.0 software. Preliminary data
evaluation was conducted to investigate differences between the two sub-sample; no
significant differences were found in terms of demographic characteristics and competence
scores. The next phase of the analysis consisted of computing descriptive statistics and
testing the null hypotheses for each research question. The final part of the analysis
involved use of multiple regression to create a model to explain how the identified

independent factors influenced extension agent competency in pesticide use.

Assumptions and Limitations of the Study

The main focus of the study was limited to Agritex extension agents in the field
division. Primary data was not collected from other extension agents, for example those in
the private sector, or from farmers, who are the primary end-users of pesticides. Because
of the severity of the drought at the time of data collection, only two of the country’s eight
provinces were selected for the study. There was selection bias in that the two provinces,
Midlands and Mashonaland Central, were relatively less affected by the drought, and,

normally have greater agricultural potential The findings may not be generalizable

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nationally, and also may have been influenced by the unusual environmental conditions at
the time of survey.

The study was limited to management and use of pesticide information. The
findings, conclusions and recommendations are therefore bound to the characteristics of this
technology, and may not be applicable to other types of agricultural technology. Direct
consideration was not given to the possible negative short and long-term effects of pesticide
use among small-scale farmers.

Assessment of the extension agents’ technical competence was by proxy, using
responses to written questions. There were limitations in using other competence
assessment methods, to cross-check the written responses. The underlying assumption was
that written responses could provide a reliable measure of competence, and further, that

honest responses would be disclosed.

Study Findings

At the .05 level, there were no significant differences found between the two
provinces in terms of respondent demographic characteristics and competency scores. There
also were no unique characteristics in Mashonaland Central province were the sub-sample
was not totally random. Although the analysis was conducted separately for the two
provinces, the findings are presented for the total sample except in instances where there

were Specific differences.

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Demographic Characteristics

The total sample size was 209 extension agents from Midlands and Mashonaland
Central provinces. Most respondents (81.6%) were extension workers; the rest were
extension supervisors and senior supervisors (7.7%), and officers (10.7%). Females made
up about 10% of the sample, which is similar to the proportion of females nationally
amongst Agritex field extension staff. The average age was 39 years, although average for
female agents was 10 years lower. Over half the respondents had ordinary level (11 years
of formal school) or more. Four of the officers had university degrees. Thirteen of the
respondents, all males, had the lowest academic qualifications (Grade 7 or Standard 6). All
respondents had at least 2 years of post-school agricultural training, with the majority (92%)
being agricultural certificate holders. The average length of service in Agritex was 13.7
years, with a wide range of 38 years. Forty-six percent of the respondents had worked for 1
less than 10 years in Agritex. There was a high incidence of correlation between the
demographic variables. Consequently statistical tests that incorporate the effects of

confounding variables were used.
Extension Agent Technical Competence

The operational definition of technical competence was the extension agent’s score
in three task performance areas in the questionnaire. These task performance areas were
pesticide application skills, knowledge of recommended products for specific pests and crops,
and, general pest management. Self-assessment was used for measuring the pesticide

application skills; 72% of the extension agents considered themselves capable of various

133

application skills. An average of 60% of the agents provided correct responses to pesticide
product knowledge questions; the average for general pest management questions was 64%.
About 20% of the extension agents referred to banned or withdrawn pesticide products in
some of their responses indicating a general unawareness of the registration status of some
pesticides.

Semi-partial multiple regression was used to test for the significance of variables in
three general areas: demographic characteristics, training and access to information. At the
.05 level the three variable sets were significant.

Using stepwise multiple regression, the following independent variables were

identified as influencing the competency score: the extension agent’s age, gender, level of

\

V

in—service training, contact and use of pesticide company sales representatives as information
sources. Age was negatively related to the technical competence; younger agents scored
significantly higher than older agents. The extension agents’ years of employment in Agritex
was highly correlated with age and was consequently removed from the regression equation
to minimize multicollinearity. Female extension agents had significantly higher scores than
males. The level of in-service training, contact and use of sales representatives had positive
relationships with the dependent variable. There were no significant relationships between
the extension agent’s formal qualifications or their rank in Agritex, with technical
competence. The independent variables in the regression equation explained about 31% (R2

= .305) of the variance in extension agents’ competency scores.

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Information Sources and Channels

Extension agents in the two provinces used a variety of sources for pesticide use
information. The main sources listed were Agritex, pesticide company representatives and
dealers, printed materials, pesticide-product labels and mass media. Radio and surprisingly
television were the most frequently mentioned mass media sources. Both Agritex officers
and sales representatives were considered as important sources of pesticide use information,
with the latter being perceived as significantly more important than the former.

Formal channels, like Agritex officers and sales personnel, were used more than
informal ones like mass media. Media richness, the capacity of an information medium to
facilitate communication, had no significant effects on the use of the various information
channels tested. About half the extension agents had at least one contact with a pesticide
company representative in the preceding year. The frequency of contact was similar to the
market shares held by the pesticide companies in the small-scale farmer pesticide market.
Agricura, Z.F.C. and Windmill were the most active companies in this sub-market.

There were some relationships between the use of some pesticide information
sources and channels, and, demographic characteristics. At the .05 level, there was a
significant relationship between the use of radio as a channel for pesticide information and
the age of the extension agent, and, the highest academic qualification attained. Older
extension agents used more informal channels than younger agents. There were no
significant relationships between demographic characteristics and the use of Agritex officers
and publications, sales representatives, newspapers and magazines, farmers, television, and,
the demographic variables. Extension supervisors had greater access to lean media sources

than extension workers.

135

Extension Agent Attitudes toward Pesticide Use

Respondent attitudes were assessed using a Likert-type scale for responses to various
statements related to pesticide use. Extension agent attitudes were generally favorable to
Agritex, pesticide companies and representatives, and pesticide use information and
knowledge. Extension workers felt that they are not contacted by both Agritex officers and
sales representatives for technical information. Attitudes to small-scale farmers, as sources
of pesticide use information were generally unfavorable. Most extension agents did not
consider small-scale farmers as useful sources of pesticide use information. They felt that
most farmers in their respective work areas did not know how to use pesticides correctly.
Most extension agents were favorable to having the responsibility for small-scale farmer
training in pesticide use. There were no significant differences in attitudes with respect to
the following extension agent demographic variables: age, gender, formal training, position

and years of service in Agritex.
Extension Agent Technical Support Needs

Most of the extension agents in the two provinces are requested to provide advice
on pesticide use by farmers in their respective work areas. The majority have conducted
training sessions in pest control for farmers. Extension agents undergo limited pre-service
training related to pests and pesticide management. Agritex faces a number of constraints
in training extension agents. Less than 4% of the department’s budget is allocated for stafi'

training.

