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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS AS A STIMULUS FOR TEACHER
GROWTH: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF TEACHERS AS
THEY SEEK TO IMPROVE STUDENT LEARNING

presented by

Frances P. Mester

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS AS A STIMULUS FOR TEACHER
GROWTH: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF TEACHERS AS
THEY SEEK TO IMPROVE STUDENT LEARNING

By

Frances P. Mester

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

I991

’7 6'27)..- (5' g ,{J-r

ABSTRACT

COLLABORATIVE RELATIONSHIPS AS A STIMULUS FOR TEACHER
GROWTH: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF TEACHERS AS
THEY SEEK TO IMPROVE STUDENT LEARNING

By

Frances P. Mester

The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of
teachers as they had been involved in collaborative relationships as
part of a staff-development effort. The staff-development effort
was a year-long project for secondary teachers. The goal of the
project was to influence the instructional decisions teachers make
regarding the content they teach; the processes such as reading,
writing, and thinking used to understand the content; and motivation
of students.

An ethnographic interview was obtained from two teachers who
had formed a team in the project. A work session between the
facilitator and this team was tape recorded and then transcribed.
The building principal was interviewed as another data source. A
vignette was written by the facilitator, describing the team’s
efforts and the project in general. A follow-up interview with the
facilitator was conducted for further elaboration of the vignette.

An analysis of all data sources was conducted using the constant

Frances P. Mester

comparative method by Glaser and Strauss. Two research questions
were devised:

l. How did teachers perceive their relationships within a
collaborative effort?

2. What insights were perceived or identified by teachers as
they participated in a collaborative effort?

The analysis resulted in the formation of three themes:
tensions, the impact on personal and professional growth, and the
emergence of reflection. These three themes were then used to
respond to the two research questions. As a result of the findings,
the following conclusions were drawn:

1. Opportunity for dialogue is an essential component of col-
laborative relationships.

2. Collaborative relationships need time to develop, possibly -
being time intensive.

3. Teachers are capable of recognizing their own growth as
they participate within collaborative relationships.

4. The modeling of reflective thinking is a powerful staff-
development tool.

5. Collaborative relationships provide an effective vehicle
for the modeling of reflective thinking.

6. The merging of personal and professional relationships
provides a deeper growth experience.

7. Collaborative relationships promote or support the growth

of all members in the relationship.

This work is dedicated to the administrators and teachers

in the district, who created a vision of what is possible.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have provided support and guidance for this study.
I would like both to acknowledge and to thank them.

First, I would like to acknowledge the support of the members
of my doctoral comittee, Drs. Charles Blackman, George Sherman,
Robert Hatfield, and Arden Moon. In particular, Dr. Blackman, as
chairman, modeled the qualities of a facilitator who promoted
personal-professional growth, questioned to stimulate reflection,
and valued the role of the practitioner. Dr. Sherman’s continued
efforts to provide a conceptual understanding and model for reading
indirectly influenced the choice of the facilitator and the
direction of the project.

I also wish to acknowledge Dr. Kenneth Wahl, who created a
culture in the district where new ideas, experimentation, and
teacher growth were the norm, rather than an exception. I wish to
acknowledge Joyce Zeneberg, who exemplified the concept of
"principal as instructional leader," and Dr. Mark Conley, who
redefined the role of facilitator and researcher.

Finally, and most important, I would like to acknowledge the
tremendous support from my family: Bill, Josh, Gretchen, and my
other son, ”John.” Their love, patience, and support over the years

ensured the completion of this project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... I ...............

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...................

Rationale ....................
The Problem ...................
Purpose .....................
Methodology ...................
Importance of the Study .............
Delimitations ..................
Limitations ...................
Definition of Terms ...............
Overview of the Study ..............

11. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...............

Introduction ..................
The Field of Staff Development .........

Historical Context for Staff Development

Assumptions Guiding Staff-Development Models .
Influencing Trends ...............
Empowerment ..................
Qualitative Research .............
The Changing Status of Education .......
Professional Relationships ..........
Adults as Learners ...............
Foundational Theory ..............
Lifelong Learning ...............
Experiential Learning .............
Developmental Theory .............
Developmental Perspective ...........
Summary .....................

III. THE DESIGN ....................

Statement of the Problem ............
Rationale ....................

vi

Page

viii

urn-l

dOIOmNNO‘U'I#

u—J—J

Contexts ..................... 47

The District .................. 48

The Project ................... 49

The Teachers .................. 52
Procedures .................... 54
Ethnographic Interview ............. SS
Vignette .................... 57

Data Analysis ................... 58
Summary ...................... 60

IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA .................. 62
Tensions ..................... 63
Rationale .................... 63
Narration .................... 64

The Impact on Personal and Professional Growth . . 76
Rationale .................... 76
Narration .................... 77

The Emergence of Reflection ............ 89
Rationale .................... 89
Narration .................... 90
Research Questions ................ 96
Question One .................. 97
Question Two .................. 99

Summary ...................... lOT

V. CONCLUSIONS AND REFLECTIONS ............. l02
Summary of the Study ............... l02
Findings ..................... 104
Question One .................. lO4
Question Two .................. 105
Conclusions .................... 106
Implications ................... l06

Field of Educational Practice .......... 107

Further Research ................ lll
Recommendations .................. lll
Reflections .................... llS
Epilogue ..................... 119
APPENDIX .......................... l20
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ 134

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
2.1 Model Showing Kolb’s Working Definition of

Experiential Learning ............... 38
4.l Map--Tensions .................... 65
4.2 Map--The Impact on Personal and Professional Growth . 78
4.3 Map--The Emergence of Reflection ........... 9l

viii

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Staff-development efforts involve people in interaction with
one another in particular contexts to accomplish goals for
professional growth and school improvement (Griffin, 1983). A
closer examination of these staff-development efforts indicates a
variety of assumptions. For example, Joyce and Showers (1988) based
their concept of coaching on the idea that curriculum and
instruction need constant improvement. Another view of their
assumptions is that expanding a repertoire of teaching skills
requires hard work, in which the help of colleagues is
indispensable. Sprinthall and Thies-Sprinthall’s (1983) assumptions
were based on the theories of adult development and that growth is
influenced by placing persons in a significant role-taking
experience. According to Sprinthall and Thies-Sprinthall, there
have to be certain qualitative aspects to the experience, as well as
a careful and continuous guided reflection on the experience.
Lieberman and Mi11er (1986) supported the notion of significant
experience and further described it as one that must be "grounded in
the social realities of teaching" (p. 99).

It is by teachers talking and working with other teachers that

additional insights into teaching are gained. Ward and Tikunoff

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(1982) suggested that involving teachers on research teams not only
produces research knowledge but also promotes professional
development. Through the integration of theory and practice,
teachers gain greater insights into themselves and their practices.

A critique of the assumptions of many staff-development models
by Schiffer (1979) revealed several problems with existing models
and provided insight for future efforts. First, many attempts at
staff development are efforts to fulfill organizational needs
through the use of rational change. This approach does not
necessarily consider the needs of the individual. Other models are
biased in the opposite direction as they stress individuals making
personal changes but not necessarily considering the needs of the
organization. Nor is there consideration of organizational support
for individual growth. Other models make unrealistic assumptions
about authority or power as the issue of choice or decision making
about the staff-development, efforts has already been decided by
others rather than the participants (Schiffer, 1979).

Combs (1988) stated that "old assumptions for educational
reform have governed our strategies for forty years with
disappointing results" (p. 40). He then proposed more promising
beliefs or assumptions that should be considered:

1. No matter how promising a strategy for reform, if it is not
incorporated into teachers’ personal belief systems, it
will be unlikely to affect behavior in the desired
directions.

2. To change people’s beliefs requires creating conditions for
change rather than imposing reforms. It calls for open

systems of thinking rather than the closed systems most
reformers are accustomed to.

3. Efforts at reform must be based on ideas that are important
to those who must carry them out.

4. One way to achieve commitment to reform is to concentrate
on the problems teachers and principals confront in their
everyday tasks.

5. Teacher confidence to experiment must, once again, be seen
as a necessary and desirable characteristic of the
profession. (pp. 39-40)

With the classroom teacher becoming the focus of staff-
development efforts and the need to support staff members’ ongoing
development, Evans (1989) investigated the teaching force itself.
He stated, "the teaching force is now composed mainly of people in
middle to late career who have been teaching in their current school
for most of their professional lives" (p. 10). Evans expressed a
concern that current reform efforts are lacking a career-development
focus, "an appreciation of teachers’ changing characteristics and
needs over the course of their careers" (p. 11). He suggested that
the study of career development in organizations and the research on
adult development be considered when planning staff-development
efforts. He further stated that "teaching is complex, draining, and
isolating--and all of these characteristics become more problematic
in midcareer” (p. 13). One suggestion for refonm efforts is that
”the workplace should emphasize collegiality by establishing
measures that enhance mutual trust, support, collaboration, and
reduce isolation" (p. 13).

Johnson and IJohnson (1987) explored ‘the benefits of adults

being allowed to work in cooperative or collegial groups. They

stated that collegial support groups offer a fbrmal structure for

learning from colleagues to complement informal on-the-job learning.
Within these groups, teachers can discuss new practices and the?J(
problems connected with implementing them. From their research, I
they concluded that "cooperation among adults promotes achievement,“
positive interpersonal relationships, social support, and self-
esteem" (p. 30). Johnson and Johnson identified several necessary
features for these collegial groups. They must have carefully
structured positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction,
personal responsibility, and periodic group processing.

In summary, many staff-development efforts have been based on a
variety of assumptions. New assumptions are being examined and
proposed. These assumptions have included a greater emphasis on
adults as learners. Influencing teachers’ beliefs and attitudes
rather than just increasing their knowledge base has begun to form
the basis for some school-reform practices. A greater emphasis is
also emerging on the formation of cooperative and collegial groups

as teachers are being encouraged to contribute to the development of

each other in an effort to improve schools.

Rationale
Within the field of staff development, researchers have
undertaken a number of investigations of collaborative relationships
as a form of professional growth. Weidman and Niles (1987)
suggested that such relationships are one of three essential
conditions for professional growth. Lieberman (1986) stated that

collaborative efforts are being stressed due to the complexity of

the problems the profession faces today. Lortie (1975) stated that,
because teachers have been working in isolation, they need to
develop the skills to work with one another.

It is clear that collaborative efforts are becoming a more
accepted staff-development practice. However, much remains to be
learned about these relationships. Lieberman (1987) stated that "we
need to understand not only the variety of collaboration activities
and arrangements, but what people get from these relationships and
what it takes to sustain them" (p. 5). More specifically, it is
important to examine how teachers perceive collaborative
relationships and to explore some of the effects of such
relationships on teacher growth, as perceived by teachers

themselves.

The Problem

Other researchers have stated that there is insufficient
information about the nature of collaborative relationships. As
situations that promote collaborative relationships become a more
widespread practice, there are many potential dangers. One danger
is that the practice could focus on the format or mechanics and
ignore the true potential of the relationship, i.e., promoting
growth through diverse kinds of collaboration. The problem of
promoting collaboration is especially significant beyond the
elementary level because of the even greater isolation experienced
by middle and secondary school teachers. Several questions arise

about the nature of collaborative relationships:

1. How do teachers perceive their relationships within a col-
laborative effort?

2. What insights are perceived or identified by teachers as
they participate in a collaborative effort?

In an effort to address the problem, several existing
relationships formed in a collaborative staff-development project at
the secondary level were examined. The examination was conducted

from a multiple-data-source perspective.

Purpose

The researcher’s purpose in this study' was to explore the
perceptions of teachers as they were involved in a collaborative
staff-development effort. Their insights and comments concerning
the relationships formed within the project and the project in
general were determined to be valuable. These perceptions,
validated by other sources, might have generated possible dimensions
or features of collaborative relationships for future consideration.

In this study, a set of relationships established in a
secondary public school setting was explored to hear the voices of
teachers as they participated in a collaborative staff-development
project. The staff-development project was designed to help
teachers internalize certain principles of reading in the content
area and to implement them in their classrooms. A major staff-
development vehicle for the project was the promotion of
collaborative relationships among the faculty, who tended to be

isolated in their professional roles. In addition, another form of

collaboration involving the facilitator of the project and the

teachers who participated in the project was explored.

Methodolo

A qualitative research design and methodology was chosen for
the study. An ethnographic interview was obtained from two teachers
who had formed a team in the project. A work session between the
facilitator and this team was tape recorded and then transcribed as
another data source. The building principal was also interviewed to
gain another perspective and data source as the principal reflected
on the teachers’ behaviors and attitudes during their participation
in the project. Finally, a case study or vignette describing the
team’s efforts and the relationships formed in the project was
obtained from the facilitator of the project. A follow-up
ethnographic interview was conducted with the facilitator for
further elaboration. An analysis of all data sources was conducted
using qualitative methods in an attempt to gain further insights
from the teachers’ perceptions as they participated in these

relationships.

Mama!

The works of Lieberman, Joyce, and others have provided strong
evidence that the study of collaborative relationships is valid and
important to the field of staff development. Further, the breadth

of this area and the limited amount of investigation carried out to

date support the notion that there is much fertile soil yet to be
explored.

Because collaborative relationships have the potential for such
widespread application and because these relationships can take so
many forms, an in-depth look at a form of collaboration can yield
greater insights into the nature of these relationships and people’s
perceptions of them. Such increased understanding could contribute
to the later development of a theoretical framework that can serve
as a thread of continuity for the diversity of such relationships.

If it is possible through this study to explore how teachers
perceive themselves to be changing or growing, the future
possibilities of collaborative relationships as a professional-
growth endeavor might be made more visible for other people.

Through this study, a contribution of a more comprehensive
understanding of how to facilitate the growth of school personnel
can be made. If an insight into such collaborative relationships
can be achieved, a more powerful vehicle for supporting staff growth

can be advanced.

De im ions
The scope of this study was limited to a discussion of
relationships formed while participating in a collaborative staff-
development effort. Issues pertaining to those relationships were
addressed. These other issues emerged from the analysis of the
data. Included were the relationships between teachers, as well as

between the facilitator and the teachers.

No attempt was made to describe how teachers learn less complex
issues or how teachers could learn in a different manner or
situation.

No attempt was made to assess or describe the teachers’ actual
knowledge of content reading strategies or the degree to which they

implemented those strategies in the classroom.

Limitations

One limitation of this study is that it was based on the
relationship between two teachers. Were this a quantitative study,
the concern would be for generalizability from such a small sample
size. Because the study was based on a qualitative research design,
the sample size and generalizability concerns were of a different
nature. LeCompte and Goetz (1982) suggested that, in ethnographic
research, comparability and translatability should be the aims,
rather than generalizability. They referred to Wolcott’s definition
in the following statement:

Comparability requires that the ethnographer delineate the

characteristics of the group studied or constructs generated so

clearly that they can serve as a basis for comparison with
other like and unlike groups. Translatability assumes that
research methods, analytic categories, and characteristics of
phenomena and groups are identified so explicitly that

comparisons can be conducted confidently. (p. 34)

Another potential problem concerns the extent to which these
teachers formed an adequate relationship within this staff-
development effort. The possibility that these teachers did not
have a genuinely collaborative relationship was dealt with through

multiple data sources. By examining these teachers’ perceptions, as

10

well as the perceptions of the building administrator and the
project facilitator, it was possible to determine whether or not
collaboration was present.

A second limitation, based on sample size, was that results
could be idiosyncratic to the teachers’ perceptions; that is, the
views of the teachers were unique only to themselves. It is
important to note that the study entailed not only teacher
perceptions but also perceptions grounded in the school context.
The vignette created by the project facilitator and the follow-up
interview with him served as a description of the context along with
observations of the other participants. The context itself,
secondary teachers engaged in learning new strategies to teach their

content better, is a fairly common occurrence in education today.

Defjnitjon 9f Terms

The following terms are defined in order to develop a clearer
understanding of the conceptual framework of this study.

Qallaboaation involves the development of a relationship based
on mutual trust and respect as the individuals are involved in a
shared activity with shared decision-making ability.

Camplax laaraing is the process of acquiring new information
that might be in conflict with previously held ideas or beliefs and
achieving a level of automaticity, an automatic response, with that
knowledge in a classroom.

Ethaagraphjc interview is a strategy or technique for getting

individuals involved in a particular situation to talk about the

ll

situation or experience so that meaning can be achieved or that
inferences can be made about their behavior.

Reading in the content areas is an area of reading instruction
in which secondary teachers learn to balance decisions about
teaching their content with process skills and motivational consid-
erations.

Staff development is the process whereby members of a staff,
particularly teachers, participate in activities or relationships
that contribute to their personal and professional growth.

A vignette is a qualitative tool designed to help capture the
subtle nuances of an experience through a description of that

experience.

Overview of the Studv

This dissertation is organized into five chapters. In Chapter
I, an introduction to the study and a rationale were presented.
This was followed by a statement of the problem, the purpose and
importance of the study, and methodology. Delimitations, limita-
tions, and definitions of terms completed the chapter.

A review of the literature relevant to this study is presented
in Chapter II. First, the historical context of staff-development
efforts and the assumptions that have guided these efforts are
described. Next, several trends that have influenced staff-
development practices are reviewed. They include the empowerment of
teachers, the growing use of qualitative research methods that more

directly involve teachers, the changing status of education as a

12

profession, and a discussion of professional relationships. This is
followed by a review of the literature concerning adults as
learners.

The design and methodology employed in this study are presented
in Chapter III. A statement of the problem, a rationale for the
design, and a description of the various contexts are included. The
specific procedures used to collect the data, including a
description of the tools--ethnographic interviewing and a vignette--
are included. Procedures for data analysis are then presented.

In Chapter IV, the analysis of data is presented. This
includes a rationale, map, and narration for each theme presented.
Each research question is then addressed.

A summary of the study, findings, conclusions, and implications
for practice and further research are presented in Chapter V.

Recommendations, reflections, and an epilogue are included.

CHAPTER 11

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduatian

As the focus of this study was related to teacher growth and
the relationships teachers develOp as they participate in staff-
development efforts, the initial section of the review of literature
includes an exploration of past staff-development efforts. These
past efforts, assumptions, and models are described to provide a
historical context. Next, certain trends that have been exerting an
influence on current staff-development practices, including the
development of collaborative relationships, are discussed. These
trends have included the changing status of the profession, an
increasing sense of teacher empowerment that has also supported the
development of collaborative relationships, and the emphasis on
qualitative research, which has provided a different perspective on
teachers’ roles and knowledge. Since a growing body of knowledge
has focused on the adult as a learner, which is relevant to the
discussion of teacher growth, this area has also been reviewed.
Finally, a summary of the review of the literature in this chapter

is included.

13

14

The Field af Staff Deyelopmeat

Education has gradually been experiencing a contextual change
as the world has been moving from an industrial society, with its
emphasis on mass production and standardization, to an information-
processing age (Naisbett, 1988). Current educational institutions
conceived and developed during the previous context are not
necessarily the ones that will function effectively in the twenty-
first century (Shanker, 1989). The large masses of people have not
been well educated, as evidenced by soaring dropout rates,
inadequate literacy levels, and public concerns about public
education. It is time, as Shanker stated, "to reconsider basic
assumptions rather than just tinkering with the system" (p. 3).

