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INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
WHICH STIMULATE BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
AS PERCEIVED BY ADULT PARTICIPANTS

By

J ames Frederick Eggert

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration

1991

 

 

‘2‘11'1" or ‘

 

ABSTRACT

INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
WHICH STIMULATE BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
AS PERCEIVED BY ADULT PARTICIPANTS

By
James Frederick Eggert

This research explored two primary issues: 1) the relationship between perceived
behavioral changes and the instructional activities which participants report fostered those
changes, and 2) the possible means by which those instructional activities initiated and
fostered those changes. Other related issues were explored.

The research was conducted with graduates of eight programs of study for adult learners
within diverse institutions (private vocational school, Bible college, community college,
four year colleges, and universities). Quantitative and qualitative data were collected
using questionnaires completed by 163 participants and follow-up interviews with 20
subjects.

Participants identified behaviors which they perceived had changed as a result of their
programs of study and identified a type of instructional activity which they perceived had
most influenced each change. Of the 535 behavioral changes, the percentage attributed
to each type of instructional activity is as follows:

25.05 - assignments requiring physical or active involvement

21.31 - classroom participative activities

14.95 - discussions and/or reflective thinking

14.95 - classroom presentations of all kinds, including verbal, visual
aids, audiovisuals, and demonstrations

10.84 - reports or writing assignments

4.86 - reading assignments

4.67 - other

3.36 - can’t identify

 

 

 

Two primary rationales were given for the effect of assignments requiring active

involvement: direct experience with real life processes and positive reinforcement
(internal and external). Other rationales were mentioned less frequently: "forced"
involvement, use of thoughts and feelings from the experience, and insights about need.
Several rationales were given for the effect of participative activities: engagement or

involvement, practice, insight, awareness, and model of the instructor.

Participants’ perceptions of the percentage of classroom time spent in three types of
activities and the percentage of outside-the—classroom time spent in three other types of
activities revealed that the extent of use of the six types of instructional activities within

the eight programs of study is significantly different, as indicated by F ratios (p< .001).

A significant relationship of .31982 (p=.00003) was found between participants’ desire
for change in behaviors and the amount of perceived change in behaviors. Significant
relationships of .37570 to .46003 (p=.00000) were also found between anticipated
changes and perceived changes in three categories: behaviors, attitudes or values, and

knowledge and understanding.

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Almighty God - Jesus Christ, His Father, and the Holy Spirit - is the center of my
life. It is He who has given me capabilities, inspiration, and guidance directly and

indirectly.

My family members have been tremendous supporters and allies. My wife, Liz, is a
genuine partner in all of life. She and our children - Jay, Lisa, David, and Jennifer -
have worked with me, covered for me in other responsibilities, and encouraged me. Life

together is enjoyable for all of us.

My parents led my siblings and me to a love for learning through experiences and

exposure. There is no end to this pursuit.

Dr. Howard Hickey has been my advisor and dissertation director but also an encourager
and interested learner with me. His model in the classroom truly demonstrates the best

in adult education.

My other committee members - Dr. Charles McKee, Dr. Ardin Moon, and Dr. Max
Raines - have freely shared ideas, insights, and reactions which helped shape this project
and my thinking.

 

My friends and colleagues have been supporters through many endeavors, including this

one. Many have prayed for me.

I am grateful for all of you.

 

TABLES
FIGURES
CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER2

CHAPTER 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

..................................... viii

...................................... x
Introduction to the Research ................... 1
Introduction .............................. 1
The Problem .............................. 2
Purpose of This Research ...................... 3
Importance of This Study ...................... 5
Design of This Research ....................... 7
Generalizability ............................ 8
Research Questions .......................... 9
Statistical Hypotheses ....................... 12
Definition of Terms ........................ 14
Summary and Overview ...................... 21
Review of Selected Literature .................. 22
Introduction ............................. 22
Outcomes of Adult Education and Training .......... 26
Factors Affecting Changes In Behavior ............. 40
Instructional Activities for Changing Behaviors As
Identified By Theorists and Researchers ............ 5 3
Chapter Summary .......................... 76
Design of the Research Project ................. 80
Introduction ............................. 80
Overview ............................... 81
Procedures .............................. 85
Delimitations, Limitations, and Validity ............ 99
Chapter Summary ......................... 103

vi

 

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTERS

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX D

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

Presentation and Analysis of the Data ........... 104
Introduction ............................ 104
Participant Information ...................... 104
Questionnaire Data and Analysis ................ 105
Interview Data and Analysis .................. 127
Summary of the Research Data and Analysis ........ 150
Chapter Summary ......................... 161
Conclusions, Ideas for Application, Reflections, and

Suggestions for Further Research .............. 162
Introduction ............................ 162

Conclusions Based On Research Data and Analysis . . . . 162
Applications of the Research in Instructional Settings . . . 168

Reflections ............................. 173
Suggestions for Further Research ............... 184
Final Thoughts .......................... 185
Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience ............... 186

Questionnaire, Cover Letter, and Follow-up Letter . . . . 187

Tables and Statistics ....................... 194
Notes about Questionnaire Responses ............. 202
.................................... 210

vii

 

 

 

 

Table 4.1
Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10

Table 4.11

Table 4.12

 

LIST OF TABLES

Responses to Questions 1 - 4 ......................... 107
Responses to Questions 5 -7 .......................... 108
Behavioral Changes Attributed to Each Type of Instructional

Activity ..................................... 114

Behavioral Changes Attributed to Combined Types
of Instructional Activities .......................... 115

Types of Instructional Activity Perceived to Affect
Behavioral Change by Programs ...................... 117

Chi Squares for Differences between the Number

of Behavioral Changes Attributed to Each Type

of Instructional Activity by Participants within Each Program . . . . 118
Newness Ratings on Reported Behavioral Changes ............ 120

Percentage of Times Each Type of Instructional Activity
as Used by Programs ............................. 123

Analysis of Variance for Use of Each Instructional Activity
by Program ................................... 124

Spearman's Rho for Amount of Perceived Behavioral Change
with the Percentage of Use of Each Type of Instructional Activity . 126

Instructional Activity Effect on Capabilities and Motivation ...... 146

Extent of Previous Experience in Area of Behavioral Change ..... 149

viii

7"?"

 

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. ‘fil.- i. __ -.‘ l' '
.. -. .fi, .‘- , ‘i’l.

 

 

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.4

Table 6.5

Table 6.6

Table 6.7
Table 6.8

Table 6.9

Table 6.10

Table 6.11

Table 6.12

Table 6.13

 

Amount of Desired Change in Behavior
Correlated with Perceived Behavioral Change .............. 194

Amount of Anticipated Change in Behavior
Correlated with Perceived Behavioral Change .............. 194

Amount of Anticipated Change in Attitudes and Values
Correlated with Perceived Change in Attitudes and Values ...... 195

Amount of Anticipated Change in Knowledge
and Understanding Correlated with Perceived Change in

Knowledge and Understanding ....................... 195
Type of Instructional Activity Correlated with

"Newness" Ratings of Behavioral Change ................ 196
Combined Instructional Activities Correlated with

”Newness" Ratings of Behavioral Change ................ 197
Percentage of Classroom Time Presentations Were Used ........ 198
Percentage of Classroom Time Discussions Were Used ......... 198

Percentage of Classroom Time Participative Activities
Were Used ................................... 199

Percentage of Outside Classroom Time Consumed
with Reading Assignments .......................... 199

Percentage of Outside Classroom Time Consumed
with Reports or Writing Assignments ................... 200

Percentage of Outside Classroom Time Consumed
with Active Involvement Assignments ................... 200

Percentage of Outside Classroom Time Consumed
with Other Kinds of Assignments ..................... 201

 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.1 Instructional Activities Model ......................... 169

 

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Edgar Dale wrote: "The final goal of education is not memorized information; it is a
changed individual, one who lives differently because he has learned." (Dale, 24)
However, not all agree with that point of view. There are proponents for the position
that the goal of education is to inform the learner, expand his/her knowledge, or give

new insight. (Long, pp. 297-302))

Those differing viewpoints are evident in similar debates, such as the debate between
proponents of vocational education and those of liberal arts. In essence, it is similar to
the debate between those who favor practical learning and those who favor theoretical

learning.

Many educators support the philosophy of relevant and practical outcomes. This includes
such well-known people as John Dewey, Malcolm Knowles, Allen Tough, Edgar Dale,
and Arthur Chickering.

The emphasis on relevant and practical outcomes is particularly common among adult
educators and trainers. It is an emphasis that has no doubt been growing in strength and
consistency ever since Malcolm Knowles emphasized two decades ago that adults engage

in education because of a desire for "competence." (Knowles, 1970, p. 23)

 

 

 

 

 

Given that general desire for competence among adults, adult educators and trainers must

consider the question of how to affect competence or how to change the individual.
More specifically, to be effective, educators and trainers must in some way deal with the
issues of identifying desired outcomes and choosing the methodology to achieve those

outcomes.

While there may be other goals and outcomes, this researcher is interested in changed
behaviors (performance or actions) as the outcome. (Please see the definition of

”behavior” later in this chapter.)

THE PROBLEM

Influencing behavioral change is difficult. Behavior is determined by many variables.

Research has established relationships between specific instructional activities and specific
outcomes. Yet those connections between changed behaviors and specific instructional
activities seem weak. It seems as if researchers ought to be able to establish with greater

certainty what kinds of activities will stimulate behavioral change.

Furthermore, it seems as if there ought to be more than a relationship. There ought to
be a logical explanation for those relationships. There ought to be some understanding
of how or why certain instructional activities stimulate change. Understanding the means
by which certain instructional activities affect behavioral change would enable those who
strive for behavioral change as the outcome to enhance the effectiveness of educational

and training processes.

 

 

 

Program designers, educators, and trainers struggle with the issue of affecting

competence. Knowing what activities affect behavior and also how or why certain
activities affect behavior may well enable all involved, including the learner, to better

plan and utilize instructional activities in order to foster desirable behavioral outcomes.

PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH

The primary purposes of this research were to explore two things:

1. the relationship between behavioral changes perceived by learners and
the instructional activities which learners report stimulated or affected

the change

2. the possible means by which those instructional activities initiated and

fostered the behavioral changes

This researcher wanted to explain more fully the basis for the effectiveness of certain

instructional activities (methods, strategies, techniques).

In connection with the primary purposes, it was this researcher’s intent to:

1. assess the extent of adult participants’ desire for behavioral change
and their anticipation of cognitive, affective, and behavioral change
as they engage in an instructional experience (Psychomotor skills
were not explored because the programs of study in which research

participants were engaged emphasized few psychomotor skills.)

 

 

determine the extent of perceived change by adult participants in their

actions or behaviors, their attitudes or values, and their knowledge
and understanding as a result of that instruction, and determine if
there are any relationships between desire for change, anticipation of

change, and perceived change

determine what types of classroom instructional activities and/or

 

 

outside the ‘ imt- " ‘ activities participants perceive have
stimulated their behavioral changes, and determine if there are
significant differences between the number of changes influenced by
the different activities and the extent of change influenced by the

different activities

determine what explanation participants have about the means by

which those instructional activities affected their behaviors

assess how the instructional programs in which the subjects engaged
differ in their use of various types of instructional activities and how

any differences may affect outcomes

use research and theory on change and change processes from
education and training with that from other practical fields to help

explain how change occurs

 

IMPORTANCE OF THIS STUDY

A number of entities are expected to benefit from this type of research. Among them
are individual learners, educational institutions, training organizations, businesses,
educators and trainers, change agents, and counselors. They will benefit for two primary

reasons.

The first reason is the need for behavioral changes in order for people to function in a
changing world. As the elements of our society change, it is almost vital that people also
adjust and change in order to exist within society. New technologies and information
often leave present practices, patterns, and knowledge virtually obsolete. "Our survival
depends on our ability to adapt not only in the reactive sense of fitting into the physical
and social worlds, but in the proactive sense of creating and shaping those worlds."
(Kolb, p. 19) "With the accelerating pace of change owing to the knowledge explosion
and the technological revolution, an increasing proportion of adults of every age cohort
will be seeking to continue learning in order to avoid become obsolescent.” (Knowles,

1984, p. 422)

Indeed, the "increasing proportion of adults“ to which Knowles referred are continuing
their learning. Millions of adults in the United States are engaging annually in the
pursuit of learning, both formally and informally. (Brookfield, pp. 3-5) A large
percentage of those are pursuing learning because of life transitions. The changes that
they must make to adapt to life situations stimulate their desire to learn. (Aslanian and

Bicknell, 1980, cited in Schlossberg, Lynch, and Chickering, pp. 13-14)

Adult learners will therefore benefit from anything which can enhance or maximize the

 

effectiveness of their pursuit of learning. Anything which can be done to improve the

effectiveness and efficiency of their accommodation to change will be valuable.

In addition to the millions of individuals who seek practical learning, businesses of all
kinds spend billions of dollars annually on training. (Eurich, p. ix) Finding and utilizing
strategies which can increase the effectiveness of training will save effort, time, and

money, and it will help achieve maximum behavioral change for each investment.

The second primary reason for the importance of this research is its potential effect on
those who facilitate change. For adult educators, trainers, counselors, and change
agents, it is desirable to utilize activities which are most effective for accomplishing

desired changes.

Direction for those facilitators of change seems to be badly needed. While there is
considerable research showing correlations between certain methods and specific
outcomes, it appears that instructors most frequently use the traditional techniques.
(Svinicki and Dixon, p. 141) Perhaps additional research which substantiates previous
findings about effective instructional activities will influence instructors and their use of

the most effective activities.

Something is needed. Huey Long reports that some involved with adult education say
that, in spite of the research, we need to develop educational theory for adults because
research has not influenced practice. On the other hand, he personally believes that "the
greatest nwd in adult education studies does not lie in the further development of
theoretical positions but in the translation of theory and research findings into applied
practice." (Long, p. 31) In either case, the point is that something is needed to

influence educators and trainers and their use of instructional activities.

 

 

 

In the desire to contribute to that influence, this researcher has explored specific

behavioral changes among adult participants and the instructional activities to which those
changes are attributed. Through this process, the researcher attempted to substantiate or
refute previous research and to explain more fully the basis for the effectiveness of

certain instructional activities.

It is this researcher’s hope that with this project he has contributed something of
importance to the knowledge base about effective instructional activities. Furthermore,
it is his hope that this contribution will enable learners and organizations to more
effectively implement the behavioral changes they deem desirable, further convince
practitioners that certain instructional activities are truly more effective in producing

behavioral changes, and also guide their use of those activities.

DESIGN OF THIS RESEARCH
This research was designed to explore two things:
1. the relationship between perceived behavioral changes and the
instructional activities which respondents indicate stimulated or

affected those changes

2. the possible means by which those activities are perceived to have

initiated and fostered the change

The participants in this study were a sampling of adult graduates (non-traditional college

students) who participated in one of eight programs of study (series of classes or training

 

programs) at different Michigan institutions. The population used in this study consisted

of a cross—section of the adult population. Thus there were males and females between
the ages of 24 and 65 from diverse ethnic groups with various backgrounds and careers.

Most were voluntary learners and most were non-residents at their institutions.

The primary means of collecting information was a questionnaire. Participants (subjects)
were asked in a cover letter to complete a questionnaire. The questionnaire focused
primarily on their interest in changes, their perception of actual changes, the instructional
activities which they perceive affected their behavioral changes, and the extent of use of
several types of instructional activities within their programs of study. Participants were

also asked if they were willing to participate further with an interview.
A sampling of those who agreed to participate further were interviewed by phone. The
primary thrust of the interview was to explore the subjects’ perceptions of how and why

they believe the specific instructional activities affected their behaviors.

The data from the questionnaires and interviews was, of course, processed and analyzed.

Conclusions were drawn based on the data and statistics.

GENERALIZABILITY

Because of the nature of the population and programs of study used in this research, the
findings should be generalizable to many situations and people. However, there are also

some limits on generalizability.

As described earlier, the participants represented a broad cross section of the adult

 

 

population. However, they may not be representative of all adult learners. There is no

particular reason to believe that the results from this research would not apply to other
similar adults, but they may or may not apply to younger and older people or to people

in other cultures.

The adults involved in this study attended classes but did not reside at the institution
(except for two people). This non-residential status no doubt has advantages and
disadvantages for the learning process. The results should apply to other adults involved
on a similar basis in adult education or training experiences, but it may or may not apply

to those adults who reside at the institution.

Finally, the behavioral outcomes of instruction researched here are similar to the
outcomes and goals desired by many higher education institutions and training
organizations. The results of this research should be applicable wherever similar

outcomes are desired.

However, some institutions or organizations desire either highly cognitive outcomes or
physical skills. The findings from this research may be generalizable to instruction for
those specific cognitive or psychomotor abilities, but this research does not attempt to

prove or disprove that conclusion.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The problems and purposes stated earlier led to a variety of questions, some of which are
quantitative and some of which are qualitative. The following research questions include

the primary questions with related secondary questions:

2b.

2c.

3x.

 

To what extent do participants desire to change behaviors or

performance when they pursue learning and to what extent do
participants anticipate changing behaviors, attitudes or values, and
knowledge and understanding?

To what extent do participants perceive changes in their behavior,
actions, or performance as a result of their instructional experiences
and to what extent do participants perceive changes in their attitudes

or values and knowledge and understanding?

Is there a significant relationship between a participant’s desire for

change in behaviors or actions and the amount of perceived change?

Is there a significant relationship between a participant’s anticipated
change in behaviors, attitudes or values, and knowledge and

understanding and the perceived change in each corresponding area?

Is there a significant relationship between the perceived change in
behavior (a dependent variable) and the desire for change and

anticipated change (multiple independent variables)?

What instructional activities do participants perceive have influenced
or affected their behavioral changes?

Is the number of behavioral changes attributed to each type of

instructional activity significantly different?

 

 

11

Note: Research Question 3x was added after data had been gathered.

3a.

3b.

3c.

4a.

4b.

Is the relative number of times a specific type of instructional activity
is identified as having affected behaviors by participants within a

program significantly different for the different programs of study?

How "new" are the behaviors which participants indicate have
changed? (To what extent do they represent changes from previous

behaviors?)

When comparing the different instructional activities (to which
subjects attribute changes in behavior), is there a significant difference

in the extent of perceived behavioral change attributed to them?

According to the participants, to what extent do the instructors in their
programs of study use each of the six types of instructional activities

identified on the questionnaire?

Is the extent of use of the six types of instructional activities

significantly different in the different programs?

Is the extent of perceived behavioral change among participants
related to the perceived extent of use of the six types of instructional

activities?

What explanations do interviewed participants give as to why some

types of instructional activities affect change more than others or how

 

 

they affect change?

5a. Do interviewed participants perceive that the specific types of
instructional activities (which affected their behaviors) had more effect

on their capabilities or on their motivation?

5b. Is there a significant difference between the types of instructional
activities (perceived to affect behavioral change) in terms of whether

each affected capabilities or motivation?

5c. According to participants who identified participative activities or
assignments which required physically doing something as effective,
what percentage of the time were those learning activities followed by

discussions, private reflective activities, or writing assignments?

5d. According to participants who identified presentations or reading
assignments as effective in affecting behaviors, to what extent will

they have had previous experience in this area of behavior?

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES

Each of the above questions was researched. The participant responses in some cases
can simply be described. Other responses can be statistically analyzed. The hypotheses
for those latter questions are written here in the null form for statistical purposes. (The

numbers correspond to the numbers on the research questions.)

 

2a.

2b.

2c.

3x.

3a.

30.

4a.

 

13

There is no significant relationship between a participant’s desire for

change in behaviors or actions and the amount of perceived change.

There is no significant relationship between a participant’s anticipated
change in behaviors, attitudes or values, and knowledge and
understanding and the extent of perceived change in each

corresponding area.

There is no significant relationship between the perceived change in
behavior (a dependent variable) and the desire for change and

anticipated change (multiple independent variables).

The number of behavioral changes attributed to each type of

instructional activity is not significantly different.

The relative number of times that a specific type of instructional
activity is identified as affecting behaviors by participants within a
program is not significantly different for the different programs of

study.

When comparing the different instructional activities (to which
subjects attribute changes of behavior), there is no significant
difference in the extent of perceived behavioral change attributed to

them.

The extent of use of the six types of instructional activities is not

significantly different in the different programs.

 

 

14

4b. The extent of perceived behavioral change among participants is not
significantly related to the perceived extent of use of the six types of

instructional activities.

5b. There is no significant difference between types of instructional
activity (perceived to affect behavioral change) in terms of whether

each affected capabilities or motivation.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Definitions for the following words are given in this section in the order listed:

participant

adult learner

non—traditional student

instructor, trainer, or facilitator
behavior

change process

methods, techniques, or strategies
instructional activity, training activity, or educational activity
training program or educational program
mental activity

participative activity

experiential activity

experiential learning

experiential base

PARTICIPANT: a common name for one who participates in a learning situation (a
class, a workshop, or a training or development session). "Participant" is synonymous

with "LEARNER" or ”TRAINEE” and in this research also with "SUBJECT."

 

 

15

ADULT LEARNER: ". . . one who returns to study, on a full-time or part-time basis,
after a period of time spent in other pursuits." (Rosenblum, p. 4)

NON-TRADITIONAL STUDENT: an adult participant in the instructional process who
is not the traditional age for college students (18-23). However, other factors, such as
part-time status or non-residential status, also contribute to non-traditional status. In this

study, only age was used as a criteria.

INSTRUCTOR, EDUCATOR, TRAINER, or FACILITATOR: the instructional
leader in a leaming situation. These titles may connote different things to different

people, but they are used interchangeably here.

BEHAVIOR: the conduct or actions of a human, such as planning, interviewing,
coaching, cooking, golfing, listening, speaking, caring, encouraging, learning,
mentoring, and selling. Behavior is commonly referred to as "ACTIONS" or
”PERFORMANCE" and may be overt or covert. Behavior is usually dependent upon
external factors and internal factors, such as knowledge and understanding (cognitive),
attitudes and values (affective), physical ability (psychomotor), and motivation. Some
people use the word "skill" in the same way that "behavior" is used here. However, in

this research, behavior is not to be equated with physical skill or psychomotor ability.

Based on a synthesis of ideas from numerous sources, this researcher has concluded that

actions or behaviors may be one of five types:

1. rational - decided upon through conscious thought. (Thus a person
may consciously decide to write a letter, speak with a co-worker, or

make a phone call.)

 

 

16

2. social-psychological - controlled by the subconscious. (A person’s
defensive response to criticism is usually social-psychological.
However, some actions which are often social-psychological could be
rational as well, e.g., the conduct of an instructor as he/she works
with a group, including his/her verbal presentation, non-verbal cues,
styles, and strategies or the conduct of an individual as he/she listens

to another person or the action of putting off a project.)

3. habitual - done mechanically without conscious thought after
considerable repetition. (Shaving or brushing one’s teeth in a certain
series of steps may be habitual. Obviously, one can also do these
through rational thought.)

4. emotional - derived from a pure emotion or feeling. (Crying in a
time of pure joy is emotional behavior, but crying when one gets hurt

is probably more social-psychological.)

5. physiological - done by the body in on-going processes or as reflexes.
(Breathing fits the first category and knee jerks the second.)

CHANGE PROCESS: the sequential series of steps one goes through in adopting a new

action or behavior.

METHODS, TECHNIQUES, or STRATEGIES: the manner of engaging a learner
used by an instructor/trainer to facilitate learning by a participant. Some authors
differentiate between these terms. However, there does not seem to be a consensus as

to specific meaning, so they are used interchangeably here.

 

17
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY, TRAINING ACTIVITY, or EDUCATIONAL

ACTIVITY: a particular segment of a training program or educational session which
has a distinct beginning and end and usually a distinct purpose. An instructional activity
may include a variety of methods, strategies, or techniques to accomplish one objective

or it may include only one such method, strategy, or technique.

INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM, TRAINING PROGRAM, or EDUCATIONAL

PROGRAM: a learning experience which may consist of one session or a whole series
of sessions or courses. Within such a program, instructional activities, techniques,
methods, or strategies are utilized to facilitate learning. (Some trainers and educators
may approach training programs and educational programs differently, but they are used

here as if they were the same.)

MENTAL ACTIVITY: a learning process which requires the involvement of the
participant’s mind. However, the level of involvement may vary considerably and the

nature of that involvement may also vary.

One way to categorize mental activity is to use Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy of the
cognitive domain, which describes the various levels of involvement: lmowledge,

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. (Bloom, 1956-1964)

Another way to describe levels of involvement, using Svinicki and Dixon (1987), Resnik
and Klopfer (1989), Stadsklev (1974), Dale (1969), and Kolb (1984) as a basis, is as

follows:

RECIPIENT MODE - The participant is receiving input or information aurally

and visually in one or more of the following forms:

 

At the lowest level, the individual is present and thereby apprehending

his/her surroundings (as Kolb describes it), but the participant is
primarily receiving information in the form of symbols through ears

or eyes (hearing or reading).

At the next level, the participant is experiencing a situation as in the
lowest level, but is also hearing or reading examples to which he/she

may be able to relate.

At the next higher level, the participant is observing visuals designed

to illustrate information or concepts, e.g., graph, maps, diagrams.

At the uppermost level of the recipient mode, the participant is
experiencing the observation of models or audio-visual aids or

demonstrations.

ENGAGEMENT MODE - The participant is mentally engaged in application,

analysis, synthesis, and/or evaluation at one or more of the following levels:

The participant is asked to think about an idea or situation and speak

or write about a reaction.

The participant is involved in a discussion.

The participant thinks about his/her own experiences, reflecting on

what happened, why it happened, what conclusions can be drawn, and

how that can be applied to a new situation. The participant may write

 

or speak about his/her thoughts.

(Unlike the recipient mode, in which there were different levels of complexity,
in the response mode, the three different types of activity are similar in level of

involvement.)

SENSORY-PARTICIPATIVE MODE - The participant is ”apprehending"
his/her environment through all or most of his/her senses. The learner is engaged
as a receiver of stimuli through physical participation rather than as a receiver of

information.

a. The participant is engaged in a simulation, a role play, or a practice

session using a certain behavior.

b. The participant is involved in a real-life experience.

PARTICIPATIVE ACTIVITY: a training activity which involves the learner, usually
mentally and physically and often verbally, e. g. , role play, simulation, problem solving,
demonstration with practice. Therefore a participative activity is a "sensory-participative
mode” activity as described earlier. Some participative activities may involve the learner
more fully than others, e.g. , a simulation usually involves the person more than problem
solving. Discussion in some ways fits the description of participative activity, but it is

not included here.

Some activities may seem participative because the participant is physically present and

thus "participating." However, activities in which the learner is only a passive

 

20

participant, receiving through eyes and/or ears, are not considered participative. Even
activities such as viewing films or videotapes, looking at exhibits, or observing

demonstrations are not participative in the sense the word is used here.

”Participative activity" is sometimes used much more broadly to refer to the leamer’s
involvement in designing learning experiences. Thus participative activities may include

assessing needs, setting objectives, and so on. (For example, see Rosenblum, 1985.)

EXPERIENTIAL ACTIVITY: a training or educational activity which involves the
learner. In this sense it is used synonymously with "PARTICIPATIVE ACTIVITY."
However, there are two broad uses of this word, both of which fit the above description.
Some educators/trainers, such as Morris Keeton (1976), use "experiential activity” to
refer to the experiences of individuals outside the classroom. Thus one’s job or family
life is experiential activity. Other educators/trainers, such as David Kolb (1984), use
"experiential activity" to refer to the planned activities which one experiences within the
classroom and outside the classroom. Within this research project, experiential activity

will refer to the latter use of the term unless otherwise noted.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: learning which is accomplished through "direct
participation by the learner in the world of reality . . . ." (Stadsklev, ”Foreword”)
Reality can be experienced in activities such as internships, field placements, work/study

assignments, structured exercises and role plays, and gaming simulations. (Kolb, p.3)

EXPERIENTIAL BASE: an experience or set of experiences which allow an individual
to grasp the meaning of symbols related to that base. People have difficulty really
grasping the meaning of words until they have experience with the real thing.

(Stadsklev, p. 29) For example, people cannot fathom "fear" or "sorrow” until they

 

21

have experienced fear and sorrow. (Augustine, p. 224) They cannot comprehend "hip
roof" until they have seen one. Nor can they comprehend "enter data" unless they have

engaged in the process or observed others.

SUMMARY AND OVERVIEW

Chapter 1 contained an introduction, a statement of the problem and the purpose of this
research, thoughts about the importance of this study and its generalizability, an
introduction to the research design with the research questions and hypotheses, and

finally the definitions of terms.

Chapter 2 contains a review of selected literature, primarily in three areas: the outcomes
of education and training, factors affecting changes in behavior, and the activities for

changing behaviors.

Chapter 3 describes the design of this research and the population, the procedures, and

the delimitations and limitations.

Chapter 4 contains a report about the participants and the data from the questionnaires
and interviews. It also reports the statistical analysis of the data.

Chapter 5 contains conclusions based on the data and analysis, ideas for the application

of this research, reflections, and suggestions for further research.

