«gtgéfi.~x$~tz
V *3"! a ,
z? fiwfw‘fimn

J

A.

.?
y
.

m M #15

rm-

~J'.
5.3 9
«'5'».
“If ‘ '1.

.
:13

. f ‘ . 9 ._ .

y! W: flag: t;-

m w- a

a
.. - 9 n m...

a h“; ‘ 12w

W. 29.? *5! "1 . 3 V

1' I ~ '.

.1153“, . 4 . , . , ,. ‘13. ‘
'r.5<r< ‘N , ‘Hv . ' on“ n: u-
-;.; t: "i o;. in; 1; A?
. (aw—flit- may?

‘ - xx“
\L ‘5'

' £6319": d‘W

Ll

"I-‘YK‘N
n-l V

w

x
1-. ,x n

L . . .-.
wifiwfflvzfi
-"’ u i ‘3‘ V :91.

-r

FM" i‘
. 1| '
‘ 2:5“: gj‘u.“ fiifi‘f
.xztéqyl-IM. I742:
{:12- M- 2. 1%.-
., . ;.~v -
A a

. .- my
“we“; 1;;

(
-_.vtrrr,
I"

¢
3»
«'1

Hr (u.
an w
n L0
k

 

t
:3, L'L':
('c‘. 4.1: ....
H- .m' "r: """
w war. "nuns; ‘
.wfluna-w—umwr
... 2,. -,.
'1 f ' L .t
. ... .
WWW... ..,.,.. “u. .. -..
.._, - . . -a w. m ..
.rt': '32.?3’. a. 355' shit I»:
- .w ..

a
n»...
.-
‘-.

a ..--~<-W

- ua.vo<umw
u .--._-o«'—vr
pour-v...

 

.M

...

c 4- n .5:

" V' .. .ng-Av, a .

”:1, , . . . ,M,.....,.-l-, . -

.. . , ,A .. . . .. ..£..,..-....1. .. . .,..

.3 J WA v, v. .f' '1 my, .A v f . - T'” f, 'I' ~- ”6‘ r

' ;‘:".-;.*:2‘.1..-..‘..'?.q.:zw'.;-.'.1’" -“' t.“ ‘ - ‘ myufig‘éafigfiy '3" 7.7. "gmvw .
-_,._.. '3- s:w~.:.:.-.:V.-r m. ‘31:. 5% ,mgr Wm .n ,fiué'rfifi 3.3m ..
- (1' v: ”mug: : 7x...” 43$»...J 'm‘ "7-" uémm

""'_ - :1...___. w

         

YHFS‘S

nu IBRARIES

\iiimi‘ifl \\\\\\\\\“\ \\\\\\\\\\ Hi

 

\\\\\\\\

 

This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled
Congruence and Career Management

Self-Efficacy as Predictors of
Job Satisfaction in Adult Workers

presented by

Ellen Laurin Balkam Lent

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph . D . degree in Counseling Psychology

< j Major professor V

 

Date &//5/?;—'

MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

LIBRARY
Michigan State
Unlverslty

 

 

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or before due due.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

{M

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MSU Is An Afflnnettve Action/Equal Opportunity Institution
emana-M

 

THE PREDICTIVE ABILITY OF CONGRUENCE AND CAREER SELF-EFFICACY
IN ADULT WORKERS: A STUDY OF JOB SATISFACTION

By

Ellen Laurin Balkam Lent

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology,

and Special Education

1992

6].? " ~4’ ' "

ABSTRACT

THE PREDICTIVE ABILITY OF CONGRUENCE AND CAREER SELF-EFFICACY

IN ADULT WORKERS: A STUDY OF JOB SATISFACTION

By

Ellen Laurin Balkam Lent

This study explored the utility of two vocational constructs--job-
person congruence and career self-efficacy--along with demographic and
organizational variables in predicting job satisfaction in 168
professionals and managers. Novel measures of organizational opportunity,
career success, and career self-efficacy were tested for internal
consistency and test-retest stability. Three different methods of
computing congruence were used and compared. Career success experiences,
perceived organizational opportunity, and career self-efficacy were the
most efficient predictors of job satisfaction in multiple regression
analyses. Congruence moderated the predictive ability of these variables.
Demographic variables were insignificant predictors of job satisfaction
in all analyses. Some support for social-cognitive and person-environment

theories was found, and an important relationship between theoretical

variables is discussed .

Copyright By
Ellen Laurin Balkam Lent

1992

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people who supported and assisted my work on this
study. I am grateful for the help I have received, and hope to continue
to deserve such support, as a friend, relative, colleague, spouse, and
parent. I also hope I will be called upon in the future by these and
other important people when they need something from me, large or small.
Now that this project is done, they will probably feel more optimistic
about my speedy response.

Grateful thanks go to the following colleagues who encouraged the
mounting of this study and who assisted in locating interested
organizations: Joanne Jorz, John Cooper, Mary Jenkins, Kevin Hull, and
Bob Gunn. Also, thanks to the decision-makers and risk-takers at the
study sites, who allowed me in and shared so much with me: Don Burian,
Joyce Sodergren, and Alice DeSantis.

Friends have generously contributed their enthusiasm, time, ideas,
and often entirely empathic support: Ellen Sullivan, Betsy Hostetler,
Carmen Gear, Margaret Beaver, Joanne Jorz, and John Woodard.

My parents, Robert and Laurin Balkam, have always encouraged but
never tried to direct my intellectual development. They provided.me with
the tools, and let me flail away. I truly appreciate the intellectual
openness and adventuresome spirit they modeled. They, and my sisters,
brothers, and in-laws, Balkam and Lent, were always interested in my
progress, and through mysterious family magic never asked about it at the

wrong time.

iv

The chair and members of my dissertation committee—-Fred Lopez,
Linda Forrest, Dan Ilgen, and Steve Raudenbush--have been enthusiastic,
informed, creative, and collegial. They are consummate professional role
models. Fred repeatedly found precious summer hours to consult with me,
and provided invaluable creative and coordinating skills. Thanks also to
Bill Schmidt, who offered timely and valuable methodological advice.

Randy Fotiu, with seemingly unlimited patience and good cheer,
helped me fathom the MSU mainframe (from CDC through IBM) and SPSS (from
original through -X).

My husband Bob has always gone an extra ten miles to help and
support me through this process, from GRE practice exams (Minneapolis,
1984) through the final dissertation draft (East Lansing, 1992). His
love, encouragement, and'burden-sharing have literally and otherwise made
my success possible. My hypothesis is that our high relationship
congruence potentiates our marital happiness self-efficacy. And our
beloved joint project, Jeremy Alan Balkam Lent, has provided his unique
perspective-making contribution, for which I am forever grateful.

It is my great good fortune to be connected to all these people who
have helped make this process exciting, humane, and human. Thank you,

everyone .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ................................................. ix

List of Figures ................................................. x

CHAPTER I - STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction ..................................................... 1
Theoretical Issues ............................................... 2
Practical Issues ................................................. 2
The Proposed Study: The Theories ................................ 4
Holland's Person-Environment View .......................... 4
Congruence ........................................... 7
Theory-derived Antecedents ........................... 7

The Social-Cognitive View of Bandura ....................... 8
Self-Efficacy ....................................... 10
Theory-derived Antecedents .......................... 11

An Historical Postscript ........................................ 12
The Present Study ............................................... 12
The Hypotheses ............................................ 13

Study Implications ........................................ 13

CHAPTER II - REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Conceptual Works ................................................ l6
Empirical Studies ............................................... 22

CHAPTER III - STUDY METHODS

Participants .................................................... 29
Procedure ....................................................... 30
Site A .................................................... 30
Site B .................................................... 31
Both Sites ................................................ 32
Informed Consent .......................................... 32
Privacy and Confidentiality Safeguards .................... 32
Holland Code Assignment ................................... 33
Instruments ..................................................... 34
Design of Original Scales ................................. 34

vi

Scale Features ...................................... 34
Perceived Opportunity Scale and Career Success

Scale ......................................... 34

Job Description Scale ............................... 35

Career Self-Efficacy Scale .......................... 35

Description of Instruments ................................ 37
Job-Person Congruence ........................................... 46
Analyses ........................................................ 47
Reliability ............................................... 47
Exploratory Factor Analysis ............................... 47
Congruence ................................................ 48
Initial Observation of Data ............................... 49
Aggregated Data ........................................... 50
Multicollinearity Check ................................... 50
Multiple Regression ....................................... 50
Post-Hoc Analyses ............................................... 52
Congruence ................................................ 52

Tests for Mediator Effects ................................ 53

Tests for Interaction Effects ............................. 54

CHAPTER IV - RESULTS

Original Scales ................................................. 56
Aggregated Data ................................................. 67
Job Satisfaction ................................................ 68
Congruence ...................................................... 69
Descriptive Results ............................................. 72
Research Hypotheses 1 through 4 ................................. 76
Preparation for Multiple Regression Analyses .................... 78
Multiple Regressions Predicting Job Satisfaction ................ 79
Research Hypotheses 5 and 6 ..................................... 79
Post-Hoc Analyses ............................................... 85

Perceived Opportunity ..................................... 85

Career Success ............................................ 85

Congruence ................................................ 86

Test for Interaction: Low Congruence and Perceived Opportunity.89
Test for Interaction: Perceived Opportunity and Self-Efficacy..89
Review of Hypotheses ............................................ 91

CHAPTER V - DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

Intent of the Study ............................................. 93
Major Findings ............................................ 94
Operationalizing Constructs ..................................... 95
Validity .................................................. 9S
Discriminant Validity for Self-Efficacy ................... 96
Reliability ............................................... 97
Subjects ........................................................ 97

vii

Sampling ........................................ - .......... 98

Relations Among Study Variables ................................. 98
Hypothesis 1 .............................................. 99
Hypothesis 2 .............................................. 99
Hypothesis 3 ............................................. 100
Hypothesis 4 ............................................. 101
Hypothesis 5 ................. ' ............................ 103
Hypothesis 6 ............................................. 103

Collapsing Data Across Sites ................................... 105

Post-Hoc Analyses .............................................. 106
Tests for Mediating Effects .............................. 106
Test for Interaction: Perceived Opportunity and

Self-Efficacy ...................................... 106
Measures and Tests of Congruence ......................... 107
A Note on Gender Issues .................................. 111

Summary of Major Issues ........................................ 112
Demographic Factors Not Significant ...................... 112
Congruence-Job Satisfaction Link Not Established ......... 113
Reciprocal Interaction Approach Achieves Support ......... 113

Boundaries and Limitations of the Study ........................ 114

Implications and Directions for Future Research and Practice...115
Instruments .............................................. 115
Demographics ............................................. 116
Congruence and Self-Efficacy ............................. 116

Implications for Change ........................................ 118
Career Success ........................................... 118
Perceived Opportunity .................................... 118
Career Self-Efficacy ..................................... 119
A Prevention Approach .................................... 119

LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................. 121

APPENDICES

A. Sample Executive Information Letter ........................ 132

B. Invitation to Participate in Study, Site A ................. 134

C. Outline of Verbal Presentation to Potential Study
Participants, Site A ..................................... 135

D. Final Report to Site A ..................................... 137

E. Request to Participate in Study, Site B .................... 144

F. Final Report to Site B ..................................... 145

G. Informed Consent Form ...................................... 151

H. General Informarigg Surrey ................................. 152

I. Eergeiveg Opportunity Surrey ............................... 153

J. Qgrg§r_1a§k_§grxex ......................................... 154

K. ng_§arr§ragrrgr_§grx§y .................................... 156

L. ee uccess Surve ...................................... 157

M. _Qga_rgna1_£rgfgrgngg_ln_gnrgry, stimulus items ............ 159

N. Jg__2g§griprigr_§grxgy ..................................... 161

viii

.10
.11

.12

.13

.14

.15

.16

.17

.18

LIST OF TABLES

Positions and DHOC Codes .................................. 33
Scale Internal Consistency and Test-Retest Correlations
- Site A ............................................ 57
Scale Internal Consistency - Site B ....................... 58
Item-Total Statistics - Qgreer Success Surrey ............. 60
Qarggr_Sgrgg§§_Sgrygy_Item Ranks .......................... 62
Item-Total Statistics - t t t
Sgrzgx .................................................... 64
Item-Total Statistics - Qgregr_1a§k_Sgrg§x ................ 65
e urve : Factor Analysis Summary .............. 66
o t ct : Comparison of Results ........... 68
Item-Total Statistics - lgb_Sgr1§fagrigr_Surxgy ........... 69
Congruence Computations - Comparison of Results ........... 71
Descriptive Results ....................................... 72

Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Among Variables
of Interest ........................................... 77

Hierarchical Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction:
A Test of Site ........................................ 80

Hierarchical Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction:
Trimmed Model ......................................... 82

Hierarchical Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction:
Age Restored .......................................... 84

Zero-Order Correlations among Three Congruence
Computation Methods ................................... 86

Stepwise Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction: A
Comparison Across Levels of Congruence ................ 88

Stepwise Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction:

Interaction Variable (Perceived Opportunity by
Career Self- -Efficacy) ................................. 90

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Holland's Hexagonal Model of Person and Environment

Types .................................................. 6

4.1 Relative Frequencies of Variables of Interest ............ 73

CHAPTER I

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction. Adult workers are the subject of much current
inquiry by theorists and practitioners of vocational and industrial
psychology (Phillips, Cairo, Blustein, & Myers, 1988; Slaney & Russell,
1987). Features of work settings and of the working population are
changing quickly, with important implications for vocational theory and
for the applicability of empirical findings. Widespread workforce
reductions (Ginzberg, 1985; Kanfer & Hulin, 1985) and shrinking numbers
of managerial/professional positions (Roth, 1988) make promotions scarce
and limit expectations for upward mobility. The enormous age cohort of
U.S. baby boomers is close to mid-career, providing even more
competition for fewer promotional opportunities (Bardwick, 1986; Roth,
1988). Increasing numbers of persons in dual-career relationships are
less able to make a geographic move at the employer's request (Campbell
& Heffernan, 1983). The need is great for a more sophisticated
understanding of adult career-related phenomena in this significantly
changed environment. As Vondracek, Lerner, and Schulenberg (1986)
state:

there is a growing interest among social and behavioral

scientists, business and industry, and policymakers at all levels

of government to develop a more thorough understanding of the
processes that govern individuals' selection of occupations as

well as their subsequent performance in those occupations (pp. 1-

2).

A brief look at the theoretical and practical implications of this

situation is given, and a study to address some of those issues is

proposed.

2

Ihggrgrig§l_l§§gg§. Why do people choose and remain in certain
job fields? Is job or career satisfaction linked to workforce tenure,
to expectations for promotion, to interesting work? What is the role of
career success experiences? Theories of career attitudes and behavior
attempt to answer such questions as these. There are, however, two
important limitations in this inquiry. First, much of the theory
development and testing in the vocational area has utilized college
student subjects, or suffers from other sampling limitations (Sonnenfeld
& Rotter, 1982; Spokane, 1985; Warren, Winer, & Dailey, 1981). A number
of researchers have called for further inquiry using employed adult
workers, to improve the validity of theories and the usefulness of their
constructs (Blau, 1986; Hall & Lerner, 1980; Holland, 1985; Myers, 1988;
Schein, 1986; Shullman & Carder, 1983; Slaney & Russell, 1986). Second,
these theories have assumed that mobility within organizations
(geographic and otherwise) is relatively unhindered, and that
opportunities for upward movement are readily available. These
assumptions can be challenged, especially in view of the aforementioned
conditions: dual-career couples, the baby boom cohort, the large number
of organizations experiencing slow or negative growth, and other
environmental constraints. Therefore, the ability of current vocational
theories to explain adult career behavior and attitudes may be limited
by recent societal and workplace changes as well as by researchers'
sample selections.

Erggrrgal_1§§g§§. In this context, questions of interest extend
further than whether a particular vocational construct accounts for what

the theory says it will. Rather, it is important to ask, under what

3
conditions might we predict an important outcome such as job
satisfaction? Is the assumption of some career theories, that workers
move toward improved "fit" with their work environment over time, valid
in the case of prolonged restriction of job mobility? Can workers be
satisfied in the absence of promotion opportunities? Answers to these
questions can illuminate the relationships that vocational theories try
to explain, and can help organizations and individuals better understand
the complex links between workers and the workplace.

Many factors are probably related to job and career satisfaction:
individual characteristics, job/organizational features, and
environmental conditions. Arthur, Bailyn, Levinson, and Shepard (1984)
state 1

Careers emerge from a complicated interplay of peoples' views

about the world and themselves, of career procedures in the

organizations in which they work, and of constraints and
opportunities provided by the social and economic climate in which

they live. (pp. vii-viii)

At the level of the individual, the contributions of developmental
psychology, and the specific tenets of career stage theories (e.g.,
Levinson, 1978, 1984; Super, 1980, 1984) highlight the potential
significance of individual change in the understanding of vocational
phenomena. Theories of vocational development propose intraindividual
constructs to explain and predict career-relevant outcomes. Only
recently, however, has significant attention also been given to changes
in organizational and environmental conditions that might affect adult

career behavior and attitudes (Hall, 1986; Phillips et al., 1988; Roth,

1988; Schein, 1986). In particular, Hall (1986) states,

4

"Retaining established strong performers in a low-opportunity

organization is a major challenge of career management in the late

1980's" (p. 124).

One relevant implication of low-opportunity settings is the
likelihood that workers might accept promotions into jobs of less
intrinsic interest in order to increase their salary and prestige. This
tendency is particularly common in engineering and other technical
professions: with few chances to move up in the technical ranks,
workers will accept managerial positions (Bailyn, 1982; Steiner & Farr,
1986). If job satisfaction is based in part on the work itself, such a

situation might be troublesome for individual workers and for the

organization.

WWW. Specifically. this study asked:

what predictive relationships might be found among two key vocational
constructs, their antecedents, and job satisfaction for managers and
professionals in two U.S. government worksites? The inquiry explored
this question from two different perspectives: the person-environment
trait theory of John Holland (1966, 1985c) and the self-referent
cognitions view of Albert Bandura (1982, 1986). These theories
represent different assumptions about career behavior and propose unique
constructs which contribute to job satisfaction.
1 d's Pe on- v 0 en View

The theory of vocational types advanced by John Holland falls in

the category of trait and factor, or individual differences views of

human nature. His hypotheses are generated from four propositions:

5

1. In our culture, most persons can be categorized as one of six
types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising,
or conventional.

2. There are six model environments: realistic, investigative,
artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.

3. People search for environments that will let them exercise
their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values,
and take on agreeable problems and roles.

4. Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality
and environment. (Holland, 1985c, pp. 2-4)

Thus, this theory proposes that persons and work environments can, in
the main, be classified into one of six vocational "types"--a type being
a descriptive category including personality tendencies, contextual
demands, and behavioral cues. The six types, named above, are defined
as follows:

Eg511§r19--explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of objects,
tools, machines, or animals; encouragement of technical competencies and
achievements; encouragement of mechanical ability, seeing the world in
simple, tangible, and traditional terms; few opportunities to develop
skill in human relations.

Inggsrrg§r1_g--observation and symbolic, systematic, creative
investigation of physical, biological, or cultural phenomena;
encouragement of scientific competencies and achievements; encouragement
of scholarly traits, scientific and mathematical ability, seeing the
world in complex, abstract, original, and independent ways; few
opportunities to develop leadership skills.

Arr1§r19--ambiguous, free, unsystematized activities and competencies to
create art forms or products; encouragement of artistic achievements;
encouragement of traits such as expressiveness, originality,
intuitiveness, nonconformity, and independence, and abilities such as
acting, writing, and speaking; seeing the world in complex, independent,
unconventional, and flexible ways.

Sggrgl--involvement with others to inform, train, develop, cure, or
enlighten; encouragement to engage in social activities, encouragement
of traits such as helpfulness, understanding, cooperativeness,
sociability, and persuasiveness; encouragement of social values; seeing
the world in flexible ways.

Enrgrnriging--involvement with others to attain organizational or self-
interest goals; encouragement to engage in enterprising and leadership

6

activities; encouragement of traits such as aggressiveness, popularity,
self-confidence, sociability, leadership, and speaking ability; seeing
the world in terms of power, status, and responsibility.

Conventional-~explicit, ordered, systematic manipulation of data, such
as keeping records, filing and reproducing materials, organizing written
and numerical data according to a prescribed plan; encouragement of
recording and organizing data or records; encouragement of traits such
as conformity, orderliness, and dependability. (Holland, 1985c, pp. 36-
40) See Figure 1.1.

Realistic Investigative

Conventional Artistic

 

Enterprising Social

Figure 1.1. Holland's Hexagonal Model of Person and Environment Types.
Reproduced and adapted by special permission of the Publisher,
Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., 16204 North Florida Avenue,
Lutz, Florida 33549, from the Vocational Preference Inventory by John L.

Holland, Ph.D., Copyright 1978, 1985, by PAR, Inc.

Type is variously denoted by a single-, double-, or triple-letter
code using the first letters of the six terms. For example, CES, used
to describe a person or a work environment, defines that entity as
primarily Conventional with secondary Enterprising and tertiary Social

features. The theory provides several validated methods and measures to

7
identify type codes of individuals and environments.

angrugggg. A key construct in this theory is congruence, or
psychological fit, between person and work setting. Congruence is
strongest when the person's "activities, competencies, perceptions, and
values" (Holland, 1985c, p. 36) match and are supported by the
characteristics of the work environment. The closer the person's
characteristics match the work environment-~that is, the higher the
congruence-~the greater the opportunity for job satisfaction. Person
and setting are thus portrayed in a relationship of reciprocality, each
supporting the other's needs and purposes. In this study, job
satisfaction serves as the expected outcome of congruence.

Congruence can be computed several ways; a recommended method is
to compare three-letter person and environment code types for the degree
of match (Spokane, 1985). Another method, the Environmental Assessment
Technique (Holland, 1985c), compares individuals' codes with the modal
code obtained by employees in the work setting. A third, more recent
feature of congruence computations, includes input from the job
incumbent or supervisor regarding the job's degree of similarity to each
of the six types.

- r ve a tece . In Holland's view, congruence
reflects the extent of "match" between person and job characteristics.
High congruence, therefore, should be related to the person's tenure in
the workforce, since the job-person match is said to improve as the
person moves closer to the ideal work environment.

Another factor which should be linked to congruence is the amount

of job mobility, or opportunity for job change, that individuals

8
perceive in their workplace. If 1) new job opportunities are plentiful,
2) competition is not daunting, 3) discrimination based on age, sex, or
other factors is absent, and 4) dual-career partners do not object,
people should be able to seek and obtain new positions increasingly more
consonant with their abilities and preferences. This situation would
result in greater congruence over time.

While Holland's theory allows for some plasticity--settings are
defined by the people in them; persons may change to better fit with
their environment or may choose to leave it--it is essentially a stable
trait theory perspective. Person type is said to be established between

the ages of 18 and 30.

e 0 al- t ve V w f u

A different perspective is offered by Albert Bandura (1982; 1986),
in the theoretical traditions of cognitive behaviorism and social
cognition. In this view, human behavior is explained by a mutual
causation system of behaviors (B), internal or person variables, such as
preferences and attitudes (P), and environmental factors, or external
constraints (E). These three factors affect and are affected by one
another reciprocally. When E constraints are low, person factors are
most salient in this system. Behavior is goal-directed, and is
partially determined by cognitive variables, including a self-perceived
ability to perform a certain behavior. In this way, the notion of self-
regulation by ability judgments (among other internal factors) is
invoked to help explain behavioral choices. In Bandura's view, then,

thoughts and feelings regarding personal abilities are proposed as

9
predictable mediators of individual behavior, along with environmental
factors and specific behaviors.

Bandura notes "in passing" (1986, p. 25) that components within
each category can reciprocally interact: for instance, in the Person
category, judgments can affect, and be affected by, beliefs, emotions,
preferences, and future expectations. The present study examines
relations among several Person components in detail, and relies upon
this assumption of reciprocality at the micro, as well as macro, levels.
This issue will be returned to later.

Since self-perceived competence partly determines important
behavioral outcomes, it follows that career-related self perceptions
should affect Behavior factors such as personal career management, job
performance, and organizational longevity. Since there are relations
among Person factors themselves, individual perceptions of competence or
agency presumably would impact upon affective outcomes such as job
stress and other mental health-related events. A relation between these
agency perceptions and "self-administered rewards and punishments”
(Bandura, 1986, p. 354) in the career area would also be expected.

It should be noted that perceived ability or agency is
distinguished from outcome expectations; the latter represents the
likely consequences of a chosen behavior. Perceived organizational
opportunity, a variable reflecting outcome expectations in the career
domain, is included in this study.

Not unlike Holland, Bandura states that people contribute social
and interpersonal qualities to their work environments, and tend toward

consistent behavior within those settings. Unlike Holland, he asserts

10
that person traits are not sufficient to understand variation in
individual behavior across situations. Rather, the interaction among
the three factors--behavior, person, and environment--is the route to
understanding individual behavior and choices.

