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dissertation entitled

AN INVESTIGATION OF MIDDLE-GRADE STUDENTS' COMPREHENSION
OF LOGICAL CONNECTIVES FOUND IN SIXTH- AND
EIGHTH-GRADE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS

presented by

Dorothea P. Fields

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. Teacher Education

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Dam December 7, 1992

 

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AN INVESTIGATION OF MIDDLE-GRADE STUDENTS’ COMPREHENSION
OF LOGICAL CONNECTIVES FOUND IN SIXTH- AND
EIGHTH-GRADE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS

By

Dorothea P. Fields

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfileent of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

1992

ABSTRACT

AN INVESTIGATION OF MIDDLE-GRADE STUDENTS’ COMPREHENSION
OF LOGICAL CONNECTIVES FOUND IN SIXTH- AND
EIGHTH-GRADE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS

By
Dorothea P. Fields

The three major objectives in conducting the present study were
(a) to determine whether there is a relationship between sixth- and
eighth-grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory
and their scores (”I the Reading Comprehension and Listening
Comprehension subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test
(SDRT), (b) to determine whether there is a relationship between the
frequency with which selected types of logical connectives occur in
social science textbooks and sixth- and eighth-grade students’
comprehension of these connectives and mastery of them on the
research instrument, and (c) to investigate the relationship between
the specific types of logical connectives presented and taught in
sixth and eighth graders’ English textbooks and the students’
mastery of these logical connectives on the research instrument.

To collect the data for this study, the researcher developed
the Logical Connectives Inventory, which contained six types of
logical connectives: additive, illative, causal, contrastive,

conditional, and temporal. The instrument contained gap fill-in,

 

Dorothea P. Fields

sentence completion, and multiple-choice-synonym passages. The
study population comprised 41 sixth graders and 43 eighth graders
who attended Holt, Michigan, Public Schools. They were on—grade-
level readers, according to their scores on the SDRT. Data were
analyzed using simple correlations and analysis of variance. The
significance level for all tests was set at .05. Major findings
were:

1. Sixth and eighth graders’ mean scores on the research
inventory were almost identical: 33 and 32, respectively.
Students’ performance on all six types of logical connectives was
similar, with a range of only eight percentage points from the
lowest to the highest mean percentage correct (.22 to .30).

2. One significant relationship was found-~between students’
scores on the Reading Comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their
comprehension of selected types of logical connectives in the
Logical Connectives Inventory.

3. Passages containing temporal logical connectives were the
easiest for students to respond to correctly; those containing
additive logical connectives were the most difficult for both
groups.

4. In both the sixth- and eighth-grade English textbooks, an
insignificant amount of direct instructional information was devoted

to logical connectives.

Copyright by
DOROTHEA P. FIELDS
1993

To the loving memory of my parents:

John W. and Dorothea Rosa Fields;

and

To Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist,
who lived from 1896 to 1980.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many persons have contributed invaluable support to the
completion of this dissertation. To them, I express my appreciation
and gratitude:

To Dr. Lois A. Bader, my committee chairperson, for the time,
expertise, and support she brought to this project.

To Dr. Donald Nickerson, Dr. Eugene Pernell, and Dr. Thomas
Gunnings for their faithful support and help over a long period of
time. Also, to Dr. Lonnie D. McIntyre, Dr. Roger Niemeyer, and Dr.
Arden Moon for their helpful comments, suggestions, and willingness
to give of their time.

To Dr. James Stapleton, my statistician, for his valued
assistance with data analysis.

To my typists, Joy walker, Pam Shores, and especially Susan
Cooley, who edited and typed the final revision of this manuscript.
Her friendship, support, editorial skill, and typing expertise were
much appreciated.

To Gloria Sepulveda-Vazquez, librarian at Lansing Community
College, who guided my initial research and aided me in locating
international publications.

From the three school districts that participated in this

study, I would like to thank individually:

The administrators, reading consultant Dr. Barbara Zynda,
teachers, parents, and students from MacDonald Middle School in East
Lansing, Michigan.

The administrators, teachers, parents, and students from Bath
Middle School in Bath, Michigan.

The administrators, learning consultant Janet Cochrane,
teachers, parents, and students from IL. L. Hope Middle School in
Holt, Michigan.

To my circle of devoted prayer partners who are members of East
Lansing Trinity Church, First Assembly of God, and All Saints
Episcopal Church, I wish to express my sincere appreciation for your
fervent prayers.

To all of my friends, especially Gloria Allen, Edith Dizon-
FitzSimmons, Florence Hickok, Carolyn Holdship, Chad and Faith
Gandiya, Isaac and Agatha Ihiasota, Rex and Christine Schad,
Rosemary Severance, the Smith Family-~Joyce, Allene, and Sandy, and
Lawrence and Lue Venyah.

To my family, especially my aunts, Lydia Coffee and Jean
Fields.

To my dear sister, Noel, without whose unwavering kindness and
support this dissertation would never have been completed.

Most of all, to my parents, John v. and Dorothea Rosa Fields,
whose Christian teaching inspired me to press on until the task at

hand was finished.

But they that wait upon the Lord shall renew their strength;
they shall mount up with wings as eagles; they shall run, and
not be weary; and they shall walk, and not faint.

Isaiah 40:31

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .......................

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ..............

Introduction ...................
Statement of the Problem .............
Purposes of the Study ...............
Research Questions ................
Importance of the Study ..............
Delimitations ...................
Generalizability of the Findings .........
Definition of Terms ................
Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation .

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................

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Introduction ...................
Research on Language Acquisition .........
Theories of Reading Comprehension .........
Research Findings on the Comprehension of Logical
Connectives and Conjunctions ..........
The Incidence of Logical Connectives in Textbooks .
Summary ......................
METHODOLOGY .....................
Introduction ...................
The Population and Sample Selection ........
Research Questions ................
Research Hypotheses ................
Development of the Instrument ...........
The Pre-pilot Test ...............
The First Pilot .................
The Second Pilot ................
Selection of the Logical Connectives ......
Instrument Items ................
Field Testing the Inventory ...........

Administering the Logical Connectives Inventory .

vii

Page

Content Analysis of the Social Science Textbooks . 48
Methods of Analyzing the Data ........... 48
Summary ...................... 49

IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ........ 50
Introduction ................... 50
Results of Hypothesis Testing ........... 53
Hypothesis 1 .................. 53
Hypothesis 2 .................. 58
Hypothesis 3 .................. 71

Chapter Summary ................. 73

V. MAJOR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION, COMPARISON OF THE
FINDINGS TO THOSE FROM OTHER RESEARCH, RECOM-

MENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH, AND REFLECTIONS . 74

Introduction ................... 74

Major Results and Discussion ........... 75
Comparison of the Findings to Those From Other

Research .................... 81

Recommendations for Further Research ....... 82

Reflections .................... 84

APPENDICES

A. SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES ................ 87

B. THE LOGICAL CONNECTIVES INVENTORY .......... 114

C. CORRESPONDENCE ................... 189

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ 205

viii

Table
2.1
2.2

LIST OF TABLES

Incidence of Connectives in Each Subject Area

Negin’s List of Connectives by Category, Frequency,

and Rank ......................

The 24 Logical Connectives Selected for This Study . .

Pearson Correlation Coefficients of 39 Sixth
Graders’ Scores on the Reading Comprehension
Subtest and Their Scores on the Logical

Connectives Inventory ...............

Pearson Correlation Coefficients of 39 Eighth
Graders’ Scores on the Reading Comprehension
Subtest and Their Scores on the Logical

Connectives Inventory ...............

Pearson Correlation Coefficients of 79 Sixth and
Eighth Graders’ Scores on the Reading Compre-
hension Subtest and Their Scores on the Logical

Connectives Inventory ...............

Pearson Correlation Coefficients of 39 Sixth
Graders’ Scores on the Listening Comprehension
Subtest and Their Scores on the Logical Con-

nectives Inventory .................

Pearson Correlation Coefficients of 39 Eighth
Graders’ Scores on the Listening Comprehension
Subtest and Their Scores on the Logical Con-

nectives Inventory .................

Pearson Correlation Coefficients of 83 Sixth
and Eighth Graders’ Scores on the Listening
Comprehension Subtest and Their Scores on

the Logical Connectives Inventory .........

Frequency and Percentage of Occurrence of Six Types
of Selected Logical Connectives in the Sixth-

Grade Social Science Textbook, in Rank Order . . . .

ix

Page
23

28

37

54

55

55

56

57

57

59

Comparison of Frequency of Occurrence of Six Types
of Logical Connectives in the Sixth-Grade Social
Science Textbook and Students’ Performance on
These Connectives on the Logical Connectives

Inventory .....................

Sixth Grade: List of Logical Connectives Based on
Correct Inventory Responses by Category,

Frequency, Percentage, and Rank ..........

Frequency and Percentage of Occurrence of Six Types
of Selected Logical Connectives in the Eighth-
Grade Social Science Textbook, in Rank Order .

Comparison of Frequency of Occurrence of Six Types
of Logical Connectives in the Eighth-Grade Social
Science Textbook and Students’ Performance on
These Connectives on the Logical Connectives

Inventory .....................

Eighth Grade: List of Logical Connectives Based on
Correct Inventory Responses by Category,

Frequency, Percentage, and Rank ..........

Frequency of Occurrence of Six Types of Logical
Connectives in the Sixth- and Eighth-Grade

Social Science Textbooks, in Rank Order ......

Comparison of Sixth- and Eighth-Grade Students’
Performance on the Six Selected Types of
Logical Connectives in the Logical Connec-

tives Inventory ..................

Table of Logical Connectives .............

Summary: Placement of Logical Connectives in

Science Textbooks .................

Placement of Logical Connectives in Inventory
Frequency of Logical Connectives in Inventory

Composite List of Logical Connectives Based on

Correct Inventory Responses by Percentages .....

Sixth and Eighth Grade: List of Logical Connectives
Based on Correct Inventory Responses by Category,

Frequency, Percentage, and Rank ..........

Page

61

62

64

66

66

68

71
87

90
93
99

105

A.7

A.8

A.9

Page

List of Logical Connectives Found in Sixth- and
Eighth-Grade Textbooks ............... 109

Summary: Logical Connectives Lessons in English
Textbooks ..................... 111

Composite List of Logical Connectives Based on
Correct Inventory Responses by Percentage ..... 113

xi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Introduction

In The Nation’s Report Card. Learning to Be Literate in
Mericg: Readinq. mtinq, and Reasoning, Applebee, Langer, and
Mullis (1987) emphasized that:

[The majority of young people] don’t have the critical thinking

skills we need in an economy like ours that’s based on

information and knowledge. The office, not the factory, is the
center of our working lives. The backbone of the new American
work force will be people who deal mainly with the formation

and the refinement of ideas. (p. 3)

However, most schools today are not effectively meeting the
above-mentioned challenge by teaching students skills of logic,
inference, and synthesis (Venezky, Kaestle, & Sum, 1987). Instead,
activities traditionally have focused on teaching surface
understanding (that is, the ability to comprehend quite simple text,
locate factual information, and state simple generalizations about
it). Venezky et al. found that the majority of fourth and eighth
graders in their study were able to achieve the basic reading level
needed to comprehend everyday usage of written language found in
short newspaper articles or stories (68% and 98%, respectively). On
the other hand, only 1% of the fourth graders and 13% of the eighth

graders were able to apply, appropriately, various types of

strategies needed to comprehend the more difficult text.

Local schools, even at the middle and junior high school
levels, are experiencing increasing pressure from administrators to
return to the "basics" and critical-thinking skills. The back-to-
the-basics movement emphasizes the mastery of subject matter and
intellectual acceleration, and it requires that students employ
sophisticated comprehension skills at even younger ages than in the
Sputnik era. One essential critical-thinking skill is the ability
to comprehend the various forms of logical connectives--linguistic
forms that connect words or word groups--found irI all curriculum
materials at the middle-grade levels. These semantic links are
basic to understanding the sentences or phrases that contain them
(Gleason, 1965). Thus, sixth- and eighth-grade pupils’ understand-
ing of logical connectives was the primary focus of this research.

The inability to comprehend passages containing logical
connectives is one of the most perplexing problems faced by middle-
grade students in reading their content-area textbooks. Quite
often, social science textbooks contain coordinate and subordinate
clauses with abstract meanings that are remote from those expressed
in the students’ verbal and receptive vocabularies. However,
understanding these more implicit logical connectives is essential
to comprehending higher-level reading and speech patterns because
connectives link what otherwise would be disconnected fragments of
ideas. Content-area textbooks and curriculum guides are chosen to
meet national and state standards of mastery, yet students receive

little direct help in comprehending these materials.

The types of logical connectives used in this study were those
presented in the English series for sixth through eighth grades and

in Linguistics and English Grammar (Gleason, 1965). Six specific

 

types of logical connectives were selected for examination in this
study: additive, illative, causal, contrastive, conditional, and
temporal. Each type is explained in the definition-of-terms section

at the end of this chapter.

Statement of the Problem
Considering the unprecedented effects that recent studies such
as The Nation’s Report Card (Applebee et al., 1987) and The Subtle
Danger: Reflections on the LIteracy Abilities of America’s Young

Adults; Venezky' et al., 1987), the 1983 report of' the National

 

Commission on Excellence in Education, and technological advances
since Sputnik have had on education and the acquisition of
knowledge, there is a need to gain a better understanding of the
role of logical connectives in reading comprehension. This study
was based on an earlier investigation conducted by Robertson (1968),
who found significant relationships between children’s comprehension
of logical connectives and ‘their reading abilities. Robertson
tested 402 fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade children chosen by
random stratified sampling. The children lived in the province of
Alberta, Canada; 51% lived in the city, 37% in rural areas, and 12%
in small towns. Reading, writing, and listening skills of these
children were tested, using the Connectives Reading Test, designed

SPeeifically for Robertson’s study. The test contained 150 items,

using 17 frequently occurring connectives; 85 of the items were
single-connective items and 65 were multiple-connective items. The
demographic variables of gender, mental age, chronological age, and
socioeconomic status (SES) were included in the study.

Major findings of Robertson’s study were as follows:

1. The rank order of the connectives, from simplest to most
difficult, was as follows: that, where, although, so when, yet,
because, but, if for, which, who, and however, and, and thus.

2. Children’s comprehension of connectives improved signifi-
cantly across the three grade levels.

3. The comprehension of connectives was highly related to
children’s reading abilities and the variables of gender, mental
age, and listening and writing skills.

4. The children understood the usages of relative pronouns and
coordinate-clause connectives equally well, and better than they
comprehended such sentence linkers as however and thus.

5. The most difficult connectives for students to comprehend
were however, thus, which, although, and yet.

The research discussed above indicated that comprehension of
logical connectives is a multifaceted ability. The findings of
Robertson’s study suggested that comprehension is influenced by such
factors as age, gender, and reading ability. However, few
investigators have used Robertson’s research findings to explore the

relationship between students’ comprehension of logical connectives

5

and their reading comprehension, using gap-filling, sentence-
completion, and multiple—choice techniques with testing materials
from sixth- and eighth-grade social science textbooks. The present
writer attempted to gain a better understanding of some of the
problems that logical connectives found in social science textbooks

may present to students in the sixth and eighth grades.

Purposes of the Study

The researcher’s overall purpose in this study was to identify
and examine several important elements that affect on-grade-level
readers’ comprehension of logical connectives and in) compare these
elements with other variables.

The writer had three major objectives in conducting the study:

1. To determine whether there is a relationship between sixth-
and eighth-grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives
Inventory and their scores on the Reading Comprehension and
Listening Comprehension subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading
Test (SDRT).

2. To determine whether there is a relationship between the
frequency with which selected types of logical connectives occur in
social science textbooks and sixth- and eighth-grade students’
comprehension of these connectives and mastery of them on the
research instrument.

3. To investigate the relationship between the specific types

01’ logical connectives presented and taught in sixth and eighth

graders’ English textbooks and the students’ mastery of these

logical connectives on the research instrument.

Research Questions

The following questions were posed to guide the collection of
data for this study:

1. Are students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory
related to their scores on the Reading Comprehension and Listening
Comprehension subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test
(SDRT)?

2. Is there a relationship between the frequency with which
selected types of logical connectives occur in sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ social science textbooks and 'the students’
comprehension of ‘these connectives and mastery of them on the
Logical Connectives Inventory?

3. Is there a relationship between the specific types of
logical connectives taught in sixth and eighth graders’ English
classes and the students’ mastery of these logical connectives on

the Logical Connectives Inventory?

Impgrtagge of the Study
This study is important because an attempt was made to discover
possible causes of sixth and eighth graders’ failure to comprehend
certain types of logical connectives found in their social science
textbooks. Because of apparent difficulties in perceiving syntactic

re'lationships between words in given passages, many middle-grade

students are unable to relate ideas and to understand the meanings

implied by specific logical connectives.

Delimitations

The study was delimited in the following three ways:

1. Only sixth and eighth graders who were reading on grade
level were included in the sample.

2. The logical connectives were not labeled or underlined in
the research inventory. This decision was made by the committee so
that the students’ responses to logical connectives encountered in
textbooks could be analyzed more accurately.

3. The logical connectives that the researcher selected for
study and ranked in order of frequency and complexity were delimited
to those found in one sixth-grade and one eighth-grade social

science textbook.

Generalizabilitv of the Findings

The study findings may have useful implications for the
teaching of logical connectives found in the middle-grade social
science materials used in midwestern schools. Because the sixth and
eighth graders involved in this study were attending public school
and were reading on grade level, the findings should be
generalizable to similar populations in other' midwestern public
school districts. The findings from this research are not

necessarily generalizable to remedial or advanced readers.

8

Definition of Terms

Definitions of the six types of logical connectives that were
of interest in this study are presented in this section (Quirk,
Greenbaum, Leech, & Savatvik, 1972).

Additive: Connectives that express adding or joining one con-
cept with another (e.g., in addition, even, also, moreover).

Qagsal: Connectives that signal cause-and-effect relation-
ships (e.g., because, for, as, for some reason).

Conditional: Connectives that express circumstantial or con-
tingency relationships (e.g., if, perhaps, whether, unless).

Contragive: Connectives that denote alternatives, compari-
sons, contractions, or differences (e.g., on the other hand,
however, still, instead).

Illative: Connectives that indicate one concept or thought
inferred, proved, or caused by another (e.g., therefore, 50, thus,
as a result).

Temporal: Connectives that express concepts of time (e.g.,

until, before, meanwhile, while, after).

Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation
In Chapter II, pertinent research and literature relating to
the subject of this study are reviewed. The fellowing topics are
considered: research on language acquisition, theories of reading
comprehension, research findings on the comprehension of ‘logical
connectives and conjunctions, and the incidence of logical

connectives in textbooks. In Chapter III, the design and

methodology used in this study are described. The data collected
for this research are reported and discussed in Chapter IV.
Chapter V contains the major results and discussion, a comparison of
the findings to those from other research, recommendations for

future research, and reflections.

 

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction
The review of literature is divided into four sections: (a)
research on language acquisition, (6) theories of reading
comprehension, (c) research findings on the comprehension of logical
connectives and conjunctions, and (d) the incidence of logical

connectives in textbooks.

Research on Language Acquisition

The research findings of Chomsky (1969), Vygotsky (1962),
Hurlock (1953), McCarthy (1942), Smith (1926), and Miller and Elvin
(1964) supported Robertson’s (1968) finding that children’s
comprehension of logical connectives is part of language
acquisition. Chomsky suggested that both the form and meaning of a
sentence are determined by the syntactic structures that are related
to the sentence through interpretation. This factor lends the
property of abstractness to grammatical structure. A language,
then, is a set of semantic-phonetic precepts, of sound-meaning
correlations. The correlations are determined by two syntactic
structures: surface and deep level. Deep-level structure is an
abstract representation in the mind that is not directly related to

the phonetic signal (Chomsky, 1969).

10

11

Vygotsky (1962) stated that children acquire the structure of
oral language by imitating their peers. Only later do they attach
meanings to the structures they are using. In speaking of the
relationship between thought and word, Vygotsky stated:

The relation of thought to word is not a thing but a process, a

continual movement back and forth from thought to word and from

word to thought. In that process the relation of thought to
word undergoes changes which themselves may be regarded as
development in the functional sense. Thought is not merely
expressed words; it comes into existence through them. Every
thought tends to connect something with something else, to
establish a relationship between things. Every thought moves,
grows and develops, fulfills a function, solves a problem.