Suggestions to improve education, which influence how teachers
are supposed to grow, are plentiful, coming from a ‘variety of
sources. One source was from leaders at the federal level, when
William Bennett (1986), previous Secretary of the Department of
Education, proposed strategies for improvement. He suggested that
merit pay would motivate teachers to improve, while career ladders
like those in Tennessee would provide opportunities for teachers to
expand their roles. The Teacher Improvement and Training Act would
help teachers gain additional expertise in the subjects they teach,
would recognize the work of outstanding teachers, and would be used
to encourage qualified people from other professions to enter
teaching.

Another source attempting to influence education is the world

of business as education is no longer the exclusive concern of

15

schools and universities. Armed forces are reeducating their
recruits, and private corporations are conducting extensive
education programs for their employees (Houston, 1987). In 1983,
213,000 people were employed full time and 786,000 part time as
educational trainers in United States corporations. The training
budget, $40 billion, and the number of students, eight million,
involved in programs supported by American corporations are equal to
those for all four-year colleges and graduate schools in the country
(Houston, 1987, p. 1389). The Association of 'Teacher Educators
(cited in Houston, 1987) commissioned a team of teacher educators to
examine business’s assumptions about education. The following
conclusions and implications for education were reached:

1. Motivation and enculturation are emphasized and continually
reinforced.

2. Skills are sufficiently developed for students to be com—
fortable using them.

3. Teacher induction should be improved, with new teachers
gradually accepting responsibility.

4. Career-long professional growth is emphasized; no one is
ever considered fully trained.

5. Experiences are provided for trainers from a wide range of
educational and noneducational fields.

6. Trainers remain current by continuing to practice the roles
in which they are training others.

7. Curriculum development is separated from instruction.

8. Resources necessary for first-class instruction are pro-
vided. (Houston, 1987, pp. 390-391)

These observations and comments reflect some of the dialogue

concerning how to promote the growth of teachers.

16

Another group of teacher educators, the Holmes Group (1986),
made recommendations to improve the condition of education. They
encouraged changes in licensing and certification so that elementary
teachers would teach subjects that they knew and could teach well.
Increased research on how teachers learn, an integration of subject
matter and pedagogy, and greater cooperation across departments or
disciplines. were other suggestions. The Holmes Group has also
advocated greater collaborative efforts between schools ahd
universities as expert teachers should become responsible
participants in professional education. Schools need to become
places. where research on teaching and learning can become more
common. The Holmes Group (1990) continued this discussion in their
promotion of a design for a professional-development school. Two
principles of this design are most relevant to this discussion of
teacher growth. First, school adults "are expected to go on
learning too" (p. 7); second, "reflection and research on practice
are a central aspect of the school" (p. 7).

Burbach (1987) addressed the difficult task that educators face
to prepare schools for "the global age of information" (p. 2). He
was excited that an information-processing age will create a more
nourishing context for innovative thinking. He considered several
new assumptions:

1. There is a need to emphasize the interdependence of the

organization’s parts and the relationship between the
organization and the environment.

2. Of primary importance are human beings.

l7
3. The way in which people are organized is the critical vari-
able in explaining performance.

4. Communication and coordination among specialists are cen-
tral to the success of an organization.

5. Choices of an organization will be increasingly constrained
by external forces.

These assumptions offer rich food for thought as we watch the
context of education shift and change. This context becomes the
backdrop for* discussions on staff' development, especially since
staff' development is often discussed in the larger context of

school-improvement efforts (Joyce, Hersh, & McKibbin, l983).

flistpripal Context for
Staff Development

An exploration of the literature on staff development indicated
that the field appears to be in a state of reconceptualization. A
name change from inservice education to staff development was the
first indication of a shift in thinking. The label inservice
education implied something done to teachers, as opposed to with or
by teachers. During the 19605 and 19705, improvements in curricu-
lum, materials, and programs were thought to be the key to improve-
ment (Schiffer, 1983). Teachers were then trained or inserviced in
new materials or programs. Teacher-proof materials became the
trend; however, even the best teacher-proof material was not
sufficient to improve student learning.

The term inservice education also implied that there was a
deficit in the teacher that needed to be corrected. Staff

development suggested that change was natural and a part of

18

development. Change or development becomes the natural process of
helping one to continue to grow, regardless of the initial state.
Principles of adult development and growth have begun to serve as
the foundation for many staff-development models. The word staff
also implied a broader level of participation as the focus shifted
from just the classroom teacher to all professionals involved in
educating children. As a result of this involvement, principals,
consultants, and researchers began to redefine their roles as
professionals. More emphasis then became placed on the
relationships that professionals have with each other as they work
on staff-development projects. Words such as collegial,
collaborative, and cooperative began in) describe these
relationships.

The emphasis in the past was placed on inservice programs and
practices rather than on models. There was little discussion about
the assumptions that these programs were based on and about the
implications that follow from them. As staff-development models
have been created, there has been greater dialogue about the
assumptions that drive these models. Assumptions concerning adult
growth, the school as a social organization, the nature of
knowledge, complex learning, the connection between teaching and
learning, and developing professional relationships have been
identified with many staff-development models. With these
assumptions more clearly articulated, practitioners have a greater
understanding of the potential, direction, and limitations of these

models.

19

s m i s i ° ff-
Qevalppment Modals

Staff-development efforts involve people. in interaction with
one another in particular contexts to accomplish professional-growth
and school-improvement goals (Griffin, 1983). A closer examination
of these efforts indicates a variety of assumptions. For example,
Joyce and Showers (1988) based their concept of coaching on the idea
that curriculum and instruction need constant improvement. In
addition, expanding the repertoire of teaching skills requires hard
work, in which the help of colleagues is indispensable. Sprinthall
and Thies-Sprinthall’s (1983) assumptions are based on theories of
adult development and the idea that growth is influenced by placing
a person in a significant role-taking experience. According to
Sprinthall and Thies-Sprinthall, there have to be certain
qualitative aspects to the experience, as well as careful and guided
reflection on the experience. Lieberman and Miller (1986) supported
the notion of significant experience and further described it as one
that must be "grounded in the social realities of teaching" (p. 97).

It is by teachers talking and working with other teachers that
additional insights into teaching are gained. Ward and Tikunoff
(1982) suggested that involving teachers on research teams would not
only produce research knowledge but would promote professional
development. Through the integration of theory and practice,
teachers can gain greater insight into themselves and their

practices.

20

Howey and Vaughan (1983) reviewed staff-development efforts,
offering several insights. First, classroom-relevant content and
strategies are too infrequently presented, with little account for
the needs of the specific participants, both student and teacher, in
the classroom. Second, there is little continuity or coordination
between and among the staff—development offerings. Third, these
activities have not been related to measures of changed teacher
behavior or student learning outcomes. Insufficient feedback is
available to evaluate the models. Finally, inservice activities
focus only on the teacher as the person responsible for improving
instruction, ignoring other factors, influences, and roles. For
example, how do teachers acquire the skills or information to work
with other teachers? It also ignores the need of the teacher to be
directly involved in his/her own growth and to work with other
professionals.

In general, the assumptions underlying several staff-
development models have suggested that individuals grow from working
with one another. Reflection on those experiences can provide
additional and crucial insights for the individual. The opportunity
to integrate ‘theory' and practice by being actively involved in
research efforts in real classrooms is an important component for
professional growth. The different contexts within which
individuals work should be considered as staff-development efforts

are planned.

21

Influencing Trends

As the field of staff development shifts and changes in an
attempt to meet the needs of the future, several trends have
converged, creating an influence on how teachers perceive themselves
and their growth. First, a growing sense of empowerment has
appeared as assumptions about decision making in an organization
have been reconceptualized. This has allowed teachers to choose and
direct their own path for growth, as well as the relationships they
form to support that growth. Next, the development of qualitative
research methods in the field of education has promoted the creation
of various collaborative relationships, as the classroom becomes the
focus of attention and the classroom teacher becomes an equal
partner. Finally, this new knowledge grounded in the classroom
becomes essential as the educational profession experiences a shift
in status. The influence of these trends has contributed to a

framework for collaborative relationships.

Empowgrmant

In staff-development literature, new assumptions about decision
making, power, and authority are emerging. The term empowerment has
appeared, which describes the teacher’s desire for power or control
over personal-professional growth. Maeroff (1988) proposed three
principles that would promote the empowerment of teachers. First,
the status of teachers needs to be increased. When teachers have
greater confidence in and recognition of their expertise, they will

be able to play a more active role in their growth and in the field

22

of education. Second, teachers, even at the elementary level, need
to become more knowledgeable about the specific content areas they
are teaching. This would make teachers less dependent on texts for
information and in a better position to make instructional decisions
independent of the text. Finally, access to decision making would
grow out of the first two principles and would complement them.

Lambert (1988) described the characteristics of an empowered
individual:

1. A capacity for cognitive complexity is essential so that
the individual can perceive relationships between ideas.

2. Flexibility, a sense of interdependence, self-reflection,
and a self-assurance that allows the relinquishing of old
ways of thinking and working are the hallmarks of an
empowered individual. (p. 665)

One arena over which teachers want influence and choice is the
path of their own learning. In an evaluation of two projects in
which 375 high school teachers completed self-directed studies and
some 1,050 middle and high school teachers participated in sumer
institutes, teachers demonstrated their desire to direct their
learning (Banner, 1985). Banner found that "teachers want to seek
knowledge, proud to have the chance to study and learn as trusted
adults, free to carry out a professional task without oversight and
rigid accountability” (p. 75).

With a sense of empowerment, a redefinition of roles for
teachers has emerged on the agenda for professional development. In

the past, the teacher’s role was defined by the classroom and the

students. The teacher often worked in isolation (Lortie, 1975),

23

in some cases rarely talking to other adults. This role of the
teacher became extended as teachers began to participate in
educational activities beyond the classroom. Serving on curriculum
conlnittees, developing curriculum materials, and supporting other
teachers became some of the professional activities beyond the
classroom (Hatfield, Blackman, Claypool, & Mester, 1985). Some
envision the teacher of the twenty-first century with an even
broader set of' multiple roles, such as "researcher, colleague,
consultant, leader, child advocate, and school trensformer"
(Blackman, 1989, p. 13).

A closer look at one role in particular, teacher as researcher,
reveals some interesting ideas. As Chall (1986) pointed out, this
is not a new role for teachers. During the 19205 and 19305, many
educational researchers were classroom teachers or school
administrators. Their audience was other practicing teachers.
However, during the 19405 and 19505, there was a decline in these
efforts as more emphasis was placed on theory, which produced more
technical reports that were not necessarily read by practitioners.
The 19605 and 19705 brought an even greater emphasis on theory-based
research, especially as universities and research centers were
funded by the federal government and private foundations. Teachers
were then presented with the results of this research in the form of
instructional materials. Research in the 19805 experienced shifts
and changes as the value of teachers’ perceptions as an aspect of
conceptualizing professional development (Holly & McLaughlin, 1989)

became recognized. Another major development that has supported the

24

role of the teacher as researcher has been the emergence of

qualitative research.

Qualitativa Rasearch

Qualitative data, data in the form of words rather than
numbers, can offer rich descriptions and explanations of processes
occurring in local contexts (Miles & Huberman, 1984). The local
context or classroom setting acquires an increased role of
importance, which requires at least the cooperation of a classroom
teacher and, at best, the active involvement of the teacher.

Qualitative data can provide depth and detail in understanding
a situation or phenomenon as a whole (Patton, 1980). Rogers (1984)
listed the following assumptions that have driven qualitative
research:

1. Any social entity or institution is complex and subtle.

2. Intensive study of a given phenomenon over a long period of

time is essential for genuine understanding of that phenom-

enon .

3. People and institutions must be studied holistically, and
not in isolation from the forces that influence them.

4. The most effective way to study a phenomenon is through
direct, on-site, face-to-face contact with the people and
events involved.

5. The basic function of the researcher is description. (pp.
86-87)

These assumptions reinforce the role of teacher as researcher as
they assert the importance of on-site data collection and the need
to involve the teacher when studying many aspects of what happens in

classrooms. Through this role of researcher, teachers can gain a

25

deeper understanding of their practice as they reflect on and
integrate theory and practice.

Some people might question the value of collecting these rich,
verbal descriptions; however, each description contributes to a
greater understanding of the whole. Generalizable theory can emerge
from the study of specific settings or situations. Bogdan and
Biklen (1982) and Glaser and Strauss (1967) described this as
grounded theory. Through the role of researcher or active
participant in research, teachers can become contributors of new
knowledge to their profession, just as doctors are responsible for
the renewing aspects of their profession.

These rich descriptions can also take the form of stories as
the use of narrative inquiry has become more frequent in educational
research. Connelly and Clandinin (1990) stated the following
reasons for the use of narrative in research:

The main claim for the use of narrative in educational research

is that humans are storytelling organisms who, individually and

socially, lead storied lives. The study of narrative,
therefore, is the study of the ways humans experience the
world. This general notion translates into the view that
education is the construction and reconstruction of personal
and social stories; teachers and learners are storytellers and

characters in their own and others’ stories. (p. 2)

This type of research allows the voices of teachers to be heard as
”the practitioner, who has long been silenced in the research
relationship, is given the time and space to tell her or his story

so that it gains the authority and validity that the research story
has long had" (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990, p. 4). Practitioners

26

might become the audience again of the researchers as they listen

and create their own stories.

Th an in us f duc tion
There has been increased dialogue concerning the
professionalization of education. Some might say that education has
always been considered a profession, just as law and medicine are
professions. 'The practices that characterize education, however,
have not been similar to the practices of other professions. It is
not just educators making decisions about membership, working
conditions, or curriculum. Darling-Hammond (1988) claimed that the
profession of education is at a crossroads, with two very different
paths to ‘take. The choice of’ path is related to the initial
discussion of the changing context for education. Should education
revise basic assumptions and reconceptualize the profession or
engage in tinkering that promotes the status quo? If the decision
is to take the path that makes education a true profession, there
are certain implications. Darling-Hammond stated:
For occupations that require discretion and judgment in meeting
the unique needs of clients, the profession strives to
guarantee the competence of members in exchange for the
privilege of control over' work structure and standards of
practice. It is the profession itself that assumes collective
responsibility for the definition, transmittal, and enforcement
of professional standards of practice and ethics. (p. 5)
One practice that has emerged that reflects the path for a true
profession is mentoring. This model advocates reflection as a

prerequisite for further growth for both parties involved (Howey,

1988). Professional teachers need to use reflection in action;

27

however, because professionalism is still identified mainly with
technical expertise, reflection in action has not been considered a
legitimate form of professional knowing. Mentoring also allows for
a gradual acceptance of duties and responsibilities into the
profession instead of equal responsibilities regardless of
experience. It is a collaborative relationship in which the mentor
models the ways and means of studying a classroom and provides a
more experienced perspective in interpreting what is observed and
recorded. It encourages teachers to take a more active leadership
role in the profession. One responsibility of a professional is to
contribute new knowledge to the profession.

The conceptual framework for one mentoring program in Columbus,
Ohio (Howey, 1988), drew from three distinct but related fields of
knowledge: research-supported classroom processes, multiple means
of classroom observation and analysis, and instructional
supervision. This knowledge base and the ability to reflect would
set the stage for producing new knowledge for the professionals
involved, and for the field in general.

Daloz (1986) used the metaphor of a journey, with the mentor
being a "trusted guide rather than a tour director“ (p. 2). He also
used storytelling or narrative inquiry to trace how adults changed
or were transformed through their experiences.

Lambert (1988) argued that professional development is the
development of the profession. Teachers have the responsibility to
contribute to the profession through the redesign of schooling, by

contributing to the knowledge base, and through the enculturation of

28

new teachers. Mertens and Yager (1988) stated that the ”hallmark of
professionalism is professional judgment" (p. 34). Teachers need to
be allowed to develop and use that judgment because ”professional
knowledge could be transmitted to teachers ad infinitum, but there
is no defensible purpose if the system does not provide them the
authority and power to function in accordance with their
professional understanding" (p. 35). Mertens and Yager stressed
that the "strengthening of the profession must provide for formal
structures for ensuring that teachers are empowered" (p. 35).

Rogus (1988) discussed the concept of teacher-leaders and
presented an image or definition of an ideal teacher-leader as a
professional:

Effective classroom teachers are reflective practitioners who

know the research and the literature on teaching; they model

the best practice in instruction; they are well grounded in
their‘ discipline(s) and are liberally educated; they place
their classrooms in a larger social context and understand
alternative visions of school and how external political and
cultural factors influence these variables; they demonstrate
command of program regularities; and they have internalized the

wisdoms of daily practice. (p. 48)

In sumary, these trends have supported and reinforced each
other, creating a major influence on how teacher growth is

perceived.

ion lat nshi
As the need to work together becomes more apparent, the notion
of collaboration is being considered. There appears to be some
confusion about the concepts of cooperation and collaboration.

In her review of the literature, Hord (1986) attempted to offer some

29

clarification. Cooperation and collaboration are different
processes with different purposes. The lack of current literature
describing collaboration has contributed to this confusion. The
forms for cooperation and collaboration may look very similar, but
the processes are different, leading to different results. Hord
cautioned that using the wrong process to achieve a result may
hinder future staff-development efforts.

Lanier (1979) used the metaphor of a family to describe the
difference between cooperation and collaboration. A mother may
cooperate (grant permission) by allowing and encouraging her son to
play the drums, but the family is collaborating (mutual sharing)
when they all work together to prepare a family meal.

An examination of collaborative relationships has indicated
that they may be:

. small or large, heavily funded or not funded at all;
organized within schools by a group of teachers or a principal
or encouraged by someone from the district; or they may be

'organized by a business, a foundation, university, or
professional association in collaboration with schools.

(Lieberman, 1986, p. 6)

Form also varies as the extent and kind of participation changes.
Collaboration could involve two teachers observing each other to
provide feedback for each other, or participation on a school-
improvement team or as a member of a research team. There can be
collaboration between organizations as well as between individuals
(DeBevoise, 1986).

Research into the process of collaboration has offered some

insights. As a result of his participation in a long-term

30

collaborative relationship, Trubowitz (1986) observed that the
relationship passed through a series of stages. The initial stage
was one of skepticism. As opportunities to share feelings were
provided, the feelings of skepticism began to dissipate. The
creation of trust, the next stage, occurred as members gained common
experiences and communicated about those experiences. When trust
was achieved, professionals could begin to work side by side. Then
the professionals could recognize the growth of each member and
their true accomplishments. The last stage might even involve some
regression as the vision became blurred and needed to be
reclarified, causing the group to become self-renewing in its
efforts.

DeBevoise (1986) also stressed the importance of trust and the
need for the relationship to occur over time. Persistence is
essential as short-term difficulties arise because some individuals
might lost sight of the long-range goal. Collaboration might not be
appropriate for all individuals. It does depend on "a community of
believers where enthusiasm, flexibility, and a shared language help
break down traditional barriers" (p. 6).