- f a . Self-efficacy, a major construct in the Person
category of social cognitive theory, is defined as "peoples' judgments
of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required
to attain designated types of performances" (Bandura, 1986, p. 391).
This percept is a product of prior personal experience, observation of
others in similar situations, credible persuasion by others, and
emotional arousal cues such as increased heart rate or feelings of
relaxation. Self-efficacy is hypothesized to regulate effort and
persistence (i.e., behavior) independent of actual competence in the
designated behavior.

Career management self-efficacy, for the purposes of this study,
is defined as the constellation of individual beliefs, judgments, and
emotions regarding managing one's career. Included in this concept are
such components as: beliefs about one's ability to perform well on the
present job and in future jobs; expectations about the personal utility
of career decisions; preferences for certain careers; and level of
anxiety regarding one's ability to reach career goals. (To date, career
self-efficacy has most often been operationalized in terms of career
choices.) According to Bandura, high career self-efficacy should
predict appropriate career choice and management behaviors as well as
persistence and satisfaction. In this study, job satisfaction is the

criterion of interest.

11
Career management self-efficacy (referred to hereafter as career
self-efficacy) does not substitute for knowledge and skills, and does
not influence behavior if minimal competence in a particular situation
is lacking. It cannot overcome all situational constraints; for
instance, high career self-efficacy will not contribute to receiving a
promotion if there are no promotions available.

- ve e d n . Social-cognitive theory implies that
positive career-related cognitions and affect derive in part from prior
experiences of success and competence in work situations. Therefore,
career self-efficacy should be affected by past career success events.

Length of time spent in the workforce might also be important in
understanding career self-efficacy and its correlates. Workforce tenure
is a behavioral variable that should impact on individuals' judgments
about their competence in the career area. Presumably, as one builds up
years in the workforce, one's confidence in the career domain increases.

The belief in one's opportunity to obtain other desirable jobs in
one's current organization could affect both a willingness to seek new
positions and a belief in one's competence in the career domain.
Perceived opportunity, as conceived here, incorporates situational and
personal components: it captures information about 1) availability of
jobs and amount of competition; and 2) persons' beliefs about their
mobility based on their gender, ethnic status, sex, educational level,
and dual-career status. This factor is expected to be related to career
self-efficacy, and these two constructs are both expected to predict job

satisfaction.

12

s o a s t. It is interesting to note the milieux
in which these theories developed. The trait or "differentialist"
(Holland & Gottfredson, 1976) tradition in vocational research in the
U.S. dates from the turn of the century, with Parsons' (1909) work in
matching persons with jobs. The prevailing view of relevant
psychological assessment was deductive and reductionistic; many of the
underlying assumptions in Holland's theory represent a similarly strict
empirical, positivist stance. Social cognitive theory, in Bandura's
formulations, has matured in a zeitgeist full of challenges to the
positivist tradition, and his constructs inevitably reflect this more
epistemologically heterogeneous environment. An example of a difference
between the two theories is Bandura's incorporation of the concept of
personal agency in his theoretical writings (1986). This construct is a
relative newcomer in the counseling psychology literature (e.g., Howard,
1984, 1987), and promises to challenge some long-standing assumptions
about the prediction of behavior. Holland's hypotheses do not
specifically include agentic concepts such as self-reward and self-
regulation as motivators of behavior.

Ihg_£rg§gnr_Sr§dy. The contributions of the congruence and career
self-efficacy constructs in accounting for satisfaction in working
adults in diverse occupational settings are minimally understood.
Research with college student populations is far more frequently
reported in both the Holland (Spokane, 1985) and the Bandura (Lent &
Hackett, 1987) traditions. The present study explored the efficiency of
congruence and career self-efficacy in predicting job satisfaction

through multiple regression analyses. The antecedents mentioned above--

13
perceived opportunity, workforce tenure, and prior career success
events--were included in the analyses. In addition, demographic factors

were tested for mediating effects.

The Hypotheees. Based on the discussion above, and on previous

research findings, the major research hypotheses were:

H1. Dual-career status will be negatively associated with
perceived opportunity.

H2. Workforce tenure will be positively associated with
congruence.

H3. Career success event frequency will be positively correlated
with career self-efficacy.

H4. Perceived opportunity will be positively correlated with
career self-efficacy and with congruence.

H5. After demographic and antecedent variables are accounted for,
career self-efficacy will contribute unique incremental variance to the
prediction of job satisfaction.

H6. After demographic and antecedent variables are accounted for,
congruence will contribute unique incremental variance to the prediction

of job satisfaction.

Sreey_1melieeriene. Retaining productive, healthy employees and

maintaining a supportive work environment is an important task for
employers, given the challenges of adjustment and socialization (e.g.,

Jones, 1986), job insecurity (e.g., Kanfer & Hulin, 1985), and other

14

workplace stresses. If these findings suggest procedural and/or job-
related changes that can reasonably respond to employees' unique job and
career needs, employers can hope to save important financial and human
resources through enhancing job satisfaction and its antecedents. Just
as important, individuals can benefit from work environments more
attuned to their needs for job involvement, recognition and emotional
well-being.

The known correlates of job satisfaction in individual workers and
organizations are summarized by Locke and Latham (1990):

Employees who are satisfied are more likely to stay on the job and

to engage in citizenship behaviors such as helping coworkers or

customers and doing extra work...; those who are dissatisfied are

more likely to quit the job, be absent, file grievances, join

unions, go on strike, protest to higher management, engage in
substance abuse and illegal acts, and put forth less effort. (p.

244)

It has also been reported that work-related attitudes contribute
importantly to indices of well-being and mental health (Wiener, Vardi, &
Muczk, 1981; Caplan, 1987; Moos, 1987). Another series of studies imply
a link between work satisfaction and measures of well-being, somatic
complaints, and anxiety (Meir & Melamed, 1986; Meir, Melamed, & Abu-
Freha, 1990). More research to ascertain the contributions of
psychological variables to job satisfaction has been called for, in the
interests of both individual well-being and organizational productivity
(e.g., Heesacker, Elliott, & Howe, 1988).

Finally, these results may provide more insight into the
usefulness of theoretical hypotheses relating to individual job

satisfaction. Better understanding of attitudinal variables in

15
vocational theories is imperative for the continued vitality of such
theories. As assumptions about people and environments change, so must

the theoretical formulations designed to explain and predict their

interactions.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Works of vocational psychology, industrial psychology, and career
development provide much material relevant to this proposed study. The
studies and conceptual works mentioned here are chosen for relevance to
the particular issues already outlined--the changing nature of persons
and work environments, the limitations of extant theories in explaining
career behavior, and efforts at further conceptualizations of adult
career phenomena.

geeeeprgel_flerk§. Jepsen (1984) contributed an important
distinction between vocational theories by defining two types:
structural and developmental. He suggested that structural theories
such as Holland's build their hypotheses on the assumption that
"development results in the establishment of stable qualities (e.g.,
interests, abilities, and personality traits" (p. 178); and,
alternatively, that theories in a developmental tradition "emphasize the
development of qualities that undergo orderly change (e.g., the
conceptualization of self as worker, the capacity to work)" (p. 178).
While Jepsen cited the works of Super and Tiedeman, among others, as
examples of the latter theory type, it also seems reasonable to include
Bandura's social cognitive approach in this category. Self-efficacy
cognitions, in Bandura's view, undergo orderly change over time in the
face of new success experiences, chances for vicarious learning, social

persuasion, and affective states. This distinction serves to highlight

16

17
the potential differences between the two theories and will inform
discussion of the study's results.

Deeper understanding of the theories' tenets is aided by the
authors' references to key underlying conditions. For instance, Holland
made clear his reliance on the assumption that persons have unrestricted
job mobility in defining his terms:

In the theory, development over the entire life course can be

understood as a long series of person-environment interactions in

which people are modified and stabilized as they select, pass
through, or avoid behavior situations that reject, select, and
encourage some behavioral or personality repertoires more than

others (1985, p. 52).

Holland published data in 1973 documenting 5,812 lifetime job
transitions for 757 men aged 30 to 39 (Holland, 1985, p. 129); these
workers averaged over seven transitions before the age of 40. In such
high-mobility conditions, Holland's predictions about movement into more
congruent settings were acceptable and documented. However, the nature
of the vocational "opportunity structure” cited by Gottfredson and
Becker (Holland, 1985, p. 129) may have changed sufficiently to require
a revised view of Holland's hypotheses. The theory also rests on data
obtained from large groups of "socioeconomically mobile workers"
(Holland, 1985, p. 131), and may not apply with equal accuracy to
workers not so classified.

Interestingly, one of the Holland theory's major outcomes, career
satisfaction, is consistently cited but not given operational
definition. It is left to interested parties to define it in research

and theory analysis. With Holland's emphasis on career behavior, and

his call for more studies in work settings (1985, p. 152), this omission

18
is glaring.

Some possible problems also arise in Bandura‘s formulations. He
stated that the self-efficacy construct and its related activity should
be measured closely in time;

(p)roximal self-percepts more accurately represent existing

relations to behavior than earlier ones, if they have been revised

in the interim (1986, p. 396).

This raises the unappealing prospect of continuous measurements in the
quickly-changing work milieu of reciprocal influences between person,
behavior, and environment. The alternative may be a reliance on
outdated efficacy percepts, yielding insignificant relationships with
important outcomes.

Second, Bandura emphasized that:

To regulate effort effectively, performers must have some idea of

the performances they are seeking to attain and have at least some

information about what they are doing (1986, p. 398).

In the sometimes disorganized processes of job description, performance
feedback, and employee development planning, an individual may not
receive such information, or may receive it at a level of abstraction
not easily translated to the personal level. Even with increases in
career self-efficacy, therefore, individuals' behavior may not Show
change if the above feedback condition is not met.

Third, "career success“ is a key outcome in Bandura's theory, but
is not operationally defined. To learn whether higher career self-
efficacy indeed leads to greater career success, investigators might
test different manifestations of this construct, and might disagree over

their varying definitions. Salary level, for instance, does not

necessarily equal job satisfaction.

l9

Vondracek, Lerner, and Schulenberg faulted all current vocational
theories in their failure to "integrate completely current knowledge on
vocational and career development (1986, p. 2). Their contextual
perspective requires that influences from the work organization and the
outside environment, as well as those within the individual, be included
in a fully integrated statement. They supported Bronfenbrenner's view
that theories of development give short shrift to environmental factors
in behavior and change (1986, p. 40), and asserted that new advances in
career development theory will depend on such a perspective. Further,
they cited the connections between conditions of work and the mental and
physical health of workers, stating that better understanding of career
development phenomena will contribute to improved health and well-being.
This position was also taken in Brown's (1984) discussion of the effects
of job dissatisfaction on mental health (p. 411), and in Schlossberg's
(1984) work on therapeutic interventions with adults in transition.

Campbell and Heffernan (1983), in their chapter on adult
vocational behavior, listed many so-called "external” influences they
believe should be included in theory-building and -refining. These
include the demographic phenomenon of the baby-boom generation, and
social trends such as

high divorce rates, the instability of the economy, changing job

opportunities, changing family patterns, the proliferation of

educational opportunities, new life-styles, and the rise of women

in the labor force (1983, p. 223).
Especially pertinent to the present discussion is their citing of the

challenge faced by dual-career couples in making job- and promotion-

related decisions, and the need to consider lateral moves when one's

20
employer cannot offer continual upward mobility. Klein (1988) also
cited dual-career couples as important factors in adult career
decisions, defining them as "two persons pursuing and highly committed
to both an occupation and domestic relationship" (p. 255). In addition,
flattened organizational structures and the large numbers of the baby-
boom cohort are cited by Stout, Slocum, and Cron (1988) as influential
in the recent phenomenon of reduced employee mobility.

A thoughtful review of theory and research in organizational
settings by Shullman and Carder (1983) covered some issues relevant to
this discussion. They noted that the baby-boom generation is reaching
mid-career, feeling increasing concerns about job challenge,
obsolescence, and work-related contributions. They cited the phenomena
of organizational and individual plateaus and their potential for
reduced job involvement and satisfaction; they also called for more
tests of existing vocational theories in organizational contexts.

Other points related to demographic features of the work force
were raised by Schlossberg (1984). .She cited the "pyramidal squeeze”
experienced by workers in a large age cohort (p. 171), and discussed the
implications of a thirteen-year longitudinal study on the relationship
of age to promotional offers. Specifically, employees over the age of
forty were much less likely to receive promotions, which raises concerns
about mental health, job satisfaction, and organizational productivity
for this age group (p. 166). These findings could bear on the
development of percepts such as career self-efficacy, as well as the
ability of workers to choose environments of increasing congruence over

time.

21

Increased interest in career issues facing workers in mid-life has
been expressed by many authors (Bailyn, 1982; Brown, 1984; Dalton,
Thompson, & Price, 1982; Derr, 1982; Hall, 1986; Levinson, 1984; Schein,
1986). In this age range (approximately 35 - 45 years old) workers in
high-mobility environments were found by Bailyn (1982) to express high
work aspiration and success orientation; those experiencing low mobility
were concerned mainly with job security. As if in response to limited
technical promotion opportunities, almost fifty per cent of the 957
engineers in Bailyn's study occupied managerial or entrepreneurial
positions ten years after graduation, eschewing technical challenges for
presumably higher-paid, higher status jobs. Interestingly, however,
above-average incomes in this sample were not positively correlated with
high job satisfaction. Also, ”people orientation", a quality not highly
characteristic of engineering in Holland's typology, was associated with
higher income in these engineers.

There are many questions still to be answered about the subjects
of study in vocational investigations. According to a study of age and
performance in engineers conducted by Dalton et a1. (1982), performance
ratings began to show a negative correlation with age after the mid-
30's, suggesting various time-sensitive barriers to maintenance of work
interest and enthusiasm for career promotion. In a related vein, Hall
wondered what accounted for some workers remaining in a "continual
learning or exploratory mode" regardless of age, and suggested further
research on ”trigger events and influences that stimulate various types
of changes" in one's career (1986, p. 125). Schein (1986), noting an

ongoing need to better understand the working population, encouraged the

22
continued application of descriptive studies in the efforts to refine
career theory.

Also, authors suggest that terms should be carefully defined.
Arthur defined the individual career as "the evolving sequence of a
person's work experiences over time (1984, p. 4). Schein (1971, cited
in Dalton et al., 1984) provided an organizational or external
definition of career: ”the set of expectations held by individuals
inside the organization which guide their decisions about who to move,
when, how, and at what speed" (p. 149). These views converge less than
they diverge. Schein's definition emphasizes the concept of job
mobility, and is focused on the organization's needs for talent. By
contrast, the individual definition (and others like it) implies
planning, self-direction, and a developmental aspect to work
experiences. Differing implications such as these must be made explicit
in any treatment of career-related behavior, as Collin and Young (1986)
advised. Further, Hall and Lerner (1980) encouraged researchers to
incorporate both individual and organizational perspectives of career
into their inquiry.

Emairisal_§£udies. A number of empirical studies of career
phenomena based in Holland's and Bandura's theories also provide
important guidance for the proposed study. Studies of congruence with
working adults and retired populations show mixed results on outcomes
such as job satisfaction, achievement, and stability. Measured
congruence in five code types was signficantly related to job
satisfaction for a variety of occupations (Hener & Meir, 1981; Meir,

Melamed, & Abu-Freha, 1990; Mount & Muchinsky, 1978; Wiggins, 1984;

23
Wiggins, Lederer, Salkowe, & Rys, 1983). For all codes but
Conventional, congruence was related to longest fullftime job in a
retrospective study of retirees (Warren, Winer, & Dailey, 1981). But
high levels of congruence were not associated with achievement as
measured by accountants' salary level (Schwartz, Andiappan, & Nelson,
1986). Heesacker et a1. (1988) found no relationship between congruence
and job satisfaction in female factory workers. Weiner and Klein (1978)
found a significant relationship between congruence and job satisfaction
for managers with long tenure, but not for those with short tenure. And
congruence may inadequately encompass the complex person-environment
relationships that have been found in many contemporary work settings,
with diverse task forces and work teams operating outside normal work-
group boundaries, and many employees working at home or at satellite
work sites with few or no direct colleagues nearby (”Staying Away in
Droves", 1987).

So far, there have been only a few empirical studies of self-
efficacy with working adults. Self-efficacy in research and service
tasks was studied in university faculty, and causal models were designed
to identify significant antecedents (Landino & Owen, 1988). Another
construct-testing study was conducted with male and female academics
(Schoen & Winocur, 1988). They found that self-efficacy strength, a
theoretically proposed dimension, varies with faculty rank and sex. Job
search self-efficacy was found to be related to re-employment in
hospital workers following layoff (Kanfer & Hulin, 1985).

The ability of sales-related self-efficacy beliefs to predict work

performance in a group of insurance salesmen was studied by Barling and

24

Beattie (1983). Self-efficacy beliefs, separate from education level
and tenure with the employer, accounted for small but significant
amounts of variance in performance indicators such as sales volume and
number of sales calls completed. An experimental program to increase
self-regulated job attendance with blue-collar workers showed
significantly higher levels of perceived self-efficacy in the treatment
group over a group of controls (Frayne & Latham, 1987). Coping with the
stress of an employment interview was found to be positively related
with job interview efficacy beliefs (Stumpf, Brief, & Hartman, 1987).
Jones (1986) found that job self-efficacy predicted job satisfaction and
intention to quit in newly-hired professionals. Workers facing
retirement reported lower anxiety about that transition when retirement
self-efficacy was strong (Fretz, Kluge, Ossana, Jones, & Merikangas,
1989). In a descriptive study, Hackett, Betz, and Doty (1985)
contributed an annotated listing of career competencies of professional
women which could be used in future tests of the career self-efficacy
construct and its effects on career behavior. Self-efficacy beliefs
related specifically to managing one's career over time have had little,
if any, attention up until now.

Other studies of Holland's congruence construct and its relation
to job or career satisfaction with working adults are available (e.g.,
Adler & Aranya, 1984; Aranya, Barak, & Amernic, 1981; Elton & Smart,
1988; Feldman & Meir, 1976; Heesacker et al., 1988; Meir, Keinan, &
Segal, 1986; Meir & Yaari, 1988; Peiser & Meir, 1978; Smart, Elton, &
McLaughlin, 1986; Swaney & Prediger, 1985). Because of different

operational definitions of the dependent variable--job or career

25
satisfaction--these studies cannot all be compared directly. The only
common operationalization used in more than one of these studies was a
one-item self-report measure of satisfaction: a variant of the

question, "How satisfied are you with your vocational choice?"

Jobs were most often classified using the Drerreeery_ef_flelleeg
Qeeeperrenel_gegee (Gottfredson, Holland, & Ogawa, 1982); person type
was determined by measures including the Self;pireeree_Seereh_(Holland,
1985), the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (Hansen, 1985), other
interest inventories, and self-report measures of job fit. Correlations
between congruence and satisfaction ranged from "trivial” (Aranya et
al., 1987) to .77 (Meir et al., 1986). Additionally, Conventional and
Enterprising subjects (often the type codes of engineers and managers)
showed lower congruence-satisfaction relationships than the other four
types (Feldman & Meir, 1976), and older Conventional subjects showed
significantly lower levels of satisfaction, regardless of congruence,
than younger subjects (Adler & Aranya, 1984).

This brief review finds results comparable to those of Spokane's
(1985) extensive study: he found that, of 40 congruence-satisfaction
correlational studies, "20% found no significant relationship, 42% found
mostly positive results, and 38% had mixed findings" (p. 328). In the
majority of these studies, person-job congruence was measured by first-
letter agreement between subject and job code type; further, no one
congruence index was consistently associated with greater predictive
power. Spokane encouraged researchers to use uniform methods of
determining congruence, and to use standardized satisfaction measures

with high construct validity and reliability. He also warned of low

26
incongruence base rates and the limitations of one-time-point designs in
capturing significant relationships. The need for continuing refinement
of congruence measurement, especially with working populations, was
emphasized.

Tests of self-efficacy in related career domains are fairly
limited in number, as mentioned above. Reviews by Lent and Hackett
(1987), Slaney and Russell (1987), and Phillips et al. (1988) cite
important efforts at defining career self-efficacy and correlating it
with its theoretically-predicted outcomes. The situational nature of
self-efficacy requires that unique measures be constructed for specific
arenas; academic performance and persistence have been studied by
several researchers to date (e.g., Campbell & Hackett, 1986; Hackett &
Betz, 1981; Lent, Brown, & Larkin, 1986, 1987). Rotberg, Brown, and
Ware (1987) and Nevill and Schlecker (1988) studied self-efficacy for
choosing career options in college students. In workplace settings,
researchers have studied self-efficacy percepts related to strategies
for task completion (Locke, Frederick, Lee, & Bobko, 1984); re-
employment after layoff (Kanfer & Hulin, 1985); employee attendance
(Frayne & Lathan, 1987); and newcomers' adjustment and intentiOn to stay
in the organization (Jones, 1986). Self-efficacy measures follow a
fairly standard format in these studies: statements of ability to
complete domain-specific activities were rated on a scale ranging from
”not at all confident" to “very confident" in demonstrating successful
performance. Test-retest reliabilities over periods of one to eight
weeks ranged from .60 to .94. School-related outcomes with which self-

efficacy was correlated included mathematics task performance, academic

27
grades, range of perceived career options, and persistence in chosen
undergraduate field. Outcomes in work settings included task
performance, finding new jobs after layoff, independent adjustment to a
new work setting, and intention to quit. A pattern of correlation (and
in some instances prediction) between high self-efficacy and successful
outcome in the theory-predicted direction has been established. The
investigators attempted to limit the self-efficacy construct to
particular tasks or domains, in an effort to conceptually limit the
phenomenon measured and to isolate significant effects.

A recent review of the status of self-efficacy research in many
domains (Lent & Hackett, 1987) defines career self—efficacy as
"judgements of personal efficacy in relation to the wide range of
behavior involved in career choice and adjustment”. The inclusive
nature of this definition reflects the bundling together of career
preparation, academic performance, and on-the-job behaviors in one
domain-specific construct. It may be that this burden is too great for
one concept to bear. The existence of a career competencies taxonomy
for professional women (Hackett et al., 1985) demonstrates that outcome
behaviors for workers are greatly different than those used in
investigations with students. It is also possible that career self-
efficacy in employed adults is less sensitive to change over time than
it is in students, given the increased number of consistent life
experiences and accumulating history that characterize the world of
work. (This hypothesis contributed to the development of a novel career
management self-efficacy measure for the present study, described in the

next chapter.)

28

Lent and Hackett concluded:

On balance, this research literature is promising but still in its

formative stages, and a great deal of work remains to be done in

clarifying the explanatory and predictive potential of self-
efficacy in the career domain. Research demonstrating causal
links between self-efficacy and career behavior have been
especially sparse to this point: further inquiry on this question
is needed before definitive conclusions can be reached regarding

the reciprocal impact of self-efficacy and career behavior. (p.

17)

They also recommended that self-efficacy's contribution to career-
relevant outcomes be empirically separated from outcome expectations, as
Bandura (1986) has also suggested. Major challenges face investigators
working on this relatively new line of research; the career-related
study proposed here will attempt to make a useful contribution to
further understanding of this brand of self-efficacy.

The literature reviewed above provides a reasonable basis for
conducting a descriptive and predictive study of the two theoretical
constructs with respect to important demographic and environmental
variables. The need for a greater understanding of the attitudinal
factors related to job persistence is often cited. Many writers have
urged that data be collected in hene_fi1ge work environments, and that
further descriptive work is needed to clarify our understanding of such
constructs before proceeding to full-scale causal investigations.
Hopefully, this study's results will contribute to more sophisticated
hypotheses and conclusions about the conditions under which high
congruence and career self-efficacy coexist with their predicted

desirable outcomes, furthering the well-being of worker and organization

alike.

CHAPTER III

STUDY METHODS

Participants

Subjects for the study were solicited at two U.S. government
agencies located in a midwestern city. At Site A, data were collected
from_64 subjects. Positions held included engineer, chemist, manager,
and executive. The mean age range at Site A was 30-39 years (an equal
number of subjects fell into the 30-34 and 35-39 ranges; exact ages were
not requested in order to protect anonymity). Subjects reported the
number of years in their current job, in their present organization, and
in the workforce as a full-time worker. The means for Site A were: job
tenure, 4.9 years; organizational tenure, 9.5 years; workforce tenure,
12.5 years. There were 47 males and 17 females, and 1 subject reporting
ethnic minority status. Sixty-four per cent reported dual-career
status, that is, having a partner whose career decisions affected and
were affected by the subject's career. Education levels were: 10%
post-high school, 31% undergraduate degree, 59% graduate courses or
graduate degree.

One hundred and four subjects participated at Site B. Positions
at this worksite included staff nurse, research nurse, clinical
specialist, manager, and executive. The mean age range was 40-44 years.
Tenure means were: job tenure, 5.7 years; organizational tenure, 10.9
years; workforce tenure, 17.4 years. There were 93 females and 11
males, and two subjects reporting ethnic minority status. Fifty-nine

per cent reported dual-career status. Education levels were: 21%

29

30

post-high school, 48% undergraduate degree, and 31% graduate courses or
graduate degree. The total number of subjects was 168; Ns are less for

some analyses because of missing data.