. . . (p. 125)

Hurlock (1953), McCarthy (1942), and Smith (1926) discovered
that the first words children use are nouns; next are verbs, then
adjectives, followed by adverbs, which usually are acquired at
approximately one or one-and-a-half years. Prepositions and
pronouns are the last major parts of speech to appear in the child’s
language. Until the child is about two years old, nouns
predominate. At age two, the child begins to acquire more complex
parts of speech: verbs, articles, connectives, prepositions, and
pronouns. By six or seven years, the youngster is able to perceive
simple cause-and-effect relationships.

Miller and Ervin (1964) confirmed the preceding research
findings. They stated that verbal use of connectives is acquired
later than use of nouns, phrases, and verbs, such as go ball.

The findings of Palermo and Molfese’s (1972) studies of later

language acquisition were consistent with Robertson’s (1968) finding

12

that significant language development occurs from early childhood
through adolescence. They wrote:

Particular linguistic forms are not comprehended nor produced

until the underlying cognitive aspects are developed. Once

such cognitive development has occurred, the child will look to
the language for the means to express the new cognitive
structures. Examination of the language development of
children . . . indicates either that cognitive development has
not reached the point where the linguistic forms in question
have any meaning for the child or the child has not as yet
discovered the appropriate linguistic means for expressing the
meaning he does know. (p. 422)
Theories of Reading Comprehension

As early as 400 years ago, educators were concerned with
effective methods of teaching reading. During the twentieth
century, innumerable educators have conducted analyses of CH“ used
models to explain the reading process. These practitioners all have
stressed a common factor: that reading comprehension is a complex
skill. Also, most of these educators have based their theories of
reading comprehension on extensive classroom-teaching experience
and/or individual tutoring skills.

Watson (1984) developed and tested a cognitive developmental
theory of reading over a five-year period. He was interested in the
development of“ oral and reading vocabularies. Watson’s sample
included 148 middle-class Australian children, who were tested
during each of their first five years of school: kindergarten,
first, second, third, and fourth grades. The results of Watson’s
study supported the theory that some nfinimal critical level of

operational development is called on for the child to make "marked

or extended” progress in early reading. Also, a moderate level of

13

operativity was required before or during the introduction of units
of print and before more advanced reading skills, such as phonic
synthesis and sophisticated seriation of word meanings required by
sentence and paragraph comprehension. Also, Watson found the
development of operativity to be irregular and sudden, whereas
development of oral language was more stable and continuous.

Three early reading specialists were Huey (1908), Gray (1919),
and Thorndike (1917). Huey analyzed subjects’ oral responses after
they had read two moderately difficult passages. He concluded that
"silent reading is more than noiseless reading. Silent reading is
not mere non-vocal reading. It is the complex process of getting
thought from the printed page and involves an entirely new pedagogy"
(p. 359).

Gray (1919) augmented the growing number of lists and
taxonomies of reading—comprehension skills by providing his own list
of such skills:

1. To read for the purpose of giving a coherent reproduction.

2. To determine the central thought or the most important idea
of a selection.

3. To select a series of closely related points and their
supporting details.

4. To secure information which will aid in the solution of a
problem or in answering questions.

5. To gain a clear comprehension of the essential conditions
of a problem.

6. To discover new problems in regard to a topic.

14
7. To determine the lines of argument which support the point
of view of the author.
8. To determine the validity of statements. (pp. 25-26)
Thorndike’s model of reading comprehension was published in
1917. He wrote:
[Reading comprehension is] a very complex procedure, involving
a weighing of each of many elements in a sentence, their
organization in the pr0per relations to one another, the selec-
tion of certain of their connotations and the rejection of
others, and the cooperation of many forces to produce the final
response.
Thorndike found that, even when readers understood the meanings of
individual words or phrases in a given paragraph, a number of them
continued to answer questions incorrectly. This led him to analyze
the types of errors being made. As a result of his investigation,
Thorndike concluded that many readers were unable to unite the
various concepts expressed in a paragraph and to give single words
or separate word groups the appropriate importance in relation to
one another. The following quotations summarize his findings:
Understanding a . .. . printed paragraph is . . . a matter of
habits, connections, mental bonds, but these have to be
selected from so many others, and given weights so delicately,
and used together in so elaborate an organization that "to
read" means "to think" as truly as does "to evaluate" or "to
invent" or ”to demonstrate” or "to verify." (p. 114)
Understanding a paragraph is like solving a problem in
mathematics. It consists in selecting the right elements of
the situation and putting them together in the right relations,
and also with the right amount of weight or influence or force
for each. (p. 323)
Simons (1971) reviewed, analyzed, and rejected much of the
traditional literature on reading comprehension because it lacked a

theorist basis, which he stressed as an essential element in

15

understanding the psycholinguistic processes of reading
comprehension. He stated that reading comprehension is both process
and product:

Process is the mental operations which take place in the

reader’s head while he is reading. . . . The products . . . are
the behaviors produced after comprehension has taken place,
such as answer[ing] . . . test questions. (p. 338)

Simons contrasted the results of many investigations of both
"good" and "poor” comprehenders. He summarized his findings as
follows: Poor' comprehenders concentrate (n1 decoding words
separately and thus lose the meaning of relationships between words.
Further, he wrote:

If poor comprehenders were not gaining some meaning from text,

the following results from other studies would be

unexplainable: (I) 90 percent of the uncorrected reading
errors made by both skill groups conformed to the meaning of
text (Weber, 1970); and (2) poor comprehenders made more
decoding errors on emotional than on neutral passages (Cromer &

Wiener, 1969). (p. 339)

On the other hand, good comprehenders apparently "scan for meaning."
They simultaneously concentrate on phrase-size units while looking
ahead. Thus, “reading comprehension requires an active, attentive,
and selective reader who, to some extent, operates independently of
text to extract meaning from it" (p. 338).

Kavale and Schreiner (1979) compared the comprehension
techniques used by eight average and eight above-average readers.
The participants were individually tested. Also, their verbal
responses were audio-taped and were later transcribed to further

examine their thinking strategies. They were given a 40-item

multiple-choice research instrument on which they were required to

l6

nuke inferences, select main ideas, determine causes and effects,
and verbalize their reasoning.

Kavale and Schreiner found that both groups used similar
techniques, such as comparisons, classifications, definitions, and
generalization, to obtain meaning from passages. However, the
above-average readers consistently used these four strategies more
appropriately to arrive at the correct answer. Sixty percent of the
time they correctly used information given in the passage, compared
to 47% for the average readers. Also, when the strategy was
selecting specific words (from either the passage that contained
them or from the choices that followed), the above-average readers
were successful 26% of the time, as compared to 17% for the average
readers. In general, the researchers found that above-average
students displayed a wider repertoire of successful reasoning skills
than those used by average readers, when asked to read for various
purposes. Therefore, Kavale and Schreiner recommended that teachers
model the most appropriate reasoning behaviors for responding to
different types of questions.

Geva and Ryan (1985) designed and analyzed passages read by
students at above-average, average, and below-average reading
levels, based on their scores on the Gates-MacGinitie reading
comprehension subtests. The group consisted of 93 students; 46 were
in fifth grade and 47 were in seventh grade. All of them attended
the same school in Ontario, Canada. The investigators’ major
objective in this study was to better understand some of the

difficulties that average- and below-average readers encountered

17

when assigned expository texts. (The above-average readers were
used as the control group.) There were two principal concerns:
insufficient knowledge of conjunctions and/or a habit of overlooking
them in passages.

The instrument contained 80 questions, consisting of 26
conjunctions in each of four modes:

1. Explicit:

Even the slightest of breezes can prevent frost. That’s
because wind is like a spoon. . . .

2. Implicit:

Even the slightest of breezes can prevent frost. Wind is like
a spoon. . . .

3. Highlighted:

Even the slightest of breezes can prevent frost. That’s
BECAUSE wind is like a spoon. . . .

4. Deep:

Even the slightest of breezes can prevent frost. That’s

|1. begagse 2. althoughl wind is like a spoon. . . .
Geva and Ryan found that students in all three ability groups

benefited from having the conjunctions highlighted. Students were
observed to be more careful to attend to important details when
reading and afterwards to answer more questions successfully when
the conjunctions were highlighted. On the other hand, on the
implicit passages, the scores of students in the high-ability group
were significantly higher than those of the average readers, whose
scores, in turn, were better than those of the below-average

readers. In addition, readers in all three groups scored low on

18

passages of the deep type (multiple-choice cloze) (above-average
readers, 77%; average readers, 70%; below-average readers, 67%).
Geva and Ryan believed that having to select appropriate
conjunctions actually blocked rather than helped these students
respond correctly because they were distracted by the choices of
conjunctions instead of reading and comprehending the printed page.
Also, the less-skilled readers were unable to verbalize some of the
more difficult conjunctions, such as in fact, besides, and however.
Finally, based ("1 their research, Geva and Ryan suggested that
middle school teachers "explicitly" teach their students the meaning
of conjunctions in expository texts.
Beseerch Findinqs on the Comprehension of
Legieel Connectives end Conjunctions

The previously reviewed research is part of a growing body of
evidence confirming that children’s knowledge of connectives is
related to their level of cognitive growth. Robertson (1968) found
significant relationships between children’s comprehension of
connectives and their reading abilities. She tested 402 children
chosen by random stratified sampling. The children lived in the
province of Alberta, Canada; 51% lived in the city, 37% in rural
areas, and 12% in small towns. Robertson tested children in fourth,
fifth, and sixth grades using reading, writing, and listening using
a specially designed Connectives Reading Test. This test contained
150 items using 17 selected connectives; 85 of the items were
single-connective items and 65 were multiple-connective items. The

17 connectives were chosen because of their high frequency of

l9

occurrence in sentences in basal readers, the multiplicity of their
meanings, their presence on other researchers’ lists, and the
relationships they signaled. Scores from these comprehension tests
were analyzed according to the children’s gender, mental age,
chronological age, and socioeconomic status. The major findings of
Robertson’s study were as follows:

1. The rank order of the connectives, from the simplest to the
most difficult, was: that, where, although, so, when, yet, because,
but, if, for, which, who, and, however, that, and thus.

2. The analyses of connectives indicated that the 17
connective groups had a highly positive relationship to the
Connectives Reading Test as a whole.

3. The frequency of particular types of student errors on the
Connectives Reading Test was noted. The greatest percentage of
errors was grammatical, with a slightly smaller percentage of
incorrect connective answers. Situational errors were made the
least often--approximately one-half of the wrong connective answers.
The same order of errors held at each grade level.

4. From a practical point of view, the students needed
additional training in looking more carefully at words; failure to
note grammatical errors in print eventually reduced pupils’ reading
comprehension. The low constant rate among the situational errors
could be improved by exaggerating situations in the test-item

answers to the point at which most children would not be misled.

 

3T

20

5. Students understood such classes of connectives as relative
pronouns and coordinate-clause connectives equally well, and better
than they comprehended sentence linkers (however and thus).

6. Girls consistently obtained higher marks than boys on the
Written Connectives Test, and students in lower grades lagged behind
those in higher grades in achievement. Children from urban areas
achieved higher scores than those from small towns, who, in turn,
did better than those from rural areas. However, upon further
investigation, Robertson found that the strength of the test
performance of girls from rural areas and of boys from small towns
was pronounced.

7. Among the individual connective items, test blanks that
could have been acceptably filled with although, and, and yes proved
hard for students on the Connectives Reading Test. Sentence
structures communicating concession were apparently difficult for
children at these grade levels. The students did not choose to use
connectives such as thus, but they substituted suitable connectives
that were more common in their speech.

Like Robertson, Stoodt (1972) found significant relationships
between children’s understanding of connectives and their reading
ability. Stoodt used the cloze technique to analyze the following
conjunctions: and, as, because, but, for, if, how, now, either, or,
since, so, than, that, though, where, when, while, why, and yet.
Stoodt tested fourth-grade students who had been selected by
stratified random sampling from students at three socioeconomic

levels in the Mansfield, Ohio, Public School District.

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Unific-

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21

Stoodt had three purposes in conducting this study: (a) to
analyze and explore the relationship between subjects’ understanding
of conjunctions and their reading comprehension; (b) to explore the
difference in the difficulty of various conjunctions; and (c) to
determine whether there was a relationship between students’
understanding of conjunctions and the demographic variables of
socioeconomic status, gender, and intelligenceu Major findings of
Stoodt’s investigation were as follows:

1. A statistically significant relationship was found between
reading comprehension and comprehension of conjunctions. The
partial correlation between scores on the Comprehension of
Conjunctions Test and reading comprehension scores was statistically
significant at p < .02.

2. The correlation coefficients between gender and the
measures of comprehension and conjunctions showed that girls
achieved higher scores than boys on these measures. However, a
statistically significant difference in achievement was found on
only one measure, the Cloze Comprehension of Conjunctions Test,
written with a high number of conjunctions. The probability for
this measure was p < .01.

3. A highly positive relationship was found between socio-
economic level and all measures of comprehension of conjunctions.
The probability on every measure was p < .001.

4. A highly positive correlation was found between
comprehension of conjunctions and intelligence quotient, with a

probability of p < .001 on every measure.

 

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22

5. Concerning difficult conjunctions on the Comprehension of
Conjunctions Test, when was significantly more difficult than the
others at the .OOl level. .So was significant more difficult than
all other conjunctions except "but" at the .001 level. But (meaning
other than) was significantly more difficult than all other conjunc-
tions except so at ‘the .001 level. Or' was significantly more
difficult than all other conjunctions except when, so, but, and
where at the .01 level. Where was significantly more difficult than
all other conjunctions except when, so, but, and or at the .01
level. So was significantly more difficult than all other conjunc-
tions except when, but, or, and where at the .01 level.

6. With regard to easy conjunctions on the Comprehension of
Conjunctions Test, and was significantly easier than all other
conjunctions at the .001 level. For was significantly easier than
all other conjunctions except and at the .001 level. As was
significantly easier than all other conjunctions except and and for
at the .005 level.

Keller-Cohen (1986) explored the way 32 children, ages three
and five, used the following temporal logical connectives: Before,
after, when, while, just before that, and and after that. The
researcher found that the learned sequence of specific temporal
connectives helped the children determine contextual usages. At age
three, youngsters were able to use before and after but not while.
However, by age five, they were beginning to master while. Before

and after' were being applied in both the logical and reversal

23

positions (such as before, but before that, after, and and after
that) if and when they were able to dramatize their usages. These
findings suggest that children do not depend exclusively on the
logical order of clause context for their comprehension of temporal

terms.

The Incidence of Logical Connectives in Textbooks

Several researchers have compiled and analyzed the number of
types of logical connectives found in textbooks at different grade
levels (Gardener, 1980; Negin, 1982; Rogers, 1974; Wishart & Smith,
1982). Rogers analyzed a list of logical connectives contained in 7
of the 35 textbooks currently used in grades 6 and 12. He used only
those connectives that linked ideas and tabulated their frequency of
occurrence per 100 print pages. Rogers’s findings are shown in

tabular form in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1.--Incidence of connectives in each subject area.

 

 

Average No. Average No. Connectives
Level and Subject Connectives Pages Per Per 100

of Text Per Text Text Pages
Grade 6 Social Studies 1,226 206 595
Grade 6 Science 664 101 677
Grade 10 History 1,523 282 540
Grade 12 Geography 1,197 208 575
Grade 12 Chemistry 2,578 372 693
Grade 12 Biology 2,642 323 880
Grade 12 Physics 3,558 403 883

 

Source: D. Rogers, "Which Connectives? Signals to Enhance Compre-

hension," Journal of Reading 17 (March 1974): 463.

24

According to Rogers, the 20 most frequently used connectives in
sixth- and twelfth-grade textbooks, in order of frequency, were the
following:

Science and social studies: but, if, when, because, as, then,
even, also, perhaps, however, although, while, for example, since,
yet, so that, such as, too, until, whether.

Geography: but, when, however, although, because, so, thus,
as, if, also, while, for example, then, therefore, since, yet,
where, that is, perhaps, in fact.

History: but, while, although, thus, if, as, even, however,
because, since, until, when, then, yet, in fact, therefore,
meanwhile, whether, perhaps, despite.

Chemistry: but, if, since, for example, however, when, thus,
if so, also, as, because, although, therefore, while, so, perhaps,
yet, that is, until, such as.

Biology: but, if, however, thus, for example, since, as,
because, when, while, although, even, then, therefore, such as,
also, yet, perhaps, that is, so.

Physics: if, but, because, when, therefore, as, then, however,
for example, also, although, since, while, thus, 50, in other words,
so that, on the other hand, consequently, furthermore.

Gardner (1983) employed science-education majors to search most
of the 'textbooks used in Victoria, Australia, for logical
connectives. He used the findings to compose two types of

measurements of logical connectives: multiple choice and gap

25

filling/sentence completion using everyday and scientific speech.
Gardner tested students in grades 7 to 10 in Victoria and found
that:
The grand means were 23.5, 25.7, 28.4 and 30.6 for grades 7-10.
Thus the typical student in the first year of secondary school
can answer over half the items presented; by the fourth year,
the fraction has risen to three-quarters. The standard
deviations of the tests are high (around 6-9), indicating a
very' wide range in the extent of understanding of logical
connectives at each grade level . . . [and also] the internal
consistencies of the test, as measured by the Cronbach alpha
coefficients. The 100 values (25 tests, computed separately at
each of the four grade levels) are remarkably high, ranging
from .97 to 1.00. (p. 228)
Some students experienced difficulty in comprehending the
following types of connectives:

1. Logical connectives signaling inference (and, so, clearly,
consequently, evidently, and hence).

2. Similarities, comparisons, and contrasts (alternatively, as
[- like], conversely, despite, in contrast, similarly).

3. Additive terms (again [= furthermore], also, besides,
further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, so, also, and
together with).

4. Opposition and order (for instance, in turn, namely,
respectively, that is).

5. Logical-reasoning terms (conversely, if/then, say, suppose,
and if).

Wishart and Smith (1982) based their research model on
Gardner’s research. They analyzed nine textbooks for 15 selected
logical connectives (nine were the same as Gardener used) and used
the findings to construct two types of tests. These were gap-fill-
in and sentence-completion forms. The researchers compared the
formal written language used in history textbooks to that of

everyday speech. They selected for the study 216 students (71%

£3

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26

girls and 29% boys) of high academic ability at three grade levels
from two secondary schools.

Wishart and Smith examined the effects of age, gender, test
type, and differences in schools on students’ ability to comprehend
logical connectives. They found that:

1. The formal language used in history textbooks consisted of
many abstract words that were not part of the spontaneous speech of
students at any of the three grade levels.

2. The mean score on Wishart and Smith’s history test was 53%.
This was slightly lower than the score established by Gardner on his
science test (54.6%). This marginally lower mean score might have
resulted because Gardner’s test was purposely written for students
with a wide range of abilities, using the familiar informal speech
of 12- to 15-year-old secondary school students.

3. The high-academic-ability students in Wishart and Smith’s
study scored higher on the usage of "everyday" connectives than did
the students with a wide range of abilities in Gardner’s sample
(83% and 65%, respectively).

3. No significant difference was found between girls and boys
in terms of obtained scores.

4. The data showed no significant between-school differences.

Wishart and Smith concluded that "preparation for the two
different examinations with two different declared emphases in the
syllabuses produced no difference in performance in the understand-

ing of logical connectives in the history items" (p. 102).

27

Negin (1982) analyzed connectives found in five industrial-arts
textbooks. He found a total of 35,884 connectives in the 29,139
sentences analyzed. Negin’s findings were as follows:

1. There were 1.23 connectives per printed page.

2. The 44 most highly encountered logical connectives occurred
32,997 times, or in 92% of the items.

3. Only eight connectives were the same as those on Rogers’s
(1974) list; thus, connectives used 'hi secondary industrial-arts
textbooks were somewhat different from those found in other subject-
matter textbooks.

The connectives that Negin found 'hi the industrial-arts
textbooks he analyzed are shown in Table 2.2, by category,

frequency, and rank.

Summary
Three early reading theorists were Huey (1908), Gray (1919),

and Thorndike (1917); their research findings became the basis for
other investigations. Thorndike concluded that comprehending a
paragraph and solving a mathematical problem are similar: Both
require the participant to select the "right elements of the
situation and [to put] them together in the right relations, and
also with the right amount of weight or influence or force for each"
(p. 323).

