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Lywl'lu... . . .— _ _ ’F' .—. . .1 A. #13,." :r‘ ['15: ._ ..-. -, :— fivv—1 ha 3.95:." 3 , _ __. ., .., 529.5;104” ,. $71.11)” ' '1 T" — ‘. if” _ £11. I .. . . , . . .usr.*..r¢w:.m.v~r., ..‘:;.‘.' .. 3:. :-:,‘,‘“~'-‘-\ ‘ ' ' - ’ , . y»,\. 4 , _ ‘ , . ' ' r? PMS musrms lllllllllllllllzlll lllllllllllllllllllllllllllll l/ 008954400 LIBRARY Michigan State \ l University L .l This is to certify that the thesis entitled Environmental Attitude and its Effect on Growers' Nitrogen Management Practices: A Case Study of St. Joseph County Corn Growers presented by Maria Emily Ouano Arnaiz has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.S. Resource Development degree in Major professor Date July"9, 1991 07539 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE w ( HUN ‘1 73 1?“. 53.3 “V. C" ILLILJ ’ " M "‘ .v .- son 99 3243.: am. «5,2 fig £0 1 0 4 0 7 JW 2 21mg :— MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution cm ”3-03 ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDE AND ITS EFFECT ON GROWERS' NITROGEN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES: A Case Study of St. Joseph County Corn Growers BY Maria Emily Ouano Arnaiz A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Resource Development 1991 W» ‘30 CDT/9w ABSTRACT ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDE AND ITS EFFECT ON GROWERS' NITROGEN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES: A Case Study of St. Joseph County Corn Growers BY Maria Emily Ouano Arnaiz Federal groundwater policy relies heavily upon educational programs on water quality to effectuate reform of nitrogen management practices among growers. The presumed efficacy of this approach is based upon the tacit assumption that attitudinal change will lead to behavioral change. However, other studies have indicated that other factors can strongly influence this relationship. This study examines the strength of the attitude behavior relationship for nitrogen use within the context of a narrowly defined economic risk space. Results indicate that attitude and application rate are negatively related among growers with a wide financial risk space. Although this relationship was found to be weak, it is significant that no such relationship was observed among growers with a narrow financial risk space. The results suggest that a grower's economic situation can negate the influence of attitude on behavior. This is dedicated to my mother, Leticia Ouano Arnaiz ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The road leading to the completion of this thesis has been a long and tortuous one. I could not have made it without the help and encouragement of professors, friends and family. The person most responsible for the content and format of this thesis, other than myself, is Dr. Tom Edens. His constructive criticism, willingness to discuss, and patience with my progress were instrumental in getting me to organize my ideas and to put them down on paper. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee, Drs. Frank Fear and Phil Robertson, for their timely advice and editorial comments. To Joel Lichty, who gave me the opportunity to work on the St. Joseph County Survey, and to my friends in the Department: Brent Simpson, Ignacio Villa, Susan Corcoran, and Bob Pigg, who were willing to help me overcome the technical and logical barriers I encountered in this study, my appreciation. Finally, none of this would have been possible if not for the unconditional support I received from my family, both in my decision to return to school and during the thesis process. I love you all and sincerely, salaamat kaayo. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF FIGURES 0 O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 0 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 2 PROBLEM ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 3 Background . . . . . . The Research Problem . Research Locale . . . . Organization of the Study Disincentives Toward the Adoption f BMPs Program Payments to Growers. . . Use of Nitrogen Fertilizers . . . Growers' Fertilizer Expenditures The Policy Context. . . . . . . . Problem Statement. . . . . . . . eeeeeOe LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH DESIGN Definition of Attitude. . . . . . . . . . The Theoretical Basis for Consistency Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . Situational Variables. . . . . . Attitudinal and Behavioral Change. Selective Exposure. . . . . . . . . Implications for this Study. . . . . . . Conceptual Framework . . . . . Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . Research Methods. . . . . . . . Development of the Questionnaire Conduct of the Survey. . . . . Response Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv vi viii mQUIl-‘H 10 13 15 18 20 23 25 27 28 30 31 35 37 38 38 39 43 46 49 50 Measurement of the Variables . . . . . . . . 53 Attitude Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Financial Risk Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Application Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . Socioeconomic Differences between the Subsamples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Attitude Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Application Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Test of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Measure of Association . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Summary of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Policy Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Recommendations for Further Research . . . . 91 Appendix A: Advance Letter used in the Survey. . . . . 100 Appendix B: Cover Letter used in the Survey. . . . . . 101 Appendix C: Replica of Questionnaire with Response Frequencies and Final Comments . . . . . . 104 LI ST OF REFERENCES 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 12 4 BI BLI OGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 3 1 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 2.1 2.2 LIST OF TABLES Target price and season average-price for feed grain and wheat (Dollars per bushel) . . . . 13 Approximate application rates (lbs. nitrogen/acre) for corn , cotton , wheat and soybeans for 1964 , 1970, 1976, 1982 and 1987 (NRC, 1989) . . . . 17 Summary of survey responses . . . . . . . . . 51 Comparison of acreage represented by the survey and total acreage recorded in the 1987 census 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O O O I O O O 52 Comparison of sizes (acres) of farming operations between survey respondents and the general population as measured in the 1987 census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Questions used to construct the Attitude Toward Nitrogen Use (ATUN) index and response freq‘lenCies I O O O O I O O O O O O O O O I O 55 Scoring categories for the ATUN index. . . . 57 Internal validity check of the ATUN index . . 57 Correlation matrix for items in the Attitude Toward Nitrogen Use (ATUN) index . . . . . . . . . . 58 Summary table of average total acreage and average total commercial corn acreage for the subsamples used to test the hypothesis . . . 60 Yield and applier categories for irrigated and dryland corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Summary table of selected socioeconomic variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Average scores per item contained in the ATUN index 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 70 vi Table Table Table Table Table Table Table The three ATUN categories and the percentage of growers from each subsample in each category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application.rate categories and.the percentage of growers from each subsample contained in each category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of large growers/irrigated and small growers/dryland reporting to have used cover crops and rotations in their operations in 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contingency table: Application rate by ATUN score for large growers/irrigated group . . . Contingency table: Application rate by ATUN score for small growers/dryland group . . . . Results of the Pearson chi-square test for independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of the Somers' d measure of association between the ATUN and application rate variables for the small growers/dryland group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 73 75 76 76 78 80 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure LIST OF FIGURES Grower ' s Decision-Making Model : Economic and attitudinal (social) variables interact and define behavior . . . . . . 6 Total government payments made to program growers: 1985-1987. Information adapted from data in Economic Farm Indicators: Production Costs (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Total nutrient use among U.S. growers: 19.70-1990 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e o 16 Percentage of total production variable costs accounted for by fertilizers, chemicals, fuel and oil and seed. Adapted from data contained in Economic Farm Indicators: Production Costs (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Variables considered in the study. . . . 39 Organization of the Questionnaire . . . 47 Flow chart used in the division of the sample into economically' homogenous grower groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background. Groundwater contamination is predicted to become the environmental issue for U.S. agriculture in the 1990's (Kenski, 1990; Conservation Foundation [CF], 1985). Approximately half of the urban population and 95% of the rural population rely upon groundwater as their primary source of drinking water (Danielson and Abdalla, 1990). It has been estimated by the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) that 46% of all counties in the U.S. depend upon groundwater sources susceptible to contamination from pesticides and nitrogen fertilizers (National Research Council [NRC], 1989). The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) has detected nitrate concentrations exceeding the national standard of 10 ppm nitrate-nitrogen in over 800 rural drinking water sources (Environmental Reporter [ERC]: Current, February 6, 1989). Because private wells are not required to be tested by law, current estimates of contaminated water sources are considered conservative. Of the sources of contamination, agriculture has been cited as contributing at least half of all the contaminants, pesticides and nitrates, found in groundwater (NRC, 1989). 1 Other sources contributing nitrates to groundwater include animal manures, human wastes (faulty sewage systems), nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants, other natural sources in geologic formations, and precipitation (Hallberg, 1987; Robertson, 1986). Nitrates are a by-product of natural processes. Nitrate concentrations of 3 mg/l or less are attributable to these processes (NRC, 1989). Concern over the continuing degradation of the nation's groundwater resources has been the source of a growing conflict between growers and non-agriculturists. Although restrictions and bans have been placed on the use of certain pesticides, no such action, at the national level, has been taken with regard to inorganic nitrogen use. However, increasingly strident demands for federal restrictions of these agricultural practices that can lead to contamination of surface and groundwater sources is being made by those outside of agriculture (Batie, 1988). To date, the federal government's response has been limited to the provision of financial assistance to state governments for the development and implementation of water quality plans as promulgated in the Clean Water Act of 1972, 1977 and 1987. Unlike previous actions taken against polluting industries involving direct regulation of activities, policy-makers at the federal level rely upon a voluntary approach to control nitrogen use among growers. In light of the costs attendant with monitoring grower 3 activities, this is considered the most cost-effective means of control (Goldfarb, 1988)‘. The approach adopted by U.S. groundwater policy to control nitrogen use among growers is grounded in the belief that attitudinal change will lead to behavioral change. State water quality efforts stress the use of educational programs as the primary means of inducing the voluntary adoption of "Best Management Practices" (BMPs) among growers. BMPs are alternative management practices which have the potential to reduce the use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in agricultural production. They are developed at the state-level by a consortium of specialists from public and private institutions (Logan, 1990). Educational programs are intended to increase grower awareness of the health and environmental risks stemming from nitrate contamination of groundwater. In the process of educating growers to the hazards and costs of groundwater contamination, the value held by growers' toward water quality can be enhanced. This favorable attitude toward water quality is presupposed to act as a stimulus for the adoption of the appropriate BMPs (Goldfarb, 1988). Results from grower surveys have indicated that growers are aware of the problems and of the concomitant risks 1 Some states, such as Iowa which has acute problems with groundwater contamination, have taken action to regulate nitrogen use via the imposition of a tax on the sale of nitrogen ("Iowa," 1987). 4 associated with groundwater contamination (Halstead, Padgitt and Batie, 1990; Martin, Guither, Jones and Spitze, 1989; Lasley and Bultena, 1988). Increasing concern among growers is testament to the efficacy of the educational component of U.S. groundwater policy. Yet, figures relating total use of fertilizers and pesticides suggest that growers have not changed their nitrogen management practices significantly (Economic Research Service [ERS], 1991: NRC, 1989: ERS, 1987). This inconsistency between growers' expressed concern over water quality and their behavior, i.e., use of inorganic nitrogen, would suggest that there is a limitation to the "bottom-up" strategy currently espoused by groundwater policy-makers. Apparently, more than attitudinal change is required to effectuate the adoption of more conservative nitrogen management practices. 1. Because groundwater policy is based on voluntary compliance, understanding the role played by values and attitudes held by growers toward water quality and nitrogen use is important. These values and attitudes, along with economic and other considerations, enter into a grower's decision- making. In order to better understand why a grower chooses one nitrogen management strategy over another, it is necessary to estimate the importance given each of these variables by the grower in decision-making. 5 The Research Problem. Figure 1.1 is a conceptual model depicting several variables which are proposed to be present in a grower's decision-making calculus. While the model is not all-inclusive, it does include variables which have been suggested by previous research as being influential in the farm management decisions that a grower makes (Halstead et al., 1990; Gillepsie and Buttel, 1989: Lockeretz and Madden, 1988; Love, 1982: Gasson, 1974). In the model,”§ attitudinal variables and financial risk space are 1 considered to be the primary determinants of nitrogen use behavior. Past attitudinal-behavioral studies have noted that attitgge_algne is insufficient for predicting behavior. filtuatiggal_yariable§, which can facilitate the expression of attitude into overt behavior, are required (van Liere and Dunlap, 1978; Azjen and Fishbein, 1977; Liska, 1975). These facilitating variables are identified in the model as those variables defining a grower's financial risk space. This thesis will investigate the influence exerted by a grower's financial situation on the attitude-behavior relationship in terms of that grower's use of nitrogen. Financial risk space defines the flexibility a grower has to experiment with new technologies and management practices. For example, BMPs can reduce growers' use of nitrogen fertilizers, but at the risk of short-term yield and/or income loss. 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The other set of variables, a grower's attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers, is shaped by social, environmental and other intangible factors, such as commitment to farming and ascription to the "stewardship of the land" ethic (Love, 1982: Gasson, 1974). It is these variables (attitude precursors) that current groundwater policy focuses upon as the precedents of behavioral change. Research Locale. The data used in this thesis were obtained from a survey of corn growers in St. Joseph County, Michigan conducted in the spring of 1989. A self-administered questionnaire was the survey tool. Selected questions were intended to elicit a grower's attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers in the farming operation. Also included were questions relating to scale and structure of production operations and types of management practices employed. ._.....~:.."'-_._~ {1" .