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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

SOME STYLISTIC OBSERVATIONS OF VIVALDI'S
VIOLIN CONCERTI OPUS 3

presented by

Tai—Chun Tseng

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

MASTER degree in ARTS

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MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution
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SOME STYLISTIC OBSERVATIONS OF VIVALDI'S
VIOLIN CONCERTI OPUS 3

BY

Tai-Chun Tseng

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Music

1991

/5/)—- Q5970

ABSTRACT

SOME STYLISTIC OBSERVATIONS OF VIVALDI'S
VIOLIN CONCERTI OPUS 3

BY

Tai-chun Tseng

The violin concerti opus 3 of Antonio Vivaldi were his
first published concerti, by which he established his fame
as an international composer. This work was also the source
of a large proportion of J. S. Bach's Vivaldian
transcriptions. Both facts verify the significance of
opus 3 when compared with Vivaldi's other works.

In this study, the writer analyzes opus 3 from
viewpoints of sound, harmony, melody, rhythm, and growth.
The observations of several Vivaldian scholars, especially
Talbot, Kolneder, and Pincherle, are also absorbed in this
study to provide different points of view about the same
subject and offer different perspectives from which to
perceive Vivaldi's music. In addition, a short biography of
Vivaldi is provided to give a context for better

understanding of the music.

Dedicated to Buddha

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Dale Bonge for his
encouragement and enlightening guidance. Thanks also to Dr.
Rosalie Schellhous for her helpful criticism and advice.

Without the help of both professors, this thesis would not

have been completed.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
PREFACE ......... . .................... vi
INTRODUCTION .................. ....... 1
CHAPTER

I. VIVALDI'S BIOGRAPHY .......... 6
II. ANALYTICAL STUDY ............. 13

A. SOUND ..................... 13

B. HARMONY . ...... .. .......... 39

C. MELODY ............... ..... 53

D. RHYTHM .................... 62

B. GROWTH .................... 53

III. CONCLUSION ................... 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..... ................. ... 30-

PREFACE

Like most of his contemporaries, Vivaldi (1678-1741),
once a popular composer of instrumental music and Opera
throughout Europe, was forgotten soon after his death.
According to Michael Talbot, the re-evaluation of Vivaldi
may be seen as a by-product of Bach scholarship, beginning
with Johann Nikolaus Forkel's monograph about J.S. Bach's
life and works published in 1802.1 In this pioneer study
Of Bach, Forkel (1749-1818) noted that Bach had transcribed
the concerti by Vivaldi. Forkel also suggested that Bach
had benefitted in compositional technique from transcribing
these concerti. It is now known that Bach had transcribed
ten concerti by Vivaldi. Among them are six from Opus 3
(numbers 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12). This discovery aroused
the attention of German scholars at a time when the rest Of
Europe, including Italy and France, still remained ignorant
Of Vivaldi. Nevertheless, a large number Of German scholars
were reluctant to admit that Bach had anything to learn from

a Venetian: they tended to look on Vivaldi's concerti as

 

1Johann Nikolaus Forkel, ggnann Sebastian Bach: flis

Life, Art and Work, translated by Charles Sanford Terry
(London: constable and company, 1920). Cited in Michael

Talbot. LBW (New York:
Garland Publishing, 1988), 28.

vi

being merely novel in form and lacking the depth Of thought
and emotion that pervades in German music such as Bach's.2

The first scholar who’recognized Vivaldi's significance
in music history was Arnold Schering (1877-1941), who in his
Gesghighte des Instrumentalkonzerts devoted a dozen pages to
Vivaldi and transformed the composer's reputation from that
of a predecessor of Bach to that of an independent
creator.3 .Nonetheless, Vivaldi's music remained unknown tO
the world of performance until a series of events after
World War I.

In the late 19205, Alberto Gentili, a professor of
music history at the University of Turin, found a large
number of Vivaldi's manuscripts. After years of
negotiation, these manuscripts were purchased by Roberto Foa
(a banker) and Filippo Giordano (an industrialist) and
donated to the Biblioteca Nazionale, Turin in 1929 and 1930
respectively; these are now known as the "Turin
Manuscripts." In 1947, Antonio Fanna and Gian Francesco
Malipiero founded the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi, and

in association with the publisher Ricordi, began the issue

 

2Talbot. A_§uide_tg_3e§sargh.'xvi- Talbot has

suggested that these scholars were generally more familiar
with German music and lacked an understanding of the style
of Italian masters in the late Baroque. See also Michael

Talbot, yiyalgi (London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1978), 5.

3Arnold Schering, .s h h es t e n ts
(Leipzig: Breitkopf & Bartel, 1905). Cited in Talbot, A
Quide_I9_Besearsh. 34.

vii

Of a complete performance edition Of the instrumental
works.‘ By 1972 the edition comprised 529 volumes.

Moreover, in 1948, Marc Pincherle published his monumental

study ADI2Bi2_IiYaldi_eI_la_uu§igue_lnstrumsntale-5 4A
condensed version appeared in 1957 in English translation as
Vivaldi; Genius 9f the Ba;ggge.°

Before the 19603, the focus of Vivaldian scholars was
on the instrumental music: only from the mid-1960s did the
sacred and secular vocal music begin to receive the
attention of Vivaldian scholars.7 Only a few--Pincher1e,
Walter Kolneder, Mario Rinaldi, Talbot--take an over-all
view, including in their research both the instrumental and
vocal works.

In expanding the range of research on Vivaldi's music,

scholars have not overlooked the importance of his concerti.

