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thesis entitled

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GENERIC
VERSUS DISCIPLINE-SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
FOR AUTOCAD USE IN INTERIOR DESIGN , '. , ,

presented by

Tami Lyn Schultz

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

 

 

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Date 5/28/91

 

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MSU to An Affirmative AotiorVEqual Opportunity Institution

 

 

 

 

 

chS-o.‘ ‘

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GENERIC
VERSUS DISCIPLINE-SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
FOR AUTOCAD USE IN INTERIOR DESIGN

By
Tami Lyn Schultz

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfiilment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Human Environment and Design

1991

wowwa'

ABSTRACT
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GENERIC

VERSUS DISCIPLINE-SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
FOR AUTOCAD USE IN INTERIOR DESIGN

By

Tami Lyn Schultz

The increase in the use of computer—aided design (CAD) in interior
design and architecture has necessitated the incorporation of CAD
classes into the academic curricula of these professions. The software
program acknowledged as the industry standard is AutoCAD. The lack
of AutoCAD reference materials directed to design professions makes
it difficult to learn the program in the shortest time possible.

This study identified and tested a new AutoCAD textbook aimed
at the interior design audience. An experimental design utilizing
stratified random sampling manipulated the independent variable of
instructional materials. The dependent variable. achievement. was
evaluated through analysis of students' grades. Surveys were used
to collect qualitative data on the effectiveness of the instructional
materials.

Descriptive and non-parametric inferential statistics identified
computer usage trends indicating discipline—specific materials appeared
effective for improving student achievement. Significance was found
for Kendall's Concordance values but not for Mann-Whitney results.
Using discipline-specific materials resulted in achievement levels
no worse than those obtained by using generic materials. Students

preferred discipline-specific over generic materials.

This work is dedicated to my family. to Phil, and to Clair for their
unswerving belief that I had the ability and motivation to achieve
this goal, and to Phil and Clair for nurturing latent ability and
providing the inspiration to embark on a career as a fellow design

educator.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Appreciation is expressed to the following thesis committee members
and individuals for their guidance of and efforts on behalf of my
graduate study:

To Ms. Roberta Kilty—Padgett for the idea which initiated the general
nature of the thesis subject matter; for her patience and good—natured
overall guidance of the work; and for her lasting friendship. general
encouragement and moral support throughout graduate school as well

as during the research process;

To Dr. Ann Slocum for her contributions to my stress management skills
through her relaxed humor and ability to create clarity out of the
chaos encountered in interpreting the results of statistical analysis;

To Dr. Stephen Yelon for his enthusiastic style of instruction which
provided me with the practical tools and techniques of instructional
design necessary to teach effectively. and empirically demonstrating
their worth through his own inspiring teaching style;

To Dr. Clair Hill, my "unofficial" committee member, for graciously
providing me with the academic setting for the study and extending
this study complete freedom in structuring his CAD course in order
to achieve its research goals. as well as his patience in answering
a multitude of questions pertaining to the execution of the study;

To Dr. Joan McLain—Kark for her generosity in allowing this study to
use a manuscript edition of her text Designer's AutoCAD Tutor;

 

You have my sincere gratitude and appreciation.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction. . . . ................ . . .1
Statement of Problem and Justification ......... .2
Purpose of the Study. . ...... . . . . . . . . . . .3
Research Questions. . . . ............... .5
Terms and Definitions . . .............. . .5
Potential Limitations of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . .8
List of Assumptions ..... . . . . . ........ 8

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Role of Computers in Design Professions
The Use of CAD in Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

The Use of CAD in Management ............ 12

The Use of CAD in Education ............. 14

New Directions in Computer Use ........... 20
Justification for CAD Use

Trends in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Benefits and Drawbacks of CAD Use .......... 32
Obstacles to Acceptance of CAD

Educational Concerns ............ . . 39

Corporate Implementation Concerns and Strategies . . 40
Software Application Issues: Concepts which
make CAD Difficult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Educational Learning Theory
The Theorists: Gagne, Briggs. and Keller . . . . . . 47
Gagne & Briggs: External Conditions

needed for Transfer. . . . . . .......... 49
Keller: Internal Conditions

needed for Transfer. ........... . . . 5l
Interior Design Studies Validating Gagne' 5

Conditions of Instruction. . . . ....... 55
The Use of Simulation to Elicit Real

World Performance ...... . . . . ..... . . 59

Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
III. METHODOLOGY

Selection of Subjects . . . . ......... 63

Selection and Control of Educational Variables. . . . . 64

Choice of Instructional Learning Materials. . . . . . . 65

V

CHAPTER PAGE
Procedures Governing the Use of Human Subjects. . . . 67
Research Design ............ . ....... 67
Research Procedures
Student Consent ahd Confidentiality ......... 68
Implementation of Research Design ......... . 69
Description of Instruments
Student Background Profile Survey. . . . . . . . 71
Student and Instructor Assignment Evaluations. . 71
Student and Instructor Project Evaluations . . . 72

Student and Instructor Post—Course Surveys . . . . . 72
Statistical Analysis Procedures

Analysis of Measures . . ......... . . . . 73

Choice of Statistical Tests. ............ 74

Implications of Analysis . . . . . . ....... . 75
Limitations of the Study. . . . ....... . . . . . 75

Format of Supplemental Text. . . . . . ....... 76

Sample Size ..... . . ..... . . . . 76

Non-Use of the 3- Dimensional Portion of Software . . 76
External Conditions Encountered During the Study . . 77

IV. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

General Description of the Study ..........

Rationale for Measures used in

Statistical Analysis . . . . .........

Course Description and External

Limiting Factors . . . . ...........
Effect of Potential Covariates. . . ........

Student Computer Experience Characteristics. .

Student Academic Characteristics . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Student Background Surveys

Reasons for Taking the Course ..........
Attitude towards CAD ..............

Study Results within the Context of

the Research Questions .............

V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions to Research Questions .........

Effectiveness of Discipline—Specific Materials

on Final Achievement. . . .....

Effect of Discipline-Specific Materials

on Group Learning Curves . . . . . . .....

Student Preference for Discipline—Specific

Materials .......... . . ......

Effect of Prior Computer Experience

on Achievement. . . . . . ..........
Implications of Findings ..... . ........
Recommendations for Future Studies. . .......
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . ......

vi

. . 78
. . 79
. . 80
. . 85
. . 9l
. . 9l
. . 92

. .108
. .109

. .llO

CHAPTER PAGE

LIST OF REFERENCES ...... . . ........ . . . . .117
APPENDICES
A. University Consent to use Human Subjects
1. Michigan State University ........... 121
2. Northern Arizona University .......... 121
B. Consent to use Materials In Press
1. Author Consent . . . . . .......... .122
2. Publisher Consent. . . . . . . . . . . . .122

C. Project Cover letter and Consent form: . . . . . . .123
D. Surveys

1. Student Background Profile . . . . . ..... 125
2. Student Assignment/Text Evaluation . ..... 128
3. Instructor Assignment/Text Evaluation. . . . .129
4. Student Project Evaluation . . . . . ..... 130
5. Instructor Project Evaluation ........ .132
6. Student Post-Course Evaluation . ...... .133
7. Instructor Post—Course Evaluation ....... 135

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
1. Corporate Characteristics affected by CAD Usage

from 1985 to 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 24

2. Allocation of Design Personnel by Professional Title ..... 25

3. Corporate Characteristics affected by CAD Usage
by Professional Title ..... . . . . . . . ....... 27

4. Corporate Characteristics affected by CAD Usage:
Composite Mean Values 1985 to 1990 . . . ....... . .28

5. Mean Composite Achievement (in percent) within
groups by Academic Major ................. 81

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1. Relationship between Instructional and Learning Theories,
Educational Process, and Learning Outcomes with respect
to the Conditions of Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

2 Composition of Course Final Grade .............. 83
3. Composition of Course Grade by Phase . . .......... 84
4 Group Composition by Type of Prior Computer Experience . . .87
5. Group Composition within GPA Categories

by Academic Major. . . . . . . . . ............ 89
6. Mean Composite Scores on Measures between Groups ...... 94

7. Mean Composite Scores on Learning Phase Measures

within Group by Major. . . . . ....... . ...... 95
8. Mean Composite Scores on Application Phase Measures

within Group by Major. . . ................ 96
9. Comparison of Learning and Application Phase Scores ..... 97

10. Rank Order on Weighted Final Grade by Group and Major. . . 100
11. Comparison of Final Grade Rank Order with GPA ....... 102

12. Comparison of Group Achievement on Common Measures . . . . 104

ix

CHAPTER I. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

As the presence of computers makes itself felt in architecture
and design, many employers in the design field now look for computer
drafting expertise as well as the host of more traditional design skills

in their potential employees. According to Interior Design magazine's

 

poll of 100 leading design firms, over 95% utilize Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) or Computer—Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) on a daily basis
(Loebelson, 1990). Since drafting is considered a component of design,
the terms CAD and CADD are synonymous and will be used interchangeably
throughout this report. Considering it is not often cost effective
to utilize on—the-job training for this skill, it is very beneficial
to the employer to be presented with a potential employee already
somewhat proficient in this area.

Studies_have shown productivity gains ranging from 10% to 23%
over a five year period when CADD is used by a firm. Even more
impressive is an increase of 50% to 100% if the principal project
designer uses CADD directly rather than having a junior designer/
draftsman execute the drawing (Jones, 1989). What is abundantly clear
is that Fortune 1000 companies now consider CAD a serious tool (MicroCAD
News, 1989; Hoyt. February 1989. April 1989. June 1989; Loebelson,
1989; Thatcher, 1990). Thus. lack of CAD experience may be costly.
both to the design firm and to the person seeking a design position.
Familiarity with computer drafting software is an enormous asset.

l

2

Statement of Problem and Justification

 

Although there exist some specific regional preferences for

particular CAD software programs (MicroCAD News, June 1989), AutoCAD

 

is presently recognized as holding the coveted position of industry
standard among the leading drafting software packages on the market
used by interior designers/architects for project development. Started
in April, 1982 with a capital investment of $59,030 and the technical
expertise and entrepreneurial ambitions of 13 system programmers.
Autodesk, Inc. quickly established a foothold for its premier product,
AutoCAD.

From 1983 sales figures of $14,733 to $80 million dollars in 1989,
Autodesk director of marketing and sales Malcolm Davies has witnessed.
as of March 1989, sales figures representing in excess of 200,000 copies

of the AutoCAD program (MicroCAD News, June 1989; Witte, 1989). At

 

a retail price of i$3000, the potential generation of over $600,000,000
in revenue by this product alone represents a staggering entry on
Autodesk's corporate reports through 1989. These figures represent

a market share of approximately 49%. This percentage is confirmed

by a survey conducted by MicroCAD News of 250 randomly selected members

 

of the 30,000 plus members of the American Institute of Architects
(AIA): the survey revealed CAD usage by 47.6 % of its sample, of which
AutoCAD usage accounted for 47%. The next most frequently used software
program, DataCAD, trailed AutoCAD quite significantly, being used by

only 13% of the sample (MicroCAD News, June 1989). In fairness, it

 

must be said, however, that DataCAD is a very recent player in the
CAD software market and was designed by architects especially for the

architectural/interior design market. As such, it would not be expected

3

to appeal as much to the broader CAD market of engineers, landscape
designers, and other similar design oriented professionals (Payne,
1989).

The flexibility and power of AutoCAD, as well as a plethora of
compatible third party software packages, have helped establish it
as the industry leader in software. This flexibility, though, has
precipitated reference manuals that are generically oriented in their
explanation of the command menus. This is understandable since AutoCAD
is designed and marketed to fulfill the drafting needs of several
disciplines including among them architecture, interior design,

engineering, surveying, facility management and geology (MicroCAD News,

 

June 1989). AutoCAD's power and complexity make learning the entire
program a lengthy process, often requiring several hundred hours of
practice to become proficient with the entire program (Dubbs, 1990).
However, AutoCAD may be efficiently utilized without understanding

every command or option the program offers.

Purpose of the Study

 

Since it appears plausible that people learn most effectively
when they understand the applications of what they are learning, it
could be hypothesized that learning AutoCAD would take place more
effectively and perhaps more quickly if a tutorial utilizing interior
design and architectural learning applications were used in lieu of
the more general references frequently utilized. This exploratory
study's purpose is threefold:

l) to implement a field test of recently developed CAD educational

materials utilized by the study's experimental group to provide

baseline data for future reaserch while making (and providing
the author with) a qualitative assessment of the materials.

4

2) to make a comparison of the effectiveness of two different
sets of reference materials used in teaching AutoCAD.

3) to measure preference for the two types of materials used.

One set of materials will utilize learning exercises and text
information of a generic nature; the other set of materials will utilize
interior application learning exercises and an additional, supplemental
text directed primarily toward interior applications.

This study addresses the learning of basic competencies needed
to use AutoCAD in a professional setting. As such, it is an analysis
of a beginning CAD course and focuses primarily on the two-dimensional
portion of the AutoCAD software package. Course material presents
commands necessary for drawing, editing, dimensioning, and plotting
(producing a "hard copy" of the drawing). A brief exposure to three—
dimensional AutoCAD is also given, time permitting. CAD courses are
often viewed as "luxury" courses in many universities due to the large
number of technical and support courses many interior design programs
require. Substantial increases (10% to 50%) in entry level salaries
have been predicted for architecture students with CAD skill; if this
prediction is extended to design students as well, the need for CAD
courses is self-evident (McLain-Kark, 1986).

Thus, the analysis of results provided by this study will prove
helpful in determining the most effective type of course instructional
reference materials for CAD classes offered to interior design/
architecture students. Identification and utilization of such materials
by faculty will benefit the student, university, and potential employer
by identifying an effective means for obtaining this desired and
increasingly demanded skill in both a cost effective, time efficient

manner.

5

Research Questions

 

Analysis of the results of implementation of a tutorial developed

by Joan McLain-Kark at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University utilizing interior design exercises for learning AutoCAD

will explore the relationships of issues stated in the following

research questions:

1.

When learning AutoCAD using discipline—specific instead of
generically oriented learning exercises and texts do students:

A)

B)

C)

learn more effectively as measured by the students'
scores on individual assignments, quizzes, tests and
projects as well as the composite grades obtained for
the course?

learn more quickly as measured by comparing scores on
individual assignments, quizzes, tests and projects to
assess whether better scores are obtained at an earlier
point in the term?

indicate a preference for discipline—specific texts or
learning exercises as measured by 1) the percentage of
students who chose to use the discipline-specific
supplemental text in addition to the one they were assigned
and 2) the percentage of students which indicate on the
post-course survey the desire for the utilization of such
materials?

What effect, if any, does a student's computer background
appear to have on his/her ability and desire to learn AutoCAD

as

the scores obtained on the various measures and 2) by students

measured 1) by the amount of time spent in the lab versus
I

responses on both the pre- and post-course surveys?

Terms and Definitions

 

Discipline—specific: information and/or reference/learning

 

materials directed toward a particular profession's subject matter;

in this study the profession(s) referred to by this term are interior

design and architecture.

6

Internal conditions: "those states within the learner that are
involved in learning. Examples of internal conditions are motivational
states and mechanisms involved in processing, storing, and retrieving
information." (Aronson & Briggs, 1983, p. 98).

External conditions: "those events outside the learner that
activate and support the internal processes of learning. The
appropriate provision of the external events is the framework for
planning instruction." (Aronson & Briggs, 1983, p. 98).

Instructional event: any activity associated with learning which

 

provides the external conditions required for information transfer
to occur (Aronson & Briggs, 1983).

Outcome: the end result of the learning transfer process. The
learned capability is physically exhibited through and measured by
the learner's performance during evaluation of the knowledge in a
specific observable fashion (Aronson & Briggs, 1983).

Interference: knowledge or experience which interrupts the process

 

of transfer of new information (learning) due to its similarity in
content with the material in acquisition (Yelon, 1989).

Positive transfer: the acquisition of new information without

 

the interference of prior information during the transfer process as
evidenced by the learner showing correct application of the information,
without difficulty, in a testing or practical application (Yelon, 1989).

Negative transfer: the acquisition of new information which has

 

been affected by interference of prior knowledge as evidenced by the
learner providing erroneous solutions based on prior knowledge or
exhibiting difficulty or confusion when applying the new information

(Yelon, 1989).

7

Learning curve: the rate at which an individual acquires

 

information as evidenced by instructor's assessment of assignments,

quizzes

and tests, and application projects.

Command: an instruction to define or invoke a set of conditions

for a task within the computer software environment.

Command sequence: a set of commands used to accomplish a specific

 

drawing, editing, dimensioning, or plotting task within the computer

software environment.

CAD Concept(s): an idea or tool unique to using CAD versus

 

traditional drafting methods; a partial list of such concepts includes:

1)
2)
3)

4)

11)
12)
13)
14)

the use of layers and color to organize a drawing file

differentiation of colors on a plotted document

drawing in full—scale (life size) rather than in a reduced
s1ze

the use of windows to focus in on a specific location within
a drawing to create a view

panning (scrolling) within the drawing to see different
parts of the drawing

saving views for later reference

setting up drawing parameters (paper size, reference units)

the creation and use of symbol libraries

editing commands such as mirror and array which allow reverse
and multiple imaging of parts of the drawing

grouping tasks to facilitate their implementation by taking
advantage of properties such as color, name, location by
layer, linetype, or other associated values

menus (list of commands and/or tools and settings available
to use

the use of tools and coordinates to locate and precisely draft
a drawing

the use of an input device such as a keyboard, digitizer, or
mouse for entering coordinates and commands

plotting a drawing

8

Potential Limitations Inherent to Educational Research

 

Hawthorne Effect: improvement in subjects' performance due to

 

their awareness of: 1) knowledge of the study's hypotheses',
2) receiving special attention, or 3) their participation as research
subjects (Borg & Gall, 1989).