‘ “ w-"~'m.wm*m‘¢s;;t" 1 ‘EHI- "" 8 Organization of the study. The use and importance of nitrogen fertilizers in U.S. agriculture is documented in the following chapter. It will be shown that the current structure of federal farm programs, specifically federal price and income support programs, constrain a grower's choice set. Past attitudinal-behavioral studies are also reviewed to better understand the relationship between attitude and behavior and the facilitating and neutralizing influence of situational variables. The latter chapters include a discussion of the study's hypothesis, research methods and design, results of the statistical tests of the hypothesis and analysis of those results. In the final chapter, conclusions based on the empirical results of this study are made. The question posed in the introduction. “How effective can educational programs be in inducing the widespread adoption of nitrogen use-reducing BMPs?', will be re-examined in light of the results of this study. Based upon this analysis, recommendations for substantive changes in U.S. groundwater and agricultural policies are advanced. The intent of these recommendations is to aid policy-makers in devising an effective and equitable policy solution to the nation's nitrate problem. CHAPTER 2 PROBLEM ANALYSIS U.S. agricultural policy, especially in the economic arena, has had a profound effect on growers' crop management decisions. By setting prices and dictating land-use mandates to those wishing to participate in farm programs, federal policy has curtailed the number of choices available to the grower (General Accounting Office [GAO], 1990; Young and Painter, 1990; NRC, 1989; Buttel and Gertler, 1982). Price support and income support programs are among the most influential of federal farm programs in terms of affecting growers' management decisions. Between 85% and 95% of all eligible farmland was enrolled in farm programs in 1987 (GAO, 1990). Price support programs provide nonrecourse loans to growers who pledge their commodity crops as collateral. In the event that the grower in unable to repay the loan, that grower's crops are forfeited to the government as repayment?. These programs allow the grower to sell when commodity prices are higher than the loan rate. 2 If the target price for the commodity for which the loan is made falls below the market price at the end of the loan period, the government is required to accept that grower's crop as payment for the loan. 10 Income support programs pay deficiency payments to participating growers if commodity prices fall below the target prices set by law (GAO, 1990; NRC, 1989). Deficiency payments are based on a grower's acreage base and demonstrated program yield. The acreage base is the number of acres enrolled under a specific commodity program. The program yield is the average yield for the past five years excluding the highest and lowest yields (GAO, 1990). Approximately two-thirds of all U.S. cropland, and 95% of all land in corn, wheat, sorghum, cotton and rice are enrolled in commodity programs (NRC, 1989). Disincentives Toward the Adoption of BMPs. "Best Management Practices" are mandated by the Clean Water Act of 1972, 1978 and 1987, to be included in states' water management plans. Funding of these plans by the federal government are contingent upon approval by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). BMPs are developed by agricultural specialists at the state level and are intended to deal specifically with non-point sources of pollution (Goldfarb, 1988). Adoption of BMPs is voluntary and is facilitated by the provision of technical assistance and cost-share programs for their implementation (Logan, 1990). BMPs intended to reduce grower use of nitrogen include: 11 rotations, use of leguminous cover crops,; soil testing, plant analysis, proper nutrient credits, selecting realistic yield goals, timely fertilizer applications, and following university [soil testing lab] recommendations (Vitosh and Pruden, 1990). The scarcity of cost-share and technical assistance programs has been cited as being one of the primary impediments to the widespread adoption of the practices listed above. Not all growers wishing to adopt these practices have access to technical and financial assistance (Logan, 1990). The lack of a reliable and inexpensive soil nitrogen test has been a disincentive toward greater grower use of soil tests and plant analysis in the determination of soil nitrogen content (Papendick, Eliot and Power, 1988; Cooperative Extension Service [CES], 1985). Despite these technical drawbacks, probably the greatest impediment to the widespread adoption of nitrogen use-reducing BMPs are the rules and regulations determining eligibility for federal farm programs. Growers' desire to continue to participate in federal farm programs was identified as a barrier toward the adoption of low-input practices in a survey conducted by the Government Accounting Office (GAO). Other disincentives identified in that survey included growers' perceptions of increased management and labor needs associated with low-input practices (GAO, 1990). 12 The incentives built into federal commodity programs encourage growers to: grow only commodity program crops; grow the same crops year after year; maximize per acre yields of these crops; and plant program crops on land best left fallow. These incentives are embodied in the eligibility rules governing participation in commodity programs and in the differential support given to targeted program commodities such as wheat and corn (GAO, 1990). Only 16 commodities are supported by federal programs. Of these, corn, cotton, wheat and soybeans are the largest program supported crops (NRC, 1989). It has been noted that program crops (except for soybeans) receiving the largest financial support are particularly dependent on agrichemicals. Crops which are less agrichemical dependent, i.e., oats, receive comparatively less support or none at all (GAO, 1990). Legume cover crops, such as alfalfa and clover, are not program crops. Lack of price supports for these crops act as a disincentive for their incorporation into the farming operation. Although growers can plant some of their base acreage in non-program crops, at least 67.5% of their program acres must be kept in program crops in order to receive full payments. This proviso penalizes growers using crop rotations that span three years or more (Fleming, 1987). 13 Program.rayments to Growers. Participation in commodity programs is a means of minimizing risks. The uncertainty surrounding crop prices on the national and world markets is effectively nullified for program crops via the provision of a guaranteed/target price (Pfeffer and Gilbert, 1990; Buttel and Gertler, 1982). For most of the 1980's, the government price for commodities, such as corn and wheat, has been substantially greater than the market price. In 1987-88, the target price for corn was 37% greater than the season- average price. For wheat, it was even greater at 41% (Table 2.1). This discrepancy between the target and market price encourages growers to make decisions in response to government prices in lieu of market prices. Table 2.1 Target price and season average-price for feed grain and wheat (Dollars per bushel)*** 1987 Season Corn Wheat Cotton* Rice** Target price $3 .03 $4. 38 $0.79 ‘ $11.66 Season-average price $1.63 $2.57 $0.64 $6.95 % Difference 37% 41% 19% 40% Participation rate (% base acres) 88% 87% 92% 97% * cents per pound ** dollars per cwt (crude weight) *** Data adapted from Economic Indicators of the Farm Sector: Production Costs (1989). 14 'rhe total dollars paid directly to growers via government programs has increased steadily throughout the 1980's reflecting the increasing reliance of commodity growers on government payments. Between 1985 and 1987, total federal payments increased from 7.7 billion dollars to 16.75 billion dollars. The commodity receiving the greatest percentage of government payments was feed grain (corn, oats, barley). By 1987, approximately 50% of all government payments were made to feed grain growers (Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1 Total government payments made to program growers: 1985-1987. Information adapted from data in Economic Farm Indicators: Production Costs (1989). BiHion doHars 1985 1986 1987 1988 Years - All Commodities - Feed Grain Economic Farm Indicators “989) 15 030 of Nitrogen Fertilizers. The structure of government agricultural policy - commodity policies, credit and research policies, special agricultural taxation policies and export policies - has influenced and determined the types of agronomic practices used today in U.S. agriculture. The preponderance of large, specialized operations, which are heavily dependent on external inputs, are largely the result of past and current U.S. agricultural policy (Buttel and Gertler, 1982). The two crops receiving most of the directly applied nitrogen annually, and whose growers are the primary beneficiaries of government payments, are corn and wheat. Figure 2.2 is a graph of total nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous used in the U.S. between the years 1970 to 1990. During that period, total U.S. consumption of inorganic nitrogen nearly doubled from 7.1 million tons to 11.4 million tons (ERS, 1982; Tennessee Valley Authority [TVA], December 1990). There has been a slight decrease in total nitrogen use during the past decade. This was due, in part, to the idling of farm land in the Conservation Reserve (CRP) and Acreage Reserve (ARP) programs created by the 1985 Farm Act. Consumption of both potassium and phosphorous has remained relatively constant since 1970 (ERS, 1991 February; NRC, 1989) . 23— .<>._. use «2: son-noose .wzm Egmmooom iml msosonemoam 1+! demosfiz l.| . memo» :2: Dead 02: 33— NE: com: 92: ebmu «:2: meu chm— - _ _ A q _ d _ a c u i a L N irlillillllnhT. : s V ‘1! .. i .1! .3 --il I 1. i an I I. c m - , - - l 1 e {- - .1 A, - , - 1 2 Nu 6:3 52:: .ommdionma “mumzoum .m.D ososo 0m: usofiuuss Hence ~.~ mucosa 17 Table 2.2 contrasts the mean rate of nitrogen application per acre for corn, wheat, cotton and soybean during the past 20 years. The average rate of application per acre for corn doubled between 1964 and 1987, as did that for wheat. The application rates for both soybean and cotton remained relatively stable. The steep increase in the quantity of nitrogen applied to both corn and wheat can be attributed, in part, to the breeding of more nitrogen- responsive corn and wheat hybrids (NRC, 1989). Table 2.2 Approximate application rates (lbs. nitrogen/acre) for corn, cotton, wheat and soybeans for 1964, 1970, 1976, 1982 and 1987 (NRC, 1989). 1964 1970 1976 1982 1987 Corn . . . . 58 115 127 134 130 Cotton . . . 68 79 80 82 82 Wheat . . . . 28 38 49 58 61 Soybeans . . 13 13 13 15 17 The primary corn-producing regions recognized by the USDA are the Corn Belt states (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Missouri), the Lake States (Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota) and the Northern Plains (North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas). From 1917 to 1282, thggg 11 a - . .A -. ._ lo_- ,., _o: . th- ,. t_ __ ..-, d t s 9 . 18 (QICNIers' Fertilizer Expenditures. The increasing dependence of U.S. growers on inorganic nitrogen fertilizers is reflected in the amount of nitrogen used in the production system and the proportion of a grower's total production variable costs accounted for by fertilizer expenditures. It should be noted that increases in prices for nitrogen fertilizers during the 1980's accounted for a portion of the total increase in the fertilizer expenses documented in Figure 2.3 (ERS, 1991, February). The Annual Farm Costs and Returns Survey (AFCRS) jointly conducted by the Economic Research Service (ERS) and the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) revealed that growers spent more on fertilizers than they did on seed, pesticides, fuel or labor. In fact, from 1985 to 1987, the proportion of the total production variable costs accounted for by fertilizers increased from 25% to 33% (ERS, l987)3. Figure 2.3 contrasts the proportion of an average corn grower's production variable costs used to purchase fertilizers to that accounted for by seed, chemicals and fuel and oil outlays. During the three year period covered by the graph, fertilizers accounted for up to 35% of total variable costs, with chemicals accounting for 16% of total variable costs in corn production (ERS, 1987). 3 Non—variable or fixed costs are expenditures on land, buildings and machinery. These are long-term costs which do not vary from year to year. :9 use .03— I oeom ' 26353—5 § nevi—3.8."— :omoszz I —_-_-_- —_ when» mama . wwm— mom— o I_ON u_o¢ 10cm V cm 330 :oSosoosm 033...; 750,—. _o N ”moody mumoo coauosooum announceosa sham owaosoom.sw nonwousoo eves scum peanuts .0000 use Hao use amen .uamowaoso .muonwawuuou an mom 6602:6006 mumoo mdnmfium> cofluosooud Have» we mwmuamoume n.~ assess 20 €110 Policy Context. Failure of past U.S. agricultural policies to effectively address issues of environmental degradation can be attributed to the assumptions or criteria used as a basis for developing them. These assumptions limit the amount of flexibility for program implementation: The assumptions relate to (1) the economic rationality of man, (2) the homogeneous distribution of knowledge and information across a population of farmers, and (3) the individualism of the farmer in his decision-making and action (Korsching and Nowak, 1982, p. 1). To elaborate further, agronomic systems are nested within larger political and socioeconomic systems, which impose constraints upon them. In order to remain financially viable, growers make decisions within the parameters established by these larger systems. Thus, a grower's economic situation and dependency on federal farm programs influence on-farm decisions to differing degrees (Figure 1.1). In an effort to buffer grower income from the instability of market prices and unpredictable weather, and to maintain the supply of certain commodity crops, federal farm policy instituted commodity programs, which offered growers the choice of selling their products to the government in lieu of the marketplace. Because market prices for these commodity crops are generally below those set by USDA, in recent years, growers have preferred to sell 21 their crops to the government. By breaking the linkage between a grower's projected production expenses (supply) and market price (demand), federal policy has created an economically artificial situation within which growers operate. Growers are rewarded for maximizing per acre yields irrespective of demand for that product. Their operations are tailored to be profitable based on the price set by law as opposed to a market price for their products. In a sense, by achieving one objective -- assuring growers of a stable and adequate income -- federal policy has sacrificed another of its objectives -- supply control. The implications for groundwater policy is that commodity programs make it profitable for growers to over- apply agricultural chemicals. In the 1960's, the average rate of application for corn was approximately 65 pounds of nitrogen per acre. At this rate, practically all of the nitrogen applied was removed with the harvest. At a rate of 140 pounds nitrogen per acre, the average during the 1980's, approximately 50% of the nitrogen applied was removed with the harvest (CAST, 1987). This figure includes the stover and grain. If only the grain is harvested, the percentage of applied nitrogen removed is approximately 35% or less (Hallberg, 1987)‘. l. Of the nitrogen left in the field, a certain percentage is locked in the soil as organic material, and some is lost via volatilization. Depending upon the hydrogeology of the area, the remaining nitrogen is lost to groundwater at differing 22 Past policy has encouraged the growth of specialized operations, which are largely dependent on chemical inputs to maintain soil fertility and yields. Because the structure of these operations are profitable within the context of federally supported prices, owners of these operations are compelled to continue to participate in federal commodity programs. To summarize, federal income support programs have altered the rules of the game for participating growers such that, in terms of the decisions made on-farm, these growers respond not so much to market prices (demand) for their products but to the prices set by the government. It should be noted that growers do not make decisions based solely on expected short-term economic returns (Gasson, 1974). This chapter has merely outlined one set of factors, economic, which enter into a grower's decision- making calculus. Attitudinal variables, which are a reflection of the values ascribed by growers to the environment, community, and farming, are equally important, and have had an uncertain influence on growers' on-farm decisions. rates (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology [CAST], 1985). Studies measuring the quantity of nitrates lost to groundwater as a function of nitrogen application rate have shown a positive relationship between application rates and quantity of leachates (Hallberg, 1987). 23 Problem Statement. The House Committee on Agriculture (1988) has suggested that the USDA conduct: Sociological research on chemical management by type of farmer-innovator vs. non-innovator, level of education, farm size, farm capital base, percent of land owned vs. leased etc... Information from this type of research should be useful in targeting education efforts towards "those who have the greatest potential for chemical misuse" and in aiding USDA to "develop appropriate responses in operating its programs: cost-share, commodity support, etc..." (House Committee on Agriculture, 1988). Although studies have been undertaken documenting growers' attitudes toward groundwater quality and the relationship between attitudinal and socioeconomic variables, few have examined the interaction of socioeconomic and attitudinal variables in terms of their influence on a grower's chosen nitrogen management strategy (Halstead et al., 1990; ALPI, 1989; Lasley and Bultena, 1988; Love, 1982: Pratt, 1964). This thesis will investigate the interplay between a grower's attitude toward the use of inorganic nitrogen and his/her financial situation in determining the actual rate at which nitrogen is applied. Formally stated, the hypothesis to be tested in this thesis: 24 The primary determinant of the actual amount of nitrogen used is a grower's financial risk space. Only growers who are financially stable will have the luxury of acting consistently with a_ggnservative attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers. The role played by financial considerations in a grower's decision-making process has been established in the preceding discussion. However, in the conceptual model presented in the introduction (Figure 1.1), attitudinal variables are also proposed to have a significant influence on the rate at which growers apply nitrogen. The following chapter will explore the theoretical basis for the attitudinal-behavioral relationship and discuss its implications for this study. CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW It has been documented in the previous chapter that: (1) the problem of nitrate contamination of groundwater is a growing problem in the United States, particularly in rural communities; and (2) the incentives built into federal farm programs, such as income and price support commodity programs, reward participating growers for maximizing per acre yields instead of maximizing net returns per acre. According to economic theory, growers make decisions based solely on the expected economic benefits to be derived from each outcome (Gasson, 1974). The primary motivating force is the maximization of individual utilities. However, examination of only the economic parameters in decision- making leads to an over-simplification of the process. Values, beliefs and attitudes, which cannot be described by economic theory, may exert great influence on the agronomic choices a grower makes (Gasson, 1974). Agricultural systems are embedded in the society within which they are found. The choices made by individuals are influenced, to differing degrees, by their perceptions of what is appropriate behavior as dictated by societal norms (Hodgson, 1988). Not all growers participate in federal 25 26 farm programs, and among those who do participate in federal programs, fertilizer practices vary considerably. What motivates some growers to minimize their use of fertilizers? Results from previous grower surveys suggest that growers' concern for water quality and the negative health effects of their agricultural practices on themselves and their families is positively related with adoption of nitrogen use- reducing practices (Halstead et al., 1990; Lockeretz and Madden, 1988). For the past sixty years, the issue of whether or not an individual's attitude determines subsequent behavior has been dealt with extensively in attitudinal-behavioral literature (Azjen and Fishbein, 1977; Liska, 1975). However, few of these studies have dealt expressly with growers' attitudes and behavior in terms of their agronomic practices. Despite the scarcity of studies explicitly investigating the attitudinal-behavioral relationship among growers, recent studies that focus on the effects of pro- environmental attitudes on behavior have relevance for this study .