Pincherle. in his book IiYaldiI_§eniD§_9f_the_Barsgne.

 

‘Antonio Vivaldi, [Instrumental Works,] edited by Gian
Francesco Malipiero, 529 Vols, (Milan: Istituto ItalianO
Antonio Vivaldi and Edizioni Ricordi, 1947—1972). From the
present view this edition is significant but far from
complete, because more than fifty instrumental works were
discovered in the course of the 19708. See also Talbot, A

Quide_t2_ae_eargn xx and 140-

sMarc Pincherle. AnI2n12.!iyaldi_et_la_nu§igue
Instrumentale, 2 Vols, (Paris: Librairie Floury, 1948).

‘Marc Pincherle, V d ° 5 e
translated by Christopher Hatch (New York: W. W. Norton,
1957). In this book Pincherle adds a small section
discussing Vivaldi's vocal music. See also Talbot, A_§gigg

I9_Besear2h. 86.
7Ta1bot. A_§uide_t2_3ssearsh. xxii.

viii

refers frequently to Vivaldi's concerti, mainly drawing
examples from Opus 3 and 4. Kolneder follows this up,'
focusing on Vivaldi's concerti in his Antgnig_yiyaigi;_ni§
Li§g_agg_flg;k, and he devotes a section to some analysis Of
Opus 3 (numbers 8, 10 and 12). Although the instrumental
music still occupies an important place in Talbot's book
Vivaldi, he achieves a better balance between the
instrumental and vocal music.

In view Of both Vivaldi's successful career and the
revival of interest in his works after his death, Opus 3
(also known as Liest;g_bzmgnigg) occupies an essential
position in his output. Opus 3 is the first set of concerti
Vivaldi wrote and published in an "international edition."
Its success established his fame as a composer in Europe.
Opus 3 also serves as a major part of Bach's Vivaldian
transcription which aroused the attention of scholars
concerning Vivaldi's music. Therefore, the attention of
almost every scholar concerned with Vivaldi's music is drawn
to opus 3.

Nevertheless, probably because of the enormous volume
Of Vivaldi's work, scholars often look to Opus 3 to provide
examples of general compositional techniques and
characteristics of style in Vivaldi's works, but they do not

Offer detailed analyses of the concerti of Opus 3. This

study will deal from an analytical viewpoint exclusively

ix

with Opus 3, based on volumes 406-417 Of the edition by
Ricordi.

To facilitate examining the music in an orderly and
thorough manner, the guidelines for analysis of Jan LaRue
have been adopted,8 so that the music is explored from
viewpoints of sound, harmony, melody, rhythm and growth. In
addition, a short biography of Vivaldi is presented in order

to put Vivaldi's music in the proper context.

 

“Jan LaRue. W (New York: W-
W. Norton, 1970).

INTRODUCTION

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF VIVALDI'S CONCERTO

Since the early sixteenth century, people have Often
given the name ggngertg to a piece Of music performed by
several voices, or instruments, or a mixture of both.9 The
original meaning Of the word cgnge;tg--to arrange, agree,
get togethere-perfectly describes this kind of ensemble.
However, beginning in the late seventeenth century and
continuing into Vivaldi's time, the word ggngertg referred
mostly to an ensemble piece in which one group (either
voices or instruments) contrasted with another. In this
kind of ensemble, another meaning of concerto--to contend,
to fight--justly describes the contention between groups.
Although this kind of concerto was essentially a creation Of
the late Baroque, some of its elements can be found in music
that appeared much earlier. For instance, the concertato
style, which emphasizes the contrast of one voice or
instrument against another or one group againSt another,

appeared in the polychoral works of the Venetian school and

 

9The first known piece of music to use "concerto" in
this sense was a vocal ensemble "un concerto di voci in
musica" (Rome, 1519). See Arthur Hutchings, ”Concerto," in
v , ed. by
Stanley Sadie (Washington, D. C.: Grove' 5 Dictionaries of
Music, 1980), 4: 627.

2
some polyphonic madrigals by Monteverdi. The earliest

publication which used the title ggngergg and which applied

the concertato Principle is the W
M211.” From Viadana's W

W" to stradella's W
instrumenti,“ the concertos develop the principle Of

contrast.

Manfred Bukofzer has rightly pointed out that it was
Corelli and Torelli who took determined steps in the
development of the concerto.“ In Corelli's Concerti
Grossi opus 6,“ the orchestra is clearly divided into two
groups which constantly alternate with each other: the
concertino (Often two violins plus continue) and ripieno
(string orchestra plus continuo). The orchestration Of
concertino against ripieno was soon imitated by Corelli's
contemporaries and successors. There is, however, no
thematic differentiation between the soli and tutti groups
in Corelli's concerti: it was Torelli who distinguished solo
and tutti groups stylistically and contributed the most to

the form of the Baroque concerto. Torelli is regarded as

 

”Venice, 1587 .
"Venice, 1602 .

“93. 1680.
13Manfred I". Bukofzer. NEW (New

York: W. W. Norton, 1947), 222.

1"Amsterdam, 1714. But it is believed that opus 6 was
composed around 1682.

3
the first to apply ritornello procedure in instrumental
music, to employ the fast-slow-fast three-movement format in
concerti, and to emphasize the distinction between the solo
instrument(s) and the orchestra by assigning different
thematic material to each.