John Henry Effect: improvement in control group subjects'

 

performance due to a perceived threat of replacement of control group
procedures/materials with new materials or with those being used by
an experimental group (Borg & Gall, 1989).

Eygmalion Effect: manipulation of the subjects' behavior(s) brought

 

about by conveyance of researcher expectations to subjects through

the use of intentional or unintentional cues (Borg & Gall, 1989).

List of Assumptions

 

1) The students in the study, as a group, exhibit no unusually low

or high levels of motivation for the disciplines under study.

2) The amount of effort exhibited and achievement gained by the
students in this class is indicative of their normal quantity and
quality. The study is providing neither an unusually positive

nor negative motivating factor in the learning process.

3) The students have not been affected by the Hawthorne, Pygmalion,
or John Henry Effects sometimes encountered in educational
research. This assumption is based on the use of this study's

methodology designed to minimize or eliminate these effects.

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

9
Differences in achievement are not based upon gender or ethnicity.
This is based on the course's position as an entry level class
which neither expects nor requires any computer background skills,
merely the appropriate drafting skills taught in the course

prerequisite.

The students have either taken the course's prerequisite or
its equivalent, or displayed a sufficient understanding of the

material to waive the prerequisite course.

The learning materials utilized in the course are appropriate in
terms of relevancy of subject content and correctness of the

information presented for learning the AutoCAD software program.

The instructor's scoring of course assignments is reliable and

valid.

The type of material covered by both groups is the same and is

presented in approximately the same sequential order.

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Role of Computers in Design Professions

The Use of CAD in Industry

When computers are mentioned in connection with the design
professions, it is often assumed that the primary use is for
computer-aided design. The true role of computers is, however, much
more diverse. A study conducted by Joan McLain-Kark and Ruey Tang
(1986) indicated that design firms are using computers for activities
including accounting, billing, specifications, business correspondence,
scheduling, cost estimation, and facilities management as well as for
CAD functions. Even within the design functions. diversity is seen,
as some designers in the study reported using the computer to perform
analysis of lighting/acoustical, structural, and energy concerns in
addition to the familiar drafting applications of creating elevations,
details, plans, and perspectives. A 1989 study of 250 randomly selected
AIA members showed 992 of the sample used CAD for 2D drafting, 57%
for 30 drafting, 20% for facilities management, 15% for technical
illustration/rendering, and 7% for desktop publishing (MicroCAD News,
June 1989).

 

A recent (1988) worldwide survey, directed by Wolfgang Preiser
and cosponsored by the AIA/ACSA Council on Architectural Research
and the School of Architecture and Planning at the University of New
Mexico, revealed several research.topics related to computers and
architectural design. Returned questionnaires resulted in a response

10

11

rate of approximately 9% (73/822). Analysis of responses with regard
to country revealed that domestic responses comprised 61.6% of the
total number of responses, as compared to 38.4% foreign responses.
A low response rate was anticipated from foreign countries due to either
lack of research or a desire not to disclose research information.
Surprisingly, Japanese universities declined to return any survey
information although they were expected to be engaged in research.

Eighteen universities reported research on computer applications
resulting in this topic's rank as the 6th most frequently researched
subject area. Following closely in 7th place was research on CAD
systems, with 17 universities indicating studies in this category.
Research is being conducted in the USA, United Kingdom, Turkey
(Istanbul), Singapore, Australia (Sydney), and Isreal. The variety
of responses within this relatively small sample prominently displays
the global impact of computers and CAD in the professional design
community, and the need for acquisition of CAD skills. Specific
projects included: development or use of computer programs for CPM
scheduling, learning of basic design skills, providing a 3D "tour"
through a space, development of expert systems or Intelligent
Computer—Aided Design Systems (ICADS), learning CAD software,
intelligent building systems, simulation of egress behavior in fire
situations, databases, passive solar building design, and other building
system concerns. Those projects which indicated use of a CAD program
principally mentioned AutoCAD or the use of its programming language,
Autolisp.

These results support the findings of an earlier pilot study done

by Dr. Preiser, reported in the April 1989 issue of Progressive

 

12

Architecture. Pilot study results showed 80% of the responding

 

institutions reported research on CAD or other computer applications.
This poll indicated research was being conducted at 21 schools in the
area of CAD systems, with 19 schools reporting research in computer
applications. This is significant, as the largest number of schools
reporting research in any category was 22. This preliminary study
ranked the popularity of research in CAD and computer applications

as second and third, respectively (Ladestro, 1989).

The Use of CAD in Management

 

Clearly, the computer is finding use in industry beyond drafting
and business administrative functions. The emerging field of facilities
management (FM) makes extensive use of this tool. The International
Facilities Management Association (IFMA) is cited as the source of
information in an article which states (Cortes, 1989, p. 20):

"...a full quarter of a corporation's budget is spent on the

tracking of information, equipment, and people as they move about.
The same report states that the use of CAFM (computer aided
facilities management) systems enables managers to realize
significant cost savings and increased productivity in this area."
A recent (1988) IFMA report indicated that 36% of the firms surveyed
use computers for facilities management. FM is emerging as a separate
profession apart from business management, commercial design or
architecture, due to the increased use of computers for managing
information (Becker, 1990). Closely inter-linked with increased
computer usage are four factors which stimulated the growth of FM.

These factors include: 1) increased global competition, 2) the high

cost of space and the need to attract and retain quality personnel,

13
3) changing employee expectations of the work environment, and 4) the
increasingly high cost of mistakes.

Noted facilities manager and Cornell educator Franklin Becker
summarizes the profession of FM in this manner (Becker, 1990, p. 7):

Facility management is responsible for coordinating all efforts

related to planning, designing, and managing buildings and their

systems, equipment and furniture to enhance the organization's

ability to compete successfully in a rapidly changing world.
FM is resource management; a firm's definition of its total physical
resources package must now be expanded beyond the traditional "plant"
or "building" assets to encompass human resources-—personnel—-as well.
In fact, management of the latter asset is by far the more important
aspect of FM since 90% of a firm's long range costs are due to its
personnel (Becker, 1990). The goal, then, of FM "...is organizational
effectiveness: helping the organization allocate its physical resources
in a way that allows it to flourish in competitive and dynamic markets."
(Becker, 1990, p. 8). Within the highly competitive business
marketplace, the time saved by computerization drastically increases
the ability of companies to provide goods and services to the consumer
and still maintain a reasonable profit margin. At a time when
competition for market share is fierce, the prevailing attitude is
toward streamlining corporate costs; this strategy has colloquially
become known as being "lean and mean" (Becker, 1990).

The use of computers, and CAD in particular, can be appreciated
for their internal (corporate) use as well as for external (client)
use. One such internal use is the generation of new floor plans
necessitated by high churn rates. Churn is defined by Becker (1990,

p. 153) as "...the number of offices that are reconfigured each year

as a percentage of the total number of offices." The 1988 IFMA survey

14
and Becker indicated an annual churn rate of 30%. Becker further cites
instances which showed annual churn rates of 70% or higher. The
industry average percentage (30%) is significantly higher in firms
which systematically measure their churn rate (43%) as compared with
an estimated 26% churn rate reported by firms with no specific
measurement methods (IFMA, 1988). Reasons cited for high churn include
the effectiveness of project workgroups, corporate growth requiring
additional personnel, and restructuring of corporate operational
practices and procedures (Becker, 1990).

Clearly, the time needed for designing spatial reconfigurations
and the drafting of new space plans is much less if plans are on
computer. The time required is limited to the time it takes to plan
the new layout on screen and send it to the plotter. Traditional
drafting would include not only design time, but also several hours
of manual drafting. When one considers the billable time and revenue
lost to in-house use of draftspeople or designers, allowing for an
average of $40/hr. for drafting and $50/hr. for design (Loebelson,
1990), the choice between CAD and traditional drafting methods appears
to be clear. Further, many CAD programs are capable of automatically
determining and printing out a listing of new materials required to
accomplish the new layout, saving design or facilities management
personnel laborious hours of checking stock in inventory available

for use.

The Use of CAD in Education
An effective approach to computer use in design is to integrate

the learning of computer programs and skills into the educational

15
process in design curricula. This strategy has been used in the
following case studies.

A course in interior design professional practices and business
procedures (Case & Rabun, 1985) was designed to integrate word
processing and database activities into the course assignments. When
the course was implemented, the students found learning word processing
by applying it to the types of business documents they would produce
as design professionals a beneficial experience. They experienced
difficulty when using word processing to create business forms requiring
extensive use of tabs and margin settings and many students were not
proficient enough with basic computer skills to execute documents
requiring the use of database functions. The course assignments were
altered to allow a few students who were concurrently taking a general
university—wide computer class to complete the course assignments as
intended using database functions, while the remaining students learned
through lecture of the types of documents useful to the design field.
At the end of the course, the assignments of those students actually
using a database were viewed by the entire class to recognize the
options available for design documents through the use of computers.
Students acknowledged the potential for the broader use of computers,
beyond CAD, in the working design field.

Another usage of computers in the academic sector of design is
reported by Dumesnil in a 1988 study on the effectiveness of using
computer—assisted instruction (CAI) in two courses offered at the
University of Utah during Winter quarter, 1986. The courses utilized
a software program developed to help students learn to recognize

furniture from various periods in history and to be able to learn how

16
not to make mistakes in recognition of the items. The software was
used by students in a history of interiors course in the interior design
department and by students in a liberal arts course who were initially
unaware that the course focus involved interior environments.

Although the limitations of the study prevented extensive
generalization on the ability of the software program as to its
effectiveness as a vehicle for learning, the study did validate previous
educational research as to the effectiveness of CAI as a well received,
effective method for learning. This is due to the interactive nature
of many software programs which allows the student immediate feedback
and reinforcement of material being presented. Both the interior design
students and the liberal arts students improved significantly by using
the software program. The use of the computer to learn to avoid
mistakes was beneficial for both groups as well. The interior design
students obtained higher scores overall since their computer exercises
counted toward their course grade. Liberal arts students used the
software as their only text reference, and scores on the computer
exercises did not affect their grade. The design students' computer
exposure was supplemented by the use of traditional teaching methods
such as lecture, a reference textbook, slides of furniture, and museum
field trips. Regardless of the study's limitations, it points out
the use of computers in a design capacity other than CAD.

Actual usage of computers as a tool for classroom instruction
is not the only way in which computers are integrated into design.

As computer usage becomes more prevalent in the design field, there
is a continuing debate as to whether it is necessary to offer actual

computer courses within a design curriculum. Accreditation teams

17
entrusted to evaluate the competency of various universities' interior
design and architecture curricula, facilities, and faculty, now assess
whether applied computer courses exist in the design curricula (FIDER
Guidelines: Gelernter citing NAAB criteria, 1988). Although practical
courses are desirable for providing specific CAD skills, actual
implementation of such courses need not occur to acclimatize the design
student to some of the implications of computer use. The computer
itself may be used as the object of instruction.

Radford and Stevens (1988) report on an entry level architecture
course offered to architecture students at the University of Sidney
which uses role playing and games theory to sensitize architecture
students to the issues involved when considering integrating CAD into
a firm's practice. The class's students are assigned to play the role
of an employee in an architecture firm and required to research the
use of CAD and the pros and cons of its use.

The roles include those of CAD vendor/salesperson, senior partner,
associate, junior and senior draftspersons, architect, or office
manager. The students are presented with a game scenario which states
that they will be assigned to teams representing architectural design
firms and be assigned a role/persona within that firm. They are
provided with a personality/professional profile of the character role
they have been assigned and are required to play out the game from
their persona's point of view regardless of whether it coincides with
their own. They are told that their firm is competing with five other
mid-sized architectural firms for an attractive resort project whose
bidding conditions and specifications indicate that the client is known

to be extremely favorable to CAD. The game concludes with a panel

l8

presentation made by each firm's "staff" to the firm's "senior partners"
and to the rest of the class. Senior management then decides whether
to purchase a CAD system based on the views of the firm's staff, and

if so, in which hardware and software packages to invest.

Initially, some students are skeptical of the game approach and
reluctant to engage in it fully, but soon come to recognize its value
and the broader concerns created by CAD use. CAD usage is viewed not
only from a positive approach as a time saving tool, but is also
considered for its potential as a threat to the elimination of
draftspersons. Senior management views are also explored, especially
the long-range implications for the firm's assets and operations of
the effect of the large expenditure required to make the capital
investment if the contract was not to be awarded to them.

Students found the experience extremely valuable and were intrigued
by the changes in their views toward CAD based on the role playing
experience. The role playing forced them to consider CAD from different
viewpoints, rather than from only their own perhaps pre—conceived views.
The situation was so realistic students found themselves emulating
the actual behavior of their persona; vendors resorted to slandering
other vendors, junior draftspeople felt threatened if they didn't learn
CAD and expressed many of the familiar fears of those design
professionals faced with the job requirement of actually learning a
CAD package. It also elicited the opinion that the experience was
instrumental in creating the motivation needed to maximize learning
the skill content in future CAD courses prior to actually taking the

course.

19

This scenario provides one non-threatening way of acclimatizing
students to CAD and alleviating potential fears before they become
serious obstacles to professional advancement. It also provides a
firm with a potential employee sensitive to several issues encountered
if and when CAD is used and allows that person to help the firm's
apprehensive personnel make the transition to CAD more easily.

One further application of computers in design education is
reported by Zavotka in a 1985 study done at Ohio State University.
The hypotheses advanced suggested the use of filmed animated computer
generated images would increase interior design students' learning
of orthographic drafting skills. A series of programs were written
to display two—dimensional and three—dimensional views of three items
in both solid and wireframe form. Two-dimensional images transformed
into the three-dimensional forms: three-dimensional forms were shown
changing into their two-dimensional component views. Each film segment
showed the three-dimensional forms in both wireframe and solid views.

Findings indicated the use of computer views significantly
increased students' ability to learn orthographics more easily than
control group students who did not view the computer sequences. The
one exception to this was in the group of students shown the sequence
which started the viewing process with the three—dimensional object
views shown in wireframe mode. Students shown this sequence of views
did significantly worse than students in the control group, who did
not view any of the sequences of computer generated views. The study
empirically verified Piaget learning theory by finding the sequence
of views most beneficial for learning was one which showed the object

in question in three-dimensional solid form first, changing to 20 solid,

20
then to 30 wireframe and finishing with 20 wireframe which is the form
associated with orthographic views. Such a sequence relies on the
association with prior similar knowledge to find a solution when

presented with new problems requiring resolution.

New Directions in Computer Use

An exciting and growing concept in computer usage is that of
hypermedia. This involves the access and use of multiple types of
information within a single computer file. For eXample, in interior
design, one might create a file with a CAD floor plan, a copy of the
furniture specifications used in the plan and line drawings of each
item, the pricing for the complete project, and illustrations showing
handicapped access clearance requirements. Hypermedia allows this
diversity of information types to be accessed and integrated from within
a single file. Hypermedia further allows the use of sound and animation
within a file.

Hypermedia is an excellent medium for use with design due to the
inherently non-linear nature of design information. Design requires
access to different types of reference material, including building/
safety code stipulations, product knowledge, and graphic concepts such
as adjacency matrices and bubble diagrams. This information is often
accessed in a parallel fashion; it is not usually critical or even
necessarily desirable to access a particular category prior to working
on a different one. Access to the various types of information is
accomplished by the selection of an on—screen key word or graphic
symbol. The designated information appears on screen, often enclosed

within a window which is superimposed over the current screen view.

21
Hypermedia has the capabilities of analyzing diverse information sets
and creating interdependent relationships.

The type and amount of hypermedia use is difficult to ascertain
due to limited journal coverage of any type of computer usage in design.
However, the great potential for hypermedia use in interior design
and architecture has already been acknowledged by Autodesk, the
manufacturer of AutoCAD, through its purchase of the rights to Ted
Nelson's Xanadu project. Nelson has authored what some computer
industry personnel consider to be the definitive HyperText program
(Case, 1990).

A recent (1990) Indiana University study conducted by Dr. Duncan
Case explored the use of hypermedia via the programs HyperText and
HyperCard, in a junior level interior design class on programming
methodology. The study reports results of the use of hypermedia in
two successive offerings (1988, 1989) of the Fall semester class.

The objectives of the course were to learn programming techniques and
to learn the value of using hypermedia for interior design information
retrieval. These objectives were structured to be met through the
creation of a design programming notebook using hypermedia. Since

the course did not require computer experience as a prerequisite, Case
used HyperText to create a template form for each of the categories

of information being incorporated. It was expected that students could
spend their time on information gathering and incorporation, rather
than on computer programming. Students would be exposed to the
specifics of hypermedia programming part way through the semester,

so they would understand the concepts and general applications for

other uses.

22

This approach, used in 1988, resulted in students neither clearly
understanding the use of the templates nor fully grasping the concepts
involved with hypermedia. Consequently, Case's objective of having
students realize the advantages of using this media for interior design
applications was not initially met. Case suspended the use of the
templates, oriented the students to hypermedia programming concepts
while they continued creating the notebook using traditional notecards,
and then had them convert the notebooks into electronic media using
HyperCard. The HyperCard program was chosen because of its use of
a notecard type format. It was felt the similar format would facilitate
learning program applications. Due to the time lost to resequencing
the course while in progress, the resulting notebooks did not take
full advantage of the capabilities of hypermedia. Students found
HyperCard versatile; the primary problem once the hypermedia concepts
were understood was to create a way in which to incorporate the various
types of information available for access into a unified, smooth flowing
product. Case reported subsequent changes made in the sequencing of
course content which provided hypermedia programming concepts to
students at the beginning of the course resulted in the Fall 1989
students gaining a deeper understanding of both hypermedia concepts

in general and their usefulness for interior design.