136

While the Training Branch offers a variety of in-service courses, only one relates
specifically to pesticide use. There is very little formal training provided for Agritex
extension agents by the pesticide companies. Specific areas in pesticide use for which the
extension agents requested more training or information were pesticide safety, calibration
and product information. The amount of print materials and other aids related to pesticide
use are limited. Provision of information on pesticide use is neither systematic nor
comprehensive. Most extension agents do not have a readily available source of technical
information. While the registration system specifies the items of protective clothing for use
with various pesticide products, field extension agents usually do not have access to most
items of the required protective clothing.

Pesticide companies are more active in the large scale commercial sector than in
communal and resettlement areas. Within the small-scale sector, most of the company
representatives in contact with extension agents are salespersons. Contact between company
representatives and extension agents is usually informal and related to marketing activities.
In principle, companies are supportive of increased training of Agritex agents. Financial
considerations in this sub-market limit the extension activities of marketing companies.
Pesticide companies and other private organizations are unlikely to make long-term

commitments for training Agritex extension agents.

Questionnaire Comments

A number of respondents raised concerns about the limited availability of pesticide
information in print form. There were also concerns about the possible sale of expired

products by marketers in the small-scale farming sector. Some extension agents suggested

137
the greater use of the vernacular language for pesticide information, and, specifically

product labels. There was a request for the supply of protective clothing for all extension

workers.

Conclusions and Implications

The study conclusions are based on both primary and secondary data sources. The
former were collected through a descriptive survey of extension agents, while the latter
included the literature review, interviews with expert sources, and, the author’s observations.

The conclusions are divided into four sections: Agritex, PPRI, Pesticide companies, and,

farmers.
Agritex

There is wide variance in technical competence of Agritex extension agents in
Midlands and Mashonaland Central provinces with respect to pesticide use. Extension agent
technical competency is influenced by demographic characteristics, training and access to
technical information. To improve the technical competence of its field extension agents,
Agritex needs to develop more specific policies in all three areas.

The age and gender of extension agents are key demographic characteristics
explaining the variation in technical competence. Older agents are less technically
competent than their younger counterparts. Female agents are more competent than males.

The proportion of female extension agents in Agritex is still very low. The limited evidence

from this study indicates that the policy of recruiting female students into agricultural

138

colleges and subsequently into Agritex, has had positive effects and should be increased to
reduce the disparities in gender representation in the organization.
Extension agents’ technical competency with respect to pesticide use, is not related
to formal academic and agricultural qualifications. Due to the tremendous increase in
school enrolment since 1980, the demand for places at agricultural colleges and consequently
Agritex, is likely to remain high. As the major employer of agricultural college graduates,
Agritex should have greater input in the programs offered at these institutions. Increasing
the entry level academic qualifications for the agricultural certificate institutions may be
shortsighted since there seem to be no major differences in extension worker technical
competence related to formal qualifications. Increasing the entry-level academic
qualifications for extension workers may also disadvantage students from the relatively less-
endowed rural schools, despite their greater familiarity with small-scale agriculture.
In-service training is positively related to extension agent competence. There is a
need for regular, systematic evaluation of Agritex training policies and the specific courses
that the extension agents attend. Though Agritex in-service training will not correct for gaps
in basic extension agent training, opportunities should be provided for outstanding extension
workers to pursue formal training. The limited career opportunities for lower-level
extension staff can only serve to further increase frustration and de-motivation given the
arduous nature of rural field work and the generally poor conditions of the public service.
Extension agents use a wide variety of sources for obtaining pesticide use
information. Agritex, pesticide company sales representatives and printed materials are the
three most frequently used sources. The flow of information is essentially one way: from
external sources or technical officers in Agritex, to field extension workers. Extension agents

perceive sales representatives as more credible sources of pesticide information than Agritex

139

officers. Mass media sources and farmers are used less frequently. Older extension agents
make greater use of the radio for acquiring technical information than younger agents.
Formal channels are used more than informal ones in acquisition of information. Media
richness had no influence on the use of information sources and channels. There is
potential for greater use of mass media for pesticide-use education. Consideration should
be given to developing or recruiting mass media professionals to irnprove the current use
of these channels. This could be facilitated by formal cooperation policies between Agritex
and the mass media organizations, like the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation.
Extension agents consider the use of pesticide as an important aspect of their jobs.
Their attitudes toward Agritex, pesticide companies, and acquiring more knowledge on
pesticides are favorable. They have unfavorable attitudes towards small-scale farmers as
potential sources of pesticide use information. This result is rather surprising given that
some communal farmers in the survey area have been using pesticides for decades,
suggesting that they are likely to acquired some expertise through this long experience.
There was limited evidence to allow for more specific conclusions on extension agent
attitudes to small-scale farmers. Extension agent attitudes to pesticides and their use are
not influenced by demographic characteristics. Assessment of specific relationships between
Agritex extension agents and small-scale farmers were outside the scope of this study.
There is need for empirical evaluation of extension agent attitudes to small-scale farmers
to assess whether the unfavorable attitudes of extension agents found in this study are
limited to pesticide use or extend to the broader aspect of farmer knowledge. Insights into
extension agent-farmer relationships would allow for more enlightened policies aimed at

increasing the mutual benefits from extension agent-farmer interactions.

140
Technical support, both from within and outside the organization, available to

Agritex field extension agents for pesticide management is generally inadequate and
irregular. The quality of farmer training by extension agents is affected by shortages of
teaching aids including protective clothing and printed materials like books, pamphlets and
posters. Extension agents indicated a need for more regular and comprehensive training
in pesticide use especially in the areas of application skills, safety and product information.
Agritex has limited capacity for correcting knowledge gaps due to inadequate pre-servico
training. In this respect there is a need to incorporate pest management courses in the
curriculum of agricultural training institutions.