 

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Allen Tough, in his book Intentional Changes, cites the reason for his exploration of
intentional changes: "I have become convinced that we can all do much more to
encourage and help intentional changes if we understand the person’s natural process of
change." (Tough, p. 13) It is with a similar interest that this researcher investigated
personal change, especially changes of behavior, actions, or performance, and also
investigated the processes of stimulating change, particularly the processes used within

an instructional setting by an educator or trainer.

John Neimi, in Involving Adults in the Educational Process, writes: "Although the act
of learning is an internal phenomenon, it comes about through interaction between the
learner and other human beings or nonhuman entities or forces." (Rosenblum, editor,
p. 3) This research investigated the nature of that interaction in an attempt to seek those
external factors which cause the greatest effect on the internal phenomenon of learning.
It is that pursuit to understand the individual change process and the desire to better

utilize the instructional process to foster change which drove this research.

This review of the literature summarizes the reports, research, and writings relevant to

this research project. While the emphasis is on behavioral change and the means to

22

 

23

achieve it, there are several related issues which also merited investigation. Literature
on these issues helped the researcher establish a base from which to focus on behavioral

change and the means by which to achieve it.

The first major related issue is the specification of outcomes. As mentioned earlier,
Knowles said that adults pursue education because of a desire for "competence."
(Knowles, 1970, p. 23) Patricia Cross said that they want practical learning. (Cross,
p. 90 and 96) However, when one says that adults desire competence or that they want
practical learning, those are not especially explicit in terms of real outcomes. It is
unclear whether adults perceive of that competence as greater knowledge and
understanding, changed values and attitudes, improved physical skills, or new

performance, i.e., cognitive, affective, psychomotor, or behavioral outcomes.

Furthermore, educators and institutions may define competence differently than learners
or may choose different goals altogether. What is it that educators and institutions try
to accomplish? Is it consistent with the interests of adult learners? What do theorists

and philosophers believe institutions should accomplish?

The actual effects of education and training is another related outcome issue. What are
the real outcomes of instructional programs for adults (whether in colleges, adult
education classes, or training workshops and seminars)? What follow-up is done to
determine 1) if the participants were changed by the class, 2) if the participants’
competencies were affected, and 3) if the participants utilize what was taught in class?
Perhaps the difficulty of assessing real outcomes has affected the research into cause and

effect relationships.

The second major issue related to the central focus of this research is the factors that

 

 

24

affect behavior. Behavior is complex; it is affected by numerous internal and external
factors. It is difficult to isolate the factors which affect behavior. Learning activities are
only one such factor. Yet identifying factors seems essential to establishing a stronger

relationship between behavioral change and specific activities.

Finally, the central issue in this research and literature review is the activities which
initiate, foster, enhance, or solidify behavioral change. Researchers in several fields
are interested in behavioral change. In order to increase our understanding of change,

there is a need to incorporate the best available information into a synthesized whole.
(Inns. 32)

In keeping with the above, this literature review is presented under three major headings

within this chapter as follows:

1. INTRODUCTION

2. OUTCOMES OF ADULT EDUCATION AND TRAINING
a. Outcome orientation of adult learners
b. Goals of education and training as stated by philosophers,
theorists, and institutions
c. Actual outcomes of education and training as identified by
research

(1. Section summary

 

25

FACTORS AFFECTING CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR

a.

b.

Internal characteristics of the learner

Expectations of the learner

Teachable moments and life transitions

Environmental factors

Change process

Characteristics of the desired behavior (innovation)
Characteristics of the instructor (trainer, educator, change agent,
or counselor)

Section summary

INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES (METHODS, TECHNIQUES,
AND STRATEGIES) FOR CHANGING BEHAVIORS AS
IDENTIFIED BY THEORISTS AND RESEARCHERS

a.

b.

Experiential learning and information processing
Apprehension and comprehension

Abstract and concrete

Behaviors affecting attitudes rather than vice versa
Specific effective instructional activities
Instructional activities used by instructors or trainers

Section summary

CHAPTER SUMMARY

 

26

OUTCOIVIES OF ADULT EDUCATION AND TRAINING

OUTCOME ORIENTATION OF ADULT LEARNERS

The emphasis on practical learning (which affects one’s abilities, actions, or behaviors)
has been especially prominent among adult educators. Research into the goals and
aspirations of adults who engage in learning experiences has revealed that this is indeed

the primary interest of such adults.

K. Patricia Cross, synthesizing research findings from many studies, concluded that while
adults may give multiple reasons as motivation for learning, "most adults give practical,
pragmatic reasons for learning. Most are what Houle would call ‘goal-oriented. ”'

(Cross, pp. 90 and 96)

As an example of that, Cross said that Allen Tough, who explored independent learners,
discovered that "adult learners are most frequently motivated by the pragmatic desire to
use or apply the knowledge or skill. Most often, they hope to take action - do
something, produce something, or decide something.” Over 80 percent of the people in
Tough’s study engaged in the learning project to take action and over 90 percent
continued "in anticipation of using the learning in a concrete and pragmatic way.”
(Cross, p. 84) Cross thus seems to equate practical and pragmatic with the orientation

toward performance or action.

As further evidence of the interest in practical learning, Cross said that ”when subject

matter interests are tallied, practical how-to-do-it courses rank far above subjects that

 

27

might be pursued because they satisfy intellectual curiosity . . . ." (Cross, p. 90)

However, the interest of adults in practical, performance-related behaviors is not
unanimous, as Cross’ review of the research attests. Likewise Brookfield discovered
other interests as he reviewed numerous studies. He said that adults are "oriented toward
a variety of cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and political ends . . . ." (Brookfield,
p.2) (Those may be pragmatic outcomes, but they are not necessarily action- or
performance-related.) Later, however, he said that adults engage in learning because of
some ”desire for developing new skills, acquiring new knowledge, improving already
assimilated competencies, or sharpening powers of self-insight . . . ." (Brookfield, p.

11) (That list of outcomes seems much more performance—related.)

In summary, the motivation of adult learners is primarily practical and pragmatic.
Within that orientation, there is a strong, but not entirely universal, interest in being able

to take action or perform differently because of one’s learning.

GOALS OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING AS STATED BY PHILOSOPHERS,
THEORISTS, AND INSTITUTIONS

In the book, Experiential Learning: Rationale, Characteristics, and Assessment, edited
by Morris Keeton, Cyril Houle wrote a chapter in which he briefly described the history
of education and training. Historically, there have been two main trends in education

and training: cognitive learning and practical performance learning. (Keeton, pp. 19-33)

There have been a variety of cultures throughout history which have fostered the
accumulation of knowledge. The Greek and Roman scholars taught history and

language. In the middle ages, the European universities began teaching subject matter

 

28
content through books and lectures. (Keeton, pp. 19-33)

Alongside that tradition, one can also see the fostering of personal skills for living and
working. Children were trained in the practical skills of adulthood: preparing meals,
hunting, tending flocks, farming, building shelters, and making garments. Later in the
guilds of the middle ages, apprentices were taught the practical arts, crafts, and trades.
Likewise, future knights were trained in chivalry. Unlike the methods used in the
universities, experiences were used to develop these practical sldlls. (Keeton, pp. 19-33)

In the eighteen hundreds, some demands were placed on universities to incorporate
professions which were formerly considered crafts, such as engineering, agriculture,
architecture, and dentistry. The older forms of formal experiential training were
gradually being eliminated. However, in many cases the experiential methods previously
used for training were not integrated into the university; practical subjects were treated
theoretically. (Keeton, pp. 19-33)

To overcome that situation in America, in the mid-eighteen hundreds, the land grant
institutions were started and given a training mandate in practical subjects. Even then,
however, adapting experiential strategies to the school setting was difficult. (Keeton, pp.
27-29)

On the other hand, there were some successes with that integration. In the late eighteen
hundreds, for example, for the first time doctors in training were required to work with
cadavers and to observe the treatment of patients by an experienced doctor. Such
practical work has become standard in some professions in the form of practice teaching,
moot court, and field work. (Keeton, pp. 19—33)

 

29

Yet, in many ways, practical learning was not made a part of the curricula in higher
education. The two outcomes (cognitive and practical performance) were not
synthesized. Practical training was often distinctly separated from the cognitive courses.
(Keeton, pp. 19—33)

To this day, that dichotomy between the outcomes of knowledge and practical skills
seems to exist. (In fact, the methodologies typically used to achieve the outcomes have
frequently not been integrated and have been strenuously debated. As George Bonham
wrote in an admitted exaggeration: "It is almost as if book learning and life learning do
not spring from a common human experience, as if one must choose only one mode and

repudiate the other.") (Chickering, p. 8)

However, while some promote extremes, it is doubtful that many promote either
knowledge or practical skills to the total exclusion of the other. Some have certainly
advocated a combination of the two. For example, Arthur Chickering, who has authored

books emphasizing practical learning, still made an eloquent appeal for balance:

Let us not underestimate the importance of achieving effective integration
of professional/vocational preparation and liberal studies. The values are
larger than improved employment and graduate school prospects for the
young and increased educational effectiveness for older persons. If it is
true that love and work are the basic ingredients for a meaningful
existence, then we are attempting no less. For the liberal arts can expand
the capacity to love life, to experience it more richly, to continually
increase our range of satisfying activities. Effective professional/
vocational studies, which not only prepare us for productive work but also
help us grow in scope and capacity, offer the other essential. But one in
the absence of the other leaves us crippled, negotiating tough terrain with
difficulty, feeling less than we ought to, getting less from our lives than
we know we should. (Chickering, pp. 67-68)

 

30

In a slightly different way, the emphasis on integration has also been advocated by
theorists of cognitive development. With them, however, the thrust has been the
effective utilization of knowledge in thinking (a performance) and other higher order
cognitive skills. (See, for example, Resnik and Klopfer, p. 89.)

While individual educators, philosophers, and theorists have espoused a diversity of
viewpoints, the institutional perspective must also be considered. Howard Bowen, an
educator and researcher, assessed the multi-dimensional value of higher education in
America on behalf of the Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education. Prior
to researching outcomes, he and his colleagues studied goal statements from 1500
"widely varied sources, historical and contemporary." (Bowen et al, p. 53) While
pointing out divergent opinions, he summarized the predominant view regarding desired

outcomes as follows:

The goals of education are usually expressed as characteristics, skills,
abilities, competencies, dispositions, motivations, sensibilities,
orientations, commitments, understandings, and so on. To the extent that
students achieve these personal qualities by the time of their graduation,
it may be assumed that they are headed toward desirable lifetime behavior
patterns. But mm are the ultimate goals. The basic purpose
of instruction is to change lifetime behavior and thus to change lives, not
merely to produce abstract dispositions or tendencies toward change that
may never materialize. Each of the specific goals for higher education
implies a future behavior pattern. For example, the goals of verbal skill,
a subgoal under cognitive learning, implies effective verbal
communication as a desired behavior of later life . . . . The goals of
instruction are, in the first instance, to change students with respect to
their dispositions and tendencies. But these immediate outcomes reach
fruition only as they produce changes in lifetime behavior. (Bowen et al,
pp. 41-42)

That assessment of the predominant view of outcomes from the institutional perspective

begins with a statement that seems to emphasize practical learning. However, it

 

31

represents a blend of outcomes very similar to what Chickering advocated in that the
behavior identified is not the behavior of professions or crafts or immediate practical
application but life behavior, a "future behavior pattern." Bowen, however, did say that
the balance in emphasis is now ”swinging toward the practical side. " (Bowen et al, pp.

4142)

While the previous portion of this section has emphasized, somewhat historically, the
dichotomy between knowledge and practical learning, there are other perspectives from
which to look at the issue. Many authors, when addressing educational outcomes,
identify three categories, not two: cognitive (knowledge and understanding), affective
(attitudes and values), and psychomotor (physical skills). (For example, see Klingberg,
1970, cited in Lenning, p. 228.) None of those three specifically equates with behavior
in its complex form, as in managing, performing surgery, problem solving, or
interacting. In general, much of the literature in the field of education in the past few

decades seems to overlook practical performance (in a behavioral sense).

There are exceptions to that general trend of identifying only cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor outcomes. Some authors have expanded the typical three categories to
include behavior. However, a number do that by expanding the physical skills category
to include behaviors as follows: lmowledge-understanding, attitudes-values,
skills-behaviors. (For example, see Robinson and Robinson, p. 209.) This, of course,

changes the nature of the psychomotor classification.

In Bowen’s discussion of outcomes, he cited a number of people who heavily emphasize
the cognitive and affective domains. They seem to imply the use of that learning in life
situations, but do not specifically mention practical application or behavior as an
immediate outcome. (Bowen et al, p. 33-35)

 

 

 

32

Bowen himself also identified three categories, but they are different. His categories are
cognitive learning, emotional and moral development, and practical competence. (Bowen
et al, p. 39) His third category, of course, incorporates the behavioral emphasis. Since
he later identified five personal goals of education, it may be assumed that he saw these
three as the primary goals.

In support of his contention that instruction must "transcend intellectual development"
and that practical application is among the chief goals, he cited Sanford and Katz (1966,
p. 400): " ‘We view as one of the chief goals of undergraduate education the application
of rationality to the conduct of life. Mere exercise of cognitive skills is not enough. ’ "

(Bowen, p. 34-35)

While Bowen, as previously cited, assessed viewpoints on higher education, others have
assessed the broader field of adult education and reached similar conclusions. In fact,
the emphasis on behavior is perhaps more prominent in adult education, where a number
of well-known philosophers and theorists have emphasized the importance of practical
learning. Among them are Malcolm Knowles and Paulo Freire. (Knowles, 1970, and

Srinivasan, pp. 2-7)

The strength of conviction among some adult educators regarding behavioral outcomes

is evident in the following bold statements by Verduin, Miller, and Greer:

Adult instruction refers to a teacher’s interaction with adults as a means
of influencing their behavior. (V erduin, Miller, and Greer, p. 7)

The educator’s basic job is to bring about some new and desired behavior.
Teachers, in essence, design and carry out the instructional experience so
that students can gain a new behavior, practice it if necessary, and learn
when to use it in an applied situation. Behavior, therefore, is the key

 

 

33

consideration for adult educators as they carry out their professional
duties, and learning (changing behavior) is the primary focus of
instruction. (V erduin, Miller, and Greer, p. 9)

They thought of "behavior” as a function of the other outcomes. Thus a behavior is
dependent on one’s knowledge and understanding, one’s attitudes and values, and one’s
skills. (Verduin, Miller, and Greer, pp. 16-17) In that sense, behavior is the fourth and

ultimate outcome.

Not all emphasize behavior so totally. Huey Long described the purposes of adult
education reported in seven studies. Each study identified four to seven purposes. Some
are very cognitive, such as "cultivation of intellect” and "liberal education needs, " but
most of the purposes identified do have a practical orientation, such as " occupational
improvement, " ”societal advancement, " and ”emotional and moral development. " (Long,

pp. 276-277)

One model which nicely summarizes the scope of purposes or goals of adult education
is that of Harry Miller. His model, as described by Long, includes two axes. The ends
of the vertical axis represent knowing and doing. The ends of the horizontal axis
represent individual benefits and social (societal) benefits. He said that objectives
encompassed within the quadrant which is enclosed by the doing and social axes could
be expected to dominate the field. These involve "active behavior change to conform to
social role-demands, " including technical skills which one learns for the benefit of

society. (Long, pp. 297-298)

However, there are three other quadrants in his model. They also represent learning

goals, goals which are held by some learners as well as some educators or trainers.

 

 

 

 

34
(Long, pp. 297-298) Yet, in the end, Miller’s viewpoint is like that of many others cited

earlier, behavioral change is the predominant goal of education.

The same view is common in training organizations. Quoting Nadler and Wiggs (1986),
Robinson and Robinson say that training, by definition, focuses on "learning the skills,
knowledge, and attitudes required to initially perform a job or task or to improve upon

the performance of a current job or task. " (Robinson and Robinson, p. xiv)

Looking at the goals of higher education, adult education, and training, the dominant
viewpoint held by theorists, philosophers, and organizations is that instruction should
affect the lives of participants in a practical way. Their ability to function should be
affected.

ACTUAL OUTCONIES OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING AS IDENTIFIED BY
RESEARCH

Since learning implies an outcome, it seems likely that there would be considerable

research into outcomes. In some ways there has been.

Yet it is interesting that a person of the stature of Cyril Houle wrote:

Historians of education have not considered the evaluation of learning
outcomes, however achieved, to be a topic worthy of sustained attention.
Similarly, specialists in educational evaluation do not seem to care where
they have been but only where they are or where they are going.
(Keeton, pp. 19-20)

 

35

He then mentioned several avenues he and associates used to find outcome research, but

he concluded:

Every promising citation led to frustration. Even John S. Brubacher’s
magisterial volume, A History of the Problems of Education, which
chronicles seventeen major topics with exquisite care, does not include
among them evaluation, assessment, or credentialing. (Keeton, pp. 19-20)

Individual researchers have, of course, determined specific results:

1. Cognitive outcomes have been measured. For example, see the
doctoral dissertation by Don Hall Grout, 1988, Vanderbuflt
University, in which he reports the effects of computer-assisted

algebra instruction for adults.

2. Affective outcomes have been assessed. For example, see the
doctoral dissertation by DaeBong Kwon, 1989, Michigan State

University, in which he describes changes in self-esteem.

3. Psychomotor outcomes have been determined. For example, see the
doctoral dissertation by Gary Walker, 1987, Michigan State
University, in which he describes the retention of defensive

psychomotor skills among law enforcement officers.

4. Behavioral or performance outcomes have been observed. For
example, see the doctoral dissertation by Richard Cunningham,
1989, Michigan State University, in which training results are

reported for a custodial service, a sign shop, and a food store. See

 

36
also the dissertation by Soemardi Hadisoebroto, 1980, Michigan

State University, in which he reports training results among

educational coordinators.

There have indeed been hundreds of research studies into the real outcomes of education
and training. Nevertheless, perhaps it is because of a lack of "sustained attention, " as
noted by Houle above, that summary information on outcomes is not readily available.
In other words, the results of individual research projects have rarely been connected into
meaningful broad-based conclusions. Two major exceptions are the works of McKeachie
(1986) and Bowen (1977). Yet three major works by Cross (1981), Long (1983), and

Brookfield (1986) do not contain information on actual outcomes.

Cross devoted a whole chapter to ”How and What Adults Learn - and Want to learn. "
"What Adults Learn" seems to imply outcomes. However, what they learn is primarily
reported in the research she reviewed as kinds of subjects in which learners enrolled.
For example, in large-scale surveys in 35 states in 1975, 48.7% of the adult learners
engaged in occupational training, 20.6% engaged in general education courses, 15.9%
took courses in social life and recreation, 14.8 % pursued personal and family living

coursework, and 10.0% got involved in community issues courses. (Cross, p. 201)

Compared to 1969 and 1972 survey results, in 1975 every field of study attracted a
greater percentage of learners except general education, which dropped 6.6 % .
Furthermore, Cross said that ”data on the subject matter interests of adult learners are

quite consistent from study to study. " (Cross, pp. 201 and 207)

However, this information does not address outcomes. It says little about what adults

really learn or how they change.

 

 

 

 

37

Brookfield devoted a chapter to ”Evaluating Learning and Its Facilitation. " Yet that
chapter deals with the methodology for evaluation and assessment and not what those

evaluations and assessments have determined.

The best information found on broad-based learning outcomes for a population similar
to the population studied in this research project is the book by Bowen and his associates,

Investment in Learning . . . , cited earlier. He focused on higher education in general.

(Bowen, et al, 1977)

Bowen and his associates studied and synthesized the reports from hundreds of research

projects on actual outcomes. They reported:

Current knowledge of the consequences of higher education is substantial
and is found in a vast literature derived mainly from research and
scholarship in psychology, sociology, education, philosophy, social
criticism, and economics. The literature is generally fragmentary,
scattered, and of uneven quality and beset with many inconsistencies and
unresolved issues. Nevertheless, it includes some solid studies that offer
a great deal of information and insight into the consequences of American
Higher Education. (Bowen et al, p. xiv)

There are six principal kinds of studies: (1) investigations of changes in
the achievements, personalities, attitudes, and behavior of students during
the college years; (2) surveys of the views of students and alumni about
their college experiences; (3) censuses, public opinion polls, and other
explorations of attitudes, economic status, and behavior of adult
respondents; (4) multiple regression studies for particular populations
incorporating many variables and designed to sort out the separate impact
of education on income, career choice, health, voting behavior, religion,
and so on; (5) case histories of individuals; and (6) critical and analytical
studies without empirical data. (Bowen et al, p. 27)

Before analyzing outcomes, Bowen and his associates established a standard of

measurement. They utilized over 1500 goal statements as the basis for their synthesis

 

 

38

and final goal statement. The main categories in their ”catalogue of goals” are as

follows:

1. Goals for Individual Students
A. Cognitive Learning
B. Emotional and Moral Development
C. Practical Competence
D. Direct Satisfaction and Enjoyments from College Education
E. Avoidance of Negative Outcomes for Individual Students

II. Goals for Society
A. Advancement of Knowledge
B. Discovery and Encouragement of Talent
C. Advancement of Social Welfare

D. Avoidance of Negative Outcomes for Society (Bowen et al, pp. 53-59)

In reviewing hundreds of studies which assessed these outcomes, Bowen and his
associates were able to reach many conclusions. They discovered that, while there may
be exceptions in individual students, college has a strong positive impact on cognitive
outcomes. ”On the average, higher education significantly raises the level of knowledge,
the intellectual disposition, and the cognitive powers of its students. " (Bowen et al, pp.
28 and 97-98)

In the case of affective results, the research results are more mixed. Whether one views
the results as positive or negative depends on one’s personal orientation. There are, for
example, increases in the strength of theoretical and esthetic values and decreases in the

strength of religious values. (Bowen et al, pp. 131-134)

 

39

In studying practical competence, Bowen found that college contributes to future
orientation and adaptability, involvement in public affairs and community affairs, family
life, efficiency in consumer affairs, and good health. Furthermore, it is influential in
developing math and verbal skills, professional competence, and many other practical
capabilities. (Bowen et al, p. 187 and 215-218)

In the final analysis, they reported:

Many studies made over several decades have shown that at least
two-thirds of students, alumni, and members of the public believe that
higher education produces valuable outcomes for its students. The
percentage of people who hold strongly negative opinions tends to be very
small - of the order of 5 percent to 10 percent. (Bowen et al, p. 235)

SECTION SUMMARY

While educational institutions have not yet fully agreed that practical, behavioral
outcomes are the primary goal of adult education and training, many adult educators,
trainers, theorists, and philosophers do concur. Their orientation seems consistent with
that of adult learners, a majority of whom attest to their interest in behavioral or
performance outcomes in a variety of ways. Furthermore, changes in action or
performance as a result of training and educational experiences are evident according to

numerous studies.

   

40
FACTORS AFFECTING CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR

While the literature cited in the first section of this review indicated that behavior change
can occur through educational or training experiences, it is also apparent that not
everyone who goes through the same training or classroom experiences learns the same.
This section explores a number of factors which affect one’s learning and eventual

utilization of learning.

INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARNER

One does not nwd to search very extensively to find literature which describes
differences among adult learners, differences in demographics, motivation, background,
learning style, and other factors. Some of these differences have no effect, some little
effect, and others a greater effect. Age, for example, has little effect on learning. (See,
for example, Schlossberg, Lynch, and Chickering, pp. 1-7, and Long, pp. 38-70 and
222-234.)

The learner’s learning style is one internal factor that has been found to have an effect.
However, that factor is not a single dimensional variable. Rita and Kenneth Dunn
indicated that there are numerous aspects to one’s learning style. Some people learn best
alone; others together. Some learn best by reading; others by presentation. Some learn
most efficiently with background music; others in silence. Some learn best by touching,
others by hearing, others by seeing, others by being totally involved. Their list includes
four broad categories (environmental, emotional, social, and physical) with eighteen
characteristics. (Dunn and Dunn, p. 122) The array of possible learning style

combinations is vast.

 

 

 

 

41

Their brief summary mentions many researchers who have identified selected components
of learning, developed instruments to assess those components, and determined that
learners do differ. Furthermore, those learning style preferences, in all their variations,
do affect learning. For example, when people are separated on the basis of brain
hemisphere dominance and trained in a style fitting for that dominance, learners do learn

more quickly in their preferred mode. (Murray, pp. 80-87)

Huey Long identified other personal variables which affect learning. For example, prior
experience related to the area of learning affects participants’ learning positively. Other
things being equal, intelligence has a positive correlation with achievement on a variety
of learning tasks. (Long, pp. 222-224)

Howard Gardner isolated seven different forms of intelligence, each one of which affects
learning in its particular area. His whole book describes the seven, which include
linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-ldnesthetic, intrapersonal, and
interpersonal intelligence. (Gardner, 1985)

Long also identified a number of affective factors. Anxiety seems to have a negative
effect on performance in some situations and not in others. However, he said that the
amount of research with adults is limited. According to Tough, curiosity is an especially
important motivation for individually guided learning projects. However, Long said that
for adults ”relevance or perceived value has a marked bearing on the desire to learn, and

this factor often outweighs any influence of curiosity. " (Long, pp. 226—228)

 

 

42
EXPECTATIONS OF THE LEARNER

Victor Vroom’s "expectancy theory" of motivation states that a person will be motivated
to do something if 1) there is some desire for the outcome that is likely, and 2) one
expects that a particular behavior will achieve the outcome that is desired. In fact,
motivation is the product of the strength of the desire and the strength of the expectancy.
(Davis, pp. 65-66) For example, if a person wants to become a better listener and
believes that a class on listening will in fact help him/her to accomplish that outcome,
then he/ she will be motivated to attend that class. The greater the desire for the outcome

and the higher the expectation, the greater the motivation.

Researchers have discovered that a teacher or trainer’s expectation that a learner will
learn has an influence on the extent of learning. Without overtly intending to treat some
individuals differently, educators and trainers convey to the learners of whom they have
the greatest expectation that they indeed expect them to learn, and those learners do learn
better and more rapidly. This is called the "Pygmalion effect.” (Rosenthal, pp. 407-
410)

TEACHABLE MOMENTS AND LIFE TRANSITIONS

Robert Havighurst developed a list of developmental tasks for different stages of life.

When there is a great urgency to learn something relative to a developmental task over

a short time, a ”teachable moment" occurs. (Long, p. 229)

Without using the term, Arthur Combs and his associates also addressed the issue of

teachable moments. They said that learning and remembering only takes place in

 

 

43

response to some need, and the primary need is for adequacy. (Combs et al, pp. 64, 197
and 219)

Edgar Dale likewise spoke about teachable moments. "You cannot learn efficiently
unless you develop a desire, a need for learning." (Dale, p. 47) "Indeed, most of us
forget if we have no clear reason for learning, if the idea or skill to be learned appears
to be unimportant, or it seems to lack a relationship to our lives - in short, when it has

no significance for us." (Dale, p. 50)

Daley, in Relapse Prevention . . . , said that it is imperative that the learner have a
desire to learn. Early in the treatment, it is possible to have an effect on participants
even though some may have been pushed into treatment. However, for the program to
have a lasting effect, the individual must acquire a personal desire to change. (Daley, p.
9)

Aslanian and Brickell did research which seems to strongly verify Havighurst’s original
concept of teachable moments because of life transitions. In their study, most learners
engaged in learning because of transitions in their lives, especially career and family
transitions. (Aslanian and Brickell, 1980, cited in Schlossberg, Lynch, and Chickering,
pp. 1 and 13)

 

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

The importance of the environment in behavior is indicated in a couple equations. The
first is Kurt Lewin’s "theoretical formulation, B = f(P,E), indicating that behavior is a
function of the person and the environment . . . ." (Kolb, p. 36) Dana and James
Robinson frequently repeat the fundamental concept of their book Training for Impact:
"Learning experience X Work Environment = Business Results." (See, for example,

Robinson and Robinson, pp. 11, 210.)

The environment is influential because it contains the reinforcers. "A reinforcer is a
stimulus that follows some behavior and increases or maintains the probability of the
behavior." (Johns, p. 42) If specific behaviors are desirable, including new ones, they
must be reinforced by the environment or they are likely to become extinct.
Furthermore, because an individual can anticipate the reinforcers or lack thereof through
previous experience, a behavior can be molded before it is even tried. (Johns, pp.

40-63)

According to Robinson and Robinson, N. Rackham discovered in research at Xerox
Corporation that "87 percent of newly learned skills can be lost when there is no
follow—up coaching by the boss after training." (Robinson and Robinson, p. 111) The

environment is obviously powerful in affecting behaviors.