(See, for example: Van Liere and Dunlap, 1978; Dunlap, Grieneeks and Rokeach, 1983, chp. 8). Nitrate contamination is a non-point source of pollution. Often times, the negative impacts of nitrate contamination are not experienced by the offending grower. This is attributable to the manner in which nitrates enter an aquifer and contaminate a groundwater flow system (Moody, 1990). The -,‘, _: I i “i a. I 27 motivation to reduce use of nitrogen is similar to motivations for recycling and conserving. In each case, the benefits accruing to the individual are minimal, and the action can be perceived as being motivated more by altruistic rather than self-serving reasons. Definition of Attitude. Attitude can be described as the manner in which an individual evaluates an entity (Azjen and Fishbein, 1977). It is a normative concept in the sense that it cannot be empirically proved or disproved because it is ultimately based on an individual's values. Belief, on the other hand, has been defined as an assessment of what an individual thinks to be true (Dillman, 1978). Because, in theory, it can be determined to be true or not via empirical study, it is considered a positive concept. There is dissension among researchers as to whether it is appropriate to consider the two concepts as different. McGuire (1975) argues that attitudes and beliefs are just two among several closely related constructs that fall in the category, "acquired behavioral dispositions". Attitudes and beliefs, along with opinions, values and cognitions, are so closely related that it would just be academic "hair- splitting" to consider them as distinctly separate constructs. Rokeach (1973) makes no distinction between the normative/positive difference between attitudes and beliefs 28 when he defines attitudes as: ...a relatively enduring organization of inter-related beliefs that describe, evaluate and advocate action with respect to an object or situation. For the purposes of this study, no distinction will be made between a grower's attitude and/or belief toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers. In this thesis, both attitudes and beliefs will be defined as: ...a form of experience that (a) refers to specific objects, events, people or issues, and (b) is primarily evaluative (Eiser and van der Pligt, 1988, p.1). The Theoretical Basis for Consistency Theory. Primarily motivated by the need to explain variation in individual behaviors, early definitions postulated a causal relationship between attitude and behavior (Liska, 1975). It was assumed logical to suppose that, for any given situation, individuals will behave in a manner consistent with their own personal attitudes. Traditional psychologists used the attitude concept to explain differences in individual behavior in the course of experiments, psychoanalysts used it to explain variations in individuals' emotional behavior, and sociologists used it to explain differences in individuals' reaction to the social structure (Liska, 1975). An early definition provided by 29 Allport (1935) illustrates the deterministic influence attitude was believed to have on behavior. He defined attitude as: ...a mental and neural state of readiness, organized throughout experience, exercising a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related (Allport, p. 810). However, results from attitudinal-behavioral studies conducted in the 1930's, 1940's and 1950's suggested that this causal relationship was not valid. The study often used as an example of the inconsistent attitude-behavior relationship was one investigating the effect of prejudicial attitude on behavior conducted by LaPierre (1934). In LaPierre's study, it was shown that although hotel managers (based on their willingness to provide accommodations for a Chinese couple) did not exhibit prejudicial behavior toward Chinese, their responses to a questionnaire sent to them six months later suggested that they were highly prejudicial toward Chinese. This and other studies in problem areas, such as prejudice and cheating, prompted a re-evaluation of the then existing consistency theory (Azjen and Fishbein, 1977: Liska, 1975). In the revised theory, the attitudinal-behavioral relationship is posited to be a correlational as opposed to a causal one. In most cases, attitude is not a good 30 predictor of behavior due to the presence and influence exerted by contextual variables. These situational variables, can act to impede or even neutralize the attitude-behavior relationship (DeFleur and Westie, 1963). ~81tuational Variables. In order to observe a consistent attitude-behavior relationship, two conditions need to be met: (1) situational variables need to be such that there exists an opportunity to display that behavior, and (2) the individual must be ggmpgtgn; enough to carry out the behavior (Liska, 1975). The variables defining opportunity and competence can be both facilitating and neutralizing. In this society, different situations impose different constraints, both social and economic in nature, on behavior, i.e., normative conflict (Westie and DeFleur, 1963). It is the relative weights assigned by individuals on: (1) acting consistently with their attitudes, and (2) the incentives or disincentives as presented by situation- specific variables for acting accordingly, which define the relationship between personal attitudes and relevant behavior in any given situation. To summarize: Behavior is the outcome of personal proclivities and situational stresses. The past behavior flowed from personal attitudes and the situational forces operating on that past occasion. Future behavior ...will derive from personal attitudes and the forces operating in each subsequent, unforeseeable situation. It may well -.. ”.15 fies-cw— 31 be that behavior on any given occasion is more determined by situational rather than personal attitudinal factors, but it is the attitudes which provide the continuity from situation to situation (McGuire, 1975, p. 18). Stated another way: Behavior is the interaction of two variables, the person with goals and aspirations which direct his behavior towards a desired end and his environment, as he perceives it, of resources and material constraints or means to attain a desired end. (Gasson, 1974, p. 522). Attitudinal and Behavioral Change. In cases where behavioral change is voluntary, a necessary prerequisite is recognition for a need to change. It is the acknowledgement of a gap between "what is" and what the individual perceives as "what should be". Needs can be defined as a situation in which one's "desires" outweigh the "actualities" (Rodgers, 1983). It is important to note that the extent to which an individual can act on fulfilling those needs are dependent on the resources at hand and the strength of the stimulus for change. Once more, the presence of facilitating or neutralizing variables influence behavior to address those needs. Increasing the degree of perceived risks associated with inaction such that it becomes greater than the perceived risks of action can lead to both attitudinal and 32 behavioral change. Stated as an equation, risk can be conceived as: Risk = Probability x Severity In this equation, probability is how much or how often, and severity is the risk assigned per unit of action or event. In the decision-making process, the perceived amount or severity of risk acts as an approximation of the risk itself. Re-stating the foregoing equation in terms of perceived risk: Our perception of the magnitude of risk from some event depends on some form of product of how often we think the event will occur and how serious we consider each occurrence to be in its effect (Wilson and Crouch, 1982, pp. 9-10). In a study investigating the effects of fear on attitude and behavior (Leventhal, Singer and Jones, 1965) in regard to tetanus shots among college students, the researchers found that among the experimental group subjected to high fear-arousing information, there was a higher rate of subjects actually seeking to get a tetanus shot than in the control group, which was subjected to low fear-arousing information. In a study investigating the effects of fear-arousal among smokers, those smokers subjected to high fear-arousal communications expressed 33 greater intent to stop smoking than those subjected to low fear-arousal communications (Leventhal, Watts and Pagano, 1967). In both studies, those subjected to high fear- arousal communications and provided with a specific plan of action were more likely to either get tetanus shots or to agree to stop smoking. Stimuli for change are not restricted to factors which directly affect the individual. In a study conducted among recyclers, researchers found that concern for the quality of the environment was adequate stimulus for recycling (Dunlap, Grieneeks and Rokeach, 1983). Unlike the studies on tetanus shots and smoking, neither the benefits derived from recycling nor the costs from not recycling accrue solely to the acting individual. Another important finding in this study was that individuals whose economic needs were met, i.e., safety and security, were more likely to engage in this behavior than those who were more economically disadvantaged. Thus, the ability to engage in "altruistic" behavior would appear to be an option available only for the better off. The interaction of situational variables and attitudes and behavior can be summarized in Schwartz's norm-activation model (1972). In his model, Schwartz postulates that individuals will act consistently with their attitudes if they are aware of the consequences of their actions, and if they accept responsibility for them. Neutralizing factors 34 are those which lead individuals to re-define the decision- making situation. These factors can be inherent in the situation, i.e., time considerations, cost, etc..., or they can stem from the individual in terms of denial of any harmful consequences or denial of responsibility for those consequences resulting from the action. In both of the studies linking fear-arousal with attitudinal and behavioral change, the catalyst for behavioral change was a modification of the individual's risk perception in terms of contracting tetanus or lung cancer as a result of either inaction (not getting inoculated) or continuing the action (smoking). In these cases, fear for one's own personal safety compensated for the extra time, effort and money needed to either get the tetanus shots or stop smoking. Although attitudinal change is not necessarily causally related with behavioral change, it is directly related when the causes of both are directly related, i.e., the probability of lung cancer linked to smoking a pack of cigarettes a day (Azjen and Fishbein, 1977). As the two studies illustrate, in order to induce behavioral change, realization that there exists a need for behavioral change is required. In the study of recyclers, economic security was a significant consideration. 35 In cases where the benefits of an action do not directly accrue to the individual, something more than need recognition is needed. Selective Exposure. Two assumptions are made in the three studies reviewed: (1) All individuals have access to information that could potentially influence them to re- define their risk equations, with respect to a specific action, and (2) the information is given serious consideration. In the real world, however, individuals are not required to be attentive to all the information they receive. Generally, if the individual is not receptive to information that might affect the perceived risks associated with a certain action, then there would exist no conduit by which that information could impact risk perception and, consequently, behavior. Individuals generally tend to expose themselves to ideas that are in accordance with their interests, needs or existing attitudes. We consciously or unconsciously avoid messages that are in conflict with our predispositions. This tendency is called selectiye gxpggttg (Rodgers, 1983, p. 166). Past attitudinal-behavioral studies have shown that attitude and behavior, in the absence of neutralizing situational variables, are closely related (Ehrlich, 1969). However, in reality for any given situation, there exist 36 both neutralizing and facilitating situational variables. It is the relative weights assigned to these variables by the individual in the decision—making situation that determines the strength of the correlation between attitude and relevant behavior. Because attitudes are normative constructs, they can be defined as an individual's assessment or evaluation of a situation or object (Azjen and Fishbein, 1978: McGuire, 1975). Attitudes are closely related to other constructs categorized as "acquired behavioral dispositions." The importance of such constructs in inducing behavioral change lies in the concept of risk. Risk has been defined as an individual's perception of the probability of an event occurring as a result of some action (Wilson and Crouch, 1982). Risk perceptions are not static. New information gathered by the individual can lead to a redefinition of the risk equation. When the risks associated with continuing an action outweigh the risks associated with discontinuing that action, then a stimulus sufficient to induce behavioral change is said to exist. Change can occur either in an individual's awareness of the consequences of an action and/or in the acceptance of responsibility for the negative effects of that action (Schwartz, 1978). However, because individuals are free to ignore information which might not conform to their own personal attitudes or beliefs (selective exposure), the mere existence of information with m “55‘ 37 the potential to motivate a redefinition of one's risk equation is not enough (Rodgers, 1983). Implications for this Study. Two sets of variables have been introduced in this, and previous, chapters which enter into a grower's decision-making calculus. One set, eggngmig anggtgg, focuses on a grower's need to maximize short-term economic benefits. The other set, attitudinal vatiabies, link a grower's behavior with held values and beliefs. Economic variables can act either in concert with or in opposition to attitudinal variables in determining behavior. The degree to which each influences the amount of nitrogen fertilizers used by the grower will be the subject of the remaining chapters in this thesis. CHAPTER 4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH DESIGN Conceptual Framework: Volatile input prices, an unstable market, and unreliable weather --- all contribute to making farming a risky business venture. In such an atmosphere of uncertainty, a rational individual would be reluctant to change established and proven practices. Federal programs, such as commodity income and price support programs, have offered some sense of financial security to growers by assuring them of a fixed price for their products. In exchange, growers who participate in these programs accept a more limited choice set in terms of the agronomic decisions they can make. Not all growers participate in government programs nor do they all use the same management strategies. There exist a considerable number of persons who practice low-input agriculture or organic agriculture. It would appear that growers' decisions are not based solely on an economic (calculus. The values a grower holds in terms of environmental quality and community can influence the final <>utcome. Generally, individuals will behave in accordance ‘Vith their held values if the situation, as they perceive 38 39 it, permits them. It is the relative weights assigned to eadh of these sets of variables which will determine subsequent behavior. This study is limited to the examination of the influence exerted by a grower's financial situation on the attitude- behavior relationship with respect to the application of nitrogen fertilizers (Figure 4.1). Figure 4.1 Variables considered in the study. Finanfial risk space -Groes Income -lrri9ation ~Size of operation pm. Questions from questionnaire Attitule lrdex - Inclination toward application of nitrogen above the recon-tended rates. r—-—-' PJI. Questions from meetionnaire Hypothesis. The classical paradigm for the diffusion of innovations states that early adopters of an agricultural Rate at fluid: Iitrooen was qplied in feed corn prodaction in —)> ‘m. PM. Question in questionnaire .innovation possess the following characteristics: . own large farms, . are more likely to have a commercial rather than a subsistence orientation, . have a more favorable attitude toward credit, . ‘have specialized operations, and . have a greater degree of social mobility than later adopters (Rodgers, 1988). 