As coaching reaches a more complex stage, that of mutual
examination of a teaching strategy, it takes on characteristics of a
collaborative problem-solving session (Joyce & Showers, 1988).
Coaching facilitates professional development, especially as it
reaches the complex stage through the development of a shared

experience and language. It also promotes the norm of

31

experimentation where the status quo is questioned and an air of
"what if" becomes the norm.

The possibilities or outcomes generated from collaborative
relationships have not been well defined. Some suggestions have
been offered, as well as support for the need for further research.
Porter (1987) stated four benefits of these relationships:

1. Collaboration breaks down isolation.

2. It provides the distance and time that enables teachers to
analyze and reflect upon their own practices.

3. It enables participants to be more receptive to new ideas
and more analytical in assessing them.

4. Collaboration also increases professional confidence and
strengthens a commitment to the improvement of practice.

Wildman and Niles (1987) argued that complex learning generates
certain side effects, such as increased cognitive and emotional
demands. Collaboration addresses these side effects as new ideas
are generated and emotional support is offered.

The possibility for teachers to assume new roles and exhibit
leadership has been identified as another outcome of collaborative
relationships (Lieberman, 1986). As teachers take the initiative to
support one another, become involved in decision-making situations,
and step outside their classrooms, the traditional role of classroom
teachers begins to break down. As concepts such as teacher as
professional, teacher as curriculum, and school as laboratory emerge
even more, this leadership will become more evident in the schools

(Blackman & Hatfield, 1986).

32

In summary, the discussion of staff-development models included
the importance of professional relationships. The process of
collaboration has emerged as having an influence on professional
development. However, the lack of research to date has hindered a

better understanding of its processes, outcomes, and implications.

Adults as Learners

The discussion of adults as learners began with the efforts of
Houle' as he investigated different types of adult learners and
continued as Tough analyzed the learning patterns of adults. The
concept was expanded as Knowles (1982) proposed a difference between
pedagogy and andragogy, "the art and science of helping adults
learn" (p. 145). The conversation continued as the concept of
developmental stages or phases emerged (Aslanian & Brickell, 1982).
Lifelong learning (Gross, 1982) and experiential learning (Kolb,
1984) expanded the discussion. The issue of motivation to encourage
adult learning (Wlodkowski, 1985) and to develop motivational as
well as instructional plans for adult learning provided a new
dimension. As the promotion of professional relationships
(Lieberman, 1988) contributes to the development of a professional
culture, the issue of adults as learners as well as teachers has
become a central focus. Today the emphasis has shifted to creating
an adult-development perspective when planning staff-development

efforts (Levine, 1990).

33

Emmdatienaflbem
Houle (1961) conducted a series of in-depth interviews with 22

adults who were very active learners. The similar characteristics

among these adults were their continual desire to learn, the setting

of goals for themselves, and the enjoyment of participation. Their

differences were more a matter of emphasis. Although there is much

overlap and no absolute distinction among adult learners, Houle

(1982) described three types or kinds of learners:

l.

Goal-oriented--Those who use education as a means of
accomplishing fairly clear—cut objectives. . . . Their
education is characterized with episodes, each of which
begins with the realization of a need or the identification
of an interest. There is no even, steady, continuous flow
to the learning of such people, though it is an ever-
recurring characteristic of 'their lives. Nor do they
restrict their activities to any one institution or method
of learning. (p. 134)

Activity-oriented--These learners take part in learning
primarily for reasons unrelated to the purposes or content
of the activities in which they engage. . . . They go in
search of a social milieu, and the adult educational
institution is one of the places where they look for it.
It was social contact that they sought and their selection
of any activity was essentially based on the amount and
kind of human relationships it would yield. (p. 136)

Learning-oriented--These learners seek knowledge for its
own sake. . . . Education might also be called a constant
rather than a continuing activity. . . . Each particular
educational experience of the learning-oriented is an
activity with a goal, but the continuity and range of such
experiences make the total pattern of participation far
more than the sum of its parts. (p. 139)

Tough’s original research conducted in 1977 on adult learners

focused on three basic questions: what they had been learning in

the past year, how they had gone about it, and how much time they

had been spending on it. His primary focus was on learning

34

projects. One finding was that "80% of all learning projects were
planned by the learner himself rather than by professionals" (Tough,
1982, p. 155). In addition, Tough included learning projects that
involved personal aspects as well as professional ones. Another
finding was that the "most common motivation is some anticipated use
or application of the knowledge or skill. Less common is satisfying
curiosity or wanting to possess the knowledge for its own sake” (p.
156).

Knowles (1982) originally' defined andragogy as ‘the art and
science of helping adults learn. His model of learning was based on
the following four assumptions:

1. It is a normal aspect of the process of maturation for a
person to move from dependency toward increasing self-
directedness, but at different rates for different people
and in different dimensions of life. Teachers have a
responsibility to encourage and nurture this movement.
Adults have a deep psychological need to be generally self-
directing, although they may be dependent in particular
situations.

2. As people grow and develop they accumulate an increasing
reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich
resource for learning--for themselves and for others.
Furthermore, people attach more meaning to learnings they
gain from experience than those they acquire passively.
Accordingly, the primary techniques in education are
experiential ones--1aboratory experiments, discussion,
problem-solving cases, simulation exercises, field
experience, and the like.

3. People become ready to learn something when they experience
a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with
real life tasks or problems. The educator has the
responsibility to create conditions and provide tools and
procedures for helping learners discover their "needs to
know.” Learning programs should be organized around life-
application categories and sequenced according to the
learners’ readiness to learn.

35

4. Learners see education as a process of developing increased
competence to achieve their full potential in life. They
want to be able to apply whatever knowledge and skill they
gain today to living more effectively tomorrow. People are
performance centered in their orientation to learning. (pp.

49- 50

Lifglong Learning

At about the same time that Houle was investigating the
learning patterns of adults, in 1961 Gardner was raising questions
about the decline or growth of societies and the individuals who
were members of those societies. He stated:

When organizations and societies are young, they are flexible,

fluid, not yet paralyzed by rigid specialization and willing to

try anything once. As the organization or society ages,
vitality diminishes, flexibility gives way to rigidity,
creativity faces and there is a loss of capacity to meet

challenges from unexpected directions. (1981 reprint, p. 3)
What he proposed instead was a picture of an "ever-renewing society
where what matures is a system or framework within which continuous
innovation, renewal and rebirth can occur" (p. 5). Gardner
cautioned that renewal is "not just innovation and change. It is
also the process of bringing the results of change into line with
our purposes" (p. 6).

Gardner then described the types of individuals who would
create this ever-renewing society. He acknowledged the increased
opportunities for adults to continue their learning. However, he
stated that what is really blocking the self-development of adults

is ”the individual’s own intricately designed, self-constructed

prison, or put it another way, the individual’s incapacity for self-

renewal”

36

(p. 8). He then suggested what a self-renewing person

might be like:

1.

Self-development. . . . For self-renewing men and women the
development of their potentialities and the process of
self-discovery never end. (p. 10)

Self-knowledge. . . . The individual who has become a
stranger to himself has lost the capacity for genuine self-
renewal. (p. 13)

Courage to fail. . . . We pay a heavy price for our fear of
failure. It is a powerful obstacle to growth. It assures
the progressive narrowing of the personality and prevents
exploration and experimentation. (p. 15)

Love. . . . They are capable of accepting love and giving
it--both more difficult achievements than is commonly
thought. They are capable of depending on others and of
being depended upon. They can see life through another’s
eyes and feel it through another’s heart. (p. 15)

Motivation. . . . Self-renewing people know that if they
have no great conviction about what they are doing they had
better find something in which they can have great
conviction. (p. 16)

The same ideas proposed by Knowles and the picture of a self-

renewing person portrayed by Gardner were also reflected in the

lifelong-learning principles advocated by Gross (1982):

1.

N

no:

Lifelong learning is a personal, existential challenge to
each of us, not just a rubric for certain educational
activities.

Lifelong learning is a perennial humanistic ideal, not
merely a new educational concept.

Lifelong learning takes diverse forms, not one pattern.

Lifelong learning is an international movement, not an
American invention.

Lifelong learning is both individual and communal, not just
one or the other. (pp. 22-23)

37

As Gross further explained, it is not just the acquisition of
techniques or information that is involved in learning, but rather a
comitment to an individual. "In the field of adult education,
where the stuff of our work is human potential itself, . . . caring,
commitment, even love must undergird and inform our skills" (p. 24).
These principles could be reflected in any staff-development efforts

where adults are pursuing their own growth.

Expariential Learning

Another important theory in the field of adult education is
that of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984). Kolb set the stage for
his theory in stating that ”the learning process itself was
distorted first by rationalism and later by behaviorism. We lost
touch with our own experience as the source of personal learning and
development” (p. 2). Kolb then drew upon the works of Dewey, Lewin,
and Piaget, basing his model on the following ideas:

1. Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience.

2. It is the resolution of some conflict or problem.

3. It is a holistic process involving the total person as that
person adapts to the world or new situations.

4. It involves transactions between the person and the envi-
ronment.

5. It is the process of creating knowledge. (pp. 26-36)

Kolb’s working definition of experiential learning was that
"learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience” (p. 38). Several critical ideas are

emphasized in this definition. First, the emphasis is on process

38

rather than content or outcomes. Then knowledge is created rather
than acquired or transmitted. This knowledge is filtered through
experiences, becoming different in some way with the difference
dependent upon the experience. The model shown in Figure 2.1

represents this definition.

Concrete
Experience

  
 

Grasping via
APPREHENSION

 

Accommodative Divergent
Knowledge Knowledge
Active 4 Transformation Transformation _ Reflective
Exwimeflmion ‘via EXTENSION via INTENTION ' 0b9mfl°n
Convergent Assimilative
Knowledge Knowledge
Grasp ng via

 

COMPREHENSION .

   

Abstract
Conceptualization

Figure 2.1: Model showing Kolb’s working definition of
experiential learning. (From Kolb, 1984,
p. 42.)

As described in the model, there is a four-stage cycle with two
opposing dimensions being created. Concrete experience and abstract
conceptualization form two very different learning modes.
Reflective observation and active experimentation form the opposing
ends of the other learning modes. Through the interaction of these

four dimensions, the experience is transformed, creating new

39

knowledge. It. is important to note that there is not a
predetermined starting point to the cycle. According to Kolb:

The complex structure of learning allows for the emergence of
individual, unique possibility-processing structures or styles
of learning. Through their choices of experiences, people
program themselves to grasp reality through varying degrees of
emphasis on apprehension or comprehension. (p. 64)

Qeyalopmenta! Thaory

While some researchers investigated learning theories, others
searched for answers by interviewing a large number of adult
learners. ‘The landmark study, "Americans in Transitions," was
conducted by the Exxon-funded project "Future Directions for a
Learning Society." Aslanian and Brickell (1982) summarized some of
the findings of 'that study. The findings that deal with the
relationship between learning and the personal dimensions of the
learner are included for the discussion in this study.

1. Adults learn in order to cope with some change in their
lives.--Almost all the adult learners interviewed pointed
to their changing circumstances as their reasons for
learning. Adults who learn because of one kind of
transition differ from those who learn because of another.

(p. 161)

2. Learning can precede, accompany, or follow life transi-
tions.--Learning before a transition presumably is the best
way. But adults cannot always plan their lives well enough
to prepare for all changes ahead of time. (p. 162)

3. Transitions--and the learning needed to accomplish them--
occur unevenly in the several areas of adult life.--Career
transitions predominate for several reasons. First,
careers are more turbulent than other aspects of adult
life; second, that career changes are more likely to
require learning; third, that learning opportunities are
more plentiful for* career shift; and fourth, that many
adults think they can handle other kinds of life changes
without learning anything new. (p. 163)

4O

4. Every adult who learned because of a transition pointed to
a specific event in his or her life that signaled,
precipitated, or triggered the transition and thus the
learning.--The need, the opportunity, and even the desire
are not sufficient to cause most adults to learn at a
particular point in time. But it will take specific life
events to convert most of them from latent learners into
active learners. (p. 164)
In general, events in an adult’s life influence his/her desire to
learn.

The theories about adult. development have been expanded to
address the issue of adult motivation, as well. Wlodkowski (1985)
proposed that "cognitive evaluation theory, as a single overview of
human behavior, has probably the most natural relationship to the
central assumptions of adult learning theory and research" (p. 6).
Wlodkowski advocated that motivation must be looked at from both the
learner and the instructor perspectives. He described four
integrated levels to this theory. The first level is success +
volition. A sense of choice in relationship to the learning
activities is critical for the success of the learning. The next
level adds value (success + volition + value) to the equation. The
learner decides that the activity is meaningful and worthwhile.
This separates superficial learning from relevant learning and
significantly adds to the self-esteem of the learner. The last
level adds enjoyment (success + volition + value + enjoyment) to the
equation. The learning must be perceived as pleasurable. With this
equation in mind, Wlodkowski described five critical assumptions for

helping adults who want to learn:

1. People are always motivated--they are motivated to do
something even if it isn’t to learn.

41

2. People are responsible for their own motivation--seeing
learners as responsible allows us to develop mutual respect
and interdependence with them. This assumption gives us
the right to expect their cooperation as well as ours in
making learning the reciprocal relationship it naturally
is.

3. If anything can be learned, it can be learned in a
motivating manner.

4. There is no one best way to instruct.
5. Every instructional plan needs a motivational plan. (pp.
12-14)

Qavalppmental Perspective
Levine (1989) has listened carefully to adult-development

theories but has raised questions about how much the information has
been incorporated into current staff-development practices ‘hi the
schools. She described promising practices such as writing,
individual and group supports, and organizational supports. "Many
of these practices require reflection, involve collaboration, and
encourage a sense of ownership. Like most effective professional
development strategies, they also require commitments of time,
training, and resources" (p. 266). Levine advocated the development
of' an "adult. development perspective" (p. 265), which would be
developed from the following ideas about what is known about adults:
1. No matter how hard each of us tries to appear in control

and competent, everyone is vulnerable and no one is immune

to being hurt. A related reality is the universal need for

approval and recognition.

2. We must attend to the personal and professional lives of
adults.

3. Teachers can use their work as a source of stability when
other aspects of their lives are in flux.

42

4. Like children, adults continue to change and grow. While
teachers and administrators may not need totally new
assignments every year, we can expect adults to want to
modify their teaching and leading, adopt new curricula,
change grades or schools, take sabbaticals, or otherwise
alter their work to reflect their growth and development.

5. Like children, adults do not all see the world or
themselves in the same way. Adult development theories
underscore the importance of attending not only to what
adults say, feel, and do; they invite us to look beneath
these responses toward a more fundamental understanding of
how they are making sense of themselves and others, and
what these patterns of sense-making might mean for the ways
we respond, the kinds of supports we make available, and
even possibilities for expanding world views through the
introduction of dilemmas.

6. Schools are complex social environments as well as places
to gain skills and knowledge. . . . Social interactions,
particularly peer interactions, are central to the growth
of adults.

7. Support is an essential precondition for growth. School
principals and staff developers can use an adult
development perspective to understand the nuances of
support and to provide clues to the kinds of supports
adults will need at different stages of development.

8. Many organizations, and perhaps most schools, require and
reward conformity rather than independence. It is not
coincidental that adults who demand a great deal of
autonomy can find schools confining and may choose to
leave. (pp. 266-270)

In summary, the differences in adults and children as learners
have been investigated, beginning with the works of Houle, Tough,
and Knowles. Lifelong learning and the notion of experiential
learning have elaborated on the original ideas. An exploration of
the transitions that adults experience introduced the idea of
developmental phases and the effect of an adult’s personal life on
his/her learning activities. Motivation as an essential component

of staff-development activities was explored. Finally, the need to

43

develop an adult-development perspective in order to incorporate

these theories into practice was described.

Summar

The field of staff development was explored in this chapter
from a historical perspective to capture a feel for the shifts and
changes within the broad context of education. Some of the
assumptions that guided more current models were described. Several
assumptions stressed the need for teachers to grow from working with
other teachers. Another assumption was that reflection upon
experiences could provide critical insights for the individual. A
third assumption stated that the opportunity to integrate theory and
practice contributed to professional growth.

Next, several trends were reviewed that have merged, creating
an influence on how teachers perceive themselves and their growth.
These trends, such as empowerment, which describes teachers’ desire
for power or control over their own growth, the increased role of
teachers in qualitative research efforts as they contribute new
knowledge to the profession, and the changing status of education as
the profession itself develops, have affected staff-development
efforts. The increased emphasis on professional relationships was
described as another trend.

Finally, the theories and models that related to adults as
learners were reviewed. 'The foundational theories from Houle,
Tough, and Knowles were described. Lifelong-learning principles and

Kolb’s experiential-learning model expanded the original theories.

44

The continued development of adults was then presented. Finally,
the struggle to develop practices reflective of this knowledge about
adult learners was presented through the argument for a

developmental perspective when designing staff-development efforts.

CHAPTER III

THE DESIGN

The design employed in this study is described in this chapter.
It includes a statement of the problem, a rationale for the
particular design, a description of the different contexts, and the
procedures used to collect the data. A description of the tools
used for data collection and the procedures for data analysis is

also included.

Statement of the Problem

 

As reported by other researchers, there is insufficient
information or description about the nature of collaborative
relationships in school projects. As situations that promote
collaborative relationships become more widespread, there are
several potential dangers. One danger is that the practice could
focus on the format or mechanics, ignoring the true potential of
collaborative relationships. A second danger is that without a
variety of’ descriptions of‘ collaborative relationships and more
specific pictures created of these relationships from the teachers’
perspectives, staff-development efforts to promote collaborative
relationships might be abandoned. Furthermore, the problem of

promoting collaboration is especially significant beyond the

45

46

elementary level because of the greater isolation experienced by
middle and secondary school teachers. Several questions arise,
then, about the nature of collaborative relationships:

1. How do participants engaged in a collaborative effort
perceive their relationships?

2. What insights could be perceived or identified by teachers
as they participate in a collaborative effort?

To address the problem, several relationships formed within a

collaborative effort were examined.

Rationale

The researcher’s goals in this study included describing (a)
teachers’ perceptions of their relationships as they participated in
a collaborative staff-development effort to integrate content
reading strategies into their classroom practices, and (b) the
teachers’ insights concerning this collaborative staff-development
effort. Because of the exploratory nature of this study and the
interrelationships among these goals, a design offering rich
descriptions and explanations of social processes was required.
Because qualitative research provides these kinds of descriptions
and explanations, this study was based on a qualitative research
design.

Qualitative research is based on the following assumptions
(Rogers, 1984):

1. Any social entity or institution is enormously complex and
subtle.

47

2. People and institutions must be studied holistically and

not in isolation from other forces that may influence them.

3. The most effective way to study a given phenomenon is

through direct on-site, face-to-face contact with the
people and events in question. (pp. 86-87)
Collaborative relationships take place within the context of a
school, a complex organization. The formation of these relation-
ships, the forces that influence them, and the outcomes they produce
are not obvious phenomena; however, further investigations might
help make them more visible.