Procedure

At both worksites, a detailed presentation of research goals and
organizational benefits was provided to relevant executives. (See
Appendix A for an outline of this presentation.) Privacy and anonymity
safeguards were designed and agreed upon, necessitating a change in the
research protocol. Specifically, archival data from subjects' personnel
files was not made available, so all data on career success events had
to be based on self-report. Other data collection procedures, and
methods of feedback to individuals and to the organization, were

arranged at each worksite.

5.1m

The human resources director and relevant executives hoped the
study would shed light on the continuing high job turnover among their
junior professionals. Exit interviews often revealed low job
satisfaction, which had not often been expressed during employees'
tenure. Executives agreed to support the study by providing work time
for survey completion, and by not attending the on-site meetings, to
avoid seeing who participated. A memorandum was sent via internal mail
to all scientific, engineering, and management employees (one hundred
sixteen), describing the study goals and inviting them to attend an on-

site informational meeting (See Appendix B). Forty-six attended, and

31
heard a short presentation about the study (see Appendix C for an
outline). All present remained to complete the surveys. Seventy
packets were mailed to those not at the meeting, and one reminder memo
with packet was mailed to nonresponders. Packets were returned to the
human resources office, labeled only with subject I.D. numbers. A total
of 64 usable packets was obtained, for a response rate of 55%. Five
months later, all 64 subjects completed the three novel measures a
second time at an on-site meeting or through the mail. One reminder
memo was mailed to non-responders. All subjects were invited to attend
a group meeting to learn of the aggregate results and to receive a
confidential listing of their individual results. These meetings were
attended by over two-thirds of the participants, and engendered lively
discussion about the findings and potential interpretations. A final

report was provided (see Appendix D).

Site S

Study approval was given by the director of nursing education, the
director of research, and the chief of the nursing service. These
executives wished to learn more about the work-related attitudes of
their professional staff. No personal contact was made with potential
subjects. A cover memo signed by the executives was prepared, and
attached to survey packets with a study description and instructions for
completion (see Appendix E). They were sent via internal mail to 265
employees on three work shifts. Completed packets, labeled with I.D.
numbers only, were returned via internal mail to the investigator's

office. Two follow-up reminders were sent. One-hundred four subjects

32
(39%) returned usable packets. Response percentages ranged from 50% to
75% among managers, research nurses, and clinical specialists working
with outpatients. Lower response percentages occurred in direct patient
care settings: intensive care units, operating rooms, and nursing
floors. A measure of incumbents' job similarity to the six Holland code
types was administered later to 104 subjects via mail; 44 usable surveys
were returned after two mailings. Sixteen subjects (15%) requested
feedback of their individual results; this was provided by mail. A

final report was presented (see Appendix F).

0t t

Infiermee_geneenr Subjects were advised of the nature of the
study, of their participation, and of the privacy/confidentiality
safeguards. The consent form used at both sites appears in Appendix G.

v c t d . In advance of initiation

of the study, all proposed methods and procedures were reviewed and
approved by the MSU Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects
(UCRIHS). Subject selection was done by job title; all employees in the
selected positions were invited to participate. A mailing list of
subject names was created, and subject identification codes assigned.
These lists were in the sole possession of the investigator. Survey
packets were identified by subject I.D. only. Participants were not
required to inform their immediate supervisors of the nature of the
study. The investigator's telephone number and address were provided in

case subjects had questions about the study.

33
Heiiaed code aesignment. Position descriptions for subjects' job
titles were obtained from the respective personnel offices, and were
matched with job descriptions in the Dierioeery ef chueerienai Iitles
(DOT). Those titles were then located in the Dictionary of Holiand

Qeegperienei_gegee (Gottfredson et al., 1982). This procedure yielded

the DHOC-designated Holland codes for all positions. See Table 3.1 for

a listing of job titles and Holland codes.

Table 3.1. Positions ane DHOC Ceges

 

REI supervisory chemist, supervisory mechanical engineer, supervisory
mechanical engineering technician, supervisory environmental
protection specialist, supervisory environmental scientist

IER supervisory general engineer, general engineer, environmental
engineer

IRE environmental protection specialist, mechanical engineer, chemical
engineer, environmental scientist

SIE staff nurse, head nurse

SEI nursing supervisor, clinical coordinator

SEC clinical specialist, research nurse

SCI nursing instructor

 

Here. R - realistic; I - investigative; A - artistic; S - social; E -

enterprising; C - conventional

34
Instruments
D o 0 n c e

To obtain measures of organizational opportunity, career success,
and career self-efficacy, three novel scales were constructed for this
study. For a post-hoc data collection, a fourth scale was designed.
Construction of these scales was undertaken following principles
outlined by Dawis (1987) and Anastasi (1982).

Scale Features. All new scales were designed to yield interval
data. Answers are in the form of numbers, representing concepts such as
"a few times”, "very difficult", and "complete confidence". Except for
the job description scale, all scales are subject-centered (Dawis,
1987); that is, responses represent individual characteristics on the
dimension of interest. This scale is also termed an individual
differences scale. The job description scale is stimulus-centered
(Dawis, 1987); the response format is a ranking of descriptive
statements in relation to each other.

Perceived Opportunity Scale and Career Success Scale.
Construction of the perceived opportunity scale and the career success
scale was aimed at gathering confirmable data, such as how often the
subject has applied for transfer or promotion in the current
organization, and how frequently the subject has received a higher than
average salary increase. It had originally been planned to check
perceived opportunity and career success results against archival data
in personnel records. This process would have yielded a measure of
construct validity (and, incidentally, a test of self-report accuracy).

It was impossible to obtain permission for this, so no traditional

35
construct validity comparison is available for these two scales. This
should not seriously compromise the usefulness of these scales in an
exploratory study, since they do not purport to measure abstract
psychological concepts.

Job Description Scale. This scale contains descriptions of
Holland's six work environments, with minor grammatical changes, taken
directly from his recent theory statement (Holland, 1985c, pp. 36-40).
Its construct validity should be similar to that of the constructs
themselves, which has been amply reported (Holland, 1985b, 1985c; see
below, yeeerienel_£re£erenee_lnyenrery). One way to check its validity
was to compare congruence scores based on VPI-JDS comparisons to the
congruence scores produced by the other two techniques--DHOC and EAT.
This was done in a three by three correlation matrix as a post-hoe
analysis.

Career self-efficacy scale. Dawis (1987) advises that a new scale
be designed with an eye to

”some theory of the scale that includes a well-articulated

definition of the psychological variable to be

measured...Definition includes distinctions (what the variable is
and is not), dependencies (how the variable is a function of more
basic or previously defined terms) and relations (how the variable

is related to other variables)." (p. 481)

This admonition was taken into account in the design and construction of
the career self-efficacy scale. Significant design effort was applied
to the scale content (see below for further discussion). Dawis also
provides guidance on issues of scale format: he recommends care in

representing variables, considering the nature of respondents and

administration conditions, and planning for analyses. Specific content

36
and format issues are addressed below. Some general issues that were
considered in designing the career self-efficacy scale, related to
Dawis' suggestions, are described here.

As noted in Chapter One, self-efficacy encompasses judgments about
personal ability, situational demands, and action required. It makes
allowance for, but does not represent, actual skills and knowledge. It
does not include outcome expectations or self-esteem; these constructs
have been shown to be distinct from self-efficacy (Lent & Hackett,
1987). As Bandura (1986) has defined it, self-efficacy is a function of
reciprocal input of information from the situation and the individual.
Important antecedents, according to theoretical formulations, include
prior personal experiences and observation of others in the domain. In
this study, it was expected that career management self-efficacy would
be correlated with measures of these two antecedents (career success and
perceived opportunity, respectively). Further, it was not expected that
self-efficacy would be related to job-person congruence. In view of
these hypotheses, self-efficacy scale items were designed for maximum
face validity. That is, the items attempt to capture personal judgments
about specific capabilities in the job/career domain, and minimize
references to antecedent constructs.

It is well demonstrated that career choice self-efficacy is
related to college major choice (Hackett & Betz, 1981; Lent et al.,
1986; Lent & Hackett, 1987) and career entry behaviors (Betz & Hackett,
1986; Hackett & Betz, 1981), but less is known about its relation to
other variables germane to organizational settings. As mentioned in

Chapter One, career self-efficacy varied according to seniority and sex

37
(Schoen & Winocur, 1988) and state anxiety (Fretz et al., 1989).
Investigating the relation of career self-efficacy, as operationalized
in this study, to other variables was deliberately planned. Using an
original scale for a key theoretical construct necessarily lent an
exploratory feature to the present study.

Dawis also discusses the choice between homogeneous and
heterogeneous item content. If items are similar, the variability in
the scale should reflect differences among respondents. With dissimilar
items, there may be an important item effect. In the self-efficacy
scale, the aim was to create a homogeneous group of items, to maintain
construct consistency and to maximize subject variability. An
exploratory factor analysis was completed on this scale. These results,
presented below in Chapter Four, address the item homogeneity issue and
can assist in determining the usefulness of this scale for future
investigations.

The response format of the self-efficacy scale is ten rating
points, anchored by ”no confidence” to ”complete confidence". This
format is recommended by Dawis for its potential to capture individual
' differences. He also notes that, for investigators' convenience,
categories of responses can be reduced after data are collected, but a

spread of ten points cannot be later created out of five.

MW

1. Demographic and dual-career information was gathered by items
modified from a survey used by Pond and Geyer (1987). The demographic

items include age range, sex, education level, ethnic status, job title,

38
and tenure in the workforce. Dual-career status is defined as "having a
life partner whose career decisions affect you, and who is affected by
your career decisions". These items, contained in the General

W1. appear in Appendix H-

2. Perceived Opportunity. Five items, contained in the Perceived
Qeeerreniry_Seryey, captured subjects' perceptions of their potential
for applying for and successfully moving to new positions in their
current organization. Included are perceptions of mobility based on the
subject's educational level, age, sex, ethnic status, and dual-career
status. The five-point scale is anchored by 0 - ”very difficult” and 4
- "very easy". Values are summed and divided by 5. (Originally, the
research design included an independent review of personnel files to
determine subjects' actual mobility; but this was later deleted.) See
Appendix I.

3. Career management self-efficacy. In a review of the
literature, no suitable career management self-efficacy measure for non-
faculty adults was located. Following Bandura's (1986) recommendations,
a scale was designed to tap subjects' cognitions about their ability to
perform specific career-related tasks. The thirty items included
statements about job performance, organizational demands, professional
development, and career and life planning. These four categories
directly address all but one career competency (adaptive cognitive
strategies) proposed by Hackett et a1. (1985) in their career taxonomy.
The competency areas included here are: communication skills,
interpersonal skills, political skills, organizational skills, general

career planning and management skills, career advancement skills, and

39
job-specific skills. It was thought that the act of measuring subjects'
self-percepts in these areas would tap their cognitive strategies in the
career domain, therefore incorporating adaptive cognitive strategies in
the process of scale administration.

Examples of items are: "Perform with excellence in my current
job”; "Understand myself and my career plans"; "Communicate my ideas
effectively to others at work"; "Deal appropriately with hostile
subordinates and/or colleagues". Items were scored on a 0-9 scale,
anchored by "Cannot do this task" (0) and "Certain I can do this task"
(9). One score was computed--the mean of all item responses, ranging
from 0 to 9. Higher scores indicate higher career self-efficacy.

The 0-9 response scale is identical to several other self-efficacy
measures reported in the literature (Campbell & Hackett, 1986; Schoen &
Winocur, 1988). It should be noted that a review of response scales for
self-efficacy measures discovered scale point ranges of 5, 7, 9, 10, and
100, with numbers of items varying from 3 to 78 (Campbell & Hackett,
1986; Frayne & Latham, 1987; Hill, Smith, & Mann, 1987; Lent et al.,
1986, 1987; Schoen & Winocur, 1988; Stumpf, Brief, & Hartman, 1987).

The 0-9 scale offers subjects a wide range of choices in level of
confidence, and was selected with an eye toward ensuring variability of
responses.

There seems to be no emerging standard in the self-efficacy
literature for number of items per scale. Lent and Hackett (1987)
discuss psychometric properties of self-efficacy scales without mention
of this issue. They address it indirectly in their treatment of

construct validity, calling for a "moderate” level of task specificity

40
in measuring the construct (p. 366) and recommending that investigators
strive for validity by tapping specific, domain-related behaviors, and
avoiding high correlations with measures of similar constructs such as
career maturity. On a related topic, they suggest that internal
consistency reliability is the major property of interest in self-
efficacy scales, and that test-retest reliabilities over time might be
low, since domain-specific behaviors may change quickly. (With adults,
however, career self-efficacy beliefs may be rooted in a broad range of
relevant work experiences and thus may exhibit greater stability over
time.)

An attempt was made to incorporate tasks of intermediate
specificity. To achieve this mix, thirty items were written, covering
tasks related to job performance, organizational expectations,
professional development, and career and life planning. Examples of
skills likely to comprise some of these tasks can be found in the career
competencies taxonomy of Hackett et al. (1985). Items were designed
with variability in presumed difficulty level. This reflects Bandura's
(1986) recommendation that self-efficacy be operationalized as judgments
of actions that are attainable by some persons, avoiding the extremes of
very difficult and very easy tasks. See Appendix J.

Self-efficacy scores were submitted a a principal components
analysis with oblique rotation. This analysis was selected because of
its appropriateness for exploratory tests (Tinsley & Tinsley, 1987), and
because it does not require orthogonality of factors. the principal
components technique analyzes all types of variance between and among

scores, and reduces as much error variance as possible. Scale means

41
were substituted for missing values. The initial communality estimates
were squared multiple correlation coefficients.

On the first analysis, the oblique rotation failed to converge in
25 iterations. After this attempt, it was decided to compute a varimax
rotation, and this analysis converged in 25 iterations.

4. Job Satisfaction. This measure, similar to one used in Pond
and Geyer (1987), is a more faithful modification of the original scale
(Quinn & Shepard, 1974) than Pond and Geyer's version. It contains in
written form five questions from the original verbal interview protocol.
These items are meant to measure "facet-free job satisfaction", defined
by Quinn and Shepard as "a worker's general affective reaction to the
job without reference to any specific job facets” (1974, p. 50). Items
are answered using a response scale from one to five. Item responses
are summed to produce a total score, with higher scores denoting greater
satisfaction. The sole modification (aside from wording changes needed
for written administration) is the addition of the word "qualified" in
item 2. See Appendix K for a copy of this measure.

Quinn and Shepard (1974) reported summary statistics on this
scale. With a diverse population of 2027 working adults, the internal
consistency reliability was .72 (unchanged between administrations in
1969 and 1973); the mean was 3.79, standard deviation 1.00. Pond and
Geyer (1987), using six items with 226 employees, reported a coefficient
alpha of .90, mean of 3.49, and SD of .86.

Support for the validity of their job satisfaction measure is
given by Quinn and Shepard. Items were based on

"previous factor analytic studies of job satisfaction and the
response categories previously used to code an open-ended

42

interview question dealing with attributes of an 'ideal'
occupation" (1974, p. 51).

They attempted to avoid what they perceived as historical problems in
measuring job satisfaction: references to specific occupations or work
environments, complicated language, and time-consuming administration.
For the complete measure, they categorized factors of job satisfaction
found in the extant literature in the following manner: promotional
opportunities, content of job, supervision, financial rewards, working
conditions, co-workers, and resources to perform job. These were
incorporated into "facet-specific" items. Comment on the validity of
the five facet-free items is brief:

“These five questions were not new, for they had, with various

modifications, been used in many previous studies. Their precise

origins are lost in antiquity." (p. 52)

It was decided to use only the facet-free items for the current study,
since the seven specific factors mentioned above might contribute
nuisance variance across sites.

The decision was made not to use the well-known and
psychometrically sound geh_peeerieriye_lnger (Smith, Kendall & Hulin,
1969) to measure job satisfaction. Although the SDI is a good choice
for many investigations, its negative scoring of characteristics
associated with Conventional work environments may make it
unsatisfactory for use in a study of congruence (Mount & Muchinsky,
1978). Subjects with conventional job tasks would necessarily appear

dissatisfied, even if their values and abilities were highly congruent

with their responsibilities.

43

5. Career Success. Career success items tap perceived overall
career success, and presence and frequency of specific on-the-job
success-related indicators. These indicators include above-average
performance rating and salary increase; earlier than expected promotion;
high-visibility job assignment; spontaneous praise from manager; and
receiving financial support for professional development. Originally,
an independent review of subjects' personnel files to corroborate this
self-report measure was planned. This plan was not approved by the
participating sites.

Other objective measures of career success used in recent studies
include salary level (Schwartz et al., 1986) and management level
(Forbes, 1987). These were thought to be too limited in their
definition. A self-report measure of career success was used by Childs
and Klimoski (1986); it covered factors such as career identification,
career progression, budget responsibilities, and an objective measure of
occupational prestige. This is an interesting composite measure, and it
provides some justification for designing a global index of career
success. However, Childs and Klimoski's measure shows an evident bias
toward managerial tasks, which would put professionals outside
supervisory roles at a disadvantage. Responses to career success items
are summed to produce a total score, with higher scores indicating
greater success. See Appendix L.

6. Vocational Preference. Individual Holland codes were
determined using the 221, a research instrument with eleven scales: the
six Holland personality types, three trait scales, and two response

scales--infrequency and acquiescence. It consists of 160 occupational

44
titles; respondents answer "yes" if the occupation interests or appeals
to them, and "no" if the occupation is uninteresting or unappealing. No
answer is given if the respondent is unsure. The eighth revision
(Holland, 1985b) includes four item changes and wording revisions,
largely to improve gender neutrality. Reported equivalency coefficients
between the seventh and eighth revisions are .89 to .96 for males (np60)

and .93 to .97 for females (n-89). The 221 is one of several measures

which yields Holland code types; others include The Self-Directee Seerch
(Holland. 19858) and the WWW (Hansen.
1985).

Seventh revision internal consistency statistics (KR 20) range
from .85 to .91 for males (n's - 171-192) and .86 to .91 for females
(n's - 161-187). Sixth revision test-retest reliability for the type
scales is reported for two groups: 26 college freshmen at a one-year
interval, .61 to .86; 636 male and female high school seniors at a four-
year interval, .45 to .61. Split-half reliability for the type scales
is reported also: 108 employed adult males, .28 to .86; 328 employed
adult females, .72 to .89; 12,860 male and female college students, .64
to .89.

Holland (1985b) cites much research showing that 121 content is an
acceptable operationalization of personality type. He states that the
choice of an occupation is an expression of personality; that people
perceive occupations in stereotyped ways; and that the choice of a
favored occupation is a measure of an individual's insight and
understanding. Concurrent validity tests show moderate to good

discrimination between groups, including satisfied and unsatisfied

45
workers, graduate students' major fields, and high school students'
career goals. Predictive tests are not as strong; vocational preference
showed only a 35% to 60% accuracy in predicting students' choice of
major and occupation over a two-year period (Holland, 1985b).

Results of construct validity studies on the personality scales
are mixed. There is a moderate relationship to Strong-Campbell scales
and to scales of the Keger_Qeeeeeriene1_lnrereer_Seryey (Kuder, 1974).
The 221 scales are weakly to moderately related to scales of the
W. WW2
Scale. MW. and the W
Tnyegrery (Holland, 1985b).

For the current study, the 221 offered several benefits. It can
be administered quickly and easily; directions are simple; manual
scoring is very fast; and it avoids the self-scoring errors of The_Self;
DireereQ_Seereh, which occur in up to 60% of administrations (J. C.
Hansen, personal communication, May, 1987). Also, it generates little
data beyond the personality codes, so subjects are not as likely to
request extensive feedback on the results as with other measures. After
a review of the statistical properties of the instrument, and‘
consideration of administration factors, it was decided to use the 221
to obtain three-letter Holland type codes for individual subjects. The
221 appears in Appendix M.

7. Job Description. Subjects ranked descriptions of the six
Holland job types (Holland, 1985c, pp. 36-40) in order of similarity to
their own work environment. This was undertaken as a post-hoe

exploration of the congruence-job satisfaction relationship, which was

46
originally significantly negative. Holland states that thorough
descriptions of work environments should incorporate many pieces of
data, including "the person's perception of his or her environment"
(1985c, p. 36). This was an attempt to capture that perception. Since
it was administered only once, there was no opportunity to test its
reliability. See Appendix N.

Joe-persen cengruence. This variable is the computed product of
two variables mentioned above: vocational preference results and the
assignment of Holland codes to all job descriptions. Three-letter codes
for jobs were obtained from organizational job descriptions and from the
Dierienery_ef_Hellene_Qeeeeeriegel_Qegee (Gottfredson, Holland, & Ogawa,
1982) as described above; codes for subjects were obtained from
individual vocational preferences. There are many congruence
calculation techniques in use, with the number of congruence levels
ranging from 2 to over 14,000 (Spokane, 1985). (Clearly, level of
congruence is an artifact of empirical studies, computed for
investigators' convenience. The construct as Holland describes it
appears to be a continuous variable.) The agreement index of Wolfe and
Betz (1981), using three levels, was selected for this study.‘ They
compared occupational and personality codes in the following manner:

Subjects whose personality and occupational choice codes were

exactly alike, had the same first two letters in the same order,

or had the same three letters but in different order were
designated congruent. Subjects whose codes had the same first
letter or had the first two letters of one code contained in any
order in the second code were designated as partially congruent.

All other subjects were designated as incongruent. (p. 47)

There were three reasons for using this index of congruence.

First, a fair amount of variation was possible with this index system,

47
more so than with only two congruence levels (the choice of the majority
of investigators). Second, the Qictionery er Holland Occunational Codes
noted that first-letter code types for engineers vary across studies
from I to R, even in the same engineering specialty (Gottfredson et al.,
1982). With such predictable variation, it was considered unwise to use
a two-level computation scheme which would reduce variability and
depress congruence levels. Third, the risk of restricting some
variation on this important variable, by using only three levels, seemed
a reasonable tradeoff in view of the labor required to compute

congruence on a large subject sample.

Analyses

Relieniliry. Cronbach interitem consistency and Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficients were obtained on perceived opportunity
career self-efficacy, and career success. Correlation coefficients were
computed on data gathered at two time points, to provide a measure of
test-retest reliability. Interitem consistency reliability on the three
original scales was also performed with data from Site B. This is
recommended by Dawis (1987) since scale performance is affected not only
by item content but also by samples of respondents.

Descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, range, and standard deviation)
were computed on the job satisfaction scores to compare sample to
published norms.

ErnTererery_reerer_enelyeie. A factor analysis was performed on
career self-efficacy results. First, Bartlett's test of significance

was completed. Then an exploratory principal components analysis was

48

performed. Squared multiple correlations were used as the initial
communality estimates, and the estimates were iterated. A varimax
rotation was performed on all factors satisfying Kaiser's criterion.

Congruence. Congruence was originally computed using subjects'
job descriptions, DHQQ codes, and vocational preferences. Person-job
congruence scores (full congruence, partial congruence, noncongruence)
were then computed using job and person data. Values of 3, 2, and l
were assigned to full, partial, or noncongruence respectively, using the
agreement index of Wolfe and Betz (1981).

A second computation of congruence was also done, using the
Environmental Assessment Technique (EAT) (Holland, 1985b, p. 40-41).
EAT scoring is calculated by assessing the vocational preferences of
every worker, computing frequencies of first-letter codes, and finding a
modal three- or six-letter code for the work setting. This method uses
no job codes: it compares each subject's code to the modal subject code
in the work setting. Congruence is then computed in the same manner as
described above. The rationale for this technique holds that individual
characteristics (values, interests, attitudes) produce a work
environment reflecting the personalities of the incumbents. Holland
recommends its use when the raw congruence data are suspected to be
incomplete.

A third computation of congruence was completed with 44 subjects'
data. Incumbents coded their own jobs, using the job description scale;
these were compared with individual codes to yield a third set of

congruence scores. A three by three correlation matrix (N - 44) was

49
computed to explore the degree of similarity among the three computation
procedures (DHOC, EAT, and individual ranking).

Because only 44 of the original 168 subjects had three separate
congruence scores, congruence based on the individual ranking method
could not be used in overall analyses. It was therefore necessary to
select one congruence score from the two remaining procedures. The EAT
method was chosen over the DHOC method. This was done because Holland
(1985b) recommends using an environmental typing method that
incorporates as much information as possible. It was decided that,
since there was so much disparity between the modal person code (at both
sites) and DHOC codes, it was a better risk to ignore the questionable
job description data and accept Holland's hypothesis that person type
contributes importantly to the characteristics of the work environment.
A second rationale for this decision is the potential for error in the
present page - _QT system: that is, many positions (such as engineer
and staff nurse) are assigned codes without regard for important
features such as job setting. This might contribute to a classification
method too gross for the level of detail needed in such computations.

t d a. Descriptive statistics were
generated on all variables, and zero-order correlations among all
variables were completed. These analyses were done on data from
individual sites, and on the aggregate data. A plot of residuals and a
distribution histogram were created for the criterion variable. One
variable (ethnic status) was deleted from further analysis because of

its low frequency.