Nevertheless, it was Vivaldi, not Corelli or Torelli,
whose concerti were most widely imitated by other composers
of his own time. In his abundant instrumental concerti
(numbering about 600) not only did Vivaldi standardize the
ritornello procedure and establish the use of the
three-movement cycle (fast-slow-fast), bUt he also expanded

the role Of the solo instrument.
VIVALDI'S VIOLIN CONCERTI OPUS 3

Only one fifth Of Vivaldi's concerti were published
during his lifetime.15 His opus 3, known as LLQSEIQ
Azmdnidg (The Inspiration of Harmony), was published in 1711

by Estienne Roger in Amsterdam;16 at the time of its

 

15Talbot, giggidi, 145. Aside from thirteen concerti
published individually or in unauthorized collections,
twelve collections were published between 1705 and 1729 and
bore Opus numbers.

1“Talbot, A_§uide_to_8e§eargh. xxxii. Because of

uncertainty concerning the chronology Of Vivaldi's works,
Marc Pincherle and Walter Kolneder have given 1712 as the
year of publication. Moreover, because of the success of
Opus 3, Roger published a second edition in 1717. Walsh and
Bare of London also reissued the Amsterdam version in 1715

and 1723. See also Walter Kolneder, Antgnio Vivaldi; dis
Life_and_fldzk, translated by Bill Hopkins (Los Angeles:

4

publication, this set bore a dedication to Ferdinand, Prince
of Tuscany. According to Kolneder, six manuscripts of
concerti from Opus 3 may have been widely circulated
throughout Europe before they were published in 1711.17

In L'estro Armogidd, Vivaldi followed the convention Of
the time by publishing twelve pieces as a set.18 These
concerti can be grouped into three categories: pieces for
four violins and string orchestra (numbers 1, 4, 7, 10),19
pieces for two violins and string orchestra (numbers 2, 5,
8, 11), and pieces for solo violin and string orchestra
(numbers 3, 6, 9, 12). Concerti 1, 2, 7, 10 and 11 have an
extra cello part (known as Violoncello Obbligato) in the
solo group.20 Consequently, some scholars call opus 3 a
set of Concerti Grossi, but this is an oversimplification.
Whether Opus 3 comprises concerti grossi or a combination Of

solo, double and quadruple concerti is a moot question.

 

University of California Press, 1970), 95.

17Rolneder, yiygidi, 97. Three manuscripts of concerti
were found in Dresden, and one each in Vienna, Naples and
Schwerin.

‘“William S. Newman, ' B
(Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1966),
48.

19Kolneder has observed that Vivaldi did not publish
any concerti for this kind of performing force after Op. 3.
See Kolneder, yiygldi, 97.

2"Talbot, 11111511, 146. Malipiero agrees with Talbot
in defining these five concerti as concerti with Violoncello
obbligato. Nevertheless, Pincherle and Kolneder only list
numbers 2, 7, 10 and 11 in this category. See Pincherle,

yiydidi, 142, and Kolneder, yiydldi, 97.

5

Arthur Hutchings has observed that concerti 2, 7, 10,
and 11 have been related stylistically to the music of
Corelli, but he argues that the only feature they actually
share is an occasional melody or a few "single musical
ideas."21 The similar choice of instrumentatione-violins
and cello--is apparently one of the features shared by both
composers.

Although Vivaldi generally adhered to the fast-slow-
fast cycle, only seven pieces of opus 3 have this design,
including all four of the Solo concerti. Among the other
five pieces, numbers 2 and 4 have four mOvements, slow-fast-
slow-fast: number 10 has four movements, fast-slow-slow-
fast; and numbers 7 and 11 have five movements, fast-Slow-
fast-slow-fast. The four-movement design resembles that of
a trio sonata: the five-movement scheme suggests the earlier

sonata da camera.

 

“Arthur Hutchings, The.§arggue_gongerte (London: Faber
and Faber, 1973), 137.

CHAPTER I

BIOGRAPHY

Talbot has observed that "like an automobile, a Vivaldi
biography starts to become Obsolete as soon as the user
takes possession of it." The veracity of these words is
apparent when one confronts the different dates Of events
and the variety of perspectives among the accounts of
Vivaldi's life. These inconsistencies may simply result
from the continuous discovery of facts pertinent to
Vivaldi's biography almost every year.22

On March 4, 1678, the Venetian Giovanni Battista
Vivaldi welcomed his first son, Antonio, into his family.
Antonio received tonsure at the age of fifteen, and on
March 23, 1703, after ten years' training by the Fathers Of
St. Geminiano and St. Giovanni, he was ordained as a priest.
In the same year of his ordination, Vivaldi obtained his
first official job at the P10 Ospedale della Pieta in
Venice, an institution with which he remained closely
related throughout his life. In 1705, his first collection
of violin sonatas was printed by Sala, a local publisher; in

1711 his Opus 3 was among the first works by a Venetian

composer to be published by a foreign company, Estienne

 

z"Because Talbot ' 8 MW
Researdh, which was published in 1988, is the most recent
book about Vivaldi, the present writer relies on the dates
stated by Talbot.