Robertson (1968) investigated fourth-, fifth-, and sixth—grade
students’ comprehension of connectives, using instruments she

designed for that purpose. A significant relationship was found

{II

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Rb Thl
PO 1

rt

5

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Table 2.2.--Negin’s list of connectives by category, frequency, and

 

 

 

 

rank.
Category/Word Freq. Rank Category/Word Freq. Rank
Conjunction Contrast
and 8,366 1 less than 195 27
also 803 10 greater than 182 32
in addition to 326 20 more than 100 40
Disjunetion Condition
or 4,046 2 if 1,131 7
either/or 194 28
and/or 100 40 Circumstance/
Time
Causality
then 637 12
as 799 11 always 301 22
because 362 18 until 248 24
that 330 19 after 190 30
when 249 23 never 116 37
therefore 206 26 when 111 39
since 193 29 while 100 40
as a result 113 38 usually 100 40
Eurppse Location
to 2,230 3 in 1,324 6
for 1,324 6 at 936 9
that 1,000 8 by 526 14
so 312 21 across 183 31
so that 129 34 between 122 35
Concession Manner
but 1,650 4 with 1,413 5
however 447 16 as 538 13
while 230 25 by 484 15
like 424 17
so 139 30
such as 119 36
Source: G. A. Negin, "Logical Connectives in Industrial Arts Text-

books," Reading Improvement (1982): 170-172.

29

between students’ comprehension of connectives in reading and
gender, mental age, and listening, reading, and written-language
skills. Robertson also found that there was a significant increase
in students’ comprehension of connectives from one grade to the
next.

Robertson’s (1968) research findings indicated that comprehen-
sion of logical connectives is a multifaceted ability and that such
comprehension is a part of language acquisition. Similarly, other
researchers have found significant relationships between children’s
comprehension of logical connectives and their levels of cognitive
growth and reading abilities (Geva & Ryan, 1985; Kavale & Schreiner,
1979; Keller-Cohen, 1986; Simons, 1971; Smith, 1969; Stoodt, 1972).

Several researchers whose findings are important to the present
study are Rogers (1974), Gardner (1983), Negin (1982), and Wishart
and Smith (1982). They tabulated and analyzed the numbers and types
of logical connectives found in textbooks at various grade levels
and concluded that there are wide variations in the use of
connectives between and within curricula and textbooks. They also
noted that children need to be able to comprehend logical
connectives in order to reach a level of mature intellectual
development and language acquisition. Therefore, some of the
numerous meanings and usages of logical connectives should be taught
to those average and below-average readers who demonstrate a lack of
understanding of unfamiliar connectives and their resulting

syntactical relationships. Students’ specific needs might be

 

30

determined by analyzing their use of logical connectives in

spontaneous or everyday written and informal speech.

 

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

Introduction
The methodology employed in conducting the study is described
in this chapter. The population is identified, and the method of
selecting the sample is described. The research questions and null
hypotheses are stated, development of the instrument is described,
and procedures used in collecting the data are presented. The

method of analyzing the data also is discussed.

The Population and Sample Selection

The population under investigation consisted of sixth- and
eighth-grade students in the Holt, Michigan, School District. The
district has eight schools: five elementary schools (K-S), one
middle school (grades 6 and 7), one junior high school (grades 8 and
9), and one high school (grades 10 through 12). The school district
has an enrollment of 17,144 students: 97% of them are Caucasian,
according to the 1980 census. Most residents of the district are
semi-skilled, working-class people who work in Lansing for General
Motors and for the State of Michigan.

Two groups of students were selected for the study: 41 sixth
graders (21 males and 20 females) and 43 eighth graders (22 males

and 21 females). The 84 sample members were selected from a list of

31

32

all the sixth and eighth graders who were reading on grade level,
according to their reading scores on the Stanford Diagnostic Reading
Test (SDRT). ‘The SDRT’ was used because both sixth and eighth
graders’ scores on this test were available in their cumulative
folders. A stratified random sampling procedure was used in

selecting the sample, using a table of random numbers.

Research Questions

The following questions were posed to guide the collection of
data for this study:

1. Are students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory
related to their scores on the reading comprehension and listening
comprehension subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test
(SDRT)?

2. Is there a relationship between the frequency with which
selected types of logical connectives occur in sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ social science textbooks and the students’ compre-
hension of these connectives and mastery of them on the Logical
Connectives Inventory?

3. Is there a relationship between the specific types of
logical connectives taught in sixth and eighth graders’ English
classes and the students’ mastery of these logical connectives on

the Logical Connectives Inventory?

Researeh Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses, and their related subhypotheses,

were constructed to test the data collected in the study:

 

33

Hypothesis 1: There is no relationship between sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ scores on ‘the Logical Connectives Inventory and
their scores on the reading comprehension and listening comprehen-
sion subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (SDRT).

flp_1e: There is no relationship between sixth-grade students’
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on
the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

Ho 1b: There is no relationship between eighth-grade students’
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on
the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

Ho 1c: There is in) relationship between sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and
their scores on the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

Ho 1d: There is no relationship between sixth-grade students’
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on
the listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

Ho e: There is no relationship between eighth-grade students’
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on
the listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

Ho 1f: There is no relationship between sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and

their scores on ‘the listening comprehension subtest of the
SDRT.

Hypothesis 2: There is no relationship between the frequency with
which 24 selected logical connectives occur in sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ social science textbooks and the students’ compre-
hension of these logical connectives, as measured by their scores
on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

Ho 3e: There is no relationship between the frequency with
which 24 selected logical connectives occur in sixth-grade
students’ social science textbooks and the students’ comprehen-
sion of these logical connectives, as measured by their scores
on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

M: There is no relationship between the frequency with
which 24 selected logical connectives occur in eighth-grade
students’ social science textbooks and the students’ comprehen-
sion of these logical connectives, as measured by their scores
on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

34

Ho c: There is I") relationship between the frequency with

which 24 selected logical connectives occur in sixth- and

eighth-grade students’ social science textbooks and the

students’ comprehension of these logical connectives, as

measured by their scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.
Hypothesis 3: There is no relationship between the specific types
of logical connectives presented and taught in sixth- and eighth—
grade students’ English textbooks and the students’ comprehension of
these logical connectives, as measured by their scores on the
Logical Connectives Inventory.

Devel0pment of the Instrpmepy

An instrument, the Logical Connectives Inventory, was developed
specifically for this study to gather information on students’
comprehension of six types of logical connectives: additive,
illative, causal, contrastive, conditional, and temporal. The
instrument contained three parts: gap-fill-in (n' cloze, sentence
completion, and multiple-choice synonyms. Steps followed in
constructing the inventory are discussed in the following

paragraphs.

The Pre-pilot Test

First, a pre-pilot-test inventory was constructed. It included
only ten items: six cloze and four multiple-choice synonym
selections. Six categories of logical connectives were represented
in this inventory: additive, causal, conditional, contrastive,
illative, and temporal.

After developing the instrument for the pre-pilot test, the
investigator met with the principal and reading consultant at a
"fiddle school in East Lansing, Michigan, to decide (n1 a date and

time when the pre-pilot inventory could be administered. On

35

November 5, 1984, the researcher administered the inventory to ten
middle school students (five sixth graders and five eighth graders)
who the school’s reading consultant had indicated were reading on
grade level. Based on the results and feedback from this pre-pilot

testing, the first pilot inventory was constructed.

_he First Pilot

On November 11 and 12, 1984, the investigator met with the same
ten students who had participated in the pre-pilot test. After a
brief introduction that included directions, the Logical Connectives
Inventory was given. Each participant’s time was noted. At the
conclusion of the group session, the students were given an
opportunity to express their reactions and concerns.

Based on the results from this first pilot instrument, the
second pilot inventory was constructed. Several logical connectives
(neither-nor, rather than, rather, and although) did not appear in
the sixth-grade text, so they had to be discarded. Also, the entire

cloze section, which contained 14 gaps, proved to be very confusing

to the students, so it also was dropped.

Secopg Pilot

The second pilot test was constructed, based on the following
recommendations of the investigator’s committee members:

1. Eliminate the underlined guide words.

2. Have three parts with 24 items each (Part I: Cloze,
Part II: Sentence Completion, Part III: Multiple-choice Synonym).

 

36

4. Field test the instrument again to determine whether, in
fact, it measures what it is purported to measure.

The investigator reanalyzed the sixth- and eighth-grade social
science textbooks that were being used in the Holt School District
for all possible occurrences of the 26 selected logical connectives.
Half of the passages were chosen from the sixth-grade textbook and
half from the eighth-grade textbook.

On May 18, 1985, the second pilot inventory was administered to
a group of 12 on-grade-level readers (six sixth graders and six
eighth graders) in Bath, Michigan. Based on the results and
feedback from the first and second pilot tests of the inventory, the
version of the data-collection instrument that was used in a field
test was developed.

To compose a balanced inventory, several steps were followed.
First, a list of the 24 selected logical connectives was compiled
and cross-referenced to ensure that the words appeared in both the

sixth- and eighth-grade social science textbooks (see Table 3.1).

Seleetjpp pf the Logical Connectives

In selecting the logical connectives to be included in the
instrument, the researcher considered the following factors:

1. Vocabulary lists.

2. Frequency-of—usage lists.

3. Lists of logical connectives developed by other researchers
in the field (see Table A.1, Appendix A).

4. Definitions of the selected logical connectives.

.4iEfiEFW-

 

37

Table 3.1.--The 24 logical connectives selected for this study.

 

 

Type of Example of Textbook Use
Connective of Connective
ADDITIVE

In addition

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In addition signals: besides, also, likewise,
& and.

Children learned tribal ways by listening,
taking part in ceremonies, and helping adults
with necessary work. In addition, toys were
often small versions of things used by adults.
(Eighth-grade textbook, p. 61)

Even signals: also, likewise, and, & besides.

. You can buy almost anything you want
there [in the city of Onitsha, Nigeria]--food,
clothing, radios, soap, rugs, spare parts for
a car, furniture, even elephant tusks and
hippopotamus teeth. (Sixth-grade textbook,

p. 276)

Also signals: besides, and, too, & in addi-

tion.

The Spanish also introduced wheat and rice.
(Sixth-grade textbook, p. 226)

Moreover signals: besides, and, too, in

addition, also, & furthermore.

They [the American people] were able to pro-
duce goods more efficiently in large fac-
tories. And these economies often meant lower
prices for the consumer. Moreover, large cor-
porations were necessary if a product was to
be sold over the country. (Eighth-grade text-
book, p. 442)

 

Table 3.1.--Continued.

38

 

 

Type of Example of Textbook Use
Connective of Connective
ILLAIIVE

Therefpre Therefore signals: so, thus, consequently,
& hence.
Each city was run like an independent state or
country. Therefore, we call them city-states.
(Sixth-grade textbook, p. 89)

Se Sp signals: with the result that, thus,
finally, & therefore.
The railroads were needed to get American farm
goods to the coasts sp they could be shipped
to starving people overseas. (Eighth-grade
textbook, p. 644)

Thus Thus signals: hence, consequently, therefore,
& finally.
Nixon and Kissinger wanted to lessen tensions
between the United States and the Soviet Union
and thus lower the chances of nuclear war.
(Eighth-grade textbook, p. 695)

As a result As a result signals: the result, consequently,

 

therefore, & finally.

The Koran also forbids paintings and sculpture.
As e,result, the need to create beauty has been
channeled into creating mosques, homes, and
other buildings, and into the making of many
lovely things to be used in these buildings.
(Sixth-grade textbook, p. 189)

Table 3.1.--Continued.

39

 

 

 

Type of Example of Textbook Use
Connective of Connective
CAUSAL
ec 5 Because signals: as, for this reason, for,
on account of, & for this purpose.
Fish died in some lakes because the water was
unclean. (Sixth-grade textbook, p. 345)
£_m fie: signals: because, in view of the fact
that, & as.
Greek civilization isn’t remembered tee its
great power. It is remembered fem its ideas.
(Sixth-grade textbook, p. 88)
As As signals: because, for the purpose of, for

Fpr spme reason

EMS]:

On the other
hand

the cause that, & for.

Throughout history, people have used earth’s
waters es roads on which to move themselves
and their goods by boat. (Sixth-grade textbook,
p. 60)

For some reason signals: because, on account
of, for, & for this purpose.

By the year 1100, the Anasazi were living in
huge, beautiful buildings that housed hun-

dreds of people. Round ceremonial chambers,
or kivas (ke vez), were scattered throughout
the community. For some reason, the people
of Mesa Verde began leaving their homes on

the mesa top. (Eighth-grade textbook, p. 55)

On the other heme signals: an opposite,
however, in spite of, & yet.

To the Indians the idea of a person or family
owning land permanently made no sense. When
the European settlers bought or traded land,
on the other hemp, they considered it theirs
to keep. (Eighth-grade textbook, p. 257)

Table 3.1.--Continued.

40

 

Type

of

Connective

Example of Textbook Use
of Connective

 

However

Instead

ONAL

However signals: in spite of, on the other
hand, nevertheless, instead, otherwise, but,
& yet.

 

The demand for coal has also increased. Coal
is plentiful in the United States and in some
other countries. However, many kinds of coal
pollute the air when burned. (Sixth-grade
textbook, p. 367)

 

Still signals: in spite of a preceding event,
or consideration, yet, & but.

William Paterson of New Jersey presented his
state’s plan. Three days later, Alexander
Hamilton of New York suggested still another
plan. (Eighth-grade textbook, p. 212)

Instead signals: rather, otherwise, or an
alternative to something expressed or implied.

 

Often the goods shown on the chart are not
available to Soviet consumers even if they
have the money. Instead consumers put their
names on a list. (Sixth-grade textbook, p.
291

it signals: whether, on condition that, even
though, although, perhaps, and provided.

About seventy minutemen led by Captain John
Parker were waiting for the British. Knowing
the minutemen could not stop the British,
Parker told his troops not to fire first, but
to hold their ground. "it war is to come, let
it begin here," he said. (Eighth-grade text-
book, p. 186)

Table 3.1.--Continued.

41

 

Type of
Connective

Example of Textbook Use
of Connective

 

Perhaps

Whether

Unless

IEMPORAL
Until

Perhaps signals: maybe, or an alternative
condition or possibility.

When you are introduced to an adult, what do
you do? Probably you smile, say hello, and

perhaps shake hands. (Sixth-grade textbook,

p. 175)

Whether signals: an alternative condition or
possibility, maybe, and if.

In Japan’s past, almost everything an indi-
vidual had in life, or could look forward to,
came from the family. This was true whether
it was a peasant family, a samurai family,

or a noble landowning family. (Sixth-grade
textbook, p. 214)

Unless signals: on the condition that, or
except that, if, nor, & provided that.

It was difficult to bring avocados from far
away, because if they became too soft,
avocados started to rot. Tizoc knew one woman
who sometimes sold them. The woman was kind
and did not sell an avocado to Tizoc unless

it was a very good one. (Sixth-grade textbook,
p. 159)

Until signals: before, or used to indicate
continuance as in an action, condition, or
state of time.

Drunkenness is a sin against Islam, so the
drunkard is lashed 80 times in public. A
driver who carelessly hits someone must stay
in jail until the injured person recovers.
(Sixth-grade textbook, p. 191)

 

nuf‘i Mir“. ,‘i.

42

Table 3.1.--Continued.

 

 

Type of Example of Textbook Use
Connective of Connective
Before Before signals: earlier than the time when,

 

or sooner than.

Lyndon Johnson of Texas became President after
Kennedy was assassinated. He had been an
important senator before his election as Vice-
President. (Eighth-grade textbook, p. 685)

Meanwhile Meanwhile signals: while, during the interval
of time, for the time being, or at the same
time, & now.

The Huguenots (French Protestants) arrived in
northeastern Florida and set up the town of
Fort Carolina. Meanwhile, the Spanish viewed
this settlement with alarm. (Eighth-grade
textbook, p. 92)

 

While While signals: as long as, during the time
that, during the same time, meanwhile, or
during.

One hundred thousand men took part in the
battle of Shiloh in western Tennessee. The
Union had 13,047 killed and wounded while the
South had 10,099 killed or wounded. (Eighth-
grade textbook, p. 397)

After After signals: next, later, subsequently,
succeeding, or following in time.

 

Before the Industrial Revolution, almost 90
percent of England’s population lived on
farms. After the Industrial Revolution, most
people lived where factories were located--in
towns and cities. (Sixth-grade textbook, p.
115)

 

Sources: Sixth-grade textbook: Our Werld Today. New York:
Scholastic Book Services, 1981. Eighth-grade textbook: America!
America! Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1985. Webster’s
Third New International Dictionepy. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-
Webster, 1981.

43

5. The limits of the vocabulary used in the two social science
textbooks.

6. Results of the pilot tests conducted for this study.

7. Recommendations of the researcher’s doctoral committee.

Another chart was constructed, which contained the following
six types of information: (a) the 24 selected logical connectives
listed as they appeared in the correct responses, (b) placement of
the connectives in the textbook (beginning, middle, IN“ end), (c)
grade level of textbook (sixth or eighth); (d) page numbers on which
connectives appeared), (e) frame number of key options, and (f)
types of logical connectives (see Table A.2, Appendix A). A
sequential chart was compiled to record the placement of logical
connectives in the inventory (see Table A.3, Appendix A). Finally,
a composite chart was constructed that contained the following seven
types of information: (a) number of passages in which the 24
logical connectives ‘were located, (b) the specific logical
connectives used, (c) whether connectives were located in sixth-
and/or eighth-grade textbooks, (d) location of the logical
connectives in the inventory, (e) their location in the sixth- and
eighth-grade textbooks; (f) the page numbers on which they were
located, and (g) the response number containing key options (see

Table A.4, Appendix A).

Instrument Items

The final inventory was given to three readers-—two English

teachers and one reading consultant--to critique. The investigator

44

met with the reviewers personally and presented the six selected
types of logical connectives. Afterwards, the investigator again
met with the reviewers individually and went over their suggestions
and remarks. On the basis of their recommendations, further
revisions were made before the inventory was administered in the
fall. This version of the Logical Connectives Inventory contained
72 items. It was constructed in three parts, each containing 24
items. The three parts of the instrument are discussed in the
following pages.

Bert I: Cloze. For each item in the cloze section of the
inventory, students had to select the logical connective that would
make the statement complete and meaningful and write that word in
the blank. In this section, the researcher intended that responses
(a) be specific, clear, and as brief as possible and (b) require
reasoning rather than guessing.

In this set of 24 items, the blanks were placed at the
beginning of 3 passages, in the middle of 4 passages, and at the end
of 17 passages. The average passage contained 63 words. The
shortest passage contained 22 words, and the longest one contained
105 words. Twenty-two of the 24 items in this section required one-
word responses; only two items necessitated two-word answers.

Part II: Sentence Completion. The sentence-completion section
of the inventory required students to use prior knowledge or
schemata in selecting the one response that best matched the

relationship implied in the passage (Cox, 1987). They had to

 

45

comprehend the written structures of the logical connectives
presented in the stems, as well as those given in the possible
responses. Robertson’s (1968) research findings indicated that,
although children verbally used connectives early in life, often
before entering school, their cognitive awareness of many types of
connectives developed gradually as they matured.

In this section, the responses were designed to have from 4 to
15 syllables. All of the responses were approximately the same
length. The gaps were placed at the end of each passage. The
average passage contained 63 words. The shortest passage had 28
words, and the longest one had 112 words.

Lart III: Multiple-Choice Synonym_s. In the multiple-choice
synonyms section of the inventory, students were required to read
a given passage and choose the logical connective that most closely
fit the meaning of the connective in the last sentence of the
passage. The students had to use their metacognitive skills, such
as monitoring, making inferences, and using schemata (Brown, 1980)
to decide which synonym best fit the meaning of the logical
connective in the last sentence. At times, students needed to go
outside of their experience base of social science materials to form
hypotheses about the unfamiliar relationships of logical
connectives. At other times, they were required to hold several
concepts given in a passage while postulating, accepting, or
rejecting the logical connective synonyms presented in the

responses .

46

In this section, the responses to all of the items (a) had one
to five syllables, (b) were approximately the same length (usually
the same number of letters and words), and (c) had the same number
of syllables. The average passage contained 62 words. The shortest

passage had 25 words, and the longest one had 120 words.

Field Testing the Inventory

The Logical Connectives Inventory was field tested in September
1985. Twelve average, on-grade-level readers participated in the
field test. Six of these students were in the sixth grade and six
were in the eighth grade in Bath, Michigan.

The students were given the inventory as a group in the school
library. The investigator noted the time it took each student to
complete the inventory. At the conclusion of this session, the
researcher interviewed two sixth graders and two eighth graders to
obtain their suggestions for how the inventory might be improved.
On the basis of these informal interviews, the directions for
completing the inventory were revised.

The inventory also was given to two classroom English teachers
and one reading consultant to critique. The investigator met with
the reviewers personally to discuss their suggestions for
improvement. (hi the basis of 'these reviewers’ recommendations,
further revisions were made before the inventory was administered to
students in the study sample. (See Appendix B for the final version

of the inventory.)

 

47

Administering the Logical
Connectives Inventory

On September 24, 1985 (two weeks before administering the
inventory), the investigator met with the sixth- and eighth-grade
students who had been selected for the study. During this meeting,
the rationale for' giving the Logical Connectives Inventory was
presented and discussed. Also, the dates, locations, and times of
the testing were announced. In addition, letters asking for
parental permission were distributed to the students (see Appendix
B).