40 It is assumed, in this model of diffusion, that the innovation being promoted holds a clear economic advantage over the existing technologies. Thus, individuals adopting these technologies do so for economic reasons (instrumental rationality) (McIntosh, Thomas and Albrecht, 1990). However, studies in the diffusion of conservation technologies have noted that the Rodgerian paradigm of diffusion cannot be applied to all technologies. Rather, it is the nature of the technology which defines the characteristics of the early adopters (McIntosh et al., 1990: Carlson and Dillman, 1988: van Es, 1982). Some conservation technologies do not offer an economic advantage to the adopter. Their adoption is grounded in the value orientation of the adopter toward soil conservation rather than the adopter's desire to increase economic efficiency (non-instrumental rationality) (McIntosh et al., 1990). In cases where adoption is the result of non-instrumental rationality, the characteristics identifying early adopters can be expected to differ from those identifying early adopters of economically advantageous technologies. The diffusion of conservation technologies is analogous to the diffusion of nitrogen use-reducing technologies. In both cases, there is a mix of technologies which can be adopted on the grounds of either instrumental or non- instrumental rationality. Nitrogen use-reducing BMPs, in the context of relatively inexpensive nitrogen fertilizers, 41 can be assumed to pose no clear-cut economic advantage to existing practices. In the case of cover crops and rotations, because of the eligibility rules governing farm program participation, their adoption can reduce a grower's income in the short-term. These innovations have a higher risk premium than previous agricultural innovations, such as hybrid corn and the all-purpose tractor. Thus, two characteristics that early adopters of these innovations need to have are: (1) a positive value orientation toward water quality and preservation, and (2) the financial flexibility to absorb financial loss. In this thesis, it is proposed that a grower's financial risk space will determine the strength of the attitude-behavior relationship in terms of nitrogen fertilizer management. Contrary to the Rodgerian model, it is postulated that smaller growers will be more likely to adopt nitrogen use-reducing BMPs than larger growers. The rationale is that smaller growers enjoy a greater degree of financial flexibility than larger growers. Formally stated, the hypothesis to be tested is: H1: Among growers operating within a wide financial risk space, there exists an inverse association between a grower's attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers and actual use of nitrogen in corn production. 42 This tests the null hypothesis: H0: Among all growers, there is no association between a grower's attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers and actual use of nitrogen in corn production. The hypotheses are represented by the equations: H0: dt attituda 5 1 and H1: dt attitaga > 1 N rate N rate In the analysis, an index score will be used as the attitude indicator: the greater the score, the less inclined that grower is toward over—applying nitrogen. fiigh_§ggta§ .7- -u-q . -,reSo- d . _- - _.tes on .99 a ,o . Financial risk space is accounted for by dividing the sample into two subsamples representing wide and narrow financial risk spaces. The hypothesis poses two questions. One question is: Are the attitude and application rate variables interrelated? The second question is: How are these two variables related?. The following test of the hypothesis will be carried out in two steps reflecting these two questions. A chi-square test of independence will establish the interrelatedness between the attitude and application rate variables. The degree of interrelatedness between the variables will be measured using Somers' d, a measure of 43 association. This measure is suited for testing presumed causal relationships between ordinal level variables (Loether and McTavish, 1974). Because the direction of the relationship is explicitly stated in the hypothesis, a one-tailed test was considered appropriate. The critical area is defined at a significance level of .05. By convention, an outcome occurring only 5 out of 100 times by chance is considered sufficiently rare to satisfy confidence in the relationship in sociological research. Because of the "relatively unsophisticated measurement levels of sociological data", this level of significance is commonly used in sociological research (Loether and McTavish, 1974: 144). Research Methods. A cross-sectional design is employed in this study. Few attitudinal-behavioral studies have addressed the question of nitrogen use among U.S. growers. Due to the scarcity of empirical data, the research undertaken in this thesis is primarily exploratory, even though the hypothesis itself poses a question which is explanatory in nature. Explanatory research attempts to study causal processes that occur over time. Use of a cross-sectional study design for this type of research, although common, has an inherent weakness in that it is capable of documenting the process only during a single 44 period of time. Thus, inferences (internal validity) are limited by the use of this design. However, because this research is primarily exploratory, this design is reasonable (Babbie, 1989). ”Choice of this design was dictated by both financial and time considerations. The survey was sponsored by a private seed corn company desiring an inventory of agronomic practices employed by both commercial and seed corn growers in St. Joseph County, Michigan. A time frame and budget was set by the company for the development and conduct of the survey and preparation of the summary report. At the time of the survey, no definitive list of corn growers in the County existed. A list of growers with corn and sorghum acreage enrolled with the St. Joseph County Soil Conservation Service was used to identify potential survey respondents. Because the survey was concerned only with corn growers, questions in the first section of the questionnaire were used to filter out those who did not grow either commercial or seed corn in St. Joseph County during the 1989 season. A nonprobability sampling approach (total enumeration) was used to draw the sample for the survey. This was done because of the lagkmgf a definitiygwligt of corn growers for whom... w the County. In order to ensure maximum coverage of County corn growers, it was decided that all of th on the listwwergwto be sent a questionnaire. A weakness of the ,7 45 list was that growers, who did not have enrolled acreage with the County SCS office (such as Amish growers in the County), were precluded from the potential pool of respondents. The resultant sample is believed to be biased toward high appliers of nitrogen because growers not participating in the institutional system directly affected by federal farm policies were excluded from sample population. Use of nonprobability sampling limits the generalizability of the study results to other areas (external validity). However, because of the prohibitive costs and time demands attendant with developing a comprehensive list of corn growers for St. Joseph County, it was an acceptable choice of sampling method (Babbie, 1989). A self-administered mailed questionnaire was used to collect the data for this study. This method was chosen over face-to-face and telephone interviews for several reasons. First of all, the costs of training interviewers and conducting the interviews would have exceeded the budget for the survey. Secondly, the amount of time needed to contact all of the potential respondents (N=897) would have been greater than the time allotted for the conduct of the survey. Finally, the questionnaire itself was lengthy and contained potentially sensitive questions. In these cases, a self-administered mailed questionnaire is superior to either face-to-face or personal interviews (Dillman, 1978). . U' ..r r‘ w,” “r. 46 questionnaires were mailed to all 897 addresses present on the SCS list. Development of the Questionnaire. In developing the questionnaire, interviews were conducted with specialists in Michigan corn production, agricultural economics, extension and water quality in the departments of Crops and Soil Science, Agricultural Economics and Resource Development at Michigan State University. Interviews with personnel from the Cooperative Extension Service in St. Joseph County and a seed corn company which contracts growers in the County were also conducted. The questionnaire was a collaborative effort between the Department of Resource Development at Michigan State University, the Cooperative Extension Service of St. Joseph County, and the private seed corn company sponsoring the survey. The final questionnaire is divided into six sections: General Information, Commercial/Feed Corn Production, Seed Corn Production, General Farm Practices, Environmental Attitudes and Opinions and Background Information. In the commercial/feed corn, seed corn and general farm practices sections, respondents were asked about the type of irrigation equipment and farming practices, including nitrogen fertilizer management, used in the production of commercial/feed corn, seed corn, and other crops in 1989. ' Jam-J" .- - _ . J -, u WW” 'f ._ .gw' first-'- 47 Respondents were instructed to skip a section if that section was not relevant to their farming operation (Figure 4.2). Figure 4.2 V Organization of the Questionnaire General Information on CW 8°“ 60'" Farm Structure [ Grows feed corn Only feed . com Commercial/Feed Corn Operation l Grows seed corn i . Seed Corn Operation l General Farm Practices All growers Environmental Attitudes and Opinions All growers Socioeconomic Information 48 The questionnaire itself is a booklet measuring 5 3/8" by 8 1/2". Following the recipe provided by Dillman (1978) in his definition of the appropriate design of a questionnaire, efforts were made to make the questionnaire attractive. A soft blue cover was used. On the front, the survey logo (a cornstalk) was included along with the name of the survey unit, the Corn Growers Survey Team, responsible for its contents and conduct. It was 16 pages in length, not including the front and back covers. Instructions were located on the inside of the front cover, and space was provided on page 16 and on the inside of the back cover for respondents' comments. A replica of the questionnaire is contained in Appendix A. The questionnaire was pre-tested among a group of ten growers, and subsequently, further modifications were made in the questionnaire before the actual mailing in March, 1990. A major change arising from the pre-test was the exclusion of sensitive questions concerning growers opinions towards agriculture's role in the nitrate problems currently affecting certain areas of the County. Growers in the pre- test group felt that leaving the questions in the questionnaire would negatively impact the response rate. A 'copy of the questions excluded are contained located in Appendix A. IIIIIIIIII’h--JIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIE:IC:Ii.II‘IhIiiIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIH::IIIIIII 49 Conduct of the Survey. The methods used in the conduct of the survey are outlined by Dillman (1978)in his Igtai_fla§iga Mathgg framework. This framework was chosen because of its well-established use among social science researchers. Continuity and personalization in all correspondence sent to growers was achieved via the inclusion of a logo (a cornstalk) on all the correspondence (including the questionnaire) sent to the potential respondents and identification of the survey unit responsible for the survey as the Corn Growers Survey Team. All correspondence was acknowledged as coming from this unit. An advance letter was sent to all the prospective respondents (Appendix B). Respondents were warned that the they would be receiving a questionnaire sponsored by the Department of Resource Development at Michigan State \\ University two weeks after receiving the letter. In order //) to encourage response to the survey, potential respondents were informed that: (1) the survey was a collaborative effort between MSU and the St. Joseph Cooperative Extension Service, (2) results would be used to design future programs and research for the benefit of St. Joseph County corn growers, and (3) all individual responses were strictly confidential. It was stated in the advance letter that the survey results would be made available to the respondents. 50 The questionnaire packet consisted of the questionnaire, a stamped and pre-addressed return envelope, a cover letter and instructions. In the cover letter, sponsorship for the survey was acknowledged as coming from a private seed corn company. Returned questionnaires were tracked using a customized D-base III program. Two weeks‘m after the initial mailing, a reminder postcard was sent to Iwww-~w~a»~e— -i_iu all of the growers in the sample encouraging them to fill- 5 out the questionnaire and return it. Growers were also I encouraged to return the questionnaire blank if they did not wish to complete it. Two weeks after the reminder postcards were mailed out, a second mailing of the questionnaire was undertaken. Growers who at that point, a month after the initial mailing, had not yet returned the questionnaire were sent a second questionnaire packet. Two months after the initial mailing of the questionnaire, the collection of questionnaires was considered closed. Response Rate. Of the potential pool of 897 respondents, 322 returned completed questionnaires, and 62 returned the questionnaire blank. Of the 897 names which were on the list, 103 were disqualified because the grower either no longer lived at the address or was no longer growing corn. Disqualification was based on returned advance letters or notes from growers indicating that they no longer grew corn. 51 These growers were removed from the potential pool of respondents yielding a response rate of 41% (Table 4.1). Table 4.1 Summary of survey responses Growers whose names were on the list . . . . . . . . 897 Disqualified questionnaires . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Growers who returned the questionnaire blank . . . . 62 Growers who returned a completed questionnaire . . . ii; Response Rate 41% Generally, a level of at least 50% is considered the minimum standard for an acceptable response rate. However, there is no statistical basis for this standard. For the purposes of external validity, a lack of non-response bias is considered more important than a high response rate. Non-response bias is introduced into the survey data when the composition of the respondents returning the questionnaire does not adequately reflect the variability existing in the survey population. This is particularly troublesome for mailed questionnaires because of the prominent role played by self-selection in the process (Babbie, 1988: Dillman, 1978). Because a non-probability sampling method was used in this study, a demonstrated lack of non-response bias would be a sounder basis upon which to gauge the reliability of the data than the response rate. 52 In terms of coverage, the survey represents over two- thirds of the cropland and commercial (feed) corn acreage in the County (Table 4.2). Table 4.2 Comparison of acreage represented by the survey and total acreage recorded in the 1987 census*. Acres represented 1987 Census Percentage ty the survey ** agreage totals 9f tgtai Total Cropland 116,089 179,703 65% Total acreage in feed corn 42,227 67,500 63% *Census was conducted by the Michigan Department of Agriculture in 1987 "Survey figures are for 1989 When broken down into farm size classes, the distribution of respondents according to the scale of their operations closely parallels the distribution figures contained in the 1987 census (Table 4.3.). There is a slight over- representation of larger growers, i.e., operations greater than 500 acres, in the sample population. However, the differences between the proportion of growers in the different size classes in the sample and in the actual population does not exceed 5%. 53 Table 4.3 Comparison of sizes (acres) of farming operations between survey respondents and the general population as measured in the 1987 census. Survey 1987 Message Difference s : 1 to 99 acres . . . . . 38% 42% 5% 99 to 179 acres . . . . 16% 21% 5% 180 to 259 acres . . . . 10% 10% 0% 260 to 499 acres . . . . 13% 14% 1% 500 to 999 acres . . . . 13% 10% -3% 1,000 to 1,999 acres . . 8% 3% -5% 2,000 or more acres . . 2% .7% -1.3% In terms of the total acreage represented by the survey and the representativeness of the sample with respect to scale of operation, the response to the survey was better than the actual response rate would suggest. Measurement of the Variables. Data used to measure the variables considered in the hypothesis were obtained either from the survey or derived ex-post. In cases where the data needed were not available in the survey results (par ex., recommended rates and yield goals) interviews were conducted with specialists in the St. Joseph County Cooperative Extension Service and in the Department of Crops and Soils Science at Michigan State University in order to derive an estimate of these figures. 54 The following sections outline the methods used to construct an index intended to measure a grower's attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers, to divide the sample into subsamples reflective of wide and narrow financial risk spaces, and to develop recommended application rates for irrigated and dryland corn production. Attitude Index. An index is a cumulative score derived from several questions used to measure a complex phenomena (Babbie, 1990). A five-item index was developed to measure a grower's inclination to apply more than the recommended rate of nitrogen. The soundness of the Attitude Toward the Use of Nitrogen (ATUN) index was gauged using two criteria: face validity and internal validity. Face validity is "that quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable" (Babbie, 1989, p. G3). Each of the questions comprising the attitude index asks respondents to agree or disagree with statements concerning the use (i.e., an action) of nitrogen fertilizers (Table 4.1). In past studies, it has been noted that: High attitude behavior correlations cannot be expected in the absence of correspondence between attitudinal and behavioral entities... the most appropriate predictor of a single act criterion is the attitude toward the action rather than the attitude toward the target (Azjen and Fishbein, 1977, p. 891). omaoom 3.99 So; 9:3 89:... 8“ *0“ *ON *Nv *0 ................ twocoeeoooh >=m=w3 m_ 55 ao~___t2 9: =m mm: 295598 00. m_ = .m 68ch *N 85V *mm *0? *9 .................... imm>_m g btsomw or: .2 >8 2 more 7.9m: o m_ 85.2.2 see 2:: a .o v.8 as .v swans *0 § *0“ g F? *m ........................... Dmvmwc 2.8. m_ :9: 99: .2 =3 mcozaocoEEoom. Sausage $5.22 .238: .m swans *0 *0“ §N *FV *m ................. mwcnuha Ehmh mmmmwhoc_ vs. .355. so om: mc_~_E_c__2 .N Anmmucv ng $8 * PN §F $N .................... i°ocmhamc_ boom :05 s 555.9 use 9.35% .6853 c. .F 63ch E E E Q E All—cacao 2%.. 