7
Roger from Amsterdam, to whose firm Vivaldi also entrusted
his later collections (Opus 4-12). Even though the
publication Of the violin concerti of Opus 3 established his
fame in Europe, his interest turned to the creation of
Opera. His first opera, "Ottone in Villa," was performed in
1713. In 1718, Vivaldi began a series of journeys: to
Mantua (1718-1720), to Rome (1723-1725), and to Vienna and
Prague (1729-1733). Moreover, Vivaldi travelled constantly
outside Venice directing his works or supervising
performances of his operas, even becoming the impresario
himself. Although he had earned 50,000 ducats annually,23
he died a poor man in Vienna on July 28 1741.“

Very little is known about the early years of Vivaldi's
life. The first thing of note came immediately upon his
birth when he received an emergency baptism from the midwife
who thought the life of this newborn baby was in danger.
Some scholars take this as evidence Of a congenital illness
from which Vivaldi claimed he suffered all his life. Talbot

has further suggested that this illness, which has been

 

lasee Denis Arnold, "Orphans and Ladies: the Venetian
conservatoires (1680-1790),”

WW1
Musical_Assggiatign (1962-63): 42. Vivaldi's annual salary
(1703) at the Pieta was 60 ducats, which is not much:

another Venetian musician, Galuppi, was considered well
paid, earning 400 ducats in 1768. Compared with these
amounts, 50,000 ducats a year was an enormous sum for a
musician at that period.

2‘Miichael Talbot and Peter Ryom, "Vivaldi, Antonio," in
G s' s' , ed. by
Stanley Sadie (Washington, D.C.: Grove's Dictionary of
Music, 1980), 20:35.

8

established fairly conclusively as bronchial asthma, "may
bear some responsibility for certain extreme traits of
character (e.g., paranoia and excitability) that the
composer was apt to show as an adult."25

There is no authenticated account Of Vivaldi's musical
training. His father was a prominent violinist and minor
composer working at St. Mark's and the Mendicanti, one of
the four famous conservatories of Venice. He was most
likely to have been his son's teacher. It has been
suggested by Pincherle and Kolneder that Legrenzi, who was
the musical director of St. Mark's and who hired Vivaldi's
father, was Vivaldi's theory teacher, but there is no
evidence to prove this.“’ Moreover, Kolneder has noted
that some have conjectured (from many style traits in
Vivaldi's early work) that Vivaldi may have studied with
Corelli. This assumption is weak, because Vivaldi could
have learned from Corelli's manuscripts or published works
or from the composers who took Corelli as their model.”'

Another fact to support the hypothesis that Vivaldi learned

from his father is that between his tonsure and ordination

 

25Talbot. Wren. xxx.

2“Legrenzi died in 1690 when Vivaldi was 12 years Old,
which may be negative evidence for the teacher-student
relationship. Nevertheless, Kolneder does include this
possibility and suggests Vivaldi may have been as precocious
as Mozart.

27Talbot has suggested that Albinoni, Caldara and
Gentili may have been Vivaldi's second-hand sources for
Corelli's musical style.

9

(1693-1703) he was allowed to live with his family, in which
case he may not have had the opportunity to go out to study
with others. Certainly it would have been a convenient
arrangement for him to study the violin with his father.

There is not enough information from this period tO
determine how Vivaldi became a famous violin virtuoso or
even to know whether or not he studied composition and
composed music during these ten years. Only one document
gives any indication that Vivaldi's skill in playing the
violin was recognized. An account book shows that at the
age of eighteen Vivaldi substituted for his father in
playing at St. Mark's in 1696. It can be assumed that
during his training for the priesthood Vivaldi took
advantage of the opportunity to study music while he lived
at home. At the end of that time, he was appointed master
of violin at the then renowned conservatory, the Seminario
musicale dell'Ospitale della Pieta.

As to his composing activities, one can only presume
from the date of his first published music (a set Of twelve
violin sonatas published in 1705) that he was composing
music during the period of his training for the priesthood.

Vivaldi's ordination qualified him to celebrate the

Mass, but he did not do so for very longi” He cited ill

 

2"Kolneder has said Vivaldi stopped saying Mass in
1703, the year he Obtained his job at the Pieta.
Nevertheless, according to a letter of Vivaldi and a newly-
discovered report, Vivaldi continued celebrating the Mass
until 1704.

10
health as the reason.”’ Talbot obviously does not believe
that was a valid excuse: he suggests instead that Vivaldi's
involvement in musical activities kept him too busy to be
bothered. Vivaldi's activities in the field of music may
have started as soon as he was appointed to the Pieta.

The Pieta was one of four charitable institutions
established in Venice as hospitals, orphanages, and shelters
for the homeless}0 From the middle of the seventeenth
century on, all four developed music programs (of which, all
the performers were girls), motivated in part by the desire
to attract monetary donations from local nobles and public
patrons. By Vivaldi's time, the musical activities at Pieta
were of importance. Its fame grew significantly after the
appointment in 1688 of Spada as its director. Gasparini, a
famous Roman harpsichordist, succeeded Spada as director and
maintained the high quality of musical performance.
Nevertheless, as Talbot has suggested, it may have been due
to his reluctance or inability to teach such instruments as
violin, viola and oboe that Gasparini petitioned the
governors of the Pieta to expand their musical staff.

Vivaldi was the first of the new professors hired to teach

 

inThis was in a letter responding to the censure of the
church in 1737 for his irresponsibility in not saying Mass.
Vivaldi's answer was not accepted, and he was banned from
entering Ferrara the next year, probably on account of this
scandal. Nevertheless, this is a rather strange inquiry,
coming thirty-three years after the fact.

:wThe other three institutions were Incurable,
Mendicanti, and Ospedaletto.

ll
violin, but from the second year (1704), Vivaldi also tOOk
over the job of teaching viola and purchasing and
maintaining the instruments. This caused his annual salary
to increase from 60 ducats to 100 ducats or more.