The investigator, assisted by the middle school reading
consultant, administered the Logical Connectives Inventory to
both sixth and eighth graders on October 3, 1985. In the morning,
the sixth graders took the inventory. In the afternoon, the eighth
graders completed the instrument. Each session was scheduled for an
hour and 40 minutes. A make-up session had to be scheduled at the
junior high school, partly because a "surprise" football rally
occurred in the middle of the session. At least one-third of the
students participating in the study had to take the Logical
Connectives Inventory on another day.

On October 9, 1985, the investigator met with all of the eighth
graders who could not come to the first session. They were told the
rationale behind the study and were asked to participate. They then
were given another letter requesting parental permission. The
students were also told the time, location, and date (October 15,

1985) of the next administration of the inventory.

48

Students and their parents were assured that all information of
a personal nature, such as the students’ scores on the research
instrument and the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, would be held
in strict confidence. Each participant was given a code number,
which was placed on the test instrument and used solely fer data-
analysis purposes. Thus, there was no reference to students’ names
or any possibility of identifying individual participants at a later

date.

Content Analysis of the Social Science Textbooks

Hypotheses 2a through 2c concerned the relationship between
students’ ability to comprehend the 24 selected logical connectives
and the frequency' with which these connectives occurred in the
students’ social science textbooks. To address these hypotheses,
the researcher did a content analysis of the sixth- and eighth-grade
social science textbooks for the presence of these logical
connectives. The frequency with which each of the 24 logical
connectives selected for the study appeared in the sixth- and
eighth-grade social science textbooks was recorded.

In addition, the sixth- and eighth-grade English textbooks were
examined to determine which logical connectives were taught at these
grade levels. This information was used in addressing Hypothesis 3.

The results of the content analyses are reported in Chapter IV.

Methods of Analyzing the Data
The students’ responses to the items in the Logical Connectives

Inventory were entered into a computer for data processing. The

49

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program was used
to analyze the data. Several statistical procedures were employed
in this investigation, including simple correlations, analysis of
variance (ANOVA), and Pearson product-moment correlation. A partial
correlation was used to remove the effects of age, grade, form
reading, reading comprehension, listening comprehension, and
intelligence quotient from the scores obtained on the research
instrument. The .05 alpha level was selected as the criterion for

statistical significance.

Summary

The methodology used in conducting the study was described in
this chapter. The Logical Connectives Inventory was administered to
84 on-grade-level readers: 41 sixth graders and 43 eighth graders.
These students were selected on the basis of information obtained
from their cumulative records at the school: grade level,
scores on the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT, and scores
on the listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

The null hypotheses formulated for testing in the study were
stated. The methods used to construct and field test the pilot
instrument were explained. Also, the data-analysis methods were
delineated. In Chapter IV, the results of the data analyses are

presented and discussed.

“A“:

 

CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

mm

This study was based on an earlier investigation conducted by
Robertson (1968), who found significant relationships between
children’s comprehension of logical connectives and their reading
abilities. Robertson tested 402 feurth-, fifth-, and sixth—grade
children chosen by random stratified sampling. The children lived
in the province of Alberta, Canada; 51% lived in the city, 37% in
rural areas, and 12% in small towns. Reading, writing, and
listening skills of 'these children were tested, using the
Connectives Reading Test, designed specifically for Robertson’s
study. The test contained 150 items, using 17 frequently occurring
connectives; 85 of the items were single-connective items and 65
were multiple-connective items. The demographic variables of
gender, mental age, chronological age, and socioeconomic status
(SES) were included in the study.

Major findings of Robertson’s study were as follows:

1. The rank order of the connectives, from simplest to most
difficult, was as follows: that, where, although, so when, yet,

because, but, if for, which, who, and however, and, and thus.

50

 

51

2. Children’s comprehension of connectives improved signifi-
cantly across the three grade levels.

3. The comprehension of' connectives was highly related to
children’s reading abilities and the variables of gender, mental
age, and listening and writing skills.

4. The children understood the usages of relative pronouns and
coordinate-clause connectives equally well, and better than they
comprehended such sentence linkers as however and thus.

5. The most difficult connectives for students to comprehend
were however, thus, which, although, and yet.

Stoodt (1970) tested 95 forth graders who attended the
Mansfield, Ohio, Public Schools on their comprehension of
conjunctions, which she defined as empty words or structure words.
Conjunctions are connectives that serve to relate or join words,
phrases, and sentences. One of Stoodt’s findings confirmed that of
Robertson’s (1968) earlier study--that there was a significant
relationship between children’s comprehension of conjunctions and
their reading ability. In addition, Stoodt found that the following
conjunctions were used most frequently through the fourth grade:
and, as, because, but either, for, if, how, now, neither, or, since,
so, than, that, though, where, when, while, why, and yet. Both
Stoodt and Robertson noted that the role conjunctions play in
determining the readability of reading materials should be
investigated. Stoodt believed that the comprehension of children

who experience difficulty in comprehending the various relationships

 

52

signaled by conjunctions might be improved if the students received
instruction on those conjunctions.

The present investigator had three major objectives in
conducting this study:

1. To determine whether there is a relationship between sixth-
and eighth-grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives
Inventory and their scores on the reading comprehension and
listening comprehension subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading
Test (SDRT).

2. To determine whether there is a relationship between the
frequency with which selected types of logical connectives occur in
social science textbooks and sixth- and eighth-grade students’
comprehension of these connectives and mastery of them on the
research instrument.

3. To investigate the relationship between the specific types
of logical connectives presented and taught in sixth and eighth
graders’ English textbooks and the students’ mastery of these
logical connectives on the research instrument.

The investigator developed the Logical Connectives Inventory
for' use in ‘this study. This instrument. was administered to a
sample of sixth and eighth graders who were judged to be average
readers, based on the scores they had obtained on the Stanford
Diagnostic Reading Test (SDRT). These scores were found in the
students’ cumulative records in the school files. In addition, a

content analysis was performed to obtain a count of the frequency

 

53

with which the 24 selected logical connectives appeared in the sixth
and eighth graders’ social science and English textbooks.

The methods used in collecting and analyzing the data were
described in Chapter III. The results of the statistical analyses
as they relate to the hypotheses formulated for the study are

presented and discussed in the following pages.

Results of Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis 1

There is no relationship between sixth- and eighth-grade
students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their
scores on the reading comprehension and listening comprehension
subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (SDRT).

In testing Hypothesis 1, the relationships between the two
independent variables--scores on the reading comprehension and
listening comprehension subtests of the SDRT--and sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ scores in: the Logical Connectives Inventory (the
dependent variable) were analyzed for significance. Six
subhypotheses were formulated to test the relationship between the
two dependent variables and the dependent variable for sixth
graders, eighth graders, and the total group. In the following
paragraphs, each subhypothesis is restated, followed by the results
for that subhypothesis.

up 1a: There is no relationship between sixth-grade students’

scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on

the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

The correlation between sixth-grade students’ scores on the

reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their comprehension of

24 selected ‘types of logical connectives found in the research

54

inventory was .384. The corresponding observed level of
significance was .016. Because this p-value was less than .05, it

was significant at the .05 level (see Table 4.1).

Table 4.1.—-Pearson correlation coefficients of 39 sixth graders’
scores on the reading comprehension subtest and their
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

Reading Comprehension Research Inventory

 

Correlation .384
p-value .999 .016
Total mean 5.818 33.103
Total standard dev. .721 5.433

 

Ho lb: There is no relationship between eighth-grade students’
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on
the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

 

The correlation between eighth-grade students’ scores (Hi the
reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their comprehension of
24 selected types of logical connectives found in the research
inventory was .705. The corresponding observed level of signifi-
cance was .000. Because this p-value was less than .05, it was

significant at the .05 level (see Table 4.2).

55

Table 4.2.--Pearson correlation coefficients of 39 eighth graders’
scores on the reading comprehension subtest and their
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

Reading Comprehension Research Inventory

 

Correlation .705
p-value .999 .000
Total mean 7.946 32.282
Total standard dev. .708 7.178

 

Ho 1c: There is no relationship between sixth- and eighth-
grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and
their scores on the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT.
The correlation between sixth- and eighth-grade students’
scores on the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their
comprehension of 24 selected types of logical connectives found in
the research inventory was .254. The corresponding observed

significance level was .025. Because this p-value was less than

.05, it was significant at the .05 level (see Table 4.3).

Table 4.3.--Pearson correlation coefficients of 79 sixth and eighth
graders’ scores on the reading comprehension subtest and
their scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

Reading Comprehension Research Inventory

 

Correlation .254
p-value .999 .025
Total mean 6.882 32.692

Total standard dev. 1.285 6.337

 

 

 

56

fig 1d: There is no relationship between sixth-grade students’

scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on

the listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

The correlation between sixth-grade students’ scores on the
listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their comprehension
of 24 selected types of logical connectives found in the research
inventory was .058. The corresponding observed significance level

was .126. Because this p-value was greater than .05, it was not

significant at the .05 level (see Table 4.4).

Table 4.4.--Pearson correlation coefficients of 39 sixth graders’
scores on the listening comprehension subtest and their
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

 

Listening Comprehen. Research Inventory
Correlation .058
p-value .999 .126
Total mean 6.000 33.103
Total standard dev. 2.154 5.433

 

Ho 1e: There is no relationship between eighth-grade students’
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and their scores on
the listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT.

 

The correlation between eighth-grade students’ scores (Hi the
listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their comprehension
of 24 selected types of logical connectives found in the research
inventory was .100. The corresponding observed significance level
was .543. Because this p-value of .543 was greater than .05, it was

not significant at the .05 level (see Table 4.5).

 

57

Table 4.5.--Pearson correlation coefficients of 39 eighth graders’
scores on the listening comprehension subtest and their
scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

 

Listening Comprehen. Research Inventory
Correlation .100
p-value .999 .543
Total mean 8.077 32.282
Total standard dev. 2.212 7.178

 

Ho 1f: There is no relationship between sixth- and eighth-

grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory and

their’ scores on ‘the ‘listening comprehension subtest of the

SDRT.

The correlation between sixth- and eighth-grade students’
scores on the listening comprehension subtest of the SORT and their
comprehension of 24 selected types of logical connectives found in
the research inventory was .001. 'The corresponding observed
significance level was .991. Because this p-value was more than

.05, it was not significant at the .05 level (see Table 4.6).

Table 4.6.--Pearson correlation coefficients of 83 sixth and eighth
graders’ scores on the listening comprehension subtest
and their scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

 

Listening Comprehen. Research Inventory
Correlation .001
p-value .999 .991
Total mean 7 038 32.692

Total standard dev. 22408 6.337

 

 

58

ngme_y. Only one independent variable, scores on the reading
comprehension subtest of the SDRT, was found to be significantly
related to sixth- and eighth-grade students’ comprehension of
selected logical connectives. The other independent variable--
scores on the listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT, was found
not to be significantly related to students’ comprehension of

selected logical connectives.

Hypothesis 2

There is no relationship between the frequency with which 24
selected logical connectives occur in sixth- and eighth-grade
students’ social science textbooks and the students’
comprehension of these logical connectives, as measured by
their scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

Frequency distribution was used to analyze the data for Null
Hypothesis 2. The second hypothesis was broken into three
subhypotheses for analysis purposes. These subhypotheses pertained
to sixth graders, eighth graders, and the total group. In the
following pages, each subhypothesis is restated, followed by a
discussion of the results for that subhypothesis.

Llo 2a: There is no relationship between the frequency with

which 24 selected logical connectives occur in sixth-grade

students’ social science textbooks and the students’ comprehen-
sion of these logical connectives, as measured by their scores
on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

Before testing this hypothesis, the researcher analyzed the
sixth-grade social studies textbook (419 pages) for the frequency of
occurrence of each of the 24 selected logical connectives. The
frequency and percentage with which the six types of logical

connectives occurred in the sixth-grade social science textbook are

 

shown in Table 4.7.

frequently (968 times),

59

Causal logical connectives appeared most

followed by contrastive (126), illative

(109), additive (75), conditional (73), and temporal (46) logical

connectives.

Table 4.7.--Frequency and percentage of occurrence of six types of
selected logical connectives in the sixth-grade social
science textbook, in rank order.

 

 

 

 

 

Type of Occurrence in Textbook
Logical Connective
Frequency Percent
Causal 968 69.3
Contrastive 126 9.0
Illative 109 7.8
Additive 75 5.4
Conditional 73 5.2
Temporal 46 3.3
Total 1,397 100.0
Source: Our World Today. New York: Scholastic Book Services,
1981.
Next, the sixth graders’ comprehension of these logical

connectives was determined by examining the students’ performance on

the Logical Connectives Inventory. There were 41 sixth graders, who

had the possibility of answering 72 questions each. Thus, there

were 2,724 total possible responses and 1,359 correct responses.
The sixth graders performed best on temporal logical

connectives (30%) as a group. Also, when they were examined

closely, the following word order, from the simplest to the most

 

60

difficult, was obtained: even, also, in addition, and moreover.
However, these words appeared least often (3.3%) in the textbook.

Conditional logical connectives received the next highest
number of correct responses (28%) as a group. Also, when they were
examined closely, the following word order was obtained, from the
simplest to the most difficult: unless, perhaps, if, and whether.
But, as a group, these connectives appeared next to least frequently
in the sixth-grade textbook (5.2%).

As a group, contrastive logical connectives ranked third in
terms of correct responses (27%); they ranked second highest in
frequency of occurrence in the textbook (9%). In addition, when
they were analyzed closely, the following word order was obtained,
from the easiest to the most difficult: still, however, instead,
and on the other hand.

As a group, causal logical connectives ranked fourth in terms
of' correct responses (26%); however, they ranked first in the
frequency with which they were found in the textbook (69.3%). When
they were analyzed closely, the following word order, from the
easiest to the most difficult, was obtained: as, for, because, and
for--reason.

Illative logical connectives as a group ranked fifth in terms
of correct responses (24%) and third in frequency of occurrence in
the sixth-grade textbook (7.8%). When they were examined closely,
the following word order, from the easiest to the most difficult,

was obtained: 50, therefore, as a result, and thus.

 

61

As a group, additives were the most difficult logical
connectives for the sixth graders to answer correctly (22%); these
connectives ranked fourth in frequency of occurrence (5.4%). When
the specific words were analyzed, the following word order was
obtained, from the easiest to the most difficult: even, also, in
addition, and moreover. See Tables 4.8 and 4.9. Based on these

results, Null Hypothesis 2a was retained.

Table 4.8.--Comparison of frequency of occurrence of six types of
logical connectives in the sixth—grade social science
textbook and students’ performance on these connectives
on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

 

 

 

Occurrence in Correct Responses
Type of Textbook on Inventory
Logical Connective
Rank Freq. % Rank % Correct
Temporal 6 46 3.3 1 3O
Conditional 5 73 5.3 2 28
Contrastive 2 126 9.0 3 27
Causal 1 968 69.3 4 26
Illative 3 109 7.8 5 24
Additive 4 75 5.4 6 22

 

 

62

Table 4.9.--Sixth grade: List of logical connectives based on

correct inventory responses by category, frequency,

percentage, and rank (n = 41).

 

 

Category/Word Freq. % Rank

Additive

Even 51 32 1

Also 48 3O 2

In addition 46 29 3

Moreover 14 9 4
Total 159

Illative

So 52 37 1

Therefore 46 32 2

As a result 29 20 3

Thus 15 11 4
Total 142

gagsel

As 63 29 1

For 58 28 2

Because 56 27 3

For--reason 34 16 4
Total 211

Cpntrastive

Still 59 33 1

However 52 3O 2

Instead 46 26 3

On the other hand 22 12 4

Total

 

 

 

63
Table 4.9.--Continued.
Category/Word Freq. % Rank
Cpndjtjonal
Unless 52 31 1
Perhaps 50 29 2
If 48 28 3
Whether 21 21 4
Total 171
Temporal
Before 75 33 1
Until 55 24 2
After 52 23 3
Meanwhile . 44 20 4
Total 226

 

Total correct: 1,359 out of 2,724 possible.

Ho 2b: There is no relationship between the frequency with

which 24 selected logical connectives occur in eighth-grade

students’ social science textbooks and the students’ comprehen-
sion of these logical connectives, as measured by their scores
on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

Before testing this hypothesis, the researcher content-analyzed
the eighth-grade social studies textbook (733 pages) for the
frequency of occurrence of each of the 24 selected logical
connectives. The frequency with which the six types of logical
connectives occurred in the eighth-grade social science textbook is
shown in Table 4.10. Causal logical connectives appeared most

frequently (2,181 times), followed by additive (438), temporal

 

64

(344), illative (296), contrastive (282), and conditional (280)

logical connectives.

Table 4.10.-~Frequency and percentage of occurrence of six types of
selected logical connectives in the eighth-grade social
science textbook, in rank order.

 

 

 

 

Type of Occurrence in Textbook
Logical Connective

Frequency Percent
Causal 2,181 57.1
Additive 438 11.5
Temporal 344 9.0
Illative 296 7.7
Contrastive 282 7.4
Conditional 280 7.3
Total 3,821 100.0

 

Source: America! America!. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and
Co., 1985.

Next, the eighth graders’ comprehension of these logical
connectives was determined by examining the students’ performance on
the Logical Connectives Inventory. There were 43 eighth graders,
who answered 72 questions each. There were 2,952 possible responses
and 1,392 total correct responses. On the inventory, the eighth
graders performed best on temporal, conditional, and illative
logical connectives (all 28%) as a group.

First, temporal logical connectives were examined closely, and
the following word order was obtained, from the simplest to the most

difficult: until, before, after, and meanwhile. Temporals ranked

 

 

65

third in frequency of occurrence in the eighth-grade textbook
(9.0%).

Next, conditional logical connectives were examined closely,
and the following word order was obtained, from the simplest to the
most difficult: if, perhaps, unless, and whether. They ranked
sixth in frequency of occurrence in the eighth-grade textbook
(7.3%).

Illative logical connectives then were examined closely, and
the following word order was obtained, from the simplest to the most
difficult: so, therefore, as a result, and thus. They ranked
fourth in frequency of occurrence in the eighth-grade textbook
(7.7%).

As a group, causal logical connectives had the second highest
percentage correct (26%). However, they appeared most frequently in
the eighth-grade textbook (57.1%). When they were analyzed closely,
the following word order was obtained, from the simplest to the most
difficult: as, for, because,, and for--reason.

As a group, contrastive logical connectives ranked third in
terms of correct responses (25%) and fifth in frequency of
occurrence (7.4%). When contrastives were analyzed closely, the
following word order was obtained: however, still, instead, and on
the other hand.

Additive logical connectives ranked fourth in terms of correct
responses (23%); they ranked second in frequency of occurrence in
the textbook (11.5%). When additives were analyzed closely, the

following word order was obtained: in addition or even, also, and

 

66

moreover. See Tables 4.11 and 4.12. Based on these results, Null

Hypothesis 2b was retained.

Table 4.11.--Comparison of frequency of occurrence of six types of
logical connectives in the eighth-grade social science
textbook and students’ performance on these connectives
on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

 

 

 

Occurrence in Correct Responses
Type of Textbook on Inventory
Logical Connective

Rank Freq. % Rank % Correct
Temporal 3 344 9.0 1 28
Illative 4 296 7.7 1 28
Conditional 6 280 7.3 1 28
Causal 1 2,181 57.1 2 26
Contrastive 5 282 7.4 3 25
Additive 2 438 11.5 4 23

 

Table 4.12.--Eighth grade: List of logical connectives based on
correct inventory responses by category, frequency,
percentage, and rank (n = 43).

 

 

Category/Word Freq. % Rank
Additive

In addition 48 32 1
Even 47 32 1
Also 45 31 2
Moreover 8 5 3

Total 148

1 iv

So 52 37 1
Therefore 46 32 2
As a result 29 20 3
Thus 15 11 4

Total 145

 

67

Table 4.12.--Continued.

 

 

Category/Word Freq. % Rank
Cause!
As 62 31 1
For 59 29 2
Because 55 27 3
For-~reason 26 13 4
Total 202
gentrastive
However 59 31 1
Still 51 27 2
Instead 45 23 3
On the other hand 37 19 4
Total I92
n ti al
If 68 37 1
Perhaps 49 27 2
Unless 45 25 3
Whether 20 11 4
Total 182
Temporel
Until 70 33 1
Before 67 31 2
After 42 20 3
Meanwhile 36 17 4
Total 215

 

Total correct: 1,392 out of 2,952 possible.