These assumptions parallel the findings of recent research
dealing with collaborative relationships. For example, Lieberman
(1986) argued that school-based collaborations are highly complex.
The formation of these relationships is contingent on features of
schools as organizations, and face-to—face interactions throughout a
typical school year. Because qualitative methodologies have been

developed with these factors in mind, it seemed most appropriate to

use a qualitative design for this study.

CAMELS

Because collaborative relationships can exist in many different
settings and formats, it is important to describe the contexts that
influenced the particular relationships described in this study.
First, the district is examined in an effort to describe the
organizational context that existed before the content reading
project. Second, the project itself is defined so that the reader
can visualize the setting and the types of experiences in which the

teachers participated as they formed their collaborative

48

relationships. Finally, the professional backgrounds of the

teachers are provided.

Th istr' t

The district was a small, suburban district located in the mid-
eastern section of Michigan, serving approximately 3,000 students.
It had a long history of emphasis on curriculum development and
staff development. New programs and innovations were the norm
rather than the exception. An air of experimentation and change
could be found in the climate of the organization. As part of the
student teaching program, weekly seminars and inservice offerings
were held for supervising teachers, which created an opportunity for
ongoing professional dialogue. There was a clear expectation that
building principals were the instructional leaders of the building;
therefore, they needed to participate actively in all staff-
development efforts.

Due to a failing economy and declining enrollment, however, the
district laid off 14 teachers for the first time in the history of
the district. This situation resulted in the reassignment of other
staff members, with the middle school being especially affected. In
an effort to support these teachers, a grant for middle school math
teachers was written to better prepare teachers who were teaching
outside their area of expertise. The professional-development grant
was awarded for two years, ending before the reading project began.

During the implementation of the math grant, the new reading

goals and objectives from the state were being published and

49

disseminated, which had raised the level of concern at the secondary
level within the district. Several of the teachers had attended the
State of Reading conferences and were looking for more direction for
implementing the goals and objectives in the classroom. These
events prompted the district to seek a vehicle for facilitating the
growth of secondary teachers in the delivery of their content to

students as they implemented the new reading goals and objectives.

The Project

The collaborative staff-development effort or project in which
the teachers were involved had one major goal. The goal was:

To impact the instructional decisions teachers make regarding

the content they teach, the processes such as reading, writing,

and thinking used to understand the content, and the motivation

of students.
The project was funded by Section 98 Professional Development funds
from the state, coordinated through an intermediate school district.
These funds were allocated by the state legislature for projects
that were designed to improve the teaching abilities of current
staff serving in K-12 public education. Clearly established
guidelines and criteria were developed by the State Department of
Education for each grant” All applications for each grant or
project were read by at least three independent readers, who then
chose a limited number of grants to fund.

The participants were nfiddle school and high school teachers

from several districts in the area. Administrators and curriculum

specialists also attended.

50

The central focus of the project was to assist teachers in
acquiring knowledge of content reading strategies, especially as
they related to the implementation of the state’s Essential Goals
and Objectives in Reading Education. The specific outcomes of the
project were defined as:

1. Expansion of teachers’ knowledge in applying content read-
ing strategies in their own classroom.

2. The implementation of a staff-development model that con-
tributes to ongoing professional growth.

3. Gains in students’ abilities to construct meaning from
text, use knowledge about the reading process, and develop positive
attitudes toward reading.

As this was a three-year project, not all outcomes were
expected to be achieved by the end of the first year.

The staff-development model for the project was based ("1 the
following assumptions:

1. To influence behavior, there is a need to influence exist-
ing values and beliefs as well as to increase the knowledge base.

2. Collaborative relationships are a condition for growth.

3. Knowledge can be dynamic rather than fixed, and it can come
from various sources.

For this reason, all participants were volunteers who could
decide to leave the project at any time. Second, there was a strong
emphasis on teachers using their own materials from their classrooms
as the models and examples of the strategies. Third, the

facilitator, a university professor whose area of expertise was

51

content reading, demonstrated the strategies or techniques in the
teachers’ classrooms, sometimes videotaping the lesson to share with
the whole group. Finally, collaborative discussion was encouraged
as the participants offered feedback on the workshops as well as the
content reading strategies. This allowed the facilitator to monitor
and adjust to meet the needs of the group.

The structure of the project involved two separate components:
formal workshops held once a month, and the concept of support days.
The workshops were conducted for a full school day, with release
time being provided for classroom teachers. The first workshop was
held in September, and the last one was held in May of the same
school year. The facilitator planned and conducted the workshops.
The workshops were characterized by a gradual transfer of learning,
with the major responsibility shifting from the facilitator to the
teachers as their ability to reflect on their own instruction
gradually increased.

The agenda for each workshop session included the following
topics:

1. A theory base for decision making about content reading
strategies and options (when to use what type of strategy or
technique).

2. Specific classroom strategies and options.

3. Support for classroom implementation and adaptation.

A consistent theme throughout all the workshops was that, by
using content reading strategies, teachers could more effectively

teach their content, which was their primary concern.

52

The second component of the project was the concept of support
days. Support days were scheduled once a month, between workshop
sessions, in each building that had participants in the project.
Several substitute teachers were hired for the support day, with
participant teachers being able to decide how much release time they
needed. On a support day, a participant teacher could decide to
meet with the facilitator, work alone preparing materials, or work
with other teachers. The teacher could also decide not to use the

support day that month.

Tha laaahers

In an effort to promote the collaborative discussion, workshops
were limited to 25 or 30 participants. In the district mentioned
previously, 26 middle school and high school teachers volunteered to
participate in the project. After the first month, three teachers
decided to leave the project for a variety of reasons. The
remaining teachers represented a\ wide variety of content areas:
English, math, science, social studies, business education, and
health. In addition, the middle school principal and the high
school principal participated in the workshops and were available on
the support days. Two teachers from the same building who had
previously worked well together were provided with additional
release time by the building principal to form a building support
base for the project. This study was explained to them, and they
were offered an opportunity to participate. Both teachers expressed

a strong interest and agreed to participate in this study.

53

"Sally" (a fictitious name) had taught science in the district
for 15 years. She was considered an experienced teacher who was
well respected in her field. Sally had participated in the student
teaching program for many years, as a supervising teacher. She had
served on various curriculum committees, such as the Kr12 Science
Review. Her teaching experience included seventh-grade science at
the same middle school and two years teaching science at the high
school. Sally had a master’s degree in education. The principal of
the building selected Sally to participate in a series of workshops
held by the state to introduce the new reading goals and objectives
at the secondary level, which were held before the start of the
project.

”Mary" (also a pseudonym), the other teacher of the team, had
taught home economics courses at the high school for at least ten
years before being reassigned to the middle school. At the middle
school, she was assigned to teach seventh-grade English, which she
was certified to teach; however, she had not taught at this level or
in this content area before. She had taught English then at the
middle school for three years before the beginning of the project.
The year the project began, the district was to begin a
comprehensive K-12 Language Arts Curriculum Review, which was to
integrate the new reading goals and objectives from the state as
well as to revise the existing curriculum. Mary was also selected
by the building principal to attend the workshops held by the state

on the new reading goals and objectives at the secondary level. An

54

initial assessment of the current language arts curriculum at the
seventh— and eighth-grade level had revealed a very sketchy set of

goals and objectives, as well as inadequate text materials.

Procedgrga

The central issue for the study was the participants’
perceptions of and insights into the relationships formed within a
collaborative effort or project. Data were collected using
ethnographic questioning techniques (Spradley, 1979). Questions
consisted of grand tour and dyadic contrast questions. Grand tour
questions ask subjects to describe their experiences and
perspectives in a global fashion (e.g., How do you feel about what
you have learned? What is your relationship with your teammate?).
Dyadic contrast questions ask subjects to describe changes in
perceptions, from one time to another (e.g., Has your relationship
with your teammate changed? How has it changed?). Teachers were
interviewed individually at the end of the first year. In an effort
to capture the exact wording and particular language used,
interviews were tape recorded and then transcribed for analysis. A
two-hour time block was reserved for each interview so that the
teachers would not feel rushed or pressured to hurry up with their
responses. Each teacher was interviewed in the familiar setting of
their building. The researcher conducted all interviews since the
participation of the researcher in the project contributed to

establishing rapport.

55

To validate the teachers’ perspectives from other sources, an
interview of the building principal was also obtained using
ethnographic questioning techniques. The interview with the
building principal consisted of the same questions asked of the two
teachers, revised to tap into the principal’s perspective on their
relationship (e.g., What is the relationship between Sally and
Mary?). This interview was held within the building, tape recorded,
and then transcribed. It was approximately an hour in length and
was conducted at the end of the first year of the project.

In addition, a vignette of the project and the relationships
within the project was created by the facilitator for this study.
The vignette, written by the facilitator, followed procedures
developed by Lieberman (1987). Finally, an audio-recording of a
typical work session between the facilitator and the two teachers on
a support day was obtained and later transcribed. This work session
was approximately two hours in length and was conducted near the end

of the first year of the project.

Ethnographic intgrview

An ethnographic interview is a strategy or technique for
getting individuals involved in a particular situation to talk about
the situation or experience so that meaning can be achieved or
inferences about their behavior can be made.

Ethnographic interviewing involves two processes, that of
establishing rapport or a harmonious relationship between the

researcher and the informant and of eliciting information (Spradley,

56

1979). Since the researcher was a member of the same project as a
participant observer and a staff member of the same district for 15
years, establishing rapport to allow a free flow of information was
not difficult. To elicit the maximum amount of information about
the experience in general, a series of descriptive questions was
developed. Although there are five major types of descriptive
questions (Spradley, 1979), typical grand tour questions were
constructed, with follow-up specific or guided grand tour questions
generated as needed. The length of the grand tour questions was
increased to expand the length of the response. The grand tour
questions were framed only to focus on the aspects of this study and
to limit the scope of information, as suggested by Miles and
Huberman (1984).

The following questions were asked of both teachers separately
as they were interviewed:

1. As you think about the project that you were involved with,
think about it as a whole, total experience from September, when it
began, to the ending of it in May. How do you think this experience
in content reading was different from other professional-development
experiences that you have had?

2. Personally, how do you think you have been affected by this
experience?

3. How would you describe the relationships that you have
formed through the workshops, or through the support days?

4. Where do you see these relationships going in the future?

What do you see as a direction for them?

57

5. If you had to summarize what you saw as outcomes or what
has happened as a result of your participation in this project, what
would it be?

6. Is there anything else that you want to add about the
experience in general? Anything that we haven’t covered through the

questions or any other comments that you want to give?

yigpette

As part of an evaluation report for the New York City Teacher
Centers Consortium, Lieberman (1987) designed an instrument that
she termed a vignette. A vignette is a qualitative tool designed to
help capture the subtle nuances of an experience. The tool was
piloted for a year and then used. The vignette consisted of a
series of topics which were chosen to be natural elements of the
experience so that the writer of it would have a consistent format
to follow but one that would not be restrictive. It was
approximately six to ten pages in length.

The facilitator of the content reading project was asked to
compose a vignette of the experience at the end of the first year.
It was determined that the topics used by Lieberman were also
appropriate for this situation. The following outline was used.

The context-—Tell a little about the context of the school.

Your hopes--What did you hope would happen?

Who was involved? Were you working with one person, a group,
the whole school?

What i did--What were the specifics of your work?

58

What happened?--What was the reaction or results of your work?

The impact--What happened in a larger sense, to the other
teachers?

Why did it happen?--What were the reasons for the impact?

Other comments--Anything else of importance?

The vignette created by the facilitator, who was an integral
component of the project with a unique perspective, served as
another source of data. Some comments in the vignette were not
clear, so a follow-up ethnographic interview of the facilitator was

conducted for further elaboration.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was guided by a combination of "emic" and "etic"
ethnographic approaches (Pike, 1967). An emic approach strives to
reconstruct the perspectives of the participants most directly
involved. An etic approach consists of data collection and analyses
external to the experiences of participants, such as with
administrators and facilitators. The purpose of etic procedures and
analyses is to confirm and contrast the participants’ personal
perspectives.

Determination of the teachers’ perspectives was based on an
analysis of the transcripts of the teachers’ interviews and from the
work session between the teachers and the facilitator conducted on a
support day. Analysis was based on principles of grounded theory,
using the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The

following steps were followed. First, after multiple readings of

59

the transcripts, comments or phrases were coded into as "many
different categories of analysis as possible" (p. 105). This
process underwent a continual reexamination of categories as the
transcripts were read and reread, especially as the context of the
coments or phrases was considered. Then the same process was
conducted using the transcripts of the interview with the building
principal, the vignette, and the follow-up interview with the
facilitator. Categories consistent in all sources were then
combined, being careful to identify the source of the comment
(teacher, principal, or facilitator).

Second, the categories were analyzed for their properties and
then searched for possible relationships which would allow some
integration of categories. This then led to the third step of the
process, delimiting the theory.

Delimiting occurs at two levels: the theory and the

categories. First, the theory solidifies, in the sense that

major modifications become fewer and fewer as the analyst
compares the next incidents of a category to its properties.

Later modifications are mainly on the order of clarifying the

logic, taking out non-relevant properties, integrating

elaborating details of properties into the major outline of

interrelated categories--and most important, reduction. (p.

110)

The process of reduction involved the grouping of categories under
higher-level concepts. At this step of the process, Spradley’s
(1979) taxonomic analysis was used. This process led to the
emergence of three different broad areas of categories. Each area

was considered independently and labeled as a separate theme. A

taxonomic analysis or map was then constructed for each them.

60

The last or fourth step according to Glaser and Strauss (1967)
is the actual writing of the theory. The written theory is based on
the “analytic framework which forms a systematic substantive theory"
(p. 113). A narration was then created for each theme, organized
around the map of the theme, and fleshed out by quotations from the
transcripts and vignette.

Although the data were combined into one set of categories and
themes, an attempt was made to preserve the individual "voices"
heard during this study. Britzman (cited in Connelly & Clandinin,
1990) described the importance of "voices":

Voice is meaning that resides in the individual and enables

that individual to participate in a community. . . . Voice

suggests relationships: the individual’s relationship to the
meaning of her/his experience and hence, to language, and the

individual’s relationship to the other, since understanding is
a social process. (p. 4)

52mm:

The perceptions of teachers involved in a collaborative effort
to improve student learning guided the focus of this study. Two
research questions framed the collection of data: How do teachers
perceive their relationships within a collaborative effort? What
insights were perceived or identified by the teachers as they
participated in a collaborative effort?

To obtain the rich description needed, a qualitative design was
chosen. The contexts within which these collaborative relationships
existed were described, in an effort to create a more complete
picture. The district’s past staff-development efforts and

attitudes toward professional growth were included as they set the

61

stage for the content reading project that served as the vehicle for
the collaborative relationships studied. The project itself, its
goals and objectives, how it was structured with a blend of workshop
and support-day experiences, and the role of the fecilitator were
also included so that the teachers’ comments are more meaningful to
the reader. Finally, the teachers themselves were described in
terms of their professional backgrounds and experiences before their
participation in the project.

With this rationale and context developed, specific procedures
for data collection were described in this chapter, including a
description of the two major tools used, the ethnographic interview
and the vignette. Finally, the methods for data analysis were

described.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

In this chapter, data are presented relevant to these
questions: (a) How did teachers perceive their relationships within
a collaborative effort? and (b) What insights were perceived or
identified by teachers as they participated in a collaborative
effort? The application of qualitative analyses described in
Chapter III resulted in the identification of three themes that
address these questions. This analysis involved the sorting of data
from all data sources into categories, using the language from the
transcripts, such as "decisions in the classroom." The categories
were then analyzed for relationships among the categories. The
categories formed into three different groups, each revolving around
a central theme: tensions, growth, and reflections. Categories
within a theme were then arranged into maps that depicted these
relationships. A narration was then written, which described the
themes by using excerpts from the data sources. In the narration,
the voices of the teachers, the building principal, and the

facilitator are identified as the themes are developed.

62

63

Tensions
Baflsmle

As the categories within this theme were examined, several
different relationships began to emerge. First, phrases containing
"definite or definition" and ”ambiguous" appeared as opposite
concepts. The categories were then searched for other possible
opposite relationships. "Old routines or activities" and "new
practices” appeared as another relationship. Finally, another
possible relationship developed between "building needs" and
”project needs." These relationships were placed at opposite ends
of a continuum.

Next, the remaining categories were examined to determine
whether anything was pulling the teachers toward either end of the
continuum. A reading of the transcripts indicated that when the
teachers were referring to "definite or ambiguous" they were
discussing ”content reading" or “new practices." It seemed that
"content reading" and "new practices" formed a central focus that
could pull teachers toward either end of the continuum. When the
teachers, building principal, and facilitator discussed "building
needs" or ”project needs," "time” and "physical setting" were
mentioned. These factors seemed to be pulling teachers between the
"building needs” and the "project needs." Finally, "comfort level"
was a cannon refrain as teachers talked about "old routines” and
”new practices."

As these relationships became clearer, the label ”tensions"

seemed to best reflect their nature. These tensions created by

64

forces pulling in opposite directions appeared throughout the
transcripts as teachers voiced their concerns and frustrations.
Three specific tensions emerged. The first tension resulted from
the teachers’ desire for definition or clarity during the project,
and yet there seemed to be a high degree of ambiguity. Next, there
was, at times, a tension between fulfilling the needs of the
building and those of the project. Finally, as teachers
participated in the project, a tension arise between old routines
and new practices. A map was then created to better illustrate the

theme (see Figure 4.1).

Narration

Definition versus ambiguity. Participants frequently mentioned
the need for clarity in defining practices that were the focus of
the collaboration, but at the same time experienced ambiguity. For
example, in her efforts to take the information about content
reading study guides and adapt them to her curriculum, Mary stated,
"It made me feel very uneasy not being told exactly what to do."
She also observed that other staff members "who didn’t have someone
to fall back on were very uptight about the whole situation." The
facilitator also struggled ‘with a desire to replicate previous
understandings of content reading and a desire to search for new
understandings. The notion of study guides as a definite,
particular content reading strategy would have satisfied the

teachers’ desire for clear definition but also might have limited

65

Nature of Content Reading

New Practices

Definition Ambiguity

 

 

Time
and

Physical Setting

Building Needs Project Needs

 

 

Comfort Level

01d Routines New Practices

 

 

Figure 4.1: Map--Tensions.

66

their understanding. The facilitator, in the group discussion with
Mary and Sally on a support day, commented:

What happens is that people start cranking out the guides and

then what you end up seeing is the guides are there, but some

of the outcomes like motivation, like are the kids getting a

better understanding . . . all those kinds of things won’t

happen.
The facilitator continued to reflect on this tension between
definition and ambiguity, finally concluding that "I keep trying to
figure out how you balance both ends."