Daley, who wrote about addition, recovery, and relapse, would certainly concur.
However, the environment not only reinforces new behaviors, the environment also
contains the elements which stimulate both positive and negative behaviors. (Daley, pp.
3-4, 33, 44-45, 48)

 

 

45

That principle stated by Daley is related to a concept of physics, which D. T. Hall
describes: "A body is at rest when the sum of all the forces acting upon it is zero." The
forces which hold a body at rest are constant. If one wants to move that motionless
body, something must be done to unbalance the forces acting on it. Either the forces on

one side must be increased or the forces on the other side be decreased. (Hall, p. 219)

In learning, if it is desirable for an individual to behave differently in an environment,
one must recognize that the environmental forces often remain unchanged. The people
surrounding the individual are the same, and so are the policies, the procedures, the
organizational structure, the layout of furniture and fixtures. Change in the individual
can be facilitated by increasing the environmental forces which are pushing in the
direction of the change and/or reducing the forces which are hindering the change.
Reducing the hindering forces is considered more efficient because it results in "lower

tension in the system." (Hall, p. 220)

Allen Tough, who studied intentional changes, identified several environmental factors
which may stimulate change: "social norms, government actions, mass media, and other
stimuli from the social and physical environment.” (Tough, p. 56) He said that these
external factors often lead to personal introspection which then leads to change. (Tough,
p. 59)

CHANGE PROCESS

In his foreword to Tough’s Intentional Changes, J. Roby Kidd explained the educator’s

interest in the change process: "Learning is the fundamental concept and is always
involved in some kind of change." (Tough, p. 10) The study of changes, change

 

46

processes, and change agents is of interest in several fields, e.g., counseling,
communication, and organizational development. Therefore, a review of literature in
these fields of study provides significant insight into the process of influencing behavior

through education or training.

The adoption of an innovation certainly constitutes a behavior change. Rogers and
Shoemaker described the innovation-decision process, that process which an individual
goes through in adopting an innovation. It incorporates: 1) knowledge, 2) persuasion,

3) decision, and 4) confirmation. (Rogers and Shoemaker, p. 25)

The knowledge stage incorporates both awareness of the innovation’s existence and
understanding of how it functions. The persuasion stage is critical in making the decision
to adopt. Persuasion is more likely if an innovation has the five following features: 1)
favorable relative advantage, 2) trialability, 3) compatibility, 4) observability, and 5)
lesser complexity. (Rogers and Shoemaker, pp. 22-23) From their work, it appears that
behavioral changes desired by an educator or trainer may likewise need these

characteristics if the participants are expected to adopt the behavior.

In an expanded paradigm of the innovation decision process, Rogers and Shoemaker
incorporated other factors which also affect the process. They identified the many
individual variables (personality characteristics, social characteristics, perceived need),
social system variables (social system norms, tolerance for deviancy, communication
integration), innovation characteristics (as identified earlier) and communication sources.
(Rogers and Shoemaker, p. 102) Many of these match the change-affecting variables

identified earlier in this chapter.

They said that this later paradigm has been developed to be consistent with the learning

 

 

47

process.

The way in which new ideas are adopted by an individual is essentially
parallel to how any type of learning takes place. In the innovation-
decision process, innovation messages reach the individual by various
communication channels. The effect of each ensuing message (the
stimulus) about the innovation accumulates until the individual interprets
it and decides to adopt or reject (the response) the innovation. This is
learning. (Rogers and Shoemaker, p. 103)

Thus a change in behavior which an individual adopts may be achieved by going through

this process.

The innovation-decision process is also connected to the intentional change process
studied by Allen Tough. Tough and his cohorts interviewed 150 adults, asking them
about the intentional changes in their lives in the past two years. Tough defined an
intentional change as one which was definitely chosen and intended and which a person

took one or more steps to achieve. (Tough, p. 39)

The change process which Tough reports incorporates three steps:

deciding to change something particular
planning the change strategy
achieving the change (Tough, p. 51)

Those three steps amplify upon the model presented by Rogers and Shoemaker. All
three of Tough’s steps correspond to and expand upon the decision step. The decision
Step is the intentional part of the process, which is, of course, what Tough was studying.

However, his steps do not explain the beginning of the change process, the stimulation

 

 

48

of change.

While it is not a part of his three step process for change, Tough did address the issue

of stimulators:

An opportunity, a triggering stimulus, or a change in the external world
will often play a part in fostering . . . self examination . . . It is
common . . . for people to examine, reflect on, and assess various facets
of themselves and their lives. These facets include their values, goals,
hopes, needs, characteristics, lifestyles, knowledge, skill, performance,
success, time or money budget, psychological and emotional functioning,
physical functioning, and spiritual level. Such an examination can
uncover a latent interest, a readiness for change, a deep dissatisfaction, a
large gap between the actual and the ideal, a general problem or issue, or
a desire to change. (Tough, p. 59)

His remarks, of course, are closely related to those earlier on motivation and teachable
moments. In that connection, it may be noted that the changes that Tough discovered
are not always the result of training, but they may also be the type of life changes
(transitions) which precipitate training. His research indicated that intentional changes

are particularly likely in four areas:

1) job, career, and training
2) human relationships, emotions, and self-perception
3) enjoyable activities

4) residence location (Tough, p. 25)

Those represented 75% of all the intentional changes identified by subjects. (Tough, p.
25) They also closely resemble the transitions identified by Schlossberg et a1.
(Schlossberg et al, pp. 14-15)

 

 

49

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DESIRED BEHAVIOR (INNOVATION)

As noted briefly earlier, Rogers and Shoemaker identified five characteristics of
innovations which past research indicates will affect the rate of adoption. They are as

follows:

relative advantage
compatibility
complexity
trialability
observability

"Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the
idea it supersedes." "Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and the nwds of the
receivers." ”Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult
to understand and use.” "Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be
experimented with on a limited basis." "Observability is the degree to which the results
of an innovation are visible to others." All of these except complexity are positively

correlated with the rate of adoption. (Rogers and Shoemaker, pp. 22-23, 137-157)

Zaltman and Duncan, who like Rogers and Shoemaker synthesized research on change,
identified several other characteristics of changes which affect adoption. One such
characteristic is divisibility, "the extent to which a change can be implemented on a
limited scale," which generally has a desirable effect on change. Reversibility refers to

the ability to discontinue the innovation and return to the original status. The greater the

 

 

50

case of reversing and the fewer the permanent consequences, the greater the positive
effect on change. Communicability, the "ease with which information about a change
can be disseminated," also positively affects change. The speed at which a change is
introduced can be too fast or too slow. Risk, uncertainty, and social relations are also
briefly identified, without mentioning their effect. And finally, the greater the
commitment necessary (in time, money, and other resources), ”the less likely change is

to take place." (Zaltman and Duncan, pp. 13—16)

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INSTRUCTOR (CHANGE AGENT,
COUNSELOR, OR EDUCATOR)

Research from several fields reveals that the characteristics of the person helping to
facilitate change do affect learning or change. Each field may contribute to our
understanding of what kind of individual can best facilitate change.

In the field of counseling, where the emphasis is usually on behavioral change, Carl
Rogers discovered that change is most likely to occur when a helper or facilitator is
empathic and genuine and when he/she communicates positive regard. (Corsini, pp.
151-153) Lawrence Brammer, another researcher in counseling, reviewed numerous
studies on counseling effectiveness. He concluded that change in a helpee is most likely
if the helper communicates openness, warmth and caring, empathy, positive regard and

respect, and concreteness and specificity. (Brammer, pp. 36—42)

The study of innovation and change also contributes to our understanding. Rogers and
Shoemaker described several change agent factors which influence the adoption process.

Success in helping to facilitate change is positively related to client orientation. The

 

 

change agent must be able to empathize with the client. Success is also more likely if

the change agent is homogeneous with the client and is creditable in the eyes of the

client. (Rogers and Shoemaker, pp. 236-245)

Educational researchers have identified similar instructor characteristics for effectiveness.
"Teachers who rank high on empathy, respect, and genuineness are more likely to
facilitate cognitive and affective growth in their students than teacher who rank low.“
(J. Miller, p. 95)

Citing Daloz (1986), who worked with adult external degree programs, Schlossberg,
Lynch, and Chickering said: "Mentors are often the most effective teachers for adult
learners." Mentors "hold a hand here, pat a shoulder there, and say words of comfort
or praise, guiding their adult learners through the maze of learning obstacles."

(Schlossberg et al, p. 119)

In the three fields in which literature was reviewed above, there is considerable
consistency in the characteristics of effective helpers of change. It is evident that
personal ability to care about and relate with the learner are very important, as is the
ability to help learners through a process.

SECTION SUMMARY

In summary, change is affected by numerous factors:

1. internal characteristics of the learner

2. expectations of the learner

 

 

52

life transitions and other teachable moments
numerous environmental factors
movement through a standard change process

characteristics of the change itself

99‘???

characteristics of the instructor (change agent, counselor, or educator)

The factor which affects one’s learning and utilization of learning most notably is one’s
personal need for something which the learning seems to promise. That need, often
precipitated by a transition, produces a force which may drive a participant toward

change.

However, both the learner and the educator or trainer must be aware of the
environmental factors which are likely to promote change or hinder change. Strategizing
how to utilize positive forces or to reduce hindering forces is likely to improve the

likelihood of change.

Similarly, helping the learner through the change process will also improve the likelihood
of change. In that process, persuasion is a vital part; it is affected most by the
characteristics of the innovation (characteristics of the desired behavior), but it is also

affected by certain characteristics of the facilitator of change.

In summary, this study of the literature reveals that behavior change is more likely to
occur in an individual under certain conditions. For a participant to learn and to apply

learning outside the instructional setting, four key variables must support that change:

1. factors within the individual

2. factors within the environment

 

 

53

3. the nature of the new behavior

4. characteristics of the facilitator

A fifth key variable, the instructional activities utilized for helping the participants learn,

is addressed in the next section.

THE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES (METHODS, TECHNIQUES,
AND STRATEGIES) FOR CHANGING BEHAVIORS AS
IDENTIFIED BY THEORISTS AND RESEARCHERS

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING AND INFORMATION PROCESSING

Researchers at Johns-Hopkins University studied outcomes from two modes of learning
(information-processing and experiential-processing) for seven years. They found that
experiential learning was much more likely to lead to behavioral outcomes than

information-processing. (Stadsklev, pp. 26-32, and Keeton et al, pp. 49-61)

In information-processing, there is a basic four step process leading from the reception

of information to action:

1. reception of information through a symbolic medium (spoken or
written)

2. understanding the general principle relative to the information
presented

3. inferring a particular application of the principle

4. acting or applying the principle in a new situation

 

 

54

According to the report, the greatest difficulty in this process is moving through step
three. Learners using this mode can often perform well on paper and pencil tests which
test recall and understanding but most often they do not act upon the principle. Thus,

as the report says, learning is incomplete.

Similar conclusions are reported by John Bransford and Nancy Nye, in the volume by
Resnik and Klopfer. They cite six studies, including some with college students, which
they say "provide evidence that relevant knowledge often remains inert even though it
is potentially useful." Prompting of some land is often necessary in order to get people
to use applicable information. (Resnik and Klopfer, pp. 188-193)

According to the Johns-Hopkins report, in the experiential mode of learning, there is also

a four step process:

1. acting or experiencing something

2. understanding the experience in terms of cause and effect

3. building a generalization out of similar experiences (This does not
imply being able to express that generalization.)

4. using the generalization in a new circumstance

As indicated earlier, the experiential mode leads more directly to the performance or
action. The weakness in this process is in step three, building a generalization. Thus
one may have an experience without learning from it. (Stadsklev, pp. 26—32) In a
related thought, however, Edgar Dale observed that generalizations are built upon several
similar experiences. Therefore instructors should not be too hasty in moving from the
experience to the abstract. (Dale, pp. 70 and 101) Perhaps the "weakness" is not so

much in the process but in the fact that there have not been enough similar experiences

   

55
upon which to build a generalization.

In addition to the fact that experiential learning leads directly to action, the
Johns-Hopkins report indicates that ”experiential learning appears to be less easily
forgotten than learning through information processing. The reason may be that the
associations which embed it in memory are associations with concrete action and events
to which affect was attached, and are not merely associations with abstract symbols. "
(Stadsklev, p. 32) Thus when one experiences something, the whole being is involved

in a way which does not occur in information-processing.

The findings of the Johns-Hopkins research seem to have been personally discovered by
Carl Rogers long before that study. In a speech in 1952, while admitting that his
viewpoint may sound extreme, he said: ”I have come to discover that the only learning
which significantly influences behavior is self-discovered, self-appropriated learning. "
Thus social learning, the accumulated learning of society, cannot be communicated in a

way that changes behavior. (M. Miller, pp. 68-70)

The Johns-Hopkins researchers do not discount inforrnation-processing. However, they
do conclude that "learning in school might be made considerably more effective by the
appropriate mix of experiential and information-processing modes of learning. "

(Stadsklev, p. 32)

Others also advocate a blend. Bransford and Nye, who were quoted earlier saying that
relevant information is not used, said: ”Many cognitive researchers argue that effective
learning requires that we spend more time having students actively use knowledge to
solve problems . . . and spend less time simply reading about introductory facts and

concepts. " They advocate learning by doing, but indicate that even practical exercises

 

 

56
need to be used with caution, primarily because students may still be too confined to the

book problems. (Resnik and Klopfer, p. 195) (Note that for cognitive researchers the

learning process begins with information processing and ends with action.)

The two basic processes for learning which Paulo Freire addressed also closely parallel
information processing and experiential processing. He referred to the first as a system
of domestication in which information is transferred from the teacher’s head to the
student’s head. This directive teaching promotes an authority—dependency relationship.

(Srinivasan, pp. 2-7)

Freire advocated "praxis, " which incorporates learner reflection on the reality in which
he/ she lives, action as a result of that reflection, and then further reflection. In this
process, the learners are active and they critically examine, interact with, and transform
their environments. (Srinivasan, pp. 2-7) (Note that for Friere the optimal learning

process begins with the learner’s life experience.)

Srivivasan said that Freire’s reflection process led to action rather than content mastery.
He wrote: ”The end product of Freire’s system may be summed up in terms of attitudes,
feeling, and perceptions that provide the dynamics for action, not the mastery of content
as such. It is the feeling of self-worth, the perception of oneself as an agent of change,
the desire to be liberated, the enjoyment of dialogue, that contribute to changing the
learner from an object into a subject and that promote action. " (Srinivasan, p. 12) That

conclusion matches the conclusion of the Johns-Hopkins study.

While Tough does not advocate a particular change process, it is his observation that
thinking is a vital part of the change process. After exploratory interviews with 150
people regarding their changes, he wrote: "The person is often very thoughtful and

 

 

 

57

active in considering and tentatively choosing some major change, and then in deciding
definitely to proceed with it. It is common, for example, for people to exanrine, reflect
on, and assess various facets of themselves and their lives. " (Tough, p. 59) What he
seems to be describing is the experiential learning process in which one first experiences
something (life), through thinking understands the experience, draws some conclusions,

and then acts upon those conclusions.

Brookfield seems to have drawn heavily on Freire in forming his conclusions about what
constitutes effective facilitation of learning. He listed six principles, two of which are

particularly germane to the topic here:

Praxis is placed at the heart of effective facilitation. Learners and
facilitators are involved in a continual process of activity, reflection upon
activity, collaborative analysis of activity, new activity, further reflection
and collaborative analysis, and so on.

Facilitation aims to foster in adults a spirit of critical reflection.
(Brookfield, p. 10)

Brookfield’s conclusions are cited and supported by Schlossberg, Lynch, and Chickering,
who wrote that such processes are vital elements of meaningful learning experiences.
"The cycle of exploration, action, and reflection is an essential ingredient of the
practical, internships, co—op learning, and field experiences that can constitute some of
the most meaningful learning for adults. This same cycle can be applied in classes and
other curricular experiences of adult learners - if they learn the process. " (Schlossberg,

Lynch, and Chickering, p. 205)

The observations of Tough and the viewpoints expressed by Freire, Brookfield, and

Schlossberg et a1 seem to support the conclusions about the experiential learning process

 

 

 

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as described in the Johns-Hopkins’ research. In similar support, on the basis of research
rather than theory, Arthur Chickering wrote: "There is . . . a wealth of . . . research
concerning college impacts and human development that suggests that institutional
changes toward experiential learning will result in increased educational effectiveness.”
(Chickering, p. 75)

APPREHENSION AND COMPREHENSION

In the book Experiential Learning, David Kolb attempted to combine the ideas of a
number of theorists and philosophers who espoused experiential learning, particularly
John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Kurt Lewin. Using a wide range of research, he proposed

a model to explain the processes of learning.

While he did not discount learning through the sharing of information, he argued that our
learning process "must be reimbued with the texture and feeling of human experiences
shared and interpreted through dialogue with one another." With the explosion of
information and knowledge, the pressure to simply give that information to students has

become greater. (Kolb, p. 2)

As mentioned earlier, Kolb drew on the works of Dewey, an educational philosopher,
who inspired a movement toward learning through experience. His advocacy has had a
lasting effect on the training methodology for many vocations and professions. (Kolb,
PP- 5-7)

Kolb drew on Lewin’s work with groups. According to Kolb, a strategy evolved in

Lewin’s experimental work: a group experienced working together and then discussed

 

 

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that experience. The discussion served to facilitate inquiry and understanding. (Kolb,
p. 8-11) According to Lewin’s model for experiential learning, there are four cyclical
steps in the process (with the first at the top): 1) concrete experience, 2) observations
and reflections, 3) formation of abstract concepts and generalizations, and 4) testing
implication of concepts in new situations. (Kolb, p. 21) This is virtually identical to the
four step process in the experiential mode identified in the Johns-Hopkins study.

As further basis for his own model, Kolb cited the theories of Freire, who similarly
emphasized discussion of experiences as a means of bringing to consciousness one’s
social environment. Friere theorized that reflection and awareness would lead to action.

(Kolb, p. 16)

Kolb relied heavily on Piaget, even though, according to Kolb, "Piaget’s focus is on
cognitive-development processes - on the nature of intelligence and how it develops."
Piaget observed children and theorized that intelligence is developed through experiences.
He concluded that an individual is not able to utilize symbols properly unless he/she has
had experience with the real-life object or circumstance. (Kolb, pp. 12-13)

Of course, Piaget was not the first to draw that conclusion. In the fourth century, St.
Augustine pointed out that one could not comprehend "fear” or "sorrow" or other words

about emotion without having experienced that emotion. (Augustine, p. 224)

Piaget advanced a four-step model for the development of concepts or the accumulation
of knowledge (intelligence): 1) concrete phenomenalism, 2) internalized reflection, 3)
abstract constructionism, and 4) active egocentricism. (Kolb, pp. 23-25) In reality, the
model is again very similar to the four-step process for experiential learning identified

in the Johns-Hopkins research. However, Piaget’s fourth step was not action, but rather

 

 

60

mental use of the concept. It demonstrates his interest in the acquisition of concepts or

intelligence rather than in behavioral outcomes.

Another aspect of Piaget’s work upon which Kolb built is his theory that an individual’s
ability to utilize the four steps grows with age. Thus at an early age, a child can only
experience life. At the next stage, he! she experiences and reflects upon those

experiences, and so on. (Kolb, pp. 23-25)

Kolb, however, digressed somewhat from the idea that learning is done through a
sequential process. He utilized each of the steps (in the Piaget model) to represent a
style of learning in itself. Those learning styles would not be relevant in this part of the
literature review except that each also represents a method or technique for learning.

Kolb wrote:

Learners, if they are to be effective, need four different kinds of abilities
- concrete experience abilities (CE), reflective observation abilities (RO) ,
abstract conceptualization abilities (AC), and active experimentation (AE)
abilities. That is, they must be able to involve themselves fully, openly,
and without bias in new experiences (CE). They must be able to reflect
on and observe their experiences from many perspectives (R0). They
must be able to create concepts that integrate their observations into
logically sound theories (AC), and they must be able to use these theories
to make decisions and solve problems (AB). Yet this ideal is difficult to
achieve. How can one act and reflect at the same time? How can one be
concrete and immediate and still be theoretical? Learning requires
abilities that are polar opposites, and the learner, as a result, must
continually choose which set of learning abilities he or she will bring to
bear in any specific learning situation. (Kolb, p. 30)

Kolb is saying that there is not only a four-step process, but that each step is in itself a
discrete technique for learning. Kolb indicated that this distinction is debated by

scholars. It is a debate between learning as a process which results in an end product

 

 

 

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versus learning through one facet of the process in isolation. (Kolb, pp. 30-34)

Kolb elaborated on the four styles of learning, picturing them as two sets of polar
opposites on two axes. The first sets of opposites on the vertical axis are ”apprehension"

and "comprehension” with apprehension at the top. (Kolb, pp. 40-51)

Apprehension is the grasping of a concrete experience through one’s senses. Yet it is
a grasping which does not include mental thinking processes. Thus, as he described, one
may sit in a chair in a room and take in that experience through the senses, but may not

think about what he/she is seeing, smelling, hearing, or touching. (Kolb, pp. 40-51)

Comprehension is the formation of concepts through the interpretation of symbols. Thus
one could read or hear a description of a chair in a room and that receiver could
comprehend that scene, forming a mental picture through the symbolic medium. (Kolb,
pp. 40-51)

Another example may illustrate that distinction further. If a person drives a car around
a corner, especially rather fast, he/ she will apprehend the experience of centrifugal force.
In the process of apprehending itself, it is not necessary to be conscious of the force that
is pulling one’s body and car outward or to think about it; it is sufficient to experience
it. On the other hand, the comprehending process is often desired in the classroom by
a teacher who uses the symbolic medium of words to describe centrifugal force. As the

student grasps the concept through the medium, he/ she has comprehended.

Kolb identified several scholars who in one way or another make this distinction between
apprehension and comprehension. Most notably, he cited William James, the

psychologist, who identifies several languages in which a distinction is made between

 

 

   

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acquaintance (through involvement with something) and knowledge about something.
(Kolb, pp. 44-45)

Kolb also referred to brain hemisphere research and said that "the modes of knowing
associated with the left and right hemispheres correspond directly with the distinction
between concrete experiential and abstract cognitive approaches of learning. " The two
brain halves have two "opposed modes for grasping reality.” (Kolb, pp. 16, 46-48)

While one might wonder what one can do with apprehension, Kolb cited the studies of
Robert Zajonc, saying that apprehension is apparently the basis for intuition. ”Intuitive
behavior is guided by affective judgment (the apprehension process) rather than cognitive
judgment." (Kolb, pp. 49-50) Thus sensing that something is wrong or ”having a
feeling" that one ought to do this or that may be attributed to one’s apprehension in
similar situations. That apprehension (intuition) can be the basis for behavior directly

without rational thought.

In his conclusion to this section, Kolb said: ”The process of apprehension as a mode of
grasping experience and understanding the world is gaining scientific respectability . . .
The view that concrete apprehension processes are coequal with comprehension processes
represent a dramatic change from that of 40 years ago. " Apprehension is not just a sign

of a young brain or a damaged brain. (Kolb, p. 50)

The other set of polar opposites which Kolb described are "intention” and "extension, "
which he put on the horizontal axis with intention to the right. He described these as
"transformation processes, " processes by which one transforms what one has grasped

through apprehension or comprehension into another form of learning. (Kolb, pp. 51-58)

 

 

63

While these are transforming processes which can be used in combination with
apprehension and comprehension, Kolb argued that they are independent and are
therefore usable as learning processes in themselves. The four are “equipotent.” (Kolb,

p. 52)

Intention is the process of inward reflections. It is thinking. Extension on the other
hand is outward directed. It is action. (Kolb, p. 51-58)

Kolb did not cite as many other sources to substantiate this dimension of learning. In
fact, he said that it has often been collapsed with the other, namely, extension (active
experimentation) being paired with apprehension (concrete experience) and intention
(objective reflection) being paired with comprehension (abstract conceptualization).
(Kolb, pp. 51-60)

Yet, in support of his view, he referred to the work of others which may link intention
and extension with introversion and extroversion respectively. He also explained some
related brain research, indicating that any connection between one’s orientation to
intention or extension and particular areas of the brain is more tentative. (Kolb, pp.

51-60)

While stressing the importance and independence of the four learning styles, Kolb also
recognized possible combinations of learning styles, e.g., comprehension informed by
intention (reflective observation). In fact, he calls these higher level forms of learning.
In the end, he concluded that the "combination of all four of the elementary learning
forms produces the highest level of learning" because it makes use of the four styles of

learning. (Kolb, pp. 65-66)

 

   

ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE

Edgar Dale, a theorist and professor of education, described three basic mediums through
which learning takes place and arranged them on a spectrum from concrete through
abstract. The three mediums are: experiential, iconic, and symbolic. He relates these
to Jerome Bruner’s categories: inactive, iconic, and symbolic. (Dale, pp. 13-14, 107)
The continuum represents the amount of abstraction or the "amount of immediate sensory
participation that is involved. " (Dale, p. 110) Thus with the symbolic category, there
are few senses involved, and with the experiential category, there are potentially many

senses involved.

The ends of the spectrum, the experiential and symbolic mediums, seem to correspond
to the two main processes studied in the Johns-Hopkins study described earlier, namely,
experiential processing and information processing. In many ways, they also correspond

directly to apprehension and comprehension, as described by Kolb.

Within the experiential category, the concrete end of the spectrum, Dale listed direct,
purposeful experiences, contrived experiences, and dramatized experiences. At the other
end of the spectrum, within the symbolic category, he included verbal symbols and visual
symbols (which includes graphs, maps, charts, etc.). (Dale, p. 107) (See Appendix A.)

In the iconic category, which is in the middle, are those strategies through which one
sees a representation of the real thing. Thus the category includes demonstrations, study
trips, exhibits, television, motion pictures, and recordings, radio, and still pictures.
(Dale, p. 107)

 

 

65

In applying those three categories, Dale believed that the basis for action or behavior was
the formation of concepts, which had been developed through experience. His
understanding of how concepts (generalizations or principles) are formed in the mind of
the learner seem consistent with the Johns-Hopkins research. "A concept is a general
idea that we form about several specific experiences. Such a general idea enables us to
summarize or condense many of our actions and observations into an over-all statement
of understanding or awareness. When you form a concept, you are able to express many
particular details of your life by stating them as a generalized principle or rule or idea."
(Dale, p. 70)

It is also quite clear that Dale, like Piaget, sees concrete experiences as essential to the

formation of a concept:

A common danger in our teaching is that we may move to generalization
too quickly, without providing a good foundation of vivid, specific
experiences. As a result, our students may be confused and perplexed
when they confront a new abstraction.

This consideration, and the many learning experiences that we have
considered, may suggest that concept development is a process in which
the concrete and the abstract interact. There is a shuttling back and forth
in which generalizations help us to understand new concrete experiences
and the concrete experiences in turn help us to enlarge or refine our
generalizations. In short, we reconstruct - reclassify - our experiences.
When we understand this n m' r l ' 11 hi between concrete
experience and the generalization, we get a fresh view of concept building
in the classroom.

Once we understand this interaction between rich, specific experiences and
generalized ideas, we shall not make the mistake of exalting the general
at the expense of the specific 9r_th_e_re1erse. We nwd them both. We
can move to the abstraction only through the concrete. And we move
beyond the specific details of an experience only by building them into
generalizations. (Dale, pp. 101-102)

 

 

Yet, formulation of generalizations is not sufficient for Dale. To him living differently,

transferring the learning, or doing something with the learning is essential. (Dale, pp.
24, 57-58) He describes transfer as the ability to ”move from one experience to a related
experience . . . ." In support of his viewpoint, he quotes Cronback (1963): “The only
sure sign that the pupil has command of a principle is transfer . . . going beyond the
words given by text or teacher and beyond the tasks he had previously practiced."
(Dale, pp. 57-58) Thus transfer incorporates the fourth step in either mode of learning

as identified in the Johns-Hopkins study, namely, application in action.

In summary, Dale believed that experiences are the basis for the formation of concepts.
They in turn generate action. Concepts learned by other means do not transfer into
action. Thus he attests to the power and influence of real-life experiences, contrived

experiences, and dramatized experiences, which fit his experiential category.

On the other end of the spectrum are those who would approach the formation of
concepts (as the basis for action) through the abstract, not the experiential. Lauren
Resnik and Leopold Klopfer edited a book on cognitive research, a field closely related
to the writings of Dale. Within that field there appears to be a growing interest in the
discovery of knowledge and the development of concepts by the learner. While the
various authors in their book offered different perspectives, what is advocated overall is
a curriculum which involves the learner in thinking, primarily thinking to prepare for
receiving information and thinking to integrate new information with old. That viewpoint

is summed up by the following:

A major assumption shared by a number of cognitive scientists is that new
knowledge must be actively constructed by learners . . . . One cannot
simply ‘transmit’ to students the secrets of expertise. This does not mean
that information provided by teachers and texts is unimportant. However,

   

67

it suggests that students must have the opportunity to actively use this
information themselves and to experience its effects on their own
performance. (Resnik and Klopfer, p. 188)

For some authors in this book, the intent of that thinking process for learners is clearly
to facilitate use later to solve new problems. Generally these problems are solved on a
cognitive level as a basis for action. (See, for example, Resnik and Klopfer, pp. 9-10.)
Yet for some authors the emphasis seems to be the formulation of concepts.
Representative of that viewpoint is this statement: ”Meaningful learning occurs at the
level of concept acquisition and conceptual change. " (Resnik and Klopfer, p. 187) Here
the end goal is seen as concept formation rather than action based on that concept. This

view is more consistent with Piaget’s.

Throughout Resnik and Klopfer’s book, the various authors decried the transmission of
information to be absorbed and remembered. The key point is that drinking is an
effective means for enabling the learner to grasp concepts and utilize them. While that
utilization is implied, references to studies where that has been shown to be true are not
cited in this book.