50

Aggregereg_gere. Combined data were entered in a multiple
hierarchical regression analysis with job satisfaction as the criterion
variable. After all other predictors were entered, site did not
contribute significant variability. As a result, data were collapsed
across sites for the remainder of the analyses.

ear“ hec . Correlated predictor variables were
examined to check for multicollinearity. The variables of interest were:
dareer self-efficacy, workforce tenure, career success, organizational
mobility, age, sex, and education level. Following Lewis-Beck (1980),
each variable was regressed on a combination of all other variables, to
show that "none of the independent variables is perfectly correlated
with another independent variable or linear combination of other
independent variables" (p. 60). If any of the multiple correlation
coefficients were close to 1.0, high multicollinearity would exist and
the regression results could be compromised.

Mnlrinle_regre§§ien. Several assumptions for regression
inferences were examined (Weiss & Hassett, 1982; Lewis-Beck, 1983).
First, the assumption that the X-Y relationship is linear was examined.
This regression line assumption was checked by visually examining the
cluster of data points in scatterplots of variable pairs. No gross
violations of linearity were observed. The next assumption was that
the variances of Y-values are constant for all values of X. This
assumption of homoscedasticity was checked by observing the
configuration of data points for unequal scatter around an imaginary
regression line. Attenuated or expanded scatter distributions at one

end of the regression line would challenge this assumption. Third, the

51
independent variable should be uncorrelated with error; this was checked
by observing the correlation table for significant relationships between
demographic variables and job satisfaction. Variables such as sex, age,
and education level can sometimes contribute systematic variation not
related to the theoretical predictors under study. Fourth, perfect
multicollinearity between predictor variables must not obtain. This
condition occurs when there is a near-perfect correlation between two
predictor variables, or between one variable and a combination of other
variables. This condition is discernible when each variable is
regressed on a combination of the other predictor variables. Simply
checking for high intercorrelations between variables may not be
sufficient (Lewis-Beck, 1983).

Other important conditions, some less easy to demonstrate, were
also considered in the study design. Specification error should be
minimized; that is, no relevant predictors should be excluded, and no
irrelevant predictors should be included. The review of theoretical
formulations and the trimming of the regression model were attempts at
meeting these two conditions. Measurement error should be avoided
through accurate instrumentation and techniques of data collection. The
qualities of the scales--reliability, validity, and factor structure--
and concern about privacy/confidentiality and method of administration
contributed to avoidance of measurement error. Finally, the error term
is assumed to be normally distributed. This assumption can be checked
by observing the distribution of Y for normality. (The distributions of

Y and e [error] are the same.)

 

52
Multiple regression on the combined data was performed, with job
satisfaction as the criterion. Predictors were entered in three blocks:
demographic (age, sex, education level, dual-career status); antecedent
(career success, workforce tenure, and organizational opportunity); and
finally theoretical (career self-efficacy and congruence). This order
assured a conservative test of the theoretical predictors, allowing

other potential predictors to explain as much variance as possible.

Post-hoe Analyses

gengrnenee. The failure of congruence to impact job satisfaction was
disappointing. To test it a different way, new congruence variables
were produced following Lewis-Beck's recommendation (1983). When an
ordinal variable has (C) levels, Lewis-Beck suggests creating (G minus
1) dummy variables for use in regression analyses. New variables of
High congruence and Medium congruence were entered into regression
analyses, in hopes of enhancing the statistical variation across levels
of the variable. There was no change in significance using this method.
Next, congruence was tested as a moderator in the following manner:
three separate regressions were mounted for the three congruence levels
(high, medium, and low) with significant antecedent variables entered
first, and career self-efficacy entered next, using job satisfaction as
criterion.

In addition, a correlation matrix was produced to examine the

relationships among the three congruence computation methods. This

53
would potentially provide support for the validity of congruence
measures in the study.
Teere fer Medietor Effiecte. Shortened regression analyses were
performed to examine the effect of antecedent variables, perceived
opportunity and career success, on job satisfaction. These analyses
would demonstrate if either antecedent were mediated by self-efficacy;
that is, if the effects of perceived opportunity or career success on
job satisfaction were entirely explained by the operation of career
self-efficacy. If the ability of either antecedent variable to predict
job satisfaction were reduced to zero or near zero in a hierarchical
regression equation after self-efficacy entered, this would be
concluded. The procedure followed the recommendations of Baron and
Kenny (1986).

First, an equation predicting job satisfaction was performed with
all demographic variables entered in a block at Step One; at Step Two,
perceived opportunity was entered. Controlling for demographic
variables, perceived opportunity reached significance as a predictor of
job satisfaction. Next, a new equation predicting job satisfaction was
performed; at Step One, all demographic variables were entered. At Step
Two, career self-efficacy was entered. It also reached significance in
predicting job satisfaction. This completed Baron and Kenny's first
stage--to show that each variable of interest is a significant predictor
of the outcome variable.

At the second stage, the two variables of interest were entered in
the same equation, one after the other. First, an equation predicting

job satisfaction was produced with demographics entered in a block at

54
Step One, followed by career self-efficacy at Step Two, and finally
perceived opportunity at Step Three. A fourth equation was performed,
identical to the third, except that the order of entry was demographics
at Step One, perceived opportunity at Step Two, and career self-efficacy
at Step Three.
Identical analyses were then conducted, replacing perceived

opportunity with career success.

Ieata_f21_1nteraetien_fiffest§- The possible interaction of perceived
opportunity and career self-efficacy in predicting job satisfaction was
also tested. The rationale for this was drawn from previous research
results showing that self-efficacy varied with other cognitively-derived
constructs or structure of opportunity perceptions. Also, it was
attempted since both variables had reached significance in the original
hypothesis tests. It was thought that self-efficacy might be variously
effective in predicting job satisfaction given individuals' beliefs
about their career opportunities. A new variable was computed to test
the possibility of an interaction between perceived opportunity and
career self-efficacy.

Another post-hoe analysis involved a test for a possible
interaction between level of congruence and perceived opportunity. This
was undertaken because the beta coefficients in the previous analyses
showed an interesting pattern: in the low congruence condition, the
beta for perceived opportunity was almost zero; in the medium and high
conditions, the betas were much larger and almost equal. This raised

the interesting possibility that congruence level might act in a step-

55
function, or threshhold, manner in potentiating other psychological

variables.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

In this chapter, the results of congruence computations and
statistical analyses will be presented. First, technical information on
the three original scales is given. Measurement of job satisfaction,
Holland type code, and congruence is then examined. Descriptive results
are presented, then multicollinearity diagnostics and analyses of
variance and multiple regression are described. The rationales for
post-hoc analyses are also given.

Original Scales

Reliability statistics were computed on the novel measures
completed at Site A. Table 4.1 shows internal consistency coefficients
(coefficient alpha) and test-retest reliability coefficients for career

success, perceived opportunity, and career self-efficacy.

56

57
Table 4.1

Scele inrernai Consietency and Test-Retest Correlations - Site A

 

n Variable Coefficient Alena
57 Career success .84
56 P opportunity .72
60 Self-efficacy .89
Tes - es e t
54 Career success .81
55 P opportunity .66
57 Self-efficacy .69

 

Here. P opportunity - perceived opportunity

Test-Retest interval - 5 months.

58
Internal consistency coefficients for the novel measures at Site B
were also computed. This is recommended by Dawis (1987) because sample
results can vary substantially. The following results were obtained:
career success, .90; perceived opportunity, .80; career self-efficacy,
.95 (n's - 87 to 99). These values show greater inter-item consistency

than those from Site A. (See Table 4.2.)

 

Table 4.2
o s - t
3 39212 C ce a
94 Career success .90
87 P opportunity .80
99 Self-efficacy .95

 

Nere. P opportunity - perceived opportunity.

Individual item statistics were also produced to observe scale
characteristics. The following discussion reflects Site B results (n's
- 87 to 99).

1. Career Success. Item means provide an index of how frequently
each success event occurred to the respondents. Items 2K and 2B, "Made

presentations at meetings", and "Received a higher performance appraisal

59
rating than others with whom I work", were the most frequent events at
Site A. Items 2I and 2J, "Offered lateral reassignment" and "Offered a
promotion sooner than expected", occurred least often. Correlations
between item and total scores ranged from .14 (offered lateral
reassignment) to .72 (received a higher than average salary increase).

See Table 4.3.

60

Table 4.3

Item-Total Statistics - Career Success

 

Item Item Mean Item-Total Alpha if
Item

Correlation Deleted

2A 2.00 .26 .84
28 2.27 .68 .81
2C 1.04 .72 .81
2D 1.62 .48 .83
2E 1.29 .43 .84
2F 1.71 .52 .83
2C 1.95 .62 .82
2H 1.87 .41 .83
21 .62 .14 .84
2J .67 .46 .83
2K 2.21 .63 .81
2L ' 1.87 .60 .82

 

Nore. Overall coefficient alpha - .84; n - 57

61
To assist in future norming, subjects at Site A were asked to
select the five events most important in signalling career success in

their workplace. These results appear in Table 4.4.

 

 

62
Table 4.4
Career Success Item Ranks
NUMBER ITEM
ENDORSED
55 Offered a promotion sooner than expected
53 Received an exciting or high-visibility job assignment
47 Received a higher performance appraisal rating than
others with whom I work
31 Received a higher than average salary increase
30 Chosen to substitute when manager is away
29 Selected above others (for)...task force assignments
25 Received a step increase or merit increase
17 Spontaneous/voluntary praise from manager
11 Made presentations at meetings
9 Scheduled to go to workshops or seminars
6 Offered lateral reassignment
3 Received financial support for attending conferences

 

Here. Number Endorsing - total number of subjects selecting the item.

N - 62.

 

63

2. Perceived Opportunity. Item statistics for this scale were
computed twice: once with all seven items, and once with the last five.
This was done because Items 1 and 2 refer to actual events, while the
others tap attitudes about such events. Item-total correlations on
Items 1 and 2 were quite low (.13 and .14), and the scale alpha
coefficient with seven items was barely lower than with five--.71 versus
.72. Items 1 and 2 were thus deleted from subsequent analyses. The

item-total correlations for the revised POS appear in Table 4.5.

64

Table 4.5

Item-Total Statistics - Perceived Opportunity

 

Item Item Mean Item-Total Alpha if Item
Correlation Deleted
3A 2.30 .54 .65
38 2.05 .48 .67
3C 2.40 .51 .66
3D 3.67 .58 .63
3E 1.90 .30 .74

 

Here. Overall coefficient alpha - .72; n - 56

3. Career Self-Efficacy. Unlike career success and perceived
opportunity, this scale attempted to tap a single psychological
construct. Anchors on this scale were 0-9; the smallest item mean was

4.45. The QTS achieved a coefficient alpha of .86. See Table 4.6.

65

Table 4.6

Item-Total Statistics - Career Self-Efficacy

 

 

Item Item Mean Item-Total Alpha if Item
Correlation Deleted
1 7.66 .36 .84
2 7.36 .20 .85
3 6.67 .02 .86
4 6.58 .43 .84
5 7.16 .48 .84
6 7.05 .57 .84
7 6.45 .22 .85
8 6.58 .24 .85
9 6.17 .45 .84
10 6.77 .50 .84
11 5.73 .48 .84
12 4.45 .21 .84
13 6.50 .10 .85
14 7.06 .24 .85
15 7.17 .47 .84
16 6.42 .31 .84
17 5.36 .50 .84
18 6.98 .53 .84
19 5.33 .35 .84
20 6.64 .50 .84
21 6.59 , .61 .84
22 7.39 .61 .84
23 7.31 .35 .84
24 6.73 .27 .85
25 7.22 .39 .84
26 4.70 -.01 .86
27 6.55 .62 .83
28 6.58 .41 .84
29 6.68 .44 .84
30 7.19 .54 .84

 

Here. Overall coefficient alpha - .86; n - 64

 

66

A factor analysis was completed on the thirty-item self-efficacy
scale. Review of the eigenvalues showed, and a scree plot confirmed,
that a single factor was reponsible for a large proportion of the
variance (40.8%) in this measure. This is an acceptable proportion of
variance accounted for (Tinsley & Tinsley, 1987). Therefore, it was
concluded that the self-efficacy items in large part represented a
single self-efficacy factor. Table 4.7 shows eigenvalues and the
percentage of variance accounted for by each of six factors.

The self-efficacy scale obtained a coefficient of variation of
.14, which represents the standard deviation divided by the mean. A
range between .5 and .15 indicates adequate score variation (Snedecor,

1946, cited in Dawis, 1987).

 

 

Table 4.7
Ca e r - ffic ° Facto sis Summa
FACTORS 1 2 3 4 5 6
Eigenvalue 10.21 1.86 1.59 1.21 1.12 1.05
Percentage of
Variance 40.8 7.5 6.3 4.8 4.5 4.2

 

ILOE- N - 166

67

The relation between self-efficacy scores and other measures was
examined for indications of construct independence. As expected,
significant correlations existed between career self-efficacy and the
two antecedent variables, perceived opportunity (r - .17, n <.05) and
career success (r - .32, n <.01). In addition, career self-efficacy was
significantly correlated with workforce tenure (r - .27, n <.01). At
first glance, it appeared that career self-efficacy might be a function
of other variables. However, the multicollinearity diagnostic test
provided support for its independence. In a multiple regression
analysis, workforce tenure was the only correlated variable which
entered as an efficient predictor of career self-efficacy (beta - .29, t
- 4.27). This analysis showed that career self-efficacy is not a
function of the other theoretical variables with which it is correlated.
In similar analyses, career self-efficacy did not enter as a predictor

of career success or of organizational opportunity.

Aggregated Date

Results were collapsed across sites for most of the remaining
analyses, since site did not contribute significant variability in a
multiple regression with job satisfaction as the outcome variable, after
all other predictors had been entered. (See below, Table 4.13.) It was
not expected that results from the two sites would be similar, and their

differences were not germane to the research questions.

68
Job Satisfaction
The mean for job satisfaction was not significantly different from
that obtained from Quinn and Shepard's (1972) norm group of 2,027
workers. Means and standard deviations for these groups, and that of

Pond and Geyer (1987) appear in Table 4.8.

 

 

Table 4.8
0 ° om on su
Mean SD
Study Sample (n-168) 3.39 .99
Quinn & Shepard (n-2027) 3.79 1.00
Pond & Geyer (np226) 3.49 .86

The skewness coefficient for job satisfaction was -.61, with more
values falling in the right side of the distribution. This was
confirmed by observing that the mean is 3.383, with a score range of l
to 5. The kurtosis coefficient was -.63, indicating a somewhat
flattened but relatively even distribution of scores (Ghiselli,
Campbell, & Zedeck, 1981).

Table 4.9 gives item means, item-total correlations, and

coefficient alpha for job satisfaction scores at Site B.

69

 

 

Table 4.9
t - a tist cs - Jo Sa isfaction
Item Item Mean Item-Total Alpha if Item
Correlation Deleted
l 3.90 .83 .91
2 3.66 .81 .92
3 3.15 .83 .91
4 3.44 .85 .91
5 3.54 .82 .92

 

Here. Overall coefficient alpha - .93; n - 103

Congruence

221 - EAT congruence was computed using the agreement index of
Wolfe and Betz (1981), which produced three congruence levels (high,
medium, low) based on the match between person and job type codes. The
six type codes are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,
Enterprising, and Conventional. (See Chapter One for type code
descriptions.) This yielded nonsignificant positive correlations with
job satisfaction (r - .01 for Site A, .17 for Site B, .11 for aggregated
data).

The variability in congruence was: for Site A, 10% high, 42%

medium, and 46% low. For Site B, it was 31% high, 42% medium, and 25%

 

70
low. Interestingly, the modal vocational type code for both sites was
IAR (Investigative-Artistic-Realistic), although the worksites and jobs
seemed quite different.

A third exploratory congruence computation was done at Site B,
comparing 44 incumbents' classifications of their jobs to their VPI
codes, using incumbents' responses to the Job Deserinrien Snryey. These
results produced congruence levels lower than EAT, and slightly higher
than DHOC. This effort was based on Holland's (1985c) suggestion to
capture incumbents' perceptions of the characteristics of their own
jobs, when research results seem confusing or contradictory. See Table

4.10 for comparisons of congruence results at Site B.

71

Table 4.10

o u n e om utationS° Com a ison of Re ults

 

 

 

 

DOT-DHOC* EAT* .1135“
H M L H M L H M L
Number 3 21 80 33 44 27 4 14 26
Percent 2 20 76 31 42 25 9 31 59
Nate. DOT-DHOC - MW and Mamet
Helleng Qeeunationai Qodee; EAT - Environmental Assessment Technique;
JDS - J2b_De§sriptien_§urzex rankings. Number - number of subjects at

this congruence level; percent - percent of subjects at this congruence

level. H - high, M - medium, L - low.

* : N - 104; ** : N - 44

72
Descriptive Results
Means, standard deviations, and score ranges were computed on all
variables (see Table 4.11). Relative frequency of categorical and

interval variables were also plotted (see Figure 4.1).

 

 

Table 4.11
t ve esu ts
Variable Mean SD Min. Max.
1 Age range 0 8
2 Education level 2 4
3 Workforce tenure 15.49 9.41 1 42
4 Congruence 2.08 .72 1 3
5 Career success 1.71 .77 .00 3.75
6 P opportunity 2.49 .78 .00 4.00
7 Career SE 7.10 1.04 3.76 9.00
8 Job satisfaction 3.39 .99 1.00 5.00

 

Here. Age ranges are: 0 - under 25, 1 - 25-29, 2 - 30-34, 3 - 35-39, 4
- 40-44, 5 - 45-49, 6 - 50-54, 7 - 55-59, 8 - 60 or over. Education
levels are: l - high school or below, 2 - some college, 3 -
undergraduate degree, 4 - graduate work or degree.

P opportunity - perceived opportunity; Career SE - career self-efficacy

73

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DUAL-CAREER STATUS
120
100
80
Number
of so
Subjects
‘0 =
2° -
0
Yes
Note: N = 167
CONGRUENCE
80
Number 60
or
Subjects 40
20
‘ 0
Low Med ngh
Level of Congruence
Note:tl=:165

Figure 4.1. Relative Frequencies of Variables of Interest

74

Gender

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Female Male
Gender
Note: N = 1 66
EducafionalLevel
80
60
Number
of 40
Subjects
20
0
Some College Undergrad. Graduate Work
Degree or Degree
Note: 3 = 1 63

Figure 4.1 (cont'd)

75

 

29.3 a; .83....

>nm wasnm

8
2.5.32
On 8
9.288 /
no

3R
o _ _ . _ _ _ _

8 ~98 8.2 8.8 8.: are 8.2 8.8 v8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

>uo ASA-«3

222 2 u .8

76

Reeeeren_Hynerne§ee_i_rnrengn_e. Zero-order correlations among
all variables revealed significant positive correlations (n <.01) for
the following variables: age and workforce tenure; age and career
success; age and career self-efficacy; gender (female) and career self-
efficacy. Significant positive correlations (n <.05) obtained between
the following: gender (female) and age; and gender (female) and career
success. A significant negative correlation (n <.05) obtained between
education level and workforce tenure, and education level and gender.
The latter result indicates that men have reached higher levels of
education than did women in this sample. Workforce tenure and
organizational opportunity were significantly positively correlated with
career success, and with career self-efficacy at the n <.01 level. Job
satisfaction showed significant (p <.01) positive correlations with

organizational opportunity, career success, and career self-efficacy.

See Table 4.12.

77

.326 a; n
mosque: 38:8 .. 2.632... 023.263 >325 5.23.3 o. 533%

 

 

a n o a m m u m m .3
a. >oe
n. max .3
u. can .9 .8
a. s: .om: .8 i o
m. mr in to. .8 to.
a. .5 .8 .3 no» .2 .8
u. to x 8m .3 a m. com .3 nos .8:
a. 0m .3: .3 .2 .8: .8 .8. .8...
o. 02622.8 :8 in .8 :8 :3 .8 .3 .3
8. new .8: .3: nos .3: in .3. .2: an: nos
:. .5 .9 a u .9 .9 ..8 .3: .8: ha: a s .6:
280.” com a use. 932 «8.5 .
i... u Sense-8 43:3 " u M bu
mr n magnate r23.
3 n .8328 033%.: : "a m .3

cm n 0932 9588
0mm u 0932 3336393 9.3382
.6 u .39 9:28:63

«2. 9.3.3 ooaee <53! 0.252. e n 39.6. a u meant

 

78

Dual-career status and congruence showed nonsignificant
correlations with all demographic and theoretical variables, and with
each other. This result was unexpected, since both were hypothesized to
predict job satisfaction. To explore the significance of dual-career
status in a different way, two levels of dual-career status (yes and no)
were established. They were entered as separate predictors of job
satisfaction, along with all other predictors, in new multiple
regression equations. No significance was reached for either level of
dual-career status. However, it was included in several other analyses

mentioned below.

Preparation for Multiple Regression Analyses

Each predictor variable was regressed on a combination of all
other correlated predictors to investigate for multicollinearity.
Variables were entered in a forward fashion with an F-to-enter
probability of .05. No regression coefficients were worrisome, with the
exception of age regressed on workforce tenure (R2 -.73). These
variables would be expected to covary, since length of time in the
workforce would naturally increase with age. Age was omitted in a
second analysis to compare the error term to the original regression
model. If the standard error of estimate were greater in the model
including age, that would argue for eliminating the age variable (see
below, Tables 4.14 and 4.15).

A normal probability plot of standardized residuals on the

criterion variable, job satisfaction, revealed all points closely

79
clustered around the diagonal. A histogram of residuals approximated a
normal curve.
Five scatterplots were visually examined. These consisted of the
five predictors correlated with job satisfaction, plotted against job

satisfaction. In all cases, no gross non-linear trends were observed.

Multiple Regressions Predicting Job Satisfaction
gggg§;§h_flxpggh§§gfi_§_and_§. The first multiple regression
analysis was computed using all predictor variables, entered in four
blocks. The first block included all demographic variables: age,
gender, education level, and dual-career status. The second block
consisted of antecedent theory-predicted variables: workforce tenure,
perceived opportunity, and career success. The two main theoretical
constructs, career self-efficacy and congruence, were entered in the
third block. This order was used as a conservative test of the main
constructs: demographic and antecedent variables were allowed to
account for as much variance as possible before self-efficacy and
congruence were entered. Site was entered last, since location
differences were of little interest. This analysis revealed (as
expected from correlation tests) no predictive utility for dual-career
status or congruence. T-ratios over 2.00 indicate significant slopes:
only three variables--perceived opportunity, career success, and career
self-efficacy--exceeded this value. The squared multiple regression

coefficient (R2) for this model was .34. See Table 4.13.

 

80

Table 4.13

Hierarchical Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction: A Test of Site

 

 

 

Predictor set & §§ g 32 E change
chg
Demographics .14 .02 <l.00
Dual-career status .07 .07
Age .01 .08
Education level .01 .08
Gender .13 .08
Antecedents .45 .18 11.31***
P opportunity .21 .07
Career success .37 .08
Workforce tenure .01 .14
Theoretical Constructs .58 .13 14.42***
Congruence .07 .07
Career self-efficacy .39 .07
Site .04 .10 .58 <.01 <1.00
Eggg. H - 155. The following variables were dummy coded: Age (0 -

under 25, l - 25-29, 2 - 30-34, 3 - 35-39, 4 - 40-44, 5 - 45-49, 6 - 50-

54, 7 - 55-59, 6 - 60 or over); Gender (0 - Male, 1 - Female); Education

level (1 - High school or less; 2 - Some college; 3 - Undergraduate

degree; 4 - Graduate work or degree); Dual-career status (0 - no, 1 -

yes). P opportunity - perceived opportunity.

SE - standard error of

 

81
beta coefficient. Standardized beta weights given for each variable in
the full model.

“*2 < .001.

A revised model was then tested. Workforce tenure was placed in
the first block, since it could be considered a demographic variable.
Age was removed, since it showed high multicollinearity with workforce
tenure. Job tenure and organization tenure also entered in this block.
(These last two variables, obtained for convenience, were not
hypothesized to affect job satisfaction.) In the first block, the F
change was small and not significant. Antecedent variables were entered
in the second block. Here, career success and perceived opportunity
remained efficient predictors. Career self-efficacy, entered in the
third block, demonstrated significance. Congruence did not contribute
significantly to the analysis. Overall, 36% of the variance in job
satisfaction was accounted for by this model (R2 - .36). See Table

4.14.

 

82

 

 

Table 4.14
a e ress 0 re ic n ob t' ac mmed ode
Predictor set Step {3 gg g 32 E change
chg
Demographics 1 .17 .03 <1.00
Dual-career status -.08 .08
Job tenure -.07 .10
Gender .13 .08
Education level .01 .08
Workforce tenure -.07 .10
Org'l tenure .15 .12
Antecedents 2 .47 .19 17.79***
P opportunity .21 .07
Career success .37 .07
Theoretical constructs 3 .60 .14 16.01***
Congruence .09 .07
Career self-efficacy .42 .07
Site 4 .01 .10 .60 <.01 <1.00

 

Note. H - 155. The following variables were dummy coded: Age (0 -

under 15, l - 25-29, 2 - 30-34, 3 - 35-39, 4 - 40-44, 5 - 45-49, 6 - 50-

54, 7 - 55-59, 6 - 60 or over); Gender (0 - Male, 1 - Female); Education

level (1 - High school or less; 2 - Some college; 3 - Undergraduate

degree; 4 - Graduate work or degree); Dual-career status (0 - no, 1 -

83
yes). Org'l tenure - organizational tenure. P opportunity - perceived
opportunity. SE - standard error of beta coefficient. Standardized
beta weights given for each variable in the full model.