The Pieta renewed its musical appointments annually.
Vivaldi was several times in danger of failing to get a
passing vote from the governors, and did finally fail
altogether in 1709. Considering the quality and number of
the works Vivaldi composed for the Pieta, Denis Arnold has
suggested that this school treated him unjustly by not
rehiring him on these several occasions (1709, 1716, 1725
and 1738). He also suggests that Vivaldi's temperament
caused some of the governors to dislike him. Selfridge-
Field has had a different conjecture.31 In view Of the
fact that the Pieta focused its musical activity on vocal
music such as oratorio, Vivaldi's talents for composing
instrumental music may have led the governors to think he
was expendable. Talbot has yet another thought with regard
to the Pieta's financial situation: he suggests that
Vivaldi may not have offended the governors at all but that
his dismissal may simply have been a matter of economic
considerations. Due to Pieta's tradition that the Older
students taught the younger students, as soon as the older

girls had gained enough ability through Vivaldi's

 

31Eleanor Selfridge-Field, ”Music at the Pieta before
Vivaldi," Early_nd§id 14 (1986): 382.

12
instruction, the governors may have thought they had no
further need of him.

The period from 1709-1711 remains mysterious. A report
reveals that Vivaldi, together with his father, went to
Brescia (his father's birthplace) for a festival
performance. His opus 2 was published in 1709 and dedicated
to Frederick IV of Denmark, and his Opus 3 was published in
1711 by an Amsterdam firm. Perhaps Vivaldi was busy
establishing his fame as a violin virtuoso, or he may have
been busy with the matter of publishingfi32 Vivaldi was
reappointed to his post at Pieta in 1711.

In 1713, there were two important events: the director
of Pieta, Gasparini, left his job, and Vivaldi had his first
opera performed in the theater of St. Angelo. The departure
of Gasparini gave Vivaldi a new responsibility--to write
sacred vocal music. The debut of his first Opera
foreshadowed a style change, influenced by the convention Of

operatic composition, which appears in his late works.

 

:uAccording to Talbot, the publication of opus 1, 2, 3,
4, 8 and 9 were financed by Vivaldi. This may have required
a certain degree of involvement by the composer.

CHAPTER II

ANALYTICAL STUDY

A. SOUND

Pincherle has advised anyone who believes the
"ingenious and ingenuous" statement that Vivaldi did not
compose six hundred concerti but one concerto six hundred
times should take a look at Vivaldi's orchestrationJ”

Although the ideal of tutti contrasted with solo
(usually two violins plus the basso continuo in a concerto
grosso) is characteristic of the Baroque concerto, Vivaldi
was far from just using the simple alternation of tutti and
solo. In opus 3, even though he is dealing only with the
medium of four-part strings and the basso continuo, Vivaldi
exploits various combinations of sound. The opening
movement of number 1 illustrates such variety. In the first
fifty measures, there are no less than eight types of sound

combinations. Pincherle is right in describing it as "a

play of sonority.”3"

 

IBPincherle, yiydldi, 68. Pincherle has contributed
this statement to Dallapiccola. Pincherle remarks upon the
variety of techniques Of orchestration employed in Vivaldi's
slow movements. The basic types include: the four-part
string ensemble in addition to keyboard instruments:
accompaniment by cello and keyboard instrument:
accompaniment by keyboard instrument without cello;
accompaniment by the entire orchestra without the keyboard
instrument; accompaniment by violins and violas without the
cellos and keyboard instrument. See also Pincherle,

Vivaldi, 109-112.
“Ibid. , 101.

13

14

Talbot has discussed three processes with which Vivaldi
and his contemporaries (who may have been his imitators)
treated their orchestration: simplification, thinning, and
lighteningQ35 I

By simplification, Talbot refers to a reduction of the
number of real voices through doubling at the unison or
octave. In Opus 3, a large number of tutti sections are
written in this manner, with the eight parts reducible to
three or four parts. The usual situation in the concerti
for four violins and strings is that the first and third
violins play the same part, the second and fourth violins
play the same part, two violas play an identical line, and
obbligato cello (if indicated) plays with the basso
continuo. Nevertheless, sometimes a more complicated
texture is presented: in concerto number 10 there are seven
parts played by four individual violin parts, two individual
viola parts,“’and one part played by the basso continuo
and cello. In contrast to this unusual seven-part tutti,

the unisony'(which is the extreme of voice doubling) is

 

3”Ta1bot, yiydldi, 117.

“This was, according to Talbot, an older practice in
Vivaldi's time. Venice adopted the new practice of
employing only one viola part much later than Rome and
Bologna.

37Mere this writer follows the practice of Pincherle
and Hutchings in using the term unison to refer to a passage
in which all the voices are doubling at primary or octave.

See Pincherle. Iixaldi. 106: Hutchin98. Bar2s2e_sensertg.
144.

15
quite common in Opus 3. A most effective unison occurs at

the beginning of the first movement Of number 5 (example 1).

Example 1. Number 5, Movement I.

Allegro

VIoIIII
consonant

I.
VIoIIII
II.

“010

    

Violence!“

Contraband

’J

This unison passage is also known for having been
constructed on a single note, which may seem somewhat
simplistic today, but as Talbot says, these hammering
octaves were at the time innovative and worthy of imitation.
Johann Joachim Quantz also commented on the good effect Of a
unison passage when a large accompanying group was used. He

recommended that the unison tutti be played in a lofty or

16
majestic moodfi” The tutti Of the second movement of

number 1 reveals such a solemn unison (example 2).

 

”Johann Joachim Quantz . W111:
v 8 (Berlin, 1754-5), translated
by Edward R. Reilly ( New York: Schirmer Books, 1966), 277.