BEHAVIORS AFFECTING ATTITUDES RATHER THAN VICE VERSA

As noted earlier, some authors contend that cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
learning are the foundations for behaviors or performance. It might be surmised from
that viewpoint that it is therefore imperative to change certain attitudes in order to affect
behaviors. Without denying that changing attitudes would affect behavior, there are
some who believe that changing behaviors will affect attitudes.

 

 

 

68

One such person is William Glasser, a psychiatrist, who through his experience came to
disagree with Freudian psychology, which at the time was used extensively. His practice
gradually evolved into what is called ”reality therapy. " Glasser used reality therapy with
a variety of clients, including seriously delinquent adolescent girls, psychotic patients in
a veterans’ psychiatric hospital, and private clients. In each situation he found his

methods to be more effective. (Glasser, pp. ix-xxv)

In the case of the patients in the veterans’ hospital, reality therapy proved so effective
that many who had been there for more than ten years were treated and released within
months. In one group of 75 released, only three returned. (Glasser, pp. 131-164)

While many of Glasser’s theories could be cited, the one most relevant to education and
training and behavioral change is that on the relationship between attitudes and behaviors.
"Waiting for attitudes to change stalls therapy whereas changing behavior leads quickly
to a change in attitude, which in turn can lead to fulfilling needs and further better
behavior." (Glasser, p. 34)

Another counselor, William Diehm, reached the same conclusion in his marriage
counseling. He wrote that when people reported that their attitudes or affection had
changed toward a spouse, he asked them to consider what they were doing differently.
To enable them to return to more positive attitudes, he worked with them to get them to
begin doing the things which previously had supported the more favorable attitude. In
his experience, the return of behaviors precipitated the changing of attitudes. (Diehm,
pp. 11-54)

 

69
SPECIFIC EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES

Wilbert McKeachie reviewed numerous research studies to determine whether lecture or
discussion had proven to be most effective. He reported that while differences were
often slight, there is a volume of research that supports one conclusion: participation in
the process of learning definitely has some advantages. His findings can be summarized

as follows:

1. When one compares the retention of information until a test is taken,
lecture and discussion appear to produce the same results.

(McKeachie, p. 48)

2. When one compares the attitude toward the subject and long-term
retention, discussions are superior to lecture. (McKeachie, pp. 144-

145)

3. Discussion seems particularly appropriate to “help students learn to think
in terms of the subject matter by giving them practice in thinking."
(McKeachie, pp. 27, 48-52)

4. Student-centered discussions are more effective than
instructor-centered discussions for application of concepts, attitudes,

motivation, and group membership skills. (McKeachie, pp. 48-52)

5. ”The chief advantage of games and simulations is that students are active
participants rather than passive observers. Students must make decisions.

solve problems, and react to the results of their decisions." (McKeachie,

 

 

.............

 

 

70

p. 170)

The conclusions of McKeachie’s megastudy are certainly substantiated by individual
researchers. Soemardi Hadisoebroto put thirty community education fieldworkers
through training and measured several outcomes. The treatment modes were
lecture-based and participatory-based. He found that subjects who were trained using a
participatory approach did change behaviors as a result. The others did not.
(Hadisoebroto, 1980)

Stephen Brookfield wrote a chapter assessing the value of discussion in the volume edited
by Rosenblum. He summarized a viewpoint of Eduard Lindeman, whom he says is "still
the most significant American philosopher of continuing education: " discussion is a
method that gives students ”an opportunity to reflect on their experiences and to assign
meaning to them in a collaborative quest for understanding. " (Rosenblum, p. 5 6) That

sounds like Friere.

While Brookfield said that some claims for the effectiveness of discussion are
over-stated, he cites many who attest to their value. For exarnple, he cited Verner and
Booth (1964): " ‘Discussion is definitely preferred in situation where the learning

objective involves group behavioral or attitudinal change. ’ " (Rosenblum, p. 58)

Like McKeachie, Nathaniel Gage also reviewed numerous research projects and drew
several conclusions about various strategies for changing behaviors of teachers and

prospective teachers:

1. If knowing how to do something is desirable, practice is required.

Knowledge of results or feedback on performance in that practice

 

71

enhances the learning. (Gage, p. 45)

2. Micro-teaching is very effective for training teachers. It involves
practicing "only one or a few aspects“ of a behavior in very short
segments with a follow-up critique. In the research, the newly
learned behaviors were evident immediately, in subsequent months,

and in the first year of actual teaching. (Gage, pp. 47-48)

3. Similarly, mini-courses have long-term effectiveness when used for
individualized in-service training for teachers. The mini—courses
tested required the teacher to read about a set of skills, view a film
explaining and illustrating the skills, plan and teach a lesson using the

skills, and evaluate the lesson. (Gage, pp. 48-50)

4. Cognitive discrimination training is also effective. In the research,
prospective teachers learned to distinguish between six types of
responses to student comments using recorded examples. The training
affected behaviors in subsequent teaching. (Gage, p. 50)

5. Receiving feedback and agreeing to work on changing behaviors is

likewise effective. (Gage, p. 51)

The findings of Richard Cunningham in his doctoral research are similar to those of
Gage, who looked at many such studies. Cunningham observed and studied the learning
of work skills of employees in three different businesses: custodians, sign makers, and
stock persons at a food store. He reported that experience was the essential ingredient.

In all three work sites, "responsive engagement in the work is necessary." In that

 

   

1
l-
'l

   

72

process, the learners ”attend to the goal, the activity and the result of what they are
doing. They respond by making appropriate trials to achieve the goal, by evaluating the
effectiveness of the trials and by modifying them to be more effective. Workers learn
from experience, by self-evaluation and self-criticism. It is a process of trial, evaluation,
modification and re-trial until the problem is resolved . . . ." Those trials can be mental
or actual physical trials. (Cunningham, pp. 136-137)

Cunningham also found that workers could learn through directed experience, i.e. , going
through the process with an experienced worker directing every step. And he found that
workers could learn the kinds of tasks required by observing another person either live

or on videotape. (Cunningham, p. 137)

Cunningham distinguished between serial concepts and comprehensive concepts. Serial
concepts consist of series of steps which are always followed in a procedure. The
comprehensive concept also consists of a series of steps, but there are decisions that have
to be made. When such decisions are called for, people rely on their ”experiential
bank. " When they have enough variety in their experiences regarding a particular task,
they can connect the different experiences, in a sense jumping from one to the other, to

utilize a sequence fitting for the given situation. (Cunningham, pp. 138-141)

In his summary, he said:

When people learn at work, they learn by acquiring and applying
experience. They learn what they do. Then they organize what they
learned from their actions by developing successful procedures in the
actual practice of their work.

What they do not do is learn a theoretical base to work from and project
their practice from it. Their theory is built from their practical experience
and it is reinforced and broadened by further experience.

 

   

73

This kind of growth does not preclude a purely theoretical construct, but
it does not depend on it either. It has a sense of reality and experiential
truth about it that would appeal to a lot of students in the classroom who
do not relate well to abstraction. However, according to observation on
the worksite, the results are organized into concepts. This suggests the
use of an activity and experience based approach to conceptualization in
the classroom. (Cunningham, pp. 141-142)

In summary, the common finding for these researchers is that the more effective
strategies involve the learner. All encourage active mental participation, and in some
cases, emotional and physical participation. In each case, the leamer’s experiences from
the past are connected to the present (as in discussion) or an individual has an
experience, either as an activity from which he/ she can build generalizations or as a

practice.

Other researchers have likewise drawn similar conclusions from reading research reports.
Brookfield wrote: "The importance of ensuring that new knowledge, concepts, skills,
or frameworks of interpretation are presented to adult learners in a manner that is
comprehensible in terms of their own experiences is a major reason for using

participatory learning methods. " (Brookfield, p. 12)

He also said with certainty that training sessions should be participatory. " ‘Participation’
is not a fashionable phrase, a fad that will disappear in a few months or years. Research
in education, management, and social science shows, over and over again, that the most
effective training takes place when participants are actively involved in learning, not
passive recipients of knowledge transmitted from above by ‘experts.’ This is crucial
when dealing with adult learners. " (Brookfield, p. 255)

Change in participant actions, performance, or behavior can indeed be stimulated

 

 

74

and facilitated through some instructional activities more than others. Those which
are more effective are likely to incorporate higher order thinking processes, participation,

experiences, and/or direct involvement.

METHODS UTILIZED BY INSTRUCTORS OR TRAINERS

Practitioners throughout our society are already applying this information. Among them
are therapists and counselors working with alcoholics, drug addicts, and others with
destructive behaviors. In these fields, not only is it important to change the behavior but
to keep it changed, to prevent relapse. Apparently many treatment centers are
incorporating relapse prevention training into the treatment. Dennis Daley described five
such programs in his book Relapse Prevention: Treatment Alternatives and Counseling

Aids.

As described throughout the book, the strategies utilized for relapse prevention are very
participative, and in most cases, experiential. For example, typical causes for relapse
may be identified. Small groups then try to identify alternative patterns of behavior.

(Daley, p. 61) This is a problem solving method.

In another case, to learn how to handle the social pressures to use drugs, the participants
role play resisting the pressure. These role plays are analyzed and evaluated to
determine what strategies may work best. (Daley, p. 63) This role play and debriefing
follow the pattern of experiential learning as described in the Johns-Hopkins study.

In a much broader assessment of what is happening in the field, Kolb wrote:

 

 

75

Programs of sponsored experiential learning are on the increase in higher
education. Internships, field placements, work/study assignments,
structured exercises and role plays, gaming simulations, and other forms
of experienced-based education are playing a larger role in the curricula
of undergraduate and professional programs . . . . Experience-based
education has become widely accepted as a method of instruction in
colleges and universities across the nation. (Kolb, p. 3)

However, as noted earlier, it is also true that many instructors continue to use traditional

methods. (Svinicki and Dixon, p. 141)

SECTION SUMMARY

In this section of the literature review on instructional activities for changing behaviors,
diverse sources have been cited. However, there has been considerable consistency in

the conclusions.

The seven year research project at Johns-Hopkins University indicated that while there
are two basic modes for learning, information processing and experiential processing,
experiential learning is more likely to lead to action. With little dispute of that finding,

most of the other literature reviewed supports that conclusion.

According to Kolb, learning through experience may take two forms, one in which the
experience leads directly to action without thought and the other by which experience is

reflected upon and conclusions are drawn. These conclusions then lead to action.

This latter process, of course, is the process that the Johns-Hopkins research identified.

As noted, in this process thought is required to move from experience to action. This

 

 

76

is consistent with the many theorists and researchers who advocate thinking and a variety
of discussion techniques. However, cognitive researchers are likely to advocate thinking
about ideas and information as the means to action rather than thinking about

experiences.

Overwhelmingly, the literature advocates experiential learning and higher order mental
processes as means for influencing behavior. The literature included broad studies,

mega-studies, and individual research projects.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The review of literature regarding outcomes reveals that while educational institutions
have not yet totally agreed that practical, behavioral outcomes are the primary goal of
adult education and training, many adult educators and trainers do concur. Their
orientation seems consistent with that of adult learners themselves, a majority of whom
attest to their interest in behavioral or performance outcomes in a variety of ways.
Furthermore, changes in action or performance as a result of training and educational

experiences are evident according to numerous studies.

The literature in the second section of this chapter has shown that change is affected by

numerous factors:

 

77

1) internal characteristics of the learner

2) expectations of the learner

3) life transitions and other teachable moments

4) numerous environmental factors

5) movement through a standard change process

6) characteristics of the change itself

7) characteristics of the instructor (change agent, counselor, educator, or

trainer)

Among the learner factors, one’s need is often the primary condition which affects
learning and application. Need creates a force which may drive a participant toward

change. Life transitions often stimulate the need.

There are numerous environmental factors which may foster or hinder change.
Strategizing how to utilize the helping forces or reduce the hindering forces improves the
likelihood of change. Similarly, helping a learner through the usual steps of the change
process also improves the likelihood of change. In that process, persuasion is critical,
and persuasion is most affected by the characteristics of the desired behavior, including
relative advantages, compatibility, trialability, observability, and low complexity. Some

characteristics of the change facilitator are also important in persuasion.
In the last section of the literature review on instructional activities for changing
behaviors, numerous sources have been cited. In spite of the diversity, the conclusions

have been quite consistent.

The seven year research project at Johns-Hopkins University explored two basic modes

 

 

78

for learning, information processing and experiential processing, and discovered that
experiential learning is more likely to lead to action. Most of the other literature

reviewed supports that conclusion.

Kolb, however, theorized that learning through experience may take two forms. In one
process, the experience leads directly to action without thought. (This may the basis for
intuitive action.) In the other process, experience is reflected upon and conclusions are
drawn. These conclusions then lead to action. This latter process is consistent with the

process that the Johns-Hopldns research identified as part of the experiential process.

As noted, this process requires thought to move from experience to a new action. Many
theorists and researchers who advocate thinking and a variety of discussion techniques
would concur. However, some advocate thinking about ideas and information rather than

thinking about experiences.

Thus overwhelmingly, the literature about long-terrn research, mega-studies, and
individual research projects advocates experiential learning as the influencer of behavioral
change. However, there is also advocacy for higher order mental processes as the means

for fostering behavioral change.

While a considerable amount of literature has been reviewed, one gets the impression that
this only ”scratches the surface.” As Kolb said, there has been a lot of specialized
research and therefore "we now know a vast amount about human behavior, so much that
any attempt to integrate and do justice to all this diverse knowledge seems impossible."
(Kolb, p.32)

 

 

79

This last section of the literature review on instructional activities which affect
behavioral change established the basis for the questionnaire used in this study.
That basis is described further in chapter 3 under "Theoretical Development of the

Questionnaire. "

Chapter 3 describes the mechanics of this study, including the design (with a description
of the population and their programs of study) and the procedures (selection of subjects,
pilot studies, theoretical development of the questionnaire, questionnaire use,
interviewing, and data collection, processing, and analysis). The chapter also addresses

the delimitations, limitations, and validity of the study.

 

 

Chapter 3

DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

The primary purposes of this research project were to explore the relationship between
perceived behavioral changes and the instructional activities which participants believe
fostered those changes and to explore how or why participants think those activities
affected change.

This chapter includes three broad sections: the introduction, the procedures, and the
potential difficulties of this research project. Those three sections are sub-divided as

follows:

1. OVERVIEW
a. design of the study
b. population

c. instructional programs

2. PROCEDURES
a. selection of subjects
b. pilot studies
c. theoretical development of the questionnaire

d. questionnaire use

80

 

81

e. interviewing

f. data collection, processing, and analysis

3. DELIMITATTONS, LIlvflTATIONS, AND VALIDITY
a. delimitations
b. limitations

c. validity

OVERVIEW

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

In order to pursue the purposes of this research, a follow-up study was done with a
sampling of non-traditional graduates from eight adult programs of study. The subjects
in this study were asked to complete a questionnaire. It asked questions about their
interest in changes, their perceived changes, and the instructional activities which they

believe influenced the behavioral changes.

A sampling of participants who were willing to participate further were interviewed by
phone. In the interview, they were asked questions about their perception of how or why

the activities they identified affected change.

 

82

POPULATION

The participants in this study were adults who graduated between 1984 and 1989 from
eight different instructional programs for adults in Michigan. At the time they completed
their programs, the participants varied in age from 24-65. Age was the variable used to

determine whether they were "non-traditional students” or "adult learners."

All but two participants had not resided at the institutions. There were part-time and
full-time participants. (According to the schools, even most full-time students were
employed.)

The population included people of diverse gender, ethnicity, and educational back-
grounds. Some were high school graduates doing their first college-level work and
others were graduate students; some had graduate degrees. All but a few of the partici-

pants were voluntary learners.

Any foreign students in the population were not included in the sample. The subjects

were chosen randomly from the population.

INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS

The programs in which the subjects engaged have similarities and differences. All
programs consist of a series of courses. Some have other components, such as
internships or research papers or special projects. Each program consists of 32-64
semester hours of credit or its equivalent. (Some participants may be required to

complete less coursework within their respective institutions due to previous completion

 

83

of courses.) The programs are as follows:

"Associate Degree in Management" at a community college - This is a
normal community college management curriculum offered in daytime and
evening classes. It is quite common for adult participants to complete the
program over 5-7 years. Classes may contain both traditional and
non-traditional students, but mostly non-traditional.

”Bachelor’s Degree in Human Resource Development" at a four year
college - This is a degree completion program geared toward people with
two or more years of previous college credit. Credit is also given for life
experiences. Participants attend classes as a group and complete their
programs by attending classes once a week for twelve months. A special

project is done outside of class over the length of the program.

"Bachelor’s Degree in Human Resource Administration" at another four
year college - This program is very similar to number 2 above. However,
participants here must choose a major and completing the major requires

extra coursework.

"Certificate as a Specialist in Ministry" at a Christian training institute -
This vocational school program trains participants for service in new and
existing churches as "specialists." The content of classes is similar to
college classes, but the organizational structure is different. Participants
usually attend classes on Saturdays every three to four weeks over two to
four years, but there are also periodic weekend and weeklong retreats.

Participants do a five month internship.

 

 

5. ”Master’s Degree in Adult and Continuing Education" at a state university

- This program again consists primarily of typical college graduate courses.
Many classes meet once a week in the evening. Participants may also

attend summer classes which meet daily.

6. ”Associate Degree in Nursing" at a community college - This program is
similar to other nursing programs. It includes classroom, laboratory, and
"practical" experiences. Courses are scheduled during the daytime. Both
traditional and non-traditional students are involved in these classes, but a

higher percentage are non-traditional students.

7. "Master’s of Science in Administration" at a state university — This program
consists of traditional business administration courses conducted on a

one-night-a-week basis. Participants most often take one course per term.

8. ”Certificate Program in Bible" at a Bible school - Weekday classes in a
college setting are the norm in this program. Thus traditional students and

non-traditional participate together.

These eight programs were chosen because of their similarities and their differences.
They are similar because they are structured, long—term programs (rather than
workshops), and seven of the eight engage all or primarily non-traditional participants.
In addition, all programs were assumed to have some behavioral goals. Yet the
programs represent diverse foci. They may also be different in goals and philosophy.
The variation in their use of instructional activities has become more clear through this

research.

 

 

85

PROCEDURES

SELECTION OF SUBJECTS

Each institution was asked for a complete list of graduates in the selected programs for
1984 through 1989. After removing any foreign students, the researcher randomly
selected sixty-five people from the population from each institution to participate in this
study. There were some exceptions in this process: One institution identified all
graduates between 1987 (the first graduating class) and 1989 but filled in with names
from another center to get a total of 60 names. Two other institutions had 63 and 43
graduates between 1984 and 1989 with known addresses. The graduates for 1989 and

1990 were together on one list so none of those names were used.

Subjects were asked to participate via a cover letter to the questionnaire. Cover letters
were produced on institutional letterhead and signed by institutional officials. The
subjects’ completion of the questionnaire indicated their willingness to participate. On
the questionnaire participants also indicated their willingness to be interviewed. From
among those who expressed willingness to be interviewed, twenty were randomly

selected.

PILOT STUDIES

In order to determine what questions to ask and how best to formulate them, three small
pilot studies were done. The first pilot questionnaire, which asked very general

questions, was sent to ten graduates from one institution. This questionnaire asked

 

86

people simply to identify any changes which were a direct result of their training. (It did
not specify what kind of changes.) It then asked the respondents what they thought
precipitated or initiated those changes.

Follow-up phone interviews were conducted with two people to explore answers more
fully. The questions focused particularly on the relationship between the changes and

whatever was identified as having influenced them.

The second pilot questionnaire, which was much more specific, was sent to five
graduates from one institution. It asked people to identify things they "do differently"
as a result of their training. Thus it focused on their behavioral changes. It then
identified six types of instructional activities and asked them to indicate which one "most
affected" their adoption of a new or modified behavior.

Follow-up phone interviews were conducted with two respondents in this second pilot in
order to finalize appropriate questions for both the questionnaire and the interview in this

research project.

The third version of the questionnaire was field tested with eleven people similar to the
population to check for any portions of difficulty. Small changes were made before
using the questionnaire in the research project. (A copy of the questionnaire is in

Appendix B.)

In order to avoid asking the subjects questions for which the answer was already known,
some questions in part 4 were eliminated for specific institutions. For example, if the
program by its nature allowed only part-time participation, it was not necessary to ask
if the participant had attended part-time or full-time.

 

 

87
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The primary emphasis of this research was the perceived relationship between behavioral

changes and the instructional activities which initiated and/or fostered those changes.

In the literature review of chapter 2, part 2, many non-instructional factors are identified
as affecting change. These factors must be recognized as enhancers and inhibitors of

change.

However, the literature reviewed in chapter 2, part 3, also describes considerable
research and theory which correlates behavioral change with certain types of instructional
activities. It was from that literature that three major categories of activity were

identified along with six sub-categories.

The three categories include: recipient mode, engagement mode, and sensory-parti—

cipative mode activities.

In the recipient mode, the learner is a passive learner receiving input or
information aurally or visually. Thus the learner is a receiver of facts or
ideas or even illustrations, examples, and stories. The learner may also

see demonstrations or other displays.

In the engagement mode, the learner is responding to experiences,
information, or ideas by mentally engaging in application, analysis,
synthesis, and/or evaluation. In this mental engagement, the learner is

individually thinking or reflecting or engaging in discussion.

 

 

 

88

In the sensory-participative mode, the learner is "apprehending" his/her
environment through all or most of his/her senses. He/she is a receiver
of stimuli through physical participation rather than simply a receiver of

information. This is essentially an experiential mode.

Each of these three modes of activity can be linked to particular types of in-classroom

and outside—the—classroom instructional activities, as follows:

recipient mode

a. classroom presentations by the instructor or others, including lecture,

visual aids, films or videotapes, and demonstrations

b. reading assignments

engagement mode

a. classroom discussions and/or reflective thinking

b. reports or writing assignments, particularly ones which require

thinking or reflecting

sensory-participative mode

a. classroom participative activities such as role play, simulation,

practice session, or real-life experience

 

 

89

b. assignments which require physically doing something or getting
actively involved in something, such as organizing a group or

conducting an interview or completing a project

Recipient mode and sensory-participative mode activities parallel the two modes of
learning explored at Johns-Hopkins University: information processing and experiential
processing. These also parallel the two vertical poles of David Kolb’s model, namely,
comprehension and apprehension. Information processing is essentially recipient mode
activity, which includes classroom presentations and reading assignments. Experiential
processing is sensory-participative mode activity, which includes classroom participative
activities and assignments which require physically doing something or getting actively

involved in something.

However, this researcher did not incorporate only information processing into recipient
mode activities. He used a broader description based on Edgar Dale’s description of
three categories of instructional activities: experiential, iconic, and symbolic. This
researcher combined the iconic category (a representation of the real thing) and symbolic
category into one by including visual aids, films or videotapes, and demonstrations under

the description of presentations within the recipient mode.

The category of engagement mode activities, which includes classroom discussions and/or
reflective thinking and reports or writing assignments, has its basis in three primary
sources. The first is the work of cognitive researchers, who stressed the importance and

value of thinking as a means of processing information for use and/or forming concepts.

Second, in Kolb’s model, the right pole on the horizontal axis is called intension, which

 

90
is reflective observation of either experiences or of abstract concepts. He sees intension

as a potentially discrete form of learning.

Third, the research on experiential processing at Johns-Hopkins University is also
relevant here. It was discovered that several steps which involve thought are more likely

to lead from an experience to new application.

These three major categories with six sub-categories or types of instructional activities
are described more fully in the definition of terms in chapter 1 under "mental activity."

The literature review in chapter 2 describes the research and theoretical base more fully.

In the questionnaire the six types of instructional activity were used extensively. After
identifying specific behavioral changes, participants were asked to identify the one type
of instructional activity that had the greatest influence on each of their behavioral

changes. They were also given the choices of "other" or "can‘t identify."

In another part of the questionnaire, the types of instructional activities were divided into
three types of in-classroom instructional activities and three types of outside-tire-
classroom instructional activities. Participants were asked what percentage of their
classroom time had been spent in each of the in-classroom activities and what percentage
of their non-classroom learning time had been spent in each of the three outside-the-

classroom instructional activities.

QUESTIONNAIRE USE

All subjects randomly selected were sent a cover letter and a questionnaire, which was

 

 

91

ahead? Prepared for return with a stamp and address. The subjects were asked to
complete the questionnaire within seven days and to return it. (A copy of the question-

naire and a sample cover letter are in Appendix B.)

A follow-up letter was sent 7-10 days after the initial questionnaire was sent. It thanked
subjects and urged anyone who had not responded to do so by a specific date. (Appendix
B contains a copy of the follow—up letter.)

The questionnaire was intended to provide quantitative data. From it, various descriptive

statistics and correlations were derived in keeping with the research questions.

INTERVIEWING

Twenty participants who returned their questionnaires and indicated a willingness to
continue participating were contacted by phone by the researcher for follow-up
interviews. To choose interviewees from among those willing to be interviewed, those
who had experienced either "quite a bit" or "a lot" of behavioral change were put into
a potential interviewee pool. Interviewees were selected purposefully from the pool to
provide at least five interviews for each of the six types of instructional activities. Dur-

ing the interview, the researcher took notes and amplified them immediately afterward.

The interview was designed to gather qualitative information as well as additional
quantitative data. The questions were exploratory and asked for perceptions, recollec-
tions, and personal analysis. The primary emphasis was on why or how certain
instructional activities affected behaviors. (The questions for the follow-up interview can

be seen in chapter 4.)

 

 

92

DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING, AND ANALYSIS

In the following section, each of the primary and secondary research questions is
presented along with the means by which the data was collected and the statistical
techniques used to analyze the data. (The primary questions are identified with numbers

and the secondary questions with numbers and letters.)

1. To what extent do participants desire to change behaviors or performance
when they pursue learning and to what extent do participants anticipate

changing behaviors, attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding?

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: In part 1 of the questionnaire, the
first series of questions (numbers 1-4) asked to what extent the participant desired
to change behaviors and anticipated changing behaviors or actions, attitudes or
values, and knowledge and understanding. For each of those questions, the
frequency and percentage of individuals responding in each of the five response

categories ("not at all" to "a lot") were tabulated for all subjects combined.

2. To what extent do participants perceive changes in their behavior, actions,
or performance as a result of their instructional experiences and to what
extent do participants perceive changes in their attitudes or values and

knowledge and understanding?

2a. Is there a significant relationship between a participant’s desire for change

in behaviors or actions and the amount of perceived change?

 

 

93

2b. Is there a significant relationship between a participant’s anticipated change
in behaviors, attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding and the

perceived change in each corresponding area?

2c. Is there a significant relationship between the perceived change in behavior
(a dependent variable) and the desire for change and anticipated change

(multiple independent variables)?

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: The second set of questions in part
1 of the questionnaire (numbers 5-7) asked to what extent the participant did
change behaviors or actions, attitudes or values, and knowledge or understanding.
For each of those questions, the frequency and percentage of individuals
responding in each of the five response categories ("not at all" to ”a lot") were

tabulated for all subjects combined to answer the primary question.

To answer the secondary questions, several correlation coefficients were
computed using the Spearman rank correlation (Spearman’s rho) because the data
is rank ordered. Using the responses to the questions from part 1, the amount of
desired change in behavior was correlated with perceived change in behavior, the
amount of anticipated change in behavior was correlated with perceived change
in behavior, the amount of anticipated change in attitudes or values was correlated
with its corresponding perceived change, and the amount of anticipated change
in knowledge and understanding was correlated with its corresponding perceived

change.

Similarly, the Spearman’s rho was calculated to determine what relationship

 

 

94

evxisted between perceived behavioral change (a dependent variable) and desired

Change and anticipated change (two independent variables).

For whatever correlations were computed in this data analysis, it was determined
whether those correlations are statistically significant at the .05 level, using a
one-tailed test. However, while it is important to determine if the correlations
are statistically significant, it is no doubt far more important that the correlations
are of practical significance, i.e., that they are indeed useful. (Borg and Gall,
pp. 512-514)

3. What instructional activities do participants perceive have influenced or
affected their behavioral changes?

3x. Is the number of behavioral changes attributed to each type of instructional

activity significantly different?

Note: Research question 3x was added after data had been gathered.

3a. Is the relative number of times that a specific type of instructional activity
is identified as having affected behaviors by participants within a program

significantly different for the different programs of study?

3b. How "new" are the behaviors which participants indicate have changed? (To

what extent do they represent changes from previous behaviors?)

3c. When comparing the different instructional activities (to which subjects

attribute changes in behavior), is there a significant difference in the extent

 

95

of perceived behavioral change attributed to them?

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: The second part of the questionnaire
asked participants to identify the things they do differently as a result of their
instructional experiences. Then it asked them to identify from a list of six types
of instructional activities the type of activity which affected each of their changes

in behavior the most.

Of greatest importance in this section are the perceived correlations (made by the
participants) between the types of learning activities and their changes in
behavior. The data in this section was reported for the subjects as a group, using
each behavior change identified separately. The frequency and percentage of
times that each type of instructional activity was reported to have affected
behavioral change was determined. Then to answer the first secondary question
a chi square was calculated to see if the number of behavioral changes attributed

to each type of activity was significantly different.