The resource limitations facing Agritex require a critical evaluation of the role of
public agencies in the provision of extension services. The key policy issue is whether public
or private sector organizations should be responsible for providing pesticide use technical
support. In the more commercially oriented communal areas like Gokwe, there may be
opportunities for formal involvement of pesticide companies in providing technical support,

with Agritex playing a monitoring role.

Pesticide Use Regulations

The pesticide registration system in Zimbabwe is generally sound and comparable
to systems in more developed countries. There are however some inadequacies which are
partly due to the opening up of the country’s economy and limited resources within the
registration agencies.

Specific concerns relate to the importation of pesticides by individuals and non-

traditional organizations, which will entail greater scrutiny by the registration agencies. The

141

criteria used for screening applicants for pesticide registration has to include the capacity
to handle the potentially dangerous side effects of pesticides, over and above product
efficacy. With more liberal economic policies, there is growing interest in direct importation
of pesticides by commodity groups and individual farmers. These groups are likely to be
less knowledgeable and / or concerned about the potential hazards of pesticides.
Monitoring of field activities related to pesticide use is generally informal and has
traditionally been based on the goodwill of pesticide companies and other NGOs. The
ability of the registration agencies to conduct post-registration activities is imperative. For
example, some of the extension agents sampled for this study claimed that expired pesticides
are sometimes sold in the small-scale sub-market. The public regulatory agencies, like the
Hazardous Substances Board, the Drug Control Council and the Plant Protection Research
Institute, have limited capability for field monitoring and enforcement. However there is
still a need for these public agencies to act as neutral evaluators of issues like product
quality in the market, compliance with regulations like labelling, and, training programs
specific to various categories of pesticides. With increasing numbers of marketing
organizations, products and applicators, the need for more stringent regulations is critical.
The linkages between these regulatory agencies and Agritex are minimal. Agritex
has little involvement in the registration, regulation or monitoring of pesticide use. There
is generally no formal communication between field extension agents and the PPRI for

example, except with respect to reporting the occurrence of large scale pest outbreaks.

142

Pesticide Companies

There is negligible contact between pesticide company technical specialists and
Agritex extension agents; there is relatively more contact between company sales
representatives and extension agents. Contact between sales representatives and extension
agents is usually based on informal relationships in the field. Extension agents expressed
interest in interacting with pesticide company representatives for technical aspects of

pesticide management.

Recommendations

Given the resource constraints facing Agritex, it is unlikely that the organization will
be able to increase the number of extension programs/ activities it is involved in. There is
a need for Agritex to reassess its role in the agricultural system given that it is not feasible
to provide adequate support for all communal area farmers. At the policy level, the
decision-makers in the organization need to address the key question of whether or not
Agritex should be actively involved in the pest management system. The recommendations
for Agritex are provided on the assumption that it will remain as the main supporting
organization for advising small-scale farmers on pesticide use management.

To accommodate the perspectives, interests and needs of the diverse organizations
and personnel involved in pesticide management and use, the recommendation section is
divided into the three main categories of pesticide use information users: Agritex, the
monitoring and regulatory agencies, and pesticide companies. Within each section, the

recommendations are divided into general and specific categories. This structuring is meant

143

more for placing the issues into context, rather than to portray pesticide use information
management as consisting of sets of self-contained entities. These user-categories are all
part of a dynamic system in which each unit affects the total performance of the whole.
Effective use of agricultural technology requires knowledge on the part of users and
advisers. Increased use of agricultural inputs also entails a greater demand for more, and
specialized technical services. Small-scale farmers are likely to make more cost-effective use
of pesticides if the knowledge levels of the extension agents advising them increases. The
philosophical orientation of Agritex’s extension system needs to emphasize knowledge and
its acquisition, rather than the traditional notion of viewing extension agents as message
carriers. Agritex will benefit from investing in the technical knowledge of its field staff.
Extension agents will benefit if Agritex is a more active participant in the pesticide
management system. This would not only improve the awareness and knowledge of senior
Agritex staff of the relative sophistication and intricacies of the pesticide industry but also
bring to the fore, problems associated with pesticide use amongst small-scale users. Benefits
from investing in technical knowledge will be realized if the organization promotes an

atmosphere for professional activities and behaviors.

Agritex

To enhance the technical know-how of extension agents, Agritex needs to develop
closer links with the agricultural training institutions. Agritex needs to focus on increasing
the awareness of the trainers in these institutions of the skills required of potential Agritex
extension agents. Specifically, the curriculum used by training institutions should put more

emphasis on agricultural pests and pest management. This is a necessary requirement given

144
the need to address the environmental aspects of small-scale agriculture and the limited

capability of Agritex to correct for knowledge gaps in pre-service basic training. Because
of the positive relationship between in-service training and technical competence, training
in pesticide use should be obligatory for all extension agents who are directly involved in
advising and training farmers. Specifically, the Agritex course on the safe use of pesticides
should be mandatory for all field extension staff.

Agritex should also facilitate training and informal linkages between its extension
agents and other organizations. For example, extension agents benefit from the training
provided by other institutions like the Cotton Training Centre at Kadoma.

The following concerns need to be addressed in the short term:

1. The provision of safety clothing for demonstration / teaching purposes by extension
agents. Small-scale farmers’ awareness of the safety measures required when using
pesticides will be enhanced by regular reinforcement by extension agents. Given that some
extension agents are involved in farming activities, their credibility with respect to pesticide

safety concerns will be at stake if they do not practice the recommended safety practices.

2. The production of a basic manual or pamphlets on pests and pesticide management.
Such a manual would provide technical and other information on the pesticides used by
small-scale farmers, their uses and safety information. It would also help in alleviating some
of the confusion that arises from the use of different trade names for similar products. The
English language skills of some Agritex extension agents are limited and efforts to use more

vernacular language in technical literature should be increased.

145

3. The introduction of an accreditation scheme for Agritex extension agents directly
involved in farmer training. This could take the form of a basic test on pesticide
management which every extension agent has to pass within a given period after joining the
department. Agritex could invite other organizations like the pesticide companies and the

FAO in designing and implementing such a scheme.