***2 < .001.

To test the hypothesis that high multicollinearity existed, a
slightly different model was then produced. Age was restored to the
demographic block. The R2 was almost identical (.36), and the standard
error of estimate was .8286, compared with .8261 for the model omitting
age. Therefore, it appeared that the correlation between age and
workforce tenure did not contribute substantially to the standard error
in this equation. See Table 4.15. In any case, age was deleted from

all subsequent analyses.

84

 

 

Table 4.15
H c ess edict Job S s c 0 ° e R to ed
Predictor set Step %5 §§_ g 32 E change
chg
Demographics 1 .17 .03 <1.00
Age -.03 .10
Dual-career status -.08 .08
Education level .01 .08
Gender .13 .08
Job tenure -.08 -.10
Organization tenure .12 .12
Antecedent Variables 2 .47 .19 11.98***
P opportunity .21 .07
Career success .37 .07
Workforce tenure -.ll .15
Theoretical constructs 3 .60 .14 15.88***
Congruence .09 .07
Career self-efficacy .42 .07
Site 4 .01 .10 .60 <.01 <1.00

 

323;. H - 155. The following variables were dummy coded: Age (0 -
under 15, 1 - 25-29, 2 - 30-34, 3 - 35-39, 4 - 40-44, 5 - 45-49, 6 - 50-
54, 7 - 55-59, 6 - 60 or over); Gender (0 - Male, 1 - Female); Education

level (1 - High school or less; 2 - Some college; 3 - Undergraduate

85
degree; 4 - Graduate work or degree); Dual-career status (0 - no, 1 -
yes). SE - standard error of beta coefficient. P opportunity -
perceived opportunity. Standardized beta weights given for each
variable in the full model.

“*2 < .001.

Post-hoe Analyses

Perceived opportunity, Shortened regression analyses were
performed to examine the effect of the antecedent variable, perceived
opportunity, on job satisfaction. These results showed that perceived
opportunity still accounted for important variance after controlling for
the effect of career self-efficacy, and that career self-efficacy was a
significant predictor of job satisfaction after perceived opportunity
had been accounted for. Therefore, it could be concluded that the
effect of perceived opportunity on job satisfaction was not mediated by
career self-efficacy. Indeed, although perceived opportunity was
hypothesized as a contributor to the development of self-efficacy in
career management, it still was able to independently predict job
satisfaction with the present sample.

Q§1g21_§gggg§§‘ Identical analyses were then conducted, replacing
perceived opportunity with career success. As with the first antecedent
variable, career success had an independent contribution to the
prediction of job satisfaction, after controlling for demographics and

career self-efficacy. Therefore, it can be concluded that, for this

 

86
sample, the effects of career success on job satisfaction were not
entirely mediated by career self-efficacy.

Congruence. A correlation matrix was produced to observe the
relations between 2399, EAT, and JDS methods of computing congruence.
The number of cases was 44, since this was the total number of usable
responses from Site B on the job description questionnaire. No
significant correlations were found in this analysis. See Table 4.16

for these results.

 

 

Table 4.16
0-0 -: O ',3 01‘ 3JI'1' 11“ '1,‘1'! ‘ o - a 01 r “(18
1 2 3
1 mug -.15 .14
2 EAT - 22
3 JDS
Note. pups-W; EAT-

Environmental Assessment Technique; 125 - Job Description Survey.
H - 44

All correlations are nonsignificant.

 

87

Results of three hierarchical regression analyses based on level
of congruence were also examined. Predictor variables were perceived
opportunity, career success, and career self-efficacy. These results
suggest that congruence had an indirect effect on the prediction of job
satisfaction: when congruence was low, the endogenous or "internal"
predictors (perceived opportunity and career self-efficacy) failed to
reach significance. When congruence was medium or high, these
endogenous variables significantly predicted job satisfaction. Table

4.17 gives values for these analyses.

 

88

Table 4.17

 

 

 

 

 

r e e o d n Job at s c 10 ° 1 on
v e c
Predictor Set Step f5 3 32 Change 2 Change
Low Congruence: n - 41
Perc'd. Oppty. l -.01 .00 .00 <l.00
Career Success 2 .28 .28 .12 5.17*
Career SE 3 .17 .14 .02 <1.00
W: n-74
Perc'd. Oppty. 1 .28 .15 .15 12.72***
Career Success 2 .21 .22 .07 6.63**
Career SE 3 .32 .32 .10 9.91***
BMW: n-SO
Perc'd. Oppty. 1 .25 .10 .10 5.05*
Career Success 2 .23 .19 .10 5.56*
Career SE 3 .30 .28 .09 5.40*

 

89

Eggg. Perc'd. Oppty - Perceived Opportunity; SE - Self-efficacy.

* ** ***

:n<.os; :2<.o1; :2<.001

s o nte a t o ' ow co ue d e eive o 1
Because the beta coefficient for perceived opportunity in the low
congruence condition was small compared to those in the medium and high
conditions, a further analysis was produced. A centered dummy variable
for low congruence was computed, and it was used in interaction with
perceived opportunity in a regression on job satisfaction. It was
entered after all other predictor variables, including congruence. This
new interaction variable was insignificant, so it was deleted from
further consideration.

0 .nte ac .,° .- - -- .... 1 a . 1- _-e s. . A
new variable was computed to test the possibility of a meaningful
interaction between perceived opportunity and career self-efficacy. It
could be that persons who see little chance for mobility in their
present setting have low job satisfaction even if their efficacy beliefs
are strong. This test proved significant: the interaction variable
contributed significant variance to the prediction of job satisfaction
after the other predictors had entered into the equation. See Table

4.18.

 

 

 

90
Table 4.18
{er e-; ., '_--_ ,. J.. :t s :c .,- nt-ra, ion
e v -
Predictor set Step F5 SE, 3 32 E change
. chg
Demographics 1 .15 .02 (1.00
Dual-career status -.04 .08
Education level -.01 .08
Gender .13 .08
Job tenure -.10 .10
Organization tenure .07 .10
Antecedent Variables 2 .45 .17 ll.53***
P Opportunity .21 .07
Career success .35 .08
Workforce tenure -.14 .10
Theoretical Variables 3 .57 .12 14.l4***
Career self-efficacy .38 .07
Congruence .12 .07
Interaction 4 .58 .02 3.69*
PO X CSE .85 .44
Site 5 .04 .10 .58 .01 <l.OO

 

91

Note. fl - 158. The following variables were dummy coded: Gender (0 -

 

Male, 1 - Female); Education level (1 - High school or less; 2 - Some
college; 3 - Undergraduate degree; 4 - Graduate work or degree); Dual-
career status (0 - no, 1 - yes). P opportunity - perceived opportunity;
PO X CSE - interaction of perceived opportunity and career self-
efficacy. SE - standard error of beta coefficient. Standardized beta
weights given for each variable in the full model.

***2 < .001; “g < .01; *2 < .05

Review of Hypotheses

Based on these results, the validity of the study hypotheses can
be considered.

Hl. Dual-career status will be negatively associated with
perceived opportunity. This hypothesis was not supported; this
correlation was insignificant.

H2. Workforce tenure will be positively correlated with
congruence. This also did not occur: congruence failed to correlate
significantly with any variable.

H3. Career success event frequency will be positively correlated
with career self-efficacy, lending support to its status as an
antecedent variable. This correlation coefficient was .30, p <.01.

H4. Perceived opportunity will be positively correlated with
career self-efficacy and with congruence. The first correlation

coefficient was .17, p <.01; the second was nonsignificant.

 

92

H5. After demographic and antecedent variables are accounted for,
career self-efficacy will contribute unique incremental variance to the
prediction of job satisfaction. Career self-efficacy was the most
efficient predictor, showing significance beyond the .001 level in all
regression analyses.

H6. After demographic and antecedent variables are accounted for,
congruence will contribute unique incremental variance to the prediction
of job satisfaction. This hypothesis was not supported, since
congruence failed to correlate significantly with any variables.

The implications of these findings, and those of the post-hoc

analyses, will be discussed in the final chapter.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS,

LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

In this chapter, the purpose of the study will be restated and the
major findings summarized. Issues of construct operationalization and
subject sampling will be discussed, and results of analyses among the
variables will be reviewed in light of other recent findings. Specific
attention will be given to the computations of congruence, with
suggestions for enhancing that process. Rationales and discussion of
post-hoc analyses will be provided. Prediction of job satisfaction, and
its implications for adult workers and organizations, will be addressed.
Limitations of the study, and its contribution to present knowledge and
inquiry, will be reviewed. Finally, suggestions for future research in

instrumentation, theory testing, and applications will be proposed.
Intent of the Study

Given the impact of recent events-~reduced job mobility, more
dual-career couples, and the mid-career population bulge--on adults'
working lives, two theoretical constructs which purport to predict job
satisfaction were examined. These two constructs, job-person congruence
and career self-efficacy, were tested along with theory-derived
antecedents in a multiple regression study of job satisfaction. Four
novel measures were constructed in support of this project. The

contribution of job satisfaction to the overall quality of workers'

93

 

94
lives was assumed to be an important factor in the prevention of
workplace stress and other mental health problems, and in the vitality
and productivity of U.S. organizations.

a nd . Of the two main theoretical constructs, self-
efficacy alone was a unique, significant predictor of job satisfaction.
Congruence, however, played an important moderator role: when
congruence was low, otherwise significant variables failed to predict
job satisfaction. Further, an interaction effect was found between
perceived opportunity and career self-efficacy: depending upon the
level of mobility perceived, career self-efficacy variously predicted
job satisfaction.

No demographic variables were significantly correlated with job
satisfaction. Several significant relationships did obtain with other
variables in the sample, however: men had higher levels of education
than women; women were older; and women reported greater career self-
efficacy relative to men. Significant correlations also obtained
between several other sets of predictor variables: age and career self-
efficacy; workforce tenure and career success; workforce tenure and
career self-efficacy; perceived opportunity and career success. The
outcome variable, job satisfaction, was significantly positively
correlated with perceived opportunity, career success, and career self-

efficacy.

 

95

Operationalizing Constructs

In this section, the reliability and validity characteristics of
the study measures are examined.

Validity. Development of four novel measures was necessary to
conduct this study, and success in construct operationalization can be
judged only tentatively here. This is so because validity checks are
largely absent, and reliability statistics are available only on small
samples. Nonetheless, some efforts at validation were made. The
perceived opportunity scale had a category titled ”Other", to stimulate
subjects' own contributions to the list of factors affecting perceived
opportunity. This was used by only seven of sixty-four subjects at Site
A, suggesting that the list of items was fairly inclusive.

The career self-efficacy scale was designed with an eye to self-
efficacy's main tenets, and with reference to Hackett et al.'s (1985)
taxonomy of career competencies. Items covered all but one of the
taxonomy categories. Factor analysis lent support to its construct
homogeneity. Studies of construct validity such as those recommended by
Robbins (1985) could clarify the usefulness of this scale.

The above two measures were reviewed by managers from three
organizations for face and content validity. The perceived opportunity
scale incorporated only demographic factors, so did not account for
perceptions of opportunity based upon factors such as workplace skills
and experience. The job description scale, used at Site B to recompute

congruence, had adequate content validity, but its construct validity

96
and reliability are untested. Also, the face validity must be improved,
since a number of subjects misunderstood the directions for ranking
items.

The absence of high multicollinearity among the first three
measures supports their construct independence. The presence of
positive correlational links between some variables bears discussion,
however. The significant correlation between gazeer sggcesg and self;

gffigggy could be explained by the presumed function of success as an

 

antecedent to self-efficacy. In addition, this relationship could be
seen as an "apples and oranges" comparison. The career success measure
is a frequency list of externally verifiable events, while career self-
efficacy is proposed as a psychological or internally constructed
variable.

The relationship between gaggg;_§uggg§§ and pgzggixgg_gppg;§gnigx
could also be understood in two different ways. First, these two
variables are presumed to contribute to formation of self-efficacy. As
such, their correlation is understandable. Second, the correlation can
also be seen as apples and oranges: career success being an external,
and perceived opportunity an internal variable.

inant v d o f-e c . Several studies provide
some evidence of the discriminant validity of the self-efficacy
construct in academic and career choice domains. Taylor and Popma
(1990) found no relationship between career decision-making self-
efficacy (CDMSE) and career salience in college students. They also
found a moderate negative relationship between CDMSE and locus of

control (with low scores denoting internal locus of control). Hackett,

97
Betz, O'Halloran, and Romac (1990) found that task interest was not
significantly correlated with self-efficacy for traditional occupational
choices (but the correlation was significant for the nontraditional
choices variable).

Reliability. Novel measures demonstrated adequate reliability in
most instances: internal consistency values for the three measures
ranged from .72 to .86; test-retest reliability at a five-month interval
ranged from .66 to .81. This interval length, not under the
investigator's control, may have contributed to these somewhat lower-
than-expected values.

Factor analysis of the career self-efficacy measure revealed a
single factor responsible for a large proportion of the variance.
Internal consistency for the job satisfaction measure achieved a
satisfactory level (Nunnally, 1978, p. 230). The job satisfaction scale

mean did not differ significantly from the published norms.

Subjects

As mentioned in Chapter One, many studies of vocational constructs
have failed to sample working adults. Given the delays and challenges
of gathering data in organizations, it is now clearer to this
investigator why that might be so. However, the utility of going to the
source appears to outweigh the procedural disadvantages. In fact, the
study required employed subjects: it would have been impossible to
operationalize antecedent variables such as career success and perceived

opportunity with a non-working population.

 

98

finnpling. The study design originally called for a systematic
random sampling technique, which was later discarded. Available
populations were too small to attempt random sampling. For this reason,
subjects were voluntary participants. The only information about
nonparticipants, cited in Chapter Three, was their job category. At
Site A, a majority of available professionals (56%) and a minority of
available managers (47%) participated. It is possible that, because of
the high interest in new-hire job turnover at this site, managers
believed their participation was unimportant. At Site 8, employees in
direct patient care settings had lower participation rates than those in
management, research, and outpatient positions. This could imply that
more physically demanding or time-sensitive work settings (such as
operating rooms and intensive care units) yield lower response rates for
an optional paper-and-pencil survey packet.

It is also possible, however, that nonresponders differed from
responders on one or more study variables. These differences could have
influenced individuals' decisions about voluntary participation. The
generalizability of the present results is in any event limited because

of lack of random sampling.

Relations among Study Variables

This section will discuss the outcomes of the research hypotheses
H1 through H6, then will address further issues explored in post-hoc
tests. Relations among antecedent and theoretical variables will be

examined in view of their theory-expected performance.

 

99

H1. a -caree s t wil be ne at vel a sociate w t
pgpngiggd_pppnrpnn1§y. Partners in dual-career couples were expected to
perceive (and have) fewer opportunities for mobility. It was assumed
that they would seek and accept fewer job changes, given their family
commitments. Further, even if perneived mobility did not suffer, they
were expected to show lower congruence, since job-person fit should
increase with time and pppnnl job mobility (actual mobility being
presumed to be lower). This hypothesis was not supported: indeed,
dual-career status did not correlate significantly with any other
variable studied, and did not contribute to the prediction of job
satisfaction.

This measure was originally conceived as purely a demographic
entity, based on status of the subject in a variety of categories, e.g.,
gender and ethnic background. Non-demographic factors such as
organizational commitment, job performance, and intention to quit were
not included in the conceptualization of perceived opportunity. It may
be that the construct is broader than originally conceived, and if the
measure were redesigned, different findings might result.

H2. w' vel w
cpngrnenge. This relation was posited because determining one's own fit
with a position requires time; locating and changing positions requires
time; and thus congruence is presumed to increase with time. It was
decided to use tenure in the workforce instead of age, to allow for
subjects who might have gaps in employment. Workforce tenure was
considered an important antecedent of congruence, especially given

recent conditions of low mobility, and was expected to contribute to the

 

 

100
prediction of job satisfaction through the congruence variable. This
did not occur, so the congruence model was not supported by this result.

Workforce tenure did show a significant negative correlation with
education level. This could help in explaining the failure of the
tenure-congruence hypothesis. It might be that opportunities for
improving the job-person match end early in the careers of some
professionals possessing the minimum educational credentials. Co-
workers who pursue further degrees may move on, and those who remain may
retain less harmonious job matches, failing to achieve higher congruence
even as their tenure in the workforce increases.

Workforce tenure showed significant positive correlations with
career success and career self-efficacy. The former is understandable,
since the number of career success events likely builds up over time.
The latter relationship is explainable with a caveat. Persons with a
fairly successful job history, marked by positive career experiences,
would be expected to report increases in career self-efficacy over time
in the workforce. Likewise, persons who meet with frustration and
repeated disappointments in the career arena would likely develop
increasingly negative efficacy percepts over time. However, the tenure-
efficacy correlation might not fully account for the percepts of those
whose career would be termed "checkered": marked by important successes
nnn failures, with approximately even doses of each over the course of
their career. Perhaps a measure of career disappointments or failures
might illuminate this relationship further.

H3. ue e u v t w V

W. This hypothesis was supported.

101
with a significant correlation beyond the .01 level. This lends support
to the standing of career success as an antecedent of career self-
efficacy. Bandura's (1986) postulates suggest that prior performance
accomplishments are the most important factors in the development of
self-efficacy, so this finding is supportive of the theory being tested.

H4. v w v so ed w

- w nc . It was anticipated that
beliefs about job mobility would be related to both theoretical
variables. In the self-efficacy framework, perceived opportunity can
represent an outcome expectation: if one is confident of performing
well at work in the face of challenges (self-efficacy), opportunities
for new tasks and more desirable positions might appear. In the
congruence framework, perceived opportunity could be associated with
ongoing willingness to seek better job-person matches: the higher one's
expectations for successfully changing jobs, the greater likelihood of
the attempt, and the better the chance for increasing congruence. Only
the first of these relationships, perceived opportunity with self-
efficacy, was significant.

If perceived opportunity is viewed as an outcome expectation, the
positive opportunity-efficacy correlation is supportive of self-efficacy
theory. Specifically, Bandura (1986) states

”In social, intellectual, and physical pursuits, those who judge

themselves highly efficacious will expect favorable outcomes,

self-doubters will expect mediocre performances of themselves and

thus negative outcomes.” (p. 392)

Results consistent with this view were obtained by Rotberg et al.

(1987), who found that expected career self-efficacy predicted total

 

102
number of career options considered by community college students.

The lack of intercorrelation between perceived opportunity and
congruence could have at least two explanations. First, it might be not
the perceppion of opportunity, but the actual stpncture of opportunity,
that is associated with job-person congruence. That is, no matter how
mobile people believe themselves to be, the actual chances to make job
changes could be more important in understanding how congruence
develops. The original design of this study proposed the gathering of
an independent measure of actual mobility from human resource files.
This was not possible, so a measure of perceived mobility was devised.
The differences between these two variables at a given site may be
large.

A second explanation for the failure of this hypothesis could be
measurement-related. The limitation of the perceived opportunity scale
has already been mentioned; perhaps a broader set of items would result
in a different finding. Also, the congruence variable has only three
levels; it might be that a congruence index with more variation would
perform differently in a correlation analysis. (The latter issue could
appropriately be raised regarding the performance of congruence
throughout the study. See below, Iggpn_nnn_upn§npp§_pf_gnngpnpnpn, for
a discussion of this topic.)

In a recent study, a four-item measure of perceived employment
alternatives was used by Gottfredson and Holland (1990) in a study of
newly hired bank tellers. This construct, similar to the pppngixpn
ppppzpnnipy variable used in the present study, failed to achieve

significance in a multiple regression study of employment persistence at

103
a four-month follow-up. Employment persistence, similar to workforce
tenure, can be seen as an antecedent to congruence. Perceived
employment alternatives in the Gottfredson and Holland study therefore
failed to contribute to an antecedent variable in the congruence model.

This result is partially consistent with the present findings.

H5. r emo r d ce e v b e unte o
a e- - --e cac wi- o t - te ,-ue 1 -uent:_ va :1 e . he
ppnnipginn_pf_jpp_§n§i§£nppipn. This hypothesis was supported beyond

the .001 level in multiple regression analyses. This provides important
support for self-efficacy theory, showing that, for this sample, unique
variance in a major outcome variable is accounted for by this
theoretical construct. Results similar to this were reported by Fretz
et al. (1989): enhanced self-efficacy for adjusting to retirement

predicted low preretirement anxiety and depression.

 

H6.
09:1‘1‘ _ 0! 0 ' goes ‘u‘s : V;,.-:9..‘ .- !' edc 0!
pfi_jpp_§n£1§£nnpipn. This hypothesis was not directly confirmed in the

first regression analyses. This is partially inconsistent with a recent
study by Meir, Melamed, and Abu-Freha (1990), who found positive ‘
intercorrelations between two circumscribed congruence variables and
several measures of career-related satisfaction. Of note, however, is
their samples' insignificant relationship between overall gppppipnnl
congruence and work satisfaction. Also, in this study, congruence was
computed using only the first 529 letters in the typology (e.g., IE
instead of IER). Gottfredson and Holland (1990) found a link between

congruence and expected job satisfaction in a four-month longitudinal

 

104
study of newly—hired bank tellers. However, this study did not
operationalize actual job satisfaction with longer tenured workers.

Congruence served an important moderating role in the prediction
of job satisfaction in subsequent analyses. For high and medium
congruence subjects, career success, perceived opportunity and self-
efficacy significantly predicted job satisfaction. With low congruence
subjects, only prior career success events predicted job satisfaction.
This suggests that, in the presence of adequate congruence, the
intrapersonal or ”psychological” variables were strong enough to operate
in the expected direction. It may be that congruence potentiated other
psychological variables in the prediction of job satisfaction. The
comment by Wiggins (1984) that "the 221 could be used to predict low
levels of job satisfaction for persons whose (job-person) codes are
clearly not congruent” is relevant here. Another related finding is
reported by Elton and Smart (1988), who found that high congruence women
in a Social work environment (such as nursing) had lower satisfaction
with income, fringe benefits, and promotion opportunities than low
congruence women.

With a poor match between subjects' attitudes, preferred skills,
and values, and the characteristics of the work setting, positive
percepts about work failed to contribute to a positive affective
reaction. In fact, with low congruence subjects, only the external
feedback of tangible success events predicted satisfaction with the job.
It appears that job satisfaction is more often present among workers in
congruent work settings who have allies such as self-efficacy in their

psychological toolkit, than among those workers whose congruence with

105
their work environment is low and who must therefore rely on external
sources for their attitudes about work.

Cpllapging dapp apposg sites. Research site failed to reach
significance as a regression predictor after all other predictors had
been entered. Site selection was haphazard; eleven sites to which the
investigator had access received study proposals, and data were gathered
at the two organizations who expressed interest. Coincidentally, they
were both U.S. government agencies. The study design did not call for
specific types of organizations; it was expected that investigator
access and organizational interest would determine the site.

It could be argued that organizations interested enough to consent
would be more similar to one another than those not interested, thus
reducing the potential variation in study variables. Specifically, it
could be that worksites with serious concerns about job satisfaction
might be more willing to sponsor this study than those with no such
concerns. If this were the case, generalizability of these findings
would be correspondingly limited. Although this may be actually true,
the reasons that the two organizations gave for sponsoring the study
were different. Site A was interested in the implications of the‘
findings for their recruitment of college graduates, and for their high
turnover after a short time on the job. Site B expressed curiosity
about the organization culture and the differences in values and
interests apparent in their workforce. On the surface, then, it did not
appear as if decision-makers at the sites had similar rationales for

participating in the study.

 

106
Because of the nonsignificance of site, it was decided to
aggregate the data for most analyses, which allowed for a larger sample
size and increased the chances for significant findings. Reliability

analyses were the main exception to data aggregation.

Post-Hoc Analyses

ngts fpr mggiating effectg. Two antecedent variables, perceived

opportunity and career success, were found to operate independently of
career self-efficacy in the prediction of job satisfaction. Self-
efficacy in turn accounted for significant variance after controlling
for these two variables. These results add support to the usefulness of
the antecedent variables in the study of self-efficacy; and provide
support for the robustness of self-efficacy as it was measured here.

;‘ . 7, e . 7,.,- .- :,v-- .... , ;,. ;- --
The interaction between perceived opportunity and career self-efficacy
explained significant incremental variance in the prediction of job
satisfaction. lThis implies that strong efficacy beliefs may not be
associated with satisfaction when the structure of opportunity appears
limited. For this sample, it was shown that high career self-efficacy
does not predict job satisfaction when perceived mobility is low. The
construct-related constraints of the perceived opportunity variable have
been mentioned; it represents beliefs about mobility based only on the
subject's demographic characteristics. This was done by design, to tap
perceptions about mobility and acceptance of diversity in the workplace.

This finding could provide an environmentally-based rationale for the

107
limitations of self-efficacy's role in explaining satisfaction with
one's job. If a person believes that, by reason of age, ethnic status,
or level of education, she or he has little chance for job mobility, job
satisfaction might suffer even if career self-efficacy percepts are
strong.