Some categories of activities were combined to establish additional interpretations.
Classroom presentations and outside reading assignments were combined.
Likewise, classroom discussion or reflective thinldng and outside reports or
writing assignments were combined, and so were classroom participative activities
and assignments which require physically doing something or getting involved in
something. (See earlier in this chapter for the rationale for those combinations

under three modes of mental activity.) A chi square was again calculated.

To answer research question 3a, chi squares were used. Because the total number

of responses varied considerably between programs, the raw data was first

 

 

96

Standardized or made relative by determining the percentage of changes attributed
to a given type of activity out of all the changes identified by participants in each
program. By calculating that ratio for each type of activity for each program, the
raw data was standardized, making it as if the number of behavioral changes had
been identical for each program of study.

To answer research questions 3b and 3c, another question in part 2 of the
questionnaire asked participants to indicate how new their behaviors are compared
to what they were doing previously. The frequency and percentage of responses

in each category (from "a lot" to "a little") were determined.

A chi square test was used to determine if the pattern of responses regarding the extent

of change affected by each type of instructional activity is significantly different.

4. According to the participants, to what extent do the instructors in their
programs of study use each of the six types of instructional activities

identified on the questionnaire?

4a. Is the extent of use of the six types of instructional activities significantly

different in the different programs?

4b. Is the extent of perceived behavioral change among participants related to

the perceived extent of use of the six types of instructional activities?

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: In part three of the questionnaire,
participants were asked to identify the perceived percentage of classroom time

which was spent in each of three types of instructional activities and the

 

97

Ducentage of their non-classroom learning time that was spent in three other
types of instructional activities. The mean percentage of time indicated for each
type of activity by participants from each institution was calculated. To answer
the first secondary question, an analysis of variance was used to assess whether

the means are significantly different. (Borg and Gall, p. 427)

In addition, to answer research question 4b, a correlation coefficient (Spearman’s
rho) was calculated between the extent of perceived behavioral change reported
in part 1 of the questionnaire and the perceived percentage of time each type of

instructional activity was used.

5. What explanations do interviewed participants give as to why some types
of instructional activities affect change more than others or how they affect

change?

5a. Do interviewed participants perceive that the specific types of instructional
activities (which affected their behaviors) had more effect on their

capabilities or on their motivation?

5b. Is there a significant difference between the types of instructional activities
(perceived to affect behavioral change) in terms of whether each affected

capabilities or motivation?

5c. According to participants who identified participative activities or assign-
ments which required physically doing something as effective, what
percentage of the time were those learning activities followed by discus-

sions, private reflective activities, or writing assignments?

11

 

98

5d. According to participants who identified presentations or reading assign-
ments as effective in affecting behaviors, to what extent will they have had

previous experience in this area of behavior?

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: The follow-up interview was the
source of information for research question 5, which explored the connection that
participants made between perceived behavioral changes and specific types of
instructional activities. In the interview, each change in behavior or action which

the participants identified was treated as a separate or discrete piece of data.

The primary research question is qualitative. The answers were derived from
participants’ responses to an open-ended question which asked for their

explanation of why or how that type of activity affected their behaviors.

The participants were also asked if they think that the type of instructional activity
which they identified as affecting a behavior had more effect on their capabilities
or their motivation. Their responses for each type of instructional activity were
tabulated by frequency and percentage. A chi-square test could not be used in
most cases because of the sample size. However, in the case of assignments
requiring active involvement, it was usable to determine if there is a significant
difference between the number of times such assignments were perceived to affect

motivation and capabilities.

Some questions in the interview were used only in relationship to a specific type
of leaming activity that was identified. One such question, for those who
reported that the most effective type of instructional activity was participative

activities or assignments which required active involvement, asked what

 

percentage of time those learning activities were followed by discussions, private

reflective activities, or writing assignments. It was the researcher’s intent to
report their responses with maximum and minimum, mean, and standard
deviation. However, that was not possible because frequently descriptions were
given instead of percentages. A second question, for those who identified
presentations or reading assignments as effective, asked the extent of previous
experience in the area of change. The responses were identified by frequency and

percentage.

The results from these last questions are most important in trying to establish
hypotheses about the reasons for the effectiveness of each type of learning

activity.

DELIMITATIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND VALIDITY

DELIMITATIONS

There are several delimitations in this research project due to the decisions of the
researcher and the procedures used. The most prominent of those is the fact that subjects
were chosen from only eight programs of study. While the research population consisted
of graduates from those programs (and not all programs everywhere), these graduates

may not be representative of the adult participants in other programs.

Second, the nature of the programs may not be representative of other adult education

and training. While programs were chosen because of some diversity, other programs

 

whit:h use very different instructional activities no doubt exist. In addition, short-term

courses or workshops may produce different effects than these long-term programs.

Finally, the researcher’s choice of literature or research to review is another delimitation.
An emphasis was placed on prominent researchers and authors and on models and
concepts which seemed most appropriate for this study. Certainly information relevant

to this study was left unexplored and unreported.

LIMITATIONS

There are a number of limitations in this research project due to the natural effects. The
primary limitation in this investigation is the self-selection of the participants who
responded to the questionnaire. Those responding may be different from those who did

not respond.

A second limitation is the use of the questionnaire and interview. The questionnaire and
interview questions may not communicate to the subject precisely what the researcher
intended. In addition, slight differences in expressing questions in the interview may

convey slightly different messages to the subjects.

Third, many factors affect the quality of the subjects’ responses, including perceptions,
truthfulness, and memory. (Recent graduates may remember their thoughts and
experiences better.) The end result may be that the information gathered is not totally
accurate. It may not contain all the relevant information or establish a completely
realistic picture. While there is some disagreement about the validity of self-report, it

is widely used and accepted, e. g. , in opinion polls. Furthermore, self-report is the only

 

101

means for obtaining some information.

Finally, in the end, the number of responses from graduates of a couple programs was
quite limited. Wherever those numbers affected program averages, the results may have

limited validity.

VALIDITY

With this research project, there are a number of threats to validity, both internal and
external. Threats to internal validity suggest that the results can be attributed equally
well to factors other than the instructional activities. The following explains how, if

possible, these have been controlled.

VARIATIONS IN QUESTIONNAIRE INTERPRETATION: Participants may not have
understood directions on the questionnaire or the researcher’s intended meaning on the
descriptions of six types of instructional activities. To attempt to convey thoughts which
would be similarly interpreted, the questionnaire went through several revisions. After
each, pilot participants commented on interpretation difficulties and refinements were

made.

VARIATIONS IN DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE: Variations in date collection
procedures may affect the accuracy of results. To control the variations, identical
questionnaires (except for part 4) were sent to all participants with identical cover letters
(except for the fact that each person’s program of studies was identified and the letters
were signed by institutional officials). The interviews were conducted by the researcher.

A script and specific questions were used to minimize variations.

 

TENDENCY OF PEOPLE TO CHOOSE MORE NEUTRAL ANSWERS: Participants

in this research may have chosen answers to questions which are more neutral, less
extreme. The end result is less significant effects. There is no method for controlling
this other than encouraging subjects to answer thoughtfully and carefully, which was

done in the cover letter.

DIFFERING CHARACTERISTICS, MOTIVATION, AND ENVIRONMENTS: It is
likely that the participants in this research do have different characteristics, motivation,
and environments and that those affected the outcomes of their training programs. The
results of this project have thus been tainted by that effect. However, with the number
of subjects, it is believed that the variety of characteristics, motivation, and environments
among the subjects is similar to the variety in the population-at-large. Therefore, the

results should be generalizable to similar subjects in similar programs.

Threats to external validity suggest that there may be something about the evaluation
design that might make it inappropriate to assume that similar program effect would be
obtained in other situations. The following explains some of those potential threats and

how they were controlled.

SIMILARITY OF STUDENTS: The results from this study may not be generalizable
to other population groups. The participants in the programs studied may be different
from other adults. On the other hand, the population is quite diverse in age, sex, and

backgrounds and may in fact be representative of the population-at-large.

PLEASING THE RESEARCHER: It is possible that subjects anticipated what the
researcher wanted to see or hear and responded accordingly, helping to substantiate the

results. They may have done this both in regard to identifying changed behaviors and

 

103

in men‘ifying the instructional activities which influenced those changes. The first means
used to control for that effect was avoiding any hint of anticipated results in the cover
letter or in the interview. The second means was encouraging the subjects to answer

thoughtfully and carefully in the cover letter and the interview.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter introduced this research project by describing the design, the population,
and the instructional programs from which the participants graduated. It also described
the procedures for selecting subjects, conducting pilot studies to create and test the
questionnaire, developing the questionnaire theoretically, using the questionnaire,
interviewing, and collecting, processing, and analyzing the data. In the last part of the
chapter, delimitations, limitations, and validity were treated.

Chapter 4 describes participant information and research findings, including data from

the questionnaires and interviews and statistical analysis of the data. It concludes with

a summary of the findings.

 

Chapter 4

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

INTRODUCTION

This chapter contains the information gathered through this research along with related
statistical analysis. It begins with a brief report about the participants. That is followed
by three major sections: a report of the responses to the questionnaire along with
statistical analysis, a summary of participant responses in the interviews, and a summary
of the findings.

The first major section, which contains quantitative data, responds to research questions
1-4. The second section, which includes mostly qualitative information, responds to

research question 5.

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION

As indicated in chapter 3, questionnaires were sent to 490 graduates from eight programs
of study. One hundred sixty-seven questionnaires were returned; not all were completed
fully. (See Appendix D, exhibit l, for more information about the number of

questionnaires sent and completed.)

104

 

   

105

This study was designed to investigate non-traditional students. Some of these programs
enroll only non-traditional students and others enroll mostly non-traditional students. An
item in part 4 of the questionnaire was used to determine if the respondent was a
non-traditional student. The questionnaires of four respondents who indicated that they
were 23 or younger when they completed their programs of study were not used in this
study. The remaining 163 respondents indicated that they were between the ages of 24
and 65 when they completed their programs.

Of the 163 respondents (participants), only three considered themselves non-voluntary
learners. Two of the 163 lived in a dorm for a least a term sometime during their
studies. Sixty-one participants were categorized by their institutions or categorized
themselves as full-time students during the greatest part of their programs. Fifty-two of
these 61 came from four institutions, which had a total of 58 respondents. (Although
data was not collected, institutional officials indicate that most "full-time" participants

in these programs are also employed either part-time or full-time.)

QUESTIONNAIRE DATA AND ANALYSIS

In the following section, each of the primary and secondary research questions is
presented. (The primary questions are identified with numbers and the secondary
questions with numbers and letters.) Each question is followed by a description of the
data and/or the statistical techniques used to analyze the data along with the results.

 

 

 

RESEARCH QUESTION 1

To what extent do participants desire to change behaviors or performance when they
pursue learning and to what extent do participants anticipate changing behaviors, attitudes

and values, and knowledge and understanding?

QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

In part 1 of the questionnaire, questions 1-4 asked participants in this research project
to answer specific questions about their desire to change behaviors and their anticipation
of changing behaviors or actions, attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding.
The questions from the questionnaire are illustrated below along with the frequency and

percentage of individuals responding in each of the five response categories.

 

107

Table 4.1 Responses to Questions 1 - 4

 

1. When you enrolled in the program identified above (in the

introduction), to what extent did you desire to change your
behaviors or actions?

 

 

 

response not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot
N (162) 31 23 48 42 18
% 19.1 14.2 29.6 25.9 11.1

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. To what extent did you anticipate changes in your behaviors or
actions when you enrolled in that program?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

response not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot

N (162) 21 41 60 28 12
% 13.0 25.3 37.0 17.3 7.4

3. To what extent did you anticipate changes in your attitudes or
values?

response not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot

N (162) 29 54 53 19 7
% 17.9 33.3 32.7 11.7 4.3

4. To what extent did you anticipate changes in your knowledge or
understanding?

response not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot

N (162) l 6 24 75 56
% .6 3.7 14.8 46.3 34.6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RESEARCH Q1

To what extent

 

performance as
participants pert
understanding?

QUESTIONNA
Qufitions 5-7 a
or ”tions, attil

the questionna

“bk 4-2 Re

 

 

108

RESEARCH QUESTION 2

TO what extent do participants perceive changes in their behavior, actions, or
performance as a result of their instructional experiences and to what extent do
participants perceive changes in their attitudes or values and knowledge and
understanding?

QUESTIONNAIRE DATA
Questions 5-7 asked participants to indicate how much they perceived changing behaviors
or actions, attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding. The questions from

the questionnaire are illustrated below along with the frequency and percentage of

individuals responding in each of the five response categories.

Table 4.2 Responses to Questions 5 -7

 

5 . Looking back at your educational program identified above, to what
extent did you change your actions or behaviors as a result of the

=_=._J

 

 

 

 

program?
response not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot
N (162) 5 22 39 61 35
% 3.1 13.6 24.1 37.7

 

 

 

 

 

 

6. To what extent did you change your attitudes or values?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

' response not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot
46 29
28.4 17 .9

 

 

Table 4.2 (cont’d.).

109

 

 

7. To what extent did you change your knowledge or understanding?

 

 

 

response not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot
N (162) O 7 22 56 77
% O 4.3 13.6 34.6 47.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

SECONDARY RESEARCH QUESTION 2a

Is there a significant relationship between a participant’s desire for change in behaviors

or actions and the amount of perceived change?

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

To answer this secondary question, a correlation coefficient was computed using
Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient (Spearman’s rho) because the data is rank
ordered (ordinal). Using the responses to questions 1 and 5, the amount of desired
change in behavior was correlated with perceived change in behavior. (Appendix C,

Table 6.1, contains the cross-tabulation data.)

The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient for desired change in behavior with perceived

changes in behavior was .31982, with a significance of p< .05 (00003).

 

 

110

NULL HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant relationship between a participant’s desire for change in behaviors

or actions and the amount of perceived change.

The null hypothesis has therefore been rejected.

SECONDARY RESEARCH QUESTION 2b

Is there a significant relationship between a participant’s anticipated change in behaviors,
attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding and the perceived change in each

corresponding area?

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

To answer this question, correlation coefficients were computed using Spearman’ s rho,
The amount of anticipated change in behavior (question 2) was correlated with perceived
change in behavior (question 5), the amount of anticipated change in attitudes and values
(question 3) was correlated with its corresponding perceived change (question 6), and the
amount of anticipated change in knowledge and understanding (question 4) was correlated
with its corresponding perceived change (question 7). (Appendix C, Tables 6.2-6.4,

contains the cross-tabulation data.)

The Spearman’s rho for anticipated change in behavior with perceived change in behavior
was .37570, with a significance of p < .05 (.00000).

 

 

   

111

The Spearman’s rho for anticipated change in attitudes and values with perceived change
in attitudes and values was .44401, with a significance of p < .05 (.00000).

The Spearman’s rho for anticipated change in knowledge and understanding with
perceived change in knowledge and understanding was .46003, with a significance of
p < .05 (.00000).

NULL HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant relationship between a participant’s anticipated change in
behaviors, attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding and the extent of

perceived change in each corresponding area.

The null hypothesis has therefore been rejected.

RESEARCH QUESTION 2c

Is there a significant relationship between the perceived change in behavior (a dependent

variable) and the desire for change and anticipated change (multiple independent

variables)?
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
To answer, a correlation coefficient was computed using Spearman’ s rho. The perceived

change in behavior (question 5) was correlated with the desire for change in behavior

(question 1) and the anticipated change in behavior (question 2).

 

 

 

 

112

The Spearman’s rho for perceived change in behavior with desired change in behavior
and anticipated change in behavior was .35319, with a significance of p< .05 (.00000).

NULL HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant relationship between the perceived change in behavior (a
dependent variable) and the desire for change and anticipated change (multiple

independent variables).

The null hypothesis has been rejected.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3

What instructional activities do participants perceive have influenced or affected their
behavioral changes?

QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

The second part of the questionnaire asked participants to identify the things they do
differently as a result of their instructional experience. Then it asked them to identify
from the following list of six types of instructional activities the type of activity which

affected each of their changes in behavior the most:

A. classroom presentations by the instructor or others, including lecture,
visual aids, films or videotapes, and demonstrations

B. classroom discussions and/or reflective thinking

 

113

- classroom participative activities such as role play, simulation, practice
session, or real-life experience

D. reading assignments

E. reports or writing assignments, particularly ones Which required thinking
or reflecting

F. assignments which required you to physically do something or get actively
involved in something, such as organizing a group or conducting an
interview or completing a project

G. other

H. can’t identify
Thus participants attributed their changes in behavior to a type of instructional activity.

Five hundred thirty-five individual behavioral changes were reported by participants with
an associated instructional activity. (See Appendix D, exhibit 2, for further explanation
of the behaviors as described by participants.) The number of changes reported by the
participants ranged from 0 to 7. The results are summarized in the following table:

 

114

 

Table 4.3 Behavioral Changes Attributed to Each Type of Instructional Activity

 

type of instructional activity

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

frequency percentage
_ classroom presentations of all kinds * 80 14.95
7 discussions and/ or reflective thinking 80 14.95
classroom participative activities 114 21.31
j reading assignments 26 4.86
, reports or writing assignments 58 10.84
assignments requiring active involvement 134 25.05
other 25 4.67
can’t identify 18 3.36

 

 

 

   
 

* Please note the prior full description of these categories or see the
questionnaire in Appendix B, exhibit 1. Also see appendix D,
exhibit 3 , for a more complete description of this data.

Some categories of activities were combined to establish additional interpretations. When

the categories with similar mental activity are combined, as described in chapter 3, the

results were as follows:

 

   

115

Table 4.4 Behavioral Changes Attributed to Combined Types of Instructional
Activities

  

    

type of instructional activity

    

frequency percentage

     
   
   
  
 

 

‘ classroom presentations of all kinds along with 106 19.81
* reading assignments

 

' discussions and/or reflective thinking along 138 25.79
. with reports or writing assignments

 

1 classroom participative activities along with 248 46. 36
assignments requiring active involvement

other 25 4. 67

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

RESEARCH QUESTION 3x (added during the research process)

Is the number of behavioral changes attributed to each type of instructional activity

significantly different?
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

To answer this question, a chi-square test was used. When using each type of
instructional activity separately, as it appears in Table 4.3, the resulting chi square was
179.6 with a significance of p < .001. The difference between the number of changes
attributed to each type of instructional activity is significantly different. (A significance
of p=.05 would require a chi square of 14.067.)

 

 

The number
significantly

Thisnull hyp

RFSFARCH

Is the relative
hailing affecte
different progt

QUESTIONN,

The nIImber 0
Wu: beha
45- Under ea
”0‘98 are net '
”We! of ms
Wt: the
activity by

 

116

We“ combining the types of instructional activities, as in Table 4.4, the resulting chi
Sqme Was 331.7 with a significance of p <.001. This chi square was even more

significant (A significance of p=.05 would require a chi square of 9.48.)
NULL HYPOTHESIS

The number of behavioral changes attributed to each type of instructional activity is not

significantly different.

This null hypothesis has therefore been rejected.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3a

Is the relative number of times a specific type of instructional activity is identified as
having affected behaviors by participants within a program significantly different for the

different programs of study?
QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

The number of times that a particular type of instructional activity was identified as
affecting behavioral change by participants in each program of studies is shown in Table
4.5. Under each number from the raw data is a standardized number. The standardized
scores are necessary to make a valid comparison between programs because the total
number of responses varied considerably between programs. The standardized score
represents the percentage of changes attributed to a particular type of instructional

activity by participants in a program out of all the changes identified by participants in

 

 

 

r"
.J’

: v,
.’ V A .
y ‘ - ~ .
l' x " ‘ ,l'
'.
E
: ,/ , . -
, ‘ l
I f .' . .
./ ,'

 

117
93°“ Program. By calculating that percentage for each type of activity for each program,
the raw data was standardized, making it as if the number of behavioral changes had
We“ identical for each program of study. This in turn makes comparisons between

programs possible.

Table 4.5 Types of Instructional Activity Perceived to Affect Behavioral Change
by Programs

 

 

 

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°"'°°'“" ’ 2 8 3* . 3 . u sips-13:;e3r-2,,:::::»:i:
pmeoletioneofall :. . _ .
kinds

 

19.44 5.88 17.78 14.09 10.81 21.43 10.00 28.85 fi'e'fl‘i-S’Sfflf‘

 

discussions and/or 8 7 9 21 17 0 11 7 801; " ’1
tenectivethimsin; .9: -.i:4?;::~{fj}:}:l . .
22.22 20.59 20.00 9.55 22.97 0.00 18.33 13.46 j;':;14.95 g "

 

classroom 10 13 5 54 11 1 14 6 j5“f:;-1¥14;j.§f f ;
sctivities 27.78 38.24 11.11 24.55 14.87 7.14 23.33 11.54 2131 , ' 6:11

 

reedingusignmente 5 0 2 9 4 1 3 2 iiyigz's-if? 141*?

13.89 0.00 4.44 4.09 5.41 7.14 5.00 3.85 43.5 «*v

 

reportsorwriting 1 4 5 17 13 1 12 5 58

 

 

2.78 11.77 11.11 7.73 17.57 7.14 20.00 9.62 .310184}
assignment: 3 5 16 74 9 7 12 3 134 .3.

requiring ective »;_'j[,_‘f&; ‘ .
involvement 8.33 14.71 35.56 33.64 12.16 50.00 20.00 15.39 ji,j251.o$};j

 

0"!“ 2 2 0 9 6 0 2 4 I;:if*§f_25_i;fiffj f  ”

 

5.56 5.88 0.00 4.09 8.11 0.00 3.33 7.69 457
can identify 0 1 0 5 6 1 0 5 ”if. €73. _

0.00 2.94 0.00 2.27 8.11 7.14 0.00 9.62 {:336111

 

w 3. s. .5, . 22 v . so a sss

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

118

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Chi sch-late tests were used to determine if the response patterns were different for the
eight different programs. The chi squares were calculated for each type of activity using
the relative or standardized data. Thus the standardized number of changes attributed to

each type of instructional activity by participants within each program were compared
to see if the difference between programs is significant.

The chi squares for all six types of instructional activities are all significant at the .01

level. The chi squares are as follows:

Table 4.6 Chi Squares for Differences between the Number of Behavioral Changes

Attributed to Each Type of Instructional Activity by Participants within
Each Program

of
of all kinds

discussions and/or reflective

classroom activities

active involvement

 

A significance of p=.05 would require a chi square of 14.067. A significance of p=.01

Would require a chi square of 18.475. The most significant difference between programs

 

119

is m the relative number of changes attributed to assignments requiring active
inVONement.

NULL HYPOTHESIS
The relative number of times that a specific type of instructional activity is identified as
affecting behaviors by participants within a program is not significantly different for the

different programs of study.

The null hypothesis has therefore been rejected for all six types of instructional activities.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3b

How "new" are the behaviors which participants indicate have changed? (To what extent

do they represent changes from previous behaviors?)
QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

Another question in part 2 of the questionnaire asked participants to indicate how new
each of their behaviors is compared to what they were doing previously. Five hundred
fifty-four behavior changes were identified with "newness" ratings. The frequency and

percentage of responses in each category were as follows:

 

120

Table 4.7 Newness Ratings on Reported Behavioral Changes

new

new

somewhat new

 

new

RESEARCH QUESTION 3c

When comparing the different instructional activities (to which subjects attribute changes
in behavior), is there a significant difference in the extent of perceived behavioral change

attributed to them?

QUESTIONNAIRE DATA AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

There were 526 behavioral changes listed by participants for which both a type of
instructional activity and a "newness" rating were given. (The cross-tabulation data is
in Appendix C, Table 6.5.) A chi square test was used to determine if the pattern of
responses (regarding the extent of change) affected by each type of instructional activity

is significantly different.

The resulting chi square was 34.5 with a significance of p< .05 level. (A significance
0f p=.05 would require a chi square of 32.671.) It is evident from Table 6.5 that the

newest behaviors were stimulated by reports or writing assignments, assignments

 

 

 

121
mumg aetive involvement, and ”other. " Presentations of all kinds influenced the most

“quite new" behaviors. At the other end of the newness spectrum, discussions and/ or
reflective thinking, classroom participative activities, and reading assignments produced
more " somewhat new” and ”slightly new" behaviors, with reading assignments producing

the most.

To further explore whether the pattern of responses (regarding the extent of change)
affected by each type of instructional activity is significantly different, the types of
instructional activities were combined, as described under research question 3 above
(classroom presentations of all kinds along with reading assignments, discussion and/ or
reflective thinking along with reports or writing assignments, classroom participative
activities along with assignments requiring active involvement, other, and can’t identify).
(The cross-tabulation data is in Appendix C, Table 6.6.) The chi square level rose to
44.8 with a significance of p < .05. This result is even more significant. (A significance
of p=.05 would require a chi-square value of 21.026.) However, a comparison of the

three primary categories of mental activity shows almost no difference in the pattern of

response.
NULL HYPOTHESIS

When comparing the different instructional activities (to which subjects attribute changes
of behavior), there is no significant difference in the extent of perceived behavioral

change attributed to them.

When the individual types of instructional activities are used, the null hypothesis has been
rejected, and when the types of instructional activities are grouped according to the type
0f mental activity, the null hypothesis has been rejected.

 

122

Y5.913Allc:rr QUESTION 4

According to the participants, to what extent do the instructors in their programs of study

use each of the six types of instructional activities identified on the questionnaire?

QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

In part three of the questionnaire, participants were asked to determine the percentage
of classroom time which had been spent in each of three types of instructional activities
and the percentage of their non-classroom learning time that had been spent in three other

types of instructional activities.

The extent of use of each of the instructional activities for all programs, as determined

by the means of the participant responses from each program, is as follows:

 

123

{3‘3“ 4-8 Percentage of Time Each Type of Instructional Activity Was Used within

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Each Program
most-m-

type of instructional activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 mean
classroom presentations 62.00 33.33 38.42 44.61 43.09 66.00 48.64 76.94 48.56
of all kinds
discussion- andlor 22.50 38.67 35 .00 28.49 34.73 12.00 28.64 15.06 28.69
reflective thinking
classroom participative 15.50 28.00 26.58 26.84 23 .09 22.00 22.73 8.00 22.86
activitie-
reading assignments 66.00 29.67 33.68 36.59 38.55 44.00 40.00 37.61 38.52
reports or writing 21.90 41.33 47.00 35.47 36.73 28.00 40.23 48.61 38.61
assignments
assignments requiring ective 12.10 29.00 18.42 26.49 23.71 16.00 19.37 11.61 _ 21.55
involvement
other 00.00 00.00 00.85 01.12 00.67 12.00 00.45 2.28 1.22
Occasionallythesunr ofthenrenns forclnssroolnectivities nndloroutsideofdassnsignmartsdoesnot equal 100%
dneto rounding ortoindividual participant’s responseawhich didnottotallOO‘b.

 

 

 

Tables showing the mean percentage of time each type of activity was used, as indicated
by the participants from each institution, along with the range and the standard deviation,
can be found in Appendix C, Tables 6.7 - 6.13.

RESEARCH QUESTION 4a

Is the extent of use of the six types of instructional activities significantly different in the

different programs?

 

 

124

gr ATlSTICAL ANALYSIS

To answer this secondary question, an analysis of variance was used to assess whether
the means for each program are significantly different. (Borg and Gall, p. 427) (The
means represent the percentage of time each type of activity was used in each program,
as perceived by the participants.) The analysis of variance results in F ratios (mean
squares between groups divided by the mean squares within groups). Larger F ratios

mean larger variation between groups. All of the F ratios are significant.

Table 4.9 Analysis of Variance for Use of Each Instructional Activity by Program

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

type of instructional F ratio F probability

activity (significance)
presentations of all kinds 11.5793 .0000
discussions and/or reflective thinking 7.9215 .0000
participatory activities 5.4374 .0008
reading assignments 6.1120 .0000
reports or writing assignments 6.0234 .0000
active involvement requiring assignments 4.3285 .0002
other 2.9215 .0067

 

 

 

 

 

It is evident from Tables 6.7 - 6.13 in Appendix C which programs are most different

from the mean of all groups.

 

125

ML HYPOTHESIS

The extent of use of the six types of instructional activities is not significantly different

in the different programs.

The null hypothesis has been rejected for each of the six instructional activities.

RESEARCH QUESTION 4b

Is the extent of perceived behavioral change among participants related to the perceived

extent of use of the six types of instructional activities?

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

To answer this question, a correlation coefficient (Spearman’s rho) was calculated
between the extent of perceived behavioral change reported in question 5, part 1, of the
questionnaire and the perceived percentage of time each type of instructional activity was
used. Each individual’s perception of the percentage of time an instructional activity was
used, rather than the group mean, was used in this calculation. (The extent of perceived
change was used as ordinal data and the percentage of time used as ratio data.) (Balian,
p. 139)

 

The fesults are as follows:

Table 4.10 Spearman’s Rho for Amount of Perceived Behavioral Change with the

126

Percentage of Use of Each Type of Instructional Activity

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

type of instructional Spearman’s significance
activity rho

classroom presentations of all kinds .08743 .27314
discussion and/or -. 1 1138 . 16220
reflective thinking
classroom participative .00487 .95139
activities
reading assignments -.14626 .06583
reports or writing -. 10526 .18668
assignments
assignments requiring .19634 .01312
active involvement
other . 12506 . 11280

 

The negative correlation coefficients indicate that perceived increases in the use of a type
of activity resulted in decreases in the extent of change.
correlation with reading assignments is close to being significant. The only significant
correlation is in the use of assignments requiring active involvement. This means that

the overall extent of behavioral change increases as the extent of use of assignments

requiring active involvement increases.