4. Agritex should increase the use of multi-media strategies in information dissemination.
There is potential for increased use of mass media channels. For example, over half of the
extension agents in Mashonaland Central and the Midlands province have access to a radio
and about 20% to a television set. Use of these two channels for information targeted at
field staff has not been fully exploited. More systematic use would allow the organization

to increase efficiency in providing general interest and awareness information to field stafi'.

Monitoring and Regulatory Agencies

Evidence from secondary data sources indicates the need for the monitoring and
regulatory agencies to review policies related to pesticide use. More stringent regulations
are required to reduce the likelihood of registering products from organizations with
inadequate capacity to handle the potential side-effects of pesticide manufacturing and
marketing.

For the small-scale farming sector, there is need for introducing additional
requirements for pesticide products with potential use in this sub-market. Such regulations
could include requesting that applicants for product registration, in conjunction with Agritex

field staff, conduct demonstration trials in communal areas.

146

The regulatory agencies should make use of more information channels to announce
the withdrawal or restricted use of specific pesticides. Agritex field staff are generally
uninformed of the status of pesticide products. Greater use of mass media channels and
involvement of Agritex technical specialists would facilitate both extension agent and farmer

awareness.

Pesticide Companies

Linkages between Agritex and pesticide companies for technical information are
weak. Agritex extension agents make limited use of the technical know-how within the
pesticide companies. Pesticide companies should play a greater role in training extension
agent in pesticide use, since Agritex has limited capacity to increase expenditure on staff
training from budgetary sources. Given that it may be uneconomic for pesticide companies
to conduct such training in communal areas, an alternative could be formal participation of
private sector specialists in Agritex training sessions.

Pesticide companies perhaps through their association, ACIA, should consider the
standardization of some pesticide product names. A number of generic compounds are
marketed using different trade names causing some confusion amongst extension agents, and
most likely small-scale farmers.

Pesticide companies should provide greater support for pesticide information
dissemination activities through increased use of mass media. Specific areas include more
use of printed materials, radio and television targeted specifically for the small-scale farming

sector.

147
Areas for Further Study

It is generally acknowledged that use of pesticides does not lead to sustainable pest
management in agriculture. A number of alternatives, like integrated pest management
(IPM) have been advocated. While the technical merits of such alternatives are fairly well
documented, there is a paucity of studies looking at the social aspects of alternatives to
pesticide use especially for small-scale agriculture.

There are a limited number of studies on the effectiveness of Agritex extension
programs and activities. longitudinal studies on the effects of various interventions and
causal modelling would strengthen the knowledge base on Agritex and other public extension
systems. Such studies could be incorporated into the ongoing activities of the monitoring
and evaluation section within Agritex. More empirical evidence is needed on the
competencies of extension agents in the use of other types of agricultural technology. There
is a need for studies on the technical and professional competencies of Agritex from the
farmers’ perspective and also the relationships between competencies and motivation /job
satisfaction.

The private sector is playing an increasingly important in agricultural research and
extension in developing countries. There are a variety of private extension organizations
and systems working in Zimbabwe’s agricultural sector. These include the traditional non-
governmental organizations, commodity groups and private voluntary organizations. There
have been few independent studies evaluating the extension and other activities of these
organizations. Potential areas for investigation are the management and communication
patterns in private extension organizations, comparative analysis of extension systems and

alternate mechanisms for linking extension institutions.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1
A) Agritex: Research Approval Letter

B) Letters to Chief Agricultural Officers

148
Verbatim Copy of Original

All correspondence to be addressed to the Director

MINISTRY OF LANDS, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL RESETTLEMENT
Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services
P.O.Box 8117, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Tel:707311 or 794601

REF: B/115/l
9 July 1992

Raymond T. Kujeke

Department of Agricultural and Extension Education
Michigan State University

410 Agriculture Hall

East Lansing MI 48824-1039

Michigan

USA

Ph.D RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Reference is made to your request regarding the above subject. In principle the

department of Agn'tex is supportive of your endevours. You will have access to our
publications and documents that relate to your research proposal. However, in view of

the limited resources thr department cannot afford to:
(a) Provide transport and accommodation during you field work.
(b) Assign staff to physically assist you in conducting your questionnaires.

You will have to sign an agreement with the department, when you come in August, to
commit you to provide us with all the research data and results.

(signed)
J.M. MAKADHO
DIRECTOR OF AGRITEX

149
Verbatim Copy of Original
All correspondence to be addressed to the Director

MINISTRY OF LANDS, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL RESETTLEMENT
Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services
P.O.Box 8117, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Tel:707311 or 794601

REF: D/lO7/l

14 September 1992

Chief Agricultural Extension Officer
Midlands Province

Mashonaland Central Province

RESEARCH PROGRAMME ON PESTICIDE USAGE: MR R. KUJEKE

This serves to introduce Mr Kujeke who is carrying (out) a study of Pesticide Usage in
Communal Areas. Mr Kujeke is a Zimbabwean affiliated with Michigan State

University.

Could you please assist Mr Kujeke by providing any information pertaining to his study.
He would also (like to) administer a questionnaire among Agritex Officers. Please assist
in selecting the districts and officers to be interviewed.

(signed)
J.M. MAKADHO
DIRECTOR OF AGRITEX

APPENDIX 2

A) Agritex Organizational Chart

B) Agritex Field Staff by Gender

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151

' APPENDIX 2
BREAKDOWN OF TECHNICAL AND EXTENSION STAFF IN AGRITEX“

 

 

 

‘

Position Total Filled %
_* Posts Posts Female
Director 1 1 -
Assistant Directors 3 2 -
Chief Agricultural Extension Officer 9 9 -
Chief Agricultural Specialist. 8 5 .
Principal Agricultural Extension Officer 16 15 -
Principal Agricultural Specialist 7 5 40
Assistant Chief Engineer 1 0 -
District Agricultural Extension Officer 49 45 2.2
Agricultural Extension Specialist 163 148 18.9
Agricultural Extension Officer 238 227 12.3
Agricultural Engineering 10 6 -
Principal Technician 1 0 -
Technician 21 19 -
Publications Officer 3 2 50
Senior Agricultural Extension Supervisor 57 46 -
Agricultural Extension Supervisor 267 229 -
Agricultural Extension Worker 1690 1633 11.5
‘ TOTALS 2544 2394 10.3

 

“ - Compiled by M. Chirnbira, Agricultural Extension Specialist, August, 1992.