 

68

Ho 2c: There is no relationship between the frequency with
which 24 selected logical connectives occur in sixth- and
eighth-grade students’ social science textbooks and the
students’ comprehension of these logical connectives, as
measured by their scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

The frequency with which the six types of logical connectives
occurred in the sixth- and eighth-grade social science textbooks is

shown in Table 4.13.

Table 4.13.--Frequency of occurrence of six types of logical
connectives in the sixth- and eighth-grade social
science textbooks, in rank order.

 

Frequency of Occurrence

 

Type of Logical

 

 

 

Connective Sixth-Grade Eighth-Grade

Rank Freq. % Rank Freq. %
Causal 1 968 69.3 1 2,181 57.1
Contrastive 2 126 9.0 5 282 7.4
Illative 3 109 7.8 4 296 7.7
Additive 4 75 5.4 2 438 11.5
Conditional 5 73 5.2 6 280 7.3
Temporal 6 46 3.3 3 344 9.0

 

The sixth and eighth graders’ comprehension of these logical
connectives was determined by examining the students’ scores on the
inventory. There were 84 sixth and eighth graders, who answered 72
questions each. There» were 5,676 possible responses and 2,751
correct responses.

On the inventory, both sixth and eighth graders performed best

on temporal logical connectives (30% and 28%, respectively).

69

However, in frequency of occurrence in the two textbooks, temporal
connectives ranked in sixth place in the sixth-grade textbook and in
third place in the eighth-grade textbook. In addition, they were
placed in the following composite word order, from the simplest to
the most difficult: before, until, after, and meanwhile.

On the inventory, both sixth and eighth graders’ scores were in
second place on conditional connectives (28% each). In frequency of
occurrence in the two textbooks, they ranked fifth (5.2%) or next to
last in the sixth-grade textbook and sixth (7.3%) in the eighth-
grade textbook. They were placed in the following composite word
order, from the simplest to the most difficult: if, perhaps,
unless, and whether.

On the inventory, contrastive logical connectives placed in
third place for both sixth graders (27%) and eighth graders (25%).
But in frequency of occurrence they ranked second (9.0%) in the
sixth-grade textbook and fifth (7.4%) in the eighth-grade textbook.
These connectives were placed in the following composite word order,
from the simplest to the most difficult: however, still, instead,
and still.

Both sixth and eighth graders scored 26% on causal logical
connectives (Hi the inventory (fourth place). 'These connectives
ranked in first place in frequency of occurrence in the two
textbooks (69.3% for sixth grade and 57% for eighth grade). These
connectives were placed in the following order, from the simplest to

the most difficult: even, in addition, also, and moreover.

 

70

On the inventory, illative logical connectives placed in fifth
place (24%) for sixth graders and first place (28%) for* eighth
graders. However, in frequency of occurrence in the two textbooks,
illative connectives ranked third (7.8%) in the sixth-grade textbook
and fourth (7.7%) in the eighth-grade textbook. These connectives
were placed in the following order, from the simplest to the most
difficult: so, therefore, as a result, and thus.

On the inventory, additive logical connectives were the most
difficult for both sixth and eighth graders (22%. and 23%,
respectively). On the other hand, in frequency of occurrence,
additive connectives ranked in fourth place (5.4%) in the sixth-
grade textbook and in second place (11.5%) in the eighth-grade
textbook. They were placed in the following word order, from the
simplest to the most difficult: even, in addition, also, and
moreover.

Table 4.14 contains a comparison of sixth- and eighth-grade
students’ performance on the six selected types of logical
connectives contained “hi the research inventory. Based on the
figures shown in Tables 4.13 and 4.14, Null Hypothesis 2c was
retained. For more information on the results, see Tables A.5, A.6,

and A.7, and A.8, Appendix A.

 

71

Table 4.14.--Comparison of sixth- and eighth-grade students’
performance on the six selected types of logical
connectives in the Logical Connectives Inventory.

 

Correct Responses
Type of Logical Connective on Inventory (in %)

 

Sixth Graders Eighth Graders

 

 

Temporal 30 28
Conditional 28 28
Contrastive 27 25
Causal 26 26
Illative 24 28
Additive 22 23
Summa y. Null Hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 2c were not rejected.

Therefore, no measurable relationship was found between the
occurrence of the 24 selected types of logical connectives found in
the sixth- and eighth-grade social science textbooks and the

students’ comprehension of these logical connectives.

Hyppthesis 3
There is no relationship between the specific types of logical
connectives presented and taught in sixth- and eighth-grade
students’ English textbooks and the students’ comprehension of
these logical connectives, as measured by their scores on the
Logical Connectives Inventory.
The relationship between sixth and eighth graders’
comprehension of the 24 logical connectives presented in the
research instrument and the students’ exposure to these connectives

in their English textbooks was examined in the fourth hypothesis.

 

72

In the sixth-grade English textbook, Building English Skills
(McDougal & Little, 1984), only three types of very common logical
connectives were mentioned:

1. Additive. And was presented on three pages on one lesson
on conjunctions.

2. gentrastive. But and or were presented in the same lesson.

3. Qegsel. For was presented in one lesson. It was found 13
times on three pages.

These logical connectives were presented in only 2 of the 29
lessons contained in the textbook. Also, these four connectives
were found on only 13 out of the possible 471 instructional pages
analyzed, or 3%.

In the eighth-grade English textbook, The Macmillan English
Mes (Pollock, 1973), only two classifications of logical
connectives were introduced:

1. Qegsel. Because was found on three pages, for was found on
two pages, and as was used once. All three words were found in the
same lesson.

2. [emporal. Before and after were presented three times.
Until appeared in only one lesson.

These connectives were presented in one lesson on "Connecting
Words," out of a possible 15 lessons contained in the textbook. In
addition, these five connectives were found on only 5 of the 486

instructional pages analyzed, or 2%.

 

73

Because so few examples were found of specific logical
connectives being taught in sixth and eighth graders’ English
classes, no statistical analysis could be performed on the data for
this null hypothesis. Thus, the researcher had no basis from which
to reject or not to reject Null Hypothesis 3. For more detailed

information, see Table A.9, Appendix A.

Chapter Summary
The results of the hypothesis testing were presented and
discussed in this chapter. A summary and discussion of the major
findings, limitations of the study, and implications for practice

and future research are contained in Chapter V.

 

CHAPTER V

MAJOR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION, COMPARISON OF THE FINDINGS
TO THOSE FROM OTHER RESEARCH, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FURTHER RESEARCH, AND REFLECTIONS

Introduction

This study was based on an earlier investigation conducted by
Robertson (1968), who analyzed three basal reading series at the
fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade levels ix) determine which
connectives were most widely used. After analyzing her findings,
Robertson constructed a research instrument, the Connective Reading
Test, containing 17 of the most frequently occurring connectives.
The instrument. was. designed to measure 402 fourth-, fifth, and
sixth-graders’ knowledge of connectives. The results of Robertson’s
research suggested that children’s comprehension of connectives
improved across these three grade levels, that the comprehension of
connectives is highly related to reading ability.

Stoodt’s (1970) research findings reaffirmed those from
Robertson’s (1968) study: A significant relationship was found
between reading ability' and understanding the functions of
conjunctions (which include connectives) in sentences, and the
numbers and types of conjunctions are important factors in

determining the readability levels of reading materials.

74

 

75

The purpose of this study was to identify and examine several
important elements that affect on-grade-level readers’ comprehension
of logical connectives and to compare these elements with other
variables. The writer had three major objectives in conducting the
study:

1. To determine whether there is a relationship between sixth-
and eighth-grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives
Inventory and their scores on the reading comprehension and
listening comprehension subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic Reading
Test (SDRT).

2. To determine whether there is a: relationship between the
frequency with which selected types of logical connectives occur in
social science textbooks and sixth- and eighth-grade students’
comprehension of these connectives and mastery of them on the
research instrument.

3. To investigate the relationship between the specific types
of logical connectives presented and taught in sixth and eighth
graders’ English textbooks and the students’ mastery of these
logical connectives on the research instrument.

In this chapter, major results of the study, comparison of the
findings to those from other research, and recommendations for

further research, and implications are presented.

Major Results and Discussion
Within the limits of the setting, population sampling, and

methodology, the findings of this study are presented. Specific

 

76

results are reported under headings of each major hypothesis that
was explored. The level of significance for all tests was set at
.05.

Hyppthesis 1: There is in) relationship between sixth- and

eighth-grade students’ scores on the Logical Connectives

Inventory and their scores on the reading comprehension and

listening comprehension subtests of the Stanford Diagnostic

Reading Test (SDRT).

Of the two relationships that were studied (reading
comprehension and listening comprehension), only students’ scores on
the reading comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their comprehen-
sion of selected types of logical connectives were found to be
statistically related. The finding that students’ understanding of
connectives and their reading ability were related is in agreement
with the findings of research by Robertson (1968) and Stoodt (1972).
However, unlike Robertson’s and Stoodt’s samples, the sixth and
eighth graders in this study had almost identical mean scores on the
research inventory (33% and 32%, respectively). In both Robertson’s
and Stoodt’s studies, students’ scores indicated growth in
understanding of connectives from one year to the next. On the
other hand, Wishart and Smith’s (1982) research findings tended to
support those of the present research--that history textbooks were
written with unfamiliar, often abstract words, including connectives
that were difficult to comprehend for all three levels of students
examined.

Unlike Robertson, this researcher did not find students’ scores

on the listening comprehension subtest of the SDRT and their

comprehension of selected types of logical connectives to be

77

related statistically. Evidently, the SDRT does not require
knowledge of the various types of logical connectives included in
the Logical Connectives Inventory.

Hypothesis 2: There is no relationship between the frequency

with which 24 selected logical connectives occur in sixth- and

eighth-grade students’ social science textbooks and the
students’ comprehension of these logical connectives, as meas-
ured by their scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

The percentages of correct responses on the Logical Connectives
Inventory were surprising because the range was quite limited--from
22%. for sixth graders’ mastery of additives to 30% for sixth-
graders’ mastery of temporals. Also surprising was that the sixth
graders’ score on temporals (the category in which they demonstrated
the greatest mastery) was only two percentage points higher than
that of the eighth graders (30% versus 28%). Both groups scored
similarly on all three sections of the inventory; the total mean
score for the sixth graders was 33.1026, and for eighth graders it
was 32.4750.

Causal logical connectives occurred the most frequently in both
the sixth-grade and eighth-grade textbooks (69.3% and 57.1%,
respectively). However, students’ mastery of these connectives
ranked in fourth place; both sixth and eighth graders achieved 26%
mastery of this type of connective. On a combined word list for
both sixth and eighth graders, the following connectives, from the

simplest to the most difficult, were obtained: as, for, because,

and for--reason.

 

78

Contrastive logical connectives occurred second most
frequently in the sixth-grade textbook (9%) and fifth (7.4%) in the
eighth-grade textbook. However, sixth graders showed 27% mastery of
these connectives, and eighth graders showed 25% mastery of them.
On a composite word list, the following connectives, from the
simplest to the most difficult, were obtained: however, still,
instead, and on the other hand.

Illative logical connectives occurred third most frequently in
the sixth-grade textbook (7.8%) and fourth in the eighth-grade
textbook (11.5%). Sixth- and eighth—grade students’ mastery of
these connectives varied very little: 24% and 28%, respectively.
On a composite word list, the following connectives, from the
simplest to the most difficult, were obtained: so, therefore, as a
result, and thus.

Additive logical connectives occurred fourth irI frequeney in
the sixth-grade textbook (5.4%) and second in the eighth-grade
textbook (11.5%). However, in terms of performance, both sixth and
eighth graders’ scores on these connectives were in sixth place:
22% mastery for sixth graders and 23% for eighth graders. On a
composite word list, the following connectives, from the simplest to
the most difficult, were obtained: even, in addition, also, and
moreover.

Conditional logical connectives occurred fifth in frequency in
the sixth-grade textbook (5.2%) and sixth or least often in the
eighth-grade textbook (7.3%). But in terms of performance, students

in both grades had their second highest level of mastery on these

 

79

connectives: 28%. On a composite word list, the following word
order was obtained, from the simplest to the most difficult: if,
perhaps, unless, and whether.

Temporal logical connectives occurred least frequently in the
sixth-grade textbook (3.3%) and in third place in the eighth-grade
textbook (9%). However, students in both grades demonstrated the
best mastery of this type of connective: 30% mastery for sixth
graders and 28% for eighth graders. On a composite word list, the
following word order was obtained, from the simplest to the most
difficult: before, until, after, and meanwhile.

A complete rank order of connectives from the simplest to the
most difficult, based on sixth and eighth graders’ scores, was as
follows: so, if, before, even, therefore, in addition, also, as,
however, still, for, perhaps, until, because, unless, instead,
after, as--result, meanwhile, on the other hand, for--reason, thus,
whether, and moreover.

When a list of the most difficult connectives was constructed
for the purpose of further analysis, the following rank order was
obtained: meanwhile, on the other hand, for--reason, thus, and
whether. This word-order list was compared to earlier ones compiled
by Robertson (1968) and Stoodt (1968), and only two connectives,
thus and however, appeared on the present list and either of the two
previous ones. Robertson noted that some connectives were easier to
comprehend than others. In that study, the five most difficult

connectives for students to comprehend were however, thus, which,

 

80

although, and yet. Also, Stoodt (1972) noted that children
experienced difficulty in comprehending the more unfamiliar types of
connectives in her study: though, where, when, while, why, and yet.

Hypothesis 3: There is no relationship between the specific

types of logical connectives presented and taught in sixth- and

eighth-grade students’ English textbooks and the students’
comprehension of these logical connectives, as measured by
their scores on the Logical Connectives Inventory.

No relationship was found between the specific types of logical
connectives presented and taught in sixth- and eighth-graders’
English textbooks and the students’ mastery of these logical
connectives on the research instrument. There were very few
examples of these specific types of logical connectives ‘hi either
the sixth- or the eighth-grade textbook.

In the sixth-grade textbook, only the supplementary ferms of
the additive (and for three pages), contrastive (but and or were
presented on the same three pages as and), and causal (for) logical
connectives were found on three pages. Also, in the sixth-grade
English textbook, Building English Skills (McDougal & Littel, 1984),
only three types of very common logical connectives were mentioned:
and, for, but, and or. These examples of the selected
classification were presented in 2 out of 29 lessons occurring in
the textbook. These three examples were found on only 13 out of the
471 (3%) instructional pages analyzed.

In the eighth-grade English textbook, The Macmillen English
Semtes (Pollock, 1973), five types of unsophisticated logical

connectives were used: and, because, as, for, and but. These

examples were similar to the ones used in the sixth-grade textbook.

 

81

They occurred in one lesson on "connecting words," out of the total
15 lessons contained 'hi the textbook. In addition, these five
examples were evident on only 5 of the 486 (1%) instructional pages

examined.

meperison of the Findings to Those From Other Research

The findings of research conducted by Vygotsky (1962), Hurlock
(1953), and Palermo and Molfese (1972) would seem to indicate that
children at a very young age use logical connectives orally by
imitating the speech patterns of others. However, the findings of
this research (based on the scores of readers of average ability)
might suggest that explicit instruction on the various uses and
relationships signaled by logical connectives in social science or
English classes might be beneficial for homogeneous remedial reading
classes and could be extended to include heterogeneous classes that
contain a wider representation of readers. The findings of
Robertson (1968), Stoodt (1972), and Kavale and Schreiner (1979)
support this assertion. .

The fact that the two social science textbooks used in this
study were written in a formal style that still contained a few
unfamiliar connectives might have contributed to the apparent
difficulty of the inventory. Gardner (1980) and Wishart and Smith
(1982) noted the possibility of such an occurrence in their studies.
In the present study, only one relationship was found to be statis-

tically significant (between students’ reading comprehension scores

82

on the SDRT and their comprehension of selected types of logical
connectives and the types of relationships they signaled).

Contrary to the findings of Robertson (1968) and Stoodt (1972),
no measurable relationship was found between students’ scores on the
Logical Connectives Inventory and their listening comprehension.
Evidently, the SDRT subtest on 'listening comprehension does not
require knowledge of the various types of logical connectives
included in the Logical Connectives Inventory. Finally, only an
insignificant amount of space was devoted to logical connectives in

both the sixth- and eighth-grade English textbooks.

Recommendations for Further Research

This research should be replicated in other regions of the
country and at other grade levels to determine the generalizability
of the methodology. The methodology employed in this research might
be useful in future studies. The inventory used and the approach of
using gap fill in (cloze) and multiple-choice selections written
with selected types of logical connectives might prove useful in
approaching the challenge of assessing comprehension of specific
classes of logical connectives. Evaluation of logical connectives
in written passages continues to be a topic for further research.

Because certain logical connectives were more difficult than
others for the students in this study to comprehend, several follow-
up studies are needed:

1. A study should be conducted with two groups--a control

group and an experimental group--with a pretest/posttest design.

 

83

2. Another study should use the research instrument as it was
constructed for this study. However, in the inventory given to a
second group, the classes or types of logical connectives could be
indicated and underscored on the top of each page.

3. A study should be undertaken in which students were tested
twice: first in the sixth grade and again in the eighth grade.

4. A study should be undertaken to compare sixth and eighth
graders’ oral, written, and reading comprehension of selected types
of logical connectives determined beforehand. For example, do
students use the more difficult logical connectives in their own
informal speech and unsupervised writing?

5. A study should be conducted that compares sixth and eighth
graders’ reading comprehension scores with their verbal rationaliza-
tions about their reading responses.

6. A study should be conducted to update the role that logical
connectives play in the readability of social science materials.
Book editors recently have taken a much-too-simple approach to
making texts more understandable for average and below-average
readers, by merely replacing more sophisticated connectives with
ambiguous short ones, such as for, as, and so.

7. A study should be conducted using the more abstract,
sophisticated connectives and providing study guides along the pages
and in 'teacher’ manuals that explain the difficult terminologies
encountered in social science materials. Then, the results of such

a study should be compared to another one designed similarly to

 

84

Gardner’s (1980) using the more common types of connectives used in
spontaneous speech.

8. A study should be designed in which teachers are provided
with in-service sessions on the types and functions of logical
connectives. This study also should include periodic assessment of

students and observations of how they present connectives.

Reflections

At this point, the investigator will go beyond the data to
share her reflections on this study. After the field testing, two
classroom English teachers and one reading consultant volunteered to
critique this study. Initially, they were unaware of the various
terminologies, definitions, and relationships that each of the six
types of logical connectives could generate in sentences and
passages. Once they were aware of the importance of connectives,
they were surprised and wished to learn more about them in order to
help their students understand them.

In addition, during the course of the study, certain comments
made by middle school and junior high school teachers made the
researcher aware that, as a group, they were interested in better
understanding the definitions of logical connectives and the
functions of“ logical connectives in sentences. 'These educators
previously had assumed that all students (above-average, average,
and below-average readers) would automatically learn these

connectives.

 

 

85

This study was restricted to the use of two social science
textbooks. Many of the logical connectives in the sixth-grade
textbook had been altered when the book was revised, and usages were
confined to a few overused words, such as and, for, and as, which
made it difficult for the investigator to construct a balanced
research instrument.

The eighth-grade textbook in this series had been rewritten
with fewer of the more sophisticated, unfamiliar logical connectives
that are traditionally found in social science textbooks. With this
oversimplifying of logical connectives, middle-school-age students
are not exposed to the more complex connectives.

At the eighth-grade level, a surprise football rally was held
right in the middle of the testing session, so several students
required a make-up session. The make-up day was a half-day of
school, so the halls were noisy. This disturbed the students who
were taking the inventory.

ITI this study, the researcher investigated the relationship
between students’ comprehension of logical connectives found in
social science textbooks and their reading and listening
comprehension. If students do not have the linguistic structure
necessary to understand fully the meaning of certain words,
including logical connectives, they will insufficiently process
written passages.

Challenging questions should be raised that force students to
become cognitively aware, to analyze, and to question concepts about

which they are still uncertain. Simons (1971) stated that reading

 

86

comprehension is both process and product. The mental operation is
the process. The product is the resultant behaviors of comprehen-
sion: the oral and written responses. Therefore, classroom
teachers should provide learning environments that challenge
students to become more active, selective readers--readers who are
able to analyze abstract syntactic structures in order to comprehend

logical connectives whenever they are encountered.

 

APPENDICES

 

APPENDIX A

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES

87

 

 

Table A.1--Table of Logical Connectives.