Note that the negative

 

 

127

NULL HYPOTHESIS

The extent of perceived behavioral change among participants is not significantly related

to the perceived extent of use of the six types of instructional activities.

The null hypothesis has been accepted for five of the six types of instructional activities,

but it has been rejected for assignments requiring active involvement.

INTERVIEW DATA AND ANALYSIS

In the following section, the final set of research questions is presented along with a
description of the data gathered through interviews. Where appropriate, statistical results

are also presented.

One hundred eleven out of 163 respondents indicated a willingness to be interviewed by
phone. Seventy-two of those indicated that they perceived either "quite a bit" or ”a lot"
of personal change in behaviors. Twenty of those, selected primarily on the basis of

availability and type of instructional activity identified, were interviewed.

RESEARCH QUESTION 5

What explanation do interviewed participants give as to why some types of instructional

activities affect change more than others or how they affect change?

 

128
“(YER‘HEW INFORMATION AND QUESTIONS

Follo‘N-up interviews were the source of information for research question 5, which
explores the connection that participants have made between behavioral changes and
specific types of learning activities. In the interview, each change in behavior or action

which the participants identified was treated as a separate or discrete piece of data.

The primary research question is qualitative. The answers were derived from
participants’ responses to an open—ended question which asked for their explanation of
why or how that type of activity affected their behaviors. Other related questions were
asked.

The following is the basic text for the interviews:

You recently completed a questionnaire for me. Thank you. You also expressed a
willingness to participate in an interview. I appreciate that. Is now a good time for
you to be interviewed or would you prefer that I call at another time? The interview
will take 15-20 minutes.

As indicated in the cover letter to the questionnaire, the purpose of this research is
to determine what instructional activities are most associated with behavior changes
in participants and to try to determine why that is true. The questionnaire helped
with the answer to the first part of that. This interview will help with the second.

Do you have any questions before we begin?

You identified several particular behavioral changes and the instructional activities
which most stimulated and fostered those changes. I would like to address each of
those changes with the same series of questions.

1. You identified this change in behavior. . . (from the response on the
questionnaire) . . . and with that you identified . . . (from the response) . . .
as the type of instructional activity which most stimulated or affected that
change. Would you give me an brief example of that kind of activity
(particularly as it relates to this change in behavior)?

 

129

’2- Why do you think that kind of instructional lesming activity affected you?
What explanation would you give for its effect? (What’s the link?)

3. As you look back, would you say that the kind of learning activity you
identified had more effect on your capabilities or your motivation?

capabilities motivation

4. (If the activity identified was participative [category c], proceed with the
following question.)

a. What percentage of the time were the participative activities
followed with group discussion or reflective thinking activity?

(If the activity required doing something or getting involved [category f],
ask this question.)

b. What percentage of the time were you required to do some kind of
reflective thinking and/or writing regarding that activity?

(If the activity identified was presentation or reading assignment [category
a or d], proceed with the following question.)

c. To what extent did you already have experience in this area Of

behavior which changed?
a great extent quite large extent
limited extent not at all
INTERVIEWEE RESPONSES

The interview responses hereafter are written in the first person as if the interviewee is
speaking. They are mostly written without quotes, indicating that this is a paraphrase
of the interviewee. When quotation marks are used, the statement is a direct quote.

Parentheses contain participant clarification. Brackets enclose researcher comments or

analysis.

 

130

m the following section, each behavior identified in the questionnaire about which a

91110th was interviewed is quoted. Then the example the participant gave to illustrate
the type of instructional activity is shown under "Activity. " Finally, the explanation for
why or how the action affected the behavior is given under ”Rationale." The behaviors
are grouped under the type of instructional activity which affected them, in the order in
which they appeared on the questionnaire.

The first set of behaviors were perceived to be influenced by classroom presenta-
tions, including lectures, presentations by students, films, videotapes, and

demonstrations.

BEHAVIOR: ”I develop (educational) activities for all ages."

ACTIVITY: In class, participants as well as guests shared the things they were
involved in. That expanded the possibilities for me. (I don’t find
presentations by instructors alone to be stimulating.)

RATIONALE: The people in the field (of adult education) brought excitement
about their work. I learned what was out there. I was exposed to
the possibilities. [The vicarious experience of others became her
own.]

0

BEHAVIOR: "I engage more people in decision making."

ACTIVITY: This was affected by the lectures of instructors.

RATIONALE: I looked at education as a short-cut; it made use of the experience

of others. When instructors spoke of their personal experiences,
that was most influential. [The vicarious experience was used as
his own.]

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

 

131

"I pray more."

The classroom environment affected me more than anything. Even
though there was no class on prayer, the fact that every class was
committed to the Lord influenced me. It was the daily
demonstration.

By seeing the model or demonstration, I came to the realization
that I needed to commit every activity to the Lord. [The content
of the demonstration affected him.]

"I plan activities with greater care. "

In a time management class I was required to keep time charts,
and in another management class I had to do a planning chart.
[Since those sound like assignments which require involvement,
the researcher pressed for an example of a presentation that
influenced this new behavior. The participant then spoke of the
classroom presentation demonstrating that planning was important]

I saw the benefits of planning for the whole year. [It was unclear
whether the benefits were evident from the presentation or through
the experience]

"I visit the elderly in both foster care and nursing homes.”

In my specialty class in mercy ministries, we heard from the
instructors that there was a great nwd for people to visit, listen,
and care. More than anything, people in "homes" need someone
who will listen.

Having heard of the need, I concluded that my abilities fit that
need. Visiting people was also something that I could do at my
own time and pace even as I got older. I felt comfortable dealing
with the elderly. [A new idea attracted him because it seemed
compatible with his capabilities and interests]

 

132
The next set of behaviors was perceived to be stimulated by classroom discussion

and/or reflective thinking.

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

”I pray more." [Note that several others identified this behavior
change but attributed it to a classroom participative activity - small
group prayer.]

I was influenced by the sharing of others as they witnessed and
shared their experiences with prayer.

The testimony of others about how they prayed influenced my
capabilities (because I could do what they were doing), and
hearing the effects of prayer in their lives created a desire in me
to have what they had." [The content of the discussion was
meaningful]

”I try to network more."

I recognized the importance of networks after discussion of issues
with the instructor.

What textbooks say is often not realistic. Exposure to other ideas
made me realize the importance of other ideas. [The process of
sharing was influential]

"I value co-workers and students more. "

We class participants shared our own learning experiences and also
discussed the traits of adult learners.

Those experiences gave me insights into the participants as adults.
It made me realize that students are often adults in transition.
Adults are more fluid than I thought. [The content of the
discussion became useful]

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

 

133

"I engage more people in decision making." (I lead a production
meeting in which we discuss workloads, who will be responsible,
and deadlines.)

In management classes and adult education theory classes an
interactive process was used. The group decided within class the
direction of the class. We also had other discussions.

After I opened myself up and became an active participant, I
realized that it was more effective to make group decisions. I
related that to my job and realized that a directive approach was
not as good. [The process had a powerful effect]

"I participate more in conversations."

We were required to speak up in class, mostly in small group
discussions. We were graded on participation - approximately
35% of the grade.

There was positive reinforcement through the grade for speaking
up. In addition, people listened to me more than I thought they
would. That boosted my self~confidence. [The process provided
positive reinforcement for involvement from the instructor and
others]

"I listen to my clients better."

Most of that was from class situations where we walked through
scenarios. There was lots of exposure to diverse viewpoints
because of the variety of participants.

It enhanced my awareness. I became a "little less parochial." I
learned to appreciate diverse viewpoints. Everyone has insights,
even though I may not agree with them. [Both the process and the
content of the discussions influenced her.]

 

134

The next set of identified behavioral changes was thought to be affected most by

classroom participative activities.

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

"I listen more carefully."

In an interpersonal relations class, we did listening exercises, role
plays, sharing with listening, and active listening practice.

I found I wasn’t hearing what others were hearing, which made me
more sensitive to my deficiencies. It made me realize there was
more to hear. Secondly, the exercises gave me practice. [The
activities Stimulated new insights about herself and provided
practice]

"I involve students when teaching."

With classroom participatory activities, I was involved. It let me
be a part of the process much more than lecture. So I saw its
effect on me. Secondly, instructors modeled the process of having
students involved. [Whole person involvement affected her, as did
the instructor’s modeling]

"Teach Christ in small groups"
I learned through interaction and breaking into small groups.
I found out I could function regardless of who was in the group -

an antagonist, a person out of it, etc. [The activity created
awareness of capabilities and reinforced them.]

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

 

135

"I plan my work and work my plan."

We discussed case studies in small groups in one class and used
role plays and simulations in another.

These activities allowed me to think more deeply. They helped me
to organize because I actually engaged in problem solving. [The
activity created more mental engagement and practice]

"I lead/speak to groups of adults more effectively.”

A lot of activities in class fit. We had one exercise in class where
I had to use different teaching strategies to teach the same point.

It goes back to three things: 1) content provides awareness, e. g.,
that a lot of adults seek education because of changes in career,

2) observation of fellow students verifies that, 3) involvement
with adults with whom I work further verifies it. (Direct,
immediate physical use of ideas stimulated and guided later use]

"I am more likely to trust the decisions of subordinates.”

I can think of both simulations on problem solving and role plays
exploring different cultures.

Through those simulations and role plays I realized that there are
other people with important insights. [Experiencing the process
was a positive experience which reinforced its use]

 

136

The next group of behavioral changes was perceived to be influenced by reading

assignments.

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

”I attempt to keep up to date by reading and attending seminars."

I was constantly inundated with information and reading and it was
up—to-date information.

The reading and research made me feel more on top of things.
The experience had positive effects. I see a lot more options now
through reading. [Reading provided internal positive reinforce-
ment for the process of reading]

"I work with adult programs instead of children."

We were given options. We could choose any area and then find
current information.

As an elementary teacher, I had not been exposed to adult
education. The reading opened a new world. I was seeing new
possibilities. [The content provided new information]

"I consider financial implication (and use them more objectively)
in decision making."

I got a lot more out of journals and magazines as opposed to texts.
Reading mostly broadened my perspective. It planted in my mind

that there is a financial impact for everything. [The content was
particularly relevant to her life.]

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

 

137

"I read more on adult issues.”

In class we were given a list of books (on adult education) and
asked to do some reading. However, we had freedom as to what
we read. The freedom of choice made me appreciate the reading
more and it gave me wider variety.

It wet my appetite and gave me exposure to what was out there.
I was pretty much unaware previously. When I read, I realized it
was good; there were positive effects and feelings. There was
positive reinforcement for reading. [New exposure to content
stimulated internal positive reinforcement for reading]

"I teach with greater understanding of adult students."

I’m referring to assigned readings, which we had in most classes,
both texts and lots of articles.

The reading gave me a heightened awareness of the adult learner
and how he/she is different. Then I saw that in practice among
classmates and later in my application at work. [The content was
verified by experience and thereby became useful]

The next set of behavioral changes were perceived to be stimulated by reports or

writing assignments, particularly ones which required thinking or reflecting.

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

"I teach with power and knowledge."

In Biblical studies class, I had to develop outlines and reports on
events. (This sometimes involved use of outside resources.) In
another class on group work, I had to actually lead a Bible study
but then write an evaluation of the process.

 

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

138

By writing outlines after hearing presentations or reading, there
was a double entry in the learning process. Secondly, that really
built my confidence because I knew I knew it. Thirdly, evaluating
actual Bible studies made me realize that I was empowered by the
Holy Spirit. [Mental engagement leading up to the writing and
insights from personal reflection both affected behavior.]

"I teach my family from God’s word."

Every class required reports, e.g., on the book of Romans. They
required research and thinking.

I learned better when I had to dig into it myself. "It started
coming home to me that it was my responsibility to raise my
children in the fear and admonition of the Lord. " As I learned, I
realized teaching my family was required. [The content of the
material being worked on was influential]

"I teach adults differently. " (I give them more opportunity for
input, participation, and responsibility.)

We were studying psychologists that studied adults. One
assignment was compiling information from the literature and then
applying the psychologists’ thoughts to adult students we knew.

It caused me to reflect on myself as a person and so I began to see

other adults differently. [Forced reflection on ideas and on
experiences created a foundation for application]

”I write up problem analysis in better form. "

We did case studies - primarily situational. We had to analyze the
situation and write it up, striving for completeness and conciseness.

 

RATIONALE:

 

139

There are two reasons: seeing examples within the text or
supplemental materials plus doing the analysis and writing and
getting them back with instructor evaluation. [Actually doing
analysis and writing sharpened those skills]

The last set of behavioral changes was perceived to be stimulated by assignments

requiring physically doing something or getting actively involved, such as organizing

a group or conducting an interview or completing a project.

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

"I plot time to match values. "

In a Christian perspective time management class I had to keep
logs of time use and then compare my time use with priorities I
had determined.

That activity cemented the action in. We (class participants) were
acting out what we were learning - making it our own. I hated the
thought of doing the logs, but as I did the assignment, the results
were making me feel good. I had a sense of accomplishment from
what I was getting done as a result of the time management
strategies. [Direct experience with the real process and positive
effects locked in the process]

"I think about/plan carefully any communication for which I am
responsible." (I focus more now on the receiver, not just on what
I want to send.)

I had to develop advertising materials as an assignment. I also
had to make use of a Gantt chart to plan out a project.

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVIT Y:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

 

140

The activities made those strategies relevant to life. They were not
just assignments because they were used within interest areas.
They were opportunities to use the skills in life situations. [Direct
experience in life situations provided a link to use in life.]

"I take a leadership role in local, state, and regional groups of
adult educators."

As an assignment in one class, we did interviews of people
involved with other programs of higher education. In other cases
we did similar things in small groups.

The activities were a confidence booster; I saw that I was
competent. It was evident that I emerged as a leader within
groups. [When asked what was done in class to prepare students
for this kind of activity, the participant responded that there was
no practice, but resources were made available, e.g., names of
people to contact. The experience provided its own positive
reinforcement by building esteem.]

"Decision making in nursing is facilitated."

The major component in nursing clinicals was an assessment of a
patient, development of a written care plan, and then carrying it
out. The care plan was reviewed by a clinical instructor or staff
person.

There was no opportunity for decision making in classes. In the
clinicals, I was doing decision making and got feedback on my
decisions. This process was highly anxiety producing because
lives were on the line. (Prerequisite classes which were mostly
presentational were not effective in affecting performance.)
[Clinicals were direct experiences doing the eventual behavior with
feedback on performance]

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

 

141

"I prioritize my time now and find myself constantly organizing
and thinking ahead.”

In Sixth term clinieals I was regularly responsible for three patients
(under the supervision of a staff person). I had to develop care
plans and carry them out.

The most difficult thing to do is to prioritize your use of time
when there are so many things to do. There was no classroom
training on this. When you’re in the hospital environment, you’re
experiencing - you’re learning how to do it. [Direct experience,
learning on her own, was a guide to future action.]

"Ask questions rather than make pronouncements" (when teaching)

What affected me most was being required to lead a group to
develop this ability. [When asked how he was prepared in class
to go out and practice this behavior, he responded that it was
modeled in class by the instructor and there were practice
activities, such as leading small group discussions]

There are two reasons. First, the more you do it the better you
become. Second, using this style resulted in favorable comments
from participants. [Practice and reinforcement were influential]

"I plan meetings more specifically.”

As an assignment, I had to plan a meeting and develop an agenda
which included the amount of time allotted to each item.

My motivation to improve was there. If I had read this idea in a
book I would probably have ignored it. Having to do it as an
assignment forced me to get started. The effect of doing it was
good at the meeting I led and so I saw that it works. [Coerced
action got him started and the positive reinforcement produced
sustained action.]

 

BEHAVIOR:
ACTIVITY :

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

142

”My teaching is more visual” (and participative).

My assignment was to get some people who were marginally
involved in the church together and lead them in a Bible study.

I remember the feelings and droughts of the experience (and that
enables me to make use of them). They’re still very vivid because
of the experience. The things taught in other classes through
presentations I don’t remember. [The active involvement created
affective and cognitive images which still influence action.]

"I apply my knowledge of the adult learner much more when I
teach. "

We were sent out in pairs to observe classes and to analyze. I also
had the opportunity to visit specific agencies to pursue information
in an interview. I reported back in class.

My previous exposure to instruction was all teacher centered.
With these activities I was exposed to variety. [The activity
expanded the realm of possibilities]

”I challenge people with the Gospel."

In one class I had to make a nursing home visit and then write out
a verbatim of what was said. In another class, I had to recruit
people for an evangelistic Bible study and then lead the study.

The experience built my ability, but also reduced my fear of
rejection. What I experienced, instead of rejection, produced a
high feeling which motivated me to keep doing it. [Both practice
and positive reinforcement from the activity affected him.]

 

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

 

143

”I’m able to converse with confidence and in control of the topic."
In a communication class, we had to prepare outside of class for
in-class presentations which were videotaped.

It helped me grow and expand. I gained self-confidence and

became more motivated as I gained confidence. [Practice and
internal positive reinforcement affected performance]

"Able to discuss Christ person-to-person"
I had to recruit participants for a Bible class and then lead it.
Others’ encouragement and then doing it showed me that I could.

It gave me self-confidence. [Positive reinforcement was
powerful]

"I visit hospitalized people.”

My internship in mercy ministries affected me most.

I saw a nwd. I had needs that had not been met. Also through
my whole training experience I became more open to the Lord to
work in me. I thought I had turned myself over to the Lord, but

I hadn’t as much as I thought. [Personal experiences motivated
him and forced involvement got him started.)

"I have better teaching methods."
Leading group Bible studies as an assignment affected me.

I became more familiar with the topics and techniques through

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

RATIONALE:

BEHAVIOR:

ACTIVITY:

 

144

practice. [Practice led to both new and better methods]

”I consistently use adult education teaching/interacting techniques. "

I had the opportunity to develop an intergenerational program of
bringing seniors into an elementary building (meeting the needs of
both groups).

To me, adult education/teaching techniques are people techniques.
The more I did (with adults), the more I realized that my
techniques were good. They were effective. The activity
reaffirmed for me that what I had was good and usable with
adults. [The activity provided positive reinforcement]

"I use a computer more as a data base." (All of my company’s
production projects are tracked on a data base.)

In a couple courses that I took, I was given an overview and then
assigned to write a database program (to fit a given situation).

It was readily obvious that tracking projects on a data base was
easier than using paper and pencil. [The experience provided
practice, new insight, and positive reinforcement.)

"I interact more with people."

One class assignment required that we give away tracts. I didn’t
force a conversation, but when I gave out tracts, I was available
for explanation if someone wanted to talk.

     

145

RATIONALE: ”As much as anything, it was the beginning of the realization that
God didn’t create lone wolves. " It was the beginning of my
understanding that witnessing is my mission; I am an ambassador
for the Lord. (It didn’t affect capabilities as much as motivation.)
[New insight from reflection created new direction.]

RESEARCH QUESTION 58

Do interviewed participants perceive that the specific types of instructional activities
(which affected their behaviors) had more effect on their capabilities or on their

motivation?
INTERVIEW DATA

The interviewees were asked if they thought that the type of instructional activity which
they identified as affecting a behavior had more effect on their capabilities or their
motivation. While ”both" was not an option given, numerous participants said ”both. "
When pushed to choose, some did; others still chose ”both. " Their responses for each
type of instructional activity were tabulated by frequency and percentage as follows:

 

146

Table 4.11 Instructional Activity Effect on Capabilities and Motivation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

capabilities motivation both
classroom presentations of 3 2
all kinds
60% 40%
discussions and/or 1 3 2
reflective thinking
17% 50% 33%
classroom participative 3 3 1
activities
43% 43% 14%
reading assignments 1 2 1
20% 40% 20%
reports or writing 1 2
assignments
33% 67%
assignments requiring 12 4 2
active involvement
67 % 22 % 1 1 %

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RESEARCH QUESTION 5b

Is there a significant difference between the types of instructional activities (perceived

to affect behavioral change) in terms of whether each affected capabilities or motivation?

DATA ANALYSIS

Because of the limited sample sizes, as shown in Table 4.11, a chi-square test could not

 

147

06 used 10 determine if the pattern of responses for the different instructional activities
is different with respect to the subjects’ choices between motivation and capabilities.
However, observation of the table reveals that presentations of all kinds tended to have
more influence on motivation while assignments requiring active involvement had more
influence on capabilities. A chi square test used just on assignments requiring active

involvement results in a significant chi square (p< .01).

NULL HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant difference between types of instructional activity (perceived to

affect behavioral change) in terms of whether each affected capabilities or motivation.

The null hypothesis was not testable statistically.

RESEARCH QUESTION 5c

According to participants who identified participative activities or assignments which
required physically doing something as effective, what percentage of the time were those
learning activities followed by discussions, private reflective activities, or writing

assignments?
INTERVIEW DATA

Some questions in the interview were used only in relationship to a specific type of
instructional activity that was identified. One such question, for those who reported that

the most effective type of instructional activity was participative activities or an

 

148
assignment Which required physically doing something, asked what percentage of the time

those learning activities were followed by discussions, private reflective activities, or

writing assignments.

While interviewees were asked ”what percentage of time . . . , " over half did not
identify a number. They responded with a more general phrase, such as ”most of the

time. " Three interviewees could not recall well enough to respond.

Four respondents indicated low use of follow-up discussions, private reflective activities,
or writing assignments. Their responses, with the number of respondents indicated in
parentheses, were as follows: none (1), not much (2), 20% (l). The remaining 18
respondents indicated very high use of such follow-up activities: 75 % (2), 75-80% (1),
85-90% (1), 90% (1), more than 95% (1), 100% (4), most of the time (2), almost always
(1), always (2), high (1), all (1), something after each experience (1).

Interpreting a "none" response as zero percent, the responses ranged from 0 to 100
percent. However, the mean and standard deviation are not computable.
RESEARCH QUESTION 5d

According to participants who identified presentations or reading assignments as effective

in affecting behaviors, to what extent will they have had previous experience in this area

of behavior?

 

 

149

“J’TERVIEW DATA

A second question in the interview, for those who identified presentations or reading
assignments as effective, asked the extent of previous experience in the area of change.

The responses were identified by frequency and percentage.

After many of the interviews had already been conducted, the researcher began asking
interviewees who had identified other types of instructional activities the extent of

previous experience in the area of change. The responses in this limited sample are also

shown in the following table:

Table 4.12 Extent of Previous Experience in Area of Behavioral Change

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

great quite limited not at
extent large extent all
extent

presentations of all kinds 0 l 4 0
reading assignments 2 1 2 0
discussions, reports, or

assignments requiring active 0 2 3 2
involvement

 

 

 

 

These results, while based on a very limited sample, seem quite consistent with the large
sample in Table 6.5, which shows the "newness" ratings of behavior changes correlated

with the types of instructional activities perceived to affect them.

 

150

SUMMARY OF RESULTS

RESEARCH QUESTION 1

The data in Table 4.1, which shows participant responses to questions 1-4 in the
questionnaire, reveals a fairly normal distribution of answers across the spectrum of
possibilities for participants’ desire to change behaviors or actions and for participants’
anticipation of changes in behaviors or actions. The distribution for participants’
anticipation of changes in attitudes or values was skewed toward lower expectations and
their anticipation of changes in knowledge or understanding was extremely skewed

toward high expectations.

RESEARCH QUESTION 2

A comparison of Table 4.1 with Table 4.2 reveals that participants perceive that they
experienced greater change than they had desired in behaviors and actions. They also
perceive that they experienced greater change than they had anticipated in each of the
three areas (behavior or actions, attitudes or values, and knowledge and understanding).
The distributions for perceived changes are skewed toward a lot of perceived change in

all three areas of change, especially in perceived change in knowledge and understanding.

 

151

“fisEARCH QUESTIONS 2a, 2b. AND 29

The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient of .31982 (p=.00003) established a very
significant relationship between each participant’s desire for change in behaviors or
actions and the amount of perceived change in behaviors or actions. However, that
correlation coefficient, though high, was not as high as the correlation coefficients
between the anticipated change in behaviors, attitudes or values, and knowledge and
understanding and the perceived changes in each corresponding area, which were .37570,
.44401, and .46003 respectively. Each had a significance of p= .00000. In addition, the
Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient between the perceived change in behavior and the
desire for change and anticipated change in behavior was .35319 (p=.00000).

These research findings certainly support the contention that there is a relationship
between the desire to change behaviors and perceived change after instruction.
Furthermore, there is a relationship between anticipation of change and the perceived
change after instruction. While some theorists cited in chapter 2 describe a cause and
effect relationship, this research was not designed to establish a causal relationship.

Never-the—less, a significant positive relationship exists.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3 AND 3x

It is evident from Table 4.3 that the perceived single most influential type of instructional
activity is assignments which require physically doing something or getting actively
involved. Over 25% of the behavioral changes were attributed to that one type of

activity. Furthermore, a chi square test indicates that the differences between the number

152
of changes attributed to each type of instructional activity are significantly different
(p < .001).

The next most influential type of instructional activity, with over 21% of the changes
attributed to it, was classroom participative activities. Thus almost half of the behavioral
changes identified were attributed to the two types of instructional activity which are
most experiential, or those which the researcher ealls the ”sensory-participative mode. "
(See ”Definition of Terms” in chapter 1.)

It must be noted here that the interviews revealed an important difference between
assignments which require physically doing some or getting actively involved and simple
experience (as in life experience). Part of the effect of the activity is achieved through
three things: 1) It’s guided. 2) Fwdback is often given to help the participant modify
behaviors as necessary. 3) A high use of discussions, reflective thinking, and reports or
writing assignments assist the participant to move the experiential process through

generalizations to action in new situations, as described in the Johns-Hopkins University

research. (See chapter 2.)

The findings of this research thus strongly support the conclusions of the Johns-Hopkins

research on experiential processing and information processing, namely, that experiential

learning leads more directly to action.

Two other forms of instructional activities, classroom discussions and/or reflective
thinking and classroom presentations of all kinds, were each perceived to have influenced
just under 15 % of the changes identified. (The description of presentations included

demonstrations, films or videotapes, visual aids, and lecture.)

 

153

«(be POWer of discussion or reflective thinking in improving the use of information, as
spam by cognitive psychologists, is evident in this data. (See chapter 2.) Discussions
and/01' reflective thinking were perceived to produce the same number of changes as a
combination of instructional activities, including information processing. (It is also
interesting to note that these results were achieved while on the average discussions
and/or reflective thinking consumed 29% of the class time while presentations of all
kinds consumed 49%. See Table 4.8.)

Almost 11% of the behavioral changes were attributed to reports or writing assignments.
Therefore the combination of discussions and/or reflective thinking with reports or
writing assignments (as describe in chapter 3) were perceived to account for about 26%
of the behavioral changes. The researcher calls these two types of activities "engagement
mode" because they require mental engagement through application, analysis, synthesis,
and/or evaluation. (However, the interviews revealed that not all reports or writing
assignments fit the researcher’s idea of "engagement mode" activities. Reports or writing
assignments can simply require the collection of information and may not involve

application, analysis, synthesis, and/or evaluation.)

Fewer than 5% of the behavioral changes were attributed to reading assignments. Thus

reading assignments had the least effect on behavioral changes.

The array of types of instructional activities from the one perceived to be most powerful
to that perceived to be least powerful seems to parallel Edgar Dale’s "cone of
experience." (See chapter 2 and Appendix A.) However, it must be noted that the
researcher’s category of "presentations" includes both Dale’s symbolic and iconic

categories.

 

154

gfisEARCH QUESTION 3a

There is considerable variation in the extent of use Of the six types of instructional
activity within the different programs, as shown in Table 4.8. The possibility therefore
exists that an individual may not identify a particular type of instructional activity as
affecting his/her behavior because he/she had little exposure to that type of activity.

That possibility leads to this question: Is the relative number of times a specific type of
instructional activity is identified as having affecting behaviors by participants within a
program significantly different for the different programs of study. Table 4.5 shows the
cross-tabulation data. Chi square tests indicate that there is a significant difference
(p< .01) in the relative number of times each of the six types of instructional activities

were identified as having affected behaviors in the different programs.

A simultaneous look at Table 4.5 and Table 4.8, which contains the percentage of time
each type of instructional activity was used within each program, may verify the
speculation which led to this research question. For example, Table 4.8 reveals that
programs 1 and 8 used assignments which required active involvement less than other
programs. Table 4.5 reveals that participants in those programs attributed a lesser
percentage of their behavioral changes to these assignments than the average. On the
other end of the spectrum, programs 1, 6, and 8 used presentations more than the other
programs and also had more behavioral changes attributed to presentations than the other

programs. Not all results are that consistent.

 

155

gfiSF-ARCH QUESTIONS 3b AND 3c

The “newness" of the behaviors participants identified as having changed are shown in
Table 4.7. The distribution is quite normal, ranging from "slightly new" to "very new."

However, it is somewhat skewed to the "very new" end of the continuum.