APPENDIX 3

UCRIHS Approval Letter

152

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

()HK'I (N \‘K.I. HININNT l0! IIMAICH LAST LANSING a “Kin“;‘x 0 “1.3....“
AND "IAN (N THE “IAIM‘ATI. KIRK"

August 10, 1992

Raymond Kujeke
410 Agriculture Hall

RE: TECHNICAL INFORMATION FLOWS AND TECHNICAL COMPETENCIES OF
AGRITEX EXTENSION AGENTS IN ZIMBABWE, IRB ’92-402

Dear Mr. Kujeke:

The above project is exempt from full UCRIRS review. The proposed
research protocol has been reviewed by a member of the UCRIHS
committee. The rights and welfare of human subjects appear to be
protected and you have approval to conduct the research.

You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar
year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please
make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval one month
prior to August 5, 1993.

Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed
by UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be
notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects,
complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the

work.

Thank you for bringing this project to my attention. If I can be
of any future help, please do not hesitate to let me know.

Sincerely,

2.1.]

David E. Wright, 0., Chair .
University Commit ee on Research Involv1ng

Human Subjects (UCRIHS)

    
  

DEW/pjm

cc: Dr. Frank Bobbitt

”5U is on A/Imiw Anim- 4411.11 Opp-rumin- In moan-u.

APPENDIX 4

Cover Letter and Questionnaire

153

AGRITEX SURVEY OF PESTICIDE USE INFORMATION

QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTIONS
1. Cover Letter and Instructions

2. Information Sources and Channels

3. Pesticide Use

4. Attitudes To Pesticide Use

5. Demographics

 

154

SW
Baskgauad

The use of pesticides in agriculture continues to increase especially m
communal and resettlement areas. To improve Agritex’s ability to provide service to
farmers, it is necessary that information on the current state of education and
advisory services regarding pesticide use be available. Your responses to the issues
raised in this questionnaire are therefore imPortant in assessing Agritex’s ability to

serve farmers in the safe and effective use of pesticides.
This questionnaire is part of a survey to determine the technical

support / advisory needs of Agritex staff regarding pesticide use among small-scale and
communal farmers. The questionnaire will take about one hour to complete. Your
selection was by chance and you are free to refuse participation in this study.
Completion and return of this questionnaire is an indication of your agreement to
participate. All answers will be kept strictly anonymous and you do not have to write

your name.
If you have any questions regarding this questionnaire and/or the survey

please contact:

Raymond Kujeke The Director
Pesticide Survey AGRITEX
P.O. Box 553 OR PO. Box 8117
Harare Causeway
Phone: 707311 (Harare)

Phone: 65601 (Harare)
A summary of the results of this survey will be available at your provincial
office or at the head office.
Directicns

Answer each question or statement as accurately as you can. Most of the
questions can be answered by circling the item that best describes your opinion or
situation. Other questions require a cross (X) to be placed next to the most
appropriate response(s). Space is provided for you to make comments at the end of
each section. Try to answer all questions. Examples of how to answer specific types

of questions are shown below:
mills-2.1
No Yes 1. I organize field days in my area.

* Circling Yes indicates that you organize field days.

 

155
Elm—1215.2

Please comment on the value of field days.

Example}

The possible responses are:
SD - Strongly disagree
D - Disagree
? - Undecided
A - Agree
SA - Strongly agree
SD D ? A SA 2. Rainfall is important for agricultural production in my area.

‘ Circling SA indicates that you strongly agree that rainfall is important for
agricultural production in your area.

Examined;
3. How old are you?

The answer indicates that you are 41 years old.

F eel free to ask if you do not understand any of the questions or statements.

 

 

Circle the most appropriate response
No Yes 1. Have farmers ever asked you to provide advice on the use of a
pesticide?
2. List, in order, the 3 most important sources of pesticide information

to you.

1.

 

2.

 

3.

 

3. Which of the following sources do you use for obtaining information on pesticide
use?

Put a cross (X) next to all appropriate responses.

 

Agritex Publications
Agritex Officers

 

 

Sales Representatives

Newspapers and Magazines ‘

 

 

 

 

Radio
Television
Others (specify)

____l

4. Have you taken the cotton training course at the Cotton Training
Centre in Kadoma?

Farmers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No Yes

5. If your answer is Yes, what year did you last take this course?
19 .

 

No Yes

No Yes

No Yes

No Yes

No Yes

during

157

6. Have you attended the Agritex "Safe use of Pesticides" course?

7. If you answered Yes, what year did you last take this
course? 19_.

8. Have you attended a course(s) on pesticide use conducted by a
pesticide company.

9. If you answered Yes, which company(s) conducted the course?

 

 

 

10. Did you take a course covering pesticides when you were in
college?

11. Have you conducted a course on the use of pesticides for farmers?

12. In the last year, where you ever in contact with a representative of
an agricultural chemical company?

13. If your answer to question 9 is Yes, please list the name(s) of the
company(s), whose representatives you have been in contact with
the last year:

 

 

 

For the following set of questions, indicate your level of agreement by circling the
most appropriate response.

SDD?ASA

IQ!
Strongly Disagree SD
Disagree D
Undecided ? .
Agree A
Strongly Agree SA

14. Agritex officers are an important source of pesticide
use information.

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

27. Write down any
pesticides available to

158

15. I contact other Agritex officers for pesticide use
information.

16. Representatives of pesticide companies are an
important source of pesticide use information.

17. I can contact a representative(s) of a pesticide
company for pesticide information.

18. Farmers are an important source of pesticide use
information.

19. I contact farmers for pesticide use
information.

20. I get pesticide use information
when I need it.

21. Agritex officers contact me when they need pesticide
use information.

22. Representatives of pesticide companies
contact me when they need pesticide use
information.

23. Representatives of pesticide companies
contact me when they need sales information.

24. I contact my superior officer(s) when I
need help with a pesticide-related problem.

25. I contact a subject matter specialist
when I need help with a pesticide-related

problem. -

26. I have adequate books and other literature
on pesticide use.

comments you have about the sources of information for
you in the space below:

159
W

Circle the most appropriate response.