Another practice that was a focus of the collaborative effort
was the creation of a new role for Mary and Sally, in an effort to
support the other teachers in the building as they attempted to
implement content reading strategies. According to the building
principal, Mary and Sally were provided with one period of release
time a day so that they could gain greater expertise in content
reading. However, the role was not clearly defined as there was not
a precise understanding that could be communicated. Sally felt very
frustrated by this, stressing, "We have to be very concrete and
explicit in what it is we are doing.“ She did, however, see the
ambiguous nature of the role. 'I don’t know that we ourselves were
quite clear on what it is we were going to do. That may have been
part of it, I’m not certain.“ Sally also saw that, as a result of
the ambiguous nature of this role, the other teachers in the
building thought they couldn’t 'trust" the situation, perceiving
Mary and Sally’s release time as just 'another hideaway' job.‘I

Negative coments were made directly to Mary and Sally by other

staff members, which made Mary and Sally reluctant to continue with

67

the release time. The building principal validated this perception
as she commented on the release time notion:

Due to several factors, not the least of which was moving into

this too soon without specifically established guidelines for

the support teachers as well as the classroom teachers, this
support time or release time for Mary and Sally was eliminated
after one semester.

The grant that defined the project included a new practice,
support days. The intention behind this practice was to support the
teachers in some manner as they attempted to learn and integrate new
knowledge about content reading. The specific details of how this
support was to be provided were not predetermined but were to be
developed by the teachers. This new practice was not clearly
defined; however, it appeared to be used very effectively by the
teachers. The support days provided time for Mary and Sally to meet
with the facilitator. As reflected in the transcript from the group
discussion, the teachers and the facilitator discussed what happened
on the previous workshop day, commenting on what appeared to work or
not to work: “the vocabulary lesson . . . how could we forget it!‘
It also provided time to plan the next workshop as the remainder of
the discussion focused on the next workshop, which was designed to
integrate content reading and the instructional process from the
school-improvement model that the district was also implementing.
Some members of the project did not see the connection between
content reading and the instructional process. However, Mary said,

'i can see the correlation between the instructional process and

reading in the content area . . . but how do we get the others to

68

see the relationship?‘ The rest of the session that day focused on
ways to set up the workshop to make that relationship between
content reading and the instructional process clearer.

The other members of the project in that building also
demonstrated initiative and creativity in using the release time
provided on the support days. The building principal noted that
'support days were used most productively by most participants in
our building.‘I She further described why she thought the concept of
support days functioned well even though they were not a clearly
defined practice:

Teachers appreciated the fact that they were valued enough as

professionals to be provided specific times for planning and

discussing these newly developed concepts. Each teacher was
responsible for planning how she/he would use the support time.

We always tried to schedule coverage so that at least two or

three staff members would be freed up during the same time

block, allowing for collaborative opportunities if teachers so
desired. Teachers were also free apt to use the support time.

In general, the tension between a need for clear definition and
the necessity for ambiguity emerged from the data as the teachers
were involved in a collaborative effort to learn content reading
strategies. This tension focused on the issue of what is content
reading, the newly established role for helping implement that
understanding for Mary and Sally, and the use of the support days as
a component of the project.

c e v r u uildin n . Another tension that
emerged was the need to develop a better understanding of content

reading through the project and still fulfill other building needs
that had to be addressed as well. There just did not appear to be

69

enough time, or sometimes space, to provide for the needs of the
project as well as other building needs. The facilitator sensed
this as the topic arose during the group discussion. He stated:

I thought things were a lot simpler in the beginning of the
year when everybody was ready to jump in and try things. Then
what happened was that as the year went on, things got more
complicated. The thing I started to sense was the environment
in the building started changing in ways that I didn’t fully
understand. . . . About February, content reading became less
of an issue, and the things that became more of an issue were
things in the building and trying to hold the building
together.

Mary and Sally supported this observation as they shared some
of the things that had occurred in the building. They had both
taken on I'other obligations during some of that time, like academic
track [a program where students competed with other schools by
performing or demonstrating their ability in academic areas].'I This
involved I'dealing with setting up the meets and helping to make sure
they were going to show. . . . A lot of paperwork was involved in
that.‘ As a result of this, “my content reading time ended up doing
more of the track things.“ Even IIafter-school time'I was stretched
as the pressure of academic track and other concerns began to build
up. Time then emerged as a major factor in dealing with the tension
between the project needs and the building needs. Mary commented
during the group discussion, 'I think that just the organization of
the time eventually just got to us where we just couldn’t manage any
more.‘

Another dimension of time that became a factor in this tension

was the time spent out of the classroom while teachers participated

in the workshops and support day activities. Although the teachers

7O

recognized the value of their own growth, they felt responsible for
the growth of their students, needing to be directly involved rather
than just planning for a substitute teacher. At the beginning of
the year, both Sally and Mary were asked to participate in a series
of conferences offered by the state on the new reading goals and
objectives at the secondary level. Finally, both teachers declined
the last conference because they thought they had been I'out of the
room for so many times . . . too many meetings and conferences.‘
Sally felt the need I'to get some stability back into what I felt was
the classroom. The kids . . . it may not have been bothering them,
but it was bothering me.‘'

The physical setting for the teachers to plan or meet with
other teachers to discuss content reading also became a factor in
this tension between building needs and the needs of the project.
According to the principal, the building was experiencing
overcrowding so that every available space in the building was used.
The teachers’ lounge then became the only place for Mary and Sally
to meet on their release time or the only place to read and prepare
materials. Sally comented that I'as other teachers, some of the
most severe critics of the project, dropped in, they made it a point
to be sure and come into that room and use the telephone and make
comments.ll This lack of privacy hindered the teachers’ ability to
learn as they changed their behavior due to the pressure from some

parts of the building. Mary stated that 'it got on my nerves so

71

much that I would start to do busy work just so that it would appear
as though I was doing something they considered work.‘'

On the other hand, a positive factor also resulted from the
teachers working in a public space. The principal said, ''the
conversation in the lounge began to revolve around content reading
more and more." Teachers in the project would ask questions about
specific concepts or strategies presented. They would seek advice
from Mary and Sally about I'how to write study guides.‘I Teachers not
involved in the project "listened to the conversation in the lounge,
sometimes asking questions.‘l The building principal noticed and
supported this change in "lounge talk,‘I commenting in her interview
that one teacher stopped coming in the lounge for lunch because
'lunch-time discussions were ’too educational’ during his ’time
off." This lack of space then contributed to the tension between
the activities of the project and those of the building. There was
also a positive aspect as sharing a public space increased awareness
of the project for other teachers.

In sunlnary, the tension between the building needs and the
project needs were affected by time constraints and physical space
constraints. Time constraints centered on the desire to meet the
obligations and duties in the building, as well as the tasks
involved in the project. Time was also a factor as teachers
balanced being out of the classroom and being in the classroom.

Qlp_rpptipaa_rarapa_par_pragtiag§. As the teachers became more
deeply involved with the project, there emerged a tension between

their attempts to acquire new practices and yet feel the comfort and

72

ease of old routines. To write or develop a three-level guide, a
content objective became the principal organizer. Content
objectives were developed from the concepts of the disciplines.
Many teachers were not familiar with this type of objective, nor
were their curricula organized in that fashion. Sally, who was very
familiar with her subject area, had a well-developed plan that she
followed in teaching seventh-grade science. As the year progressed,
she “spent more time looking . . . a little more deeply in the
concepts.‘ This search changed her old routine as “some of my
lessons I would normally teach, I didn’t teach. Some things I just
didn’t do because I felt that they weren’t getting deeply enough
into any higher level of thinking.‘' Sometimes, Sally just used the
old lessons because there wasn’t enough time I'to redo a lesson.“
Sometimes it was easier to just "make new things.” Sally viewed her
old routines in a new light as she had always liked to get students
'involved in quite a bit of lab work" but discovered that some old
lessons appeared to be I'1ab work for the sake of lab work“ rather
than leading to a better understanding of a concept. Sally
struggled with her desire to incorporate new lessons. She cautioned
that 'if we don’t continue to work at it next year, people will tend
to fall back into their old habits--back into our rooms, and back
into teaching the way that’s most comfortable and also the easiest.“

Mary also viewed her curriculum in a different light. She did
not have a strongly established previous routine as she had only

been teaching English for three years. In addition, there was not a

73

strongly delineated curriculum to be followed as there was in the
science area. She did feel a pressure to emphasize grammar as that
was to serve as a foundation for the next grade level. Her old
routines focused on grammar and skill instruction, especially as the
eighth-grade English teacher sent a clear expectation about the
level of incoming eighth graders. Mary described herself as “just
going along with the flow--you know, what i had done I would
continue to do.“ Mary began to view her old routines differently as
she got excited about the applied level of the study guides. She
felt a “strong need to have students read something and try to see
the relationship between what we’re doing in school and what it
should be doing in your own life.“ She even made the statement to
the eighth-grade teacher that “she will not be teaching grammar next
year or at least very little.“ As she developed “a firm belief“ in
that application level of the guide, she resolved any tension
between old routines and new practices.

The building principal also witnessed this tension between old
routines and new practices in her staff. She observed and commented
on the initial hesitancy of staff to become involved in the project.
Questions such as “How will I have to change my behavior?“ or “What
is expected?“ were asked. Comments were made to the principal, such
as “But i have always been successful teaching doing it my way, why
should I change?“ As the workshops progressed, the teachers became
more open about “trying out“ new things but not necessarily making a
commitment to accept them as established practices. The staff even

joked about this “intentional messing around.“ Teachers thought

74

they could “challenge and critique“ the facilitator when he
presented a new strategy rather than passively accepting the
information.

Several new practices in addition to the content reading
strategies emerged during the project. Teachers began to “watch
other teachers teach a lesson, stepping into the classroom across
the hall for the first time in years.“ While observing, they
“talked to the kids about what was going on and what the lesson was
about.“ Sally commented: “One fellow, who is really a good friend,
for him to come into my room and actually watch what I was doing,
that was a big risk for him. It made him uncomfortable.“

Another new practice was for teachers to exchange guides they
had written and to get feedback from Sally or Mary or any other
teacher in the project. Sally read through a study guide from an
art teacher and told him that “Frankly, I felt that it didn't seem
right to me. I didn’t feel bad telling him. It wasn’t a put down.“
Another new practice was to use school time to read journal articles
or professional books and then to have time to think. Although this
appeared intellectually as an accepted practice, subconsciously
Sally wasn’t doing her “normal teacher program of either teaching,
correcting papers, or working with students.“ She commented: “I
know that subconscious image interfered because there would be times
I wasted time just trying to make sure that I was trying to do the
thing that would fit everybody’s image.“

75

Finally, another new practice that emerged was the role of the
facilitator in the project. Sally noticed that the most obvious
difference was that he “stayed with us. . . . He came back again and
again to reinforce, to check to see if we understood.“ As a result
of this frequent contact, the teachers “became personal with him,“
and they could really tell him if “this just doesn’t work this way
for me.“ Sally also commented that people wouldn’t risk comment if
the contact wasn’t frequent. During a one-day workshop, people
might just “politely grumble among ourselves, never really seeing
what it can do for the students.“ The fact that the facilitator was
willing to teach a lesson in their classrooms with their material
created a lot of credibility. The facilitator spent time in
classrooms, observing teachers and just “sitting and watching.“ He
got to know the students, as well, who “accepted him just like
another teacher.“ Mary described an initial distrust of the
facilitator as she reacted to the traditional stereotype of
“professor.“ She also questioned which side he was on, “the
administration or the teacher’s side.“ As the facilitator made
frequent contacts and spent more time in classrooms, this distrust
disappeared, and Mary “felt more comfortable and friendlier.“ Mary
also perceived that the facilitator was not just the “expert“ but
was also seeking “clarity and definition about content reading.“
The facilitator’s concern for the classroom and the teachers was
readily apparent. He was there “to support, not just to give us his

wisdom and then depart.“

76

In summary, old routines felt comfortable and were easier to
work within. These old routines came into question as teachers
acquired new insights or new practices. There was always, though, a
tendency to fall back on the old routines when things became
difficult or time was short. New practices emerged as part of this
project. Teachers visited each other’s classrooms, sometimes
providing feedback on materials or design of a lesson. Reading,
thinking, and challenging became a form of professional activity.
The role of the facilitator was perceived differently from other

staff-development efforts.

The Impact on Personal and Profesaional Growth
W

Another general theme that emerged across the data was the
recognition of the growth that occurred during the project as
teachers participated 'Hi a collaborative relationship. The
categories that were loosely grouped together under the general
heading of growth were examined and searched for relationships.
Unlike the previous theme, there were not clear-cut relationships
present, but rather the emergence of components. It appeared that,
within the context of the total transcriptions, phrases such as "big
picture," "purpose or why," "perceptions of others," "more
confidence," ”beliefs," ”initiative," and the descriptions of Mary’s
and Sally’s different focuses of learning defined "areas of growth."
This term then was used to describe one component of this theme,

with those phrases serving as subheadings or further descriptors.

77

Upon reflection, the categories of "time" and "dialogue"
appeared to be related as things that either promoted growth or
hindered it. For this reason, a second component, ”factors that
influence growth," was identified. In addition, two other
categories, "internal pressure" and "growth of students," were
related in the transcripts to any conversation about why the
teachers either participated in the project or continued in the
project. For this reason, these categories were labeled as
"motivators" of growth. Finally, there were several categories or
constant descriptors such as "open," "comfortable," and "willing to
risk," which, within the context of the complete transcripts, were
describing necessary conditions for collaborative relationships to
succeed, according to the perceptions of the teachers. This
category was then labeled "conditions for growth." As these
components were examined, the title for the theme, The Impact on
Personal and Professional Growth, was chosen. A map was then

created to illustrate the components of this theme (see Figure 4.2).

mm

Areas pf growth. Although there was an obvious expectation
that teachers would grow in their knowledge of content reading
strategies, other areas of growth were identified as well. First,
both Sally and Mary expressed the notion that they could see the
“big picture“ better. This meant that they saw the
interrelationships between the strategies and their decisions about

“why are we teaching, how are we teaching it, and then what is it

78

”Big picture"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"Perception of others" "Time"
”Personal"
”Different areas" "Dialogue"
Areas of Growth Factors That Influence
Growth
Motivators Necessary Conditions
"Internal pressure" "Openness"

"Willingness to risk"
"Comfortable"
"Growth of students” "RespecN"
"Trust"
"Friehdly"

"Tolerate frustration"

Figure 4.2: Map--The impact on personal and professional growth.

79

the kids are learning?“ Sally stressed that the big issue was “up!
--So often, people just quit because they don’t see why.“ The
building principal supported this when she described the focus of
the initial discussions in the school as “centered around
establishing purpose.“ Both Sally and Mary also generalized the
importance of rhy to the students as they saw the need “to get kids
thinking at deeper levels, especially the application level, so that
they could use the information in real life.‘I As the teachers
became more analytical of themselves and their teaching, they also
began to view other teachers in different perspectives. During the
workshops, Mary and Sally had the opportunity to hear other teachers
talk about why they designed three-level guides the way they did for
their students and their curriculum. Mary said that she:

. . . really gained a lot of respect for the people that i am
working with. You have to not only understand where they are
coming from, but you have to respect them for the decisions
that they’re making. It definitely won’t work to say, “Let me
show you this way to do it.“ The complexity that comes from
adapting is really something.

In her building, Mary sometimes was “shocked at the reactions
of other staff members to the project.“ One teacher who, in
general, had been perceived by the staff as “going with the flow,
very organized, could handle things“ did not react that way. Mary
“saw her falling apart, and I don’t have any less respect for her
but i was really surprised by that reaction.“ Sally perceived “a

newly hired teacher in the project as stronger teaching eighth-grade

science that he had thought.“ She also thought that it helped him

80

“to see all of us struggling and that he was going in the right
direction.“

As the teachers grew in their understanding of content reading
and its relationship to the classroom, this growth affected other
areas of their lives. One particular area of growth for Mary was
that she “gained a lot more confidence in what [she] was doing.“
Through her discussions on purpose and why, Mary developed “a strong
conviction about the value of the applied level and getting kids to
apply knowledge.“ This “firm belief“ and confidence in herself “has
carried over in other areas of school relationships with personnel.“
Mary described a staff meeting that was a planning session for a
seventh-grade event in the building:

A lot of complaining was happening which wasn't very

productive. Previously, I would have felt frustrated at the

conversation but would not have said anything. At this

meeting, though, I said, “Look, we’ve got to do something.“
She took the initiative in the group, and the event was planned.
Mary also described taking the initiative when meeting with other
teachers working on three-level guides. She became “a little bit
more aggressive--You just can’t sit back and say yes, you
understand, but not help them to find a way of handling whatever is
happening.“

It is important to note also that Mary and Sally focused on
different areas in which to grow. Sally had a specific and well-
developed notion of her curriculum but was looking “for ways to

improve [her] performance in the classroom.“ She described how she

struggled during a lesson “to deliberately and consciously phrase

81

questions at the right level of thinking, training myself to think
at that level.“ She realized it was not “automatic behavior“ yet.
Mary, on the other hand, struggled with the writing of the guides,
“sometimes struggling for hours to get the right wording so kids
would make the connections.“ But once the guide was written, she
seemed to have an intuitive feel for guiding the discussion in the
classroom. The facilitator commented in the vignette that he had
observed a class discussion that did not focus on a three-level
guide led by Mary. He was surprised to observe that “her questions
which guided the discussion naturally seemed to follow the format of
a written guide.“

Eaatpra that influenca growth. Time and the role of dialogue
appeared as two factors that influenced the growth of the teachers.
First, there was the concept of what happened “over time“ or during
a long period of time. During the interviews, as the teachers
reflected on the first year of the project as a whole, they noticed
several things. At the beginning of the year, “everybody was ready
to jump in and try things.“ Then “things got to be more
complicated, and several teachers decided to leave the project.“
Sally saw that, in general, the group’s ability to talk and question
the facilitator “clicked in more toward . . . past the middle of the
year.“ She also saw individual teachers “clicking in much earlier.“
Mary and Sally both saw that the relationship with the facilitator
developed “over time.“ In the first month, Mary reacted to the
facilitator as the “university professor,“ unconsciously thinking

back to when she was a student and “there was a distance between a

82

professor and his students.“ As the facilitator “came back, again
and again,“ and spent time in classrooms, also getting to know the
students, this image began to change, and a “more comfortable
relationship began to develop.“ Mary and Sally’s relationship had
existed for' several ,years before the project. Neither teacher
thought there had been any major change in their relationship.
According to Mary and Sally, it was toward February or March of
the first year of the project that other teachers in the building
began to ask questions about the project, asking whether “they could
get involved next year.“ This led to a discussion of how to plan
for the second year of the project. The teachers did not want to
just create a “first year“ and “second year“ group. They believed
that “not all teachers needed the same amount of time to learn the
strategies.“ Sally commented:
If we get a chance to get people involved at all different
levels, they won’t feel overwhelmed . .. . so they don’t feel
that “You guys had a whole year in this. I’ll never catch up,
I’ll just not bother.“ I think the way we have it structured
next year for people to get involved just at the learning about
level and the actual teaching level will help deal with it.
Teachers could enter at the actual teaching level without having
participated during the first year of the project. Teachers who had
participated the first year could choose to increase their
understanding of the strategies but pace their implementation of
them by participating in the “learning about content reading“ group.
Time then became perceived differently.