Justification for CAD Use

 

Trends in Design

 

Trend analysis for the years 1984 through 1990 of computer usage
by the top 100 interior design firms in the United States reveals the

magnitude of the computer's impact on the design industry. These

23
figures, (see Tables 1 and 2) reported by Interior Desigg_magazine
(Loebelson, January 1985-1991) represent a substantial growth in the
use of computers for a variety of purposes, and in particular, the
increasing use of computers for computer generated drawings.
CAD usage has increased significantly from 76% of the top 100
firms reporting CAD use to 95% reporting its use (see Table l); as

of 1986, Interior Desigg_magazine has allocated a separate employee

 

category to specifically track CAD personnel. It is significant to
note that CAD personnel, as a percentage of a firm's employees, has
risen from 4% (1986) to over 8% (1989), doubling its ranks (see
Table 2).

The percentage of firms which utilize any type of spatial standard
(fixed or flexible) has ranged from 50% to 58% (see Table 1). This
percentage has remained relatively constant since 1987, apparently
stabilizing around 57%. Standards affect the amount of time designers
and draftspeople need to plan and draft new plans (reconfigurations).
The more standards that exist, the less time it takes to reconfigure.
Considering the industry reconfiguration or churn rate is 30% (IFMA,
1988), it is evident that a significant amount of time is spent by
design personnel in this activity. CAD allows the design and generation
of reconfigured plans to be accomplished more quickly due to its ability
to handle repetitious tasks in a time efficient manner.

With the increasing trend toward eliminating designated CAD
personnel in favor of training design staff to use CAD directly, the
potential total percentage of a firm's employees using CAD increases
dramatically to an average of 50% (see Table 2). Corporate revenue

can be enhanced by greater use of CAD. Approximately 50% of any

24
Table 1

Corporate Characteristics affected by CAD Usage from 1985 to 1990

 

 

Year
Characteristic 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
3 volume of servicesa 9 9.1 10.5 10.6 11.3 11.2
Z firms using CAD 76b 67 84 92 95 94
$ revenue/employeec .95d 1.15e 1.79 1.86 2.1 2.3
% firms with office
spatial standards
fixed stds.f 25 27 3o 28 27 ———
flexible stds.f 25 27 28 28 3o -——
total 7 50 54 58 56 57 ———

 

Ngtg. Estimated table values based on annual ranking of the top 100
United States interior design firms (Loebelson, January 1986-1991).
aDollar value given in millions.

bUsage not devoted exclusively to CAD.

CDollar value given in millions.

dFigure estimated from percentage of change reported in 1986.
eFigure estimated from percentage of change reported in 1987.

fStds. refers to standards.

Table 2

25

Allocation of Design Personnel by Professional Titlea

 

Professional Title within Firm

 

 

Year Jr Draft Jr Dsn CAD Sr Draft Sr Dsn Total %
1985 -- —-— ——— ..- ..- ___
1986 11 13 4 11 12 51
1987 8 14 5.5 11 11 49.5
1988 —-- ——— 6.5 ——— ___ .__
1989 ——- -—— 8+ —-— ..- ___

1990

 

Note. Figures represent

composite percentages reported by the top 100

United States interior design firms (Loebelson, January 1986—1991).

aFigures given as a percentage of firms' total personnel.

bFigures reported as being approximately the same percentages as those

reported in 1989.

26
given firm's total personnel is comprised of design staff. Analysis
of the percentage of design personnel using CAD to the total percentage
of design personnel in 1986 and 1987 reveals that only 8% (4/51) of
the potential CAD users definitely made use of CAD in 1986; in 1987
this figure increased slightly to 11% (5.5/49.5). Therefore, CAD is
a largely untapped source for the generation of potential revenue.
By using this information with other factors affecting corporate
operations (see Table 3), it is possible to see the impact of this
lack of CAD use.

The billing rate for draftspeople as well as designers may be
allowed to increase; billing rates for CAD personnel are consistently
higher (i25%) than for either category of junior level employees (see
Tables 3 and 4). This will allow an increase in the revenue generated
by staff that are often entry level personnel, increasing their value
to the company. The differential in hourly billing rates is evident
when specific rates are compared. For example, in 1989 the hourly
billing rates for junior level draftspersons and designers were $42
and $44 respectively; CAD rates were billed out at $54/hr., and senior
level draftspersons and designers at $56/hr. and $64/hr. respectively.
This shows an increase in revenue of at least 22% (54/44) by using
CAD. From the employees' point of view, CAD skills are desirable since
they garner approximately 19% (27.5/23) higher employee salaries (see
Table 4) at the junior staff level, and provide personnel with more
professional latitude.

Analyzing the ratio between corporate revenue and corporate
expenses with regard to the factors of employee salaries and the revenue

generated through each category of billing rates, it is clearly seen

27
Table 3

Corporate Characteristics affected by CAD Usage by Professional Title

Professional Title within Firm

 

 

Characteristic Jr Draft Jr Dsn CAD Sr Draft Sr Dsn
$ Annual Salarya
1985 —-- -—- —-- -- --
1986 20 21 24—25 29 29
1987 21 21—22 25 30 33-34
1988 23 24 29 34 39—41
1989 24 25 29 33 43
1990 25 26 30 37 40
s Billing Rateb
1985 —-- —-— —-- -—- --
1986 35 37-38 45 50 55
1987 28 39 49 41 56-57
1988 43 43 51 57 64
1989 42 44 54 56 64
1990 47 46 54 63 68
Revenue/Expense RatioC
1985 -- —-— -—- --— --
1986 2.80 2.86 2.94 2.76 3.03
1987 2.13 3.40 3.14 2.19 2.68
1988 2.99 2.86 2.81 2.68 2.56
1989 2.80 2.82 2.98 2.72 2.38
1990 3.00 2.83 2.88 2.72 2.72

 

N933. Estimated table values are based on annual ranking of the top
100 United States interior design firms (Loebelson, January 1986-1991).
aAnnual salary figures are reported in thousands of dollars.
bHourly billing rates.

cThis ratio is a crude estimate of the firms' return on investment
(ROI). It was calculated by determining the revenue generated by each
type of employee (allowing 80% of time as billable and multiplying

by the hourly billing rate of the employee) and then dividing by the
employees' annual salary. This ratio, when multiplied by 100, yields

a rough percentage of ROI for each category of employee.

28
Table 4
Corporate Characteristics affected by CAD Usage:

Composite Mean Values 1985 to 1990

 

Professional Title within Firm

 

Characteristic Jr Draft Jr Dsn CAD Sr Draft Sr Dsn
$ Annual Salarya 22.6 23.5 27.5 32.6 37.1
3 Billing Rateb 39 42 51 53 62
Revenue/Expense RatioC 2.76 2.86 2.97 2.60 2.67

 

Ngtg. Computed mean figures are based on estimated table values given
in Table 3. See the general note in Table 3.

6Annual mean salary figures reported in thousands of dollars.

bMean hourly billing rates.

cThis ratio is a crude estimate of the firms' return on investment
(ROI). It was calculated by determining the revenue generated by each
type of employee (allowing 80% of time as billable and multiplying

by the hourly billing rate of the employee) and then dividing by the
employees' annual mean salary. This ratio, when multiplied by 100,

yields a rough percentage of ROI for each category of employee.

29

that this ratio for the category of CAD personnel is consistently among
the highest reported ratio's of all categories (see Table 3). The
CAD personnel category has ranked either first or second for 4 out
of the 5 years for which data was reported; it ranked third in 1988.
In comparison, the senior level job categories consistently ranked
among the lowest ratios reported. The only time a senior level ratio
was ranked as first or second for any given year was in 1985 in the
senior designer category. The low ratios at the senior levels show
room for improvement of revenue generation by this group of personnel.

By reviewing the five years worth of annual figures shown in Table
3 and computing their average values, it is possible to see the impact
of these overall trends. These average values are reported in Table
4. Clearly, CAD allows a firm to charger higher hourly billing rates;
the average CAD rate of $51 is much closer to the senior level hourly
rates of $53 and $62 than to the junior level hourly rates of $39 and
$42. This $51 billing rate, in conjunction with the annual average
CAD salary of $27,500 creates the highest average revenue to expense
ratio of 2.97. The lowest ratios of 2.60 and 2.67 are found at the
senior levels. By allowing the billing rates of all job categories
to rise while holding the salary levels relatively constant, the ratios,
and thus the return on investment (ROI) will be greater and more
profitable for firms. When this conclusion is viewed in light of the
minimal 8%—1l% of design personnel using CAD, it is evident that a
large base of resources exist whose potential for generating revenue
demands exploration.

A 1988 study done by the International Facilities Management

Association (IFMA) surveyed 1,940 IFMA members. A 46% response rate

3O
yielded a total of 886 usable responses. This sample represents 60
industries. Subgroups consisted of government and educational
institutions (13%), manufacturing and production industries (31%) and
financial and other service companies (55%). The members were asked
about a variety of facilities management concerns, one of them being
the amount and type of computer usage in FM. Respondents were
categorized by the size of their organization due to the variety of
uses and differing percentages reported. A smaller organization
consisted of a firm under 250,000 square feet, a medium organization
was comprised of 250,000-550,000 square feet, and a large organization
was defined as having over 550,000 square feet. The representation
within the total sample by organizational size consisted of 34%, 25%,
and 41%, respectively.

Analysis of the portion of the survey addressing computer usage
revealed that within the total sample, 36% of the firms presently use
CAD/CAM (computer—aided manufacturing) within the facilities management
department, and 76% of the firms' FM personnel use microcomputers in
some capacity. Forty—five percent indicated the use of computer data
supplied by other departments, while 29% reported the use of an on—line
computer network linking the FM department with other departments.
Eight percent of the sample listed the use of designated FM automation
specialists.

The larger organizations consistently showed heavier usage of
computers for the different types of tasks, although the differential
between larger and smaller firms' percentage of computer use for
inventory and listing purposes (77% and 62%, respectively) was

relatively small (15%). Differentials based on design or drafting

31
tasks was 31%, while a 27% difference was found when comparing computer
use for decision support or project management functions such as
forecasting, business graphics, or cost—benefit analysis. IAn overview
of the total sample shows 69% of the corporations reporting use of
the computer for inventories and listings, 38% indicating CAD usage,
and 53% utilizing automation for decision support or project management

(IFMA, 1988) These figures should not be surprising since the use

of computers‘for carrying out database management predates their use
for design and managerial forecasting functions. I
1.57 Given the consistent growth of computer usage and the fact that
95% of the top 100 firms use CAD, it is clear that design students
and professionals need to obtain CAD training if they are to secure
positions and continue to advance within a company. The burden of
training falls in the realm of the academic setting for students'
acquisition of these skills, and within industry for those design
personnel presently working as professional practitioners.
Indoctrination procedures are more easily accomplished in the
academic environment where time-frames are frequently less demanding
and the cost of CAD mistakes is insignificant compared to those found
in industry. Considering time equals money in a design firm, the
pressures brought to bear on personnel to produce quality work in the
shortest possible time can be enormous. As a result, there may be
a greater tendency toward resistance to learning new procedures and
fear of making mistakes. This is only one of several obstacles which
must be overcome for the successful implementation of CAD. Students
introduced to CAD while in school experience less difficulty with

assimilating changes in office procedures due to CAD implementation

32
(Gelernter, 1988), making the academic setting the preferred learning

environment.

Benefits and Drawbacks of CAD Use

 

Several benefits of CAD use have already been enumerated in the
prior section on the role of CAD in management, but a few additional
advantages should be noted. One of the most important advantages of
CAD is its flexibility to change designs during design development.
As one architect noted, "'I was more willing to change ideas, explore
things I think about. With ink and Mylar I'd be reluctant to make
the change.'" (Ross, 1990, p. 171). With more design options being
evaluated, it is possible for a better design to be the end product,
benefiting both the client and the designer.

Another benefit is that CAD increases client participation in
the design process by allowing the designer to show the client the
changes during a presentation. The client can see directly how the
suggested changes affect a project. Thus, clients may "sell themselves"
on the final plan and are less apt to be dissatisfied with the final
product as a direct result of seeing the design process in action.
This practice further results in fewer change orders during the
implementation phase of design. CAD allows for standardization of
projects worked on by several people, including projects across the
country. One such application is to use CAD to develop modualized
housing plans (Ross, 1990).

As mentioned previously, it is reported that the use of CAD has
both the potential for achieving, and of having actually achieved,

increases in the productivity level of employees (Cortes, 1989: Jones,

33
1989; Kramer 1990), particularly when designers use CAD directly rather
than having a CAD operator do the work. One architect noted the cost
of a CAD system using the Macintosh computer was justified solely on
the basis of its ability to draft architectural details. "'There's
a 5 to 1 advantage over manual methods,....'" (Ross, 1990, p. 173).
The computer frees up time lost to doing repetitive tasks. As another
architect noted, "'I'm not a corporate person...I do not like computers.
But it can do the things I hate, so I can do the things I like.'" (Ross,
1990, p. 173). Turn-around time is reduced by using CAD since plotters
draw faster than people. As Thatcher and Thatcher stated in Interior
Design magazine (January 1990, p. 122), "CAD—trained designers and
drafters look for work with firms that provide the tools they have
come to expect. If a design firm wants to attract or retain the best
available talent, it will have to provide a CAD environment."

Despite the evidence which argues for CAD use, CAD is not a
panacea. The choice to use it must be one supported by everyone
involved. Although the system itself represents a relatively high
capitol expenditure for some firms in the short run, the primary cost
of a firm is its long term costs involving personnel. If the personnel
are not supportive of CAD, they will resist using it and their general
productivity will suffer. Implementation procedures must be handled
carefully to educate everyone to CAD. All design and management
personnel must have familiarity with CAD, regardless of whether they
draft of not. Management must be familiar with CAD to be able to
1) evaluate a software program's ability to do a task to their
satisfaction, 2) tell whether the firm's staff are able to perform

their CAD-related job tasks at the desired level of competency, and

34
3) to determine when told by a person using CAD that some task can't
be done whether the problem is due to software limitations, or if the
problem stems from an employee's lack of CAD skills and/or an employee
attitude/motivation problem (Thatcher & Thatcher, 1990).

As with any tool, there are various ways CAD can be used and
misused. The most effective use of CAD is dependent on three main
elements: the users, the software, and the hardware. It is up to
the user to tap the potential of the computer. Merely implementing
a computer into a firm will not guarantee increases in employee
productivity or a firm's gross profit. CAD often requires the
retraining of many employees' methods of thinking. A few tips to help
utilize CAD effectively include the development of office standards
for the identification of files and the stage each is at, the
development and use of standard symbol libraries, having frequent CAD
users set up default settings for items that have variable settings,
having users back up their files at least once a day, and indoctrinating
all personnel as to the time frame required for CAD. As noted by one
architect, "'The hardest thing to find is an efficient way for the
people who do not input work to communicate information to those who
do. To what extent can you mark up drawings during the day and slip
them under the door for someone to enter that night?'" (Hoyt, April
1989, p. 135). Another potential problem can be that of accepting
the initial solution that is formulated: CAD allows alternate options
to be explored. If such options are not evaluated, the system is not
being utilized to its fullest potential. As discussion moderator Chuck
Eastman stated at the outset of a roundtable discussion on CAD usage

(Hoyt, February 1989), "'There are many horror stories of failures

35
in the use of CAD in architectural offices. Often, it is used for
drafting with no change in design development.'"

The second element mentioned, CAD software, must be carefully
chosen. A firm must evaluate the purposes for which it expects to
use CAD. The majority of software presently available has chosen to
concentrate primarily on 2D drafting applications. While this is
beneficial for interior design uses, various architects have pointed
out the need to think in 3D (Hoyt, February 1989). This requires
software to have sophisticated modeling capabilities. While future
directions in software development address this issue (Sanders, 1989),
the level of detail required of a 30 model for producing complete and
accurate 20 working drawings is formidable.

Donald Fullenwider, president of Fullenwider CAD Services, stated
in a roundtable discussion "'What's interesting in advising architects
and engineers buying PC systems,'...'is that there's almost no interest
in 3—D. They've seen it and found out they can't make hard copy.'

Not even cost was considered a factor." (Hoyt, February 1989, p. 161).
Versacad, Inc. president Tom Lazear, in the same forum, added "'At
first'...'nobody asked for it.‘ When they did, his company made it.
But they still didn't buy it." (Hoyt, February 1989, p. 161). Perhaps
the results of future research and development will reverse this

position. An interview done by MicroCAD News staff with Autodesk's

 

director of marketing and sales, Malcolm Davies, indicates that by
1995 future releases of AutoCAD will have the following features
(MicroCAD News, June 1989, p. 30.):

 

...fully integrated drafting and modeling capabilities that include
wireframe, surface, and solids modeling. Support for multi-tasking
operating systems will allow concurrent updating of relational
databases and AutoCAD drawings. New display hardware will allow

36

zooming, panning, and rotation of complex, shaded models in real
time.

Another direction taken by research and development in CAD is
the development of product databases which can be integrated within
CAD software. This is presently being undertaken by providing the
architectural design community with its primary building product
resource, Sweet's Catalogue, on computer (Hoyt, June, 1989). The
presence of product information in electronic form has sparked
discussion as to whether the best products are being chosen for use
in projects. Some architects have expressed concern (Hoyt, June 1989)
that the design professional needs to look at and/or physically test
the product being specified. One concern is that merely viewing product
information selected by the computer to fit certain criteria may result
in the designer overlooking new products or being lulled into a false
sense of security about the worth of certain products. Another issue
is whether using electronic specification will put specification
department personnel out of a job. As with CAD, computer-aided
specification is only a tool of the job. It's value is in doing a
more accurate job in less time. Those individuals who specify manually
will be able to save time through the use of computer specification
programs. The job won't disappear, it will adapt to encompass new
tools (Hoyt, June 1989).