Table 6.5 in Appendix C shows the cross-tabulation data for type of instructional activity
with "newness" of the behavior attributed to it. A chi square test was used to determine
if the pattern of responses (regarding the extent of change) affected by each type of
instructional activity is significantly different. The resulting chi square of 34.5 (p< .05)
means that some types of instructional activity were perceived to lead to newer behaviors
than others. The table indicates that reports or writing assignments, assignments
requiring active involvement, and "other" instructional activities produced the greatest
percentages of "very new" behaviors. Classroom presentations of all kinds, discussions
and/or reflective thinking, and classroom participative activities produced the greatest
percentages of "quite new" behaviors. Reading assignments produced the greatest

percentages of "somewhat new" and ”slightly new" behaviors.

Those differences are significant. However, when the types of instructional activities are
combined into the three major categories of mental activity, there is very little difference
in the pattern of newness responses.

RESEARCH QUESTION 4 AND 48

Table 4.8 Shows a wide variation in the extent of use of each of the Six types of

 

156

gosh-“Clio“ activities within the different programs. The percentage of classroom time

spent in presentations ranged from 33% to 77%, discussions and/or reflective thinking

from 12% to 39%, and classroom participative activities from 8% to 28%.

The three programs which used the highest percentage of classroom time for
presentations are programs within a traditional college setting. While the participants
were non-traditional, the instructional activities were more traditional. On the other
hand, two of the newest programs, which are designed specifically for adult learners
(numbers 2 and 3), had the lowest use of presentations of all kinds, less than 39% of the
time. Those two programs, along with program 4, made the most use of participative

activities.

The use of time in outside-the—classroom assignments also varied considerably between
programs. In one program participants perceived that they spent 66% of their outside-
the-classroom time in reading assignments, while in another they spent less than 30% of
their time in reading. The percentage of time spent in doing reports or writing
assignments varied from less than 22% to almost 49%. The percentage of time spent in

assignments requiring active involvement ranged from less than 12% to 29%.

The programs with the highest use of presentations (1, 6, and 8) also consistently had the
lowest use of classroom participative activities and assignments requiring physical

involvement.

The difference between the extent of use of the Six types of instructional activities is
significant, as indicated by the F ratios shown in Table 4.9. Tables 6.7 - 6.13 in

Appendix C reveal those uses of instructional activities most divergent from the means.

 

157

whine}; QUESTION 5

During their interviews, participants were asked how or why they thought a particular
type of instructional activity initiated and fostered a behavioral change. Their responses

were summarized and eventually analyzed to look for common elements.

Listed below are 6 main categories of instructional activities along with a summary of

the participants’ rationale for the effect of each type of activity.

a. classroom presentations by the instructor or others, including lecture, visual aids,

films or videotapes, and demonstrations

Among those interviewed, several rationales were expressed for the effectiveness of
"presentations" on particular behavior. A couple of people referred to the sharing
of experiences by Others, which vicariously gave them as participants the experience.
They were able to make use of related experiences as if they were their own. A
couple of others referred to demonstrations of processes (a planning process and the
process of committing every class to the Lord in prayer). Having seen the
demonstrations, they were able to use the processes in life. Another heard about a

need in a presentation which be associated with his capabilities and interests.
b. classroom discussions and/or reflective thinking

In participants’ explanations of rationale for the effect of classroom discussion and/or
reflective thinking, there were two strong trends. Some were influenced by the
content of what was shared or discussed, the ideas. In other cases, the process of

discussing influenced the change. For example, group decision making in class

.0

 

158

Influenced one man to use the process at work. For another participant, involvement
in a group where ideas were listened to created positive reinforcement for sharing of

ideas.

classroom participative activities such as role play, simulation, practice session, or

real—life experience

Several rationales were given for the effect of various kinds of participative
activities. For several participants, the activity was more engaging; it got them more
involved in the process. In two cases, that engagement was actually doing the
behavior, practicing. For some, the activity provided insight. Two Of those got new
insights about themselves, new awareness about deficiencies or strengths.
Furthermore, for the latter there was a reinforcement of those strengths. Finally,
another referred to learning through the modeling of the participative process by the

instructor.
reading assignments

The rationales for the effect of reading assignments again fit into two main
categories. First, several were influenced by the content. The ideas were picked up
and used. Second, for others for whom the new behavior was reading more, the
reading process was influential. Because they were getting new ideas, they felt good
about themselves; the reading created an internal positive feeling which reinforced

the act of reading.

 

159

reports or writing assignments, particularly ones which required thinking or

reflecting

The examples of reports or writing assignments fell into two broad categories:
writing about information and writing about experiences. In writing about
information, one participant referred to reinforcing the classroom learning by having
to work through it again, another to learning by digging into something himself, and
a third to being asked to mentally apply what had been read. For those who
reflected on and wrote about experiences, they gained new insight about
empowerment (capabilities) and responsibility. For another person for whom writing
analyses in better form is the new behavior, the process of analyzing and writing

with the feedback of the instructor sharpened her skills.

assignments which required physically doing something or getting actively involved
in something, such as organizing a group or conducting an interview or completing

a project

There were two primary rationales given for the effect of assignments which required
active involvement. The first was direct experience with the real thing, e. g.,
managing time in a work setting or developing advertising materials. In that
situation the experience provided a base for new generalizations and action, and it
provided practice. The second rationale was the positive experience of the activity
which reinforced doing it. Sometimes the reinforcement was internal and sometimes

external.

Other rationales were mentioned less frequently, but they are still insightful. A

 

couple of people said the assignment coerced them to do something which they may

not have done otherwise. It got them started. Another said the feelings and thoughts
within the experience were still vivid and therefore still a guide for action. Finally,
in a couple of cases, people referred to new insights gained. They weren’t insights
which modified action in the experiential learning sense, but rather insights that the
participants should do something which they were already able to do.

RESEARCH QUESTION 58 AND 5b

The sample is small because only 20 people were interviewed. Yet the pattern, as shown
in Table 4.11, indicates that presentations of all kinds affected motivation more often
than they affected capabilities. Likewise, discussions and/or reflective thinking, reading
assignments, and reports or writing assignments affected motivation more often.
Classroom participative activities had an equal effect on both, and assignments requiring

active involvement affected capabilities far more often than they affected motivation.

RESEARCH QUESTION 5c

It was impossible to determine from participants’ responses what percentage of the time
classroom participative activities or assignments requiring active involvement were
followed by discussions, private reflection, or writing assignments. However, 82% of
the interviewees indicated a use of such follow-up activities 75% of the time or more.
These "engagement mode" activities after ”sensory-participative mode" activities are in
keeping with the Johns-Hopkins research which found that debriefing activities helped

participants build generalizations and apply the learning in new situations.

 

 

161

RESEARCH QUESTION 5d

The interviewee sample was small, but a definite pattern seemed to be established, as
shown in Table 4.12. Reading assignments were associated with behavioral change
where participants had the greatest amount of previous experience. On the other end of
the spectrum, discussions, reports, and assignments requiring active involvement were
associated with behavioral changes where participants had the least amount of previous
experience. Presentations of all kinds were between the two. These results are generally

supported by the information found in Table 6.5 , which is based on a large sample.

CHAPTER SUIWMARY

Chapter 4 included a brief report on the participants in the research project followed by
three major sections on the questionnaire data and analysis, interview data and analysis,
and a summary of findings. Chapter 5 includes the conclusions based on this study,

ideas for application of this research, reflections, and suggestions for further research.

 

 

Chapter 5

CONCLUSIONS, IDEAS FOR APPLICATION,
REFLECTIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR
FURTHER RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

This research project explored the relationship between perceived behavioral changes and
the types of instructional activities which participants believe fostered those changes. It
also explored how or why participants think those activities affected change.

This chapter will contain five main sections: conclusions based on the research data and
its analysis, ideas for the application of this research, reflections, suggestions for further

research, and a final thought.

CONCLUSIONS BASED ON RESEARCH DATA AND ANALYSIS

CONCLUSIONS ABOUT DESIRE FOR CHANGE, ANTICIPATION OF CHANGE,
AND PERCEPTION OF CHANGE

With 162 participants responding, a strong case can be made that participants anticipate
far greater changes in knowledge and understanding as they pursue learning than changes

in behaviors or actions and attitudes or values. However, probably more important,

162

 

 

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paIfiCipants perceive that they changed more than they had desired in behaviors and more

than they had anticipated in behaviors or actions, attitudes or values, and knowledge or
understanding. That is generally good news for educational and training institutions
because the benefits to the participants are greater than those anticipated, which no doubt

enhances the satisfaction of most participants.

CONCLUSIONS ABOUT TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY AND THEIR
PERCEIVED IMPACT ON BEHAVIORAL CHANGE

The perceived single most influential type of instructional activity is assignments which
require physically doing something or getting actively involved. Over 25% of the
behavioral changes were attributed to that one type of activity. (As will be described
more fully in the next section, it was also powerful in that it was the only type of
instructional activity which had a significant correlation to the perceived extent of
behavioral change. Thus the greater the extent to which such assignments were used,

the greater the behavioral change.)

The next most influential instructional activity, with over 21% of the changes attributed
to it, was classroom participative activities. Thus almost half of the behavioral changes
identified were attributed to the two types of instructional activities which are most

experiential, or those which the researcher calls the "sensory-participative mode."

The results here would no doubt have been even more dramatic had all the programs
studied used sensory-participative activities more extensively. In those programs where
such activities were used least, fewer behavioral changes were attributed to those
activities. In the two programs where those activities were used most, more behavioral

changes were attributed to them than to any other activities.

 

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II) order to maximize behavioral change or changes in actions, instructors should
therefore be using these two forms of sensory-participative mode activities more. This
conclusion does not preclude the use of other types of instructional activity. However,
presentations of all kinds, reading, and reports or writing assignments are no doubt

over-used, particularly in some programs. For their extent of use, they produce limited
effect. That is especially true for reading.

Assignments requiring active involvement appear to be successful for two primary
reasons. First, they provide direct experience with real life. Second, either internal or
external positive reinforcement often accompanies the activity. In addition, such
assignments may stimulate new insights (conclusions) or provide the impetus for action
which would otherwise never take place. No other type of instructional activity can

provide both of those primary benefits, except perhaps classroom participative activities.

Classroom participative activities are effective for a variety of Similar reasons,
including the total involvement, insights gained, practice, and reinforcement. Each kind
of classroom participative activity may have its own particular effect on behavioral

change.

The ability of sensory-participative mode activities to influence behavioral change can be
enhanced by follow-up reflective thinking, discussion, reflective writing, or feedback.
Such engagement mode activities enable the participant to take the activity beyond
experience through conclusions to new actions. Failure to process either experiences or

content (from presentations or reading) reduces their impact.

While discussion and reflective thinking are valuable as follow-up activities, they also

have merit as stand-alone activities. In fact, "discussion and/or reflective thinking" was

 

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the third most powerful type of instructional activity. Discussion can influence change
through both process and content components. With the process component of
discussion, the participant is influenced by the fact that others listened to him/her, or that
he/she learned to speak up, or that he/she realized that sharing produces a better result
in decision making. With the content component of discussion, the person is influenced

by the things or ideas shared.

As suggested by the interviews, more people seem to be affected by the process of
discussion than by the content. That thought is consistent with the research findings
which indicate that experiences are more influential than information. (As processes,

discussions are more like sensory-participative activities rather than engagement mode

activities.)

Reading is a weak influencer of behavioral change. Reading may foster new insights.
However, it is just as likely to foster reading. That may be especially true if participants
are allowed some freedom of choice in reading within the assigned general topic.

The two ways in which reading affects change point to content and process components
for reading as well. With the content component of reading, the learner is influenced by
something he/she reads. In the process component of reading, the learner is influenced
by the act of reading, like the person who felt especially "up on things" by reading. The
good feeling reading produced encouraged her to do more reading.

Reports or writing assignments of all kinds can also have an effect on future behaviors.
They seem to be more effective than reading assignments but less effective than the other
types of instructional activities. Again there are several possible means for influencing

behaviors. For example, the act of using a computer to do writing assignments

 

iflfl‘m‘Ced one interviewee’s continued use of computers. That was a process component

of writing assignments. The content element of reports and writing assignments is
represented by three basic categories: those which require collecting information and
compiling it, those which require reflection on ideas or information, and those which
require reflection on experiences. Such reflection may include analysis, synthesis,
evaluation, and application, which are identified by Bloom as higher order mental
processes. (Bloom, 1956-1964) On the other hand, there is no doubt that there is some

use of higher order mental processes even in collecting and compiling information.

However, writing about reflections or conclusions drawn from experiences or the
application of experiences or information appears to have greater effect than collecting
and compiling information. (Perhaps writing assignments consisting of collecting and
compiling information really should have been categorized by the researcher as recipient

mode mental activity rather than as engagement mode activity.)

Finally, presentations of all kinds can affect behaviors, though less effectively than
sensory-participative activities and discussion and/or reflective thinking. Demonstrations
are a more powerful form of presentations. However, instructors may demonstrate more
by the activities they use, how they use them, and their personal qualities than they do
through planned demonstrations.

The most powerful aspect of verbal presentations seems to be the revelation of
experiences, which vicariously allow participants to have and potentially make use of
those experiences as their own. Thus instructors need to have real life experiences to

share. They need to be involved in the world of their participants as practitioners.

 

 

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CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE EXTENT OF USE OF THE srx TYPES OF
msmucnONAL ACTIVITIES

The diversity in the extent of use of the Six types of instructional activities is startling.
The extent of use in each program no doubt says a lot about the philosophy of the

instructors or of the institutions.

Programs of study which are connected with a normal college schedule are more likely
to utilize more traditional types of instructional activities, even though they may have a
high percentage of non-traditional students in them. Programs of study planned for
non-traditional students are most likely to use classroom discussions and/ or reflective
thinking, classroom participative activities, and assignments which require active

involvement.

The extent of use for each type of instructional activity has a relationship with the
amount of behavioral change that participants identified. As Table 4.10 shows, there is
a significant positive correlation of .19634 (p=.01312) between the extent of use of
assignments requiring active involvement and the perceived extent of behavioral change.
On the other hand there is a negative correlation of .14626 (p = .065 83) between the
extent of use of reading assignments and the extent of behavioral change. These statistics
again lead to the conclusion that assignments requiring active involvement should be used

more and reading assignments should be used less.

On the other hand, no doubt program effectiveness is not dependent on the use of only
one type of activity. To the extent that it is dependent on instructional activities, it is
dependent on the greater or lesser extent of use of all the types of instructional activities,

on the way all the types of instructional activities are blended, and on the actual activities

 

 

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used within the types.

APPLICATION OF THE RESEARCH
IN INSTRUCTIONAL SETTINGS

In preparing for instruction, each instructor or facilitator must determine the ultimate
goals for the instructional experience (whether they are set by the participants, their
organization, the instructor, or his/her organization). In most educational or training
situations, the ultimate goal is behavioral change, affected performance. There may be
other goals, such as the components of the desired behavior, i.e., knowledge and
understanding, attitudes and values, physical skills, and motivation. However, it is this
researcher’s contention that the ultimate goal of most adults is affected behaviors or

performance. (This viewpoint is supported in chapter 2.)

An instructor should be sensitive to participants’ needs and interests, but Should also
encourage participant growth beyond that which they anticipated or desired. There is
room for growth, and the classroom activities and assignments instructors design and use
can affect behaviors or actions, attitudes or values, and knowledge or understanding

beyond what participants expect.

If the instructional goal is changed behaviors or actions or performance, then it is
imperative that the blend of types of instructional activities be consistent with that goal.
Some classroom activities are more effective than others, and some assignments are
better than others. Each of the six types of instructional activities has its place in the
instructional process. Each of the three modes of mental activity has its place.

However, some activities are more effective than others for affecting behaviors.

 

TIE literature review and the findings of this research support the development of the
following "Instructional Activities Model. " Within it, the instructional activities are
ordered from top to bottom in terms of their effectiveness for influencing behavioral
changes, with the least effective at the top. The model draws extensively from Edgar

Dale’s Cone of Experience. (See Appendix A.) The categories are defined in chapter

 

169

1 under "mental activity. "

Figure 5.1

Instructional Activities Model

 

 

RECIPIENT MODE

hearing a verbal presentation

reading the written word

question and answer session about content

hearing verbal illustration, relevant anecdote, or experiences

AIDED RECIPIENT MODE

observing a visual aid (chart, map, graph)

viewing a film, video, or presentation of slides with tape
observing a mock-up or exhibit

observing a demonstration (videotaped or live)

ENGAGEMENT MODE

individual reflection or writing about information or ideas
individual reflection on experience, especially about what happened,
why, conclusions, and application

writing reflections about experience, observations, conclusions,

and application

discussion of droughts and application

problem solving discussion

SEN SORY-PARTICIPATIVE MODE
role play or situation play (for building generalizations or for practice)

simulation (for building generalizations or for practice)
real life experience

 

 

 

 

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The Optimal instructional activity for affecting behaviors is guided real-life experience
which is followed by reflection, discussion, and/ or reflective writing along with
feedback. "Guided" implies that participants are prepared (behaviorally) and are directed
or helped through the process. They are given whatever they need to be mostly

successful.

Most such guided real-life experiences take the form of assignments or outside-the-
classroom projects. The function of the classroom activities is therefore to prepare the
participants for success in the guided real-life experience. With that in mind, within
most classrooms, participative activities should consume a greater portion of the time
because they can prepare participants behaviorally. The object is not just to have fun,
but to maximize the effectiveness of the process. Obviously, participative activities nwd

to be chosen or planned with a purpose.

Furthermore, those planned participative activities should be followed by structured
engagement mode activities. Participants need to think about, write about, and/ or discuss
the experiences and why things happened, generalizations or conclusions that can be built
from the experience, and how those generalizations apply in outside-flie-classroom

situations.

The mistake that instructors often make is supplying information with the hope that some
day it will be applied. Without further processing, such application is fairly unlikely.
Information (through presentations, reading, and writing assignments associated with
gathering information) should be used to inform the action. However, that action should
be planned action, guided within the instructional experience so that there can be

immediate application and feedback. Saturating participants with information wastes time

 

 

   

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because most often it is not applied. It is better to take a few ideas, process them, and
apply them than to store up a wealth of information until the final test and then forget

most of it. (Research, as well as our own experiences, tells us that is what is most likely

to happen.)

One may get the impression from the preceding that information should be given before
the participatory activity. Instructors also need to consider the possibility of using
participative activities before presenting information rather than the other way around.
In this way, the participative activity stimulates interest in the content. The activity

motivates.

When presentations are used within an instructional setting, participants should be
mentally engaged as much as possible. This can be done through sharing of experiences,
through rhetorical questions, though audio-visual illustrations of experiences, and through

demonstrations.

Demonstrations can be used for physical skill training but also for modeling more
complex behaviors. Beyond specific demonstrations, the instructor is a continual and
powerful model. The instructor can and does influence participants by demonstrating
effective leadership, organization, empathy and understanding, cooperation, and
facilitation of group activities. Conscious use of that modeling role will enhance

classroom effectiveness.

Writing assignments are most effective for behavioral change when they require reflective
thinking about experiences or about content rather than simply collecting and compiling
information. However, participants need to be taught what to think about. When dealing

 

172

with content, reflective writing about application is appropriate. In the case of reflective
writing about experiences, participants need to learn to think about what happened, why
it happened, the generalizations that can be built, and how those can be applied. While
internally most people learn from their experiences (as in experiential learning), helping
participants to consciously work through the process will enhance the likelihood of
behavioral change. (For this researcher, it was not until mid-life that he consciously

began this process.)

Those same topics or issues are the essential components of good discussions, which have
been previously identified as a critical part of the follow-up process to participative
activities, as well as to presentations, reading assignments, and writing assignments.
They are also important after assignments requiring active involvement as the means to
develop additional conclusions and plans for action and to give feedback. In each of

these situations, the emphasis is on the content of the discussion.

However, it is also appropriate to think of discussions as participative activities in which
the process is more critical than the content. When the process of discussion is meant
to be more influential than the content of the discussion, it is appropriate to vary the
nature of the discussion and thereby expose participants to various uses. For example,
discussion can be used to analyze and solve problems, plan group activities, debate, and

brainstorm.

Finally, workshops often make use of one of the most powerful types of instructional
activities, namely, participative activities. However, workshops often lack an assignment
component and therefore miss the opportunity to solidify the behavioral change process
begun in the classroom. Guided follow-up assignments which require physical

 

 

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involvement would enhance application tremendously.

Meanwhile, regular college classes often have an assignment component. Instructors are
therefore in a position to use a greater percentage of assignment time in assignments
requiring active involvement. If they did, they would be making use of their most
powerful tool for influencing behavioral change.

REFLECTIONS

The following section of this chapter contains the thoughts of the researcher in two
categories: the research process and the content. The thoughts and ideas expressed
contain conjecture which has been stimulated by this research. The portion containing

reflections on the content will lead into the suggestions for further research.

REFLECTIONS ON THE RESEARCH PROCESS

In many ways, the research process went remarkably well. Each step was done
sequentially, at a pace the systems would allow. The anticipated time period was
extended due to numerous delays. For example, getting the names of graduates from one
program took several weeks instead of days because graduates in the program studied had
to be separated from all other graduates by hand.

The response rate to the questionnaires was generally good, just under 40%. However,

it was extremely low in two cases. Those two were programs in bigger schools and the

 

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cover letters were written by deans. It is this researcher’s conjecture that both of those
factors had their effect. Bigger programs may create less affinity to the program, school,
and personnel. Most graduates in all likelihood had never met the dean who wrote the
letter. The program which had the highest response rate (almost 78 96) was small and
intimate. The (former) director, who was also an instructor, wrote the cover letter. In
another case where the response rate was almost 50% , an instructor who was very

involved in the program signed the cover letter.

Probably 35-50% of the respondents to the questionnaire ignored the ”deadlines” in the
cover letter and follow-up letter which were meant to encourage subjects not to put the
questionnaire aside for too long. Responses were still received weeks after expected.
While deadlines are still recommended, it is no doubt wise to plan for considerable delay

within one’ s timeliness.
Computers are amazing, and so are the people who program them and know how to use
them. Once the data was entered, it took only seconds to process all the data in this

research project. (Figuring out the printout took considerably longer.)

A supportive and knowledgeable dissertation advisor is a blessing.

REFLECTIONS ON THE CONTENT

This section incorporates additional researcher insights on the topic of instructional
activities as they relate to behavioral change. References are made to various authors

cited in chapter 2, where considerably more detail can be found.

 

 

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There are obvious differences between learning through experience and learning through
symbols (or through information processing). Yet, those differences may not be well-
understood. Furthermore, the implications of using each of the methods may be even

less understood.

This researcher has heard some say: "The task of trainers is to give people the
information and insight upon which to perform differently. One can’t perform differently

without new insight. "

It is true that people can change actions based on insight and information (as several
interviewees noted in this study). However, it is also possible for people to change their
own performance or be changed because they have been given additional experiences (as
other interviewees attest). In fact, it is more effective to change one’s performance
through experiential training (as this research strongly suggests). How often haven’t we
listened to impressive new ideas, but then done nothing with them? This is quite typical;

it happens frequently. (Resnik and Klopfer, 1989, Stadsklev, 1974)

It is also possible that experiences may not change behaviors, but apparently they are
more powerful in affecting change for the amount of time spent. What is the basis for

this seemingly powerful effect?

Is it possible that the reason behavioral change is more likely through experiential
processes because one absorbs the experience through all his/her senses? Edgar Dale
suggests that. (Dale, 1969) Several interviewees seemed to corroborate that viewpoint.
In sensory—participative activities, the mind isn’t necessarily engaged as in thinking, but
the brain is certainly engaged as it carries the body through the activity and as it stores

sensory input.

 

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3‘“ beyond that, when one learns through experience, he/she is grasping that experience,
in a sense, with his/her whole being. He/She is grasping the experience with his/her
mind, body (through all the senses), heart (center of attitudes and values), and spirit
(center of motivation). It may be this combination of factors in the whole-being
experience which affects behavior because new behavior has many components. It
doesn’t seem as if one can describe behavior apart from motivation and motivation apart
from the spirit. Nor can we separate behavior from attitudes and values which guide the
actions. No matter how well one can do something, if the motivation to do it or a value

or attitude to direct an action isn’t present, the action is unlikely.

Or does the impact of experiential learning go beyond total involvement of mind, body,
heart, and spirit? Is involvement more likely to change people because the activity
enables them to experience compatibility, low complexity, relative advantages,
trialability, and observability (the desirable characteristics of innovations), which thus

builds persuasion into the method? (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971)

Or does experiencing simply give the mind a track on which to run? Experiencing is
said to be a direct guide to acting again in a same or similar situation. The individual
can often perform and will often vary the performance slightly through internal feedback
mechanisms, but may not be able to explain what he/she has done. (Stadsklev, 1974,
and Keeton, 1976) Kolb would explain this as intuitive behavior, action which is a direct
result of the internal learning from previous actions. (Kolb, 1984) An example of this
is the person who has learned through life experiences that it doesn’t usually work too
well to tell someone that his/her viewpoint is wrong. This person may intuitively avoid
telling someone he/she is wrong, but may not verbally state that as a principle by which

he/she interacts or functions.

 

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Perhaps people learn from experiences because they very naturally reflect on their

experiences, which helps them to understand the particular situation, to build
generalizations, and to act in new situations. Perhaps this is done subconsciously;
perhaps it’s done at a low level of consciousness. The subconscious process would no
doubt lead to intuitive action. The conscious process can lead to action based on rational
thought. Research has shown that conscious reflection on experiences can enhance the
process of using experiences to modify actions. Furthermore, such conscious reflection
makes it less likely that an experience will simply be an experience that is repeated
without modification. (Stadsklev, 1974, and Keeton, 1976)

Finally, there’s another possibility for the effect of experiential learning. Is it
particularly powerful because of the built-in reinforcement? A number of interviewees
cited that as the rationale for its effect. Positive reinforcement certainly affects

motivation and enhances the likelihood of repeated action.

Each of those ideas may in some way explain the effectiveness of experiential activities
in influencing behavioral change. Fach was in some way cited or alluded to by those
interviewed in this research. There are obviously multiple reasons for the effectiveness

of sensory-participative mode activities.

What is less obvious or less evident is the use of sensory-participative activities in many
instructional programs. In our society, we have indeed valued the experiential form of
learning in many areas of endeavor. We have learned how vital it is to performance.
We train tradespeople through a systematic process of apprenticeships. We train airplane
pilots through simulators and actual practice under the helpful supervision of an expert.
We train doctors through internships and residencies where they watch professionals,

work under others’ observations, and discuss and problem solve with experienced people.

 

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In each case the training process is highly experiential. (Keeton, 1976) We’ve learned
to help former drug and alcohol abusers prevent relapses to former destructive actions
by getting them involved in problem solving (analyzing past experiences and in applying
conclusions to new situations) and giving feedback. (Daley, 1989)

Yet in some other fields of endeavor, people sometimes assume that learners can learn
to perform simply by being given information (or information and understanding). For
example, learners are being told how to carry out various functions on a computer;
others are being told how to complete a sale. Lectures on writing and problem solving
are common. Time management and stress management classes are often filled with
words of wisdom that will never be applied. People are told to pray, to give their
problems to the Lord, to study the scriptures, and to give themselves to the Lord. But
how can anyone do any of these without being led through the experience if they don’t

have the experience with which to understand the words?

The person who is taught or trained through information processing has the difficulty of
putting the words which he/ she has only heard and or seen in writing into action, as Carl
Rogers personally and the Johns-Hopkins researchers discovered. (M. Miller, 1960, and
Keeton, 1976) In most cases, the mind is the only part of the being that is involved in
that process. The person, using the mind, can often recite (or recite) the information
or principle but often cannot translate that directly into action. For example, the
salesperson who is told to get the potential buyer to say "yes" to a series of questions so
that the buyer will be more ready to say "yes" when asked to buy will no doubt be able
to repeat that instruction, but he/ she probably will not be able to implement it based only

on that instruction.

There are really two major problems with the information processing mode of learning.

 

179

We first is the difficulty we have with grasping meaning from the words that are spoken
or Written. For example, what is a "hypostat coil?" If one doesn’t know, he/she has
difficulty grasping any instruction about it. What does it mean to tighten something until

it is "moderately tight?" What does it mean to ”get the person to feel comfortable?"

We can, in most cases, only grasp the implication or meaning of words and phrases if
we have had experience with them. The word "happy" means something to most people.
However, the internalized meaning of "happy" is dependent on one’s own experience to
which he/she has applied the word "happy." In growing up, adults often say things such
as: "Aren’t you happy that grandma and grandpa took you to the zoo?" It is through
those experiences that we relate "happy” with a certain internal feeling. But, as can be

seen, the meaning is very personalized.

However, there are other words which have not yet been attached to internalized
meaning. Can one really know the full meaning of the words "drug-induced euphoria"
if he/she hasn’t experienced one? Most people can probably grasp the meaning of "lift
your leg" (through experience), but can they "engage in kreoso?" They probably can’t
because they have no experience upon which to base their comprehension of the word

"kreoso. "

Likewise, one’s ability to function in response to any of the following commands is
limited first by his/her understanding of the words, and that is limited by his actual

experience with the words (or the actions that they represent):

peel the apple throw the ball
sit yoga style read the article
set up the display boil the water

solder the copper pipe fitting disengage the disk drive

 

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reprogram the computer fly the airplane
plan a marketing strategy repair the transmission
design a torque converter build a sand castle

At the very least, to get beyond simply words, a learner needs to see a demonstration of
an action or actually be guided through the process in order to grasp the meaning. Yet

"grasp the meaning" does not equate with the ability to do.