There were occasions when time became viewed as an “external

pressure“ or a constraint. Mary felt the pressure of “a date or

83

deadline to have a guide finished by,“ so the facilitator could see
it before the next workshop. When the pressure got to be too much,
Mary told both the facilitator and Sally that “things had to ease
up. . . . Don’t expect a guide this week and next week don’t expect
something else. Don’t push your students because it’s all brand
new. i do work under pressure, but I don’t handle that feeling
well.“ When discussing the tension between extra duties within the
building and trying to meet on the content reading project, Sally
saw that “the organization of time eventually just got to us where
we just couldn’t manage anymore.“ Mary saw lack of time as a
constraint when “wanting to sit down with teachers and show them
that what they are doing is worthwhile.” Mary also saw that it took
more time to work with other teachers than by oneself. “When you
take time to discuss, those discussions don’t just go five or ten
minutes, which is maybe all the thinking that it takes you, but when
you first start them, they go much longer.“

Another factor that emerged which influenced the growth of the
teachers was the role that dialogue played. Multiple and varied
“opportunities to talk out loud“ brought people together and
promoted the development of “professional relationships.“ The
broader context that the workshop sessions created by bringing a
variety of people (high school, middle school, all content areas,
teachers, and administrators) together stimulated a rich dialogue.
Sally saw the formation of “professional relationships“ since before

they had only:

84

. . . talked socially and never really talked about what we
were really teaching. It helps to see across the way where we
relate to one another and how our concepts flow. We just never
take the time to intentionally talk it over and point out how
we are doing.
As the project gained momentum, dialogue continued in the “hallways“
and became “lounge talk,“ as described previously.
I Dialogue revolved around a variety of tasks. Sometimes, the
conversation was casual, “how the workshop went and wondering what
the next new topic would be.“ Once Sally sat down with another
teacher in the project who was having difficulty creating the
guides. The teacher described what she wanted to get across to the
students, and then “we wrote statements to coordinate with the
three-level guide pattern.“ Another time described was when the art
teacher asked Sally and Mary to critique a guide he had already
written. Dialogue then focused on his purpose and what he wanted
the students to know. Sometimes, dialogue reestablished social and
personal connections between teachers. Mary commented that the
first part of the workshop was spent “catching up on the latest
news.“ The facilitator became aware of the need for dialogue to be
personal as well as professional as he “learned to kick back at
times and talk about family and personal issues--not just business.“
The dialogue of students emerged as a factor that influenced
growth. First, the facilitator spent time talking with students
about the new strategies Sally and Mary were trying out in the
classrooms. The students’ feedback provided “a valuable source of

data about the effectiveness of the guides.“ Sally and Mary also

talked with students about “why they were changing their teaching

85

style, being very open that we were students in this project.“ They
also encouraged students to express their opinions about the guides.
This dialogue was ongoing throughout the year. Sally also began to
see the value of the students talking among themselves while they
worked on the guides. “Sometimes what they had jotted down on paper
doesn’t really mean anything until they talk about it.“

Motivators. Two issues emerged across the data that motivated
the teachers to continue working in the project despite the various
tensions they had experienced. The first motivator was an “internal
pressure“ or drive to learn or grow. When asked how this project
was different from other staff-development efforts she had
participated in, Mary’s first reaction was:

I found myself having an internal pressure on myself to pay

attention . . . because I didn’t understand what was going on,

and it wasn’t the type of . . . here are a bunch of work
sheets, pass them out. There was that internal pressure, like,

i have to create, I have to do this.

As Mary became involved in the project, the complexity of the tasks,
the emphasis on thinking skills, and the challenge to implement them
successfully in the classroom captured her attention. This then
created the “internal pressure“ to grow. Sally thought this project
was an excellent approach to staff development because:

It isn't something that’s being put on us nor in turn do we

feel we’re putting something new on the student that's just

going to be this magical solution. it has just been an
excellent way to look at what we’re teaching to see why are we

teaching, how' are we teaching, and what are the students
learning.

86

As the purpose and form of the project matched the teachers’
desires, the motivation to learn became internal rather than
external.

Decision making also influenced this “internal pressure“ to
create; Mary realized that:

I was the one in front of the class so i had to know what I was

doing, why I was doing it, where I wanted to go. The decisions

were entirely mine. The facilitator might guide or make

suggestions, but the decisions belonged to me.
This was also reflected on the support days, where teachers chose
whether they wanted to use the time that month or not. In addition,
how they used that time was their choice. The building principal
said, “The use of support days varied in as many ways as there were
participants--and participants chose different options on different
days, depending on where they were in the process.“ The building
principal also observed that the teachers had become decision makers
regarding the curriculum content, rather than “allowing the text to
make the teaching decisions.“

The other motivator that emerged was the growth of students.
As students demonstrated greater understanding of the content
through the use of the guides, teachers began to incorporate them
more and wanted to learn new types of guides. Sally described how
the facilitator had helped devise a test that attempted to measure
how well the students had thought about the material. He then sat
down with the teachers to interpret the results with them, showing

the progress the students had made. Sally especially “got really

excited about that.“ Mary saw the students as the focus for why she

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was involved in the project. She described a benefit from working
within a collaborative relationship as:

[the ability] to compare students, their reactions, the

benefits that this is having . . . seeing carry-overs from one

class to another, and hopefully some other changes and feelings

and reactions towards school or learning in general.
As students verbalized their positive feelings about the guides and
the increased discussion in class, the teachers were motivated to
continue in the direction they were moving. Mary described a
student who told her she should do more of the guides because “it
makes us think.“ Mary’s reaction was “that one student sure made an
impact on me, and that in itself was gratifying.“

Qonditions for growth. Several conditions emerged that the
teachers thought were necessary for people to grow within the
collaborative framework of the project. First, “a certain level of
openness“ to a new idea or a new way of learning was necessary.
Mary could describe times when she herself was not open to
listening; therefore, she did not “get anything out of the
experience.“ She drew a parallel between some teachers who did not
appear to be open and students who were convinced that they could
not do something. This led to the next condition, which was
demonstrating a “willingness to take a risk.“ Mary thought that
some people say, “Show me how to do it, show me that I can be
perfect at first, and then I’ll take the risk.“ Related to this

sense of openness and a willingness to take risks is the need to

feel “comfortable“ with the people with whom you are working. That

88

particular word emerged time and time again when Sally and Mary
described how the relationships felt.

Part of being comfortable involved a sense of “respect.“ When
teachers felt respected either by the facilitator or other teachers,
they “felt better about themselves.“ There was also the need for
the teacher involved to respect the decisions of others. The word
“trust“ was also frequently mentioned. If you did not feel that you
could trust the facilitator or the teacher, there was not much of a
relationship involved. “Friendly“ was also used to describe a
necessary condition. Both Mary and Sally described the workshop’s
atmosphere as “friendly, with much laughing and joking.“ This
implied a personal as well as professional dimension to the
relationships. A final ingredient or condition for growth was the
need to “tolerate frustration.“ Mary noted that “there are a lot
of frustrations that people are going to feel. There are things
that are going to be said, and there are feelings that are going to
be hurt.“ Mary saw that a collaborative relationship helped this
sense of frustration as she said, “They need to be working with
someone who suggests all the things that are happening, takes a deep
breath, and says ’Let’s try again." In Mary’s relationship with
Sally, she described herself as “often listening to Sally’s
frustrations about different things in the building.“ Sally would
feel better just talking about her feelings and “getting them out in
the open.“

In summary, one theme that emerged across the data was the

effect on the personal and professional growth of the teachers

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involved in the project. Areas of growth were described, as well as
factors such as time and dialogue that influence the growth of the
teachers. Some motivators that encouraged the growth of the
teachers were also identified. Finally, several conditions for

growth were expressed by the teachers.

The Emergence of Reflaction

Batipnala

The third theme that emerged across the data was the notion of
reflection as teachers developed a questioning process throughout
the project. A search of the categories loosely grouped in this
theme indicated some process to this questioning activityu First,
the facilitator was described as "asking lots of questions." Then
the teachers started to "ask myself questions," and then they
”challenged the facilitator with questions." "Questioning students"
became the next focusas teachers attempted to have students think
more deeply about the content. Two types of questions emerged:
questions about "instructional decisions" and "general questions
that helped to sort things." It seemed that these questions then
served two different purposes so that the larger category was named
“purposes of questions." Two other categories appeared to be
distinct from either a “questioning process" or "purpose of
questioning.” "More of a thinker" and ”growth of the facilitator”
appeared as “outcomes” or a result of the questioning process. When
"purposes" and "outcomes" as well as "questioning process" became

the three components of this theme, the title of reflection

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suggested itself. Questioning was not being conducted just to gain
information, but to think deeply or consider past events, which is

the definition of reflection in the Oxford Amerigan Qigtipnary. A

map, shown in Figure 4.3, was created to illustrate this theme.

Narration

Opestioning. One word that was often repeated throughout the
interviews was “questions.“ When Mary was asked how this staff-
development effort was different from other efforts, she replied
that:

[The facilitator] kept asking more questions. . . . How do you
think this is going to work in relationship to this? What made
you make this choice compared to possibly this choice? i think
that, in itself, made you do more thinking, and the more
thinking you did, the more relaxed you felt about, well yeah,
you know, I guess my thinking is in place. I just didn’t
realize it was in place as much as it was.

Sally also said that a major difference in this project was
that the facilitator “questioned us as to how we decided to do the
lesson and implement some new ideas, and then continued to help us
learn new methods.“ This questioning role of the facilitator became
even more apparent in the transcript from the group discussion held
between the facilitator and the teachers on a support day. Early in
the discussion, the facilitator shared “the questions that were in
my head.“ He then proceeded to talk about an issue “that’s a worry
I have right now.“ The teachers then responded to his "worry,"

asking questions of their own.

91

 

Questioning Process

 

 

 

"Facilitator asked"

"Asked myself"

 

"Challenged facilitator'l

"Asked students"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reflection
Purposes Outcomes
"Instructional decisions" "More of a thinker"
"General questions to sort" "Growth of facilitator"

Figure 4.3: Map-~The emergence of reflection.

92

At some point, Mary noticed that:

As [the relationship with the facilitator] progressed through

the year, I started asking myself questions, instead of him

always having to ask the questions. I'm not sure that I ask

them in the same manner, or anything, but it doesn’t have to be

the same.
This questioning activity also emerged in the relationship between
Sally and Mary. Sally described how she and Mary “went into one
another’s rooms when we were teaching. . . . I could ask her
questions about her lesson, and she could ask questions about my
lesson.“ Questioning even spread to other teachers in the building
who were not participating in the project: “As they overheard us in
the lounge, talking about a lesson that went well , . . . they
started to ask questions.“ Sally described another development as
the relationship grew with the facilitator: “Our relationship
really grew tremendously over the year to the point where I could
question him. He didn’t take offense if I questioned. He could
question me and I didn’t feel insecure at all.“

Questioning became a major concern in the classroom as Sally
and Mary “concentrated on the questions they were asking students so
that they would reach higher levels of thinking.“ Sally found
herself “constantly, in my head, thinking ’Now, let's see now, ask
the right question so I can keep him at the right level.’“ Students
were encouraged to ask “questions of themselves and of each other as
they discussed the study guides."

Egrposes for guastioning. Questioning was used as a means to

get teachers to think about the instructional decisions they needed

to make when implementing the guides in the classrooms. During the

93

group discussion with Mary and Sally, the facilitator wanted
teachers in the workshop to analyze lessons based on materials the
teachers had prepared. He voiced a concern, though, that:

I don’t think people have the insight in terms of swapping
lessons. I didn’t do any of that this year. Maybe what we
could do among us is identify some criteria to help you walk
through, not only look at the piece of paper [a study guide],
but also think about what do you think is going to happen when
you use the guide.

This statement. was consistent with an earlier comment that the
format of the workshop “eventually became more 'I’ll show you a
strategy, then we'll learn how to do it." Then the facilitator
demonstrated the questioning process for Sally and Mary so that they
would be able to use it with other teachers.

You must say to somebody, “What do you expect to happen? What
do you think is going to happen?“ All you do is respond as you
look for things that you don’t understand. That’s all you do.
Just say, “I don’t understand this.“ Then get them to explain
it to you. As you go through the explanation, don’t stop
asking questions until you finally understand exactly how
that's going to play out. All I did [when he worked with
another teacher] was, i said, “I think I see what you're doing,
but walk me through this.“ Then I looked for points that I
didn’t understand. I said, “I didn’t understand this. How is
this interpreted?“ That gets into that reflection a little bit
more.

Mary recognized the importance of sharing this type of
questioning with the other teachers. She stated:

It’s very hard for me to sit down with another teacher and go
through the same process that you do with us. Sometimes, I
don’t know what I'm doing and so forth either, but I think
teachers need to hear it.

The facilitator found:

When I do that [questioning]. teachers end up talking more.
The more they talk, the more you start getting into a
reflection on their part, and it can kind of in a funny way.
. . . They start learning how to do that for themselves. So

94

that’s really one of the things we should think about is how do

you get a dialogue going with the teachers more, so that they

can be more reflective about what they are already doing in a

very positive way and in the right direction.

According to the teachers, questioning also played a more
general role of helping them “sort things through my head.“ As
other teachers asked them questions about what they were doing, they
“searched for answers, thinking back on what had been done.“ As
Mary and Sally “looked back over what had happened,“ they gained “a
greater understanding“ of what they were doing. Because sometimes
the “most often heard phrase was ’I don’t understand this,'“
questions became a natural way to deal with this. Through
questioning, “suggestions and ideas started to develop.“ Mary saw
that Sally’s comments and questions became a way of clarifying her
own half-formed thoughts as Ishe raised “questions that are in my
mind that I haven't vocalized yet.“

0 f e i . One major outcome that both Sally and
Mary identified as a result of their involvement in a questioning
process, as described previously, was their growth as “thinkers.“
Mary stated:

I had never been involved in the thinking process behind many

of the things that I had learned before. I think that I’m much

more a thinker now than I was nine months ago, when we first
started.
Mary also saw a difference in her discussions with Sally:

When it came to Sally and [me] working, she and I were more

into the, sometimes the mechanics of it. Not so much into the

thinking of why did you word this statement as such, just, is
this statement, do you understand what this statement is
saying? It was the facilitator who kept asking questions, and

then we started to ask each more more “Why?“ questions when we
worked together.

95

Sally set a goal “to begin to think automatically that way“ and then
wanted her students to “reflect more about the concepts in class and
how they fit into their own lives.“

Another important outcome as the result of the opportunity to
interact with and question teachers, students, and others in the
district was the growth of the facilitator. In the vignette, the
facilitator described his initial impressions of the district as
“committed to growing.“ It impressed him that:

People actually sat together and talked about their goals for
students and their practices. It affected me deeply to see
people coming together in what is usually the very uncaring
context of schooling.

The facilitator stated:

My first and foremost hope [in working with the project] was
selfish. I saw the come-on to grow as a way to develop some
clarity, to take some time to really reflect on what I was
doing, with caring people to help.

Although the facilitator wanted to clarify his thinking, in the
follow-up interview he commented that he:

felt threatened at first with the spirit of questioning in the
district. People were articulate about voicing their past
experiences, and I had to adjust to the idea that people were
attacking ideas--not personalities. What is most important
were the ideas.

The facilitator was very knowledgeable about content reading,
especially at the secondary level; however, he discovered that:

The» conversation often focused on broader issues, such as
culture, staff development, and outcomes. I had worked with
other school administrators before, but this superintendent saw
the system in a holistic way. He not only saw the micro
picture but also the macro. He provided models for how the
whole system could look and where this particular project fit
in. He invested in my personal growth, recommending books and
articles to read. The superintendent showed a direct approach

96

that not only reflected information but personal conviction.

He was not afraid to face an issue and make a decision. This

caused me to rethink my approach to personal decision making

and confronting issues.

Questioning from Mary and Sally helped the facilitator clarify
his thinking about content reading and the strategies involved. In
the vignette, the facilitator commented that:

The most help they [the teachers] provided me came in the form

of asking critical questions. Sally, in particular, pressed me

mercilessly for clarification about vocabulary instruction.

Her comments really helped me to get clearer about what I think

it means to teach vocabulary.

Broader issues involving instructional decision making were
also a focus of questioning for the facilitator. He described his
interaction with Mary as “she sorted out her goals for teaching and
integrating them with three-level guides.“ Then he stated:

These experiences have made me reflect a great deal on what

comes first--developing a vision of the curriculum or

developing a sense of instruction. Though it changes day by
day, my sense now is that curriculum comes first, with
instruction not far behind.

In summary, a third theme that appeared across the data was the
emergence of reflection. The process of questioning helped people
reflect on the knowledge they were learning and the experiences in
which they were involved. This questioning served several different
purposes. Finally, two outcomes developed as people questioned and

reflected.

Raaaarah Questions

In an effort to guide this study, two questions were devised.

The themes developed from the data have been used to address these

97

questions in an effort to convey the teachers’ perceptions of the

relationships formed.

tio

How do teachers perceive their relationships within a collabo-
rative effort?

According to the responses of the teachers, the building
principal, and the facilitator, relationships needed time to
develop. Frequent and predictable contact with the facilitator and
the other teachers, as outlined by the grant for the project, became
a factor that influenced the development of these relationships. As
these relationships developed over time, a full school year with the
promise of a second year, several things occurred. First, the
teachers perceived their relationship with the facilitator
differently. The facilitator was perceived as someone with
knowledge and expertise; however, "he understood classrooms," "spoke
with students," and "was open to being challenged on ideas." A
personal as well as professional relationship with the facilitator
developed over time, which contributed to a sense of mutual respect.
Second, the teachers were able to merge personal and professional
relationships with other teachers through their participation in a
collaborative effort. Personal relationships became richer as
"dialogue," especially over time, focused on professional topics,
such as "student growth." Professional relationships became
stronger as teachers’ "view of others" and their ability to see "the

big picture" developed. Finally, as these relationships emerged,

98

teachers perceived that they had grown, gaining ”more confidence"
and becoming ”thinkers."

The teachers also perceived that certain attributes were
necessary for collaborative relationships to develop. Descriptors
such as "open, willingness to take a risk, comfortable, respect,
trust, friendly, and tolerant of frustration" were used to describe
personal attributes. These attributes applied to the facilitator,
as well as to the teachers.

Collaborative relationships did not develop with all teachers
in the project. Three teachers left the project within the first
two months. These teachers were described by the facilitator and
the building principal as "loners." ‘They' were not looking to
develop relationships but were interested in gaining the
information; however, they discovered that the relationships were an
integral part of the project that could not be avoided, so they
left. According to the facilitator, some people continued in the
project because they were searching for meaningful relationships.
They developed a sense of belonging within the group, which met
their needs.

Teachers also perceived that, because of the "comfortableness"
of these relationships, a "spirit of questioning" developed. 'This
questioning process, which focused on "decisions in the classroom,”
helped teachers reflect on their practices and the new information
or theoretical knowledge about content reading that was presented.
This process was not always easy as teachers struggled to redefine

their understanding of content reading, experiencing various

99

"tensions” and "frustrations." Collaborative relationships then
provided the emotional support necessary when involved in complex

learning.

Question Two

What insights were perceived or identified by teachers as they
participated in a collaborative effort?