Fernald Fries Long Mellon Robertson
also and and moreover although
although also but also because
and nor or furthermore if

as but nor besides so
because yet both in addition that
both then not nevertheless when
but therefore either however where
either however neither although that
are after when whereas which
for although how still who
except though if yet and
forasmuch as after accordingly but
however because that consequently for

if before because thus yet
lest for therefore hence however
neither how nevertheless therefore thus
nevertheless if "absent" that
nor like

notwithstanding provided

or since

provided so

save than

seeing that

since unless

so until

still what

than when

that where

then whether

therefore which

though while

till who

unless why

until

when

whence

where

whereas

* ~~ ~¥.

A

Table A.1 (cont'd).

 

 

Fernald Rogers Stoodt Strang Whitehall
whereat but and and and
whereby while yet not yet
wherein thus nor but rather as
whereinsoever if or sooner than nor
whereinto as than as well as or
whereof even for nor than
whereto however so because for
whereupon because if therefore so
wherever since though although if
wherewith until while for though
whether when how nevertheless while
while then that if how
whither yet when whether that
why in fact where after what
although-yet therefore which before when
as-as meanwhile because since where
as-so whether either so which
both-and perhaps neither when who
either-or despite now whenever why
if then since else
neither-nor consequently
no-nor hence
so-as after
such-as because
though yet before
whether or provided
providing
since
supposing
unless
whence
whether
whither
also
furthermore
moreover
nevertheless
such as
or else
other than
otherwise
and so
so that
therefore
although

for all

Table A.1 (cont'd).

89

 

Fernald

Rogers

Stoodt

Strang

Whitehall

 

however
in that
so that
whatever

90

Table A.2--Summary: Placement of Logical Connectives in Science

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Textbooks.

Sixth Grade: Our World Today, Eighth Grade: America! America!
Beginning, pp. 1-140 Beginning, pp. 1-244
Middle, pp. 141-279 Middle, pp. 455-488
Ending, pp. 280-419 Ending, pp. 489-732

The twenty-four Book type Grade Page Correct Type of

selected logical and level no. frame logical

connectives placement no. connectives
I II III IV V VI

Cloze Words

1. Moreover E B 643 (3) Additive

2. So M 8 381 (3) Illative

3. For some reason B B 55 (1) Causal

4. Still E 6 319 (4) Additive

5. Unless B 8 191 (2) Contrastive
6. Thus E 6 361 (1) Illative

7. As E 6 97 (1) Causal

B . whatever E B 42 (4 ) Conditional
9. Until B 6 144 (2) Temporal

10. Given B 6 123 (2) Additive

11. However B 8 240 (2) Contrastive

12. Instead E 6 126-7 (1) Contrastive

13. After B 6 153 (2) Temporal

14. Before E 8 699 (4) Temporal

15. Meanwhile E 8 655 (1) Temporal

16. Therefore E 6 330 (2) Illative

17. On the other hand 8 B 505 (3) Contrastive

18. Perhaps E 6 383 (3) Conditional

19. Also E B 167 (4) Additional

20. Because M 8 260 (3) Causal

21. If E 6 125 (1) Conditional

22. For E 6 402 (2) Causal

23. As a result 8 B 663 (4) Illative

24. In addition B 6 163 (1) Additive

 

Note: B
M
E

Beginning of text
Middle of text
End of text

Table A.2 (cont'd).

91

 

 

 

 

 

The twenty-four Book type Grade Page Correct Type of
selected logical and level no. frame logical
connectives placement no. connectives
I II III IV V VI
Sentence Completion Words
1. In addition B 8 38 (1) Additive
2. Whether M 6 209 (4) Conditional
3. 0n the other hand M 8 257 (4) Contrastive
4. For this purpose M 8 357 (1) Causal
5. Even M 6 254 (4) Additive
6. However 6 133 (1) Contrastive
7. Unless M 8 245 (1) Conditional
8. Before M 6 193 (3) Temporal
9. So E 8 627 (2) Illative
10. For a reason M 8 472 (3) Causal
11. Therefore B 6 58 (4) Illative
12. Meanwhile E 8 604 (1) Temporal
13. Instead E 6 289-90 (3) Contrastive
14. Also M 6 175 (3) Additive
15. After M 6 162 (4) Temporal
16. If M 6 190 (2) Conditional
17. As M 6 176 (2) Causal
18. Thus M 8 436 (1) Illative
19. Still E 8 671 (2) Contrastive
20. Perhaps E 8 634 (3) Conditional
21. The result 8 6 207 (3) Illative
22. Until M 8 379 (2) Temporal
23. Because E 6 334 (4) Causal
24. Moreover M 8 410 (2) Additive
Note: 8 = Beginning
M = Middle
E = End

Table A.2 (cont'd).

 

 

 

 

 

The twenty-four Book type Grade Page Correct Type of
selected logical and level no. frame logical
connectives placement no. connectives
I II III IV V VI

Multiple Choice Words

1. 0n the other hand M 6 259 (1) Contrastive
2. Before/Until M 8 274 (2) Temporal

3. For/As E 6 77 (4) Causal

4. Even/Also M 8 350 (4) Additive

5. Still/Nevertheless E 8 182 (2) Contrastive
6. Result/Consequently E 6 399 (4) Illative

7. Perhaps/Maybe M 8 365 (1) Conditional
8. Thus/Finally B 8 9 (3) Illative

9. Because/For E 8 681 (1) Causal

10. Unless/Provided that B 6 159 (2) Conditional
11. However/Nevertheless E 6 410 (3) Contrastive
12. After/Later E 8 685 (4) Temporal
13. Therefore/Consequently B 8 182 (1) Illative
14. Moreover/Also E 8 717 (2) Additive
15. Meanwhile/Now E 6 389 (1) Temporal
16. Instead/However B 8 79 (4) Contrastive
17. So/Hence B 6 45-6 (2) Illative
18. As/Because E 8 536-9 (2) Causal

19. Whether/If M 6 214 (3) Conditional
20. In addition/Likewise B 8 28 (3) Additive
21. Until/Before B 6 18 (3) Temporal
22. If/Provided 8 119 (4) Conditional
23. Also/Likewise M 6 231 (3) Additive
24. One reason/Because M 6 153 (3) Causal
Note: 8 = Beginning

= Middle

M
E End

93

Table A.3--Placement of Logical Connectives in Inventory.

 

*Selected logical connectives

 

 

Number of Given logical Part I: Part II: Part III:
occurrences connectives Cloze Sentence Multi-choice
Completion Synonyms
Additive
(6) 1. *Moreover 1-(3), 8-2 6-2, 24-(2) 14-(2), 18-(4)
(7) 2. In addition 3-4, 23-1, 1-(1), 10-2,
24-(1) 12-4, 13-4
(5) 3. Also 6-2, 19-(4) 14-(2), 18-2 4-(4)
(4) 4. Even 10-(2) 5-(4), 7-4,
20-1
(4) 5. Likewise 11-4, 12-3 22-3, 23-(3)
(3) 6. Besides 20-1 23-2
(8) 7. And 22-1 4-4, 17-3, 3-1, 9-4,
21-4 19-2, 20-3
(1) 8. Including 2-2
(4) 9. Furthermore 5-4, 6-1,
10-3, 11-1
Additive: In addition (7); Moreover (6); Also (5); Even (4).

Total times selected logical connectives were used in inventory.

Table A.3 (cont'd).

94

 

*Selected logical connectives

 

 

Number of Given logical Part I: Part II: Part III:
occurrences connectives Cloze Sentence Multi-choice
Completion Synonyms
Illative
(9) 1. *So 2-(3), 9-(2), 16-4 7-2, 15-4,
7-3, 21-4 19-1, 20-1
(3) 2. Hence 5-3, 9-3 17-(2)
(6) 3. *Thus 6-(1), 4-3, 5-1,
10-1, 19-3 18-(1)
(5) 4. *Therefore 8-1, 6-3, 11-(4) 22-1
16-(2)
(1) 5. In 17-4
conclusion
(4) 6. *As a 23-(4), 24-1 1-3
result 24-2
(1) 7. Eventually 3-3
(1) 8. Since 8-4
(3) 9. Finally 19-3 8-(3), 16-1
(1) 10. *The (same) 21-(3)
result
(1) 11. *Result (same) 2-4
(3) 12. Consequently 6-(4), 10-1,
13-(1)
Illative: Therefore (5); So (9); Thus (6); As a result (4);

The result (1); Result (1).

Total times selected logical connectives were used in inventory.

 

Table A.3 (cont'd).

95

 

*Selected logical connectives

 

 

Number of Given logical Part I: Part II: Part III:
occurrences connectives Cloze Sentence Multi-choice
Completion Synonyms
Causal
(5) 1. *As 2-1, 17-(2) 3-(4)
7-(1),
21-3
(1) 2. *For some 3-(1)
reason
(19) 3. *Because 8-3, 11-3, 2-1, 6-4, 4-2, 8-4,
15-4, 7-2, 9-1, 14-1, 18-2,
18-1, 13-1, 15-2, 22-2, 23-2,
20-(3) 23-(4) 24-(3)
(2) 4. *For this 17-2 3-1
reason
(6) 5. For 22-(2) 14-2 9-1, 19-4,
20-2, 4-2
(1) 6. For this 4-(1)
purpose
(1) 7. *For a 10-(3)
reason
(2) 8. On account 1-1, 11-2
of
(3) 9. Cause 14-2 12-1, 21-4
10.
11.
12.
Causal: Because (19); For this reason (1); For some reason (1);

As (5); For a reason (1).

Total of times selected logical connectives were used in inventory.

 

96

Table A.3 (cont'd).

 

*Selected logical connectives

 

 

Number of Given logical Part I: Part II: Part III:
occurrences connectives Cloze Sentence Multi-choice
Completion Synonyms
Contrastive
(2) 1. Otherwise 1-4 20-1
(3) 2. Or 2-4, 7-4
21-2
(2) 3. 0n the 3-3 1-4
contrary
(10) 4. *Still 4-(3), 2-1, 12-2,
5-1, 9-1, 17-4, 21-1
13-4, 14-3,
19-(2)
(3) 5. Only 6-4, 10-3, 5-2
(10) 6. *However 11-(2), 6-(1), 23-1 8-1, 16-(4),
15-3, 18-2 18-3, 23-4,
24-4
(8) 7. *Instead 12-(1), 1-2, 12-2, 7-3
2-4 13-(3), 16-3,
21-1
(12) 8. Nevertheless 16-4, 9-3, 10-4, 5-(2), 6-3,
23-3, 24-3 11-(3), 10-4, 11-(3),
24-4 13-3
(2) 9. *On the 17-(3) 3-(4)
other hand
(9) 10. But 22-4 4-2, 14-4, 10-4, 4-3,
17-4, 18-3, 15-2
22-1
(1) 11. Yet 9-3
(1) 12. Otherwise 8-2
(1) 13. In spite of 15-(2)

 

Contrastive: 0n the other hand (2); However (10); Still (11);
Instead (8).

Total of times selected logical connectives were used in inventory.

""“VCLE'. - ‘ -

 

 

 

97
Table A.3 (cont‘d).
*Selected logical connectives
Number of Given logical Part I: Part II: Part III:
occurrences connectives Cloze Sentence Multi-choice
Completion Synonyms
Conditional
(8) 1. Provided 1-1, 11-1, 8-2, 14-4,
15-(1), 16-2, 22-(4)
16-1
(8) 2. *If 2-2, 7-2, 16-(2) 3-2, 15-3,
21-1 19-(3), 4-2
(12) 3. Provided 3-2, 17-1, 1-4, 10-1 1-2, 5-3,
that 23-2, 24-3 6-2, 10-(2),
11-(4), 13-2
(6) 4. Maybe 4-1, 9-4, 5-3, 22-2 7-(1)
14-1
(8) 5. *Unless 5-(2), 7-(1), 8-1 2-3, 12-3,
13-1 14-3, 17-1
(9) 6. *Whether 8-(4), 2-(4), 3-2, 18-1, 24-2
12-2, 20-2 21-2, 23-3
(6) 7. *Perhaps 18-(3) 9-1, 11-1,
12-3, 19-1,
20-(3)

 

Total Conditional: If (8); Perhaps (6);

Total times selected logical connectives

Whether (9); Unless (8).

were used in inventory.

 

98

Table A.3 (cont'd).

 

*Selected logical connectives

 

Number of Given logical Part I: Part II: Part III:
occurrences connectives Cloze Sentence Multi-choice
Completion Synonyms
Temporal
(2) 1. Sometimes 1-2, 12-4
(1) 2. Since 4-3
(1) 3. While 5-4
(1) 4. Then 6-3
(5) 5. *Until 9-(2) 22-(1) 2-(2), 7-4,
' 17-3
(2) 6. Soon 10-4 14-1
(5) 7. Before 14-(4) 8-(3), 15-1, 21-(3)
19-4
(7) 8. *Meanwhile 15-(1), 11-3, 12-(1), 16-3, 23-1
16-3 18-4
(4) 9. Earlier 18-4 24-3 24-1, 20-2
(3) 10. *After 19-2 7-3, 15-(4)
(4) 11. Now 22-4 3-(3), 9-2,
15-1
(2) 12. When 16-1 14-4
(1) 13. Later 12-(4)
(1) 14. Occasionally 13-4

 

Total Temporal: Until (5); Before (5); Meanwhile (7); After (3).

Total times selected logical connectives were used in inventory.

 

99

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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105

Table A.5--Composite List of Logical Connectives Based on Correct
Inventory RespOnses by Percentages.

 

 

Bank 93h 83h 6th-8th
Additive
In addition (2) .29 .32 .31
Moreover (4) .09 .05 .07
Also (3) .30 .31 .30
Even (1) .32 .32 .32
Illative
Therefore (2) .32 .31 .32
So (1) .37 .32 .34
Thus (4) .11 .17 .14
As a result (3) .20 .19 .20
M
Because (3) .27 .27 .27
For-reason (4) .16 .13 .15
As (1) .29 .31 .30
For (2) .28 .29 .28
Contrastive
0n the other hand (4) .12 .19 .16
However (1) .30 .31 .30
Still (2) .33 .27 .30

Instead (3) .26 .23 .25

Table A.5 (cont'd)

106

 

Conditional
If

Perhaps
Whether

Unless

Temporal

Until
Before
Meanwhile

After

Rank

(1)

(2)

(4)

(3)

(2)

(1)

(4)

(3)

6th

.28

.29

.12

.31

.24

.33

.20

.23

§t_h

.33

.31

.17

.20

6th-8th

.33

.12

.27

.28

.18

.21

 

107

Table A.6--Sixth and Eighth Grade: List of Logical Connectives Based
on Correct Inventory Responses by Category, Frequency,
Percentage, and Rank.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Category - Word Frequency Percentage Rank

Additive
In addition ' 94 .31 2
Moreover 22 .07 4
Also 93 .30 3
Even 98 .32 1
Total: 307

Illative
Therefore 91 .32 2
So 99 .34 1
Thus 40 .14 4 _
As a result 57 ;§0 3
Total: 287

CM
Because 111 .27 3
For-reason 60 .15 4
As 125 .30 1
For 117 .28 2
Total: 413

Contrastive
On the other hand 59 .16 3
However 111 .30 1
Still 110 .30 2
Instead 91 .25 3

 

Total: 371

108

Table A.6 (cont'd).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Category - Word Frequency Percentage Rank
Conditional
If 116 .33 1
Perhaps 99 .28 2
Whether 41 .12 4
Unless 97 .27 3
Total: 353
Temporal
Until 125 .28 2
Before 142 .32 1
Meanwhile 80 .18 4 ,
After 90 .21 3
Total: 441
Total Correct: 2,751/5,676 = possible

N = 84

109

Table A.7--Composite List of Logical Connectives Based on Correct
Inventory Responses by Percentage.

 

 

 

Sixth grade Eighth grade Sixth-Eighth grade
Logical % Logical % Logical %
Conn. Conn. Conn.

80 .37 If .37 So .34
Still .33 Until .33 If .33
Before .33 In addition .32 Before .32
Even .32 So .32 Even .32
Therefore .32 Even .32 Therefore .32
Unless .31 Also .31 In addition .31
Also .30 Therefore .31 Also .30
However .30 As .31 As .30
In addition .29 However .31 However .30
As .29 Before .31 Still .30
Perhaps .29 For .29 For .28
For .28 Because .27 Perhaps .28
If .28 Still .27 Until .28
Because .27 Perhaps .27 Because .27
Instead .26 Unless .25 Unless .27
Until .24 Instead. .23 Instead .25
After .23 After .20 After .21
As-result .20 As-result .19 As-result .20
Meanwhile .20 On the .19 Meanwhile .18

other hand
For-reason .16 Thus .17 On the .16

other hand

110

Table A.7 (cont'd).

 

 

 

Sixth grade Eighth grade Sixth-Eighth grade
Logical % Logical % Logical X
Conn. Conn. Conn.
On the .12 Meanwhile .17 For-reason .15
other hand
Whether .12 For-reason .13 Thus .14
Thus .11 Whether .11 Whether .12
Moreover .09 Moreover .05 Moreover .07

N = 41 N = 43 N = 84

L.C. = 24

111

Table A.8--List of Logical Connectives Found in Sixth- and Eighth-Grade Textbooks
(Sun-ary for Hypothesis 2).

 

Sixth Grade Text

Eighth Grade Text

Total For Sixth
and Eighth
Grade Texts

 

II.

III.

IV.

Additive

In addition
Moreover
Also

Even

Illative

Therefore
50

Thus

.45 a result
(The result)

Causal

Because

For that reason
As

For

Contrastive

0n the other hand
However

Still

Instead

Conditional

If
Perhaps
Uhether
Unless

40
34
75

10
58
19
19
.222
109

51

440
4.72
968

102

10
__11
126

49
15

73

14

320
a
438

19
198
36
43
E
339

97
12
975
L091
2181

14
110
112
fi
282

214
35
26

'2'66

513

467

3149

408

353

 

112

Table A.8 (cont'd).

 

Ul. Tenporal

Until 11 71
Before 31 16?
Meanwhile 2 92
(while)
After _g _14
46 344 390

 

Note: Sixth grade textbook, p. 464; Eighth grade textbook, p. 752. On an inforwal
glance, the increased nuwber of pages in the eighth grade textbook apparently
influenced the correlation between the sixth grade and eighth grade texts.

The eighth grade book had two times were (or 1.62) logical connectives than
the sixth grade book.

 

 

1-41

113

Table A.9--Summary: Logical Connectives Lessons in English

Textbooks.

 

4a.

SIXTH

EIGHTH

TOTAL

 

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

ADDITIVE

In addition
Moreover

Also

Even
(And-supplementary)

ILLATIVE
Therefore
So

Thus

As a result

CAUSAL
Because

For...reason
As
For

CONTRASTIVE

On the other hand
However

Still

Instead
(But-supplementary)

(Or-supplementary)

CONDITIONAL
If

Perhaps
Whether
Unless

TEMPORAL

Until

Before

Meanwhile (while)
After

296,299,430
305,306,500
532,546,547
568

296,297,305
306
(same)

431,431,432

430,431,232
438,440

440
431,432

431,432

431,432,440

440
440,441

440,441

0000

6-11,8-3

OOOO

 

APPENDIX B

THE LOGICAL CONNECTIVES INVENTORY

114

   

- '-,:-:::-‘~Iow (F WICAL WIVES

GRADES 6 AND 8

DEFINITION: Logical connectives are words such as because, unless,
before, likewise, and therefore which link or tie a
sentence together.

STANDARD: Students will identify and comprehend the meanings of
the appropriate logical connectives when used in a
sentence or passage.

 

SKILL: Students will identify the logical connectives in a
passage and choose from among four multiple-choice
items, the most appropriate logical connective that
fits a given context or is a synonym for the one they
have identified.

This set of logical connectives consists of 72 items. It is
constructed in three parts, containing 24 items each:
PART I: Cloze

PART II: Sentence completion
PART III: Multi-choice synonym

115

CLOZE

PART I

Directions for cloze: Read the following passages and check the most
appropriate logical connective for each selection.

SAMPLE ITEM:
A bill of rights can have meaning only when citizens have enough

power and enough courage to protect it. it‘s just a

 

piece of paper.

1. Provided
2. Therefore
3. Moreover

4. Otherwise

 

116

1. Cloze

Economic problems occupied much of the nation's attention in the
months following World War II. During the war, many Americans had
high-paying jobs producing wartime goods. Now that the war was over
and wartime goods were no longer needed, they feared that they would
lose their jobs. millions of soldiers would now be

coming home to look for work.