Problems may be the result of hardware, as well. At some point
in time, it is inevitable that the computer will "crash" or go down.
According to Murphy's Law, that time will be at a critical moment!
It is therefore imperative for large offices to have backup hardware
to accommodate this contingency. One alternative to additional hardware

is to have access to another company's or the vendor's equipment when

37
this situation occurs. Regardless of the method chosen, it will be
useless unless personnel are indoctrinated with the awareness of how
critical it is to save their workfiles frequently (Thatcher & Thatcher,
1990).

Another concern with CAD pertains to legal ownership of electronic
files. Some firms retain the right to keep the design, and provide
the client with a finished product. Other firms may choose to provide
the client with the design documents as well. The issue of ownership
of design generally refers to the master set of documents involved.
With the advent of electronic media, the question of whether the master
set of documents are the ones on computer files or the ones which exist
as printed hard copy is raised. Such an issue is of paramount
importance should the client decide to change design firms during the
design process. Understanding of the ownership issue needs to be
addressed in the firm's contract with the client (Thatcher & Thatcher,
1990).

Another issue for consideration in the choice whether or not to
use to CAD is the type of work a firm executes. A firm which performs
highly customized design may not find it cost effective to use CAD,
since one of CAD's principle advantages is its ability to quickly
perform repetitive tasks and to quickly and easily modify existing
items for a similar situation. If such situations are less frequent,
the use of CAD software may require the use of its specification
programming to justify the initial investment in the system rather
than reliance on reducing design/drafting time. Some firms will find
CAD simply isn't necessary for their needs. Each firm must evaluate

its needs individually. Thatcher and Thatcher (1990) note that if

38
the percentage of repetitive elements within or across projects
approaches or exceeds 25%, the use of CAD should be given serious
consideration.

Should a firm wish to use CAD but are unsure if they can justify
its cost, it might consider leasing the hardware. This cost is
relatively minimal, often being only a few hundred dollars a month
(Hoyt, April 1989). Hoyt reports that firms frequently discover they
are able to afford the cost of equipment after observing the amount
of use the leased system receives. A note of caution is necessary
when evaluating the productivity and potential of any CAD system; taking
the view that CAD expenditures can be recovered in the short run is
erroneous. It may lead to employee resistance to use the equipment
because their productivity and billable time will likely be lower for
the time it takes to learn the software itself, as well as during the
time after that as they reorient themselves to designing in a CAD
environment (Dubbs, 1990). This time frame may potentially be shortened
by using personnel familiar with other CAD systems. Architect Kenneth
Sanders, Director of computer services at Leason Pomeroy Associates,
reveals "'Deeper understanding is gained only after you've learned
your second or third system. Then you see the big picture and not
just the specifics of the system you've learned.'" (Hoyt, April 1989,
p. 135).

Debate over the amount of time required per day in using CAD to
make it cost effective abounds; Thatcher advocates using CAD if 25%
of the work performed is repetitive. Other firms indicate employees
should spend no more than four to six hours per day to avoid employee

burnout (Dubbs, 1990). Still others suggest letting employees use

39
CAD as much or as little as they desire (Hoyt, February, 1989).
Architect Donald Gibbs, principal partner of Hugh Gibbs and Donald
Gibbs Architects, states "'One of the things we've discovered'...'is
that you only have to use a computer five or six hours a day to make
it pay.'" (Hoyt, April 1989, p. 137). Gibbs' firm is noted for being

one of the most efficient in its CAD usage (Hoyt, April 1989).

Obstacles to Acceptance of CAD

 

Educational Concerns

 

Concern has risen in some sectors that CAD may not be an
appropriate media for interior design. McLain-Kark & Rawls (1988)
indicate that this view stems from some educators' firm belief that
interior design is primarily a right brain (intuitive/creatively oriented)
activity as described by the split-brain theory in psychology, and that
computer operation requires left brain (rational/sequentially oriented)
activity. The rigidity of acceptance of data in a specific, structured
format, found in some software programs, may be a contributing factor
in helping substantiate such a conviction. This has led some designers
and educators to speculate on whether creativity is being curtailed
(McLain-Kark & Rawls, 1988).

"...creativity

The validity of this view must be addressed since
is included as one of the Foundation for Interior Design Education
Research (FIDER) guidelines for program objectives. (FIDER, 1988)"
(McLain—Kark & Rawls, 1988). Considering FIDER is the sole regulatory
agency for evaluation of academic interior design curricula, the

resolution of this issue is certainly of paramount importance to design

educators. McLain-Kark concluded the computer has both strengths and

4O
weaknesses for design application; proper application of CAD, for
example as a drafting tool, would not endanger the creative energies
utilized during other stages of project management such as
conceptualization and design development (McLain-Kark & Rawls, 1988).
Some studies indicate that design personnel find CAD allows them to
consider additional design solutions they might not have time to develop
beyond preliminary stages based on CAD's ability to easily and quickly

modify existing solutions (Ross, 1990).

Corporate Implementation Concerns and Strategies

Parallel to the problems of CAD implementation and user attitude
in the academic setting are their counterparts in the professional
design environment. User attitude tends to be more variable in the
professional setting based upon the corporate employer's attitude about
and commitment to CAD. Employee acceptance of CAD is critical, since
a firm's employees account for the vast majority (92%) of the long
term costs incurred by a firm, while only 8% of a firm's expenses are
due to operational and maintenance factors. As noted facilities manager
Franklin Becker states, "...it is the staff who ultimately determine
the success or failure of any enterprise." (Becker, 1990. p. 13).

Firms such as Heery International and RMW utilize computer support
groups and buddy systems for CAD instruction. The commitment to CAD
must start at the senior echelons of management since CAD programs
are complex and take time to learn proficiently. A frequent estimate
of the amount of time necessary for acquisition of and full utilization
of CAD program commands and skills is 450 hours beyond completion of

training (Dubbs, 1990). This estimate varies from person to person

41
and is also partially dependent on the specific software program's
complexity and degree of user friendliness. The attitude at Heery
is obvious: "'We're going to buy a system and make it effective.'
There's got to be someone who's not afraid to tell staff that if they
don't learn the system, they'll be replaced." (Dubbs, 1989, p. 52).
While this authoritarian view may cause stress, user apprehension is
tempered through the use of the buddy system. In this system, a more
experienced CAD user is paired with a new operator. "'Being a buddy
is an honor....It's the firm's way of letting a CADD user know that
he's reached a certain level of proficiency.'" (Dubbs, 1989. p. 62).

At RMW, CAD use strategies are similar; training costs are absorbed
by the firm in the expectation of greater productivity and future return
on investment. RMW uses CAD as an incentive, enticing employees to
learn CAD to help them gain raises and promotions. "By including CADD
as an overall job requirement, RMW provides the strongest motivation
of all to learn the system." (Dubbs, 1989, p. 62).

Los Angeles based firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) starts
a new employee learning CAD immediately. At SOM, new personnel spend
two hours a day in a CAD course for two weeks. Because of SOM's high
percentage of CAD use (70%—75% of all drawings are done via CAD), CAD
skills become ingrained in all employees (Hoyt, February, 1989). SOM's
CAD specialists are all architects and account for only 14% of the
Los Angeles branch's personnel. These individuals are distributed
among the various project teams, allowing a project team easy access
to a highly knowledgeable CAD user.

An approach used by the architectural firm of Hugh Gibbs and Donald

Gibbs is to have two types of CAD users. One type of user is a CAD

42
specialist who does nothing but CAD. The other type of user is an
architect who will typically spend between two and four hours a day
on CAD. The amount of time spent in CAD is up to the individual.
This firm also uses flexible time shifts, allowing personnel to set
their own hours, thus increasing each employee's productivity (Hoyt,
February 1989). These practices work very well for this particular
firm; 95% of their work is done by CAD methods.

A somewhat innovative method of acquiring CAD skills is used by
Vincent Association + Architects, a Dallas, Texas based firm. After
learning basics of the computer's disc operating system (DOS) including
how to prepare the computer itself for physical transportation, a
computer is sent home with the employee for two weeks. The employee
learns the program at his/her leisure by playing around with it.
Computer games software is also loaded on the unit to make sure the
tendency to feel learning is a chore is lessened. The games software
is designed to increase the user's familiarity with the keyboard as
well as providing relief from the "work" mode of CAD. Vincent
Association reports this strategy has proven very effective and makes
learning CAD very enjoyable. Skills not learned in the home environment
are quickly mastered back in the office (Payne, 1989).

Another problem facing CAD users is that of burn—out. Since the
number of CAD users in an individual firm is often relatively small,
the employees who know CAD frequently spend more of their time as
computer draftspersons than as designers, managers, or performing
whatever tasks their job position entails (Dubbs, 1990).

Several steps may be taken to minimize burnout. Perhaps one of

the easiest ways to do this is to assess the personalities of employees

43

for their suitability to using CAD and then provide CAD training to
those personnel whose interest level and personality are most suited
to CAD. For example, it has been observed that personnel who exhibit
a tendency to restlessness or disorganization are often less efficient
at using CAD. Those personnel who are more systematic in their work
are more effective when using CAD. This is attributed to the sequential
nature of CAD functions and command structure. "With rare exception,
a firm's best workers also work best on CADD." (Dubbs, 1990, p. 22).

While it helps to train people in CAD whom are more apt to be
receptive to the idiosyncrasies and nature of CAD functions, it is
also important to avoid dedicating specific design personnel to be
CAD operators. This can lead to designers perceiving themselves solely
as draftspersons rather than as part of the project staff. One way
to control this is to train as many people as possible in CAD from
all levels of the design staff. Another way to lessen this problem
is to limit the amount of time spent on—screen to between four and
six hours per day per person, allowing the designer to spend the
remainder of the day on other project tasks. As such, personnel tend
to feel less like CAD drones whose professional goals have been set
aside (Dubbs, 1990). This latter time frame is recommended by David
A. Jordani, an American Institute of Architects (AIA) architect who
heads his own office automation and management consultation firm.
The firm's services includes a variety of automatization techniques
including the implementation of CAD systems and CAD training (Dubbs,
1990).

Symptoms of CAD burn-out are similar to signs of general work

burn—out. These signs often include an increase in the quantity of

44
errors, less work being produced by CAD than would be expected given
the firm's workload, neglect of file back—up and other standard
maintenance safeguards, and a lower quality of work (Dubbs, 1990).

Overall, one of the best ways to reduce the problem of CAD burn-out
is to have management understand the problems involved with using CAD
and to set reasonable, achievable goals for its personnel using CAD.
This includes understanding the stresses caused by software use problems
and time schedules, physical and mental fatigue caused by intense CAD
use, and the potential for employee job dissatisfaction if personnel
feel diverted away from their intended career paths by intensive use
as CAD operators (Dubbs, 1990; Hoyt, April 1989: Jordani, 1989).

Additional benefits of CAD skill diversification in personnel
include a minimization of disruption to project production schedules
should a firm lose an employee trained in CAD, as well as the reduction
in the quantity of errors in CAD documents created through fatigue.

One fallibility with the use of CAD is a tendency to unquestioningly
accept an expected higher degree of accuracy of computer generated
reports and drawings. This greater degree of accuracy is a valid
assumption as long as user fatigue does not cause error to occur (Dubbs,
1990). One must guard against this by reviewing CAD drawings and
documents as carefully as manually generated documents.

CAD opinions held by designers in small residential design firms,
which often consist of four or fewer designers, were explored by
McLain-Kark and Ruey Tang in a 1986 investigatory study of computer
use attitudes among professional members of the American Society of
Interior Designers (ASID). The sample size (n = 150) consisted of 57

(38%) residential designers and 93 (62%) non-residential designers.

45
The study analyzed data on designers' background and type of computer
experience (if any), as well as the applications for which each designer
utilizes computers. Additionally, the intention of the designer to
purchase a computer was explored. Results showed both residential
and non-residential designers felt CAD was not cost effective in small
design firms. Computer uses most often cited included billing (57%),
business management functions (53%), and correspondence (50%). CAD

functions were utilized only 7% of the time (McLain—Kark & Tang, 1986).

Software Application Issues: Concepts which make CAD Difficult
Technical problems specific to CAD software often are encountered

when CAD is first introduced. One such stumbling block which frequently

arises is the concept of using Cartesian coordinates for positioning

the cursor to draw (Thatcher & Thatcher, 1990). Cartesian coordinates

may be considered analogous to geometry's use of grid coordinates or

the designer's use of graph paper to indicate the relative location

of points in space. Another concept often difficult for some users

to master is the creation of drawings using full scale. The computer

is not aware of size until the drawing file is sent to the plotter

to be drawn on hard media. Therefore, the designer selects a unit

of measurement appropriate to the nature of the drawing (such as feet

and inches for architectural work) and then indicates the scale at

which the drawing is to be plotted (such as %" = 1' - 0"). On screen,

scale is meaningless due to the ability to "zoom in" or magnify a

portion of a drawing to fill the entire screen. Scale, on screen,

is changeable (Thatcher & Thatcher, 1990).

46

Other concepts unique to CAD include "panning" and "windowing";
the "pan" command allows the user to move around within the drawing
by indicating which direction to move the view on the screen. An
adjacent section of the drawing appears on the screen. The "window"
command allows the user to define within a rectangular "window" or
box the portion of the drawing he or she desires to fill the screen.
This window may be an enlargement of part of the screen view visible
at that moment, or the user may recall the entire drawing or another
partial view which has been saved as a window. The new window selected
will then replace the screen's current view. Since many drawings are
large, when viewed in their entirety, details become indistinguishable.
Commands such as zoom, pan, and window are necessary to work effectively
in a CAD environment, but do constitute some of the major conceptual
differences between drafting on a board and via computer.

The use of layers may also be new to some CAD users. Layers can
be thought of as separate transparent film sheets of a given drawing
file. This is the same concept used by the overlay drafting system
used in many firms. Each layer represents a single sheet or page of
the drawing. A layer may be turned on (visible) or off (invisible).

If a layer is on, it is as if the page were placed on the overlay
equipment; if a layer is off, the page would not be there. A floor

plan might be one layer, an electrical plan a second layer, a furniture
layout a third layer, dimensions a fourth layer, and notes or labels a
fifth layer. The advantage of CAD over manual drafting is that layers
are instantly accessible by simply turning a layer on or off; with
manual drafting, one must turn unwieldy pages in a bulky set of drawings

or physically retrieve them from plan storage.

47
Educational Learning Theory
The Theorists: Gagne; Briggs, and Keller

Learning theorists have quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed
learning and instructional theory strategies for learning which are
demonstrated empirically on a daily basis in real learning situations.
Basic issues discussed include defining what learning is, how to measure
it, and perhaps most importantly, what conditions and environment are
necessary to foster its growth. It is critical for educators to have
a basic understanding of these issues in order to be able to continue
adapting course materials to the changing learning environment and
to provide students with high quality educational experiences.

The model set forth in this study (see Figure 1) is a synthesis
of those presented primarily by instructional theorists and designers
Robert Gagné, Leslie Briggs, and John Keller. The instructional theory
work of Gagné and Briggs is directed toward determining the conditions
necessary for increasing the quantity and improving the quality of
transfer in the learning process. They state specific instructional
actions (see Figure 1) which should be undertaken by the educator to
improve the outcome of the learning process (Aronson & Briggs, 1983).
Keller's domain explores the role motivation plays in the learning
process and provides an explanation on why the retention period varies
for different types of information. His work presents suggestions
on how to lengthen the retention period of the information in the
learner (Keller, 1983).

These three facets of the learning process and its outcome are
interactive in nature. As seen in this study's model (see Figure 1),

transfer is dependent on the type of instructional events occurring

TYPE OF LINKAGE

48

Critical — Imortant.

Arrows show direction of inpact

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renediation occurs if necessar

 

 

 

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deter-inc quantity of
infornation transferred

b

 

 

INSTRUCTIONAL
PROCESS

(Gagne A Briggs)

. External conditions net and

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. lnforn learner of objectives

. Stinulate recall of prerequisites
. Present stieulus naterial

Provide learning guidance

. Elicit the perfonnanoe
. Provide feedback on perfereance

7

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6
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8. Assess (neasure) perforaance

9. Enhance retention and transfer via:

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a spaced reviews
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2. Instructional events utilized
3. Transfer of infonnation leasured

 

 

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BASIC STORENOUSE OF
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Model adapted from the theories of Piaget, Gagne, Briggs, and Keller

Figure 1
Relationship between Instructional and Learning Theories, Educational
Process, and Learning Outcomes with respect to the Conditions of

Learning

49

and the nature of the external and internal conditions surrounding
the learner. Fundamental to this model is the premise that the learner
acquires new knowledge by drawing upon an existing body of knowledge
(Hilgard & Bower, 1981). A learner's response to a new situation may
be affected by the degree of similarity between the newly encountered
situation and a previously learned situation. Bower and Hilgard (1981,
p. 28), describing Thorndike's transfer theory, state:

...the theory proposes that transfer depends upon the presence

of identical elements in the original task and in the transfer

task which it facilitates. Either the stimulus elements of two

situations or the response-components of two similar skills may

be identical.
Thorndike's view is supported by Gage & Berliner (1988); they indicate
that transfer may be improved by substantive transfer. Substantive
transfer is the concept of directly teaching a learner what they need
to know in a relevant direct application. The larger the number of
identical elements which are used, the greater the transfer will be.
The instructor should watch out for and correct negative transfer;
this frequently results from the misapplication of rules and principles.
Transfer may also be aided by the use of procedural transfer (Gage
& Berliner, 1988). This type of transfer occurs when a wide variety
of examples and applications are presented to the learner in order
that the learner may learn to identify and distinguish the similarities

that exist between them. Transfer of attitudes occurs, as well as

transfer of knowledge. Thus, expectancy is a learned condition.