62mm 36st 29.96 022 .8502 $635 29.5an .moaoswsvouu uncommon use xopcfi Azaamv ems :mmouuwz moumkoa opsufiuum ecu possumcoo on com: mcoflumwzo v.4 OHQMB 56 A single act criterion is defined as the combination of both target and action elements observed in a single behavior. In this study, nitrogen fertilizers constitute the target element, and the rate at which it is applied constitutes the action element. Both are the focus of the attitudinal questions used to construct the index (Table 4.4). Internal validatignmgr item analysis is the process by h“ v which the ability of the composite index to predict the responses of the items included in the index is evaluated (Babbie, 1990). A reliability test using SPSS—X (the mainframe version of §tatiatiga1_2agkaga_tg;_tna_§ggial figiangag) was run on the items comprising the index in order to assure an adequate level of internal validity. Items one and four were reverse scored so that they would be consistent with the other three index items. A five part Likert-scale was used to rank responses. For each question, the range was from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). For the purposes of simplifying the subsequent analysis, the five response categories were collapsed into three (Table 4.5). 57 Table 4.5 Scoring categories for the ATUN index. Categories Scoring as Corresponding presented in the categories in the questionnaire questionnaire 0 1 to 2 Strongly disagree or disagree 1 3 Neutral 2 4 to 5 Agree or strongly agree The range of index scores was 0 to 10. The reliability coefficient calculated for the five items was 0.528 (Table 4.6). Table 4.6 Internal validity check of the ATUN index SCALE SCALE MEAN VARIANCE IF ITEM IF ITEM DELETED DELETED 02101 3.7692 4.3635 02102 4.5192 3.8568 02103 4.5154 3.9882 02104 3.9577 4.2492 02105 4.4692 4.2500 CORRECTED ITEM‘ TOTAL CORRELATION ALPHA IF ITEM DELETED .4644 .4420 .4422 4829 331 RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS N OF CASES = 260.0 ALPHA 8 0.5288 N OF ITEMS = 5 58 Although it would appear that a reliability coefficient of 0.5288 is low, it should be noted that the questions contained in the index measure two different dimensions or motivations (i.e., target and action variables) which can shape a grower's attitude towards the use of nitrogen fertilizers. The relationships between the items used in the index are illustrated in the correlation matrix below (Table 4.7) Table 4.7 Correlation matrix for items in the Attitude Towards Nitrogen Use (ATUN) index. Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 1 1.0000* .2492* .0784 .5744* -.1106* Item 2 1.0000* .2261* .2009* .1798* Item 3 1.0000* .0177 .4628* Item 4 1.0000* -.0278 Item 5 1.0000* * Level of Significance < .05 The two dimensions measured by the index are use of nitrogen fertilizers as security or yield insurance (items 1 and 4), and reduced use of fertilizers as a means of increasing economic profits (items 2, 3 and 5). There is a significant correlation between items 1 and 4, and between items 2, 3 and 5. Given that the index measures two dimensions of the WI 59 attitude construct, a reliability coefficient of .5288 is not unreasonables. Financial Risk Space: The sample was divided into four subsamples based on reported total farm sales for 1989 and irrigation of corn crop (Figure 4.3). This division was undertaken for the purpose of developing economically homogenous groups representing growers with wide versus narrow financial risk spaces. A wide financial risk space reflects the economic flexibility a grower has with which to experiment with nitrogen use reducing practices which could also reduce yield and/or income. Indicators considered in this study are W and W as represented in the use and/or possession of irrigation equipment. Two of the four subsamples, large growers/irrigated and small growers/dryland, were chosen for the subsequent analysis to test the hypothesis because: (1) they represent the extremes in terms of economic circumstances among the four subsamples derived, and (2) the sample sizes for the other two groups are too small for the statistical tests which will be used. 5 Harry Schwarzweller, personal communication, April 27, 1991. I I ‘9 1' ' 0 . . . I . r ‘. ' i . V I'_'.- ' . 60 The intent in dividing the sample into subsamples was to derive groups that are relatively homogenous economically in order to control for as many economic variables as possible. The effectiveness of the two indicators chosen to divide the groups is justified by the significant differences in the average total acreage and average total commercial corn acreage between the two subsamples chosen for subsequent analysis (Table 4.8). A one-tailed ANOVA test was used to determine level of significance. Table 4.8 Summary table of average total acreage and average total commercial corn acreage for the subsamples used to test the hypothesis. Large growers/ Small growers/ o (n=52) (n=70) Total tillable acres . . . . 1118 254* Total commercial corn acres . 481 65* *Significance level < .05 mflmunuomwc ecu unwumou as com: mmaasmmnsm s «Aonucv .mwma as once some muaesuua no: use 0:3 muu3oum HHMEm AAIIlllA ocsaaho AA . Aooo.ooamvosoocH mmouoe Abducv A muoaoum HHoEm .moma aw :uou coon coucmfluufl one muuzoum Hanan AAIIIIIA pounmfiuuH AA .6 use .mwma :a neon coon muumwuuw uo: can on: muo3oum mound AAIllIlA pcoahuo AA Aooo.ooaoneou:H mwouov «Ammucv mamaoum mound .mme CH cuoo coon pouumwuuw 0:3 muozoum amend AA 61 A coummfluum AA 0 030 0 nodes luau acowusuemo cceahuc use nacho an chateau ceueuawun uo nodusuemem "a mean we coaueuemem "a noun .mmsoum Rosana msocumoao: aaamofiaocooo anew mamfimm one no cofimfi>fio on» a“ new: uuono 30am n.v shaman ..h' an.” ’2 62 Correlations between profitability and farm size has been noted in a 1988 survey conducted among Michigan cash crop growers (Hepp, 1989). It was found that major differences between high profit and low profit operations were the number of tillable acres, yields and financial returns per acre. Low profit farms had fewer tillable acres and less investment (Hepp, 1989). In another survey conducted by the Michigan Agricultural Experimental Station (AES), it was shown that although small growers had less profitable operations, i.e., lower returns per acre, a greater proportion of them were debt-free after sale of their crop. This is due, in part, to the fact that a greater proportion of the family income was derived from off-farm sources. Furthermore, small growers had invested less in terms of capital improvements and machinery than larger growers (AES, 1990). Based on the results of these two surveys, it can be inferred that small growers (gross farm sales less than $100,000) who do not irrigate have a wider financial risk space than large growers (gross farm sales equal to or greater than $100,000) who do irrigate. Larger growers enjoy greater financial returns per acre than smaller growers, but a greater proportion of their family income is derived from their agricultural activities. This restricts their flexibility in terms of experimenting with potentially income-reducing management practices and/or technologies. 63 Application Rate: In order to test the study's hypothesis, it was necessary to categorize the nitrogen application rates reported by the survey respondents into low applier, recommended rate applier, and high applier groups. The recommended nitrogen fertilizer application rates were derived using the following equation (CES E-550, 1985): XN = {-27 + (1.36 * yc)] - [40 + (60 * p5)] — (4 * TM) where: XN = recommended rate YG = Yield goal specified by grower PS = Percent stand of alfalfa from previous season TM = Tons of manure applied In deriving the recommended application rates, two assumptions were made: (1) livestock manure was not used by the respondents (TM=0); and (2) an alfalfa crop did not precede the 1989 corn crop (PS=0). The first assumption, TM=0, is validated by the fact that only one respondent in the large growers/irrigated group and only two respondents in the small growers/dryland group indicated that they had applied livestock manure to their commercial corn in 1989. Given that only one respondent admitted to having an alfalfa field in 1989, the second assumption, PS=0, is also justified. Respondents' yield goals for the 1989 season were not solicited in the questionnaire. Yield goal is the projected yield in terms of number of bushels per acre calculated by 64 the grower at the beginning of the season. A range of yield goals was approximated for irrigated and dryland corn based on information provided by the St. Joseph County Cooperative Extension Service‘ and twenty year irrigated and dryland corn yields generated with the CERES-MAIZE simulation model (Vieux, Ervin, Schwab and Needham, 1988). The yield goals and corresponding recommended rates for irrigated and dryland corn are presented in Table 4.9. Table 4.9 Yield and applier categories for irrigated and dryland corn Yield Goal* Recommended Rate** Irrigated corn . . 150 to 190 180 to 230 Dryland corn . . . 70 to 120 70 to 140 * Suehels per acre ** Pounds Actual Nitrogen per acre rounded off to the nearest ten A missing factor in the above calculations is soil type. It is acknowledged that soil type is a consideration when gauging the appropriate amount of nitrogen to be applied. In the survey area, four types of soils: sandy, sandy-loam, loamy-sand and loam, are present. However, soil type was not considered in the derivation of the recommended rate categories for two reasons. First, a field can be 6 Rod King, personal communication February 10, 1991. ‘w- arm“. w 65 composed of several soil types. It is unlikely that a grower will modify application rate for each different soil type present in a field. Generally, the actual application rate is modified according to the topography and soil composition of the field. To accurately calculate the appropriate recommended rate for each of the respondents' fields, would have required time and expense beyond the scope of this thesis. Second, examination of actual soil test results for St. Joseph County growers (dated June 1989) from the MSU soil testing lab revealed that recommended rates were influenced to a greater degree by the use of alfalfa as a previous crop and yield goal than by soil type7. Conclusion. It is proposed in this study that an inverse relationship between a grower's inclination to apply nitrogen fertilizers at recommended rates and his/her actual use of nitrogen fertilizers will be observed only if the grower's financial risk space is wide. The independent variables (attitude score and financial risk space) and the 7 At the time of the survey, no reliable soil test for nitrogen had been developed for'wide-scale use in the Great Lakes area. Due to the volatility of nitrogen in the soil and the contribution made by organic nitrogen via mineralization (positively related to soil temperature), nitrogen content in the soil was not tested for unless specifically demanded by the grower (CES Bulletin E-550). 66 dependent variable (actual pounds of nitrogen applied per acre) have been defined. In the following chapter, the hypothesis will be tested using Pearson's chi-square test of independence and Somers' d measure of association. Also included will be the results of these statistical tests. WI CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS It has been advanced that growers' opportunities are defined by public policies. Traditionally, federal farm policy has dictated the parameters of grower behavior via price and income support programs. Groundwater policy proposes to work within the economic parameters defined by federal farm policy to change growers' nitrogen management practices. The objective is to bring about reform in nitrogen practices by changing grower's attitudes towards the use of nitrogen. The assumption underlying this strategy is that grower's have enough latitude within their opportunity sets to act in accordance with their attitudes and beliefs. In the following analysis, the interrelationship between three variables: financial risk space, attitude towards the use of nitrogen, and application rate will be investigated. Controlling for financial risk space, 3 x 3 bivariate contingency tables were constructed for the two subsamples identified as representing growers with a wide financial risk space (small growers/dryland) and growers with a narrow financial risk space (large growers/irrigated) . The independent variable is identified as a grower's score on the Attitude Towards the Use of Nitrogen (ATUN) index. The 67 68 dependent variable is the reported rate at which nitrogen fertilizers were applied by the respondents in their commercial corn operation in 1989. Socioeconomic Differences between the Subsamples. In most sociological studies employing survey methods, it is impossible to account for all the variables other than the designated independent *variables ‘which. can. act. upon, the dependent variable. Ideally, all variables other than those under study are controlled in order not to confound the results. In studies employing survey methods to obtain the data, the confounding effects of these variables must be identified before the hypothesis can be tested (Selvin, 1970) . In this study, two subsamples were derived on the basis of irrigation practices and gross farm sales. Admittedly, the two groups differed in other respects. Table 5.1 contrasts the differences between the groups in terms of selected socioeconomic variables which have been identified as directly affecting a grower's attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers and indirectly affecting nitrogen. management practices (Figure 1.1). A one—tailed means test was employed to determine if there were significant differences between the groups. ‘ q 5 . a 9 - , u 69 Table:5.1 Summary table of selected socioeconomic variables. Large growers/ Small growers/ irtigators QEXLQDQ (n=52) (n=75) Age . . . . . . . . . . 46 years 51 years Years Farming . . . . . 26 years 28 years Education: Completed High School 50% 53% Post-H.S. education . 50% 47% Organization of Farm: Family farm . . . . . 75% 87% Other* . . . . . . . 25% 13% * Partnership, Family-held corporation, Non-family corporation In terms of age, farming experience, level of education and farm organization, there were no significant differences between the two grower groups. These results lend support to the assumption made in this study that intra-group differences are minimal with respect to these key socioeconomic variables. Attitude Scores. The original scoring for each of the five items in the ATUN index ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The scores for items 1 and 4 were reverse scored in order to assure a consistent direction in scoring between all of the items. The five scoring categories were further collapsed into three categories representing growers , . . .... . . _ . ‘ _.._!;_8f .'6-. 1+ ‘. ‘_ "Tin-(sum: :... w , _- WI 70 who disagreed (0 points), were neutral (1 point) and agreed (2 points) with the statements in the index. The total ATUN score per respondent ranged from 0 to 10. The average scores for each group are presented in Table 5.2. Table 5.2 Average scores per item contained in the ATUN index. Large growers/ Small growers/ irrig_' ' ator dryland (n=52) (n=70) Item 1 . . . . . .1.725 1.449 Item 2 . . . . . . .824 .676 Item 3 . . . . . . .577 .899 Item 4 . . . . . .1.510 1.309 Item 5 . . . . . . . 53 .9i; Total .4.904 5.217 On the average, growers in both the large growers/irrigated and small growers/dryland, were moderately inclined to use nitrogen fertilizers conservatively. A one-tailed means test was performed to determine if there was a significant difference between the average ATUN scores between the two grower groups. It was important to see if ATUN scores were affected by the financial variables used to derive the subsamples. An f-value of .4351 was calculated which correlates with an alpha (level of significance) of .5107. The result of this test indicates that the two variables used to define financial risk space did not significantly affect the mean scores on the ATUN index. ' -‘!' VT“ its” ~r / A a" I; J I" I y I . I \ 71 In order to facilitate the next step of the analysis, the ATUN scores were grouped into three categories: inclined to apply more than recommended rates, neutral and disinclined to apply more than recommended rates. All growers with scores less than 4 were placed in the inclined group, growers with scores falling in the 5 to 6 range were considered neutral, and growers with scores greater than 7 were placed in the disinclined group. The percentage of growers falling into each of the attitude categories are presented in Table 5.3. Table 5.3 The three ATUN categories and the percentage of growers from each subsample in each category. Large growers/ Small growers/ irrigator gtyland (n=52) (n=70) (1) Inclined . . . . . 46% 42% (2) Neutral . . . . . 29% 30% (3) Disinclined . . . gfit gag Total . . . . . . 100% 100% 72 Application Rates. The average rate at which nitrogen was applied to commercial corn in 1989 by the large grower/irrigator group was 175.5 lbs. Nitrogen per acre. For the small grower/dryland group, the average rate was 117.6 lbs. Nitrogen per acre. A one-tailed ANOVA test was used to determine if there was a significant difference in means between the two subsamples. A f-value of 21.3309 was obtained: this corresponds to an alpha of .0000 suggesting that there is a significant difference in the average rate at which nitrogen was applied between the two groups. Based upon their reported application rate of nitrogen, growers in each group were placed into one of three categories corresponding with; . Applying nitrogen at a rate below the recommended rate; . Applying nitrogen at the recommended rate: and . Applying nitrogen at a rate above the recommended rate. The percentage of growers from each group falling into the different categories are presented in Table 5.4. 73 Table 5.4 Application rate categories and the percentage of growers from each subsample contained in each category. Large growers/ Small growers/ irrism (n=52) (n=70) (1) Below recommended rates . . . . . . . . 61% 13% (2) Recommended rate* . . . . . . . . 