1. Provided
2. Sometimes
3. Moreover

4. Otherwise

117

2. Cloze

In the middle of July, a Union army under General Irvin McDowell
reluctantly left Washington for the little town of Manassas Junction,
Virginia. McDowell didn’t want to attack the Confederate army at

Manassas. He said his troops weren't ready to fight. But everyone

in Washington wanted action. Soldiers who had left their hometowns .

with flags waving and bands playing were tired of drilling in army
camps. They wanted to do some real fighting. Members of Congress
and other people who lived in Washington feared a Confederate attack

on the city. Manassas Junction was only twenty-five miles from the

 

capital! Lincoln ordered McDowell to attack.
1 As
2 If
3 So

118

3. Cloze

During these years, the skills of the Anasazi grew quickly.
They improved as farmers, and their arts became more specialized.
Their pueblos also improved. By the year 1100, the Anasazi were
living in huge, beautiful buildings that housed hundreds of people.
Round ceremonial chambers, or kivas (ke' vez), were scattered
throughout the community. , the people of Mesa Verde
began leaving their homes on the mesa top. They moved back to the

ledges and huge open caves below the mesa top.

1. For some reason
2. Provided that
3. On the contrary

4. In addition

119

4. Cloze

The system of checks and balances works in this way. Suppose
the Congress passes a new law. A new law does not go into effect
until the President signs it. Now suppose that the President does
not like the law. The President can veto (refuse to sign) it. The
new law does not take effect because the President has checked the
power of Congress. The President's power to veto also has limits.
Congress can pass the law if more than two-thirds of its

members vote in favor of the law.

1 . maybe
2. least
3 . since

4. still

120

5. Cloze

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of iuInediate and
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his
assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly
neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large
districts of people, those people would relinquish the
right of representation in the legislature, a right inestimable to

them and formidable to tyrants only.

1. still
2. unless
3. hence

4. while

121

6. Cloze

The machines we use to do work all run on energy, too. Usually
the more work a machine does, the more energy it uses. An electric
can opener does a small amount of work. A giant bulldozer moving

tons of earth every minute does a huge amount of work.

 

it uses far more energy than an electric can opener.

1. Thus
2. Also
3. Then

4. Only

122

7. Cloze

The Romans banned the Christian religion and tortured and killed

Christians. Unarmed Christians were made to fight lions

 

entertainment for Roman. audiences. Finally, the roman Emperor

Constantine ended this persecution in 313 A.D.

1 as
2 if
3 so

123

8.‘ Cloze

Laws differ from customs and traditions in that they are written
down or recorded in some way. Often laws were established by a
leader, such as a chief or a religious figure. At other times,
representatives of the community made the laws. Some Indian tribes
had councils that passed laws.

Rules of conduct, customary, traditional, or legal,

make it possible for people to live together in groups.

1. therefore
2. moreover
3. because

4. whether

 

124

9. Cloze

about 2,000 years ago, the lands south of the Sudan

 

were lightly populated. Then a great movement of people began.

People who spoke a language called Bantu (BARN-too) began moving

 

south. They took with them a knowledge of how to farm and how to I;
make iron. J
r'

1. Still
#,

2. Until

3. Again

4 . Maybe

125

10. Cloze

Gradually [in the 1500's B.C.] the invaders called Aryans
(Air-ee-unz), conquered most of India. The Aryans invented the caste
(kast) system. They put themselves at the top of the system. At the
bottom were people not in any caste. Called "Untouchables," they did
the jobs no one else wanted to do. High caste people would have
nothing to do with Untouchables. In fact, the high castes did not

want the shadow of an Untouchable to touch them.

 

1. thus
2. even
3. only

126

11. Cloze

Early Ratifications

Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey all approved the
Constitution in special state conventions before the end of the year.
Georgia and Connecticut followed in January, 1788. Of these five,
only Pennsylvania was a battle. The Federalists, those in favor of
the Constitution, worked with leaflets to attract people who had been
unhappy with some earlier laws. The Antifedenalists, those opposed,
spread word that Benjamin Franklin opposed the document. In the end,

, the Federalists won.

 

1. provided
2. however
3. because

4. likewise

 

127

12. Cloze

The Chinese did not have an alphabet such as the one we have in
English. the Chinese used symbols, or characters. In
English each letter stands for a sound. In Chinese each character

stands for an idea or a thing.

1. Instead

2. Whether

 

3. Likewise

4. Tomorrow

128

13. Cloze

The land of the Mardudjara (Mar-dood-JAH-rah) has very little
rainfall. Some years only about five inches (13 centimeters) falls

all year. a heavy rainfall, a few creeks fill up.

 

1. Unless

2. After

3. Besides

4. Still

129

14. Cloze

The sixties began with the stirring call for peace and social
change of John F. Kennedy's inaugural address. But President Kennedy
was killed he could accomplish many of his plans for

social change at home.

1. maybe

2. because

 

3. still

4. before

130

15. Cloze

American leaders were faced with a major decision. The United
States in the past had not wanted any "entangling" peacetime military
alliances. But Europe had nearly been destroyed. Many European
cities and factories were in ruins. Governments were weak. ,
the Soviet Union was supporting Communist takeovers in Romania,

Bulgaria, and Poland.

1. Meanwhile
2. Provided
3. However

4. Because

 

131

16. Cloze

There are more than 35 million members of the Chinese Communist
party. The heart of the Communist party is its Central Committee.
This Central Committee has about 200 members. These 200 people
actually make the major governing decisions .

As you can see, the ruling power in China lies in the hands of
one group, the Central Committee. , we say that the

Communist Chinese political system has a centralized government.

1. Provided
2. Therefore
3. Meanwhile

4. Nevertheless

 

132

17. Cloze

To the Indians, the land belonged to the tribe or clan, not to
individuals. Settlers believed just the opposite.

But conflicting views about land ownership were not solely
responsible for the Indian Wars on the Great Plains. The differences
between the governments of the Indians and the United States caused
many problems and misunderstandings. The United States, ,

had a central government that represented oil the people.

1. provided that
2. for this reason
3. on the other hand

4. in conclusion

 

133

18. Cloze

* An American exchange student living with a family in Nairobi,
Kenya .

* A French businesswoman talking by telephone to her company's
office in Tokyo, Japan .

* A family in Kansas watching a TV news program from Tel Aviv,
Israel .

How many examples of people from one country meeting people from
another country could you add to this list? Perhaps there are

families in your community who come from other lands.

 

someone in your class has lived in another country.

1. Because
2. However
3. Perhaps

4. Earlier

 

134

19. Cloze

In the Southern colonies, life was somewhat different. The
highest class included the great plantation owners, who tried to live
like the nobility in England. The few Southern towns had a middle
class that ran the shops and performed needed services. The middle

class included farmers. Some parts of the Southern

 

colonies had many wealthy planters and a class of very poor farmers.
Almost half of the Southern workers were slaves. They were not
considered members of any class. Certainly, slaves had no chance to

move up into another class.

1. only
2. after
3. thus

4. also

 

 

135

20. Cloze

Land. In 1875 about nine out of every ten American families
made otheir livings by farming. These families were generally
compared to American families of today. With such a large farming
population, much of the good farmland in the original colonies was
already taken. In New England, the soil was poor and rocky to begin

with. The little land that was left was very expensive of

the demand. In the southern states, the soil's fertility was being.

used up by tobacco and corn. Both crops are extremely hard on the

soil if fertilizer is not used.

1. besides
2. whether
3. because

4. instead

 

1“_

136

21. Cloze

The depth at which artifacts are buried may give some clues to
when they were left. there are many levels of earth
above them, the archaeologists can estimate how long it took those
layers to form. Using this method they can estimate the age of the

artifacts found in each layer.

 

1 If u
2 Or
3 As

137

22. Cloze

Eleanor Roosevelt was "first lady" of the United States
12 years. Her husband, Franklin D. Roosevelt, was President from

1933 until 1945.

1. and
2. for
3. but

 

4. now

138

23. Cloze

Senator McCarthy was only one leader of the anti-Communist
movement. Under McCarthyism people from all walks of life were
publicly accused of being Communists. Producers and actors suspected
of being Communists were blacklisted (put on a list of those not to
be given jobs). Teachers and union officials were forced to tak
loyalty oaths saying that they were not Communists.

In 1954, McCarthy's attacks became so harsh and so far from the
truth that the Senate cited him publicly for conduct unbecoming a
senator. McCarthy's career was ruined . And McCarthyism

all but disappeared by the end of the decade.

1. in addition
2. provided that
3. nevertheless

4. as a result

 

139

24. Cloze

The Aztecs were strong. But they had no iron, no firearms, no
horses. The Spanish had these. , they had another
weapon: Many of the Indian groups who were neighbors of the Aztecs

joined Cortes.

1. In addition
2. As a result

3. In spite of

4. Provided that

140

SENTENCE COMPLETION

PART II
Directions for sentence completion: Read the following passage and

choose the one selection that has the most appropriate ending to the
given incomplete sentence.

SAMPLE ITEM:
The early Romans were brave and tough. They farmed the land and

defended it against all their enemies. They might lose battles,

 

1. but they came back strong.
2. so they sailed the seas.
3. for they hated long wars.

4. and they lost their farms.

 

141

1. Sentence completion

The desert people became gatherers of many types of wild seeds.
In fact, the two most common artifacts of this group are baskets that
were used to gather the seeds, and milling stones that were used to
grind them.

Gradually food gathering became more and more important, while
hunting became less important. In time, plants supplied perhaps 80
or 90 percent of the food eaten by the desert people.

About 9,000 years ago, groups of people in what is now Mexico
and Central America began to raise some of their own plants.

However, they continued to use wild plants

 

1. in addition to those they planted.
2. instead of raising their own food.
3. as a result of increased hunting.

4. provided that they were packaged.

Fm J‘_‘.I‘I.I"

142

3. Sentence completion

For centuries before the European explorers came to America,
Indians had lived throughout the region. They grew corn, squash,
beans, and other crops in small fields cleared in the forests. They
also hunted bear, deer, squirrels, and rabbits, and fished in the
many streams that ran through the woodland.

The land was large, and the Indians did not believe anyone could
own it. If a piece of land was planted by a family or if someone
lived on it, that land was considered theirs to use while they needed
it.

When the European settlers bought or traded land,

 

1. for this reason, they usually used it for a limited time.
2. whether in Europe or in India, they industrialized.
3. eventually, many had to sell it at lowered prices.

4. on the other hand, they considered it theirs to keep.

143

4. Sentence completion

A group called the American Colonization Society had a very
different approach. This organization, founded in 1817, raised money
to purchase slaves, free them, and then send them "back to Africa."

The society helped organize a new nation in western Africa (Liberia)

 

1. for this purpose.
2. but none stayed.
3. thus they died.

4. and they voted.

 

144

5. Sentence completion

The Mardudjara have special ways to capture scarce water. They
know that water collects in the roots of the large bushes. They did
into these roots and take out the water. They also know of rocky
places where water collects. Family groups or bands travel to these I:

places. Mardudjara

 

1. thus study the clouds for snow.

 

‘T

2. only allow women to weave baskets.
3. maybe make no effort to survive.

4. even use frogs in their constant search for water.

145

6. Sentence completion

Meanwhile sculptors were busy making the pottery army. Probably
the soldiers' faces were modeled after the real-life members of Shih
Huang Ti's honor guard. The guards must have been very glad the
statues only looked like them. At one time, Chinese rulers who died
were not buried alone. Their wives, servants, guards, and horses
were sealed alive in the tomb with them. Luckily for Shih Huang Ti's
honor guard, this custom had vanished centuries before their time.

Even as statues

 

1. however, the emperor‘s soldiers have guarded well.
2. moreover, the emperor's soldiers were then lost.
3. therefore, the emperor's soldiers were never found.

4. because of this, the emperor's soldiers were totally
ruined.

 

146

7. Sentence completion

Alexander Hamilton became secretary of the treasury, and Thomas
Jefferson was named secretary of state. Each man, with very
different beliefs, had many followers in the country. Washington
wanted to balance the ideas of Hamilton against those of Jefferson.
From the very beginning, the two men gave different advice. As time
passed, discussions turned into angry arguments between Hamilton and
Jefferson or their followers.

The differences between the two men became clear in a battle
over an economic plan Hamilton proposed. Hamilton worried that other

nations would not respect the United States

 

1. unless it showed financial responsibility.
2. because they were jealous of our patriotism.
3. after the Presidents' terms became four years.

4. even France, Spain, and England chose Japan.

147

8. Sentence completion

Many marriages in Saudi Arabia are arranged by parents. They
decide who might make a suitable mate for their child. Then they
meet with the other set of parents. They agree on the amount and
kind of payment that the man's family must pay to the bride's family.

Sometimes the bride and groom have never met

 

1. unless at night secretly.
2. otherwise they might not wed.
3. before their wedding day.

4. since their wedding day.

 

148

9. Sentence completion

By this time the Nazis were imprisoning Jews in Germany and in
newly conquered territory. Still, Hitler toLd the world, his only
aim was to bring all German people back into one Germany. The attack
on the Rhineland was merely taking back what had always belonged to
the German people.

Hitler used the same excuse when he invaded Austria in 1938.
England and France believed that this invasion would be the end of

German aggression

 

1. perhaps now was the best time to welcome Germany.
2. so they chose to do nothing to stop Germany.
3. nevertheless they chose to join Canadian's side.

4. because they believed that Germany was weak.

149

10. Sentence completion

Machine politicians wanted something in return--the people's
votes for machine-backed candidates. Once elected, machine
candidates would do as the local bosses asked. And bosses had a lot
of favors to ask. Machine politicians did favors for voters in their

districts

 

1. provided that.
2. in addition.
3. for a reason.

4. nevertheless.

150

11. Sentence completion

Although two thirds of Earth is covered with water, much of this
water is saltwater. It cannot be used for drinking, for watering
crops, or for most manufacturing purposes. Water in the form of

rainfall, and in freshwater rivers and lakes, is

 

1. perhaps one of nature's most wonderful gifts to Russia.
2. nevertheless one of industry's most polluted resources.
3. meanwhile one of man's most dangerous sources of fuel.

4. therefore one of Earth's most valuable natural resources.

 

151

12. Sentence completion

As the Depression got worse more people called on the government
to help the homeless and hungry. The poor and the hungry probably
did need help, Hoover admitted. But that help should come from
private and local agencies, not the federal government. The most
important thing was to keep the federal budget balanced. Eventually,

the American system would work again, and prosperity would return.

1. Meanwhile, the mood of the nation grew worse.
2. Instead, the mood of the homeless improved.

Perhaps, the mood of the hungry stayed calm.

OJ

4. In addition, the mood of the rich went unheard.

152

13. Sentence completion

Prices may be set on the basis of the cost of production.
Prices may also be set to discourage people from buying the product.
For example, some television sets are produced in the Soviet Union,
but they are very expensive. This means that fewer people can afford
them. This in turn means that fewer sets need to be produced.

Factories can

 

1. because of their policy of price setting, match prices
with workers' wages.

2. now produce the retail goods which are competitively
designed and produced.

3. instead produce the goods the government considers more
necessary to future growth.

4. in addition import their own foreign-produced goods to
sell.

153

14. Sentence completion

A social custom is something done by many members of a group,
again and again, without thinking very much about it. In our
culture, the seventh-inning stretch at a baseball game is a custom.
Throwing rice at a wedding and driving with a "Just Married" sign on

the car are

 

1. soon memories.

2. for audiences.

3. also customs.

4. but ornaments.

154

15. Sentence completion

At the beginning of the 1500's, the Aztecs began to hear about
people to the east with white skins. These people flew over the
waters in canoes with white wings. The Aztec rulers were worried.
An old Aztec prophecy said that a god with white skin would one day
return from the east. After this the Aztecs would lose their power.
The "gods" the Aztecs heard about were Spanish explorers in ships.

These explorers had started coming to the New World

 

1. thus Christopher Columbus's last voyage in 1249.
2. in spite of Christopher Columbus's third treaty in 1924.
3. because of Christopher Columbus's second report in 1492.

4. after Christopher Columbus's first voyage in 1492.

 

9'0

 

 

155

16. Sentence completion

From ancient times, hospitality has marked the Arab culture.
Whether rich, or poor, Arabs are expected to make their guests

comfortable. Hosts must feed their guests even

 

 

 

1. when guests are not present.

2. if it means hosts eat less.

 

3. instead of giving them gifts. F;

4. so they are never repaid.

 

156

17. Sentence completion

Language also sets cultures apart. Every human group, large or
small, has a language. In fact, there are more than 3,000 languages
on Earth. Some are spoken by hundreds of millions of people. Some
are spoken by only a few dozen people. More than 350 million people

speak English

 

1. but not enough to read.
2. as their native language.
3. and it is one dialect.

4. perhaps they're English.

 

157

18. Sentence completion

The need to coordinate schedules caused the railroads to develop
standard time zones across the country. Before this, most cities had
their own time based on local sun time. Congress later passed a law
making the railroad time zones official.

New inventions helped improve America's railroad network. For a
long time, stopping trains was a bigger problem than making them go.

George Westinghouse's air brake enabled trains to stop faster,

 

1. thus enabling them to travel at higher speeds.
2. also allowing them to travel at cheaper rates.
3. but building them to travel backwards quickly.

4. meanwhile using them to travel at night, too.

158

19. Sentence completion

By 1960 black Americans had made considerable progress toward
equality. Supreme Court decisions and government actions had opened
a number of doors. But most blacks still lived as "second-class"
citizens. Segregation was still highly visible.

Many local and state laws discriminated against blacks. For
example, many states had laws that prevented blacks from staying in
the same motels as whites. Other states continued to defy the law
against segregated schools.

Besides written laws that discriminated against blacks, there

were many unwritten "laws" that

 

1. perhaps didn't.
2. still existed.
3. finally died.

4. before helped.

 

159

20. Sentence completion

In 1792 a man made a suggestion that has continued to capture
the interest of Americans in almost every generation. The man was
Benjamin Banneker, a freeborn black who was an inventor, a
mathematician, and an astronomer. His idea was a plan for a peace
office. His plan appeared as the first article in the first edition
of his almanac--an almanac which was published every year for a
decade.

Benjamin Banneker is generally remembered for his contributions
to science and mathematics. However, his suggestion for a peace

office had

 

1. thus in that day, became a clever money-making scheme.

2. in spite of the fact that it was progressive, begun the
war.

3. perhaps, greater meaning for mankind than his scientific
achievements.

4. in addition to politics, had theatrical goals and
possibilities.

 

 

 

160

21. Sentence completion

Strength and skill with weapons would be important to
a---Japanese---warrior, of course. But they were really less
important than other things. More important to a warrior group were
things like self-control, restraint, and obedience to one's
superiors. Equally important was a state of mind in which pain,
hardship, and fear could be overcome .

Even politeness was in part a warrior's value. If you were

impolite to another expert swordsman,

 

1. instead of becoming angry, he probably would join your
group.

2. whether intentionally or not, he would become very rude
too.

3. the result could be a sword flashing at you with deadly
swiftness.

4. and treated him with lack of respect, you would be sued
by the group.

161

22. Sentence completion

Not only did southerners suffer from lack of supplies. The war
was often much closer to home in the South. Many plantations, farms,
and towns were looted and burned by Union armies. Southerners also
lived in constant fear of a slave revolt. But very few slave

uprisings occurred. Most slaves remained on plantations

 

1. until the end of the war.
2. maybe to help the Indians.
3. for they were contented.

4. but they didn't suffer.

 

 

 

162

23. Sentence completion

The people of Communist China have little influence in the
central government. True, they can vote. However, they do not have
a free choice of candidates. They can vote only for Communist
candidates chosen by the leaders of the Communist party.

People who want to take part in the government join the
Communist party. First, they must go through a long period of
training. They must show that they are worthy of membership. They
must also show that they agree with party goals. They must prove

that they will be obedient to party orders

 

1. however membership is automatic only to men.
2. besides party goals are internationally set.
3. whether they are visitors or 0.5. citizens.

4. because party goals can change very rapidly.

 

‘1“

163

24. Sentence completion

The Civil War marked a great change in the Constitution. The
question of whether the federal union was a confederation of
independent states, and whether individual states could leave the

Union, was settled, once and for all, on the battlefield.

 

1. As a result, the Constitution was finally written.
2. Moreover, the war led to the abolition of slavery.
3. Earlier, every state belonged to the confederation.

4. Nevertheless, the war saved all cities' independence.

 

 

 

164

MULTI-CHOICE SYNONYMS

PART III
Synonyms are one or more words or expressions that have nearly the

same meaning, such as shall and will.

Directions for multi-choice synonyms: Read the following passage and
choose the synonym that best fits the meaning and case stressed by
the logical connective in the last sentence.

SAMPLE ITEM:

Multi-choice synonyms

The traders passed through desert salt deposits on their way
south to Ghana. They strapped blocks of salt to their camels and
traded the salt in Ghana for gold and ivory.

This may seem like an unfair trade. Yet it was not.