Teachers perceived that they experienced various "tensions" as
they participated in this collaborative effort. As they struggled
with these tensions, the collaborative relationships that developed
provided the flexibility to address these tensions. Through these
relationships, factors such as "time" and "dialogue" emerged, which
helped the participants manage the "tensions." As the collaborative
relationships stressed shared decision making, teachers had input
into the expectations of the project. This helped manage the
tensions between the building needs and the activities in the
project, as well as addressing teachers’ "comfort level" as they
acquired new practices.

The teachers also identified "motivators," such as an internal
desire to learn, which developed as they were involved in this
collaborative effort. As the teachers became more involved with
discussions that focused on instructional decision making,
incorporating theory and practice, they became more involved,
perhaps more responsible for their own growth. The teachers also

perceived that watching students grow in their understanding of the

100

content encouraged or motivated the teachers to continue their own
growth.

Outcomes were identified by the teachers as they participated
in this collaborative effort. One outcome identified was the
teachers’ own growth. The teachers’ perception was that they had
improved their ability to make instructional decisions in the
classroom. In a more general sense, they also perceived themselves
as "thinkers." This reflection went beyond the strategies as the
teachers questioned purpose, reevaluating what should be taught.
Personal conviction developed as teachers gained "more confidence"
and a view of the "big picture."

Another outcome identified was the "growth of the facilitator."
The facilitator described his own growth as a result of his
participation in the project. His understanding of content reading
and the instructional process deepened as be facilitated the
teachers’ search for meaning. A third outcome was the development
of "new practices." The teachers, the building principal, and the
facilitator perceived the value of this type of collaborative effort
and for the development of the relationships formed. The "new
practices,” such as the role of the facilitator, the support role of
the teachers, and the flexibility of the support days, were
perceived as a positive and significant difference from previous

staff-development efforts.

101

Summary

In this chapter, the data from the study were presented in an
attempt to answer these two questions:

1. How did teachers perceive their relationships within a
collaborative effort?

2. What insights were perceived or identified by teachers as
they participated in a collaborative effort?

The raw data were organized from the teachers’ perspective into
categories, using the language from the teachers. These categories
were searched for relationships and then organized into larger
categories. Finally, the categories began to cluster around broad
themes. The rationale for each theme, the specific map, and the
elaboration of the map in narrative form, supported by quotations
from the teachers, the facilitator, and the building principal, were
then presented. The research questions were then addressed, using

the information presented in the themes.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND REFLECTIONS

In this chapter, a summary of the study is presented, followed
by the findings and conclusions. Implications for practice and for
research are discussed. Recommendations for further study are then
presented. A reflections section is included, followed by an

epilogue.

Spnnary of the Studv

In this study, several relationships established within a
collaborative effort in a secondary public school setting were
examined. A description and possible insights from the
participants’ perspectives concerning their involvement in this
effort were obtained. The collaborative effort, in this study,
involved a staff-development program designed to help teachers
internalize certain principles of reading in the content areas and
to implement them in ‘their classrooms. This staff-development
program was designed as a collaborative effort that promoted the
development of relationships among the teachers, as well as between
the facilitator and the teachers.

Two research questions were devised in an attempt to guide the

study. They were:

102

103

1. How did teachers perceive their relationships within a
collaborative effort?

2. What insights were perceived or identified by teachers as
they participated in a collaborative effort?

The following procedures were used to collect data in order to
respond to the research questions. An ethnographic interview was
obtained from two teachers who had formed a team in the project.
These interviews were tape recorded and later transcribed. A work
session on a support day between this team and the facilitator was
also tape recorded and then transcribed for further analysis. In an
effort to validate these perceptions, the building principal was
interviewed as she reflected on the teachers’ behaviors and
attitudes during their participation in the project. Finally, a
case study or vignette, describing the teachers’ efforts and the
relationships formed in the project, was created by the facilitator
of the project. A follow-up ethnographic interview of the
facilitator was conducted for clarification and further elaboration
of the vignette.

Data analysis for’ developing grounded theory' was then
conducted. Multiple readings of the transcripts of the teachers’
interviews and the work session with the facilitator led to the
coding of comments and phrases into categories. The interview of
the building principal, the vignette, and the follow-up interview of
the facilitator were then read several times, with the comments and
phrases being coded into categories. Consistent categories between

the sources of data were then merged, being careful to retain the

104

source of the "voice." Categories were then searched for their
properties and any inherent relationships. Three broad areas
developed, which were each labeled a theme. Within a theme, a
taxonomic analysis was then conducted, which led to the creation of
a map that attempted to convey the higher-level categories and their
relationships. Next, a narration was written based on the map to
describe the categories and relationships within the theme. Each
narration contained the "voices" of the teachers, the facilitator,
and the principal. Finally, a response based on the themes was

developed for each research question.

Findings
The following statements summarize the response to each

research question.

Quastion One

How did teachers perceive their relationships within a collabo—
rative effort?

1. Teachers perceived that collaborative relationships needed
time to develop.

2. Teachers perceived that collaborative relationships merged
professional and personal dimensions of their lives.

3. Teachers perceived that roles such as that of the facili-
tator or their own role as teacher underwent a change.

4. Teachers perceived ‘that certain attributes or necessary
conditions needed to exist in order for collaborative relationships

to develop.

 

105

5. Not all teachers were willing to develop collaborative
relationships.

6. Teachers perceived that collaborative relationships pro-
vided the emotional support needed when involved in a complex learn-

ing situation.

Question Two

What insights were perceived or identified by teachers as they
participated in a collaborative effort?

1. The teachers identified several tensions that arose when
involved in a collaborative effort. The collaborative relationships
that developed helped to achieve a balance between these tensions.

2. The teachers also identified motivators, such as an inter-
nal desire to understand something complex and the growth of their
students in the classroom, which encouraged their continued partici-
pation in the project.

3. The teachers identified their own growth as an outcome of
participating in this collaborative effort. Growth was identified
in the areas of instructional decision making, their ability to
think or reflect, and the development of a "big picture" or broader
context.

4. The teachers and the facilitator identified the growth of
the facilitator as an outcome of this collaborative effort.

5. The teachers also perceived the emergence of new practices

as supportive of the collaborative relationships.

 

106

6. The facilitator modeled reflective thinking for the teach-

ers, who then internalized it.

Conplusions
As a result of the findings in this study, the following

conclusions were drawn.

1. Opportunity for dialogue is an essential component of col-
laborative relationships.

2. Collaborative relationships need time to develop, possibly
being time intensive.

3. Teachers are capable of recognizing their own growth as
they participate in collaborative relationships.

4. The modeling of reflective thinking is a powerful staff-
development tool.

5. Collaborative relationships provide an effective vehicle
for the modeling of reflective thinking.

6. The merging of personal and professional relationships
provides a deeper growth experience.

7. Collaborative relationships promote or support the growth

of all members in the relationship.

Impligationa
Given the findings and conclusions of this study, several

implications for both the field of educational practice and

educational research became apparent.

107

F' i Pr ctice

1. If opportunity for dialogue is an essential component of
collaborative relationships, restructuring efforts need to consider
and provide for these opportunities.

The present structure of the school day, the school year, or
the school building does not necessarily promote opportunities for
teachers to dialogue. Time, another factor that influences
collaborative relationships, is related to dialogue. Dialogue takes
time, possibly more time than needed just to convey information.
Units of time such as class periods or planning time are inadequate,
needing a shift in basic underlying assumptions. More options need
to be generated, especially with teacher input. The possibility of
an extended school year without students for the extra time is an
option that could promote these opportunities; however, intentional
efforts would be necessary to insure that collaborative
relationships would become an integral part of that time unit.

Another area that could promote dialogue for teachers is at the
university or college level. As teachers continue advanced degrees
or additional credits, teachers could find themselves in university
classrooms, a natural setting for dialogue outside of their
buildings. Careful consideration might be given to structuring
those classes so that collaborative relationships could develop as
teachers dialogued. This dialogue might be richer as teachers have
opportunities to interact with educators from other districts, whose

contexts and perspectives are different. This setting might also

108

allow for a broader definition of teachers’ roles as classroom
teachers take a more active leadership role in these classes.

2. If teachers are capable of recognizing their own growth in
collaborative relationships, they need to have more input into and
control over their own growth.

One choice teachers might have as they direct their own growth
is from whom they will learn or with whom they will interact. As
discussed earlier, collaborative relationships merge personal and
professional dimensions of one’s life. If, within the group, a
baseline of personal relationships has not been established or
negative relationships have already occurred, the individual’s
ability to feel comfortable, be open to the situation, or be willing
to risk within that particular group could be compromised. The
individual might have a legitimate reason not to join that
particular group but could choose another group. Since personal and
professional dimensions are impossible to separate, there could be
considerations or factors in a teacher’s personal life at a
particular time that would prohibit participation in a collaborative
effort at that particular time. The door must be left open for
teachers to join or rejoin these collaborative efforts when the
teachers are ready.

Another choice teachers might have as they direct their own
growth is the choice of role within a collaborative relationship.
Although there is a real blend of roles, such as learner or expert,
for the individual within a collaborative effort, people do assume a

primary role. Flexibility needs to exist so that teachers can

109

choose different roles, depending on the particular collaborative
effort. This is especially important as individuals might be
involved in multiple efforts with differing roles. Sometimes
perceptions of teachers become formed that are difficult to change,
which limits their options or choices of roles. Collaborative
relationships promote different perspectives of others, especially
as teachers develop a broader picture of their world.

Teachers also might be involved in more than one collaborative
effort or relationship at one time. Roles might be different in
different relationships. For instance, in this study, the two
teachers who were interviewed had formed a collaborative
relationship with each other, as well as with other teachers in the
building. They had also formed a relationship with the
facilitatoru “These teachers were perceived as learners in the
context of their relationship with the facilitator, but they were
perceived as "experts" in their relationships with the other
teachers. The fecilitator had also formed several relationships.
His role with the teachers in the project primarily was that of
”expert"; however, his role in other relationships in the district,
especially as the focus became staff-development or organizational
issues, was that of learner.

3. If modeling of reflective thinking is an important staff-
development tool and if collaborative relationships provide an
effective vehicle for this to occur, schools should reexamine the
attributes or characteristics of individuals playing leadership or

facilitator roles.

110

The ability to express one’s thinking, as well as to think in a
reflective manner, would appear to be an essential attribute of a
facilitator who is involved in the growth of teachers. This is a
different ability from demonstrating knowledge or expertise in a
content area. If teachers are involved in situations where they are
dealing with complex learning, such as instructional decision
making, the modeling of reflective thinking might facilitate the
integration of theory and practice. Selection criteria for
individuals to be facilitators might be reviewed in light of this
ability.

Preservice education is another area where the modeling of
reflective thinking could play a crucial role. Collaborative
relationships can be the vehicle for the modeling of reflective
thinking. Should student teachers be able to form collaborative
relationships with their supervising teacher? If so, these
relationships need to develop over time, which the current situation
does not allow. Possibly, a year-long student teaching assignment
would allow this type of relationship to develop. Within this
relationship, the supervising teacher could model the ability to
think reflectively about instructional decisions, the students, and
the broader context of school. Selection criteria for supervising
teachers and the procedure for assigning student teachers would also
need to be reconsidered.

Other practices that promote reflection, such as journal

writing, could supplement and enrich the thinking in the

___q_‘ Al‘MVI-‘n—

 

 

111

relationship; however, some individuals may need the thinking
modeled before they can access their thinking through writing. Some

individuals may do their best thinking aloud, through dialogue.

further Raseargh

1. Collaborative relationships in many different settings and
forms need to be studied in order to gain additional insights.

2. Although this collaborative relationship was investigated
from the teachers’ perceptions, the facilitator’s perceptions should
be explored, especially as more teachers might expand their roles to
include this.

3. This researcher conducted an internal analysis of collabo-
rative relationships. Analysis of other collaborative relationships
could be conducted, using expert opinion to guide the analysis.

4. The link between the teachers involved in collaborative
relationships and the students in their classrooms was briefly
mentioned in this study. A closer examination of this relationship

might add support to the development of collaborative relationships.

Recommendation

1. Teachers need to be involved in directing their own growth,
choosing their own path.

The development of personal-professional growth plans as the
basis for teacher-evaluation practices provides one model for
teachers to direct their own growth. This plan is developed with
the building administrator as the teacher identifies topics to be

investigated or skills to be implemented in the classroom. A plan

 

112

is then developed, identifying the specifics of how the teacher will
direct his/her own learning. This learning could take place
independently or through participation in a more formal staff-
development effort. The building administrator would meet
periodically' with the teacher throughout the year to help the
teacher evaluate the progress being made and to redesign the plan,
if necessary.

2. Collaborative relationships need to be promoted as one form
of staff-development effort.

Teachers should be encouraged to form collaborative
relationships as they direct their own growth. The organization
needs to recognize officially these relationships as a valuable
component of a staff-development program. Teachers should be
allowed to choose whom they would like to work with and when they
are ready to form these relationships. It should be recognized that
these relationships are only one form of staff development.

3. Schools need to consider new practices necessary to support
collaborative relationships.

Collaborative relationships do not exist in isolation. They
flourish and develop within the context of the school day as
teachers perform their daily tasks. New practices need to emerge
that allow teachers the opportunity and time to come together for a
common purpose. More flexible use of substitute teachers would free
teachers so 'that 'they’ could plan together, observe teach other

teaching, and/or develop new materials.

 

 

113

4. Instructional decision making should become a greater focus
in staff-development efforts, especially as it promotes the
integration of theory and practice.

In the past, staff-development efforts focused on providing
teachers with new information, materials, or techniques. It was the
teacher’s problem to make the necessary adjustments for
implementation in the classroom. Decisions such as when within the
teaching sequence to use the techniques, what the necessary
prerequisite skills were, and determining the readiness level of
students were made by the classroom teacher during the
implementation. If those decisions were not successful, the teacher
might decide to abandon the new information, not risking failure
again.

If discussion centered on the necessary instructional
decisions, teachers could reflect on these decisions and then
evaluate the decisions, making necessary adjustments before the next
effort to implement the information or techniques in the classroom.
This conlnon sharing of decisions would help teachers realize the
factors to be considered for implementation, as well as provide the
emotional support necessary for their efforts to grow.

5. Teachers need to be more deeply involved in educational
research, becoming active partners and creating new knowledge for
their profession.

A5 researchers focus on classrooms as a source of information,
the cooperation of teachers becomes essential as a minimum

requirement. If a partnership was formed between the researcher and

114

the classroom teacher, this relationship could be mutually
beneficial. The researcher would develop a greater understanding of
classrooms as the teacher explains, offers insights, and questions.
The classroom teacher would develop an appreciation for the role of
research, a deeper understanding of the processes involved, and
possibly a broader perspective of the classroom as a place for
learning.

In addition, the teachers might develop a stronger sense of
professionalism as they contribute new knowledge.

6. Multiple roles for teachers need to be encouraged and
supported by school organizations so that teachers’ insights can be
more effectively shared.

As teachers adjust their perceptions of their roles within and
beyond the classroom, an expansion of roles will emerge. Teachers
will become "experts" as they share their thoughts and feelings with
other colleagues. At the same time, they will function as
“learners" as they read books and journals and attempt to
incorporate new learning with previous behaviors. Teachers could
also become "researchers" as they raise questions and search for
means to answer them. They also will always remain as "teacher" to
their students. These multiple roles might exist simultaneously as
teachers participate in a variety of activities within the school
day. Each role could develop different dimensions or facets of a

teacher. Organizations would need to recognize the variety of roles

. .1

 

115

for 'teachers, the simultaneous nature of them, and provide the

necessary support for these roles to exist.

Reflaptipns

As a result of the researcher’s being a participant observer in
the project, several observations became apparent. The sharing of
these observations or reflections might offer a richer picture of
the relationships already described.

In the follow-up interview with the facilitator, he commented
on the large degree of adaptation that he saw, rather than just
replication or adoption of the techniques and strategies. A5
teachers internalized the knowledge about content reading strategies
with their knowledge of their content area, adaptation rather than
adoption became a typical practice. The classroom teachers followed
the basic information about the strategies that the facilitator had
presented; however, the actual design of the materials and their
implementation appeared different. Since the facilitator could not
possibly be an "expert” in all the various content areas represented
in the project, the acknowledgment that the classroom teacher was
most "expert" concerning the content was made by the facilitator.
The facilitator’s role then evolved into asking questions concerning
process and motivation issues, as well as prompting the teacher to
think more deeply and aloud about the materials constructed or how
they were used in the classroom. As teachers then reflected on the

theoretical knowledge they had gained and their experiences

 

116

implementing it in the classroom, they integrated the two, with
adaptation becoming one outcome.

If the facilitator had recognized or valued only replication of
the techniques, he might have misperceived some of the outcomes of
the project. He might not have encouraged this adaptation, which
could have halted the efforts of the teachers to continue
experimenting with new ideas in their classrooms. Adaptation could
become more common as an outcome of a collaborative relationship in
which the focus was on the integration of theory and practice.
Facilitators and individuals becoming involved in collaborative
relationships should be aware of adaptation as a possible outcome,
or it might be misinterpreted.

Another observation gained during the study was the blurring of
roles within a collaborative relationship. At times, the role of
the participants in the relationships shifted and changed. In the
beginning of the project, the facilitator presented information,
modeled strategies and techniques, and asked probing questions of
the teachers. A gradual shift occurred when teachers began asking
questions of themselves and later challenging comments or statements
made by the facilitator. Teachers expressed opinions and made
assertions about implementing these strategies in the classroom, and
they pressed the facilitator for greater clarification. A passive
learning role was abandoned as teachers became more deeply involved
in their own learning. Teachers began to recognize their own role

as an "expert,“ as well as being a "learner."

 

 

117

Although only the relationships between the teachers themselves
and between the teachers and the facilitator were examined in this
study, other relationships also existed that supported the relation-
ships described. The role of the building principal also needs to
be considered. The building principal attended most of the
workshops and was available during the support days. Through the
principal, organizational support was perceived by the teachers as
they struggled with their learning. Not only was support perceived,
but there was freedom to direct their own growth. Teachers were
allowed rather than mandated to decide how to use their time on
support days. Their decisions were respected by the principal
rather than questioned. Teachers were encouraged to try new
practices, and resources and materials were made available. If this
relationship had been different, the nature of the relationship
between the teachers might also have been different.

Another relationship that existed was between the facilitator
and several administrators in the district who served as a support
base for the facilitator. This group provided relevant background
information and current information on other events happening in the
district that might affect the project. This group also served as a
source of encouragement and feedback for the facilitator. As
members of this group often attended the workshops, they were able
to comment objectively on the previous workshop and make suggestions
for the next one. If the facilitator had not had this supportive
relationship, the relationships with the teachers might have been

different.