No
N o
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No

No

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

1. Have you ever applied an insecticide?

2. Have you ever applied a herbicide?

3. Annual weeds produce seeds in the second year of growth.

4. Dimethoate (Rogor) is more toxic than Gramoxone (paraquat)

5. The inert ingredient is the component that controls the target pest.
6. Pesticides with a green label are the most dangerous.

7. Perennials are plants that live for two years.

8. I can calibrate a ULV (ultra low volume) sprayer.

9. I can calibrate a knapsack sprayer.

10. I can calibrate a tractor-mounted sprayer.

11. I find it difficult to calculate the right amounts of chemical and
water to mix.

For the following list of pest problems, write down the name of one pesticide you
would recommend to a farmer. Write "DK" if you do not have an answer:

12. Red bollworm on cotton
13. Aphids (inda) on cotton
14. Nutgrass (cyperus) in cotton
15. Broadleaf weeds in maize
16. Stalkborer (Rukonye) in maize
17. Rodents (mbeva, makonzo) in stored maize

18. Red spider mites in tomatoes

 

 

160

19. In the space below, write down any items of protective clothing that you own:

N-i (EID

Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements. Circle the
most appropriate response.

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

Resume £91

Strongly Disagree SD
Disagree - D
Undecided ?
Agree A
Strongly Agree SA

1. Knowledge about pesticide use is important for extension
workers.

2. Agritex should provide more courses in pesticide use for
extension workers.

3. Agricultural chemical companies should provide courses on
pesticide use for extension workers.

4. In my job, it is necessary for me to know about the technical
aspects of pesticide use.

5. All extension workers should be required to pass a test in
pesticide use.

6. The Agritex "Safe use of pesticides" course should be
obligatory (required) for all extension workers.

7. Most of the farmers in my area know how to use pesticides
correctly.

8. Training of farmers in the use of pesticides should be my
responsibility. -

SDD?ASA
SDD?ASA
SDD?ASA
SDD?ASA
SDD?ASA
SDD?ASA
SDD?ASA
SDD?ASA

SDD?ASA

161

9. The representatives of pesticide companies should be
responsible for training farmers in pesticides.

10. The representatives of pesticide companies provide farmers
adequate training on pesticide use.

11. The representatives of pesticide companies provide me with
information on the pesticides they are selling in my area.

12. I normally consult with the pesticide company representative
for information on pesticides.

13. My superiors in Agritex should be responsible for obtaining
information on pesticides.

14. Technical information on pesticides is difficult for me to
understand.

15. Farmers should. seek the information they need on
pesticides from the company representative(s).

16. Farmers are a useful source of technical information on
pesticide use.

17. In my job, it is necessary to have items of protective
clothing.

18. List down topics which you would like to be
covered in future courses on pesticides.

 

 

 

 

162

WE

1. How old are you?

§

2. What is your sex? Male _
Female_

3. What is the highest academic qualificationyou attained?

Put a cross (X) next to the box for the appropriate response.

fl Grade 7/Standard 6 l
Form 2/J.C.

Form 4/0 Level
Form 6/A Level

I Degree(B.Sc,M.Sc.) { l

4. What is the highest agricultural qualification you attained?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Certificate (e.g.Esigodini,l\rflezu)
Diploma(e.g.Gwebi,Chibero)
Degree (B.Sc.,M.Sc)

. Other (Specify) I {

5. What is your position in Agritex?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6. How long have you been working in Agritex? years

7. Use the space below to write any comments, ideas or questions you have regarding
this questionnaire or pesticide use in general.

APPENDIX 5

COMMENTS ON INFORMATION SOURCES, THE QUESTIONNAIRE
AND PESTICIDE USE

163
APPENDIX 5

COMMENTS ON INFORMATION SOURCES

I don’t have enough sources except officers and specialists especially those in the
horticulture section. I need pictures, samples of pesticides and books on pesticides.

The books I have are not enough and some have old information.
Most pesticides should bear information in the vernacular language.

I get information from subject matter specialists when I need it and also from reps
who come on request.

The department provides a bit of information on the use of pesticides and the
horticultural specialist looks for the latest information for me.

Encourage farmers to use protective clothing whenever they use pesticides.

I need a lot of information concerning pesticides. Some of the pesticides do not work
if they are not used correctly. '

Sales reps are only interested in sales. At times they are not interested in explaining
the dangers of pesticides.

Companies are no longer as generous as in the past in terms of making materials
available. They are most interested in talking to groups who will eventually purchase
inputs.

Pesticides are very effective.

Agritex and sales reps are important information sources.

I have the Agritex "Safe Use of Pesticides" booklet.

I have got nothing to do with pesticides as far as my work is concerned.

I need sales reps to hold demonstration meetings in my area to reinforce the use of
fertilizers.

Companies should provide booklets annually to Agritex so that Agritex can provide
assistance to farmers faster.

164

Sources are limited. I would be grateful if sales reps provide me information rather
than ask me for customers.

Some companies do not put an expiry date on their labels instead they put a code
that is not understood.

Not enough literature for my work. Little availability of pesticide representative. N 0
resources for farmer training.

If there are proper directions of use then it is easy to handle a pesticide by following
these directions.

New chemicals appear quickly on the market before we get information or
publications from the dept; also the old ones disappear fast from the market.

When I need information I personally contact Agricura, Farmers Co-op and any
related companies to get the information I need.

Sources are not readily available. There is no revision of materials to accommodate
changes in names and to record new products.

Sales rep information concerning farmers confuse farmers with trade names.
Some of the pesticides have no expiry date.

Sources of information are usually unreliable especially sales reps because they do
not tell the truth. Information should be provided in publications. '

I receive very little information on pesticides. I need posters but these are
unavailable.

1 need books on pesticides.

Booklets are not enough to give out to the users, therefore supply should be
increased.
I need more books and literature about pesticides.