Gagné’& Briggs: External Conditions needed for Transfer
According to Thorndike, successful learning outcomes are based

on the learner's ability to correctly apply this former knowledge base

50
to new situations (see Figure 1). To be able to maximize the amount
and optimize the type of transfer, the learner must draw on a hierarchy
of types of learning. For new information to be integrated into the
existing knowledge, the learner must be able to correctly apply higher
order rules. To do this, the learner must recognize and understand
the relationships between a variety of rules used for higher order,
more complex applications. Rules in turn are dependent on the learner's
ability to recognize and apply basic concepts of the subject matter.
These concepts, in turn, are grasped by drawing upon existing knowledge
for comparison and discrimination purposes. Piaget's theory regarding
the method (assimilation or accommodation) by which information is
incorporated into the existing knowledge base describes the overall
physical process against which are set the specific mechanics of
instruction. These mechanics are operationalized by Gagne and Briggs
as instructional events and influenced by the learner's internal
conditions as defined by Keller.

Gagne and Briggs suggest nine instructional events or steps for
increasing the effectiveness of the teaching strategy employed (see
instructional process, Figure 1). Of these nine steps, three of the
most critical are (Aronson & Briggs, 1983):

1) the instructor's actions which require the learner to recall
prerequisite information,

2) the need for the instructor to prévide cues to channel the
learner's energies in the correct direction, and

3) the need for the instructor to enhance the retention and
transfer of information through the use of practice exercises,
periodic review, and by having learners make connections between
new information and what they already know.

Guidelines suggested by Gage and Berliner (1988) parallel those of

Gagne and Briggs which are presented in Figure l. Gage & Berliner

51
suggest:
1) maximizing the use of real world settings,
2) providing many varieties of practice opportunities,

3) using several different types of examples when presenting
information,

4) watching for the occurrence of negative transfer when stimuli
are similar but require different responses,

5) making sure learners understand the prerequisite information
and sequencing it into the instruction at an early stage,

6) using discovery learning, allowing students to create their
own applications and '

7) having the learner verbalize the thought process which is gone

through to act as check on the correctness of the procedure
being followed.

Keller: Internal Conditions needed for Transfer

Internal conditions of the learner affect how the learner perceives
and chooses to approach the learning task. Keller's work addresses
the impact motivation has on the learning outcome. Motivation is
affected by four conditions:

1) the learner's degree of interest in the material,

2) the degree of relevancy the material has to the learner's
personal interests,

3) expectations by the learner and by others regarding the degree
of success achievable, as well as the level of control the
learner has over the instructional process, and

4) the degree of satisfaction the learner achieves from the
instructional process.

An increase in any of these conditions will generally exert a
positive influence on the transfer process. It should be noted.
however, that detrimental effects on the level of motivation may occur

if the learner has high expectations which are not met (Keller, 1983).

52
The combination of internal and external conditions comprises the
instructional theory accounting for why learning occurs, and sets the
stage for instructional events to take place during the physical
learning process.

Motivation is responsible for which goals a person will strive
toward as well as the amount of effort an individual is willing to
expend toward the accomplishment of any given goal (Keller, 1983).

It has been shown that a direct relationship exists between the amount
of time spent in an activity, and the strength of motivation for
performing the activity (Gage & Berliner, 1988). Ability refers to

the capacity of an individual to competently fulfill or execute any
given task or function. Generally, ability is a more stable, consistent
indication of success than is motivation; motivation varies greatly

from individual to individual and is affected by both internal and
external factors (Keller, 1983).

A study done by Nenniger (1987) addresses the issue of stability
of student motivation. Nenniger explored how content—oriented motives
pertaining to subject—matter oriented interest contribute to an
individual's interest in learning. He raised the question of whether
or not these motives are constant or if they could be influenced by
manipulating the instructional conditions. It was found that the key
factor in increasing the level of motivation was to develop interest
in the learner for the subject matter. It was concluded that learners'
perceptions of their own competency were an outgrowth of the level
of interest generated and sustained by the instructional conditions
throughout the course of instruction. As meaningfulness/degree of

relevance was increased, learner competencies were found to increase.

53

Space does not allow a detailed accounting of how to optimize

the four conditions of motivation; interested readers are directed

to several articles by Keller or Keller's chapter on the motivational

design of instruction in C. M. Reigeluth's Instructional-design theories

 

and models: An overview of their current status.

four

To maximize learning, the desired state of each of motivation's
components is as follows (Keller, 1983):

1) INTEREST: the learner's attention must be gained, and the
threshold level of curiosity must be achieved; if these conditions
are not met, the potential for transfer is highly limited. The
student should be encouraged to learn by the discovery techniques
of exploring and manipulating the subject content.

2) RELEVANCE: Students should be made to see that the knowledge
being presented fulfills "a basic need, motive, or value" (Keller,
1983, p. 407). Values can include those associated with personal
desires achievable as an end to themselves; instrumental values

of which attainment acts to allow the learner access to a future
goal; and cultural values associated with the approval of the
learner's peer group or family. The critical factor with relevance
is to induce learners to perceive the relevance of the information
so that they generate their ability to motivate themselves to

work toward the achievement of their goals. This may be partially
accomplished by providing learners with at least some of the
responsibility for and degree of control over specific actions
necessary to achieve those goals.

3) EXPECTANCY: Critical to maximizing motivation with regard to
expectancy involves the concepts of self—efficacy or "mind over
matter", and learned helplessness. Learners come to expect certain
outcomes based on their past experiences in similar situations.

If these outcomes have been unsuccessful, the learner often becomes
discouraged and expects to fail in subsequent similar situations.
If students have been successful, they build confidence in their
abilities and bring a positive attitude or expectancy to new
situations. The instructor's task is to reverse a negative
expectancy in less successful students in order that they realize
that they too are capable of learning and so that they start
building confidence in their own abilities. With success comes
increased motivation. Keller states (1983, p. 421) "...positive
expectancies lead to improved performance and success rates.

A key factor in this principle is that the positive expectancies
are not necessarily consistent with actual, or objective,
predictions of success. Believing something can, apparently,

help make it happen."

54

4) SATISFACTION/OUTCOMES: Learners' motivations are affected not

only by their own specific internal assessment of the quality

of learning which has transpired, but by the external response

of others to the visible outcome itself. Feedback is critical

in order for improvement to occur; however, it is necessary that

care be taken by the instructor to deliver the appropriate type

of feedback at the appropriate point in time. The two types of

feedback are motivational and formative. "Motivational feedback

should be given immediately after a performance, and should refer
to those aspects of the performance criteria that were acceptable.

In contrast, formative feedback should relate to those aspects

of performance that are less than standard, and should be delivered

when it is immediately useful (i.e., just before the next

performance)." (Keller, 1983, p. 428). If feedback is not provided
at the appropriate time, the positive motivational impact is
severely compromised if not altogether negated by the formative

or corrective feedback. ‘

A word of caution is in order. Although educators desire to optimize
the motivation level of the learner, it is critical that the correct
amount of motivation is generated. As Keller states (1983. p. 400)

"Too low a level of motivation results in less than optimal performance.
On the other hand, excessive motivation also results in suboptimal
performance due to anxiety and other sources of distortion and
disorganization."

Due to the interactive nature and codependency of the instructional
process, conditions, and outcome/results, a deficiency in one segment
often affects the effort necessary for a successful outcome in another
one. Depending on the type of transfer which has occurred, the learner
may advance on to encounter new learning situations, or may continue
to process the same information until a correct transfer occurs. It
is likely that if the latter situation transpires, negative transfer
has occurred, causing confusion in the learner. This condition does
not preclude, however, the learner simultaneously encountering new

learning situations. Thus, the learning process is cyclical and

interactive in nature.

55

The Gelernter article, describing Piaget's learning theory, uses
this theorist's approach to argue for the need to change from the common
practice in architecture schools of separating lecture information
and studio application of that information to a more integrated approach
as postulated by Piaget. Gelernter states the existent approach to
architectural education does not allow the integration of theory with
practice to occur thereby reducing the opportunity for application
to be experienced. Without the practical implementation of testing
new situations against existing experience, less change and
accommodation occur, limiting the amount of knowledge transferred,
thus providing a smaller knowledge base for future learning experiences
to access.

Gagnéqs, Briggs' and Keller's theories account for the structuring
of the course selected for the purposes of this study. This study's
sequencing for the course's assignments and final application projects
allows students to first experience learning the material in a practical
manner, then initially applying it to a relevant, familiar application
followed by a less relevant, unfamiliar application. Learning theory
supports such a sequencing as the optimum one to facilitate and maximize
positive learning transfer (Keller, 1983). It accounts for the belief
held by this study's investigator that comprehension of material will
occur faster and/or more thoroughly if familiar, relevant material

is presented to the learner during the learning process.

Interior Design Studies Validating Gagnéfis Conditions of Instruction
Several of the case studies mentioned earlier (Case & Rabun, 1985;

Dumesnil, 1988; Case, 1990) have found actual conditions for effective

56
learning parallel to those proposed by Piaget, Gagné, Briggs, and Keller.
These cases support the need for correct sequencing of information within
a course and document the need for prerequisite skills/knowledge to be
in place for the learner to access in order that transfer may be
optimized.

The Case and Rabun (1985) study on incorporating word processing
and database usage into a course on interior design business practice
found that prior or concurrently acquired computer skills were necessary
to effectively apply the basic computer skills to the intended interior
design applications. The students without these skills became frustrated
by not achieving the type of documents they desired, and spent more time
learning computer skills than in applying the skills to a relevant
professional design usage. A computer lab time slot dedicated to learning
computer skills separated from the design content was found to alleviate
some of the problems.

Recommendations suggested by the study included having students
take a general computer use course prior to taking the interior design
business practices course, or at least to concurrently enroll in a general
computer course. This was tempered by the comment that the course time
frame may have been a factor in this recommendation. It was suggested
that a semester length course might allow students enough time to learn
computer skills integrated with their practical design applications.

The Dumesnil study utilizing computerized programmed learning for
recognizing styles of furniture reported similar findings to Case and
Rabun; in this instance computer skills were not the issue, but rather
prior knowledge of interior design. Dumesnil cites a 1986 Department

of Education reference on research on learning which states:

57

"regulating learning activities [include]: sequencing course

content so knowledge builds on itself, pacing instruction so

students are prepared for the next step, monitoring success rates
so all stay productively engaged regardless of how quickly they
learn, and running an orderly, academically focused classroom."

(Dumesnil, 1988, p. 46).

Although students both with and without prior interior design
knowledge were found to increase their post—test scores through the
use of the computer program, students with prior knowledge increased
their knowledge to a significantly higher degree (54% vs 34%) than
did those without such information. These results may be questionable
due to the lack of a balanced research design and differing grading
practices between the two groups. The post-test and exercise scores
for students without prior design information did not count toward
their course grade; the post-test score and exercises for interior
design students did count toward their final grade.

While the study did not appear to determine the specific degree
of desirability of the use of the computer as the sole means of
instruction, it does point out that motivation may be considered a
significant factor in the learning process. The study concluded that
its findings would be stronger if parallel groups had been used.

The Hypermedia study (Case, 1990) provides further empirical
confirmation of the need for providing students with an understanding
of the basic concepts and principles involved in learning a specific
set of skills of a subject prior to applying those concepts to a
relevant application. As in the 1985 study by Case and Rabun, students
experienced problems when given only rudimentary knowledge or guided
instructions on the use of specific computer related skills. When

the course on design programming was taught for the second time in

1989, students gained a much deeper understanding of both the process

58
of using hypermedia, as well as its application potential for their
own professional use. This more effective teaching approach was
accomplished by sequence changes, as well as content changes.

Students were oriented to hypermedia's ability to present diverse
types of information and presented with specific knowledge on how to
create a hypermedia program. Students were shown three good examples
of the use of hypermedia, and then were asked to consider how its
capabilities could be applied to interior design information. Students
were required not only to create their own programming notebook for
the entire project, but to create their own HyperCard notecard format
as well. The project was completed in two stages; the initial stage
was to create the program format and incorporate the design project
information into a notecard format. Stage two involved refining the
initial product to incorporate characteristics specific to hypermedia
into the notebook and to simplify the means of accessing the various
types of information.

Case stated this latter (1989) sequencing worked much better for
creating an understanding of hypermedia and its applications. Although
this approach resulted in less extensive notebooks, the time spent
initially teaching computer concepts resulted in more effective projects
and applications of hypermedia. The high degree of similarity between
the use of standard notecards for presenting information and the
notecard format used by HyperCard allowed students to grasp the
applications more easily once they understood the hypermedia concepts
and capabilities. Further, by requiring students to create original
formats, rather than to simply use a pre—existing format, students

gained a deeper understanding of hypermedia programming.

59

This study was of further interest, as the 1988 (and presumably
the 1989) course used simulation as an apparently effective teaching
strategy. The students were asked to assume the role of a designer
who had been asked by their firm to compile, for presentation purposes,
a programming information document in notebook format. The project
took the place of traditional assignments. The study did not report
on how well this approach was received by the students. Although the
study doesn't either confirm or deny the use of simulation as a valid
teaching strategy, it does vindicate Gagné's and Briggs', as well as

Piaget's contentions on instructional design and learning theory.

The Use of Simulation to Elicit Real World Performance

 

Although it is generally agreed that computers play an integral
part in design project management and drafting (Sherman, 1984), various
concerns have been raised specifically over how to implement CAD into
interior design curricula. The practicalities of this problem have
not been researched thoroughly, nor has much attention been given to
the students' perception of the need to acquire CAD skills (Sherman,
1984). This latter issue has been addressed by a 1984 study conducted
at the University of Illinois (Sherman, 1984).

The University of Illinois investigation studied the effectiveness
of CAD instruction utilizing two different instructional techniques.
One technique was to present the information only through lecture
without allowing students hands—on computer applications of the
material. The second technique was a combination of lecture and on
screen application of the material. The study also addressed another

major area of concern prevalent in using computers: attitude toward

60
and anxiety about using computers. In both groups, findings showed
interest and curiosity about CAD combined with a receptive attitude
toward learning these skills. Anxiety, however, increased as students
became aware of the complexity and power of the CAD programs; the group
not receiving reinforcement of lecture material via actual program
application practice registered the highest anxiety level. This tends
to suggest CAD lectures must be accompanied by practical on-screen
exercises or it may be detrimental to the students' future CAD
experiences (Sherman, 1984).

The Radford and Stevens case study cited earlier dramatically
portrays the effectiveness of the methodology of teaching material
through the use of role playing or simulation. Simulation provides
the set of relevant conditions closest situation to the "real world"
situation a student is likely to encounter. Several architects and
designers have commented on the fact that they learned more their first
few years in the working field than they ever did in school. While
school may have given them the technical knowledge base required to
practice their discipline, it didn't teach them what to do on a daily,
practical operational basis. As such, the need to utilize role playing
should be noted. To be effective, however, students must have a
comparable stake in participating in a game scenario to simulate an
equivalent level of motivation in the real work situation. This may
be accomplished, in part. through the use of grades being equated with

the level of job performance and retention status.

61

Summary and Conclusions

 

The low cost of microcomputers and increasing user friendliness
of CAD software programs has created a meteoric rise in their use by
firms of all sizes. Several small design firms feel they may have
to purchase and learn microcomputer CAD programs in order to attract
clients to be able to stay competitive in the present design
marketplace. Many clients are aware of the accuracy and timesaving
advantages offered by computers; they are beginning to hold designers
to a state—of—the—art level of professional performance, including
the use of technology as represented by computers (McLain-Kark, 1986).
This trend argues for an increase, not a decrease in the level of CAD
skills taught to design students and professional design practitioners.

Such critical skills demand the utilization of the most relevant
materials available in order that learning may occur in the shortest
time possible and be of maximum quality. The use of such materials
may also help alleviate the resistance and apprehension exhibited by
many students and professional designers when first presented with
either the opportunity or requirement of learning CAD. Given AutoCAD's
50% to 60% market share and position as industry standard, as well
as its position as the most frequently taught CAD program in FIDER
accredited interior design programs (Lindsey, 1988), the analysis of
material which teaches AutoCAD basics to interior design students and
professionals in an applied, relevant manner is essential.

0f the commercially available references on AutoCAD, Inside AutoCAD

 

is the one chosen most often for class use: instructors report, however,
that they prefer to use materials they have created and tailored

specifically for their own courses and subject area (Lindsey, 1988).

62

The evaluation of McLain-Kark's Designer's AutoCAD Tutor is critical;

 

this new (and as yet unpublished) reference is structured specifically
for interior design applications.

AutoCAD references presently available to the general public or
academic community, such as Raker and Rice's frequently used Inside
AutoCAD, take a generic approach to learning AutoCAD commands and
potential applications. Such a reference is often unable to provide
the learner with suggestions on how to maximize the software for their
own purposes; this could be due to a host of factors including cost,

a lack of space, or lack of knowledge of the specific drafting/design
needs of the various disciplines. As such, according to educational
psychology and instructional theory, a reference of this nature does
not appear to be the most effective vehicle for learning due to its
less relevant subject content. Therefore, the outcome of this study
will provide additional information to aid interior design-oriented

CAD instructors in their evaluation and selection of academic reference

materials.

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY

Selection of Subjects

Subjects were those students enrolled at Northern Arizona
University in Flagstaff, Arizona for the Fall 1990 semester of a
beginning Computer Aided Design (CAD) course, IS 230: Fundamentals
of Computer Graphics. This course is offered through the department
of Industrial Supervision within the School of Art and Design; the
degree of Interior Design, under the administrative supervision of
the School of Art and Design, is one of several degrees awarded through
the College of Creative and Communication Arts. The number of students
anticipated in the study was dependent on the final number of sections
of the course offered (one) and the number of students willing to be
included in this study (fifteen). Prior years' class enrollments have
varied between approximately 20 and 60 students; Fall 1990 enrollment
was 21 students.