1. Now
2. And
3. But

4. For

 

 

 

165

1. Multi-choice synonyms

In the parts of Australia that are not so dry, vast sheep and
cattle ranches spread across the land. The coming of ranchers has
been bad for some of the smaller kangaroos. The brush that kangaroos
need for food and shelter has been cleared away. Some small roos
have become extinct. Others are endangered. 0n the other hand, the

big roos thrive on the ranches' grass and water.

1. 0n the contrary
2. Provided that
3. As a result

4. On account of

 

166

2. Multi-choice synonyms

Then Russian traders and fur trappers with the Russian-American
Fur Company began to set up trading posts in North America. At first
they settled on the Aleutian (e lu' shen) Islands. But the Russian
traders soon moved to Alaska's southern coast. The largest city, and
capitol, was New Archangel (or Sitka). Before the Russians left

Alaska in 1867, 43 towns with 12,000 people dotted the rocky

coastline.
1. Still
2. Until

3. Unless

4. Result

 

 

167

3. Multi-choice synonyms

A high level of art. Still another sign of civilization is the
development of the arts. Sumerians built magnificent temples to
their gods. They made jewelry of gold and silver. They made

beautiful decorations for armor, swords, and chariots.

1 . And
2 If
3 . Now

 

 

 

168

4. Multi-choice synonyms

It was not the hard work or poor food and shelter that set the
slaves apart. The many poor whites in the South were not much better
off than the slaves in those ways. But they had rights. The slaves
had none.

White Americans were free to build new homes in the West, or to
try' to strike it rich in California, or to make a fortune in
business. But these and other simpler things such as learning to
read a book or having a close family life, or just taking a Saturday
walk into town, were denied to slaves.

The way a slave lived was not up to the slave. It was the
slaveholder who determined how a slave would live. Sometimes even

the slaveholder's power was limited.

1 If
2. For
3. But

4. Also

 

 

 

169

5. Multi-choice synonyms

These clashes became more and more frequent. On March 5, 1770,
a group of Americans gathered and began shouting and throwing stones
and snowballs at the soldiers. The crowd became more and more
aggressive, until soldiers fired into the crowd and killed five
Americans. Six others were injured. These events became known as
the Boston Massacre.

British officials began to realize that the job of collecting
taxes in America was costing them more than it was worth. Therefore,
in April, 1770, all the duties were repealed except a tax on tea.
This tax was kept to remind the colonists that they were still under

the British rule.

1. Eventually
2. Nevertheless
3. Provided that

4. One causation

170

6. Multi-choice synonyms

Despite successes like the UNICEF programs, the United Nations

has been

only partially successful in achieving the goal of

preventing wars. As a result of U.N. efforts, some wars have been

shortened.

Furthermore

Provided that

 

Nevertheless

Consequently

 

171

7. Multi-choice synonyms

1854. The Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed the voters in the Kansas
and Nebraska territories to decide about slavery. This, in effect,
canceled part of the Missouri Compromise.

Douglas put together enough votes to pass the bill. But no one
was happy with the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Many Northerners were angry
because the Missouri Compromise had been destroyed. More and more
people in the North began to think that the abolitionists were right.

Perhaps the South was planning to make the whole country open to

slavery.
1. Maybe
2. Hence
3. Instead

4. Today

 

 

 

172

8. Multi-choice synonyms

The Rocky Mountain system is young compared to the Appalachian
system. Scientists believe it was formed 80 million years ago by a
series of volcanic eruptions. These eruptions pushed the earth's
surface upward thousands of feet, thus forming a long system of

mountain ranges. (A range is a distinct row of mountains).

1. However
2. Provided

3. Finally

4. Because

 

173

9. Multi-choice synonyms

One large reason why the amendment (The Equal Rights Amendment,
or ERA) had not passed has been opposition by women themselves. One
group, led by Phyllis Schlafly, put together powerful lobbying
efforts that helped defeat the amendment in a number of states. Her
group argued that the ERA was not needed because women already have

equal rights.

1. For
2. Unless
3. Yet

4. And

174

10. Multi-choice synonyms

Tizoc knew one woman who sometimes sold avocados. The woman was
kind and did not sell an avocado to Tizoc unless it was a very good

one .

1. Consequently
2. Provided that
3. Furthermore

4. Nevertheless

 

 

 

175

11. Multi-choice synonyms

Many cities have been built near the sea. In the future,
however, cities may float gently like great flowers on the surface of

the sea.

1. Furthermore
2. On account of
3. Nevertheless

4. Provided that

176

12. Multi-choice synonyms

Lyndon Johnson of Texas became President after Kennedy was
assassinated. He had been an important senator before his election
as Vice-President. Therefore, he knew how to work with Congress. He
quickly pushed through two far-reaching laws, the Civil Rights Act of
1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Both were aimed at
preventing discrimination against black Americans. After the Voting

Rights Act passed, the number of black voters doubled.

1. Cause
2. Still
3. Unless

4. Later

 

177

13. Multi-choice synonyms

Three years later, without repealing the tea tax, Britain gave
the radicals their excuse. In effect, it granted the East India
Company a monopoly to sell tea to the colonies. A monopoly has the
exclusive right to sell goods. When one of the company's ships
arrived in Boston Harbor, the colonists refused to accept the tea.
The ship, along with two others, sat in the harbor for twenty days.
Finally a group of about 150 colonists dressed up as Mohawk Indians

and boarded the ships on December 16, 1773.

1. Consequently
2. Provided that
3. Nevertheless

4. Occasionally

178

14. Multi-choice synonyms

One serious dispute (in the U.N.) has been over the state of
Israel. Once part of the region known as Palestine, Israel was set
up as a homeland for Jews from all over the world. When the Jewish
state was formed in 1948, many Arab Palestinians left for nearby
countries. Since then, Palestinian groups, such as the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO), have pressed for a return to their

homeland. Moreover, they have demanded an end to Israel as a nation.

1. Cause
2. Also
3. Unless

4. When

179

15. Multi-choice synonyms

Radio signals travel very quickly, but distances in space are
very great. A radio signal sent from Earth today would not reach the
nearest star for more than three years. Most stars are much, much
farther away. If we ever receive a signal from space, it may have
been sent hundreds or even thousands of years ago. It will take that
long for our reply to reach the sender.

Meanwhile, we are sending much slower messages.

1. Now
2. But
3 If

180

16. Multi-choice synonyms

How did the first Americans get to the New World? Where did
they come from? What route did they take? People have suggested
several answers to these questions. Some people claim that the first
Americans came from the northeast by way of Greenland. Others
disagree. They think that that way was much too cold. Instead, they
guess these people took a more pleasant route across the warm waters

of the South Pacific Ocean.

1. Finally
2. Provided
3. Meanwhile

4. However

181

17. Multi-choice synonyms

Meridians are imaginary lines which run from north to south from
pole to pole, and are used to locate places on Earth .
All meridians come together at the poles, so the distance

between meridians is greater at the equator than near the poles.

1. Unless
2. Hence
3. Until

4. Still

182

18. Multi-choice synonyms

"We don't want to fight, but, by jingo if we do,

We've got the ships, we've got the men

We've got the money too!"

From this song came the word jingoisl, which means too much

nationalism. As America's world role changed during the late 1800s,

some people said that Americans were becoming "jingoistic."

1. Whether
2. Because
3. However

4. Moreover

183

19. Multi-choice synonyms

For much of Japan's history, people lived together in extended
families. The head of the family expected and got complete obedience
from other family members. In return, he was responsible for
providing as much food and wealth as family rank permitted. In
Japan's past, almost everything an individual had in life, or could
look forward to, came from the family. This was true whether it was

a peasant family, a samurai family, or a noble landowning family.

1 So
2. And
3 If

4. For

184

20. Multi-choice synonyms

Those doing the searching are called archaeologists
(ar ke ol' jists), scientists who study the physical remains left
by people of the past. They are looking for skeletons. But they
would be happy to discover only a few bones and perhaps a tooth. In
addition, archaeologists would like to find the tools that these
people used, the clothes they wore, the food they ate and the homes

they made.

 

1. Otherwise

2. Earlier

3. Likewise

 

4. Provided

185

21. Multi-choice synonyms

Long ago, however, where people lived affected their lives more
than it does today.
Until about 150 years ago, people could move from place to place

no faster than a horse can run.

1. Still
2. Maybe
3. Before

186

22. Multi-choice synonyms

The Scrooby nonconformists (a group who disagreed with King
Henry VII, and who at one time had lived in Scrooby, England)
remained in the Netherlands for about ten years. At first, they
enjoyed their safety and freedom. But after a while, parents became
concerned that their children were becoming more Dutch than English.
They were also afraid that war might break out between Holland and

Spain. If Spain won, the nonconformists would probably be in danger.

1. Therefore
2. Because
3. Likewise

4. Provided

 

187

23. Multi-choice synonyms

There is a lot of Mexico's history in its jewelry. When the
Spanish first came to Mexico, they found a culture which supported
extraordinary artists and craftspeople. Among the Indians of Mexico
were master potters, weavers, metalsmiths, and architects.

The first Spanish explorers took many Indian art treasures back
to Spain. The Spanish admired the Indian crafts. The Spanish also

had great leatherworkers.

1. Meanwhile
2. Because
3. Likewise

4. However

188

24. Multi-choice synonyms

The people of the Americas rarely used animals to carry goods or
to pull things. One reason was that large, strong animals were not

available.

1. Earlier
2. Whether
3. Because

4. However

 

APPENDIX C

CORRESPONDENCE

189

Scholastic Inc.
730 Broadway
New York, NY 1CD03
(212) 5053000

 

September 8, 1983

Miss Dorothea P. Fields
1027 Abbott Road
East Lansing, MI 48823

Dear Miss Fields:

The Scholastic Social Studies series, including OUR WORLD TODAY,
has been sold to Steckevaughn Co., 807 Brazos, Austin, TX 78768.

None of the people who worked to produce the series are associated
now with Scholastic. I suggest that you refer your query to
Richard Ravich in the Sales Department at Steck-Vaugm.

Sincerely,

I

(k.
Carolyn J ckson

Social Studies Editor

Text Division

CJ/dm

‘1

 

 

190

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 0 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCAflON EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN ' 48814-1054

April 17. 1984

Mr. Alton Stine
Holt Public Schools
Hott, MI

Dear Mr. Stine:

I am writing in support of Dorthea Field's request to use student data, specified
in her March 29, 1984. letter to you, for the purpose of her doctoral study con-
cerning reading comprehension. The dissertation plan calls for anonymity regard-
ing student information. Data will be coded and studentS' names will be removed.
Your support of Ms. Field's study will be most appreciated. I believe her findings
will be helpful in improving the reading comprehension of upper elementary and
junior high school students.

Sincerely,

Lois A. Badcr
Professor
(Doctoral Advisor to Dorthea Fields)

LAB/hch

muss-44mm AWW hat-1‘ io-

191

1027 Abbott Road
East Lansing, Michigan
March 29, 1984

Dear Hr. Alton Stine:

I would like your permission to secure selected information on sixth
and eighth graders who are reading on grade level according to the
Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test and the Gates-flacGinitie for eighth
graders.

At present, I need to locate the following information found in their
cumulative folders, such as: total reading Stanford Diagnostic
ReadinggTest for both sixth- and eighth-grade students, and the Gates
HacGinitie for eighth grade from their English teachers. I will also
need to know their chronological ages and genders. Finally, I need
to check the official listing for students who qualify for free lunch
and reduced lunches for on grade level readers listed.

 

I would like to gather the above information during this Spring
Vacation, April 2-6, 1984.

Sincerely,

Wfiiéw

(Miss) Dorothea P. Fields

192

1027 Abbott Road
East Lansing, MI 48823
November 2, 1984

Dear Parents of

 

My name is Dorothea P. Fields. I am a doctoral candidate in
the College of Education at Michigan State University.

My doctoral dissertation examines some of the connecting words
found in six - eighth grades' social-science textbooks.

has been selected by Dr. Barbara Zynda to be part
of my pilot study.

 

Each participant will be individually tested by me during the
week of November 5, 1984.

Sincerely,

W6? SW

Dorothea P. Fields

I am willing for my child to take part in this study.

Yes No

 

Parent/Guardian Signature

193

1027 Abbott Road
East Lansing. MI 48823
May 10. 1985

Dear parents of a

My name is Dorothea PL Fields. I am a doctoral candidate

in the College of Education at Michigan State University. My
doctoral dissertation examines some of the connecting words found
in sixth through eighth grade social science textbooks.

has been selected to participate in my pilot
study because he/she is reading on grade level. Each participant
will be given a group test by me on May 17. 1985.

 

Sincerely.

W6? saxw

Dorothea P. Fields

I am willing for my child to take part in this study.

Yes No

 

 

 

Parent/Guardian Signature

 

194

September 24, 1985

Dear Parents:

My name is Dorothea P. Fields. I have been a teacher in the Holt
Public School System since 1973--four years as a reading consultant
and eight years as a sixth-grade teacher. I am also a doctoral
candidate in the College of Education at Michigan State University.
As part of my dissertation, I have selected your child to take part
in a group study that will be given in a classroom on Thursday,
October 3, at 9:30 a.m.

My doctoral dissertation examines in depth some of the logical
connectives found in social studies textbooks at the sixth- and
eight-grade levels. Logical connectives are words such as because,
unless, before, likewise, and therefore which link or tie a sentence
together. Students will identify and comprehend the meanings of the
appropriate logical connectives when used in a sentence or passage.

Please call me at 699-2194, between 8:20-9:00 or 9:20-10:10 a.m., if
you want additional information or have further questions about this
inventory. I will be writing you a follow-up letter describing some
of the results obtained from this study.

Sincerely,

(Miss) Dorothea P. Fields

I am willing for my child to participate in this study.

Yes No

 

Permission slips are due in your child's home base by Monday,
September 30, 1985.

 

Parent/Guardian Signature

 

195

September 24, 1985

Dear Teachers:

On Tuesday, from 9:30-9:50, I will meet with students in the commons
for a brief meeting. At this time, I will give them a general
overview of my inventory (test) and pass out letters requesting
parental permission. These are to be signed and returned to home
base teachers by Monday, September 30, 1985.

On October 3, from 9:30-11:00, I will be testing. More details
later.

Sincerely,

WC? @1514-

Dorothea P. Fields

 

196

September 27. 1985
1027 Abbott Road
East Lansing. MI 48823

Scholastic Book Services
50 West 44th Street
New York. NY 10036

To whom it may concern:

I am a doctoral candidate in the College of Education at Michigan State
University; As part of my doctoral thesis. I will analyze twenty-four
logical connectives and design an inventory composed of these twenty-
four specific logical connectives in order to examine responses made by
approximately forty-five sixth graders and approximately forty-five
eighth graders on passages taken from the adopted social studies texts
on the sixth- and eighth-grade levels in Holt. Michigan.

The seventy-two item inventory consists of three parts. containing
twenty-four items each: cloze. sentence completion. and synonyms. The
students will be instructed to read a given passage and identify the
most appropriate logical connective from four multi-choices.

I would like your permission to analyze and use thirty-six passages
from the sixth-grade—level social studies text: .Sgnglast19L_QuL_flQL1d
.IQflay. 1981 copyright.

Also. I have attached a list of the twenty-four logical connectives
being used in this sample along with a sample of a passage from your
text.

Finally. I look forward to sending you a copy of my completed results.
Sincerely.

sszifiww

(Miss) Dorothea P. Fields

 

 

 

197

September 27. 1985
1027 Abbott Road
East Lansing. MI 48823

Scott. Foresman and Company
1900 East Lake Avenue
Glenview. Illinois 60025

To whom it may concern:

I am a doctoral candidate in the College of Education at Michigan State
University. .As part of my doctoral thesis. I will analyze twenty-four
logical connectives and design an inventory composed of these twenty-
four specific logical connectives in order to examine responses made by
approximately forty-five sixth graders and approximately forty-five
eighth graders on passages taken from the adopted social studies texts
on the sixth- and eighth-grade levels in Holt. Michigan.

The seventy-two item inventory consists of three parts. containing
twenty-four items each: cloze. sentence completion. and synonyms. The
students will be instructed to read a given passage and identify the
most appropriate logical connective from four multi-choices.

I would like your permission to analyze and use thirty-six passages
from the eighth-grade-level social studies text: W.
1985 copyright.

Also. I have attached a list of the twenty-four logical connectives
being used in this sample along with a sample of a passage from your
text.

Finally. I look forward to sending you a copy of my completed results.
Sincerely.

(Miss) Dorothea P. Fields

198

October 2, 1985

Dear Teachers:

Jan Cochrane, the reading consultant, will be administering the test
to your students from 9:20-11:00.

She will come around and get the students and take them to Room 107
for the test.

They should bring with them a sharpened pencil and an extra book to
read just in case they finish Parts I and II before time (the test
consists of three parts).

I sincerely appreciate your cooperation and support.

Thank you,

$5.16,? «E‘s-W ' '

 

 

199

October 3, 1985

Dear Teachers:

I will administer the test to your students from 9:20-11:00.

I will come around and get them to take the test in Room 127.

They should bring a sharpened pencil and an extra book to read just
in case they finish Parts I and II before time (the test consists of
three parts).

I sincerely appreciate your cooperation and support.

Thank you,

a; miWéU-M"

200

 

Scott, Foresman and Company 1900 East Lake Avenue Glenview. Illinois 60025 312/729-3000

October 4, 1985

Miss Dorothea P. Fields
1027 Abbott Road
East Lansing, MI 48823

Dear Miss Fields:

Your letter of September 27 was forwarded to my office as I am in
charge of the Social Studies Department here at Scott, Foresman.

I am happy to learn you are interested in analyzing and using thirty
six passages from our eighth-grade level social studies text: America!
America! as research for your doctoral thesis. Please accept this
letter as permission to do so. We would appreciate your sending us

a copy of your completed results.

Sincerely,

Barbara Flynn
Vice President
Social Studies
and Foreign Languages

gases... 111%.“,

BF/imp

 

 

201

TO: Mr. Tom Horan

DATE: October 8, 1985 '

I need to come back over to the Junior High School and test again. I
need at least 20 more students' results on my inventory. The ratio
is 10%+ of the population at each grade level.

I would like to come over next Tuesday, the half day of school. I
would be testing first thing in the morning, as soon as possible. It
is important that this date, October 15, be very close to the first
date in order for my study to be valid.

The pre-test given in Bath shows positive gains in eighth grade
compared to sixth grade, which is what I am looking for in this
testing session.

 

Sincerely,

W@?é ew-

Dorothea P. Fields

 

202

October 9. 1985

Dear Parents.

My name is Dorothea P. Fields. I have been a teacher in the Holt
Public School System since 1973: four years as a reading consultant
and eight years as a sixth-grade teacher. I am also a doctoral
candidate in the College of Education at Michigan State University. As
part of my thesis. I have selected your child to take part in a group
study that will be given at school on Tuesday. October 15. 1985.

My doctoral dissertation examines in depth some of the logical
connectives found in social studies textbooks at the sixth- and eighth-
grade levels. Logical connectives are words such as because. unless.
before. likewise. and therefore. which link or tie a sentence together.
Students will identify and comprehend the meanings of the appropriate
logical connectives when used in a sentence or passage.

Please call me if you want additional information or have further
quaetions about this inventory at 699-2194 between 8:20-9:00 and 9:20-
10:10 aum. I will be writing you a follow-up letter describing some of
the results obtained from this study.

Sincerely. .
4;,;;zr751.ۤ?%%1aJL4~2

(Miss) Dorothea P. Fields

 

I am willing for - -. to participate in this study:
Yes No

Permission slips are due in your child's homebase as soon as
possible.

 

Parent/Guardian signature

 

 

203

February, 1986

Dear Parents:

I have received the computer print-out analyzing the results of your
child's responses to the logical connectives items found in the
social studies textbooks used at the 6th and 8th grade levels.
Logical Connectives are words which tie sentences together, such as:
for that reason, moreover, and therefore.

I have just begun to carefully study and analyze the 533-page
print-out. However, there are several findings that have surfaced:

1. The top scores were 36 correct out of the 72 responses
given.

2. Boys and girls scored equally well.

3. Their ability to select the appropriate words were
challenged by the six specific types of logical
connectives presented. One example is words which
signal contrast: on the other hand, however, still,
instead.

Again, I would like to say thank you for your child's participation.
Sincerely,

\. .
WW

(Miss) Dorothea P. Fields

 

204

TO: Mr. Tom Moran and Staff
FROM: Dorothea P. Fields

DATE: February 26, 1986

I would like to thank you for making it possible for me to give the
inventory at your school. I feel deeply indebted to all of you.

I have enclosed a letter for each student who participated in my
study.

Sincerely,

was?

Dorothea P. Fields

 

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Finis opus coronat.

(The finish crowns the work.)

 

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