Do not have enough sources for pesticides therefore it is difficult to conduct a course
for farmers. More books on this subject should be produced and given to each staff
members.

Most of the information is kept at district office under lock and key to the expense
of district staff.

165

Reps are mostly interested in their sales rather than teaching and educating farmers
about the dangers and effects of their products. Literature on safety to farmers is
poor and very alarming.

Information is not readily available.

Need more books or pamphlets on pesticide use and the sales reps to visit our areas
every year and attend our field days.

I have never heard Agritex officers conducting a course on safe use of pesticides.
Most of my information is from fellow extension workers, sales reps, magazines and
publications.

I always listen to the weekly radio programs. Magazines like Urnlimmi which I
receive every month at times contain topics on new pesticides use, especially new
chemicals. -

Agricura booklets should be given to all staff. If all companies would improve on the
booklets this would help. Books are essential at all levels

Agritex officers are found wanting. The subject matter specialists are found doing
some other business instead of teaching staff hence we resort to sales reps who are
always available and helpful.

Agritex officers should train extension workers on the use of pesticides, and charts
should be provided.

Agritex should get a lot of information on pesticides from those companies which
manufacture pesticides.

It is important for reps to come to "grassroots” farmers to train and demonstrate the
uses and dangers of pesticides.

Sources of information are inadequate.

Agritex officers provide information for pesticides.

Agritex officers are best sources but they wait for me to ask for information instead
of providing courses. Agritex publications are good but unavailable. Newspapers and
magazines are expensive.

Some of the information is out of date; the names of some chemicals have changed

and others are no longer in production. Information on latest chemicals on the
market is scanty.

166

Pesticide companies rarely visit important field days to educate farmers on pesticide
safety. ‘

Some of the pesticides are outdated and others are no longer available on local
markets.

Courses on pesticide dangers must be organized and attended regularly.

Agritex crops branch should constantly review and update field officers on pesticides
on the market. Books and other literature should be more readily available for use
as reference material.

Reps and Agritex officers are hard to come by as sources of information due to their
location in relation to where I am. Mileage constraints account for the
communication short fall. .

I get information about pesticides from Agritex publications as well as pamphlets
from commercial companies.

I have a handout on safe use of pesticides given to me by the (Agritex) Training
branch.

Sources of pesticide information are inadequate.
Companies should give handouts and manuals on pesticides.
Publications on pesticides should be made available to farmers.

Information should be given to farmers in time; up to date information should be
supplied to Agritex.

The other sources of information for pesticides are courses held at provincial level
with the specialists.

Would welcome periodic handouts on use and calibration of pesticides or an update
since there may be new (products) being put on the market.

There are limited sources of information for pesticides. Research, Agritex and
companies should arrange courses and seminars, and handouts should be provided
to the staff in the area.

labels on bottles and packs.

167

I subscribe for other magazines nationally and internationally e.g. Minuet magazine
which I get monthly.

I get most information from (the) Kadoma Training Centre Handbook and from
manufacturer’s recommendation leaflets. This is mostly for cotton. For other crops
I get handouts from subject matter specialists.

I get information from the Cotton Training Centre Handbook and from subject
matter specialists when they produce handouts. Sometimes we have courses and
specialists help with information.

I need more information on pesticides.

If we could have books and pamphlets for use un the field.

I have books from companies which help, and some teaching from the radio.

The sources are very minimal.

I am not fully equipped with adequate sources of information and I think this is true
for most staff at my level.

The Agritex staff should know about the technical aspects of pesticides.
Companies should arrange courses and provide handouts for all staff

Most correct information is obtainable from company handouts and research
handbooks.

I usually rely on the Agritex "Safe use of Pesticides" handbook when I prepare a
lesson on safe use of pesticides.

Use only Agritex Handouts. N 0 other serious information from elsewhere.
I cannot get enough information for my requirements.

Sources of information are not readily available because officers have never been in
my area for almost two years.

Some publications should be made available to farmers.

Sales reps appear to be too busy to talk to farmers. Some chemicals are too
dangerous to be sold to anybody who wishes to buy.

168

Books and handouts are not up to date.
Some books arid charts do not have up to date information.
Companies supply information on pesticides to me when I need it.

Information is readily available from reps as well as pamphlets accompanying the
particular pesticide.

Company publications are the most reliable source of information on pesticide use.
I have a few Agritex publications on pesticide use. Specialists are very far away to
give required information in good time. A handbook is required to provide detailed
information for the extension worker.

More literature must be made available to ground staff. Posters hanging in towns
shows information wrongly placed. Reps should improve their degree of liaison with
ground staff.

I get information from Kadoma Training Center and Horticultural courses held at
Senga.

In most cases I use Agritex staff. This information is generally not adequate. There
is a need to seriously look into this issue to reduce danger caused to human life.

Main source of information is through Agritex training branch. It is always technically
written.

Source of information is through Agritex Training branch.
Pesticides are good because they help destroy all pests.

Pesticide companies must come down to farmer’s groups and demonstrate the uses
of these pesticides and their effectiveness at appropriate times.

Companies should assist in providing extra information.

I depend on personal notes and books for information; nothing has so far been
provided by the department with the exception of magazines and "News and views".

Information is not readily available. I have to make a good effort to make things
right. I feel if I get books and pamphlets on pesticide information it would become

easy.

169

I get information about pesticides from books, sales reps and subject matter
specialists.

Agritex has inadequate information about pesticides, and the information is kept in
offices when staff have very little time to get to the office.

Sources are limited to some extent.

I have enough information on pesticides but would like new information on the
dangers of different pesticides.

Information on pesticide safety is very useful for every user.

COMNIENTS ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND PESTICIDE USE

Its a good questionnaire and I hope courses are going to be conducted concerning this topic.
I hope you are going to use the information.

Protective clothing should be provided for training in the field. Sales reps must not be
interested in sales only but should explain things like expiry date.

Private companies could do more in terms of distribution of pesticide materials. Stage
courses in the field. Carry out demonstrations.

Why are you asking about age and gender?
I don’t know what is behind this questionnaire, otherwise the questions are educative.

I do not need much information on chemicals since I am a soil and water conservation
officer.