This particular sample was chosen for a variety of reasons, primary
among them being the cross—disciplinary mixture of students which
typically register for the class. A sample consisting of students
from a variety of academic backgrounds increased the population validity
of the research study by allowing results to be generalized to a wider
group of students. The specific population to which this study
generalized is made up of those students in the design sciences of

architecture, interior design, and engineering who frequently find

63

64
the acquisition of CAD skills necessary. This study addressed the
subjects' level of success in acquiring CAD skills through the learning

of the leading CAD software program, AutoCAD.

Selection and Control of Educational Variables

 

Educational research is frequently subject to a host of extraneous
variables outside of the direct control of the researchers. Utilization
of this sample accorded the researcher a much higher degree of control
over the manipulation of independent variables than would the use of
a different sample. Specifically, using only one class at one
university for this sample allowed the researcher to control for the
amount of variance in results which could have arisen due to the use
of multiple locations and classes. The following independent variables
were controlled by the use of a single section of this beginning CAD
course:
differences between instructors teaching the course
time of day the course was taught
laboratory conditions
degrees of access to computer facilities
types of computer hardware used
degrees of attitude toward CAD of the instructors and

department offering the course

7. grading techniques and degree of "toughness" the instructors
utilize when grading

C‘iU'l-bOJN-é
a

This study did not need to control for the effect of students' prior
degree of computer experience since only one student had knowledge
with another CAD program. This student was also the only graduate
student in the class (see Chapter 4 under description of the study).
Two primary influences affecting learning include the instructor
and the textbook/teaching materials utilized. These two influences

are responsible for the amount of material taught and the manner in

65

which it is presented. Differences in these two influences need to
be held to a minimum for educational researchers to be able to evaluate
research results effectively. This is particularly true in situations
where new materials are being evaluated for their effectiveness in
teaching classroom material.

In a pilot study and field test of materials such as this one,
it is essential to control major independent variables as tightly as
possible. Slight differences in results of analysis of the dependent
variable, degree of learning occurring, based on differences in
independent variables, may often be obscured if extraneous variables
are not controlled in some fashion. While the independent variables
listed above are worthy of study, an exploratory study of this nature
must evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment being applied without
the influence of extraneous variables affecting the resultant data.
For this reason, replication studies are needed in educational research;
this research project does not provide an exception to this line of

reasoning.

Choice of Instructional Learning Materials
The course utilized two different reference texts. All students

used a generically oriented reference text, Usigg AutoCAD, by James

 

Fuller. This text was chosen for its broad range of subject matter
used for the instructional exercises, allowing students from a variety
of academic disciplines exposure to different applications of AutoCAD.
Additionally, the use of exercises from a different discipline allowed
the instructor to evaluate the ability of each student to assimilate

the material and apply it to unfamiliar applications. This facilitated

66
the analysis of the amount of information learned by each student by
allowing the researchers to determine whether the reason behind a
score's value was due to the student's ability to learn AutoCAD or
to his or her degree of familiarity with any given assignment's subject
content.
Approximately half of this sample, the experimental group, used

a supplemental discipline-specific text, Designer's AutoCAD Tutor (DAT),

 

by Joan McLain-Kark, which is directed toward the field of interior

design. The control group used Using AutoCAD (UA) as their sole

 

reference, and supplemented this text's guided learning exercises with
a multi-disciplinary set of non-guided exercises supplied by the

instructor. The experimental group used Designer's AutoCAD Tutor as

 

well as Using AutoCAD for reference and DA: as the source of guided

 

learning exercises, supplemented, as necessary, by researcher provided
non-guided discipline—specific CAD exercises. The use of non-guided
exercises allowed students the chance for reinforcing skills covered
in their reference text(s). All efforts were made to maintain a
comparable level of difficulty for both sets of exercises.

The degree of content validity of DAT, although not yet quantified,
may reasonably be assumed to be high. The tutorial has been developed
and tested during its preliminary stages of develOpment by the author
on her CAD students at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. During the
past five years, the author has been in contact with editors at
Autodesk, Inc., the manufacturer of AutoCAD software. She has
periodically received their assessment of the tutorial as it was being
developed and incorporated materials into the text in response to these

evaluations. The tutorial is expected to be published during the Fall

67
of 1990. The experimental subjects of this study used Xeroxed copies
of the final manuscript as their tutorial with the written permission
of the author and publishing company (see Appendices). As such, results
obtained may not be as true an indicator of the tutorial's effectiveness
as an instructional tool due to the use of a final manuscript rather

than a "polished", high quality published product.

Procedures Governing the Use of Human Subjects

Permission of the instructor was received to use the class
IS 230: Fundamentals of Computer Graphics for research purposes.
The instructor reviewed and gave approval of the choice of text
materials selected and of the structuring of the course itself. The
instructor participated in the planning stages of the research study
and was aware of the intended use of the data which was generated.
Permission to implement this research was jointly sought and received
from the Northern Arizona University (NAU) Institutional Review Board
(IRB) which is governed by the Office of Sponsored Research, and from
the Michigan State University Committee on Research Involving Human

Subjects (UCRIHS).

Research Design

 

This study used a combination of experimental, correlational and
descriptive research designs, though it was primarily experimental
in nature and principally utilized surveys as instruments for data
collection. Data was collected from the following sources: the

instructor's grading record, student pre and post—course surveys, an

68
instructor post-course survey, and both student and instructor project

evaluation surveys.

Research Procedures

 

Student Consent and Confidentiality

Students were given a cover letter the first week of class
explaining the nature of this study along with a participation consent
form. The consent form and cover letter both indicated the study had
been reviewed by the appropriate personnel at both Northern Arizona
University and Michigan State University. Students completed the form,
indicating their identity only by their student number. The form was
collected by university personnel other than the instructor and sent
to the researchers for tabulation of the determination of research
participants.

All students' identities were kept confidential by having students
identify themselves to the researchers on all data collection forms
only by the last portion of their university student number. No direct
link to any particular student was available to either the researchers
or the instructor. The instructor did not know which students had
given consent for their data to be used, and the researchers did not
have a list of students' names. Only data collected from students
indicating a willingness to participate in this study are reported
in the research report.

All data of research participants was pre-coded for statistical
analysis prior to inclusion in the research report. All students'
data was available to the course instructor for academic purposes of

improving future sections of this course. Students choosing not to

69
be included in this study did not incur risk, such as a grading
penalty, since confidentiality of student participation status records

was maintained by the Michigan State University researchers.

Implementation of Research Design

 

All students, regardless of participation status, were held
responsible for completing class assignments associated with whichever
group, control or experimental, to which he or she is assigned. All
students were assigned to these groups through the use of stratified
random sampling. The stratification was based on the students' academic
major. Two classification designations were used: "interior design
majors" and "non—majors"; all majors other than interior design were
be collapsed into the category of ”non—majors".

Both groups were given a combined computer/general academic
background survey and an AutoCAD skills pre-test exercise to establish
each student's baseline level of computer familiarity in general and
with AutoCAD software in particular. Each group then completed the
same number and general content type of weekly learning exercises up
through the tenth week of the semester. The control group used
exercises from a broad variety of applications: the experimental group
used exercises specifically tailored for interior design/architectural
applications. For the remainder of the semester, each student completed
the same two assigned projects of three weeks duration each. The
projects were completed using a partial counterbalanced sequencing
to detect the existence of a potential practice effect.

One project was of a generic nature: the other project was

specifically based on an interior design application. No specific

7O
knowledge of interior design was necessary beyond the understanding
of basic interior design documents and drafting principles. The
students was be provided with "target" drawings for both projects;
the projects consisted of the creation of these target drawings using
AutoCAD commands. The projects were to be assigned by stratification
category in both the experimental and control groups, but rather were
assigned by group designation.

All interior design majors and experimental group non—majors
drafted the design based project as their first project, followed by
the more general applications mechanical drawing project. The control
group non-majors completed the more general project first and then
did the design based project. A comparison was made between the
references used for each of the two projects. The use of a counter—
balanced design using this sequencing allowed potential increases in
scores for a given project to be attributed to the text used rather
than to a "practice effect" since the second project for both design
majors and control group non-majors represented a less familiar
application of the material they had learned.

Thus, researchers were partially able to explore whether a score
on the second project equal to or higher than the score obtained on
the first project might have been an indication that a greater degree
of information transfer has occurred. The potential for the occurrence
of a practice effect on scores for the second project was explored
through student self-reports of their ease with using the software
on the second project in relation to their ease with using the software
on the first project. Thus, all other factors being held constant,

differences between students in the experimental and control groups

71
of scores on the second project could be partially attributed to a
varying degree of transfer of information from the text(s).

The degree of transfer is partially dependent on the ease of
assimilation of CAD commands from the texts. Students obtaining higher
scores on a project whose content they are less familiar with could
reasonably be expected to achieve a greater degree of information
transfer, regardless of the level of difficulty experienced in
completing the work. It might be anticipated, however, that students
reporting a low level of difficulty for the completion of unfamiliar
work could be expected to achieve higher scores in general, regardless
of a text(s) ability to explain the skills. Analysis and interpretation
of data of this nature will help instructors in their future selection

of course textbooks and materials.

Description of Instruments

 

Student Background Profile Survey

Students completed a background information survey addressing
their degree of computer experience, attitude toward computers based
on prior experiences, academic status, reasons for taking the course,
and whether they were working. The survey provided a basis for
comparison of change in computer attitude and achievement between the

beginning and the end of the course.

Student and Instructor Assignment Evaluations
Although a survey assessing each learning assignment was created
by the researcher, this survey was not utilized due to unanticipated

time problems. This asked the student to evaluate the text(s) they

 

72
were using on its (their) ability to present the information being
covered on the assignment. The instructor was to complete a similar
survey for each assignment indicating what additional resources were
utilized and the degree of use of those resources for the preparation
of lecture material as well as the ability of the two references under

study, Using AutoCAD and Designer's AutoCAD Tutor, to clearly explain

 

that assignment's material.

Student and Instructor Project Evaluations

Both the students and the instructor completed an evaluation form
comparing the two applications projects. Students indicated their
degree of enjoyment, degree of difficulty experienced, level of
appropriateness for demonstrating CAD skills, and the resources used
for completion of each project. They were additionally asked how,
if at all, they would like to see each project modified, and which
specific parts of each project were the easiest and most difficult
for them and why.

The instructor was similarly asked about the perceived versus
actual experienced difficulty of each project as well as the
appropriateness of each in demonstrating an understanding of basic
AutoCAD skills. The instructor was then requested to indicate whether
either of the projects required modification, and if so, what

modifications would be made for future use of the materials.

Student and Instructor Post-Course Surveys

 

At the end of the semester, both the students and instructor

completed a post-course survey. The students' surveys were collected

73

by university personnel other than the instructor to reduce the
likelihood of students erroneously perceiving a potential detrimental
effect on their grade should they answer the survey in a negative
manner. Questions on the student survey evaluated the course in general
on: its usefulness, the effectiveness of the texts, assignments and
projects used, the difficulty of the course and factors affecting the
quality of students' work, and other types of CAD courses students
would like to see taught.

The instructor's post—course survey addressed concerns on the
content of exercises and projects and whether either the content or
the pacing of the course needs modification. The instructor was
requested to evaluate each student—used text on its overall ability
to function as the sole student text reference for a course of this
nature, as well as the quality of the text in general. Additionally,
the instructor was asked whether each of the texts would be recommended
to other instructors of similar courses, and what other texts would
be suggested for student and/or faculty use. Finally, specific to
this particular group of students, the instructor was asked to evaluate
which students, the interior design majors or non—majors, appeared
to have a higher interest level and ease of learning on the two sets

of learning exercises and the two projects.

Statistical Analysis Procedures

 

Analysis of Measures
The nature of the statistical tests to be utilized was non-
parametric due to the small number of research subjects. The unit

of measure was the individual student's scores (as a percentage value)

74
on a variety of weighted measures. The measures include weekly learning
exercises, performance tests, written quizzes, application projects,
and a written final examination. Scores obtained on these assignments
were analyzed to identify any relationships which might exist between
the variables under study. Students' scores were assessed in relation
to their computer background (a covariate of the study) to determine
what effect, if any, their prior experience may have had on their
scores. Analysis was also done on a self—reported student analysis
of the text(s) they had been assigned to use and their own assessment
of their competency with the software program on each assignment.
The instructor filled out a similar text assessment form for each
assignment, which additionally addressed specific instructional
technique concerns. Finally, an overall assessment of the students,
based on their stratification category and designation within the
control or experimental group, was made to give readers a tool to judge

for themselves the effectiveness of utilizing Designer's AutoCAD Tutor

 

in the classroom as instructional material.

Choice of Statistical Tests

 

Descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used for
analyzing and reporting the data. The following tests were used for
analysis: Chi Square (X’), the Mann-Whitney U Test, and Effect Size
(E.S.) were used to detect degrees of difference between the experimental
and control groups, while Contingency Coefficients (C), and Kendall's
Concordance (W) were used to evaluate degrees of association between the

two groups.

75

Implications of Analysis

 

The basic practical question this study addresses is whether the

supplemental tutorial, Designer's AutoCAD Tutor, helps students achieve

 

the ability to use the program for their own applications in a more
effective manner than do general texts. Effectiveness was measured
by the degree of depth of understanding exhibited by the student.

It is additionally hoped that 1) this tutorial will help all students,
and that 2) it will help design students in particular to gain an
appreciation of the power of AutoCAD as a tool they may utilize in

their professional careers.

Limitations of the Study

 

The results obtained from this study may not be a true indicator
of the effectiveness as in instructional tool for a variety of reasons.
Due to the pilot nature of this study, several independent variables
were tightly controlled in order not to obscure statistical significance
of the resultant data. Furthermore, information regarding the reliability
coefficients and validity of course materials and tests was unavailable.
It is necessary to note, however, that statistical significance differs
from practical significance. Results which are statistically insignificant
may still have great relevance when applied to practical applications.
Borg & Gall (1989) state that in educational research, correlation values
as low as .2 to .4 may be all that can reasonably be expected, since many
uncontrollable factors may influence study results. This points out the
necessity for careful deliberation and interpretation of study results

before dismissing what may appear to be insignificant values; such values

76
may have practical application value despite their low degree of

statistical importance.

Format of Supplemental Text

 

One extraneous variable not under researcher control was the quality
of publication of the tutorial. It was necessary to utilize Xeroxed copies
of the author's final manuscript prior to publication, since at the time
this study was implemented, the manual was not yet published. As such,
the quality of the drawings and typeface used was not optimum and may
have depressed the level of significance obtained in comparison with the
material used by the control group. This depression of significance may
be expected to be minimal due to the use of this reference as a

supplemental source of information.

Sample Size

 

The use of a small sample size limited the generalizability of the
results; the sample size also required the use of non—parametric tests
rather than their more powerful parametric equivalents. A larger sample
size could additionally facilitate a more in-depth analysis of
relationships within sub-groups. Future studies should be modified to
adapt this study for implementation in a similar university setting which
utilizes the quarter system. This will help determine if the tutorial

is of help in a more quickly paced course.

Non-Use of the 3—Dimensional Portion of Software

 

Although this course did give students a limited exposure to the

three—dimensional capabilities of AutoCAD, the primary focus of this study

77
was the acquisition of two-dimensional AutoCAD commands. The software
also contains three-dimensional drafting capabilities. The supplemental
tutorial, Designer's AutoCAD Tutor, addresses this material as well as
the material this study focused on. This portion of the tutorial should
also be evaluated prior to acceptance of this reference as a text for
the acquisition of AutoCAD skills. The acquisition of the complete
three—dimensional portion of the AutoCAD program was beyond the scope
of subject content of this beginning CAD course. The learning of
three-dimensional AutoCAD skills should be the focus of a second course

in AutoCAD.

External Conditions Encountered During the Study

 

During the actual gathering of information from the students in the
course, conditions were encountered which had some negative impact on
the results of the study. The students were forced during the initial
weeks of the study to spend less time on the computer due to hardware
problems experienced with the operation of the computers themselves.

As a result, some of the later assignments had to be left out of the
coursework. The time frame for the two application projects had to be
shortened, causing students difficulty in completing them to their
satisfaction. Inadvertent misinterpretation of instructions regarding
counterbalancing of projects resulted in the sequencing of the final
projects being partially compromised. Weekly student feedback regarding
the specific abilities of the reference texts used did not occur. None
of these complications was deemed critical due to the exploratory nature
of this study, whose primary purpose is to provide preliminary baseline

data on which to build future research of a similar nature.

 

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

General Description of the Study

 

Subjects of the study (N = 15) included a total of 71% (15/21)
of the students enrolled in IS 230: Fundamentals of Computer Graphics.
Six out of twenty—one students chose not to participate in the study
or withdrew from the class during the course of the semester. Data
collected from student and instructor surveys comprise the qualitative
portion of this study. The dependent variable, students' level of
CAD skill achievement, was measured through the instructor's grade
record and comprises the quantitative portion of this study. The
sampling frame used stratified random sampling; stratification was
by academic major. Students were randomly assigned into experimental
(n = 7) and control (n = 8) groups. The independent variable,
instructional materials utilized, consisted of a generically oriented
text used by both groups. The control group completed exercises of
a general nature while the experimental group used an additional
discipline-specific text and exercises appropriate to an architectural/
interior design major.