This is really the second problem with the information processing mode of learning or
the recipient mode. The concept in one’s brain is not readily turned into action or
performance. Understanding the terminology does not equate with the capability to do.
(Stadsklev, 1974, Keeton, 1976, and Resnik and Klopfer, 1989)

There are many things presenters can do to make verbal presentations more effective.
Probably the most effective speakers or presenters are those who can get their audiences
to visualize life situations and to think about the application of their information to those
life situations. As a couple of interviewees indicated, the most powerful aspect of a
presentation is the revelation of experience. When an instructor shares an experience,
he/she helps the learner translate symbols into reality or helps the learner visualize the
action. The learner can no doubt form practical generalizations more readily from an

instructor’s experiences than from abstract symbols.

Ideally, as Carl Rogers said, information contains the accumulated wisdom of society.
(M. Miller, 1960) It therefore needs processing as experience, and not simply as

information.

Even with that, however, verbal presentations are less likely to influence behavioral

change. It is vital for instructors to recognize that action has many components. Action

 

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is not only dependent on knowing something. Most actions have a cognitive component
(knowledge and understanding), an affective component (attitudes and values), a
psychomotor component (physieal skill), and a motivational component. As Daley
summarized: ”[A new behavior] involves developing new attitudes, motivations,

knowledge and skills.“ (Daley, p. 10)

For example, driving a ear successfully has components in all four categories. The
following is not an exhaustive list, it simply shows the four component parts of

performance (behaviors or actions).

cognitive:
where to stick in the key
which pedals are used for what
the meaning of the traffic signs
affective:
respect for the lives of others
respect for traffic laws
cooperativeness
psychomotor:
ability to physically turn a steering wheel
ability to press pedals
ability to turn one’s body to look in different directions

motivational:

a desire to drive successfully

Information processing does not usually affect all four of those necessary ingredients in

     

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action, Even where physical skill is not required, as in planning or preparing a speech

or selling a product or sensing another’s feelings, the component parts which go into that
action cannot be taught simply through information processing. The individual must
experience the action, either through direct mental or physical action or through mental

rehearsal of an action.

It may appear that there are exceptions. Some presentations may be motivational. While
the speaker may not directly affect the participants’ actions and capabilities, the speaker
may inspire actions of which the participants are already capable. As Cunningham
discovered, if similar actions were learned previously, one can apply new understanding

to guide oneself into new forms of activity. (Cunningham, 1989)

Consistent with that, while the sample for this part of the research was small, the results
suggest that presentations are more likely to affect motivation than capabilities, i.e. ,
presentations can motivate a person to do something he/ she is already capable of doing.
(On the other hand, experiential activities are more likely to affect capabilities or to

enable a person to perform in areas where there has been little previous experience.)

Another apparent exception is the speaker who is able to motivate the participants to try
something new (with which they have not previously had experience). When the
participants do try that something, more than likely it is the experience which results in
new learning. In this case it is the speaker who instigates the action, yet it is in

experimenting (experiencing) that the person learns.

That interaction between types of instructional activities is desirable. Activities should

be blended and intertwined in the instructional experience.

 

 

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For research purposes, one might hope that activities would be more separated, but the
distinction is not always so clearcut. Certain instructional activities, such as simulations,
role plays, demonstrations with practices, or problem solving activities, may seem to be
totally experiential, but they are often followed by summary presentations or discussion.
On the other hand, presentations may incorporate elements which this researcher has
listed as experiential. For example, problem solving may be incorporated into a

presentation, as in rhetorical questions.

Again, this blending is desirable. Every type of instructional activity has some
usefulness. Yet as instructors consider their options, they should incorporate significant
amounts of sensory-participative (experiential) activities. After all, it is not at all
unexpected that people who reflect on the circumstances or events which have instigated
behavioral changes in their lives would identify an experience rather than a presentation

as that stimulator. Experiences are a very natural form of learning.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This research project and the earlier reflections lead to numerous thoughts for additional

research.

1. As this project was being developed, considerable thought was given to
comparing programs or the participants in the programs on most of the questions
in the study. This would be a mammoth project, but it would no doubt produce

interesting insights.

2. There is a wealth of information to be gained through further interviews similar

 

184

to those done within this project. More interviews would expand the data base
and solidify the conclusions. Deeper interviews may help explain even better the

relationship between behavioral change and the instructional activity.

. There are many possibilities for more detailed studies using interviews. For
example, participants who identify classroom participative activities as effective
can be asked to focus on a specific class and the specific participative activities
within it as they talk about effect.

. This research uncovered potential differences in activities within the major types,
e. g. , within assignments requiring active involvement. Exploration of those
differences and their effect on behaviors would further clarify what activities are

most effective.

. While there are disadvantages of trying to be too finite in describing activities,
separating the classroom instructional activities into four types (by breaking
presentations into two parts) would help pinpoint the strengths of various kinds

of presentations.

. Very few interviewees clearly stated their learning process in a pattern similar
to that described by David Kolb or the Johns-Hopkins research. Can participants

be trained to use that process more effectively?

. This research looked at self-reported behavioral changes. Tracking the origin

of observed behavioral change would be interesting and informational.

 

185

FINAL THOUGHTS

It has been the purpose of this research project to explore the complex connection
between personal behavioral change and the instructional activities which fostered that
change. While the new insights have perhaps not been dramatic, this researcher believes
that they have added to the current understanding of behavioral change. It is hoped that
in some way this project will give impetus to improved instruction both in educational

and training settings.

Given the complex mix of variables which affect behavioral change, it is no doubt wise
to say with Arthur Chickering: "There is no single ideal model for teaching and
learning, no magic mix applicable to diverse students, purposes, and institutions. But
there are many chances to miss even a reasonably sound approach. A better
understanding of some general principles, practical guidelines, and basic problems may

be timely for a wide range of persons . . . ." (Chickering, p. 13)

 

APPENDIX A

Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience

viSUOI symbol,
Recordings Radio

5"” Picture!

Motion Futures

Educational
Television

Demonstrations
D'WNDDircd Expericnw‘

Centrived Experiences

Di'e” Purposeiul Experiente‘

 

(Dale, 1969)

186

 

APPENDIX B

Exhibit 1

QUESTIONNAIRE

Part 1
As indicated in the cover letter, you were identified as having completed an instructional
program at (college/university) . It is that instructional program that I would like you to
think about as you complete this questionnaire.

Please respond to each of the following questions by circling the appropriate response.

1. When you enrolled in the program you identified above, to what extent did you desire to
change your behaviors or actions?

not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot

2. To what extent did you anticipate changes in your behaviors or actions when you enrolled
in that program?

not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot

3. To what extent did you anticipate changes in your attitudes or values?
not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot

4. To what extent did you anticipate changes in your knowledge or understanding?
not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot

5. Looking back at your educational program identified above, to what extent did you change
your actions or behaviors as a result of the program?

not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot
6. To what extent did you change your attitudes or values?
not at all a little somewhat quite a bit a lot
7. To what extent did you change your knowledge or understanding?

not at all a little somewhat quiteabit a lot

187

 

188

page 2
Part 2
Please think about the contrast between your life before your involvement in your instructional

program and your present life. Try to identify things you do differently as a result of your
instructional experience, especially those that are most significant.

 

Examples:

I use a computer more as a data base.

I lead groups more often.

I visit hospitalized people.

I engage more people in decision making.

I pray more.

I teach more creatively.

I talk to people more and generally associate with others more.
I plan activities with greater care.

I develop eye-catching PR for events.

 

 

 

List below several specific actions or behaviors that are new or modified from what you did
before you were engaged in your instructional program. (Write them in a form similar to the
examples above. Ignore the little boxes for now.)

DDDDDDD
DDEIEIDDD

If you have written more than five changes, please identify the five that you consider to be the
most significant by putting an "*" in front of them.

 

 

189

page 3

Please think about what initiated and fostered the change process for you in each of the
behavior changes you identified. What was it that most stimulated or affected your adoption of
a new or modified behavior?

Listed below in a-f are six main categories of activity typically associated with an instructional
program.

a. classroom presentations by the instructor or others, including lecture, visual aids, films
or videotapes, and demonstrations

b. classroom discussions and/or reflective thinking

c. classroom participative activities such as role play, simulation, practice session, or real-
life experience

d. reading assignments
6. reports or writing assignments, particularly ones which required thinking or reflecting

f. assignments which required you to physically do something or get actively involved in
something, such as organizing a group or conducting an interview or completing a project

g. other (Please indicate what it was.)

h. can’t identify

Please identify the one category of activity which had the greatest influence on each of the
behavioral changes you identified on the previous page. In some cases, two types of activity may
be very close in their effect, but you need to choose the one that had the greatest effect on your
changes of behavior.

To record your choice, put the letter associated with the type of activity listed above in the
left-hand box in front of the five changes you identified on page 2. Then return to this page
and the next set of instructions.

Please think about the newness of the behaviors you identified compared to what you were
doing before your instructional experience. How new is each? Using the following code, put
the number corresponding to your choice in the right-hand box in front of each of the
changes of behavior you identified on page 2.

1 very new 2 quite new 3 somewhat new 4 slightly new

 

 

page 4

Part3

Please respond to the following questions by entering a number in each blank.

1. The first three types of activities identified below are classroom related. As you think back
to all classroom activities in your instructional program, what percentage of time in all
courses combined fit into each category? (The three should total 100%.)

_ classroom presentations by the instructor or others, including lecture, visual aids, films
or videotapes, and demonstrations

_ classroom discussions and/or reflective thinking

_ classroom participative activities such as role play, simulation, practice session, or real-
life experience

2. The next three types of activities identified below are non-classroom learning activities. What
percentage of your non-classroom learning time was spent in each? (Again the three should
total 100% unless there were other major categories.)

_ reading assignments

_ reports or writing assignments, particularly ones which required
thinking or reflecting

_ assignments which required you to physically do something or get actively involved in
something, such as organizing a group or conducting an interview or completing a
project

_ other (Please indicate what it was.)

 

191

page S

Part4

Please circle the appropriate response to each of the following questions.

1.

Did you seek the instructional program in which you were engaged voluntarily or were you
an involuntary learner, compelled by some organization or individual?

voluntarily non-voluntarily
What was your age when you completed the program of studies?
23 or younger 24—65 66 or older
While you were in this program, did you at any time stay in an on—campus dormitory for a
full term?
yes no
During the greatest part of your program, would you consider yourself a part-time or full-

time student?
part-time full-time

If you are willing to help further with this research project through a phone interview, please
indicate your willingness below.

_ I am willing to be interviewed by phone.

_ I do not want to participate further in this research.

If you have indicated that you are willing to participate further, please list below your phone
number and the best times to reach you.

Your name

 

Telephone number where you can be reached 1 -
Circle the best days to reach you. S M T W Th F S

What are the best times of the day to reach you for a 20 minute conversation?

 

Thank you very much for responding to this questionnaire. Your responses will provide
valuable insights. Please return the questionnaire within 7 days by refolding it with the
return address and stamp exposed. Seal it with the little sticker which is enclosed.

 

Appendix B

Exhibit 2
Cover Letter for Questionnaire
December 3, 1990
Dear Tony,

You are a graduate of our program here at
College.

 

As an institution of learning, we are interested in providing the optimal benefit for
students. We are always eager to achieve the goals and objectives of our programs of
study and to improve the instructional process.

We have therefore embarked on a research project together with Jim Eggert. We’d
appreciate it if you would take the time to carefully complete the enclosed questionnaire
and send it to Jim as instructed in the questionnaire.

Completing the questionnaire will take about 15-20 minutes of careful thought. The
information being gathered from this questionnaire will give us valuable information.

Participation in this research is voluntary. However, I’d like to encourage you to
proceed by looking at the questionnaire and completing it within the next 48 hours. You
indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning the
questionnaire.

Let me assure you that your responses will be confidential. We will only be describing
group data in research reports; no one will be identified in any way.

If you have any questions regarding this project, you may call Jim Eggert collect at
or write to Jim at .

 

Again, let me urge you to thoughtfully complete the questionnaire soon . . . and no later
than 7 days from now. Thanks for your anticipated reply.

Sincerely,

, Director of Research and Development

192

 

APPENDIX B

Exhibit 3

Follow-up Letter to Subjects

December 8, 1990

Dear Sandra,
You recently received a letter from Dr. about a research project in
which University and I are engaged.

 

If you have already completed the questionnaire and returned it, thank you. Your prompt
response is a tribute to your efficiency and helpfulness.

If you have not yet had the opportunity to complete the questionnaire and return it, I urge

you to do so by December 18. We can certainly get a more complete picture with more
responses.

This research project seeks to determine how graduates’ lives have been affected and
what instructional activities have been most influential. We expect that participant
responses will help upgrade instructional programs.

Again, let me express my appreciation for your support.

Sincerely,

Jim Eggert

193

 

APPENDIX C

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.1 Amount of Desired Change in Behavior Correlated with Perceived
Behavioral Change
desired behavioral change
perceived behavioral not at a little some— quite a a row
change all what bit lot total
not at all 4 1 5
a little 7 8 4 3 22
somewhat 5 8 16 9 l 39
quite a bit 8 2 20 22 9 61
a lot 7 4 8 8 8 35
column total 31 23 48 42 18 162
Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient = .31982 p< .05 (.00003)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.2 Amount of Anticipated Change in Behavior Correlated with Perceived
Behavioral Change
extent of anticipated behavior change
extent of perceived not at a some- quite a row
behavioral change all little what a lot total
bit

not at all 4 1 5
a little 3 14 4 l 22
somewhat 6 10 19 3 1 39
quite a bit 5 8 26 17 5 61
a lot 3 8 11 7 6 35
column total 21 41 6O 28 12 162

Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient = .37570 p< -05 (00000)

194

 

 

 

195

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.3 Amount of Anticipated Change in Attitudes and Values Correlated
with Perceived Change in Attitudes and Values
extent of perceived change
in attitudes and values
extent of desired changes not at a some— quite a row
in all little what a lot total
attitudes and values bit
not at all 13 4 4 7 l 29
a little 3 20 13 9 9 54
somewhat 6 17 19 l l 5 3
quite a bit 1 5 9 4 19
a lot 1 2 4 7
column total 16 31 4O 46 29 162
Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient = .44401 p< .05 (.00000)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.4 Amount of Anticipated Change in Knowledge and Understanding
Correlated with Perceived Change in Knowledge and Understanding
extent of perceived change
in knowledge and understanding
extent of anticipated a some— quite a row
change in knowledge little what a lot total
and understanding bit
not at all 1 l
a little 2 2 2 6
somewhat 4 8 7 5 24
quite a bit 1 11 36 27 75
a lot 3 10 43 56
column total 7 22 56 77 162
Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient = .46003 p< -05 £00000)

 

Table 6.5
Behavioral Change

196

 

Type of Instructional Activity Correlated with "Newness” Rating of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

type of instructional activity very quite some- slightly
new new what new
new

classroom presentations of all kinds 17 37 18 7
21.52 46.84 22.78 8.86

discussions and/or reflective thinking 9 30 29 12
11.25 37.50 36.25 15.00

.1 classroom participative activities 15 41 42 16
13.16 35.96 36.84 14.04

reading assignments 4 6 12 4
15.38 23.08 46.15 15.38

reports or writing assignments 20 17 15 6
34.48 29.31 25.86 10.34

assignments requiring active involvement 35 38 38 16
27.56 29.92 29.92 12.60

other 9 6 5 5
36.00 24.00 20.00 20.00

can’t identify 4 6 4 3
H 23.53 35.29 23.53 17.65

 

 

 

chi square = 34.5

p< .05

 

 

197

Table 6.6 Combined Instructional Activities Correlated with "Newness" Ratings of

Behavioral Change

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

type of instructional activity very quite some- slightly
new new what new
new
classroom presentations of all 21 43 30
kinds with reading assignments
20.00 40.95 28.57
discussions and/or reflective 29 47 44
thinking with reports or writing
assignments 21.01 34.06 31.88
classroom participative activities 50 79 80 32
with assignments requiring active
involvement 20.75 32.78 33.20 13.28
other 9 6 5 5 N'
95. 0f
36.00 24.00 20.00 20.00 row: 5
can’t identify 4 6 4 3 E: IN 3
23.53 35.29 23.53 17.65 :‘ frow'
chi square = 44.8 p< .05

198

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.7 Percentage of Classroom Time Presentations Were Used
Classroom presentation by the instructor or others, including lecture, visual aids, films or
videotapes, and demonstrations
program number of mean range standard
responses deviation
1 10 62.0000 20-90 24.6306
2 15 33.3333 10-80 20.4997
3 19 38.4211 20-70 13.9496
4 49 44.6122 10-80 16.4188
5 22 43.0909 20-85 16.7813
6 5 66.0000 50-85 13.8744
7 22 48.6364 10-85 21.5573
8 18 76.9444 50-95 10.9999
combined 160 48.5562 10-95 21.1267
Table 6.8 Percentage of Classroom Time Discussions Were Used
Classroom discussion and/or reflective thinking
program number of mean range standard
responses deviation
1 10 22.5000 5-50 13.7941
2 15 38.6667 1560 12.3153
3 19 35.0000 20—60 11.1803
4 49 28.4898 10-50 9.6720
5 22 34.7273 10-70 13.7570
6 5 12.0000 5-25 7.5829
7 22 28.6364 5-70 16.6320
8 18 15.0556 1-40 10.3496
combined 160 28.6937 1-70 133696

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.9

199
Percentage of Classroom Time Participative Activities Were Used

 

 

classroom participative activities such as role play, simulation, practice session, or real-

life experience

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

program number of mean range standard
responses deviation

1 10 15.5000 5-50 16.2361

2 15 28.0000 5-45 12.3635

3 19 26.5789 5-50 9.7258

4 49 26.8367 10-75 14.2190

5 22 23.0909 5-60 13.7734

6 5 22.0000 5-30 10.3682

7 22 22.7273 5-50 12.1231

8 18 8.0000 0-20 4.6273
combined 160 22.8562 0—75 13.6763
Table 6.10 Percentage of Outside-Classroom Time Consumed with Reading Assignments
reading assignments

program number of mean range standard
responses deviation

1 10 66.0000 50-90 13.7032

2 15 29.6667 10—50 12.1964

3 19 33.6842 20-60 11.1607

4 49 36.5918 10-75 14.0162

5 22 38.5455 10-75 18.4874

5 5 44.0000 20-70 18.1659

7 22 40.0000 10-70 17.0434
8 18 37.6111 10-65 15.2552
combined 160 38.5187 10-90 165510

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

200
Table 6.11 Percentage of Outside-Classroom Time Consumed with Reports or Writing

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assignments
reports or writing assignments, particularly ones which required thinking or reflecting

program number of mean range standard
responses deviation

1 10 21.9000 7-30 6.3849

2 15 41.3333 25-60 10.6010

3 19 47.0000 30-60 9.9944

4 49 35.4694 15-60 11.0097

5 22 36.7273 10-60 14.2901

6 5 28.0000 10—50 14.4049

7 22 40.2273 20-80 15.7720

8 18 48.6111 25-85 19.0051
combined 160 38.6125 7-85 14.4636

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6.12 Percentage of Outside-Classroom Time Consumed with Active Involvement

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assignments
assignments which required you to physically do something or get actively involved in
something, such as organizing a group or conducting an interview or completing a project
program number of mean range standard
responses deviation
1 10 12.1000 3-30 9.8821
2 15 29.0000 0-60 17.1339
3 19 18.4211 2-50 12.0200
4 49 26.4898 10-50 9.7684
5 22 23.7143 5-70 18.6471
6 5 16.0000 5-30 10.8397
7 22 19.3727 5-50 14.5959
8 18 11.6111 2-40 10.5225
combined 160 _ 21.5472 0-70 14-0427

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

201
Table 6.13 Percentage of Outside-Classroom Time Consumed with Other Kinds of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assignments
other
program number of mean range standard
responses deviation
1 10 0.0000 0-0 0.0000
2 15 0.0000 00 0.0000
3 19 0.8500 0—12 2.8521
4 49 1 . 1224 0-25 4.5945
5 22 0.6667 0—15 3.0598
6 5 12.0000 060 26.8328
7 22 0.4545 0-10 2.1320
8 18 2.2778 0-25 6.2196
combined 160 1 .2209 0-60 5.9203

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX D

Exhibit 1

NUMBER OF QUESTIONNAIRES SENT AND COMPLETED

Four hundred ninety questionnaires were sent. The number per institution fluctuated

slightly due to the number of graduates between 1984 and 1989.

Sixty—eight questionnaires were returned by the post office as undeliverable. In most
cases, the person had moved and left no forwarding address or the forwarding order had
expired. Other questionnaires which were returned by the post office with a forwarding
address were sent to the new address. Four hundred twenty-two questionnaires are thus

presumed to have reached graduates.

One hundred sixty-seven of the 422 questionnaires were completed and returned to the

researcher. That is a response rate of 39.57%.
The number of questionnaires sent, returned as undeliverable, received by the researcher,

and the percentage of those presumed to have reached graduates which were received by

the researcher is as follows:

202

 

203

Table 6.14 Number of Questionnaires Sent and Returned

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

program number returned by returned percent
sent post office completed completed
as not by of those
deliverable participants delivered
1 65 10 12 21.81
2 65 11 15 27.78
3 65 5 20 33.33
4 63 0 49 77.78
5 65 16 24 48.98
6 65 14 7 13.73
7 60 5 22 40.00
8 42 7 18 51.43
Totals 490 68 167 39.57

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

As noted in chapter 4, four of the questionnaires were returned by individuals who were
23 or younger when they graduated. These four were not used because the respondents

were not non-traditional students.

 

f:

A

s-g

 

APPENDIX D

Exhibit 2

BEHAVIORS AS DESCRIBED BY PARTICIPANTS

In part 2 of the questionnaire, participants were instructed: "List below several specific
actions or behaviors that are new or modified from what you did before your were
engaged in your instructional program. " In the questionnaire, nine examples were given
with prominent action verbs, e.g., lead, visit, talk, plan, develop. Most of the

participant responses were written as actions or behaviors. However, some were not.

A careful analysis was made of each listed "action" or “behavior." Since the emphasis
of this project was behaviors, any references to knowledge, understanding, attitude, or
feeling were eliminated. For example, "I am more confident" was rejected. Confidence

may certainly affect behaviors, but is not a behavior in itself.

There was a fine line drawn. All examples which were close to the line on either side

(rejection or acceptance) were written out and compared. As they were marked for

rejection or acceptance, there was constant check for consistency.

204

 

205

Some items referred to awareness, knowledge, or understanding and not behaviors. The

following items listed by participants as ”actions" or "behaviors" were rejected for that

reason I

I am more aware of values. . .

I have learned more about myself, improving my weaknesses and
emphasizing my strengths.

I’m more knowledgeable about conducting research.

I understand business inner—workings much better.

I learned to understand the behaviors of other people more.
gained greater perception

I understand group dynamics more acutely.

Others which referred to feelings or attitudes were rejected:

I feel very comfortable.

I have more self-confidence.

I have more empathy.

I have a desire to make a difference in my home church.

I have greater confidence in teaching.

I have a greater understanding and appreciation for God’s word.
I tend to appreciate the knowledge others have now.

more interest internationally

much less intimidated by people in authority

more at ease in sharing my faith

more comfortable speaking to groups

I enjoy working in the church now.

I am more at ease dealing with people I don’t know.

confidence in teaching methods

I am interested in other’s reports and research.

I am not as intimidated by "negative” or critical discussion of points.

Others which referred to a position or state of being were rejected. They do not indicate

the participant is doing any particular action.

I am an excellent writer.

I am now unemployed.

I am employed.

I am a much better advisor.

 

 

 

206

The following are some borderline statements accepted as behaviors because each seems
to imply an action or behavior:

I am able to deal with subordinates at work.

I was able to start my own company.

I have more team involvement.

I am less legalistic.

I am better at organization.

I have a deeper prayer life.

I’m more outgoing and relaxed among my peers.
I’m more assertive with others.

I am more selective in what I volunteer for.

Some that referred to a feeling or attitude were accepted because they applied that feeling
to an action:
0 I approach my job with greater confidence.

0 I’m not afraid to say what I think.

Some used words that bordered on feelings but seemed to use them in an action sense.

These were accepted:
0 I am more patient when expecting changes in people or process.
0 I am more sensitive to others’ needs.
0 more responsive to the needs of adults

Others were very clearly behaviors, written in a form similar to the examples:

I utilize my time more efficiently.

I talk to people more.

Engage more pe0ple in decision making process

I handle conflict better.

I am serving more in the church.

I assess situations more thoroughly.

I read God’s word more.

plan meetings - large and small

I more confidently tackle situations that previously I would have avoided.
I’ve improved my facilitation skills.

APPENDUK D

Exhibit 3

 

"OTHER" INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES

In part 2 of the questionnaire, participants were asked to report which of six primary

types of instructional activities had the greatest influence on each of the behavioral

changes they identified. In addition to the six types, they were allowed to indicate

"other" or "can’t identify."

In the original tabulation of responses, based precisely on what participants reported,

the number of responses in each category and the percentage of responses in each

category was as follows:

Table 6.15 Original Responses of Behavioral Changes Attributed to Each Type

of Instructional Activity

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

type of instructional activity frequency percentage
classroom presentations of all kinds * 80 14.95
discussions and/or reflective thinking 80 14.95
classroom participative activities 111 20.75
reading assignments 26 4.86
reports or writing assignments 57 10.65
assignments requiring active involvement 128 23.93
other 35 6.54
can’t identify 18 3.36

 

207

 

 

 

208

Participants were asked to indicate what "other" was. Some did that; others did not.

The following are some explanations of ”other" written by participants:

care and concern profs showed me
personal spiritual growth

being an adult learner

class devotions and prayer times
self-designed sabbatical

volume of homework

in-depth study of the word of God
Holy Spirit

The explanations of the participants were reviewed carefully. Wherever the
participant’s response clearly fit the researcher’s description of one of the primary six
types of activity, the response was counted as one of the six for final analysis. Out of
the original 35 responses in the ”other” category, only ten clearly fit one of the
primary six categories. The resulting number of responses in each category and the

percentage are reported in chapter 4, under research question 3, Table 4.3.

Three "other” responses were changed to and analyzed as ”classroom participative
activities: "
0 class devotions and prayer times

0 group prayer (in class) and especially prayer partners
0 time in prayer in class

 

209

One “other“ response was changed to and analyzed as "reports or writing
assignments:"

0 written reports

Six ”other" responses were changed to and analyzed as "assignments which required
. . . active involvement"

0 clinicals (used four times by nursing students)
0 so many written assignments that had to be typed
0 in—depth study of the word of God

As indicated earlier, some participants did not explain anything after marking the
"other” category. Among those who did explain, there were numerous responses that

were similar to each other, but did not fit one of the six types of activity:

care and concern profs showed me

religious studies

getting into God’s word on a regular basis

volume of homework

being an adult learner

my age

by achieving administrative degree and being in class with administrators
self-designed sabbatical

I recently received the Lord Jesus Christ as my personal savior.

Those seem to be broad life experiences - too broad to fit the category of
"assignments which required you to physically do something or get actively involved

in something . . ." Never-the-less, they are experiences.

 

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Written permission has been received from several publishers to cite portions from works
they have published.

The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1250 N. Pitt St.,
Alexandria, VA 22314-1403, has given permission to quote portions of the following:

Resnik, Lauren B. and Leopold Klopfer (Editors). Toward the Thinking
Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1989

Dryden Press, Orlando, Florida 32887, has given permission to use portions of the
following:

Dale, Edgar. Audiovisual Methods in Teaching. (third edition) New York: The
Dryden Press, 1969

Macmillan Publishing, 866 3rd Ave. , New York, New York 10022, has given permission
to use portions of the following:

Rogers, Everett M. and F. Floyd Shoemaker. Communication of Innovations, A
Cross-Cultural Approach. New York: The Free Press (a division of Macmillan,
Inc.), 1971

Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632, has given permission to cite from the
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Kolb, David A. Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
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215

 

 

216

Bowen, Howard R. and associates. Investment in Learning: the Individual and
Social Values of American Higher Education. (first edition) San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1977

Brookfield, Stephen D. Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1986

Cross, Patricia K. Adults As Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers,
1981

Keeton, Morris T. and associates. Experiential Learning: Rationale,
Characteristics, and Assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1976

Knowles, Malcolm S. and associates. Androgogy in Action. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1984

Knox, Alan B. Helping Adults Learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers,
1986

Robinson, Dana Gaines and James C. Robinson. Training for Impact. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1989

Rosenblum, Sandra H. (Editor). Involving Adults in the Educational Process.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1985

Schlossberg, Nancy K., Ann Q. Lynch, and Arthur W. Chickering. Improving
Higher Education Environments for Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers, 1989

Many other publishers verbally indicated that written permission would not be necessary
because the quotes used constituted "fair use."

 

 

 

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