29% 66% (3) Above recommended rates . . . . . . . . _ig§ 213 Total I O O 0 O O O O 100% 100% * Recomended rates for: dryland = 70 lbs. N/acre to 140 lbs. N/acre irrigated 8 180 lbs. N/acre to 230 lbs. N/acre Nitrogen contributed by livestock manure applications was not included in the application rates derived for this analysis. Only three growers in both groups (i.e., irrigators and dryland) responded that they applied livestock manure as fertilizer during the 1989 corn season. The findings contained in Table 5.4 are consistent with the Rodgerian paradigm of the diffusion of innovations. In his paradigm, Rodgers states that early adopters can be characterized as having large and specialized farms (Rodgers, 1988). Over half of the large growers/irrigated, compared to less than a fifth of the smaller growers/dryland, applied nitrogen at below recommended rates. This result can be interpreted to imply that larger growers/irrigated have have been more prone to adopt 74 nitrogen use-reducing practices and technologies than smaller growers/dryland. It would appear that in terms of nitrogen-use reducing technologies, as a group, the Rodgerian model is applicable. A weakness in this study has been the need to infer growers' yield goals ex-post facto. Admittedly, yield goals vary according to soil type, management and a particular fields proven yield capacity. In Table 5.4, the category containing the greatest number of growers for the large growers/irrigated group is the "below recommended rates" category. Assuming a normal distribution of yield goals among these growers, one would expect a distribution similar to the one for small growers/dryland group. The outcome for the large growers/irrigated group raises the question: Do large growers/irrigated as a group apply nitrogen at below recommended rates or is this just an artifact of the methods used to define the application rate categories? Because data pertaining to previous nitrogen use by these growers are not available, this question cannot be answered. However, this result does suggest that caution should be taken in the interpretation of the results of the subsequent analyses. 75 Cover crops and rotations are promoted as BMPs in Michigan. The percentage of growers from each grower group utilizing cover crops and rotations in their farming operations are summarized in Table 5.5. Table 5.5 Percentage of large growers/irrigated and small growers/dryland reporting to have used cover crops and rotations in their operations in 1989. Large growers/ Small growers/ irrigatot Qtyland (n=52) (n=70) Used cover crops . . . 35% 28% Used rotations . . . . 50% 60% There is no significant difference in the percentage of growers employing either cover crops or rotations between the two groups. This finding brings into question the validity of the assumption that smaller growers would be more likely to adopt technologies, such as cover crops and rotations, which are not perceived to have a clear economic advantage over existing technologies (McIntosh et al., 1990). Test of Independence. A chi-square test of independence was undertaken for both the large growers/irrigated and small growers/dryland groups. A 3 x 3 contingency table containing the ATUN and application rate variables was constructed (Tables 5.6 and 5.7). 76 Table 5.6 Contingency table: Application rate by ATUN score for large growers/irrigated group. AIHH_§QQI§§ gfigéiggsign Inclined Neutral Disinclined Total Below 6 8 8 32 Recommended 5 6 4 15 Above 3 1 1 5 Totals (n) 24 15 13 52 Table 5.7 Contingency table: for small growers/dryland group. Application rate by ATUN score sc é:§:i£é§ign_ Inclined Neutral Disinclined Totals Below 1 1 6 8 Recommended 23 14 9 46 Above 5 6 4 15 Totals (n) 29 21 19 69* *Missing case 1 In the contingency tables for both groups, five of the nine cells contained an expected frequency of less than five. Although it has been recommended that the expected frequency 77 for any one cell in a contingency table be at least 5, some studies suggest that this rule is too stringent and can be relaxed (Everitt, 1977). A Pearson chi-square test of independence was performed for each subsample in order to ascertain if the ATUN and application rate variables were independent. In this test, the two variables are considered independent if "the probability that a case falls into a given cell is simply the product of the marginal probabilities of the two categories defining the cell" (Norusis, 1988, p. B-97). The critical area correlating with a .05 level of significance corresponds with a value equal to, or greater than, 9.49 (degrees of freedom = 4). The null and alternative hypotheses can be stated as follows: H0: Chi-square value < 9.49 and H1: Chi-square value 2 9.49 The results of the chi-square test are contained in Table 5.8. 78 Table 5.8 Results of the Pearson chi-square test for independence yaiua Signifiganga Large growers/irrigated 1.85778 .76190 Small growers/dryland . 11.53196 .02119 For the small growers/dryland group, the null hypothesis was rejected. For the large growers/irrigated group, we fail to reject the null hypothesis because the chi-square value is less than the value defining the critical area. Measure of Association. The next step in the analysis was to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between the ATUN score and application rate for the small growers/dryland group. The results of the chi-square test indicate that there is a significant degree of interrelatedness between the ATUN score and application rate for the small growers/dryland group but not for the large growers/irrigated group. A Somers' d test was used to measure the degree of interrelatedness between the ATUN and application rate variables. The resultant values when using Somers' d range from +1 to -1. A positive value is indicative of a direct relationship between the variables being tested, and a negative value is indicative of an inverse or indirect relationship. Thus, it is a measure which can indicate both 79 the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. This measure of association was chosen because of the level of measurement of the variables in the hypothesis, the hypothesized relationship between the variables, and the structure of the contingency table. Somers' d is a correct measure for variables measured at the ordinal level. Furthermore, it is an asymmetric measure which is appropriate when testing the causal or predictive relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable. Other measures, such as gamma, tau-b and tau-c, assume a symmetrical relationship between the variables being tested and are used in cases where no distinction between independent and dependent variables are made (Loether and McTavish, 1974). In terms of the number of allowable categories per variable, i.e., the number of rows and columns, it is not restrictive unlike other measures such as phi that require a 2 x 2 table. Finally, Somers' d is a PRE (Predicted Reduction in Error) measure. The calculated value represents the reduction in the probability of error when predicting the rank of the dependent variable when the rank of the independent variable is known (Norusis, 1988). The results of the test for measure of association are presented in Table 5.9. 80 Table 5.9 Results of the Somers' d measure of association between the ATUN and application rate variables for the small growers/dryland group. Value With application rate dependent* . . . . . . . -.09814 With ATUN score dependent . . . . . . . -.12988 * Causal relationship advanced in the hypothesis The results of the test support the hypothesis which postulates a negative association between a grower's ATUN score and application rate. However, the causal relationship posited in the hypothesis is not strongly supported. Given a grower's ATUN score, the error in predicting the application rate is reduced by approximately 10%. A slightly stronger association between the variables is presumed when a grower's application rate category is considered the independent variable. In this case, the predictive ability of application rate is superior to that of ATUN score by approximately 3%. However, this difference is not great. 81 Summary of results. The empirical results of the statistical tests concur with the predicted relationship between the ATUN and application rate variables advanced in the hypothesis. It would appear that financial variables can affect the attitude-behavior relationship to the point of neutralizing it. For growers with a wide financial risk space, attitude was found to be negatively associated with application rate. However, the calculated measure of association indicates that this relationship is a weak one. The data suggests that a relationship exists between attitude and application rate, but it is not conclusive. An interesting finding was that a considerable number of growers from both groups already utilize cover crops and rotations in their farming operations (Table 5.5). Furthermore, more than half of the large growers/irrigated applied nitrogen in their commercial corn enterprise at rates below the recommended rate (Table 5.4). Because of the need to infer growers' yield goals ex-post, the validity of this result is questioned. The results of the statistical test are in accord with the growing body of empirical and qualitative evidence contending that educational efforts intended to reform targeted agricultural practices will be limited in their effectiveness without complementary changes in agricultural policy. Implications for current groundwater policy will be discussed in the proceeding chapter. CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The central question posed in this thesis is: Given the economic structure under which growers operate today, how effective can educational programs be in bringing about the adoption of nitrogen use-reducing practices? The efficacy of educational programs in raising grower awareness of water quality issues and concern for the health and environmental costs arising from nitrate contamination has been documented in the literature (Halstead et al., 1990: Martin et al., 1990: ALPI, 1989: Lasley and Bultena, 1988). Yet, in terms of average rate at which nitrogen is applied per acre, there has not been a significant reduction (TVA, 1990, December: NRC, 1989). Findings. The question posed in this thesis can be answered by studying the differential influences exerted by attitudinal and financial variables on the nitrogen management decisions made by a grower. In the conceptual model of a grower's decision-making process presented in the introduction (Figure 1.1), attitudinal and financial variables were identified as the primary determinants of the 82 {.1 83 amOunt of nitrogen applied during production. Of the two primary'variables, financial variables were postulated to have a dominating effect on the expression of the attitude- behavior relationship. These variables are a subset of a larger class of situational variables which, for any given situation, define the opportunity individuals have to articulate their attitudes via consistent behavior. It was postulated in the hypothesis that an inverse relationship between ATUN (Attitude Toward the Use of Nitrogen) score and application rate would be observed aniy among small growers who practiced dryland corn culture, the rationale being that small growers have greater financial latitude to experiment with potentially income-reducing practices than do larger growers. Their economic situation would permit them, to a greater degree than larger growers, to adopt innovations on the basis of philosophical rather than economic reasons. Two previous studies have indicated that small growers derive a greater proportion of their income from off-farm sources, and make fewer investments in their production operations than large growers (Hepp, 1990: Michigan AES, 1990). Because their subsistence relies less upon the profitability of their operations, small growers/dryland may have a wide financial risk space, thus allowing them to act in accordance with their attitudes. Large growers/irrigated were considered to have a narrow financial risk space 84 because a significant proportion of their livelihood was ‘based upon the profitability of their operations, thereby limiting the types of decisions they could make. The empirical results partially support the hypothesis. A weak inverse relationship was observed among the small growers/dryland group, but not among the large growers/irrigated group. Apart from the differences in average application rates, there were no significant differences in terms of average ATUN scores, age, farming experience and education between the two grower groups. In the conceptual model, age, farming experience and education were indicated as being influential in shaping the attitude a grower holds toward the use of nitrogen. The observed similarity in these socioeconomic variables and ATUN scores between the two grower groups is consistent with the model. Given the similarities between the two groups, it is evident that a grower's financial situation greatly influences the types of management changes which a grower does make. Two unexpected and interesting findings are: (1) a considerable number of growers in both groups already use cover crops (31%) and rotations (56%) in their farming operations: and (2) more than half of the large growers/irrigated applied nitrogen at below recommended rates in their commercial corn enterprise in 1989 (Table 5.4). In discussing the rationale for the hypothesis, it was proposed that smaller growers would be 85 more likely to adopt nitrogen-use reducing BMPs, such as cover crops and rotations, than larger growers, the rationale being that larger growers were influenced, to a greater degree, by economic considerations than smaller growers, and cover crops and rotations do not pose a large economic advantage over conventional methods. The results do not support this assumption (Table 5.5). In terms of the objectives contained in U.S. groundwater policy, the second finding is the most interesting. Assuming a normal distribution of yield goals, one would expect the largest category to be "applied at recommended rates". Because this was not the case, two conclusions can be drawn: either large growers/irrigated use less nitrogen than recommended to achieve their yield goals, or this result is an artifact of the methods used to derive the application rate categories. It would not be altogether surprising to find that most of the large growers/irrigated apply nitrogen at below recommended rates. After all, farming is a business, and using less nitrogen while achieving yield goals is cost- effective. Certain nitrogen-use reducing BMPs, which emphasize better timing and placement of nitrogen applications, allow growers to use nitrogen more efficiently. Unlike cover crops and rotations, they do not require a reorientation of the system, but better management of it (Kirschenmann, 1989). An advantage to irrigated corn 86 prOduction is that the variability in yields is considerably less than it is in dryland corn production which relies upon rainfall. This reduction in variability gives growers who irrigate greater predictive abilities in terms of the amount of nitrogen needed to achieve yield goals. Currently, some of these large growers/irrigated are participants in a soil fertility research project being conducted by researchers at Michigan State University, the Cooperative Extension Service in St. Joseph County, and the Michigan Energy Conservation Program (MECP). The objective of this research is to demonstrate improved fertilizer management practices to growers and to evaluate the efficacy of fertilizer products to improve fertilizer use efficiency (Vitosh and Pruden, 1990). The findings are summarized below: 1. A weak negative inverse relationship between ATUN score and application rate was observed among growers with small growers/dryland. 2. No relationship between ATUN score and application rate was observed among large growers/irrigated. 3. More than half of the large growers/irrigated applied nitrogen at rate below.the recommended rates. 4. Approximately a third of all growers used cover crops in their farming operation. 5. More than half of all growers used rotations in their farming operation. 87 Conclusions. The empirical results of this study suggest that the influence attitudes have on grower behavior is minimized if the grower's financial situation is constrained. Although the negative relationship between attitude and application rate for small growers/dryland was found to be weak, it is significant that no such relationship was observed among large growers/irrigated. Full-time growers have made considerable investments into their farming operations and derive a substantial proportion of their total income from agriculture. This limits the types of decisions that they can make which could negatively impact the profitability of their operations. Small growers and/or part-time growers have more flexibility in their choice set. Because a greater proportion of their income is derived from off-farm sources, the question of profitability is not as critical as it is for larger growers. To conclude from the results of this study that small growers have more opportunity to act consistently with their attitudes would only be partially correct. Two important findings indicate a weakness in the underlying assumption used to formulate the hypothesis in this thesis; larger growers would be less likely to adopt innovations which do not impart an economic advantage over existing innovations because of concern for the profitability of their operations. A limitation posed by the use of a cross- 88 sectional design is that data are gathered for only one point in time. It is not possible to determine trends or changes which may have occurred. The fact that a similar proportion of growers from both groups already uses cover crops and rotations in their farming operation, coupled with the finding that more than half of the large growers/irrigated applied nitrogen at rates below the recommended rate for their yield goals suggests that: (1) large growers/irrigated have already reduced their application rate: and (2) small growers/dryland are in the midst of reducing their application rates. Other studies in this topical area are needed to determine: (1) the trends in nitrogen use among small growers and large growers, and (2) if the tata_gt_afigptign of technologies, such as rotations and cover crops, whose adoption is supposed to be based more on philosophical rather than economic considerations, differs between small and large growers. A longitudinal study of growers of different commodities would be instrumental in identifying differences in the influence exerted by both financial and attitudinal variables on a grower's nitrogen management decisions and adoption of relevant BMPs. These studies would provide a more comprehensive and accurate interpretation of the interplay between attitudinal and financial variables in a grower's decision-making process. warmers-wavevqwn: 'L'qtuy'w '.-..-."