Gottfredson and Holland (1990) hypothesized that perceived
employment alternatives would moderate the effect of congruence on job
satisfaction. They used a four-item scale of "perceived employment
alternatives” to test for its moderating effect. They found no support
for this hypothesis in a multiple regression analysis. Possible
limiting factors in their study included the use of the JD; with
employees in a Conventional setting (see Chapter Three, Job Sagigfagtion
finpggy); and the measurement of expected job satisfaction after only
four months on the job. No multiple regression was attempted with
congruence predicting job satisfaction.

Bandura's (1991) statement about external constraining factors is
n_p;ppp§ here:

Perceived environmental constraints and opportunity structures

alter how efficacy and outcome information are cognitively
processed. (p. 159)

W. The computation of Holland

congruence is hazardous duty. Consensus is lacking on 1) method of

measuring personality type; 2) source of information for defining job
type; 3) method of measuring job type; 4) number of congruence levels;
5) number of letter codes which comprise a type; 6) whether congruence

is dichotomous or continuous; and 7) use of subspecialties in coding job

108
types. The present study represents a string of decisions on these
factors which certainly affected the validity, reliability, and
practical utility of the findings. The fact that congruence level
moderated other variables' effects in a logical fashion provides some
measure of credence for its operationalization and performance.
However, several observations raise questions about the validity of the
present measure of congruence.

The lack of significant correlations among the three congruence
computation methods is somewhat disturbing. It is true that this result
represents scores from only one-fourth of the entire sample.
Nevertheless, this raises serious questions about the validity of
different congruence computation methods, and the possibility of
differential performance in the body of research on Holland‘s theory.
In fact, the lack of unanimity in studies of congruence (Spokane, 1985)
may in part be explained by invalid computation methodology.

One potential source of measurement problems is the DHQQ itself.
For instance, it was impossible in the present study to distinguish
between staff nurses in operating rooms from those on patient wards in
the assignment of DHOC job codes. Survey return rates were different
among these two categories of nurses; and discrepancies between DHOC and
incumbent-ranked job codes were most pronounced among subjects in
operating room settings. It may be that the DHOC provides insufficient
specificity based on job setting, and that this contributed to
congruence computations that did not match the reality experienced by

some subjects.

109

Although the EEOC method of computing congruence appears
problematic, the EAT method does not seem to be the final answer to this
quandary. By using only the modal preferences of incumbents, the EAT
fails to include any information about job characteristics separate from
qualities contributed by persons in the setting. This computation
method, therefore, is potentially too limited.

One way to improve upon this situation is suggested by the use in
this study of incumbent rankings of job environment. The revised
process would include three steps. Step One: determine three-letter
job code using the DHOC. Step Two: ask job incumbent to agree or
disagree with the DHOC code, based on the six environmental
descriptions. Incumbents disagreeing would compute their own three-
letter job codes. Step Three: to settle discrepancies, use supervisors
and/or human resource specialists familiar with the incumbents' work
environments. The job codes resulting from this process would then be
entered into congruence computations with person codes derived from the
221 or other personal preference measure.

Another source of concern was that the correlation of congruence
with other constructs varied based on the computation method. 2399
congruence was significantly negatively correlated with job
satisfaction; this correlation dropped to insignificance when EAT
congruence was substituted. As mentioned above, neither of these
congruence variables incorporated direct judgments of environmental type
via incumbents' views of their job environments, or job analysis data,

as Holland (1985c) recommends.

110

Also, 221 type scales were not indexed by value, such that two IAR
persons with quite different profiles could have been coded identically
(e.g., Person A: I - 12, A - 11, R - 4; Person B: I - 3, A - 2, R - 1).
Gati (1989) recommends enhanced procedures to accurately reflect
discrepancies like these.

The computation of congruence by subspecialty, as recommended by
Meir (1988), was incompletely achieved. Engineering and scientist
positions at Site A received unique QflQQ codes, depending upon the

ub a t area. Nursing positions at Site B received less precise
scrutiny; DHOC codes were in large part determined based upon pppping
(e.g., staff nurse vs. outpatient specialist vs. manager) rather than
specialty (e.g., psychiatry, emergency, surgery). Previous studies
suggest that the greater specificity in assigning codes, the greater
chance for demonstrating theory-predicted relationships.

Increasing the precision of construct measurement is one important
outcome of research programs. The lessons learned in this process might
point toward improved measurement precision in future congruence
studies. In addition to the suggestions above, the following steps are
recommended. 1) Decide a pzipzi the method for computing congruence,
incorporating as many sources of information as feasible. 2) Use the
measure of person type to its fullest advantage--for example, utilize
the vocational preference score profile in a more sophisticated manner
to account for levels of scale strength. 3) Adopt a single set of
parameters for classifying jobs, preferably one which reflects the most
detailed description, such as subspecialty characteristics. 4) Utilize

a type code that represents the fullest detail possible: e.g., three

111
letters instead of two or one. 5) Strive to incorporate many sources of
information into the environment analysis: modal personality type,
objective job descriptions, job analyses, incumbents' perceptions, the
perceptions of supervisors and other professionals, and 2399
descriptions.

Finally, the potential of the work group's moderating influence in
person-job matching was not tested (Meir, 1989). It would seem
especially important to address this issue in future studies with
samples such as the ones used here, since the modal person code (IAR)
was fairly different from the list of job codes assigned to positions.
It could be that persons with otherwise poor matches simply value being

among like-minded colleagues at work.

A_nn§g_pn_ggnn§;_1§§ng§. No post-hoe tests were done regarding

gender differences in levels of career self-efficacy. A number of
studies (e.g., Landino & Owen, 1988; see Hackett & Lent, in press, for a
review) have found that, in various domains (e.g., faculty research
production, prediction of occupational interests or performance) males
report higher self-efficacy than females. This has often been
interpreted as denoting a difference in socialization between the sexes
rather than an important intrapsychic phenomenon. It was decided to
avoid forming a hypothesis regarding this relationship, since few
studies on adult workers have been reported on the present variables.
Interestingly, in this study, women reported higher career self-

efficacy than men. There was no moderating effect of workforce tenure

 

112
on this result, although the intercorrelations were all significant.
Women had higher workforce tenure than men, but not significantly so.
It will not be suggested here that the higher rate of self-

efficacy for women disproves, or casts doubt upon, the socialization
interpretations. In fact, Hackett and Betz (1981) cite female-
nontraditional fields as examples of careers for which women lack self-
efficacy. Nursing, the career of most female study participants, is

still predominately female.

Summary of Major Issues

The main concepts raised in this discussion of results will be
reviewed briefly here.

Dpmngpnpnin_fnnpp;p_np§_§1gn1§innnp. It is notable that no
demographic variables contributed important variance to the prediction
of job satisfaction. It was hypothesized that dual-career status would
limit perceptions of mobility and therefore might limit the development
of job satisfaction. This was not the case; nor did greater workforce
tenure correlate with higher congruence, as Holland's theory would
suggest. Age, sex, education level, and tenure in the workforce were
unrelated to congruence and to job satisfaction. Career success and
career self-efficacy were significantly positively correlated with age,
and women achieved higher scores in both these career variables. Since
more of the older study subjects were female, these results should be

interpreted cautiously.

113

W- The present
findings imply, within limits, that the constellation of vocational
interests, attitudes and values represented by congruence did not
directly contribute significant variance to the prediction of job
satisfaction. Correlation and multiple regression analyses suggest that
a poor fit between personality traits and job environment need not
necessarily threaten job satisfaction. However, a minimum level of
congruence appears to potentiate important internal factors which
contribute to job satisfaction.

In any case, changing jobs to increase congruence might not by
itself be expected to directly affect job satisfaction. And since the
intrapersonal portion of congruence--the Holland code type--is assumed
to be stable in adults, efforts to impact job satisfaction by enhancing
the person side of congruence would seem ill-considered. These results
encourage looking elsewhere for predictors of job satisfaction. This is
partly consistent with Gati's (1989) comments on the failure of
congruence as measured to predict occupational satisfaction. Among
other explanations, he suggests that congruence may moderate other
variables in predicting outcomes like satisfaction.

e r c t a h ve s o . Career self-
efficacy may provide a richer context than job-person congruence for
understanding job satisfaction. Self-efficacy theory posits that
individual cognitions about competence are developed and strengthened in
a recursive process, with success experiences following from relevant
cognitions and contributing in turn to more such beliefs. In this

study, the reciprocal "partners" of self-efficacy were prior career

ll4
success experiences and perceived organizational opportunity. The
former was operationalized as fpeguency of various success events in
one's career, such as being promoted early or being chosen for special
assignments. The latter represented subjects' pnpnnpninnp of their
chances for job transfers and promotions given the competition from co-
workers, and given their status in five categories: age, sex, education
level, ethnicity, and dual-career status. It was hypothesized, and
results confirmed, that self-efficacy and its partners covary, and that
they contribute important variance to the prediction of job

satisfaction.

Boundaries and Limitations of the Study

Beyond the issues mentioned above, several other limits to the
present study are mentioned below.

First, this study was conducted with managers and professionals in
two different federal government agencies. Subjects volunteered for
study participation, and did not necessarily reflect the entire worksite
in their demographic characteristics. Generalizability is
correspondingly limited. Second, gathering data at a single point in
time limits the generalizability of results. A variable such as career
success, which is dependent upon specific events, might change
substantially over time. Third, since little is known about vocational
theories' contribution to workers' actual career outcomes, and since the
self-efficacy construct is a relative newcomer, this study is

necessarily exploratory. Fourth, a number of the variables were

115
operationalized by novel measures constructed for this study. While
these measures evidenced generally acceptable reliability indices,
establishment of their validity must await additional research.

Also, the distinction between prediction and explanation is
valuable to recall when discussing regression results (e.g., Pedhazur,
1982). The ability to "predict" a criterion variable does not
constitute an explanation of that variable. From this study we cannot
claim to have explained the genesis or variability of job satisfaction.

This study did adequately address an important criticism of career
development theoretical positions (Holland & Gottfredson, 1976): that
is, it incorporated the structure of opportunity, person-environment
fit, and psychological variables in a consideration of job satisfaction.
In this way, both structural and developmental variables were brought to

bear on the research question.
Implications and Directions for Future Research and Practice

In this section, an attempt is made to place these results in the
context of current knowledge, and to suggest how they can inform
research and practice in the future.

Instruments. The instruments debuted here demonstrated adequate
reliability, and can offer assistance to future researchers in measuring
the constructs studied here. Issues of validity can and should be
addressed, as discussed in Chapter Four. The career management self-
efficacy measure may be especially valuable for continued research on

employed adult populations, particularly those in professional settings.

116
It is also clear that different "sub-domains" of career self-efficacy
exist (e.g., job task S-E, job search S-E, career management S-E), so
several instruments might need to be validated as inquiry continues.
Also, gathering verifiable self-reports on perceived opportunity and
career success events can itself become a valuable intervention if
organizations use this information to promote such events and appraisals
in the workplace.

Demographics. Sex, age, education level, and dual-career status
idid not stand out as significant predictors of job satisfaction. This
is a hopeful sign that researchers and practitioners with working adults
may someday find such variables incidental to job satisfaction. This of
course is not now the case with all such studies and populations. It
should be noted, however, that the dual-career status variable in
particular deserves further exploration; and studying the relationship
of continuing education and congruence might yield interesting new
hypotheses.

Congruence and Self-efficacy. The present study found an
interesting moderating relation between these two constructs in the
prediction of job satisfaction. Because of this, the conflict between
so-called structural and developmental theory statements perhaps need
not reflect win-or-lose thinking. This is a picture of participation,
not antagonism. When congruence is low, only perceived performance
accomplishments (career successes) predict job satisfaction. When
congruence is higher, self-efficacy increases in strength as a

significant predictor of satisfaction.

117

It is true that Holland's theory appears not to adequately
incorporate the phenomenon of self-generated beliefs. He would advise a
thorough Person-Environment analysis, but tools do not exist in his
typology to measure the development of personal belief in one‘s
competency to be, say, a mechanic. His position would be that
exploration of childhood/adolescence roles, social status, and liking
for the relevant tasks could explain career choice. This seems too
cumbersome. Self-efficacy aggregates these variables, and incorporates
the cognitive and affective "power" that Holland and Gottfredson suggest
occurs for users of their system:

...the typology and its tools appear to give understanding and

ggwer to the user throughout the vocational counseling process (p.

Researchers who have devoted much attention to Holland's typology
are thinking more broadly as well. Gati (1989) suggests expanding
beyond congruence itself in finding psychological predictors of job
satisfaction. Since this study implies that congruence moderates the
predictive utility of career management self-efficacy, the results fit
well with this recent proposition.

Inquiry with working populations on career-related self-efficacy
continues. In a recent series of experiments, Wood and Bandura (1989)
studied the effects of person, behavior, and environment variables on
self-efficacy for managerial performance. A double-sequence causal
model was produced to account for the effects of triadic reciprocal

causation on new efficacy percepts and their sequelae. Enhanced

performance was produced when SE judgments grew stronger over time.

118
Personal goals and decision strategies were also significant in
explaining performance. These results, in combination with the present
study, suggest that strong self-efficacy in workers can have salutary

benefits on behavioral, cognitive, and emotional reactions.

Implications for Change

These results can suggest efforts aimed at enhancing job
satisfaction through the important predictor variables of career
success, perceived opportunity, and career management self-efficacy.
They also suggest that higher job-person congruence provides a more
fertile context for job satisfaction, given the presence of these other
variables.

Career Success. Subjects asked to rank importance of success
events cited several which could be implemented at little or no cost.
These include: receiving an exciting or high-visibility job assignment;
being chosen to substitute when the manager is away; being selected for
task force assignments or special projects; and receiving a higher-than-
average performance appraisal rating. These events may have dual
benefits of recognizing current performance and contributing to enhanced
efficacy beliefs about future job and career competence.

Perceived Opportunity. Seeing opportunities for job mobility
contributes indirectly to job satisfaction, also. Workplaces which
routinely offer open access to jobs, regardless of employees' gender,
ethnicity, and other demographic factors, are likely to augment the

ability of personal efficacy beliefs to predict job satisfaction.

119

Career self-efficacy. Workers who believe in their own competence
and skill are more likely to be satisfied on the job. Information and
persuasion regarding job and career efficacy can be offered via formal
efforts, like seminars, and informally, through mentoring and
supervision. The present results also argue for maintaining accurate
job descriptions and realistic hiring practices (Ilgen & Seely, 1974).
If workers' valued skills are not formally recognized in recruitment and
job descriptions, their efficacy beliefs may have a less than optimal
chance to develOp. And ongoing appraisals of performance, often
perfunctory (D.R. Ilgen, personal communication, January, 1988) may
likewise falter in enhancing beliefs about competence.

If trait-based variables (such as congruence) or demographic
variables (such as education level) had made the strongest contribution
to job satisfaction, it might be concluded to focus future inquiry and
interventions on changing workforce composition and job tasks. Times of
low mobility could spell doom for such efforts. Happily, studies and
interventions based on efficacy cognitions and success events are much
less drastic, and can be more easily individualized.

A Prevention Approach. These results encourage a prevention
approach to low job satisfaction. Through such techniques as accurate
job descriptions, realistic recruiting practices, job enrichment, job-
related rewards, and recognition of individual contributions, many
workers might avoid disappointment, reduced performance, and premature
termination in favor of an increased sense of competence and
satisfaction. The prevention of mental health problems such as job

stress, and the improvement of well-being on the job and off, deserves

120
as much attention as the validation or challenge of our present

vocational theories.

LI ST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

Adler, S., & Aranya, N. (1984). A comparison of the work needs,
attitudes, and preferences of professional accountants at

different career stages. Jpnnnal of Vogngionnl Behaving, 25, 45-
57.

Anastasi, A. (1982). Psynhnlpgipgl_pg§ping (5th ed.). New York:
Macmillan.

Aranya, N., Barak, A., & Amernic, J. (1981). A test of Holland's theory

in a population of accountants. qupnal pf Vpnngionnl thaviog,
19, 15-24.

Arthur, M.B. (1984). The meaning of careers. In M.B. Arthur, L.

Bailyn, D.J. Levinson, & H.A. Shepard: ngking wign capeezs. New
York: Center for Research in Career Development, Columbia

University.
Babbie, E.R. (1973). finpxgy_pp§gnxpn_nn§npn§. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Bailyn, L. (1982). Trained as engineers: Issues for the management of
technical personnel in midcareer. In R. Katz (Ed.), gazegp igsues
inLhnnan_;e§pn;p§_managengn§. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.

Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. Anngipan
zexsheiezier. 37. 122-147.

Bandura. A. (1986). fi22ial_f2unsati2ns_2f_th2szht_eng_aetion1__a_seeial
npgni;ixg_§hgn;y. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1988). Organizational applications of social cognitive
theory- Aastralienaiosrnal_2flnanasesent. 13. 137-164.

Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. Angpinnn
Barthologist. 44. 1175-1184.

Bandura, A. (1991). Human agency: The rhetoric and the reality.
Amerisan_£sxsholosis&.46. 157-162.

Bardwick. J.M. (1986). Ihe_nlateauins_trani__Bos_t2_azoid_it_in_xosr
- §§;§2;_§ng_xgnz_liig. New York: American Management Association.

Barling, J., & Beattie, R. (1983). Self-efficacy beliefs and sales

performance. J22rnal_2f_Qrzanizati2nal.Behexior_nanasement. 5.
41-51.

Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable
distinction in social psychological research: conceptual,

121

 

122

strategic, and statistical considerations. Jo e t

and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.

Betz, N.E., & Hackett, G. (1986). Applications of self-efficacy theory
to understanding career choice behavior. Journal of Social nnd

WW. 4, 279-289.

Blau, G.J. (1986). The relationship of management level to effort
level, direction of effort and managerial performance. Jpnznnl_pf
Egpntional Behavioi, 29, 226-239.

Blustein, D.L. (1989). The role of goal instability and career self-
efficacy in the career exploration process. Journal oi Vgcntional
Behaving, 35, 194-203.

Brown, D. (1984). Issues and trends in career development. In D.

Brown. L. Brooks. 5: AssociateS. WW

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Campbell, N.K., & Hackett, G. (1986). The effects of mathematics task
performance on math self-efficacy and task interest. 0 a f

Vpcational fignavioz, 28, 149-162.

Campbell, R. E. & Heffernan, J. M. (1983). Adult vocational behavior.

In W B Walsh 5: S H Osipow (Eds ) BMW
We. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum

Caplan, R.D. (1987). Person-environment fit theory: Commensurate
dimensions, time perspectives, and mechanisms. Jpnzna1_gf
MW. 31. 248-267-

Childs, A., & Klimoski, R. (1986). Successfully predicting career
success: An application of the biographical inventory. Jpnrnal

W. 71. 3-8.

Collin, A., & Young, R.A. (1986). New directions for theories of
career. finnnn_3gin§ipn§, 39, 837-853.

Cooper, W.H., & Richardson, A.J. (1986). Unfair comparisons. Jpnznni
2W. 71. 179-184.

Cronbach, L.J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of
tests. Znynnpngppikn, 16, 297-334.

Dalton, G.W., Thompson, P.H., & Price, R.L. (1982). The four stages of
professional careers: A new look at performance by professionals.

In R. Katz (Ed.). WWW.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Dawis, R. (1987). Scale construction. Jo a C e

Psychoiogy, 34, 481-489.

123

Derr, C.B. (1982). Career switching and organizational politics: The

case of naval officers. In R. Katz (Ed.), ange; issngs in hnnan
pesource mnnagement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

D t on o Occu les (4th ed.) (1977). Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Department of Labor.

Elton, C.F., & Smart, J.C. (1988). Extrinsic job satisfaction and

person-environment congruence. Jougnal of Vocational Behavior,
32, 226-238.

Feldman, S., & Meir, E.I. (1976). Measuring women's interests using

Holland's vocational classification. Jpnpnnl_pfnypnn§ipnnl
Mo 9! 345-353-

Forbes, J.B. (1987). Early intraorganizational mobility: Patterns and
influences. Acndemy oi unnagemgnp gpnpnni, 30, 110-125.

Forgionne, G.A., & Peeters, V.E. (1982). Differences in job motivation
and satisfaction among female and male managers. finnnn_figln§ign§,
35, 101-118.

Frayne, G.A., & Latham, G.P. (1987). Application of social learning
theory to employee self-management of attendance. Jpnzngl_pf

AW. 72. 387-392.

Fretz, B.R., Kluge, N.A., Ossana, S.M., Jones, S.M., & Merikangas, M.W.
(1989). Intervention targets for reducing preretirement anxiety

and depression. WW. 36. 301-307.
Gati, I. (1989). Person-environment fit research: problems and
Freepeets. WWW. 35. 181-193.
Ghiselli, E.R., Campbell, J.P., & Zedeck, S. (1981). Mgngnxgngn§_£hgg£y
e v c . ‘San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

Ginsberg. E. (1985). W
pepopt of n wggkghop. New York: Center for Career Research and
Human Resource Management, Columbia University.

Gottfredson, G.D., Holland, J.L., & Ogawa, D.K. (1982). Qingionaiy of
flgllann_nnpnpa§ipnal_npne§. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists

Press.

Gottfredson, G.D., & Holland, J.L. (1990). A longitudinal test of the
influence of congruence: Job satisfaction, competency
utilization, and counterproductive behavior. lgn;nal_p£

W. 37. 389-398.

Greenwald, A., Pratkanis, A., Leippe, M., & Baumgardner, M. (1986).
Under what conditions does theory obstruct research progress?

Esycnoiogipni Review, 93, 216-229.

124

Hackett, G., & Betz, N.E. (1981). A self-efficacy approach to the

career development of women. l2urnal_2f_!22ational_nehaxior. 18.
326-339.

Hackett, G., & Lent, R.W. (in press). Theoretical advances and current
inquiry in career psychology. In S.D. Brown & R.W. Lent (Eds.),

Hannnnok nf Counseling Pnychology (2nd ed.). New York: John
Wiley.

Hackett, G., Betz, N.E., & Doty, M.S. (1985). The development of a

taxonomy of career competencies for professional women. Sn;
fining, 12, 393-409.

Hackett, G., Betz, N.E., O'Halloran, M.S., & Romac, D.S. (1990).
Effects of verbal and mathematics task performance on task and
career self-efficacy and interest. 0 rn o 0 se

Psychology. 37. 169-177.

Hackett, G., Lent, R.W., & Greenhaus, J.H. (1991). Advances in
vocational theory and research: A 20-year retrospective. lnnznal
2f_!aca£isnal_fiehaxior. 38. 3-38.

Hall, D.T. (1986). Breaking career routines: Midcareer choice and
identity development. In D.T. Hall & Associates, gnpnn;

dexelopment_in_2rsenizatigns. San Francisco: Jossey-BaSS-

Hall, D.T., & Lerner, P. (1980). Career development in work

organizations: Research and practice. £1n£nnninnn1_£nynhn1ngy,
11, 428-435.

Hansen. J.C. (1985). Ihe_atr2ns;Qamphell.1nteres&_1nxentorx. Stanford.
CA: Stanford University Press.

Hansen, J.C. (May, 1987). Personal communication.

Heesacker, M., Elliott, T.R., & Howe, L. (1988). Does the Holland code
predict job satisfaction and productivity in clothing factory

workers? J2sraal_2f_§eenselins.2sxcholszx. 35. 144-148.

Hener, T., & Meir, E.I. (1981). Congruency, consistency, and
differentiation as predictors of job satisfaction within the

nursing Profession. l2srnal.2f.!22a£ional_nehaxior. 18. 304-309.

Hill, R.E., & Hansen, J.C. (1986). An analysis of vocational interests
for female research and development managers. lnn:nn1_n£
Eocetienal_fiehaxior. 28. 70-83.

Hill, T., Smith, N.D., & Mann, M.F. (1987). Role of efficacy
expectations in predicting the decision to use advanced

technologies: The case of computers. £22I2§1_QI_A22112Q
Pfilsholszx. 72. 307-313.

125

Holland, J.L. (1966). o v a e. Waltham,
MA: Blaisdell.

Holland, J.L. (1985a). e e - recte ea ch. Odessa, FL:
Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland. J.L. (1985b). Y2cati2nal_2referenee_lnxen£2rx. Odessa. FL:

Psychological Assessment Resources.

Holland, J.L. (1985c). v t e '

w v e (2nd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Holland, J.L. (1987a). Current status of Holland's theory of careers:

Another per8pective. Qa:e21.2222122ment_fluarrerlx. 36. 24-30.

Holland, J.L. (1987b). Some speculation about the investigation of

person-environment transactions. J2urnal_2f_!ecational_Behaxior.
31, 337-340.

Holland, J.L., & Gottfredson, G.D. (1976). Using a typology of persons
and environments to explain careers: Some extensions and

clarifications. Ihe.922nselins_£§xsholosist. 6. 20-29.

Holland, J.L, Gottfredson, G.D., & Baker, H.G. (1990). Validity of
vocational aspirations and interest inventories: Extended,

replicated. and reinterpreted. J2urnal_2£_Qounselins_£§12halssx.
37, 337-342.

Howard, 6.8. (1987). Toward a telic vision of human beings: A dialogue
with Joseph F- Rychlak. l2urnal_2f_Q2unselins_and_nexelonment.