Qualitative information was gathered by pre-course and post-course
surveys. Pre—course survey results provided baseline measures on
students' general academic abilities, attitude towards computers, and
the nature of other computer experiences. Post-course survey results

assessed both student and instructor opinions regarding CAD's

78

79
effectiveness, the effectiveness of the instructional materials used,
and student wishes for specific types of future CAD course offerings.
The results reported represent a student response rate of 60% (9/15)
on the project assessment survey, while the post-course survey
represents a 100% response rate. The instructor's views were conveyed
by these two surveys and through post-study telephone discussions.

All assumptions of the study (see pp. 8—9) were found to be met
with the partial exception of assumption number one. One student was
found to be a graduate student pursuing a Master of Arts degree with
a minor in computer studies. It was discovered that the intention
of this student was to teach interior design in general, and computer-
aided design specifically, in a university environment. This student

also reported having a 3.5 - 4.0 cumulative grade point average.

Rationale for Measures used in Statistical Analysis

Results are reported principally through descriptive statistics,
with inferential values used to indicate the degree of difference found
between the experimental and control groups on student background
characteristics. Non—parametric inferential statistics were utilized
due to the exploratory nature of the study and past history of the
course selected for analysis. Specific study conditions included:
1) an experimental research design, 2) a small sample size (N = 15),
3) a highly skewed (negatively) grade distribution, 4) first time usage
of the AutoCAD software program, and 5) field testing of an unpublished
text, currently in press.

Generalizations pertaining to research questions are based on the

use of Yate's corrected values of Chi Square (X2), and Mann—Whitney

80
U tests for the significance of differences. The Contingency Coefficient
(C), a non-parametric value based on Chi Square and parallel to Pearson's
r value was used to assess correlation (Sprinthall, 1990), as was Kendall's
Coefficient of Concordance (W), (Siegal, 1956). Effect size (E.S.), a
measure of magnitude of differences between groups (Fraenkel & Wallen,
1990) was used to assess the magnitude of differences between groups.
This value does not give a measure of statistical significance, rather
a practical one. Levels of student achievement were evaluated for their
practical significance in relation to students' individual characteristics
and beginning competencies, as well as in an absolute fashion for
statistical significance. An overview of course results by group
composition is shown in Table 5 and is graphically portrayed in Figures

6 through 9 (see pp. 94-97).

Course Description and External Limiting Factors

 

Students were assessed periodically throughout the semester. Each
student took a CAD skills pre-test the first day of class, and a parallel
form of the test was administered as a post-test at the end of the course.
These measures did not count toward their final semester grade, but allowed
researchers a baseline measure of student skills. The course was divided
into two phases: 1) learning phase: weeks 1 through 10, and 2) application
phase: weeks 11 through 15. The learning phase entailed a series of ten
drawing assignments, interspersed with two written quizzes and three
in—class performance drawing tests. The second phase consisted of two
in depth application projects and a written final examination. The interior
design (10) based project involved the replication of drawings required

for a revision to a portion of a residential dwelling. The other project,

81
Table 5

Mean Composite Achievement (in percent) within groups by Academic Major

 

Experimental Group Control Group
Phase/Measure 7a SO SD2 %' SD 50'
LEARNING PHASE MEASURES

1. Weekly Drawings

 

ID Majors 96.10 3.47 12.05 91.94 2.68 7.18

Non-Majors 92.91 6.82 46.56 91.16 6.84 46.75
2. Written Quizzes

ID Majors 79.73 19.49 379.89 70.27 2.34 5.47

Non—Majors 70.95 11.50 132.14 68.92 8.17 66.68
3. Performance Tests

ID Majors 86.22 7.34 53.88 75.33 4.66 21.75

Non—Majors 82.16 7.35 54.05 81.73 3.61 13.01
LEARNING PHASE COMPOSITE SCORES

ID Majors 89.51 7.37 54.32 81.97 3.27 10.70

Non-Majors 84.66 6.53 42.70 83.57 4.68 21.95

 

APPLICATION PHASE MEASURES

1. Interiors Project

 

 

ID Majors 86.66 9.87 97.33 84.33 5.13 26.33

Non-Majors 89.75 5.06 25.58 85.80 5.54 30.70
2. Mechanical Project

ID Majors 88.00 3.61 13.00 78.66 8.08 65.33

Non—Majors 87.25 5.20 27.00 90.80 4.60 21.20
3. Written Final Exam

ID Majors 81.33 11.93 142.33 78.66 3.21 10.33

Non-Majors 81.50 4.04 16.33 82.80 6.38 40.70
APPLICATION PHASE COMPOSITE SCORES

ID Majors 85.99 7.28 52.96 80.86 1.58 2.49

Non—Majgrs 84.31 3.92 15.37 87.07 4.47 20.01
FINAL GRADE WEIGHTED SCORES

ID Majors 87.60 7.24 52.39 81.38 0.60 0.36

Non-Majors 86.01 3.35 11.23 85.47 4.30 18.45

 

7; control group n = 8.

Note. N = 15; experimental group n

aStatistical notation: T = mean; SD standard deviation; SD2 = variance.

82
based on content required for construction management (CM), required
reproduction of mechanical drawings involved in the design of machine
parts. Each project was weighted equally. The course culminated with
the written final examination.

Composition of a student's final course grade (see Figure 2)
consisted of the following components: weekly assignments (20%), two
written quizzes (8.5%), three in-class performance skill tests (15%),
two extended length projects (20% each), and a written final examination
(11.5%). An additional 5% of the grade was attributed to attendance
and effort; this portion was factored out of the study's results in
order to obtain a "pure" objective assessment of the level of computer
drafting skill achievement. This left the relative percentages of
each measure within the two phases and on the final course grade as
shown in Figure 3. Composite raw scores for each component of the
final grade were computed, changed to a percentage score, and then
multiplied by the weight allocated to each component. These values
were then summed, arriving at each student's weighted final course
grade.

With the exception of weekly learning assignments, all students
completed the same coursework. The order of the completion of the
two extended length projects was reversed for half of the students.
The interior design students were asked to complete the interiors
project first while the other students were asked to complete the
mechanical crane project first.

Even though it was the intent to have only the interior design
students, regardless of their group classification, complete the

interiors project first, it was completed by the entire experimental

83

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85
group as well as the interior design students in the control group.
Furthermore, the construction management project required the
structural design of the mechanical items drawn, rather than the
simple reproduction of pre—existing drawings. This provided an
additional content burden for the interior design students. The fact
that the form which measured time spent in the computer lab was not
used necessitated a slight reduction in the level of specificity when
reporting results pertaining to the relationship between student CAD
skill achievement and the effort required by the course. This
relationship has been reported by analysis of ordinal versus interval
data; post—course survey questions were used which asked students to
indicate whether the amount of effort required by this particular course
represented their normal amount, a greater than normal amount, or less

than their normal amount.

Effect of Potential Covariates

 

The study anticipated the potential influence of the covariates
of prior computer experience and academic success as evidenced by
student Grade Point Average (GPA). Since students were not matched
on these factors, it was necessary to evaluate the degree of difference
in these factors between control and experimental groups in order to
have a practical base against which to evaluate the students' final

CAD achievement level.

Student Computer Experience Characteristics
Students were asked through a background survey about their general

level of computer experience and whether they had ever formally taken

86
any other CAD courses. Prior to Fall 1990, the CAD software taught
in this course was VersaCad. It was found that only the graduate
student (randomly assigned to the experimental group) had previously
taken this course, although one student did report familiarity with
another CAD program, Fastdraft. Many students (66%) reported being
introduced to VersaCad during a course in the fundamentals of drafting
(the CAD course's prerequisite). Exposure included explicit instructions
for producing one drafting assignment using VersaCad. As such, this
experience cannot be counted as significant CAD experience since
students were not required to understand how to use the program but
merely to follow directions. Therefore, the expected principal
covariate of the study, CAD computer experience, was negligible and
did not obscure the data or interfere with statistical analysis of
the results.

General computer experiences included courses in or self teaching
of application programs on word processing, spreadsheets, desktop
publishing, and computer programming. The actual breakdown of the
percentage of primary courses/experiences with the various types of
computer programs can be seen in Figure 4. Analysis shows the total
number of courses (n = 19) taken is the same for both the experimental
group and control groups, but with differing content distributions
between groups.

The experimental subjects share an equal division between the
percentage of word processing and spreadsheet courses taken, as compared
to a ratio of nearly 3 to 1 for the same type of courses taken by
control group subjects. Both groups reported the use (albeit limited)

of CAD, although the number of courses taken in this area reported

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88
by control group subjects was approximately one-third of that reported
by students in the experimental group. Other minor differences between
groups include one student in the control group who reported taking
a computer programming class, and one student in the experimental group

who indicated being self-taught in a desktop publishing program.

Student Academic Characteristics

 

Students were requested to report which grade point average (GPA)
category they were classified in based on their academic GPA within
their major. Categories were listed as: 1) Not yet determined (first
term in college), 2) less than 2.0, 3) 2.0-2.49, 4) 2.5—2.99, 5) 3.0-3.49,
and 6) 3.5—4.0. It was believed that a GPA based on classes comprising
a student's academic major would represent a more accurate indicator
of their level of motivation since the academic content represented
is deemed as being more relevant to a student's future professional
aspirations.

Group composition by GPA and major, shown in Figure 5, revealed
the control group (n = 8) to have an overall slightly higher average
GPA than the experimental group (n = 7). Within the control group,
interior design majors (n = 3) appeared to have slightly higher GPA's
as compared to the other students (n = 5). Other control group subjects
consisted of one media arts student and four industrial supervision
students. The GPA of control group students included three GPA's
classified as 2.5—2.99, three as 3.0—3.49, and two as 3.5-4.0, with
a group average of 2.94. The experimental group consisted of three
interior design students (including the graduate student) and four

industrial supervision students. Again, the interior design students

89

 

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held a slightly higher GPA average than the industrial supervision
students. The GPA composition of this group included one student in
the 2.0-2.49 range, three who were classified as 2.5—2.99, and two
as 3.5-4.0. The average GPA for the experimental group subjects was
2.79.

Analysis showed no significant differences between distribution
of experimental and control group subjects' GPA's (X2 = .98 with 3
degrees of freedom, .80 < p < .90: Contingency Coefficient (C) value
of .29) or the amount of effort either group of students indicated
the course required (X2 = .10 with 1 degree of freedom (d.f.),
.70 < p < .80; C = .08). Neither did analysis reveal significance when
comparing the groups' distribution of GPA levels against the amount of
effort required by the course (X2 = 2.61: d.f. = 3: .30 < p < .50)
although a moderate level of correlation is shown by the related
Contingency Coefficient of .44. Thus, differences in final grade outcome
may reasonably be attributed to the type of instructional materials used,
everything else being held constant.

Analysis between an individual subject's GPA and final grade
rank order in the course, however, revealed a strong relationship
(X2 = 8.36: d.f. = 3: 0.025 < p < 0.05: C = .60). It must be remembered
that the Coefficient of Contingency is a less powerful indicator of
association than Pearson's r, reaching a maximum value of .87 as compared
to 1.0 (Sprinthall, 1990). This appears to indicate that student GPA
is an effective predictor of achievement and may be masking the true
degree of effectiveness of the experimental group treatment reported
in the results of this study, despite the similarity of the GPA

distributions between groups. The final ranking of students of both

91
groups and major classification by their self—reported GPA category is

shown in Figure 10 (see p. 100).

Analysis of Student Background Surveys

Reasons for Taking the Course

Discrepancies discovered during survey analysis required further
investigation for clarification regarding the status of this particular
course as a requirement within a given academic major. Faculty reported
that this particular course is not required in either the academic
majors of interior design or industrial supervision, and that the course
represents either a departmental elective or a university general studies
elective course. Interior design and construction management students
typically account for the majority of students enrolled.

The top three responses reported by students on the pre-course
background survey to the question of why the course was chosen were
1) students felt the course would help them in their professional
careers, 2) a faculty member or their academic advisor had recommended
it, and 3) it fills in a content area deficiency in their major or
minor studies. Other reasons included the recommendations of friends
who had taken it, the student had enjoyed other courses taught by the
same instructor, substitution of this course for a discontinued course,
and the use of the course in a Master's degree program area of emphasis

by a graduate student intending to teach interior design.

Attitude towards CAD
Analysis of subjects' attitudes toward CAD based on prior knowledge

of or experiences with CAD show strong support for the usefulness and

92
applicability of CAD in professional situations, and indicates an
overall positive attitude toward CAD in general. These attitudes did

not appear to change due to experiences encountered during this course.

Study Results within the Context of the Research Qgestions

1. When learning AutoCAD using discipline-specific instead of
generically oriented learning exercises and texts, do students:

A) learn more effectively as measured by the students' scores on
individual assignments, quizzes, tests and projects as well
as the composite grades obtained for the course?

The Mann-Whitney test for significance between groups was used
to analyze the significance of the effectiveness of the experimental
group materials in relation to those used by the control group.
According to Siegal (1956), the null hypothesis (Ho) may be rejected
indicating significance has been attained if the probability (p)
associated with a U value less than or equal to the observed U value
is less than or equal to the designated alpha level. Conceptually,
rejecting the null hypothesis of no difference is interpreted as the
percentage of time the null hypothesis has erroneously been rejected
(a type I error) for any given U value (Siegal, 1956; Williams, 1986).
Siegal states the Mann-Whitney test is one of the most powerful of
those applicable for non-parametric studies, as its power efficiency
approaches 95% of that of Student's t test even for moderately sized
samples.

Significance at the 0.10 alpha level was not found using a

one-tailed test on any of the measures. Probabilities found on the

composite measures are as follows: weekly assignments: U = 19,

p .168: written quizzes: U = 25.5, p = .411: performance test scores

U

24, p = .140: interior design project: U = 20.5. p = .215;

93
construction management project: U = 27.5, p = .50; final exam:
U = 25.5, p = .411; and final grade: U = 21, p = .232. Values on the
composite scores of each of the learning and application phases allows
the null hypothesis of no difference to be rejected only for the learning
phase. Values for these phases are: learning phase: U = 16, p = .095:
application phase: U = 25, p = .389. All probability values reported
for fractional U values were interpolated mathematically. Analyzing
Table 5 (see p. 81) and Figures 6 through 9 allows these statistical
values to be understood conceptually.

Effect size (E.S.) is a measure which is used to evaluate the
magnitude of difference in standard deviations of the comparison group
between the means of two groups (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). The presence
or absence of statistical significance is irrelevant: the value obtained
indicates how far away the two groups are from each other in comparison
to the standard deviation of the comparison group. Although some
educators (Mehrens & Lehmann, 1984) believe the interpretation of
difference scores to be of questionable importance unless the difference
between groups is greater than one standard deviation, Fraenkel and
Wallen (1990) state that an E.S. greater than or equal to .5 is
considered to be important. Effect size for the groups in this study
was computed by taking the difference between the mean composite scores
(in percent) of the experimental and control groups, and dividing by
the standard deviation of the control group.

Using the scores reported in Table 5 (see p. 81) yields E.S. values
for interior design majors ranging from 0.45 to 4.04 on the measures
with an E.S. of 10.37 associated with the final grade weighted score.

This indicates that the difference created through the use of the

94

 

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experimental discipline-specific materials is important in achieving
better performance. Values for the non-majors did not show important
differences, and on three measures (mechanical project, written final
exam, and composite application phase) indicated by a negative value
that the use of such materials may be detrimental. Values for non—
majors ranged from -0.77 to 0.71.

Although determining E.S. values for each major within groups
provided different conclusions as to whether discipline-specific
materials are beneficial, the conclusion was made that such materials
do produce important differences. This conclusion is based on E.S.
values obtained for each group without taking into account the academic
major of subjects within the groups. E.S. values ranged from .157 to
3.33. The 3.33 value was found on the weighted final grade measure.

On each of the measures, the experimental group is seen to achieve
higher scores than the control group with the exception of an identical
score on the final exam (see Table 5, p. 81, and Figures 6—9).
Differences between Mann-Whitney values and the group averages shown
in the figures on the performance test arise since Mann—Whitney values
are affected by the rank and position of the scores within the entire
sample rather than by their numerical values. The group averages
reported are not dependent on the ranking of the individual scores
within the entire sample.

The greatest difference (5%) between groups is seen on the
performance test scores, with a control group average of 79% as opposed
to the experimental group's 84% average. The least difference (2%)
is seen on the construction management project with the control group

averaging being 86% and an experimental group average of 88%. The

99
differential in scores on the performance tests is of further interest
since the percentages reported span the value (80%) associated with
the border between a "B" and a "C" letter grade. In situations where
a measure of this nature is heavily weighted, the use of materials
which could provide better scores becomes critical.

Analyzing Figures 7 and 8 reveals the most marked differences
between interior design (10) majors and non—majors (other) within each
group. These differences are seen on the composite quiz scores during
the learning phase and in the construction management project during
the application phase. 0n quiz scores, the experimental group interior
design majors achieved a score nine percent higher (80%) than experimental
group non-majors (71%). Score differences within the control group
students on the construction management project are even greater; ID
majors were found to score 11% lower (79%) than non-majors (91%).

This was explained by student and instructor comments on the post-course
survey which stated the construction management project had more difficult
content then the interior design project, and proved to be too difficult
for the majority of the interior design students in the class.

The final grade achievement level and rank of each student is
shown in Figure 10. This figure clearly shows the experimental group
students did better overall than control group students. It should
be noted, however, that all students except for the one who ranked
fifteenth achieved a final achievement level of greater than 80 percent.
Students were assigned course grades of "A", "B", "C", or "0" based
on the attainment of 90%, 80%, 70%, and 60% achievement levels,
respectively. This final grade ranking is even more persuasive in

arguing for the use of discipline—specific materials if a comparison

100

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101
of the students' final grade rank order is compared to their self—
reported GPA category as shown in Figure 11. Viewing these two figures
shows that experimental group students generally have a lower average
GPA, yet 71% (5/7) were able to rank in the top half of the sample
as compared to only 25% (2/8) of the control group students.