‘~' .' i-‘ TH" ‘- " an ' _ "H .4— . . C 89 Implications. Current groundwater policy relies upon the use of educational programs to facilitate the adoption of nitrogen use-reducing BMPs among growers. The underlying assumption is that U.S. groundwater policy suffers from a rationalistic bias. That is, it presumes that individuals will make the logical decision when presented with the appropriate information (Zaltman and Duncan, 1977). This assumption does not hold for all cases, and the findings of this study illustrate the limitation of the "bottom-up” approach in terms of its capacity to control and reduce the amount of nitrogen currently being used by growers. The conclusions drawn from this research stress two important points which policy-makers in the environmental field need to be aware of: (1) economic variables limit the degree to which growers can express their concern for water quality into reduced use of nitrogen fertilizers: and (2) there is a limit, given the degree of investments made and the technologies available, to the amount by which nitrogen use can be feasibly reduced. Admittedly, changing a grower's attitude toward the use of nitrogen fertilizers is a necessary first step in the eventual adoption of conservative practices. However, although attitudinal change is a prerequisite for long-term behavioral change, it is not in itself sufficient to bring about that change. Thus, in addition to educational programs and the provision of alternative practices, groundwater policy needs to assure “wwmraven-firms?r':'s-.—~“i:».-i-N‘~J’J.~‘m ~5~Woea~~ mi. . .. . - - , ~e Q a a v . 90 growers that adoption of nitrogen use-reducing BMPs will give them some clear cut advantage or at the very least, not penalize them financially. Federal agricultural policy is instrumental in the types of technologies and practices growers adopt and use. This influence is exerted through its economic programs: by setting prices and supporting income, U.S. agricultural policy defines the level of profitability associated with different technologies and management practices (Buttel and Gertler, 1982). To remain economically competitive, agricultural producers have invested substantially in machinery and goods with a high degree of asset specificity”. Implicit in income and price support commodity programs is the promised maintenance of an economic structure which ensures the profitability of those investments (Bonnen and Browne, 1989). Conceptually, the relationship between policy-makers in the agricultural policy arena and U.S. growers can be conceived as being a contractual one. Growers will continue to invest in goods with a high degree of asset specificity and adopt the concomitant practices so long as policy-makers make it profitable to do so. Asset specificity refers to the salvage value of a good or investment. The salvage value of an investment is inversely related to its degree of specialization. 'Thus, highly specialized equipment represents investments with a high degree of asset specificity whereas multi-purpose equipment exhibit a low degree of asset specificity (Williamson, 1985). 91 It is obvious that, within this economic structure conditioned by U.S. agricultural policies, growers are prone to react first to benefit/price ratios and, later, to non- pecuniary concerns (Batie and Taylor, 1989). The incentives for change offered by groundwater programs are weak when compared to the high-powered market incentives contained in U.S. agricultural policy. When one considers the amount of capital already invested by growers in their operations, it becomes apparent that, given the technologies available today, there is a limit to the amount by which a grower can reduce his/her use of nitrogen fertilizers. This limit is defined by the production (bushels/acre) needed to keep the farming operation solvent. Few growers will risk losing their farms for the sake of acting on their concern for water quality. More effective policy will require a coordinated effort between agricultural and environmental policy-makers at the national level. To date, the responsibility for formulating and implementing policies intended to control agricultural non-point source pollution has been relegated to state officials (Kenski, 1990; Goldfarb, 1988). This situation has given rise to an uneven policy landscape at the national level. Since growers are linked to national and international markets, an effort to balance the options available to growers from all states needs to be made at the national level. 92 Growers make choices within their opportunity sets. These opportunity sets are largely defined by U.S. agricultural policy and, to a smaller degree, by U.S. groundwater policy. Policy-induced changes in growers' opportunity sets that increase the attractiveness of reduced nitrogen use are needed if a truly effective effort to combat nitrate contamination is to be realized (Batie and Taylor, 1989). In the absence of complementary changes in agricultural policy, the types of incentives made available to growers by water quality programs will not be sufficient to induce the magnitude of change in nitrogen use required to mitigate the nitrate problem. Policy Recommendations. The results of this preliminary study support a growing body of evidence indicating the need for a coordinated effort between policy-makers in the environmental and agricultural policy arenas (GAO, 1991; Abdalla, Gaynell and Meij, 1990: Kenski, 1990: ALPI, 1989: Reichelderfer, 1989). Whereas soil erosion and conservation technologies were the issues of the 80's, groundwater contamination will be the issue of the 90's for agriculture (Kenski, 1990). As concern for water quality increases within the non-farm sector, greater demands will be made on policy-makers to develop more environmentally friendly policies. There is already a growing conflict between 93 environmentalists who are predominantly urban-based and farmers. In a survey of growers in Cedar Rapids, IA, 86% of the growers interviewed felt that the townspeople saw them as polluters (Kilman, 1991). In order to effectively address the issue of nitrate contamination, both agricultural and groundwater policy will need to consider: . the limitations of educational programs to effectuate changes in growers' management practices: . the financial capability of growers to adopt nitrogen use-reducing practices; . the financial resources required to facilitate the adoption of nitrogen use—reducing practices: and . the economic viability of these practices given the current structure of federal farm programs. The central issue is the determination of who will bear the costs of nitrate contamination: growers or the general public? An acceptable solution will need to be an equitable one. Because of the costs and difficulty of regulating nitrogen use in agriculture, it is not currently feasible to directly regulate the use of nitrogen fertilizers. This constraint demands that growers be "willing" to change their practices. Continued use of educational programs will serve this purpose. In addition, educational and publicity programs directed at non-agriculturists are needed to establish realistic expectations, in terms of the magnitude up are-77'" “w 94 and pace at which growers can reduce their use of nitrogen fertilizers. This is a necessary first step in resolving the growing conflict between farmers and environmentalists. To facilitate the transition, greater financial resources will need to be committed toward aiding growers in defraying the costs of implementation. Finally, complementary changes will need to be made in the structure of federal farm programs which will increase the financial attractiveness of BMPs. This can be achieved by tying in program benefits to the use of BMPs similar to the cross-compliance measures for conservation technologies contained in the 1985 Farm Act, by reducing the profitability of current levels of nitrogen use via a reduction in target prices and loan rates, by including leguminous cover crops in the commodity program and by relaxing the rules governing the management of base acreage. In terms of groundwater policy, a closer link between national and state policies on nitrate contamination needs to be achieved. This would maintain the competitiveness of the agricultural sector and address the issue of nitrate contamination. Specific recommendations supported by this research include: - The continued use of educational programs to increase grower awareness of the health and environmental costs arising from nitrate contamination, - The use of educational programs to increase grower willingness to adopt nitrogen use-reducing practices, 95 . The provision of educational programs for non- agriculturists to establish realistic expectations of the rate at which growers can reduce their use of nitrogen fertilizers, . The provision of cost-share programs to all growers willing to adopt nitrogen use-reducing BMPs, . Changes in the structure of federal farm programs making nitrogen use-reducing BMPs an economically attractive alternative via: -Reduction in target prices and loan rates, -Inclusion of leguminous cover crops in the commodities program, -Increasing the flexibility of the rules governing base acreage eligibility, and . Greater coordination between national and state policy-makers in the formulation and implementation of groundwater policies. Recommendations for Further Research. Farm Bill 1990, recently passed by Congress, contains several of the recommendations proposed in this study. Most notably, growers willing to participate in the Integrated Farm Management Option (IFMPO) and Water Quality Protection (WQPP) programs will be allowed to plant up to 50% of their enrolled acres in non-program crops without penalties and will be eligible for up to $3,500 per year for periods of three to five years in financial assistance for the implementation of their management plans. Growers also have the option of growing resource-conserving crops on their program acres while still receiving deficiency payments on 96 those acres as if they were planted in program crops’. These newly instituted changes provide a unique opportunity for a more rigorous test of the hypothesis advanced in this study. A weakness in this study has been the use of a cross- sectional design which negates the measurement of intertemporal changes in growers' attitudes and behavior. Further studies in this topical area need to employ a longitudinal design in order to document (1) changes in growers' attitudes arising from educational programs in water quality and (2) subsequent adoption of nitrogen use- reducing practices. It would be helpful if these studies were conducted among growers from different regions in the country who specialize in different commodities in order to ascertain if location and farm type variables affect rates of adoption. Farm policy is influential in determination of the typaa of technologies adopted. It would be worthwhile to record changes in the adoption rates of BMPs, such as rotations and cover crops, which require a reorientation of 9 Resource-conserving crops considered by Farm Act 1990 are: -forage legumes (such as clover and alfalfa), -any legume grown for use as forage or green manure, -legume/small grain mixtures (such as oats/clover), -legume/grass mixtures, and -legume/grass/small grain mixtures. (Sustainable Agriculture Working Group, January 1991) r a. wry-z. V C ... a. “.H‘Q. 1.. 1— 4.31... m"! 1' .. a... “I \ .,. ' . . 97 the farming system, and which carry a higher risk premium 'Uhan other BMPs, such as better timing and placement of applications, nitrogen soil tests, and plant analysis. In terms of radically reducing the amount of nitrogen needed in a system, rotations and cover crops can provide more efficient use of nitrogen fertilizers and can add organic nitrogen to the soil. Other BMPs which carry a lower risk premium, such as better timing and placement of applications, while promoting more efficient use of nitrogen fertilizers, do not contribute supplemental nitrogen to the system (Kirschenmann, 1989). Farm Act 1990 does change growers' opportunity sets making adoption of nitrogen use- reducing technologies and practices more attractive. Studies employing a longitudinal design will yield definitive conclusions on the effect of financial risk space and attitude on a grower's use of nitrogen. The issue of how much should growers reduce their use of nitrogen fertilizers needs to be defined and included as the primary objective for future groundwater policy. This study has not addressed this question, yet, it is imperative the technical, sociological and economic factors needed to answer it be provided by future research in this topical area. The absence of specific goals, par ex., reduction of total inorganic nitrogen use by X amount, from current groundwater policy can be attributable to insufficient scientific understanding of nitrate movement in the soil and 98 groundwater flow dynamics. Work in this area needs to be continued to provide an empirical base upon which to ground more explicit use reduction goals for nitrogen use. In addition to technical studies, sociological and economic studies gauging the feasibility of different nitrogen-use reducing levels is also needed. Reducing the use of nitrogen in agriculture, although necessary, is not sufficient to adequately address the problem of nitrate contamination of groundwater sources (Kenski, 1990: CF, 1985). Source reduction efforts can reduce the magnitude of the problem, by diminishing the quantity of contaminants entering the system. However, it does not address the present problem. Remedial action to redress existing cases of nitrate contamination is needed to complement source reduction efforts (O'Neil and Raucher, 1990). An appropriate federal policy response to nitrate contamination will need to contain both remedial and preventative provisions. Reliance on source reduction efforts will not be the solution. Ultimately, a complete reform of agricultural policy will be necessary if nitrate contamination is to be contained. Although the changes instituted by Farm Act 1990 encourage the adoption of longer rotations and diversification of the farming system, it does not radically change the policy framework, within which growers operate. The incentives built into government programs encourage the 99 excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers”. Establishment of target prices at levels above market demand distorts the cost-effectiveness of certain nitrogen management practices. Thus, the benefits derived from the use of nitrogen at levels currently defined as profitable by government programs are not commensurate with their true costs (GAO, 1990; Fleming, 1987). The bottom line facing policy-makers with regard to nitrate contamination is that politically unpopular decisions need to be made. Dependence on the voluntary adoption of nitrogen use-reducing practices, albeit politically acceptable to growers and their supporters, is an inadequate response to the problem. Public concern over water quality will demand that the economic benefits derived from the use of nitrogen fertilizers more accurately reflect both pecuniary and intangible costs, even though the latter are difficult to measure. 10 Throughout the 19805, the target prices set by the USDA have usually exceeded the commodity price on the world market. In terms of market demand (world price) for the product, corn yields have exceeded demand. Excessive in this sense refers to the use of nitrogen to produce corn in excess of market demand. APPENDIX Appendix; Advance Letter used in the Survey. ST JOSEPH COUNTY CORN GROWEFS SURVEY March 19. 1990 DearSt. Joseph Camcomgrower. YouawellasallmsotnercorngrowersinStJosepnCwityhavsbesnselectedtopsmcipaennme SLJosepnComtyCom GrowersSuvey. YousnouldbsreceMigesuveypeckstwhichwibenuiledtoyouonFndey, MarchZ‘iiflOorsoon after. Direaionswillbsencloeedwm them Nonameappearsonmhlutmandnonlneswieverbeuedinmisuvey. ltshouldbecompieted bytnspnmarygrowerdmelumwu. “mmummwm Theimmnmonywcmprovidslwelayouop‘florIa'emandweurgeyoutotakatnu cmxonupauStJaepnMCoopumEnwuhnSuvbewMuingmsUmm researcnsrsmpienningme mwmprogrmulorywm flywhqumummw,ywmcdm0mmdmombpnma MichamStnsUMuslylflinasa-mimdaklueimrmwwwwmdmng WMWMFM. Thankymioryoutrneandcooperaion Sincerely, TheCornGrowsrsSuveyTearn MicringmeUnMwsly 100 Appendix: Cover Letter used in the Survey. March23.1990 DsuStJoeepnCountyoomgrower. MyouloryoupldcipdmhmeStJoeepnCoum/merowersm. mommaemomeumwsmeummmmma Jmcmcmmmmsmmomacmmsasmmam Wememsmummmwmram wposeotflndnganduoondfiusmdervfldaoanbgmwnhamcw. Alopinionswilbemonymsndcorm Nonlnempsusontnblsuer. andnonarneswill ”hummus”. Aldduoung'owersinStJosepnCanywilrsoeiveaWe. mwmddmsmmuyouwlnudmnlhmywommmiwm Mtombm.youwNMsonumsmWoonmfly-kedmuuswey prooess;youmeymmmsdflusenow.ardwbsoktomunlyouhevemlam liyour Wmnamedmdnsepsgeepbueledheetoodwmdnm Wewmsueummmrmmwmeummmi andasltlorslnerJoeluotworEMAmalz. Youooopsraioninoornplahgthsmssdomsireisappreciud. Theresmswllbemedto ummmmywcwmsmhmmm educaionalprogramslorywares. lriomUonlrommsalveymeybemedbypubflcand oompaniesintnsarss. WeareMloryoutimeandWopim al- 3 101 102 ANSWEFBTOSOMEQUESTIONSABOUTTI'E awmcommw Momentum? Foragoodsample.orwymspnmarygroweroitheiarmunitshoudanswerthequestionson l-laedollloumW? Directiomiorfllhgoumequsstlomairearsinsldemeirorloover. Mostquestbnsshouldbe easytomderstandandanewer. Eltherpenorpenoilisllne. ltisbeetlywoompletelallaonetime. ltshouldtakebetweenaomiruestoanhour. Younmywmtodoaldmessyquesduufirmmoambeoktoqumumuneedme tlilnkingorwrltlng. Windoldowhenlandone? WlmnyoumflnblmmmeqmstlomaimmmeemdopeMcemawthlt Donotwrlte ontneemelope Tomakesuremaymsmsueoorlidamthereuenoiderflying nunbsrsormerksontneenvslope. AWMWWBWthMa Allyouneed msmmmwmnommwmuummumsma Unlversly. Havdollenemymuem Nonmeppeusmduqmsfionnaksoronflsbnmmannuneswieverbemedwm thissurvey. Altiornuimandopiniomwillbekaptmmandoorlldsmial. Jubwsmnmmneywhamfimmqmmwmm becktoSLJoesphComty. Oniyywmdongwhalflieodwswlloomsbackto helpmeStJoeephCoinyCoopermNeEneruionSevioewlmhmpmgmnhg. Thenunibuondumamequesfiormdrehssbeenasigrudmwaddreestohslpm mmmmammmakemmwmmmmued ammuwwmummmemmmtowmmwm practicesbeiweendfllerngrowushdflieremareasttJoeephCormdller. Noonein StJoeephCaflywllhevemyweydknowhgwflchmoemehunyouaddress /. a ,. 103 Wilmapmblernfligoistnem? liyouneednelpincompletingtnequestionnaire. ll-youhaveaproblemwlthaquestiomori youiuawamweflonnalmabanmwweydouoancaumwsyufinwymam DepsnmemaRmedopnwnm(51n353-8501dunngnonndbusmmumday throughFriday. Wilm'tdolordon'tmto? Fillingommisquestionnaireisamiretyvoluuary. liyoudecideyoucan’tordon‘twanttofill ltout. youcanpmmeblanltquestionnaireintheenvelope. sealitup.andmailltbacktotne Depatrnentpack oiRmoeDevebpmutushgmebmineasmptyemelopeinyomquestimndm a. Phaemmanbmdmugnmamewwayontywakslmwghpeophflfloumm. mmurnporwleiorubaeven fliesuweybcmduaedbymeoepmnmdfiesourceoevebpmanwuhmndsprowdedby aprivaeseedoornpmy. Helpinthsdevelopmemoithequestionnairewasprovidedbyfiod- King. directaduieaJosepnCoumyCoopuaflveExtembnSavioeandiacukymme DepatnaustmpeuflSoflSdmoemdAgfiouMEmmMiohingmeUnNmky. Appendix: Replica of Questionnaire with Response Frequencies and Final Comments St. Joseph County Corn Growers Survey Reponse Frequencies and Open-ended Responses in Questionnaire Form Developedby Deperunsntoiaesouroeoevelounem 104 105 Sectionl. GENEMLlNFORHAflOszqumlorSLWCoumycom growers. ltsnmudbeflledmlbybymepnmarygrowaroitnelarmoperm lnlormmionaooutyou rmmmmmmnmwmmommmomxonueemu ideaortneoond‘eionemderwmcnoomisgrownnStJoeapnCotm. C-i. AreyouareelderloiStJosepnCoum n-317 (circle one number) 93%. Yes 7% No 0-2. layouhomslooladonyouriarm? n=315 (“0“an 81% Yes 1995 No 04!. Howmanyiotdaoreaddyouiarmlniufl n-ZSS m-Wacreetaflaores-iiefiflacr. 