Number 1, Movement II

example 2

17

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

\ .. l'l .
q u u m 4 H n.
c . l
d H M H" l1 4.. C h u
\1 ...
fl ldfi *5 N» a m «456$ 4
T. M. Mr H i h l
l l» ll “ * .7 “
II .
( - (
l2. -
is l
[- s s S s g s s S
3
E E E - a: - = - "
3 =
p E ’ g 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

i

 

 

 

 

18

By thinning, Talbot refers to the elimination Of the
doubling of instruments so that there is only one instrument
per voice. In Opus 3, a setting similar to that of a trio
sonata is Often found in the concertino of fast movements.
Moreover, the setting of solo violin without accompaniment
or accompanied by a single viola, although occurring less
Often, is not uncommon in the solo passages. A solo violin
is Often accompanied by the basso continuo, or sometimes by
a pedal-point. In Opus 3, Vivaldi not only employs the
dominant pedal-point (as is common in the Classic concerto)
but also the tonic pedal-point. Further, he does not
restrict his use of pedal-point solely to final solo
sections but uses them also in middle solo sections,
although to a lesser extent. The first movement of number 1
(measures 19-23) provides an example Of tonic pedal-point in
a middle solo section. The "drone bass" not only supports
the solo line but also creates tension through the sustained
note. Another instance of thinning generally found in
Vivaldi's concertos would be in his slow movements, which
are usually scored for a trio or duo. However, the slow
movements of opus 3 rarely adopt this thinning process (an
example of this rare occurrence can be found in the

Larghetto of number 2. See example 3).

19

Example 3. Number 2, Movement III.

 

20
In the majority of the slow movements, either the solo
violin is accompanied by upper strings or the whole movement
is tutti altogether.

By lightening, Talbot refers to the elimination Of bass
register and the transfer Of the bass voice to the middle or
high register, usually substituting the violins and violas
for the bass voice (known as "bassetchen")fi” A popular
technique of Venetian Opera composers in Vivaldi's time was
to accompany the aria with strings alone (but without
cello). Probably taken from the Operatic practice, this
kind Of "high bass" appears most Often in the slow movements

(example 4).

 

39Talbot, yiydidi, 117. Talbot notes that the "high
bass" Often produces second-inversion chords. Furthermore,
the replacement of the bass voice by violins and violas was

called "bassetchen" (little bass) in Quantz's Versudn eide;
W in the chapter on

the duties of an accompanist (XVII). From studying both
Quantz and Vivaldi's music, Pincherle has concluded that
Vivaldi was Quantz' probable model. He also Observes that
the "bassetchen" is generally written in F-clef and is
usually to be played an octave higher than written. See
also Pincherle, yiydidi, 112.

21

Example 4. Number 6, Movement II.

, o m. 82

“entail:

VIOIIDO
prInpran

0
Violin! I.
pp “up"

man: JP“WW'

pp reap"

 

vmu
,pquv

Through the free combination of these three processes,
Vivaldi is able to create a wide variety of sounds and
colors, although he uses only string orchestra. Pincherle
has commented that Vivaldi's orchestration is like that of a
"colorist" or even of an Impressionist, which, he says, puts
Vivaldi much ahead Of his time.”0 But although Talbot has
acknowledged the novelty of Vivaldi's orchestration, he does
nOt think that Vivaldi intended to systematize his
orchestration as a model for his imitators."1

In addition to the abundant combinations Of sound,
another distinctive feature of Vivaldi's orchestration can
be found in the third movement of number 10. Although the

entire movement is nothing more than a series of chord

progressions, by varying the articulation, dynamics and time

 

“Pincherle , Midi, 105 .
‘“Talbot, yiydidi, 167.

22
values Of notes, Vivaldi produces a sound unique in
contemporary orchestration. The use Of specific signs for
the articulation and for dynamics, as Pincherle states, is
quite unusual in a time when the interpretation of the music

was largely dependent on the performers (example 5).

23

Example 5. Number 10, Movement III.
L hett
35.8... ° 12°

 

t”

smug-[1'0 "up"

24

In the Baroque period, composers Often wrote only a
bare score in which much space was left to be filled by the
performers, who would add ornaments and modify the music
with suitable expression according to contemporary
conventions. The score is like a skeleton, waiting for the
performers to fill in the flesh and blood to make the music
live. Decisions left to the performer could include tempo,
dynamics, articulation, ornaments, and realization Of the
figured bass. Some of these decisions might be indicated by
composers, to a degree, and some were left unspecified.

In the case of Vivaldi's scores, two opposite
situations exist: some of his printed music is as sparsely
marked as that of most of his contemporaries, while some
scores preserved in manuscript show as much detailed
instruction by the composer as one would find in a modern
score.“2 In a period when musicians regarded technical
details as a professional secret, such an inconsistency is
not surprising. In order to permit the reader to perceive
the concept of sound in opus 3 in light of Baroque ideals,
the use of tempo and dynamic signs will be discussed.

The first use of tempo words and expression marks
occurred in the 16th century, but they were not customarily
used until the end of the 17th century. For example,

Corelli marked all his published music, although he used

 

“Kolneder. WEI.
translated by Anne de Dadelsen (Ch-Winterthur: Amadeus

Verlag, 1979), 11. See also Kolneder, Viydldi, 64-66.