 

118

The relationships already described existed within the context
of the organization. Organizational support was necessary for these
relationships to flourish. Support was provided on a formal level
as the grant created a legitimate reason for coming together.
Informal support, though, was also perceived as administrators’
comments were positive and encouraging. Support had to be "in sync”
throughout the organization. If the superintendent had valued these
relationships but not the building principal, the relationships
would have been different. The same would be true if the building
principal had valued them but not the superintendent. If the group
of teachers who had participated in the project had not found these
relationships satisfying, they' would not have developed to the
degree they did. If the facilitator had not been selected for the
reasons he was, the relationships might have been different. All
elements had to be "in sync" to create or promote the collaborative
relationships. Another observation was that the teachers in the
project found the workplace to be more satisfying as they
participated in the project. As they became more satisfied with the
work they were doing, they worked harder than they had before. They
put more thought and time outside of the school day into developing
materials and preparing lessons. This internal satisfaction without
external motivators such as increased salary or a different title
was sufficient to encourage teachers to act as professionals.
Perhaps, the nature of teachers’ work needs to be explored so that

teachers are not just using skills but making professional judgments

'- \. ‘ILz‘1

 

In".
.

119

and decisions. Perhaps, the more complex teachers are encouraged to
become in their teaching, the more satisfying the workplace will be.
If teachers are allowed to develop multiple roles, the more
connections they will make between teaching and learning, theory and

practice, and growth of adults as well as students.

Epilogue

The project continued for a second year as it was approved for
further funding. The original group of teachers continued with the
same facilitator. Three other groups of secondary teachers from
various school districts were formed. Another facilitator, who was
also a university professor, conducted two of the groups, while the
first facilitator worked with the third group. The same structure
of workshops and support days continued, with the same emphasis on
professional relationships. The feedback from the teachers during
that second year and from the districts involved encouraged people
to seek alternative funding after funding from the state ended. The
intermediate school district that served these districts continued
the project with at least two groups and one facilitator. Although
the formal relationship ended between the facilitator and the
teachers in this study as the project ended, the effects of the

experience still continue.

 

APPENDIX

120

PROFESSIONAL-DEVELOPMENT GRANT

INSTRUCTION
1. ABSTRACT
a. Participants

Participants will be middle school and high school teach-
ers from the districts in the intermediate school district
area. Additionally, administrators and curriculum special-
ists will participate at local cost.

Needs

This project address three specific needs: (l) the need
for content area teachers to learn how to teach reading as a
natural part of their curriculum, (2) the need to study and
improve a staff development model for content reading, and
(3) the need for middle and secondary school students to use
reading strategically in an instructional context in which
they possess positive attitudes about learning.

Program Design and Important Activities

The program is designed to assist teachers in integrating
content reading strategies as they relate to the Essential
Goals and Objectives in Reading Education naturally into
their teaching of content. It does this via a series of
workshops and follow-up support sessions. in schools“ A
major feature of the project is the use of lessons that are
video-taped for demonstration purposes in participants’

schools.

121

d. Specific Outcomes

The outcomes of this project include: (l) expansion of
teachers’ knowledge in applying content reading strategies
in their own classrooms, (2) the implementation of a staff
development model that contributes to ongoing professional
growth, and (3) gains in students’ abilities to construct
meaning from text, use knowledge about the reading process r
and develop positive attitudes toward reading.

2. PLANNING

The planning committee will become the project advisory

 

Spun. .- -_~'- ‘ .2 .

committee. The purpose of this advisory committee will be
to monitor and adjust the direction of the project to
fulfillment of the project goals. Representation from each
of the four training sections will provide information for
the monitoring of the project. This group will meet at
least four times during the first year and more frequently
if needed.
3. D AS SM NT
a. Needs of Reassigned Staff

The focus of this grant is to teach and assist teachers
in integrating reading and the essential goals and
objectives for reading education into their content area.
Participating teachers will come from a variety of content
areas. The teachers expressing interest in this project

were assessed as to their awareness and knowledge of the

122

essential goals and objectives of reading education. Less
than lO% expressed knowledge at even an awareness level.
Teachers were also surveyed as to whether they had ever
taken a course in content reading. Less than 20% of the
teachers participating in the survey had ever taken a course
in content reading. Many of these responded that the course
they had taken was not worthwhile.
b. Priorities of Reassigned Staff
Participating staff completed an attitude scale designed
to measure their attitudes about content reading and the

Essential Geals end Objectives for Reedjng Edecetiog. In

addition, the scale measures teachers’ confidence in their

 

ability' to implement various. goals and objectives. The
measure was constructed on a l to 5 scale, with l
representing strong positive attitudes and high confidence
and 5 representing strong negative attitudes and low
confidence. Results from the sampling of the participants
indicated that over 89% responded either that they strongly
agree or agree with the need for this type of program.
4. PROJECT PLAN AND DELIVERY
a. Relation Between the Project and the Needs Assessment
This project is motivated by three needs: (l) the need
for content area teachers to learn how to teach reading as a
natural part of their curriculum, (2) the need to study and
improve a staff development model for content reading, and

(3) the need for middle and secondary school students to use

123

reading strategically in an instructional context in which
they possess positive attitudes about learning.

The needs assessment supports each of these needs.
Teachers in the assessment all possessed positive attitudes
about goals related to content reading, goals consistent
with the Michigan goals and objectives for reading education
(Michigan State Board of Education, l987). Specifically,
teachers and administrators responded positivety to state-
ments expressing the need to help students develop motiva-
tion and gain knowledge and strategies for learning from
texts. At the same time, these teachers expressed little
confidence in their ability to implement instruction that
achieves these goals.

This lack of confidence can be attributed to several
problems. One problem is that many of the respondents,
particularly in the middle school, are reassigned staff who
are not updated in their content area. They lack sufficient
knowledge about the content and about the instruction unique
to each discipline. Nithout this distinctive knowledge,
decisions about how to communicate the content--and
especially, how to teach students to learn from texts--are
severely limited (Shulman, l987). Without this knowledge,
instruction often descends into low-level routines with
teachers more concerned about covering the content than

whether students are achieving (Cuban, 1984).

124

A second problem consists of teachers’ orientation to
"reading." To many, the phrase calls up images of separate,
remedial reading classes, replete with different types of
materials, students and instruction. To others, it suggests
basal readers, long lists of reading skills and elementary
teachers (Herber, 1978). Middle and secondary school
teachers find it difficult to reconcile the types of
learning-to-read activities that occur in remedial and
elementary settings with their own priorities: to teach
students about content (Herber, l978). As a result, many
teachers cannot envision how reading could be incorporated
naturally into their curriculum (Ratekin, Simpson,
Alvermann, a Dishner, l985).

Content reading is defined as: helping students gse
menu to think and leern in each sgbjecgl'= eree. Rather
than teaching reading directly (i.e., helping students find
main ideas), participants will learn to use reading
strategies 'functionally: adapting ‘reading instruction ‘to
students’ needs in relation to the demands of the content.
In effect, instead of teaching students how to read, the
emphasis here is on reading-to-learn.

Helping teachers learn and apply content reading is far
from easy. Teachers are isolated from each other in their
knowledge and practice. Opportunities are rare for teachers

to collaborate within and across disciplines, to construct

.. . 3*” A- ”R...
I

 

 

125

conlnon understandings of problems and pose possible solu-
tions, in effect, to develop the professional knowledge
required for effective teaching (Feiman-Nemser & Floden,
1986). Secondary schools especially are characterized by
many fragmented approaches to teaching which further
contribute to this isolation (Cusick, 1982). Resistance to
change can be high since teachers deal with their isolations
in personal ways, resorting to routines that are justified
by "That’s the way I am" rather than teaching to specific
outcomes (Buchman, 1983). Given these constraints, it comes
as no surprise that teachers can see» a need to assist
students in reading to learn from textbooks--yet they do not
feel capable of responding to this need. It is in response
to these needs and constraints that this project has been
organized.
Goals and Objectives

The project is organized around three general goals.
These goals reflect the needs that motivate the proposal.
Objectives are organized around each goal and reflect
specific project activities. Because of assumptions
underlying the staff development model, the project brings
together personnel from two universities, an ISO and eight
local school systems, including ‘teachers, administrators,
and curriculum specialists. Consequently, goals and
objectives will be described in terms of participants rather

than restricting the focus to any one group.

 

 

 

126

GOAL 1: TO DEVELOP IN TEACHERS THE KNOWLEDGE BASE ABOUT
CONTENT READING AS IT APPLIES TO THE ESSENTIAL GOALS AND
V S R NG NST .

Objective l.l: Participants will demonstrate knowledge of
instruction in content reading.

Objective l.2: Participants will apply their knowledge as a
natural part of their content area lessons.

Objective l.3: Participants will grow in their confidence
in applying content reading in their own
classrooms.

GOAL 2: TO APPLY, STUDY AND REFINE A MODEL FOR STAFF DEVEL-
OPMENT IN CONTENT READING INSTRUCTION.

Objective 2.l: The project will promote collaboration in
order to (1) encourage collegial relation-
ships, (2) identify common problems, (3)
test possible solutions and (4) generate new
knowledge.

Objective 2.2: Networking will be supported both within and
among schools throughout Michigan (1) to
address reading needs, (2) to increase the
capacity of schools and other organizations
to engage in meaningful staff development
and (3) to provide methods for continuous
interaction among participants.

Objective 2.3: The staff development model will be studied
to improve its value both in developing
professional knowledge and in encouraging
ongoing school change.

GOAL 3: TO ASSIST STUDENTS IN MEETING THE MICHIGAN ESSEN-
TIAL OBJECTIVES FOR READING EDUCATION, TO PROMOTE ACTIVE AND
LIFE-LONG LITERACY.

Objective 3.l: Students will demonstrate an increasingly
positive attitude ‘toward the use of text
materials and reading in content areas.

Objective 3.2: Students will exhibit an increased awareness
of strategic reading to construct meaning.

Objective 3.3: Students will exhibit a greater understand-
ing of the concepts taught in content areas.

127

An Overview of Training Methods and Materials

This project will employ a staff development model that
combines the features of two other successful models (see
Nelson, l98l, and Putnam, Roehler, & Duffy, l987). One
feature is staff development that addresses long-range
changes in knowledge, attitudes and behaviors of teachers,
supervisors and administrators in a whole school or school
system (Nelson-Herber, l98l). Other features address the
training materials and methods required to promote these
types of changes.

Staff development in this project will be responsive to
the professional and personal needs of all participants.
While the needs assessment highlights a desire for this type
of training, participants have also expressed a personal and
professional desire to increase their capacity to teach
content through reading. For this reason, all participants
will be volunteers and early activities will focus on
reviewing goals of the project, identifying problems that
will be addressed, and relating their current practice to
content reading instruction. Methods will consist of
brainstorming, collaborative discussions, and development of
support materials based on teachers’ own classroom texts.
Needs and goals will be periodically reviewed to maintain

genuine support for the project.

 

W. .. '

 

128

The project will be grounded in a research-based
framework and presented through consistent sources of
information. Training will be based on a textbook (Conley,
in preparation) that integrates knowledge about the teaching
of content with knowledge about teaching students how to
learn from textbooks. Specific guided reading strategies
will be introduced for comprehension, reasoning, text
patterns, and vocabulary. Participants will view video-
taped lessons to learn (1) how to plan and teach content
reading lessons, and (2) how to reflect on the lessons they
will be teaching. Lessons will be video-taped in
participants’ classrooms so that conditions and constraints
will be familiar.

The training will be characterized by a gradual transfer
of responsibilities to the participants and the gradual
development of participants’ capacity to reflect on their
own instruction. Early workshop sessions will be based on
lessons conducted by' a university specialist in content
reading. Later sessions will focus on lessons conducted by
other participants, including teachers, administrators and
supervisors. Early sessions will begin with demonstrations
and explanations from the university specialist.
Participants will design and critique their own lesson plans
by the end of each session and will try out lessons before
each subsequent session. Later training will evolve so that

peer coaching occurs at the beginning and end of each

IL.&3')'1"‘_'1 .

 

 

 

129

session: at the beginning, participants will analyze
experiences in teaching lessons and, at the end, they will
critique upcoming lessons. In order to facilitate more
personal interaction, participants will be divided into four
separate groups (25-30 participants for each group).

What follows is a sample agenda for each workshop and
follow-up support session. Each session will provide: (l)
a theory-base for decision-making about content reading, (2)
specific classroom strategies and options, and (3) support
for classroom implementation and adaptation. A consistent
theme will be to demonstrate how content reading can be a

way of strengthening current instructional practices.

SAMPLE AGENDA

1.

WORKSHOP DAYS

Workshops will follow a cycle of demonstration, discussion,
planning, implementation and debriefing. All activities will be
geared toward helping teachers make better use of their own
materials and instructional practices. Workshop days will have
the following form:

Introduction, Orientation

Demonstration Lesson (Video Taped)

Discussion and Explanation of the Strategy

Common Planning Session

Lunch

Individual Planning

Lesson Critiques

 

 

 

130

UP T A
Individual and Small Group Conferences
Demonstration Teaching
Observation or Examination of Teaching Materials
Timeline for the Project
W
The emphasis in the project during year l will be on
GOAL l and its related objectives. However, in considering
the activities for the timeline below, we have anticipated
preparation for GOAL 2 and GOAL 3 in subsequent years. A

detailed timeline for year l follows.

SESSION
WORKSHOP l

SUPPORT
DAY I

WORKSHOP 2

SUPPORT
DAY 2

CONTENT OBJECTIVE

To develop an orientation
content reading that is
related to current practice

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

To learn and apply guides
for comprehension

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

I31

ACTIVITIES/STRATEGIES

Instruction:
0 e- an small-group dis-
cussion
Demonstration teaching
Simulation of lesson plan-
ning and instruction
Integration of principles
of cooperative learning
with principles of guided
reading
Goal setting for future
workshops and support
days

Evaluation:

Field notes and partici-
pant observation

Audio recordings

Development of ordered trees

Administration of scale to
assess attitudes and con-
fidence ratings

Instruction:
Individual and small-
group conferences
Demonstration teaching
Collaborative lesson
planning

Evaluation:

leacher pre- and post-
interviews, classroom
observations and audio-
taping

Analysis of completed
reading guides

Student post-lesson
interviews

Instruction:

Introduction of the first
content reading strategy
through demonstration
teaching

Review and analysis of
demonstration lessons
(video)

Collaborative planning in
similar subject areas
Individual planning of
lessons

Evaluation:

e notes and partici-
pant observation
Audio recordings
Reflective journals

Instruction:
IndividuaI and small-
group conferences
Demonstration teaching
Collaborative lesson
planning

RESOURCES

Instruction:

I. University trainer

2. Textbook, supplementary
materials

3. Video cassettes

A. VCR

S. Textbook materials,
handouts

Evaluation:
. ape recorder and blank

audio tapes

2. Resources for tran-
scription

3. Evaluation assistant for
transcription assistance,
Xeroxing and record-
keeping. Evaluation
will also include tabu-
lation and summarizing
of data sources.

Instruction:

I. Handouts containing

minutes, summary from
the previous workshop
2. University trainer

Evaluation:

I. Pre- and post-interview

forms for teachers

2. Audio tapes for observed
lessons

3. Post-interview forms for
students

A. Guide materials used in
classrooms

5. Evaluation assistant for
interviews

Instruction:

I. University trainer

2. Textbook, supplementary
materials

3. Video cassettes

A. VCR

S. Textbook materials,
handouts

Evaluation:

I. Iape recorder and blank

audio tapes

2. Resources for tran-
scription

3. Evaluation assistant for
transcription assistance,
Xeroxing and record-
keeping. Evaluation
will also include tabu-
lation and summarizing
of data sources.

Instruction:

l. Handouts containing

minutes, summary from
the previous workshop
2. University trainer

SESSION CONTENT OBJECTIVE

WORKSHOP 3 To integrate guides for
comprehension with specific
questioning techniques

SUPPORT

DAY 3 To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

WORKSHOP A To design and apply
guides for reasoning

I32

ACTIVITIES/STRATEGIES

Evaluation

leacher pre- and post-
interviews, classroom
observations and audio-
taping

Analysis of completed
reading guides

Student post-lesson
interviews

Instruction:

coaching based on previous
lessons

Demonstration of new
content

Simulation of the new
strategy

Large- and small-group
interaction in prep-
aration for planning
Small-group interaction
designed to plan lessons
within similar content
areas

Individual lesson planning

Coaching based on completed

plans

Evaluation:
Partic1pant observation

Reflective journal writing

Instruction:
IndiViduaI and small-
group conferences
Demonstration teaching
Collaborative lesson
planning

Evaluation:

leacher pre- and post-
interviews, classroom
observations and audio-
taping

Analysis of compelted
reading guides

Student post-lesson
interviews

Instruction:
Coaching based on previous
lessons

RESOURCES

Evaluation:

T:_PFE:_33d post-interview
forms for teachers

2. Audio tapes for observed
lessons

3. Post-interview forms for
students

A. Guide materials used in
classrooms

5. Evaluation assistant for
interviews

Instruction:

TT_HEFEEUEE containing
minutes, summary from
the previous workshop

2. University trainer

Evaluation:

I. Pre- and post-interview
forms for teachers

2. Audio tapes for observed
lessons

3. Post-interview forms for
students

A. Guide materials used in
classrooms

5. Evaluation assistant for
interviews

 

Demonstration of new content
Simulation of the new strategy
Large- and small‘group inter-
action in preparation for
planning
Small-group interaction
designed to plan lessons
within similar content areas
Individual lesson planning
Coaching based on completed
plans

Evaluation:

Participant observation
Reflective journal writing
Development of ordered trees

Administration of scale to assess
attitudes and confidence ratings

Ir

 

SESSION

SUPPORT
DAY A

WORKSHOP 5

SUPPORT
DAY 5

WORKSHOP 6

SUPPORT

DAY 6

WORKSHOP 7

SUPPORT
DAY 7

WORKSHOP 8

SUPPORT
DAY 8

WORKSHOP 9

SUPPORT
DAY 9

WORKSHOP lO

SUPPORT
DAY 10

CONTENT OBJECTIVE

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

To adopt reasoning guides
to varying contexts and
purposes

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

To design and implement
guides for text patterns

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

To adapt guides for text
patterns according to
sophistication and dif-
ficulty

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

To design and implement
maps and organizers for
vocabulary development

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

To integrate reinforcement
and application activities
with strategies for vocabu-
lary development

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

To synthesize individual
lessons into units

To support application and
confidence in using content
reading strategies

I33

ACTIVITIES/STRATEGIES

Instruction:
Individual and small-
group conferences
Demonstration teaching

Collaborative lesson
planning

Evaluation:

leacher pre- and post-
interviews, classroom
observations and audio-
taping

Analysis of completed
reading guides

Student post-lesson
interviews

See Workshop 3

See Support Day 3

See Workshop 3

See Support Day 3

See Workshop A

See Support Day A

See Workshop 3

See Support Day 3

See Workshop 3

See Workshop 3

See Workshop A

See Support Day A

RESOURCES

Instruction:

I. Handouts containing
minutes, summary from
the previous workshop

Evaluation:

I. Pre- and post-interview
forms for teachers

2. Audio tapes for observed
lessons

3. Post-interview forms for
students

A. Guide materials used in
classrooms

5. Evaluation assistant for
interviews

See Workshop 3

See Support Day 3

See Workshop 3

See Support Day 3

See Workshop A

See Support Day A

See Workshop 3

See Support Day 3

See Workshop 3

See Workshop 3

See Workshop A

See Support Day A

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