66, l2-l9.

Howard, 0.8. (1984). A modest proposal for a revision of strategies for
counseling research. l2urnal_2f_Qounselins_£sxcholozx. 31. 430-
441.

Ilgen, D.R., & Seely, W. (1974). Realistic expectations as an aid in

reducing voluntary resigmtions. MW.
59, 452-455.

Jepsen, D.A. (1984). The developmental perspective on vocational
behavior: A review of theory and research. In S.D. Brown and

R.W. Lent (Eds.). Bandh22k_2f_seunselins_nsxsholszx- New York:
Wiley.

Jones, G.R. (1986). Socialization tactics, self-efficacy, and

newcomers' adjustments to organizations. Annnnny_nf_flnnngnnnn§
Jnnpnnl, 29, 262-279.

126

Kanfer, R., & Hulin, C. (1985). Individual differences in successful

job searches following lay-off. Peisonnel Psychology, 38, 835-
847.

Katz, R. (1982). Managing careers: The influence of job and group
longevities. In R. Katz (Ed.), e ssue h e
nnnngnnnnn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kirk, R.E. (1982). me ta ' e t e behav 0 a1
sciencen (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Kivilighan, D.M., Jr., Hagaseth, J.A., Tipton, R.M., & McGovern, T.V.
(1981). Effects of matching treatment approaches and personality

types in group vocational counseling. Jouinnl nf Counneling
We. 28. 315-320.

Klein, H. (1988). Job satisfaction in professional dual-career couples:

Psychological and socioeconomic variables. lnn:nnl_n£_!nnn§innnl
Behavior, 32, 255-268.

Klimoski, R.J. (1973). A biographical data analysis of career patterns
in engineering. Jonnnnl oi Vocanionnl Behnvinz, 3, 103-113.

Kopelman, R.E. (1977). Psychological stages of careers in engineering:

An expectancy theory taxonomy. Joupnal nf Vnnntinnal Bennvinr,
10, 270-286.

Kuder. G.P. (1974). Bud2r_Q22unational_1ntere§t_§urzex. Chicaso=

Science Research Associates.

Landino, R.A., & Owen, S.V. (1988). Self-efficacy in university
faculty. J2urnal_2f_YQQational_Behaxior. 33. 1-14.

Lapan, R.T., Boggs, K.R., & Morrill, W.H. (1989). Self-efficacy as a
mediator of investigative and realistic general occupational

themes on the son. War-112W. 36. 176-
182.

Lauver, P.J., & Jones, R.M. (1991). Factors associated with perceived
career options in American Indian, white, and Hispanic rural high

school students. J2urna1_2f_§ounselins_£sxcholszx. 38. 159-166.

Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., & Larkin, K.C. (1986). Self-efficacy in the
prediction of academic performance and perceived career options.

Joupnnl of Cnunnnling Pnynnnlngy, 33, 265-269.

Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., & Larkin, K.C. (1987). Comparison of three
theoretically-derived variables in predicting career and academic
behavior: Self-efficacy, interest congruence, and consequence

thinking. Jnuznal nf Qounseling Psynhnlngy, 34, 293-298.

127

Lent, R.W., & Hackett, G. (1987). Career self-efficacy: Empirical
status and future directions. Monograph. Journal oi Vocational
Behaxior. 30. 347-382.

Levinson, D.J., & associates (1978). e ' l fe. New
York: Knopf.

Levinson, D.J. (1984). The career is in the life structure, the life
structure is in the career: An adult development perspective. In
M.B. Arthur, L. Bailyn, D.J. Levinson, & H.A. Shepard, flnpking
witn nareein. New York: Center for Research in Career
Development, Columbia University.

Lewis-Beck, M.S. (1980). e e e o ' 0 ct on. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Locke, E.A., Frederick, E., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1984). Effect of
self-efficacy, goals, and task strategies on task performance.

l2uInel_2£;A221129_2§2£h212£Y. 59. 241-251.

Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1990). Work motivation and satisfaction:

Light at the end of the tunnel. Pnynnnlnginnl_§ninnnn, l, 240-
246.

Markham, S. (1983). I can be a bum: Knowledge about abilities and life
style in vocational behavior. J2urnal.2f.!222£ionel.§ehaxior. 23.
72-86.

Meir, E.I. (1988). The need for congruence between within-occupation

interests and specialty in mid-career. Ihn_gn1nn1_pnynlnpmnni
anrteily, 37, 631-69.

Meir, E.I. (1989). Integrative elaboration of the congruence theory.
i2urna1.2f_!oca£ional_fiehaxior. 35. 219-230.

Meir, E.I., & Erez, M. (1981). Fostering a career in engineering.
Jnnpnnl oi Vonatinnal Bnhnvinr, 18, 115-120.

Meir, E.I., & Melamed, S. (1986). The accumulation of person-

environment congruences and well-being. lnn:nnl_ni_9nnnpniinnnl
mm, 79 315-323-

Meir, E.I., & Yaari, Y. (1988). The relationship between congruent
specialty choice within occupations and satisfaction. lnn;nnl_ni
Egsatienal_fishaxior. 33. 99-117.

Meir, E.I., Keinan, G., & Segal, Z. (1986). Group importance as a
mediator between personality-environment congruence and

satisfaction. J2urnal_2£;!222£ional_fiehaxior. 28. 60-69.

Meir, E.I., Melamed, S., & Abu-Freha, A. (1990). Vocational,
avocational, and skill utilization congruence and their

128

relationship with well-being in two cultures. J a o
ynnnninnnl Behavior, 36, 153-165.

Moos, R.H. (1987). Person-environment congruence in work, school, and

health care settings. J2urnal_2£_!22ational_nehaxior. 31. 231-
247.

Mount, M.K., & Muchinsky, P.M. (1978). Person-environment congruence
and employee job satisfaction--A test of Holland's theory.

J22rnal_2f_yocational_fiehazior. 13. 84-100.

Myers, R.A. (1988, August). Research on career counseling: Fifteen
years later. Paper presented at the meeting of the American
Psychological Assocation, Atlanta, Georgia.

Nevill, D.D., & Schlecker, D.I. (1988). The relation of self-efficacy
and assertiveness to willingness to engage in

traditional/nontraditional career activities. Wo e
My. 12. 91-98.
Parsons, F. (1909). ghnnning_n_nnrnnr. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Pedhazur, E.J. (1982). v

Exnlanation_aad_nrediction. (2nd ed.) Fort Worth: Holt.
Rinehart & Winston.

Peiser, C., & Meir, E.I. (1978). Congruence, consistency, and
differentiation of vocational satisfaction and preference

stability. J2urnal_2£_!2£a£icnal_hehaxior. 12. 270-278.

Pervin, L.A. (1987). Person-environment congruence in the light of the

person-situation controversy. l2urnal.2f.¥222£ional.fiehaxier. 31.
222-230.

Phillips, S.D., Cairo, P.C., Blustein, D.L., & Myers, R.A. (1988).
Career development and vocational behavior, 1987: A review.

l2urnal.2f.¥ocational_fiehaxior. 33. 119-184.

Pond, S.B., & Geyer, P.D. (1987). Employee age as a moderator of the
relation between perceived work alternatives and job satisfaction.

W. 72. 552-557.

Quinn. R. P. & Shepard. L. (1974). Ihe_l2Z3_l21&_sualitx_sf_emnlsxment
surye11__Dessrinti_s_statistics. Ann Arbor. MI: Institute for

Social Research, Survey Research Center.

Robbins, 8.8. (1985). Validity estimates for the Career Decision-Making
Self-efficacy Scale. e u e e d v u

Dexelopment. 18. 64-71.

129

Rotberg, H.L., Brown, D., & Ware, W.B. (1987). Career self-efficacy
expectations and perceived range of career options in community

college students. Jnnrnal ni Counnnling Pnynnolngy, 34, 164-170.

Roth, L.M. (1988). Downsizing and restructuring practices in corporate
America: An interview study. e e B i ,
Columbia University Center for Career Research and Human Resource
Management.

Rounds. J.B. (1985). [Review of I2cati2nal_£refersace_lnxeat2ry. 7th

rev ]. In J.V. Mitchell. Jr. (Ed ). IBe_ninth_meatal_measurements
ynnrnnnk, Vol. II. Lincoln, NE: The Buros Institute of Mental

Measurements, University of Nebraska.

Rounds, J.B. (1990). The comparative and combined utility of work value
and interest data in career counseling with adults. lnnrnnl_nf
Essatienal_fiehaxior. 37. 32-45.

Schein, E.H. (1986). A critical look at current career development
theory and research. In D.T. Hall & Associates (Eds.), gnrnnr

nnvnlopment in orgnnizaiions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schlossberg. N.R. (1984). Q2anaeliag_adulta_in_transition1__Linkins
practice_xith_theerx. New York: Springer-

Schoen, L.G., & Winocur, S. (1988). An investigation of the self-

efficacy of male and female academics. innrnnl_ni_ynnniinnnl
Bnhnyinr, 32, 307-320.

Schwartz, R.H., Andiappan, P., & Nelson, M. (1986). Reconsidering the
support for Holland's congruence-achievement hypothesis. Jnnrnnl

2£_§guaseling_£sxshology. 33. 425-428.

Shullman, S.L., & Carder, C.E. (1983). Vocational psychology in
industrial settings. In W.B. Walsh & S.H. Osipow (Eds.), finnnnnnk

2f.22cati2nal_ns1sh2l2syi_Yoli_21__Annlicatisns. Billsdale. NJ:

Erlbaum.

Slaney, R.B., & Russell, J.E.A. (1986). Perspectives on vocational

behavior. 1986: A review. J2urna1.2f_!223tional_hehaxicr. 31.
111-173.

Smart, J.C. (1989). Life history influences on Holland vocational type
develovment. J2urna1.2f_!22atienal_fiehaxier. 13. 54-62.

Smart, J.C., Elton, C.F., & McLaughlin, G.W. (1986). Person-environment

congruence and job satisfaction. I2urnal_2£_!osa£12nal_nehaxior.
29, 216-225.

Smith, P.C., Kendall, L.M., & Hulin, C.L. (1969). Ihn_nnn§nrnmnnr_ni
satisfacti2n_in_xork_and_retirement- Chicago: Rand McNallY-

 

130

Sonnenfeld, J., & Kotter, J.P. (1982). The maturation of career theory.
Hnnnn Belations, 35, 19-46.

Spokane, A.R. (1985). A review of research on person-environment
congruence in Holland's theory of careers. Journal of Vocational
Behnvinr, 26, 306-343.

Spokane, A.R. (1987). Conceptual and methodological issues in person-

environment fit research. Journal ni Vocational Bennvior, 31,
217-221.

Staying away in droves. (1987, April). Ihn_Ennnnninr, 303, 88.

Steiner, D.D., & Farr, J.L. (1986). Career goals, organizational reward
systems, and technical updating in engineers. lnnrnnl_nf

annpntionnl Psynhnlogy, 59, 13-24.

Stout, S.K., Slocum, J.W., & Cron, W.L. (1987). Career transitions of
superiors and subordinates. Jnnrnnl oi Vonniional Behnvinr, 30,

124-137.

Stumpf, S.A., Brief, A.P., & Hartman, K. (1987). Self-efficacy
expectations and coping with career-related events. Jonrnnl of
W. 31. 91-108.

Super, D.E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career
develovment. J2urnal_gf_ygcational_Behaxisr. 16. 282-298.

Super, D.E. (1984). Career and life development. In D. Brown & L.
Brooks (Eds.), Cnreer nhnine nnn nnvelopnnnn. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Sutton, R.I., & Kahn, R.L. (1987). Prediction, understanding, and
control as antidotes to organizational stress. In J.W. Lorsch

(ed ). Bandb22k_2f_organizational_hehaxior (pp. 272-285).
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Swaney, K., & Prediger, D. (1985). The relationship between interest-
occupation congruence and job satisfaction. a V c nal

Bnhavior, 26, 13-24.

Tinsley, H.E.A., & Tinsley, D.J. (1987). Uses of factor analysis in

counseling psychology research. J2urna1_2f_§22nseling_£syshology.
34, 414-424.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1977).
(4th ed.) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Vondracek, F.W., Lerner, R.M., & Schulenberg, J.E. (1986). Qarnnr
nevnlnpnnnt; A liin-span nnvnlopmeninl npprnnnn. Hillsdale, NJ:

Erlbaum.

131

Warnath, C.F. (1975). Vocational theories: Direction to nowhere.

Pnrnnnnel nnd Guidannn Jonrnnl, 53, 422-428.

Warren, G.D., Winer, J.L., & Dailey, K.C. (1981). Extending Holland's
theory to the later years. J2urnal_2f_!2cational_hehazior. 18.
104-114.

Weiner, J., & Klein, K.L. (1978). The relationship between vocational
interests and job satisfaction: Reconciliation of divergent

results. J2urnal.2i.!22ational_nehaxior. 13. 298-304.
Weiss, N., & Hassett, M. (1982). du o c . Reading, MA:

Addison-Wesley.

Wiener, Y., Vardi, Y., & Muczyk, J. (1981). Antecedents of employees'
mental health--The role of work satisfaction. J u of

Yosetional_hehayigr. 19. 50-60.

Wiggins, J.D. (1984). Personality-environmental factors related to job

satisfaction of school counselors. ynnnrinnnl_§ninnnnn_gnnrrnrly,
33, 169-177.

Wiggins, J.D., Lederer, D.A., Salkowe, A., & Rys, G.S. (1983). Job
satisfaction related to tested congruence and differentiation.

l22rasl.2f.!22a£ional_hehaxior. 23. 112-121.

Williams, T.M., & Leonard, M.M. (1988). Graduating black

undergraduates: The step beyond retention. lnnrnnl_ni_§nllngn
Student_nexelonment. 29. 69-75.

Wolfe, L.K., & Betz, N.E. (1981). Traditionality of choice and sex-role
identification as predictors of the congruence of occupational

choice in college women. J2urna1.2f_!222tional_hehaxior. 18. 43-
55.

Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory of

organizational management. Annnnny_ni_unnngnnnnr_gnyiny, 14, 361-
384.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

e ecut ve nforma etter

Chief
Nursing Service

Dear

I am writing to propose participation by your staff in a study of career
attitudes and job satisfaction, which I could conduct on site in
Dr. suggested that I let you know of this study.

I have completed my coursework for a Ph.D. in counseling psychology at
Michigan State, and this study is a portion of my dissertation research.
A pilot version has already been conducted at another U.S. government
facility in Michigan. Enclosed is a description of the study, sample
agreement, consent form, surveys, and my vita.

The issue of job satisfaction has held my interest for many years, and
my decision to return to school was based largely on my desire to better
understand the psychological components of adult workers' decisions in
the job and career area. The study, described in the enclosed
statement, is an attempt to learn more about workers' career development
concerns, especially in the current climate of reduced upward mobility
and flattening organizations. My hunch is that job satisfaction can be
enhanced by factors less expensive than promotions and raises, if human
resource policies are targeted to known employee attitudes.

The study involves collecting survey responses from employees, and
giving feedback to the organization (and to individuals who
participated, if desired). All individual survey responses are kept
confidential; I report only aggregate data. Participants may request
their specific responses at group meetings where I discuss the results.
There are five paper and pencil surveys which take under 30 minutes for
most people to complete. These can be answered in group meetings at the
work site, privately through interoffice mail, or by some other
convenient method. There would be no cost to you in conducting the
study.

Benefits for individuals who participate include: gaining awareness of
personal attitudes and decisions related to career development;
comparison of individual survey results to scores from a large
population; and a chance to contribute to a survey which might provide a
broader perspective on their employer's human resource issues. Benefits
for the organization include: gathering information which might
indicate changes or enhancements in current human resource policies and
programs, including recruitment, hiring, training, and succession
planning; external consultation from a skilled observer; and a reusable
process for collecting human resource information.

132

133

The first phase of the project surveyed 65 managers and professionals in
a public-sector agency, to test the reliability of the surveys and to
make preliminary conclusions. I would like to repeat the study in a
setting with the potential for over one hundred participants. (Wording
on some surveys may require changes to make them appropriate for the new
setting.) It would be a pleasure to meet with you and/or other
interested colleagues to discuss the study's potential usefulness.

I will contact you soon to learn if you're interested in discussing this
idea further. I will be in town all of this month except July 21-28.

Best regards,

Ellen Lent

enclosures

134
APPENDIX B

W

DRAFT - Advance publicity memo re Career Attitudes Study
TO: All engineers and managers
FROM: , Human Resources Officer

SUBJECT: Upcoming Career Attitudes Study

We have agreed to participate in a study of career attitudes designed by
Ellen Lent for her dissertation in psychology at Michigan State
University. Ellen has fifteen years of human resources experience in
government, education, and corporate settings, and would like to
contribute knowledge to the important dilemma of job satisfaction that
is facing many U.S. workplaces. You may realize that, because of the
baby boom generation and the tendency toward downsizing, many
professionals are feeling dissatisfied and frustrated in their jobs, and
employers need better insights into current reasons for job
satisfaction. Vocational psychologists try to help employers understand
problems like these. Having previously worked with large numbers of
engineers and managers, Ellen approached us about the study and asked
our assistance. I see this as a chance for us to contribute to a better
understanding of professionals' attitudes about career issues, and to
learn more about our own individual characteristics and opinions.

This will be a voluntary activity, involving completion of five paper-
and-pencil surveys, and I strongly encourage you to participate. The
surveys are designed to provide information about career decisions and
attitudes; individual survey responses will be kept totally confidential
from me and anyone else at . I personally, and
generally, can benefit from learning the overall results of this study
and their implications for our workforce, now and in the future.
Further, at the follow-up meetings, you can hear more about the study
from Ellen, get your own results from the surveys, and ask questions
about your results in confidence.

 

 

Ellen will be here to administer the surveys on the morning of Tuesday,
October 24. Another announcement of the meeting time will be sent to
you closer to that date. Please plan to attend the meeting and listen
to Ellen explain the procedure. You will have a chance at that time to
ask questions and to decide whether to participate. If you have any
questions before the meeting, please contact me. Thank you for
considering to participate in this study.

135

APPENDIX C

0] . 9 1.3; '1- d; 0 0 '0 al.,; ,1” '11 'isl 1

INTRODUCTION
1. My years in personnel and career development settings

2. My review of literature: career-related studies with employees
dating back to the turn of the century

3. Interest in career-related attitudes and their possible connections
with behavior

4. A number of theories have been proposed, trying to explain many
things:

* job performance
* turnover/longevity
* job satisfaction
* career choice
* satisfaction outside of work
5. Your participation will help to move knowledge forward in
vocational psychology and in your work setting. I'm very excited about
this study too, and hope to continue it in another site later this year.
6. I'll provide you with your results when they're available

7. People who don't complete these surveys today will get a packet in

the mail. (If you don't want to participate, ignore the next packet
when it arrives)

8. If you think this is useful, please tell your co-workers who didn't
come today

9. Sign consent form; if you don't, I can't use your answers

10. Be honest; there will be no adverse reflection on yourself or your
agency

11. Any questions?

Procedure
1. Hand out packets; each person check contents

2. Write I.D. number (not name) on all pages except maroon VPI answer
sheet

136
3. Complete surveys in silence
4. No need to rush; no time limit

5. Ignore numbers in parentheses on surveys
6. Sign consent form with name and I.D. number

7. For VPI: I.D. number on answer sheet; use answer sheet for
responses. Note it continues on back side. Leave maroon form out;
don‘t write on it.

137
APPENDIX D

F N EP SIT A
CAREER ATTITUDES STUDY - REPORT OF RESULTS: July 1990

This study was conducted as part of the dissertation research of Ellen
Lent, Ph.D. candidate in counseling psychology at Michigan State
University. Please contact her for further information at

The purpose of this study was to better understand factors that
contribute to job satisfaction, especially in the current climate of
lessened promotional opportunities. The increased numbers of baby boom
workers at mid-career, the reduced numbers of managerial positions, and
the effects of dual-career decision making were all thought to
contribute to this reduction in upward mobility. Study findings might
assist in enhancing job satisfaction through human resource
policies such as job descriptions, recruiting, hiring, job assignments,
and job enrichment.

Concepts from two different theories of career development were used in
studying levels of job satisfaction. John Holland's theory of job-
person fit,‘or congruence, holds that the better the "fit" between type
of person and type of job, the more satisfied the worker will be. For
instance, a person who values individual effort, and who is less
socially focused, will thrive in a research or artistic environment, but
will not enjoy person-oriented work such as selling. The concept of
career self-efficacy, or belief in personal competence, is advanced by
Albert Bandura and others. High self-efficacy for planning one's career
and performing well at work is said to contribute to greater job
satisfaction.

The two theories each name several factors that are supposed to
contribute to these key concepts. Length of time in the workforce and
mobility within the organization are expected to increase congruence
between person and job. Past successes in career planning and job
performance are expected to increase career self-efficacy. The study
includes these factors, and several others: age, tenure in the
organization, and dual-career status (whether the study participant has
- a life partner whose career affects the participant's career decisions).

This study used survey responses from 64 professional and managerial
employees at . Of the five surveys, two (Jon

W and W) are in common
use. and three (W. W.
and Cnreer Iask Buryny) are original.

 

138

The first set of surveys was administered in October 1989; the three
original surveys were retaken in March 1990.

 

 

139

C PT SULTS

MEAN MINIMUM
Age range 30-39 under 25
Job tenure 4.9 yrs. 1 year
Org'l tenure 9.5 yrs. 1 year
Workforce tenure 12.5 yrs. 1 year
Career success 1.6 .25
Career self-efficacy 6.5 4.27
Job satisfaction ' 3.1 1.00
Org'l mobility 2.1 .57

MAXIMUM

50-54
18 years
26 years

35 years

3.25 (4)
8.03 (9)
4.60 (5)

3.43 (4)*

* Number in parentheses is highest possible score

Dual-career status: 41 participants

Males: 47 Females: l7

STD.
DEVIATION

4.6 years
6.7 years

8.8 years

.67
.82
.87

.58

SURVEY RELIABILITY (similarity in each participant's answers over 5

months)

1. Career Success Measure: .66

2. Career Task Survey (self-efficacy):

3. Organizational Mobility: .81

PERSON-JOB CONGRUENCE
High: 7
Medium: 27

Low: 30

.69

 

140

HIGHEST RANKED CAREER SUCCESS FACTORS

1. Offered a promotion sooner than the normal rate (55)

2. Received an exciting or high-visibility job assignment (53)

3. Received a higher than average performance appraisal rating (47)
4. Received a higher than average salary increase (31)

5. Been chosen to substitute when manager is away (30)

6. Selected above others to go on details, or for a task force
assignment (29)

SELECTED CORRELATIONS

1. The higher the work tenure, the lower the job satisfaction

2. The higher the career success, the higher the job satisfaction
3. The greater the age, the higher the career success

4. The dual career participants had higher congruence

5. The higher the congruence, the lower the job satisfaction

6. The higher the work tenure, the higher the career self-efficacy

STATISTICAL PREDICTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION, IN ORDER OF STRENGTH
1. career success

2. career self-efficacy

NEGATIVE CONTRIBUTORS TO JOB SATISFACTION
1. work tenure

2. congruence

NONSIGNIFICANT FACTORS

'Dual-career status, age, sex, education level, organizational mobility

 

 

141
DISCUSSION

Demographics. The age of study participants is relatively young, but
the mean job tenure and organizational tenure is high. This picture is
consistent with the national trend of baby-boom-age workers being
promoted less often than in the past. The large number of dual-career
workers is also consistent with national trends. Age ranges rather than
exact ages were used as a privacy safeguard.

Because of the mean age of participants, it is not surprising that
career success scores are fairly low, since that survey asks for
frequency of occurrence. A younger worker will have had fewer chances
for such events to occur.

Job satisfaction. 1987 scores for a group of 226 employees of a
healthcare facility were: mean - 3.49, standard deviation - .86. The
job satisfaction scores for do not appear to differ greatly from
this other sample.

Original surveys. The garner Insk Suryey was designed to measure four
areas of self-efficacy: overall career planning, job performance,
professional development, and organizational requirements. The Qnreer
Bnnnnnn_flnnnnrn items were reviewed at for content and correct
wording. The survey of organizational mobility captured the presence of
obstacles to finding other desirable work within the current
organization.

The reliabilities of the three original surveys over a 5-month period
are fairly good. These values show how well the surveys perform an
important purpose: to yield scores that are consistent for the same
person, answering on different occasions. The highest possible
reliability for any survey is 1.00. Mean scores for career self-
efficacy, career success, and organizational mobility can be compared
later to those of another group which will complete this study.

Congruence. The six types of persons and jobs proposed by Holland are:
Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and .
Conventional. Bign_nnngrnnnnn is defined as: exact match of first
three letters, such as IRE, IRE; or same first two letters, same order,
such as IRE, IRA; or same three letters in different order, such as IRE,
REI. Pnrrinl_nnngrnnnnn is defined as: same first letter, such as RIA,
REC; or first two letters in one code in any order in the second, such
as IRE, SRI.

The Holland codes for positions in this study, determined by review of

job descriptions and comparisons to the Hflllfiné_21££12n§£1;2f
Walling. are:

REI: supervisory chemist, supervisory mechanical engineer, supervisory
mechanical engineering technician, supervisory environmental protection
specialist, supervisory environmental scientist.