25
only a limited vocabulary. Likewise, Torelli used

indications such as Lazgo, ha spiritoso, and Largo e con
affehto in his music:“ In the Baroque period, such words

as Adagio, Andange, Aliagro, and Pzesto (which came from
Italian colloquial usage) concerned not just the speed, but
also the affection.

Vivaldi was one of the first to expand the vocabulary
Of tempo and expression marks. Kolneder has observed that
for Aliagzg alone, no fewer than eighteen gradations can be

found in Vivaldi's music.“’ In addition, in opus 3 such

indications as W. W. and
IMO—Same; are used-

In the Baroque period, in addition to contrasts in
tempo, composers began to exploit contrasts in dynamics.
Since instrumental music did not Offer performers the
advantage of a text to guide them in choosing tempo and
dynamics, the tempo and dynamic indications were most Often

uSed in instrumental music.“5

 

‘“David Fallows, ”Tempo and Expression Marks," in The

New drgv a piggio oharyo of has id ahd Musiciana, ed. by Stanley

Sadie (Washington, DC: Grove' 8 Dictionaries Of Music, 1980),
18:682. See also Kolneder, yiyaidi, 13.

‘“Kolneder,V _iya1di, 69. The indications include

éll§Q£Q_Q§§Qiu ill§9£9_leLQ: all_gro_e_spir_to§o. All§9£_
ha_ga_§ahiie, e ro mo uo. See also

Kolneder, EQIIQIEQDE__EI§£§12§§I 13-

‘“Fallows, "Tempo and Expression Marks," 682.

26

None of the movements in opus 3, except movement III Of
number 9 which begins with a piahd, have dynamic signs at
the beginning. An indication Of piahg at the beginning Of a
piece or movement was unusual and was used for special
effect. Elsewhere, a section marked to be played piahd was
considered an interruption, usually to be followed by a
fdgha section (not necessarily marked as such), which is a
return to "normal" dynamics.“6 In opus 3, the appearance
Of a jgghe is always preceded by a piahg.

David Fallows has noted that piahg and adagig appear
together remarkably Often and are frequently followed by a
combination of flange and aliegxg. Therefore, in the
seventeenth century, the appearance of adagig may also imply
the dynamics of piahg, and vice versa.”'

From the study of the manuscripts of Vivaldi's music,
Kolneder has found that thirteen dynamic degrees have been
used. Nevertheless, in opus 3, one finds only three:
ragga, niahg, and pianissimg: both £212: and piahg occur
fairly frequently, while piahiagimd is only occasionally
found. This relative paucity of markings probably results
from Vivaldi's reluctance to reveal in a published work the
professional secrets regarding his interpretation of his own
music. From studying the manuscripts, Kolneder has inferred

that such a refinement of dynamics (together with a large

 

“Ibid.

"Ib id .

27
vocabulary Of tempo and expression marks) is derived from
the working conditions and environment of the Pietad“ At
the Pieta, Vivaldi was free to rehearse and revise his
music, and he had a quiet environment--a church--where his
music could be performed and listened to carefully.

Both graduated and terraced dynamics were used in
Baroque music. Graduated dynamics (crescendo and
decrescendo) may have resulted from an attempt to imitate
the expressiveness of the human voice!” On the other
hand, terraced dynamics, which some regard as the exclusive
and authentic dynamic practice of Baroque music, may have
originated from the limitation of keyboard instruments such
as the organ and harpsichord.so

Although a gradual increase or decrease in intensity
was used in Baroque music, it was not indicated by hairpins
(< >)” but by the successive indications 9, pp,
wage or f, 9.11.1.1. if. It should be pointed out that
during the Baroque period, an meant pia_piahd, not

 

“Kolneder, 1131511, 65 .

‘waid., 63. Kolneder has pointed out that an attempt
to transfer the expressiveness of human voice to the
instrument occurred as early as 1535 in a textbook for
flute.

5°Ibid.

51Ibid., 64. Filled-in hairpin signs were invented by
G. T. Piani in 1712.

52The term pian'”, which often occurred in Baroque
music, indicated piahigaimg.

28

pianiasimg as it does todayJ” From studying Vivaldi's
manuscripts, Kolneder has suggested that when three
thematically identical bars appear successively, a crescendo
should be the correct interpretation in order to avoid
monotony.“’ However, he overlooks the possibility that
Vivaldi had terraced dynamics in mind.55 The graduated
dynamics in Vivaldi's music often occurs in solo passages or
slow movements. Pincherle has described Vivaldi's slow
movements as "romantic," a quality to which the
expressiveness of graduated dynamics may have contributed.

Kolneder also suggests the expression sign CABLQQilg in
Vivaldi's music should be understood as mgi§g_axpze§§iyd
with graduated dynamics.“’ In opus 3, the word gahhahiie
usually appears in a context of dynamic contrast: the solo

melody (unmarked as to dynamics) is brought out from the

accompanying strings, which are marked piang_e_§pigga;g or
W-

In opus 3, one does not find graduated dynamics which
are indicated by dynamic signs. Nevertheless, the increase

or decrease in the number Of instruments and the rise or

 

53‘Pincherle, Maggi, 78 .

s”Kolneder. W. 18- In Ricordi's
version of Vivaldi's opus 3, the editor has another
interpretation (f, p, f), which is terraced dynamics.

”An example of three identical phrases played with
terraced dynamics can be found in number 1, movement III,
measure 136.

“Kolneder, W: 21-

1ncrease
3.