Evaluating student achievement using criterion referenced versus
norm referenced methods indicate that ID majors assigned to the control
group did the poorest, with a group average of 81.38% (see Table 5,

p. 81). The best students, the experimental group 10 majors, attained
a final grade mean percentage of 87.6%. The experimental group non-
majors closely followed the experimental ID majors by achieving a
composite final average of 86.01%: control group non—majors obtained

a mean composite score of 85.47%. It is evident the use of the
experimental group discipline-specific materials provided at least

as an effective, and possibly better means of learning than did the
control group's use of generic materials.

These conclusions are further validated by computing Kendall's
Concordance (W), a value which determines significance based on the
degree of consistency observed among several sets of measures (Siegal,
1956). Achievement on all composite measures was rank ordered by group
classification and stratification. Computation of W yielded a value
of .7166, which was found to be significant at the 0.01 alpha level.
This value indicates that the degree of consistency of achievement
exhibited by each group was high. By using W in a formula analogous
to the one used to determine the Spearman-Brown correlation coefficient,
it is possible to determine the average correlation coefficient over

all possible pairs of rankings (Siegal, 1956). This value was computed

102

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103
and found to be .66; this indicates a high degree of correlation between
achievement and the materials used by each group of students. It
indicates that the Concordance value obtained is not only reliable,

but valid as well.

1. When learning AutoCAD using discipline-specific instead of
generically oriented learning exercises and texts, do students:

B) learn more quickly as measured by comparing weekly scores to
assess whether better scores are obtained at an earlier point
in the term?

The rate at which experimental versus control group students
learned did not appear to vary to any great degree with the exception
of scores at the beginning of the semester (see Figure 12). Scores
on the first quiz showed an experimental group mean of 73% compared
to the control group mean of 62%. Scores remained this far apart (11%)
on the computer performance skills test number two, with the experimental
group attaining an average of 81% as compared to that of 69% for the
control group. After that point in time, difference in group averages
ranged from one to five percent, with both groups achieving the same
score (81%) on the course's written final exam.

The low scores of both groups on quiz one was attributed by the
instructor to a poorly written quiz. Nevertheless, the scores show
the higher achievement by experimental group students. The better
experimental group scores (81%) on test two are a more valid indicator
of the effectiveness of the experimental materials; the performance
tests were drawing skill tests as opposed to the comprehension of

concepts evaluated by the written quizzes. The degree of consistency

in scores was higher during the application (project) phase of the

104

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105
course than during the learning phase, and more closely paralleled

the final grade scores.

1. When learning AutoCAD using discipline-specific instead of
generically oriented learning exercises and texts, do students:

C) indicate a preference for discipline-specific texts or learning
exercises as measured by:

1) the percentage of students who choose to use the discipline—
specific supplemental text in addition to the one assigned:

2) the percentage of students which indicate on the post-course
survey the desire for the utilization of such materials?

Students assigned to use control group references generally did
not choose to use the experimental group materials available in the
lab. Two of the eight students did evaluate the experimental group
materials on the post course survey: one student who did not rate the
experimental materials expressed extreme dissatisfaction with the
control group text. Students in both groups (86.7%) overwhelmingly
expressed the desire to use materials (both text and exercises) taken
from their own academic disciplines. The remaining 13.3% indicated

no preference for the type of materials used.

2. What effect, if any, does a student's computer background appear
to have on his/her ability and desire to learn AutoCAD as measured
by:

l) the amount of time spent in the lab versus the scores obtained
on assignments;

2) by students' responses on both the pre— and post-course
surveys?

It has been mentioned in the section on covariates of the study
that students generally did not exhibit significant differences in

the amount of CAD experience they had. Analysis of student post—course

106
surveys showed that the use of discipline—specific materials resulted
in 57% of the experimental group responding that the course required
more than their usual amount of effort, as opposed to 62.5% of the
control group indicating the same response. None of the students in
either group indicated the course required less than their usual effort,
while the remaining percentage of students stated the course required
their usual amount of effort.

The experimental group students which indicated normal effort
levels (n = 6) attained an average achievement level on their final
course grade of 93% for interior design students (n = 1) and 98.75%

(n = 2) for non-majors as compared to respective control group values

of 92.5% (n = 2) for interior design students and 95.8% (n = 1) for
non-majors. Those achievement levels of students indicating the course
required more than their normal efforts (n = 9) were higher for students
classified into the experimental group. Experimental group interior
design students responding with this effort level averaged 97.5%

(n = 2) on their final grade, while experimental group non—majors
attained 87% (n = 2). Control group interior design students indicating
this effort level (n = l) achieved a final course grade of 90.83%,

while control group non-majors (n = 4) averaged 90% achievement for
their final course grade.

The type of future courses students would like to see offered
and number of students interested in each type is as follows: DOS
programming (n = 6), interior design/architecturally oriented project
course (n = 10), 3D AutoCAD (n = 13), 2D VersaCad (n = 2), 3D VersaCad
(n = 2), and dimensioning (n = 1). A course in 3D AutoCAD was taught

Spring semester, 1991. The instructor reported several students which

107
took the course used in this study chose to take the course in 3D
AutoCAD as well.

Students in general found their experience with AutoCAD a pleasant
one. When asked whether they would use CAD or traditional drafting
methods if given the option in a professional work setting, 69%
responded they would prefer to use CAD, while 31% indicated that it
depended on the specific nature of the project. Reasons given for
the preference of CAD included it's more professional appearance, the
time which can be saved when making changes and in producing a hard
copy of the drawings, the accuracy which can be achieved, and the fact
that it was more fun to use. One student even commented that traditional
methods of drafting were more likely to "drive him nuts" than any of
the frustrations encountered with using a computer to draft. Students
further responded that they felt CAD gave them an "edge" when applying
for a design position, although they did not feel CAD skills were
necessarily a mandatory skill.

Although the use of discipline—specific materials resulted in
generally higher scores, the instructor indicated a preference for the
general text utilized by all students as opposed to the discipline-
specific one. The principle reasons for this preference were attributed
to the greater depth of explanation, quantity of exercises, and presence
of an index which allowed easy reference to the commands and concepts.
The instructor did indicate, however, that he was not pleased with the

general text, Using AutoCAD, and that he planned to use a different text

 

the next time he taught the course. He indicated that he would recommend

Designer's AutoCAD Tutor to others.

 

CHAPTER V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions to Research Questions

Discussion of the study's results within the context of the
educational setting is provided to help educators assess appropriateness
of using discipline-specific materials for their own classroom settings.
Inferential statistical analysis and trend analysis of the descriptive
statistics reported revealed useful, consistent patterns in levels of
student achievement. The practical, though not necessarily statistical,
consistency of the results make them useful as indicators of student
achievement ability through the use of discipline-specific materials.

Although consistent patterns of achievement have been shown, the
investigator suggests that the reader may wish to interpret these results
in a conservative fashion due to the study's inability to obtain infor—
mation regarding statistical reliability coefficients for the course
materials. Such an interpretation would indicate that while discipline—

specific materials appear to be more effective, they are at least as

 

effective, and pg worse than the use of generic instructional materials.

 

Due to the number of uncontrollable variables which can affect
educational research, practical as well as statistical significance
is considered to be important in assessing results. A significance
level of 0.10 was chosen in accordance with the type of educational
research being conducted and the preliminary nature of materials

utilized by this study's experimental group.

108

109

Effectiveness of Discipline-Specific Materials on Final Achievement

 

1. When learning AutoCAD using discipline-specific instead of
generically oriented learning exercises and texts, do students:

A) learn more effectively as measured by the students' scores on
individual assignments, quizzes, tests and projects as well
as the composite grades obtained for the course?

Students assigned to the experimental group consistently achieved
higher composite scores on each of the items evaluated for a grade.
The scores of the experimental group students differed from those of
the control group by two to five percent, with the exception of an
equivalent score (81%) on the final exam. The greatest difference
in achievement was shown by scores for each group on the in-class
performance tests. The experimental group achieved a composite score
of 84%, while the control group scored only 79%. Final weighted grade
scores for each group showed the experimental group to have achieved
an average overall higher weighted score (85%) as compared to the
control group's weighted average of 83%.

When these results are evaluated with respect to the average GPA
level of each group, it is evident that the experimental group materials
are at least as effective, and perhaps more effective, than control
group materials. This conclusion is based on the fact that the
experimental group had an average GPA which was lower (X = 2.79) than
that of the control group (X = 2.94), and had less CAD familiarity
(26% versus 37% respectively) as well. The graduate student's scores
(experimental group) were counterbalanced by equivalently high scores
of an undergraduate student in the control group, negating a possible
skewing of the experimental group's averages due to potentially
different levels of motivation between the graduate student and the

other undergraduate students. It appears the discipline-specific

110
materials are more relevant to students, motivating them to achieve
a higher level of knowledge. It could equally suggest that the
discipline-specific materials were more easily comprehended.
Regardless, the final result of their use in this study is an overall
student achievement level which is greater than that of students using
the more general learning materials. This indicates a greater degree
of mastery of skills, and as such, may be expected to make the student

a more desirable job applicant.

Effect of Discipline—Specific Materials on Group Learning Curves

1. When learning AutoCAD using discipline—specific instead of
generically oriented learning exercises and texts, do students:

B) learn more quickly as measured by comparing weekly scores to
assess whether better scores are obtained at an earlier point
in the term?

Analysis of composite scores on each of the grade items reveals
no particular divergence in the rate of achievement between the groups.
Both groups' scores were usually within three percent of each other
for any given item. An exception to this difference was found on the
first written quiz and on the second computer skills performance test.
Experimental group students achieved a composite score 11% higher than
control group students on both of these items. It appears that the

specific content of the learning materials does not necessarily affect

how quickly the material is learned.

Student Preference for Discipline—Specific Materials

1. When learning AutoCAD using discipline-specific instead of
generically oriented learning exercises and texts, do students:

C) indicate a preference for discipline—specific texts or learning
exercises as measured by:

111

1) the percentage of students who choose to use the discipline—
specific supplemental text in addition to the one assigned:

2) the percentage of students which indicate on the post-course
survey the desire for the utilization of such materials?

Students assigned to the control group did not appear to use the
supplemental discipline-specific text reference. Of the eight students
assigned to the control group, only two evaluated the experimental
group discipline—specific text on the post-course survey. One control
group student did, however, indicate extreme dissatisfaction with the
control group text. Students in both the experimental and control
groups indicated overwhelmingly (87%) they would prefer to use materials
from their own professional discipline for learning CAD. The remaining

two students indicated no preference for either set of materials.

Effect of Prior Computer Experience on Achievement

2. What effect, if any, does a student's computer background appear
to have on his/her ability and desire to learn AutoCAD as measured
by:

l) the amount of time spent in the lab versus the scores obtained
on assignments; -

2) by students' responses on both the pre— and post-course surveys?

Computer background did not appear to play a role in student
ability to obtain better grades. The student with the lowest overall
course grade was one more experienced in the use of computers. However,
students having a very limited amount of computer experience were found
to rank at both the low and high levels of achievement on their final
grade. The effect of prior CAD experience could not be evaluated
effectively since only one student reported using a CAD program of
similar power and complexity (VersaCad) to its fullest extent. It is

the researcher's belief that the this student's GPA (4.0) and greater

112
degree of familiarity with a similar computer program were more likely
to be affecting achievement rather than the use of a particular set
of instructional materials. It is important to remember that student
GPA in this study has been empirically shown to have a strong relationship
with the level of academic achievement obtained (X2 = 8.36: d.f. = 3:
.025 < p < .05; C = .6).

There was no correlation between the amount of effort expended
by control group and experimental group subjects in obtaining the grade
each desired. In both the experimental and control groups the majority
of students indicated the effort required was greater than their normal
amount (57% and 62.5% respectively). Students having a lower GPA
generally indicated the course required more effort more frequently
than did students with higher GPA's. Both the students and the
instructor reported no or very limited text use once the application
phase was reached. At that point, students were utilizing references
for design aspects of the projects rather than learning which CAD
commands executed what actions and the most efficient way to accomplish
a specific drawing task.

It is interesting to note that although students assigned to use
the discipline-specific materials consistently achieved better results
and survey results indicated their preference to use such materials,
the course instructor rated the generic text as the one to be preferred
from a teaching standpoint. The principle reasons indicated for this
preference were the thoroughness of explanations and quantity of
exercises provided by the more general text, in conjunction with the
presence of an index which allowed easy access and cross referencing

of information.

113

All students indicated a desire to take additional CAD courses.
The specific types of courses they would like to see offered and the
percentage of students desiring each type of course are as follows:
3-Dimensional AutoCAD (86.6%), courses with content specifically
directed to interior design/architecture project applications rather
than learning-oriented exercises (59.9%). and DOS programming techniques
(40%).

The factor cited by students as having the most positive effect
on their grade and attitude was the instructor's teaching style. The
instructor's willingness to be flexible regarding assignment grading
criteria and ability to understand the operational problems of producing
CAD drawings provided students the motivation for learning. Students
identified with the instructor and were aware the instructor understood
the difficulties with the software since he was concurrently learning
the program with them and experiencing similar problems. This helped
alleviate student anxiety about the potential for receiving a lower
grade due not to a lack of comprehension of CAD operations, but rather
the unexpected problems created by the computer itself, and the lack
of time available to use the computer at the end of the semester.
The lack of access to computers/computers outside of class time was
the principal reason for any negative attitude towards class or the

final grade.

Implications of Findings
The levels of achievement seen in both groups, in conjunction
with student computer and academic background, tend to support the

tenets of instructional design. Motivation, leading to the level of

114
achievement attained, apparently can be increased by the use of
discipline-specific materials. While the amount of difference seen
in achievement is statistically minimal, it has practical significance
as shown by effect size values, particularly when assessed within the
context of an academic grade evaluation.

A three percent difference in a grade may define the difference
between an "A" and a "B", or a "B" and a "C". If enough borderline
grades can be raised by the use of discipline-specific materials in
a variety of courses, learning will be enhanced by improving student
motivation. An added extrinsic benefit to the student is that an
improved cumulative GPA may result in greater opportunities being made
available than might have been without the use of such materials.
Therefore, it is the researcher's belief that the use of discipline-
specific materials should be encouraged whenever it is possible to

do so.

Recommendations for Future Studies

 

This study has found study trends that suggest the type of
instructional materials used in learning these skills is a factor in
how well the skills are mastered. It appears that the use of materials
that are as close in application as possible to the actual type of
work experiences which will be encountered will produce better
comprehension of the material being learned. It is the belief of the
investigator that the use of such materials in both academe and the
professional sector of design should be encouraged.

The principle limitations of this study, created by the physical

conditions encountered, are the source for recommendations for future

115
studies. As the principle purpose of this study was the field testing
of a new educational product, it was deemed control of the instructional
setting was more important than breadth of sample and sample size.
With the baseline data now available from this study, it is
recommended that future studies broaden the sample size and composition,
set the significance level for results at a more stringent level

(p = .05), determine reliability of Designer's AutoCAD Tutor course

 

materials, and control for differences in instructors' teaching
effectiveness through statistical analysis. This latter factor is
critical to assess since all students in this study commented favorably
on the instructor as having a very positive influence on their ability
and desire to learn the material.

Future studies might be designed to evaluate the use of the

experimental group supplemental text Desigper's AutoCAD Tutor within

 

a university setting utilizing the quarter system and a semester time
frame. It would be desirable to pursue research using students
operationally knowledgeable with CAD software in general and other
CAD programs similar to AutoCAD, such as VersaCad, in particular.
Studies of this nature could evaluate the effect of other CAD
experience on the time required for the learning process to take place
in students with varying CAD backgrounds and provide guidance to CAD
instructors for course structure and sequencing of topics. Knowledge
gained from such studies could help provide the corporate/professional
design sector with estimates on how soon employees required to learn
CAD may be expected to become proficient with the software. This
could indirectly and positively affect the profitability of a firm

by increasing its employees' productivity level through decreasing

116
the total amount of time necessary to devote to CAD training, thus
allowing the financial return on investment of CAD use to be achieved

more quickly.

Summary and Conclusions

 

This study has identified Designer's AutoCAD Tutor as a reference

 

which, when used in conjunction with a more complete but general
reference, accomplishes effective learning of AutoCAD. The utilization
of materials which reduces the technical and motivational problems
associated with learning CAD, and AutoCAD in particular, is desirable.
With the large number of top ranked firms (95%) now using CAD, the
ability to learn and use this skill is becoming increasingly important.
Analyzing the current state of the design industry with regard
to recent trends in down-sizing the number of personnel in a firm and
making employees more productive, concurrent with the diversification
of such firms into a variety of specialty design areas and services,
leads to the clear conclusion that it is definitely advantageous to
have CAD skills. To benefit the CAD learner and corporate management,
it is imperative for research to address the identification, testing,
and utilization of materials which provide such skills in the most
effective and time efficient fashion possible. The increase in the
number of colleges offering CAD courses in interior design curricula
and the apparent concern of CAD instructors at the lack of appropriate
materials further support this need. CAD skills are now perceived
as not only desirable, but almost mandatory in providing students with
the ability to obtain, retain, and advance within a professional design

position in today's highly competitive job market.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

UNIVERSITY CONSENT TO USE HUMAN SUBJECTS

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APPENDIX B

CONSENT TO USE MATERIALS IN PRESS

 

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APPENDIX C

PROJECT COVER LETTER AND CONSENT FORM

123‘

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APPENDIX D

SURVEYS

125

INI

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Loo—o o>.o a» au.—.ao no, can; .9oos o>os so» pascal gun. Lou

mm» H.

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