142

IER: supervisory general engineer, general engineer, environmental
engineer.

I
IRE: environmental protection specialist, chemist, mechanical engineer,
chemical engineer, environmental scientist.

The Holland codes for individuals, computed from their Vonaiinnal
Prefernnce inventory results, were quite varied. 38 participants' codes
included Artistic; 21 included Social; and 15 included Conventional.
These three types are not represented in the codes of positions held by
study participants.

The relatively small number of high-congruence fits between person and
job in this group may have several explanations. First, Holland himself
has consistently found when analyzing engineering jobs that they
alternately receive I or R primary codes. That is, his system cannot
say for sure that an individual engineering position should be coded
with I or R first. Second, the relatively young age of this group may
suggest that some people have not yet gravitated to positions that are
high-congruence matches; Holland's theory states that this movement
takes place over time. Third, the amount of researching, writing, and
personal interaction that characterizes some technical positions may
attract some Artistic and Social incumbents who might not ”fit” as
happily into more traditional science and engineering jobs. So may
have a number of fairly satisfied technical specialists who are misfits
"on paper"; that is, some positions might have more S or A tasks than
the job description indicates.

 

Career Success. On the Qnrnnr_§nnnnnn_flnnnnrn, participants chose the
five events which they believed were the most important overall
indicators of career success in their workplace. This reflects
employees' opinions about the ability of specific events to signal
career success. The strength of these events in contributing to job
satisfaction is very significant, as shown by the regression analyses.
An important fact about these six events is that only one, receiving a
higher than average salary increase, is a direct cost. The other five
can be implemented for little or no cost.‘

Correlations.

1. In studies of job satisfaction, it is common to find a negative
relationship with work tenure; this is often explained by the increasing
satisfaction provided by avocational interests as workers near
retirement.

2. Career success is an important predictor of job satisfaction, so
this positive correlation is expected.

3. Age is correlated with career success since, as mentioned above,
scores increase with number of success indicators reported.

143

4. It is possible that workers in dual-career couples are older, and
that greater work tenure (and therefore age) is associated with higher
congruence.

5. The negative relation between congruence and satisfaction may be
explained by the presence of nontraditional (e.g., artistic and social)
tasks in otherwise unremarkable-looking scientific job descriptions.
That is, if a number of A and S tasks exist in positions for which
traditionally-trained scientists or engineers were hired, the I or R
congruent workers may find they are not as well suited to those tasks,
and their job satisfaction could suffer as a result.

6. The positive correlation between work tenure and career self-
efficacy may reflect the age-career success relationship. Age is highly
related to work tenure, and career success is a predictor of career
self-efficacy.

Predictors of job satisfaction. The ability of career success and
career self-efficacy to predict job satisfaction is predicted by
Bandura's theory, and has important implications for . This
demonstrates that work-related success experiences, and participants'
judgments about their capacity to succeed, contribute to satisfaction on
the job. It is possible to arrange work conditions and human resource
policies to increase workers' chances for success experiences, and
success events can be expected to improve workers' judgements about
their own ability to accomplish work-related goals. For instance,
performance-based promotions could be accelerated for exceptional
performers; creative planning could be continually applied to job
assignments and task organization, perhaps with multi-manager input;
performance appraisal ratings could be monitored to avoid clustering at
the high end; manager substitution could be rotated, to allow more
workers exposure to managerial tasks; and assignments to details and
task forces could be reviewed by a prestigious group and be announced
publicly.

The negative relation between congruence and satisfaction suggests a
review of practices in writing job descriptions, recruiting, and hiring
new engineers and scientists. It is possible that improved listing of
job tasks, and expanded discussion of these tasks with new candidates,
might allow to attract and retain technical workers who
genuinely enjoy the artistic and/or social qualities of the jobs.

144

APPENDIX E

TI Y IT
TO: Selected employees
FROM: and

 

 

SUBJECT; Career Attitudes Study

We have agreed to participate in a study of career attitudes designed by
Ellen Lent, a doctoral student in counseling psychology at Michigan
State University. Our contribution to the study consists of selected
employees completing five paper-and-pencil surveys; the time needed is
about 30 minutes per person. All responses will be totally anonymous
and confidential; results will be reported in aggregate form only.

The benefit to our service will be an improved awareness of the factors
that contribute to job satisfaction and career success. We will also be
able to compare the results of this study with those obtained at another
public sector agency. With increasing numbers of baby-boom employees at
mid-career, the importance of job satisfaction continues to rise. This
study will contribute to better understanding of this important topic.

The surveys are enclosed in this packet. Please read the directions,

complete the surveys, and return them to Ellen at . If you would

like to know your individual results, please contact her in writing at
results should be available by January.

 

 

145
APPENDIX F
IN PORT 0 SITE

CAREER ATTITUDES STUDY - REPORT OF RESULTS: APRIL 1991

This study was conducted as part of the dissertation research of Ellen
Lent, Ph.D. candidate in counseling psychology at Michigan State
University. Please contact her for further information at

The purpose of this study was to better understand factors that
contribute to job satisfaction, especially in the current climate of
lessened promotional opportunities. The increased numbers of baby boom
workers at mid-career, the reduced numbers of managerial positions, and
the effects of dual-career decision making were all thought to
contribute to this reduction in upward mobility. Study findings might
assist in enhancing job satisfaction through human
resource policies such as job descriptions, recruiting, hiring, job
assignments, and job enrichment.

Concepts from two different theories of career development were used in
studying levels of job satisfaction. John Holland's theory of job-
person fit, or congruence, holds that the better the ”fit" between type
of person and type of job, the more satisfied the worker will be. For
instance, a person who values individual effort, and who is less
socially focused, will thrive in a research or artistic environment, but
will not enjoy person-oriented work such as selling. The concept of
career self-efficacy, or belief in personal competence, is advanced by
Albert Bandura and others. High self-efficacy for planning one's career
and performing well at work is said to contribute to greater job
satisfaction.

The two theories each name several factors that are supposed to
contribute to these key concepts. Length of time in the workforce and
mobility within the organization are expected to increase congruence
between person and job. Past successes in career planning and job
performance are expected to increase career self-efficacy. The study
includes these factors, and several others: age, sex, education level,
tenure in the job, organization, and workforce, and dual-career status
(whether the study participant has a life partner whose career affects
the participant's career decisions).

This study used survey responses from 104 professional and managerial
employees at . Of the five surveys, two ilob_§atisfa£tien
5.1102! and W) are in common use. and three
(MM—mama t al Mob 1 u . WW. and Mask
Bnryny) are original. The first set of surveys was administered in

October 1990; a follow-up survey, the JQE_D£§£IIDEIQD_SEI2£¥. was
administered in March 1991.

N I ON

Number of subjects: 104
Age range: under 25 to over 60
Dual-career status: 62 (59%)

Education level: 22% post-high

MEAN
Job tenure (years) 5.7
tenure (years) 10.9

Workforce tenure (years) 17.4

Career success 1.9
Career self-efficacy 7.3
Job satisfaction 3.5
Org'l mobility 2.5

146

Females: 93 Males: 11

Mean age range: 40-44

school, 49% B.A. or B.S.; 31% post-8.8.

MINIMUM MAXIMUM
1 23
l 42
l 42
0 3.75 (4)
3.87 8.87 (9)
1.00 5.00 (5)
.86 4.00 (4)*

* Number in parentheses is highest possible score

PERSON-JOB CONGRUENCE

NUMBER PERCENT
High: 33 31%
Medium: 44 42%
Low: 27 25%

SELECTED CORRELATIONS BETWEEN FACTORS

Significant positive relation:

* organizational mobility and job satisfaction
* career success and job satisfaction
* career self-efficacy and job satisfaction

STD.
DEV.

4.80

8.13

9.30

.79

.97

1.05

.64

 

147

* organizational mobility and career success
* age and career success

* career success and career self-efficacy

* work tenure and career self-efficacy

STATISTICAL PREDICTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION, IN ORDER OF STRENGTH
1. career self-efficacy
2. career success

3. organizational mobility

NONSIGNIFICANT FACTORS

Dual-career status, age, sex, education level, job tenure, tenure,
job-person congruence

DISCUSSION

Study participation. Of 265 personnel who were invited to participate,
104 (39%) completed surveys. There was no in-person contact; all
communication with potential participants occurred through interoffice
mail. This response rate is not unusual for such a project. Of those
who did not respond, a large percentage work in ICU and operating room
positions.

Demographics. The mean age of study participants is relatively young,
but the mean job tenure and organizational tenure is high. This picture
is consistent with the national trend of baby-boom-age workers being
promoted less often than in the past. The large percentage of dual-
career workers is also consistent with national trends. Age ranges
rather than exact ages were used as a privacy safeguard.

Original surveys. The Bnrnnr_1nnk_§nryny was designed to measure four
areas of self-efficacy: overall career planning, job performance,

professional development, and organizational requirements. The Qnreer

Snnnnnn_flnnnnrn items were reviewed by the Nursing Service for content
and correct wording. Qnrnnr_§nnnnnn scores reflect frequency of success

experiences, so a high-tenure workforce such as this should score
relatively high on this measure. Younger workers have had fewer chances
for such events to occur. TheO grgnniznninnnl_nn_iliry_Bnryny_captures
the presence of obstacles to finding other desirable work within the
current organization.

Job satisfaction. 1987 scores for a group of 226 employees of a
healthcare facility were: mean - 3.49, standard deviation - .86. The
job satisfaction scores for do not appear to differ greatly
from this other sample. Mean scores for subjects on job

148

satisfaction, career self-efficacy, career success, and organizational
mobility are uniformly higher than those from the first study site.
Recall that workforce tenure is highly related to job satisfaction, and

subjects' workforce tenure was higher (17.4 vs. 12.5 years).
Therefore, it is somewhat expected to find this result in a higher-
tenure group.

Congruence. The six types of persons and jobs proposed by Holland are:
Bealistic, lnvestigative, Artistic, Bocial, Enterprising, and
gonventional. High_nnngrnnnnn is defined as: exact match of first
three letters, such as SIE, SIE; or same first two letters, same order,
such as SIE, SIA; or same three letters in different order, such as SIE,
IES. Pnrrinl_nnngrnnnnn is defined as: same first letter, such as SEC,
SIA; or first two letters in one code in any order in the second, such
as ISR, SEI.

The Holland codes for positions in this study, determined by

matching _ Job descriptions to the WW
(DOT), are:

SIE: staff nurse, head nurse

SEI: nursing supervisor, clinical coordinator
SEC: clinical specialist, research nurse

SCI: nursing instructor

The Holland codes for individuals, computed from their Ennnrinnnl
Prnierence inventory results, were quite varied. 20 participants'
first-letter codes were Realistic, and 22 were Artistic; these two types
do not appear at all in position codes. The single most
popular type in this group is Investigative, which is the first letter
for 34 participants.

The first computation of congruence was done by the process described
above, comparing the three-letter codes from subjects' VPIs with the
position codes from the DOT. This not only resulted in a very skewed
distribution (76% not congruent), but also demonstrated a confusing
correlation: the higher the congruence, the lower the job satisfaction.
Similar results were obtained the first study site. Holland suggests
that unusual results may occur because of incomplete information,
including job descriptions that do not fully reflect the position's
variety. Approval was given for a new survey to address this issue.
Forty-four study subjects responded to the l2h.D£§££iE£12£.§BIZ§I.
administered in March 1991. This survey yielded the following changes:
29% increased congruence, 13% decreased congruence, and 54% remained the
same. New correlations were not computed because of the partial
response.

Another computation, suggested by Holland, compares individual VPI
scores with the most common VPI score across all subjects (in this case,

 

149

IAR). This was done, with the following congruence results: 31% high,
42% medium, 25% low. With this method, the negative relation between
congruence and job satisfaction disappeared. It is possible, just as
with the first group of subjects, that the job descriptions did not
fully reflect the variety of tasks in each position. It is also
possible, however, that the high congruence/low satisfaction picture
might be accurate: that Nursing Service employees who truly "fit” the
Social description find their work environments inhospitable and
therefore have lower satisfaction. The large numbers of Investigative,
Realistic and Artistic employees, who prefer more privacy and less
personal interaction, may contribute to this lack of fit. It is also
possible that the coding of nursing positions in the Holland scheme is
inappropriate for jobs. Since_the most common three-letter VPI
code obtained by subjects is IAR, perhaps the work environment really is
less social and more investigative than some other nursing environments.
(In fact, IAR is also the most common VPI code in the first study site,
staffed by chemists, engineers, and managers.) 80 may have a
number of fairly satisfied nursing personnel who are misfits "on paper";
that is, some positions might be characterized more by Investigative,
Artistic, and Realistic than the job description indicates.

Career Success. Success experiences contribute to career self-efficacy,
the single most important predictor of job satisfaction in this study.
One factor commonly denoting career success is money. Interestingly,
many events on the §££££I_§£££2§§;HEBEEI£ do not include salary
increases, such as ”received an exciting or high-visibility job
assignment", and "chosen to substitute when manager is away”. The
strength of these events in contributing to job satisfaction is
significant, and many can be implemented for little or no cost. At the
first study site, a public sector agency, subjects ranked items on this
measure based on their importance in indicating career success. Only
one item in the top six--"received a higher than average salary
increase"--costs money.

Predictors of job satisfaction. The ability of career success and
career self-efficacy to predict job satisfaction is predicted by
Bandura's theory, and has important implications for Nursing
Service. This study demonstrates that work-related success experiences,
and participants' subsequent judgements about their capacity to succeed,
contribute to satisfaction on the job. It is possible to arrange work
conditions and human resource policies to increase workers' chances for
success experiences, and success events can be expected to improve
workers' judgments about their own ability to accomplish work-related
goals. For instance, performance-based promotions could be accelerated
for exceptional performers; creative planning could be continually
applied to job assignments and task organization, perhaps with multi-
manager input; performance appraisal ratings could be monitored to avoid
clustering at the high end; manager substitution could be rotated, to
allow more workers exposure to managerial tasks; and assignments to
details and task forces could be reviewed by a prestigious group and be
announced publicly.

 

 

150

The negative relation between congruence and satisfaction suggests a
review of practices in writing job descriptions, recruiting, and hiring
new personnel. It is possible that improved listing of job tasks, and
expanded discussion of these tasks with new candidates, might allow ___

to attract and retain nursing professionals who genuinely enjoy the
investigative and artistic qualities of the work environment. Also, an
expectation that the Nursing Service as a whole is oriented toward
social values and activities may not be warranted in this setting.
There is a visible percentage of Nursing Service staff who prize
abstract inquiry, scientific pursuits, technical competency, and
personal creativity in their working lives.

151

APPENDIX C

Informed Consent Form for Carner Attitudes Btuny

This study is an attempt to learn more about the career attitudes of
professional employees in various stages of their careers. There are
many theories and guesses about whether people are content with their
work, and what factors contribute to work satisfaction. This study will
provide updated information on this topic. Knowledge about work
satisfaction will help individuals and employers find better ways to
manage careers, including personal career planning methods, hiring and
training policies, and employee development activities. Ihn_prnnnnnrn
tu t e et o e 0 ve wr n

SUE ynyn 1

Please read the following statements about the Q£I££I_A££1£BQ2§_§EQQY
and, if you are willing to participate, complete the information below.

1. I have freely consented to take part in this study, which is being
conducted by Ellen Lent, M.A., of Michigan State University, under the
supervision of Dr. Frederick Lopez, of Michigan State University.

2. I understand that the time needed for me to complete the five
surveys in this study is between 30 and 60 minutes.

3. I understand that my participation will pose no significant risks or
discomfort to me; that I am free not to participate at all or to
discontinue my participation in the study at any time without penalty;
and that I am free to decline to answer specific questions.

4. I understand that the results of this study will be treated in
strict confidence, and that I will never be identified by name in any
reporting of the results. Results of the study will be available in
group or aggregate form only. Within these restrictions, results of the
study can be made available to me at my request.

5. I understand that my participation or nonparticipation in this study
will in no way affect the conditions of my employment.

This study has been described to me and I understand the explanation
that has been given and what my participation will involve. My
participation in this research is completely voluntary. I am indicating
my voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning this
form and package of surveys.

 

 

Signature Name (please print)

 

Date

 

152

APPENDIX B
e al o 1 s e 10/89

Circle the number that describes your status in each area, or fill in
the blanks:

- under 25
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54

- 55-59

- 60 or over

As:

0
1
2
3
A
5
6
7
8

male
- female

I?
HO
I

Ed t o vel com leted

1 - high school or below

2 — some college

3 - undergraduate degree

4 - graduate work or degree
Joh_Iitls

 

Eé£212_2f_12h (check the answer that best describes your position)

staff nurse manager other

Dual;nnrnnr_srnrnn (do you have a life partner whose career decisions
affect you and who is affected by your career decisions?)

0 - no

1 - yes

Job_tenure (how long in your present job?) years
Qrgnniznrinnnl_rnnnrn (how long in all positions?) years
Wnrkinrnn_rnnnrn (how many years as a full-time worker in your entire
career?) years

Binnin_nrnrnn 0 - majority, l - minority

153

APPENDIX I
ce v r it u e

Circle a number from 1-4:

1. How many opportunities have you had to apply for appropriate
transfers or promotions?

0 l 2 3 4
no opportunities many opportunities

2. If you have applied for transfers or promotions, how much
competition from other candidates have you faced?

0 l 2 3 4
much competition very little
competition

3. To what extent is mobility easy for persons of your:

Mingus; m

fiéfil
A. educational level 0 l 2 3 4
B. age 0 l 2 3 4
C. sex 0 1 2 3 4
D. ethnic status 0 l 2 3 4
E. dual career status 0 l 2 3 4

F. other (write in):

 

 

APPENDIX J

garner Iflfik SQ: 2n 2

10/89

Below is a list of tasks that you may have faced in your work and career.
Even if you have never faced some of the tasks, please state how much
Please answer
0 - No confidence at all; 9 -
Choose lower numbers to show
little confidence, higher numbers to show more confidence.

confidence you have that you could do each one if you had to.
each item by circling one number on the scale:
Complete confidence that I could do this task.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Perform with excellence in my current
job.

Perform with excellence in future jobs.

Avoid having enemies at work.

Identify work projects that will
interest me and develop my talents.

Meet work deadlines under pressure.

Set work priorities effectively to
get the most important tasks done.

Do what my manager wants and expects
me to do.

Increase my knowledge and skill on
my present job.

Understand myself and my career plans.

Rescue a project with major faults
or obstacles.

Get what I want from my working life.

Obtain the most desirable job (for me)
in this organization.

Fully describe my work-related
strengths and weaknesses.

Communicate my ideas effectively to
others at work.

Display leadership skills when
appropriate,

No

confidence
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 1 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
O l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3

154

Complete

confidence
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9
5 6 7 8 9

l6.

l7.

l8.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

Respond appropriately to requests
from my manager that I feel are
unreasonable.

Let my job successes become known to
colleagues outside my work group.

Contribute effectively to task forces
and committees.

Plan for the future of my career.

Identify my needs for improvement and
development in my current job.

Deal appropriately with hostile
subordinates and/or colleagues.

Recognize when my job is well suited
to my talents and interests.

Recognize when my job is not well
suited to my talents and interests.

Persist at work in spite of career-

related disappointments and setbacks.

Make allies in the organization.

Predict how my employer will use my
talents in the future.

Use training, professional reading,
and other activities to increase my
expertise for current and future
responsibilities.

Make valuable suggestions for
organizational improvement.

Request training and/or other
activities to meet my needs for
improvement and development.

Identify and understand new
developments in my field.

No

confidence
0 l 2 3
O l 2 3
0 l 2 3
O 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 1 2 3
0 l 2 3
O 1 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 1 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3
0 l 2 3

155

Complete
confidence
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9
6 7 8 9

I —.— # _gl

U

156

APPENDIX K
ac o cale 10/89

Circle one number on each of the following scales to represent your
answer to these questions:

1. If you had to decide all over again whether to take the job you now
have, what would you decide?

1 2 3 4 5
definitely not take job definitely take

job

2. If a qualified friend asked if he/she should apply for a job like
yours with your employer, what would you recommend?

1 2 3 4 5
recommend not at all recommend strongly

3. How does this job compare to your ideal job?

1 2 3 4 5
very far from ideal very close to

ideal

4. How does your job measure up to the sort of job you wanted when you
took it?

1 2 3 4 5
not at all like what I wanted just what I wanted

5. All things considered, how satisfied are you with your current job?

1 2 3 4 5
not at all satisfied completely

satisfied

157

APPENDIX L
W 10/90

1. Consider the kinds of accomplishments people in your work setting
see as indicators of being successful in a career. Against those
standards, how do you think others in your field would view your career
accomplishments up to this point in your career (Circle a number from
zero to four):

Not at all About Very
successful average successful
0 l 2 3 4

2. For each of the following items, please indicate how often it has
occurred to you in your career up to this point:

Never A few times Very
freque
ntly

A. Spontaneous/voluntary praise

from manager 0 l 2 3 4
B. Received a higher performance

appraisal rating than others

with whom I work 0 l 2 3 4
C. Received a higher than average

salary increase 0 1 2 3 4
D. Selected above others to go on

details, or for a task force

assignment 0 l 2 3 4
E. Received financial support for

attending conferences 0 l 2 3 4
F. Been chosen to substitute when

manager is away 0 l 2 3 4
G. Scheduled to go to workshops

or seminars 0 l 2 3 4
H. Received a step increase or a

merit increase 0 l 2 3 4
I. Offered lateral reassignment 0 l 2 3 4

J. Offered a promotion sooner than
expected 0 l 2 3 4

158

K. Made presentations at meetings 0 1 2 3 4

L. Received an exciting or high-
visibility job assignment 0 l 2 3 4

 

The following item appeared only in the BBB at Site A, Time 1.

3. Finally, please review the list of items in number 2. Place a check
to the left of the five items which you believe are the most important
indicators of career success in your workplace.

APPENDIX M

Vocational
Preference
' Inventory [VPII‘

159

I'Reproduced and adapted by special permission
or the Publisher, Psychological Assessment
Resources, Inc., 16204 North Florida Avenue,

Florida 33549, tron the Vocational

Preference Inventory by Dr. John L. Holland,
Ph. D., Copyright 1978, 1985. by PAR, Inc.”

—...
1 985 Revision

WWMLWHID.

 

1hkkenthmyd)msfidh¢mmhflhfluahuhmmythohmfltfinmnynr
mouldedbyhflwfiududhxfimsfiwnhmu: '
LShaunymuuumndnaBuounnfimswfidflflbmhmqnmdunmuhr

WQM'E

2.9mmmummmmammmbymn®mmot
ElMdsnmmmtndunnmanumhdaddnmmnunmlhn

 

Cm’ onflvhd'be

APPENDIX M (cont'd)

160

 

EB
:

E

$3.33??? 3-
s 1%: E i

E

Egg
5;
E

a
E

gigggflgflflg .3. . . . . . . ..
$188

3
5

ms.mnemeQOmw
m7.E&l.Mmu
unfmhmnunm
makmuum
lmxuhphdna

125. Miriam

E

E SEE?

i

E
‘ E
:

 §§§§§§§
1% g:

 

he

WWW
souvenmmmaamummm

 

fiflflflfilfldflhinl‘uv-I I;

987696)

‘ hfll‘MHthhfleuhmh-hchn_

flhIUCNUA.

161

APPENDIX N
gob Bnnnripiion Bnryey (3/91)

IN UC N Read the following six descriptions and decide how
similar each is to your own work environment. Assign a rank to each
description, using the numbers 1 through 6, with 1 mont nimilnr to your
work environment, and 6 lean; similar.

Explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of objects, tools,
machines, or animals; encouragement of technical competencies and
achievements; encouragement of mechanical ability, seeing the world in
simple, tangible, and traditional terms; few opportunities to develop
skill in human relations.

Observation and symbolic, systematic, creative investigation of
physical, biological, or cultural phenomena; encouragement of scientific
competencies and achievements; encouragement of scholarly traits,
scientific and mathematical ability, seeing the world in complex,
abstract, original, and independent ways; few opportunities to develop
leadership skills.

Ambiguous, free, unsystematized activities and competencies to
create art forms or products; encouragement of artistic achievements;
encouragement of traits such as expressiveness, originality,
intuitiveness, nonconformity, and independence, and abilities such as
acting, writing, and speaking; seeing the world in complex, independent,
unconventional, and flexible ways.

Involvement with others to inform, train, develop, cure, or
enlighten; encouragement to engage in social activities, encouragement
of traits such as helpfulness, understanding, cooperativeness,
sociability, and persuasiveness; encouragement of social values; seeing
the world in flexible ways.

Involvement with others to attain organizational or self-interest
goals; encouragement to engage in enterprising and leadership
activities; encouragement of traits such as aggressiveness, popularity,
self-confidence, sociability, leadership, and speaking ability; seeing
the world in terms of power, status, and responsibility.

Explicit, ordered, systematic manipulation of data, such as
keeping records, filing and reproducing materials, organizing written
and numerical data according to a prescribed plan; encouragement of
recording and organizing data or records; encouragement of traits such
as conformity, orderliness, and dependability.

 

"I11111111111111?