Lack of liaison with companies hinders farmers from buying the right chemicals. Farmers
need external education on how to use chemicals. Extension workers should be provided
protective clothing and new product lists.

Trial / demonstrations should be done in communal areas to help demonstrations. Companies
should provide information on pesticides to Agritex staff.

Information on pesticide toxicity should be clearly written rather than putting labels with
colors.

Sales reps should have more contact with extension workers.

170

Companies should replace expired products with new ones. Companies should supply
protective clothing.

Can pesticide information be given to our offices so that we can obtain this information
from them.

This questionnaire is very important. If there could be feedback on what is contained in it
and the responses given.

Companies should avoid changing product names for goodness sake!

The survey is very important and needs further explanation.

The questionnaire is comprehensive and relevant to my area of work.

Very useful.

Farmers should also visit the Cotton Training Center.

Extension workers should be supplied with protective clothing.

Questionnaire is very appropriate.

I wish there could be a course run by Agritex officers on the use of pesticides.

Reps should hold refresher courses for extension staff on pesticides and their uses, dangers
and avoidance of pollution.

More field visits to farmers are called for to reinforce awareness on pesticide dangers.

Companies should train farmers. Some farmers want information direct from the companies.
Companies should explain the dangers of pesticides e.g. reusing pesticide containers.

I need to be supplied with up to date information on pests and pesticides which are a major
problem in Zimbabwe.

Agritex should supply recommendations on different crops for each extension worker.
Why asking about our academic qualifications yet they are not considered in Agritex.

From our response you will identify training needs. Courses thereafter will be more than
welcome considering the increasing impact in vegetable and fruit tree growing.

What is the relationship of my age and sex with the information on pesticide use?

The questionnaire is very useful. I wish the people responsible would put more information
on the use of pesticides. '

171

Responsible people should give us full training on pesticides.

A good start to mass production.

This exercise should be compulsory for all extension agents. Courses should be provided at
district, provincial or national levels. If there are no funds available then substitute by
handouts.

Officer should take action by organizing courses where there is inadequate information.

Our teaching on efiective clothing is not effective because do not have the clothing. Very
few farmers respond to the use of protective clothing.

Farmers are confused when one pesticide is given different trade names.
A full course on the use of pesticides should be conducted and flip-charts supplied.

Reps should meet with Agritex training specialists at. provincial level, and then organize
training of extension workers who will then train farmers.

labels on containers are not specific.

Courses on pesticide uses should be conducted to all Agritex staff as they are in daily
contact with the users.

Courses on pesticide and herbicide usage are needed for extension staff.

Grassroots staff should be provided with adequate books and literature concerning the use
of pesticides.

All staff should be given adequate handouts.
The questionnaire is very vague.

We teach farmers about protective clothing yet we do have any which does not enhance our
teaching.

It is necessary for farmers to have handbooks in the vernacular.

APPENDIX 6

FACI‘ OR ANALYSIS OF ATTITUDE VARIABLES

172

APPENDIX 6

FACTOR ANALYSIS OF ATTITUDE VARIABLES

Prm' crp' a1 compgnent solutions f9; Aggjtex mensign agents’ attitudes towards pesticide use

Each attitude variable was measured on a five-point Likert scale varying from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Undecided (3) responses were omitted from the

analysis.

1. ATTITUDES TOWARD AGRITEX

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

My superiors in Agritex should be
responsible for obtaining information.

 

 

 

 

 

Variables Factor Commu Eigen Variation
loading nalit'es value
(h )

Agritex officers are an important source .663 .515 2.063 29.5%
of pesticide use information.
I contact other Agritex officers for .664 .588
pesticide use information.
Agritex officers contact me when they - -
need pesticide use informationa.
I contact my superior officer(s) for help .765 .588
with pesticide use problems.
I contact a SMS for help with pesticide .531 .300
use problems.
Agritex should provide more courses on .267 .538
pesticide use for EWs.

.492 .498

 

a Excluded from the analysis because inter-item correlations with other variables were < .10.

 

173
2. ATTITUDBS TOWARD PESTICIDE COMPANIES AND REPRESENTATIVES

 

 

 

 

Variables Factor Commu Eigen Variation
loading nalit'es value
(h )
Sales reps are an important source of .358 .237 2.116 26.5%
pesticide use information. ~
I contact sales reps for pesticide use .605 .484
information.
Sales reps contact me when they need .189 .478

pesticide use information.

 

Sales reps contact me when they need .453 .274
sales information. .

 

Pesticide companies should provide .231 .488
courses on pesticide use for EWs.

 

Sales reps provide information on the .718 .526
products they are selling in my area.

 

Sales reps provide farmers with .567 .343
adequate training on pesticide use.

 

I consult with sales reps for information .700 .503
on pesticides.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

All variables were included in the analysis

 

174
3. ATTITUDES TOWARD SMALL-SCALE FARMERS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variables Factor Commu Eigen Variation
loadings nalit'es value
(h )
Farmers are an important source of .722 .646 1.675 23.9
pesticide use information.
I contact farmers for pesticide use .638 .421
information.
Most of the farmers in my area know .151 .370
how to use pesticides correctly.
Farmers should seek pesticide use - . -
information from sales repsa.
Training of farmers in pesticide use .144 .654
should be my responsibility.
Sales reps should be responsible for .158 .662

training farmers.

 

Farmers are a useful source of .765 .597
technical information on pesticides.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a - Excluded from factor analysis because inter-item correlations with other factor variables
were < . 10.

175
4. A'ITITUDES TOWARD PESTICIDE USE INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variables Factor Commu Eigen Variation
loadings nalit'es value
(h )
I get pesticide use information when I .160 .561 2.467 30.8%
need it.
I have adequate books and other - -
literature on pesticide use“.
Technical information on pesticides is .365 .145
difficult to understand.
Knowledge about pesticide use is .724 j .525
important for EWs.
In my job, it is necessary to know the .755 .583
technical aspects of pesticide use.
All EWs should be required to pass a .660 .436
test in pesticide use.
The "Safe Use of Pesticides“ course .707 .499

should be obligatory for all EWs.

 

In my job, it is necessary to have items .523 .303
of protective clothing

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a - Excluded from factor analysis because inter-item correlations with other factor variables
were < .10. ,

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