33% 110”“ 18% OIIOIOOW m 1151:6500:ch 14% SOTIOIMW 0* MMIM“ 04. wuohottheeelypeeotoornddyougrowlniaea? (circleonemnoer) re.- N.o n-zaei. Cornnercidandiaedcom 81$ 19% n-zaoz Seadoun ............ as 77% m n-zzea can ............ '....21$ 106 Section". COMMERCIAL AND FEED CORN: Thisseouonistobeilleooubygrowerswnoplemeo cornmcialcorniriisas. IF YOU DID NOT PLANT COMMERCIAL OR FEED CORN IN 1999. PLEASE SKIP THIS SECTION AND GO TO SECTION III. PAGE 4. 0.1. Howmucnlanddldyouhevelncommerclalorleedoornproouctlonlnifla? n-23.mean-180acres.towacres-42.227acres 28* 1108006!” 26* 81 to 160m 22* 161 tosoowes 20* 501 to 1000acres 4* moremamooowes o-z. Whendldyoubegharidendplarshgyourcommerclalandieedcomhim (Note: Theiollowungliguesarecumuaweperoentages] “'209 W ""99 we“ ' by: theendoIMarcn ................. 195 «is mirdweekoIApri ............... 9% 2% (IleanddApn'I .................. 35% 8% thsilrstwaeltoIMay .............. 701: 359: thesaoondweakduay ........... 90:: we thathirdwaaltolMay .............. 999: save thaendoIMay ................... 99s 93s tnenrstweelrolJune .............. 100% , 80% thalirstweeltotJuIy .............. 1001. was 0.3. Doyoueverlrrlgueyoesooswnerclalorteedoorn? n-zao (circleonemmber) 38$ ‘ Yes 62% > No Ifyouaneweredflomutbthenm2queetlonemdgotoO-d O-s. mwamwummenmw n- 87 (wealth-sooty) 731: Salt nosetravellsr 17% H86 hoes travail. 64% Pivot 043. In inhummdwuonmemflyoupuonmoomom corn: (cirolaonemmmer) n-89 11% Didnotirrigaeiniseo 4% Lessmanzacre-incnes 33% zooms-inches as Macremcnes 14% Macro-inches 2% moratnanaacre-inches 107 Themmeequesuorudeaw'mmeuuorlemuwonmcmorleedm 0-8. CWelywcunmucldsnoheooornmmwesyoumoetcommongecuce whenepptylngthenltrogeniemllsereaelow? Pleaesemer‘theemouslneotualpounosor nnrogenpaaoreiueaohtypeandmueedrrheloflowmgwetnenuanraudtne responses) Anhydrous ammonia lbs NIacre- n- ZOS UAN IN NIacre- n. Ammonium n‘srma he N/aore- n- Urea IN Macra- no . Uveetoolrmarue DIN/acre- "- Plow-down will 130 119 13 2 250 0 1 0 39 0 8 0 100 0 13 7 37 0 10 14 Preplars Weew Side-dress 120 10 35 31 33 21 55 14 0 0 ‘ [Overumrneotmpflodmperaore-wignm] 11.172 144.42 In NIacre 119 65 85 17 e8 08 OO Feed (my) Dribble 107 6 oo 88 DO 00 Irrigation gystem 0 0 59 17 CH. WhenddyooappiynuogenmsmmeWdoornhum neiss (mammary) 48% “weeks 58% S-7waeka 8% diarlweeks _ 'D-s. mmmdeyouapflyioyoumoomhflfl'l Whawasyour applodonraaioreadl? (clrcleonemxnberlorecn) Diana ' Did 222! m n-204 1. m ...... 18% 84% n-1fl 2. Phosphorous ..... 24% 78% n-188 3. Mari ....... 88% 12% n-171 4. Dolornsic' 0118 75% 25% miss a Caloiclime ....... 98% 4s 11.177 n-151 n-18 0843 108 Sectional. SEEDCORN: Thisseotionisonlytobafilladuabygrowarswnoplamadsaadcorninlsas. IF YOU DID NOT PLANT SEED CORN IN 1980. PLEASE GO TO SECTION IV ON PAGE 7. Rowmuohlanddldyouhavelneaedcornproducdonlnflaa? n-84. mean-macroetotalacres . 25.288acres 0-7. 23% 10% 45% 15% 6% 1:080acras 01 IO 180acres 181to§00acres 501 101”“ "10!. MIMIC!“ 0-8. Whicheaadcornpanyareyoucurremygrowlngeaadoornion Howlnanyyearshaveyou aaangrowwlgeaedoornrertnlsoompann n- 74 spacing-pros 0-0. 11864 Years comacteo by company ..iier 212m __z__m «a (circle ell the: apply) Cargil ............. 5% 7% 0% Crow's ............ 7% 1% 0% Dakab ............ 7% 1% 1% Gran Lakes ........ 3% 0% 1% Hellman ........... 3% 0% 1% Menden Seed Growers 3% 1% 3% PionaarHi-Bred ...... 3% 8% 9% Select ............ ' 3% 5% 0% SuparCroc ........ 0% 1% 4% 'Omar (Amour-n (1) .. 3% -0% 0% ”(WW (Ill Howalanyyearsheveyoubaengrowlngeaedoornlnlotan 27% 1 toZyeara 18% 310 Syeara 28% 810 Dyeara 14% mm 14 years 8% morelnantanyears "101’. than 10 years 0% 333§§33$3 109 TheneIutwoquastiomoonoernywsaedcornirngaionpracllose 0-10. Whatlllndotlrrlgatloneystemdoyouuaaloryoureaaocorn? na65 (clrcleellmseppy) 68% Soilhoeelraveller 11%. Hardhoeetravelar 89% PM 0-11. Ladyeumowmulyecrelnoheeoiwatuonmeavaegedldyouplaonyomuedcorn: n-83 (circleonemmbar) 5% Dionairn‘gae 0% mmzm 13% 24881840121. 48% 48mm 30% MW 5% madm8acre-inonea 110 mmuowhg3qmulomdeawknywhniizwappicaionpraciculoryweudoom 0.12. CaneflyomdyoweaedcomfleMwhdwaeyoumcomongecucawnen applyingmenltrogenlertlllaersbeloin Pleaeeerserulaemourulneotualpounoaotupar aoreloraaontypaandmethoduaa. mlelolmngarememeansloreacngroupolresporuas] PW Preplars Weed] Side-dress Irrigation M IE Starter Feed kniligg Dribble gystem Anhydrousammonia lbsN/acre- 141 0 33 0 138 117 0 n- 8 0 3 0 20 . 3 0 28% um lbs N/acre- 100 0 17 52 88 71 4o _ f1- 1 0 20 21 10 15 15 Ammonium nitraa lbs Ill/acre- 100 0 19 - 90 0 0 50 n- ‘ 1 0 3 1 0 0 I Urea lbs Moore- 90 0 24 0 0 o 0 n- 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 Livestock mamra lbs N/aore- 1 1 0 0 4 0 0 n- 4 3 0 0 1 o 0 [Overalmeanraeolapplioaionperaoremludlngmanure] n-581w.830leacra 0-13. Whanddyouapplynlrogenlerulaersdlarplarulngyolseeedcornlnuae? n-81 (circleallnamply) 38% 0-4weells 82% 5-7weells 18% llarawealie D-14. Whammddyauapplyioyolseeedoarnhim Whiwaeyourapplloulon ' rlaioreaoh? (oiroleonenumberloraacn) Didnot Did m m MES n-58 1 Pm ......... 1% 99% ' 1g Macro n-54 ms: 2. Phosphorous ....... 9% 91% g patties/acre n- 51 man 3. Man ........... 98% 4% 4 oublcyarde n-1 n-52 4. Dolomllcllma ....... 73% 27% 1.5 tone/acre n- 12 n-s1 5. CaloisIme ......... 94% 8% 3g lorulaore n- 2 111 Sectional. GENERALFARIIPRACTICES: Thissacuonwilnalpusmderslanomewnolesyslernwsnln whicnyolycorn Wows“. O-18. Doyouaolunmappflcalonsaccmlnglomeeofltypaotmmculunelo: “-269 (CITCI. W W 54% Y. 30% NO 0-18. Olmeiotslacreswluyouhadhcropproollcuonhnamhowmmyacreeweln: (Note: mmcohnnacoolmloralgrowwswnodldnotreepmdtommastion. Olnarcrops writtaninbygrowersareprovidedatnebonomoitnetablainu.) nun-322 41- 121- 321- 840- over- m w is a 2.0 1.90.9 m 1. Silage corn ....... 88% 14% 2% 1% <1% 0% 0% 2. Sweet corn ....... 88% 14% <1% 0% 0% 0% 0% 3. Popcorn ........ 87% 11% 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 4. Soybean ........ 38% 24% 20% 13% 4% 0% <1% 5. Forages ......... 71% 19% 8% <1% 0% 0% 8. Pasnlre ........ 70% 24% 8% 0% <1% 0% 0% 7. Smal mane ..... 88% 25% 10% <1% 0% 0% 8. Dry has! ...... 99% 10% <1% <1% 0% 0% 0% 8. Snap beans ...... 87% 2% 1% 1% 5% 0% 0% 9. Governmars Progress (CRP.092.SetrAside) . 42% 38% 18% 2% 1% 0% 0% 10. 'Otnar: ....... 88% 8% - 3% 1% 1% 0% <1% [CM(Q.W(0.WWWWMWWMW. Maidens" 112 NommwmudliketoknowsamWIQyoupeamprdedmmfidds in1989. - ' ' ' 0-17. VllwchotmelollowMgpeelsndweedcomrolpraotloaedldyouuaeonyour terminus” llyouuaeoenyol.tlleoneelletao.wnaipercanlageolallyour moldyouueetnemon? Did. Percentageoll‘ieldsusedon nowsa Did use 025% 25%-50% 50%-75% 75%-100% 100% n22521.l-1arbicidas 12% 88% n-228 7% 7% 10% 19% 57% n-2302lnsacticidaa 43% 57% n-137 14% 12% 27% 15% 32% n_-201 3Fungicidea 33% 12% n-28 48% 12% 15% .8% 191. n-2004.Namlicidaa... 94% 8% n-1533% 20% 27% 13% 7%- n-MSCulllvaion 30% 70% n-157 12% 8% 15% 18% 47% n-2008.Soouing ...... 59% 41% n- a 75% 13% 18% 21% 46% 0.14. mmmmmyeumuelylem (circleonemlmber) n-241 34% Lasstnanmeraeontnelabel 85% Equaltotneraeonmelabel 1% Molemantneraaontnslabsl 0-19. Whoaoolsadyollrflaldelorlrlsaotsanddleeaeealllleea? (Wlmml (1.251 8% 9mm 14% Aalcusuresllppflerscols 17% Seedcomcompery 8% SolCoruawdeletflclecols 87% Youreel 18% Means 2% Otrler'[EHIployeee.lnenOI.See:I8emCo.l mmumemaemmmmmenmmeem bassoonmlnulonlrolaacolnln 1988? 11.102 24% USODUDIDMUIROINM 21% USCGUDIDMdII'm 55% UIODIMUII'IOI'II‘II l l 3 0-20. PI8888 M8818 018 1101888! U 88:88 88811 d 1118 following arm “a u.“ on 1°, all - '01 your Ilalds. ' ['4 01 Growers £8; 08258 08109 W] [mean] 1. Clean all (moldboard plow) . m 1_9_4_ 2 Conservation till (minimum till) 51% fl 3. No-IIII ................. 18% 1_58; 4. Cover crops. ............. L291) _11_5_ 5. Crop rotalon (2 yrs. maximum in 1 crop) .I‘Jl‘l _2_4_4_ 0-21. FertIIIzare play an Important role In today's term opermlon. How much do you agree with the Iollowwlg statements about tortillas: use? Strongly Strongly mm 0% ree Neural Ages agree n-2881. In general. applying extrateqilizar is goodlnsurance ... 18% 48% 21% 10% 2% n-287 2. Minimizing use a fertilizer increases farm prom 9% 41% 20% 28% 3% n-2883.Usuelty.lanillzer applicanonrecommandnions calIlor morethll is rsaIIynaedad ....... 8% 41% 28% 2% 3% n-2554.m880¢d8mm Ienilizerisasmal pricetopaylor - thesacultylglv... '7% 47% 25% 18% . 3% n-2895.ltistooexperulvatouee almeleltlzartnlb usuallyracomnanded 8% 42% 20% 28% 7% 114 0-22. What Is the source or your lrrlgatlon wster tor all or your Irrlgatad halos? n- 132 42% River or stream 4% Lake 38% Pond 55% Wall 14% Other ('raln. clouds. nothing) G-21Whadoyouuealndacldlngwhentolrrlgata? n-117 28% Computer assisted irngatlon scheduling program 51% Visible signs 01 water Stress 9% Use a soil moisture gauge 19% Set weekly application rate 17% Other ('weatner. clouds. my neighbor) Thelollowi'lgqumudedwnnywwngaionpraaiculorywnm-comfields. IF YOU DO NOT IRRIGATE THESE FIELDS. GO TO 028. 0-24. Whaltlndotlrrlgllonayetemdoyouuaeroryournon-cornllelds: n- 87 (circle all me apply) 74% Sort nose traveller 18% Hm nose traveller 70% Pivot 0.28. Inlanhowmaaednchesdwnuronmemagedldyouplsoneuyowflalds: n-98 (c’scle one number) 19% 0 acre-inches 3% 0-2 acre-m 37%. 24acre-incnes 24% MW 13% “acre-indies 3% moratnmdmm 0-28. Among the rollowlng Intormation sources tor term management decisions. which source do you use as your principle source or lntormetion tor the listed practices? ('Circla one number Ior eacn) Pesticide! h8fDICIOI use 08244 Fertilizer application 08266 1. CooperativeExtensionSarvice 30% 2 Farmer Organizations ..... '. . .. . 4% 3. Seed company .............. 9% 4. Farmer magazines ........... 13% 5. . Neighbor and lriands ......... 12% 5. Local Ag Suppliers ........... 52% 7. Label dlrachons ............. 11% 8. Personal experience .......... I 44% ['Nota: Although respondents were asked to choose onty one answer. the question was dlliicuit t0 underStand 115 16% 4% 13% 11% 11% 45% 44% 29% andrnoretnanoneanswerwascnosenbytherespondents.) 0-27. l-Iow usetul Is the Intorrnation that you‘recelve from the sources below ror your term 08256 n-204 08232 08240 08241 08250 08236 08 46 management practices Na M 1. Cooperalve Eleansion Samoa 8% 2. Farmer MW 28% 3 Seed company ........ 15% 4. Megezinerioumel ....... 8% 5 Neighbor's and friends 9% 6. Ag suppliers (dealers) 4% 7. Label Direction ........ 5% 8. 'Other ..... 21% [Prime bdrm (8). personal experience (6). SCS (3)] Somewnm Usalul 24% 51 % 11% 29% lrngatlon QTGCTICOS 0 8 1 26 36% 0% 6% 9% 1 1% ' 3% 3% 72% Tillage QTECIICSS n a 239 23% 4% 7% 20% 1 5% 4% 2% 74% Very 92919! ._U_se1u.l 46% 23% 19% 2% 38% 8% 41 % 9% 39% 10% 80% 19% 42% 42% 25% 25% e l ' D r 116 Section V. ENVIRONMENT/OPINIONS: Recently. there ha been W concern wen enveonmenral problems in St. Joseph County. 3.28. Incompubontoahafllchlgancounuaehowwouldyouratethecondluonbrine environment In St. Joseph County: n=285 (each 008 number) 8% ' ' much worse than moat 18% worse than most 49% about the same as most 26% 081181 than most 3% much better than most 0-28. When compared to all other problems lacing you as a Iarmer. how lmporatnt la environmental law n-289 (circlaone number) 2% notimportantaal 12% somewha importers 43% importers 43% very importers 0.38. Thalaauesbelowereproaiamslneomapaneottheoolmy. Howmuchetaprobiemdoyou IaelaachotthaeethlngslshStJoeaphCourwy: (chdsorumnberloreach) Note Sign Madum Big .29!!! m m m n-2781. Airpouon ............. 43% 35% 18% 5% 082602. TWIN” ........... 9% 32% 36% 22% 082793. mum ........... 6% 26% 43% 25% mean. commonality ...... 12% 23% 35% 29% n82855. Lallaandstree'npollmon .. 8% 29% 40% 22% 117 Section VI. BACKGROUND: In order to line out now dillerent kinds 01 9009181881 uncut caterer): issues. your answers to some background questions are very important AS WITI'I all 10100118100 10 IRIS W. YOU! answers 10 1110 following 000G100! Will DC km 00011de1031 041. Are you: n=299 (circle one number) 95% adult male 5% adult 1811168 0.32. VIII. Is your ago? 08296 4% - 201030yearsold 20% 31t040years0ld 23% 41t050yearsoid 28% 511080yearsold 27% olderthandDyears G43. Howmanyyearshaveyoubeentarmlng? 08290 14% 11010y888 28% 11to20years 23% 211030yeara 18% 31 t040yeais 19% morathan40years 0-34. Nowm-Iypaopleolwrentlylteelnyourhouaahold? n-299 Numberoraduts 8% onaaduh 79% medulla 15% threeormoreadults Numbarorchildren 53% nochiidren 29% onatotwochildren 15% thraetolourchildren 3% live or more children , e be 118 048. Oliheloilowlngiumiounebandmagmwhlchuemonuyoureadreguurly? n-285 (circle all the number! tha apply) 68% Michigan Fumer 38% Furrow 37% Prairie Farmer 85% Successiul Farming 82% Farm Journal 1% Solmions 43% Farmer's exchange 38% Farmers advance 18% Others' [Farm Industry News (8), Farm Futures (7). Progressive Fame (4)] 0-38. DoywrudadeMuhgnmpapuNW? n-252 (circle al the apply) ) 58% Sturgis Joumd V 45% Kalamazoo Gazette 38% Three Rivers Cornrnerciai 8% Elithlt Trish 10% Souhaend‘l’ribune 13% DatrohNaws 13% WaIStremJoumN y; 047. Vlhichortharodowhg'oupsdoyoubalongtoorhavebalongedto: 08266 (“In M) 53% Farm 8ureau member 8% Michiana Irrigation Aeeocislon 9% School Board 1% City Council 12% Township Board 27% Other aseocimions 34% 190086108“ 119 0-38. thlathehlghastleveioflormaleducationygcompietad? n-zse (circleonenumber) 14% 42% 17%- 5% 1 5% 7% Less than high school High schoot graduae Some college Associate or technical degree Collage graduse Graduae or prdessionu degree 048. Whatwastharangaotyourgroeslarmssiaslsatyean n-282 (08018 one number) 37% Less than 515.000 18% 51500010 549.999 14% 550.000 to 599.999 7% $100,000 to 8149.999 10% 5150.000 to 5249.999 7% 5250.000 to 5499.999 8% over 5500.000 0-40.I-Iowwaayour1ermorganlzedln1888? n-297 (circle one 111111680 84% Family or indvidud ownership 8% Pamerehb (tonne writer) areemam) 4% Family-held corpormion 1% Non-1m coporsion 3% omen (Raritsd (4). rerniiy pemeuhlp (2). action“ 120 FINALWWIYRW 91-5910:- .“ 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 1.6. 16. RaeiderldJacItsonColm.Seucnl-e1m1ersonlthtJoeapth 111691092 SIg‘ladIreoo-ugovernmerlprogren. Didnallmh1988-1fl9. llnnaduiurnowrur.nameplmeGumm Allrtonctamilabletome. Ll’acbmmMWNWIcIo-I. 27acreewah10yeargrnsprbqam. Youdonalmowthwerealygothroim Goodluclththecomingyearonyourstns-welind mmnamammummsmmhmmmmw. Thmlrsewwey. Veg-growersnaedhalpliiNowamonthabdmdl-ieplilushlow-Plaaeelilil. IMIWNMNMWJUMGNIM. Mymiorincludlngmeinyoursuvey. Theendreeuaormmayormaynotbehelphil. Welumarsweorlrystmauwlmd. Wenutlteourresporubkyeariolnly. Wears e‘sherpandthesoluionorpandtheproblam Alheyaidnocorn. Reunotmplcule. Mrfleadcorneveryyewetcaalorlum. lebaruhgcornagmthieyear. lonlyhaveaueadilmllida'ldlsalhthelmdbeu. Iwn79yelsoldandinithealh sodon'tlrmarrymore. Cornlummthesmnldeprouun. lworitaduaprtIaealonsIchemUIcrmyprhchdeoucadhcome. Sincellredonthelamlly Mulmuugadl1m%:ddaumiemworh:eidahcarmflighevedorw100%duumm worltblslmtommleadnmtaensgadboyswlhllmbacllwld. Theiwmhaalways baanasacondwyecuoadhcome. hbWtobeIMacumdeblslbehemawuegoeeabngweys Indtypudm ° Ramadaopselrerytwoyeesbacaueedm Ueeoriythsenolnracommanded. 17. 18. 19. 21. £313 24. 813 121 Cummwoumwmmgnnmaommmm. I'mnasommmoymmm. meg-gm FMMYMOOOVMmmmMMmrme-mommou nmolovdwaywopuinnmmlzoondowntogammmgnmu. wmmmbmmmm'mmwummmdwaum througnmcsod. Bmummmmdmonnawmucnmogonwaum amgmm,mqmm’mmgmnmaunmwu. Iwouldlikotoknowdwoaree Iknawsaltypaarogomgtomuoam. Imn'tmmmwmmtommmummumgmpmm tolingmwomwaosommmmmmonigndnflIu. Thounaraolevoul fodhmwggbunm WoMmmt-amonmwwpuwmamrem Wmtoflrumiwommmmm mmmmmmmummwummumm» m vawmmmamuma-monmmn - Idm'tknow. WWW-waywymmwlmmmmmmo. and Imummtuam CAP and mum l. amt-many“ I'mmmmmmmmlm1mmmtm mm IMnmammemml-mly. Tudmdomyamtmnm Imwmmmmaamcmmuwmmm formwmdfmdmrnmmmw. mmmamw mmmmmmmammwm.umammmmg xmmmmmuammmmmwmmmmamhmmm “mountains-tool... JmmmmmmenQNMnaam demnn-ouu. Tectonic-mun mmmmmhnmm mmmmmmmnammmamumma "mum Tmmwmmmwmm. Immmmmummwcmmmmmmmo amwummwdemW—tm wmmlmmmmmwmmmmuum mmwmmqommmmewmm ”mammalianmntcpvu «enema-mum Mumm'tbowmmmmmuo mmmmmwm Inmyop'tmwnamovutormnonsm 31. 3 #6883813 5‘5 122 mumme-mwmmm—dmdwmum Wow“ tommmlwsothIm mmmawmmmmmm msmmmm Thommmanmmamflmwm Wk. Inummabdigam. mmmmwwm: mm Wham?“ Wommmmmmwlm mawudm1o1“anymnommommpnonmsmdtm piano“ WommIAmmlannmmmmoumon—Ra. Mbmfimdm. Imnmdmamum Immmmmmmmoym. 8 ymmlmmw mewmmmabmsoimmany m mwmmmmhflJooMbwflmmmmww-u. A: amaunpthhdvomgummmmmmmmnuouo mmmmwwmmxmmmmamamm ammunmmnmmm-mnmamhww acumen». “mummmmmuammmuto WNWam. Cmywuomopnbhm? Cayman? ldm'tMqum unanswmwmmmmwnwm mayo-Iago. mmmnfmmmmwmuadummmmmmm mama-W mmmum. Andmhmwupm rammummmmnnmnuum mutation" cummmmmmrmwnmmm? Wag. QWFMMHMPWWMWWMQ Imwhmmmh1m1uum www.mhmmmm ImhfluO-fltummhm -' Yulwuulutomncmmmmamm. aammmnwmum “”9..de mun-mum mwmmt‘H/a“ Non: swan-m 34¢“th rm:mm*:m.m.m mm mmmmmmnmummnmw. [bucolic Wmmummmmw 5.. ." v 1 -‘ ..--.nyo. LIST 0? REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Abdalla, Charles W., E. Gaynell and M. Meij (Eds. )(1990). ' O ‘Oe nos 0 t L'“t o o 1‘ no 0 A ,0 0 0‘9 0! gregggwete1_ggeliey. Philadelphia, PA: The Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development, publication number 59. Azjen, Icek and Martin Fishbein (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Bsychologieel figlletin, 55(5), 888-918. Allport, G.W. (1935). Attitudes. In C.A. Murchinson (Ed.) A heggbeeg e: social psychology. Worcester, MA: Clark University Press. Babbie, Earl (1988). ct Soc' ' Beeeegeh (5th ed.). 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Reduced-input agricultural systems: Rationale and prosvectS- Ameri2an_leurnal_ef_Alternatixe Agriculture , 1, 58-64. Conservation Foundation (1985). QIQQD§E§L£I_DIQE§§LIQD- Washington, D.C.:Conservation Foundation. Cooperative Extension Service (1975). (Farm Science Series E-857). East Lansing, MI: Author. Cooperative Extension Service (1985). Eezhilize; ‘ 'ufi71!9 0!" ---tao ‘ 1!! e 2 0° _! g C1_°o (Extension Bulletin E-550). East Lansing, MI.: Author. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (1985). Agrieul1ure_and_greunguater_gualitx- Washington. D.C.: Report No. 103. Crouch, Edmund A.C. and Richard Wilson (1982). _31eh£hehefi1§ ehelyeie. Cambridge, MA.: Ballinger Publishing Company. Danielson, Leon E. and Charles M. Abdalla (1990). Current and emerging groundwater policies affecting agriculture. In Abdalla, Charles W., E. Gaynell and M. Meij (Eds. ), Ereeeedings of a meeting e: the peliey gerhi hg ggegp eh groundwate; ghality (pp. 1-31). 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