1n opus

1mes appears

29
ich results from the
Movement I.

truments somet

1ns
Adaglo o opIcoato

f the first movement of number 2 provides an

herent crescendo wh
Number 2,

in

1nn1ng o

The
the number of

in

fall of the melodic line often contribute to a natural

crescendo or decrescendo.
example (example 6)

The beg
Example 6.

“a
=. ... a
=_

_ Fa.
I . ...
=.

.2 I

Adagio a uptccato

  

VIolInI
concertos“
mum
VIoIe
concertato
Vtolouallt
Cannibal-I
Oonbalo

"clone“ 0

the inherent crescendo

truments to produce an

IDS

Nevertheless, Vivaldi does not seem to have used the gradual
In any case,

reduction of the number Of

inherent decrescendo.

30
seems to occur more in the concerti for four violins than in
the other two categories.

On the other hand, both inherent crescendo and
decrescendo effected through the rise or fall of melodic
lines occur quite often in Opus 3. This is usually combined
with the use of sequence. Since Vivaldi liked to employ
long sequences (five-stage sequences are not uncommon), the
effect of the inherent dynamic change is more obvious.”'

As for terraced dynamics, in opus 3, the dynamic signs
piahg and taxi; most often occur in tutti passages and can
give the effect of an echo. Of course, the doubling (as in
number 1, movement III) or un-doubling Of the instruments
(as in number 4, movement II) and the contrast between tutti
and solo, which is inherent in the concerto, will naturally
result in terraced dynamics.

Although seldom used in opus 3 (an exceptional example
is number 10, movement III), the use of different dynamic
markings simultaneously for different parts is not uncommon
in Baroque music, occurring most Often in programmatic
music.

Another important component of the sound of a piece Of
music is register. Pincherle has Observed the predilection

of Vivaldi for middle and high registers in the violin

 

57This may explain and defend Vivaldi's use Of lengthy
sequences.

31
parts.58 Indeed, several movements of Opus 3 begin with a
fanfare by solo violin(s), and the solo passages are Often
in a high register (example 7a, 7b). Nevertheless, Vivaldi
does not neglect the lower sonority. A pounding bass on a
single note starts concerto number 2 in an impressive way
(compare example 6), and number 11 opens with a fugue, the

subject of which is introduced in the bass (example 8).

Example 7a. Number 1, Movement I.

Allegro

 

Example 7b. Number 7, Movement III.

 

 

58Pincherle suggests that Vivaldi's relative neglect of
the low register of the violin results from his practice of
entrusting the bass function to cello.

 

33

Parallel thirds, the use Of which is fairly common in
the trio sonata, are found frequently in opus 3. Their
consonant effect can be found most Often in the concertino
sections and, to a lesser degree, in the tutti. Chains of
parallel thirds are always assigned to violins, never to
viola or bass.

With regard to texture, Opus 3 presents various kinds
Of sound combinations: polyphony, homophony, antiphony and
the polarity Of melody against bass-(either as solo against
bass or the two violins against bass in the trio sonata).

William Newman has pointed out that there was a shift
in the sound ideal during the Baroque period "from many to
few parts--from multivoice to trio to solo settings.W”
Although not common, fugal procedures appear in several
passages of Opus 3.

As Talbot has pointed out, the critics of Vivaldi's
time, who knew only his published works, all commented on
the lack of traditional counterpoint in Vivaldi's music.
The third movement of number 11 (compare example 8) was
pointed to by one of Vivaldi's defenders as a demonstration
of his proficiency at writing a fugue.6o In this movement,
Vivaldi presents a fugue in a technique that approaches

triple counterpoint. Beginning in the bass part (including

 

”Newman. Wm. 52. Here the term

multivoice refers to a polyphonic work but in a more relaxed
texture, as in some orchestral and polychoral music.

“Talbot, 1121111. 105-106.

34
the solo cello and basso continuo), the subject then goes up
to the viola, second violin, and first violin respectively.
Tension is increased by the rising pitch and number Of
performing forces. When presenting the subject, Vivaldi
adds a first and second counter-subject to the subject.
Although the overall design of this movement is a fugue,
Vivaldi integrates the sound ideal of trio sonata into the
fugal technique (example 9). A stretto precedes this trio
section and a long dominant pedal-point (lasting twelve

measures) follows it almost immediately.

35

Number 11, Movement III.

Example 9.

 

   

    

 

§_‘_=__=__I
Eggs
i. E

a.

        
   

a:

   

36

This trio texture and other textural alternatives found
in the course Of this fugue correspond to what Talbot has
Observed: that Vivaldi is more concerned with "the
expressive quality of texture" than the intellectual
challenge of a fugue. Therefore Vivaldi rarely uses such
fugal devices as augmentation, diminution, and inversion Of
the subject."’1 In addition to the fugue Of number 11, a
similar imitative passage is found at the beginning of the

second movement of number 12 (example 10).

 

“Ibid., 106.

37

Number 12, Movement II.

Example 10.

Violino
prtnoIpan

é.

___ E

_____

=—

=
5,

I

.=_
_ ...

..—

Vtolouollt

Contraband

 

Combalo

:—

_______

1.,___

_.
.
_
=
__
=
__

E

 

38
Also found in opus 3 is invertible counterpoint in the
second movement of number 2. These instances reveal that
Vivaldi did use contrapuntal techniques and had the
proficiency to manipulate them.

Homophony, which is pervasive in Opus 3, is, however,
the type Bukofzer refers to as "continua homophony" to
distinguish it from that of the Mannheim school. Moreover,
the solo violin supported by upper strings is usually found
in solo sections of fast movements, and in about half Of the
slow movements. In addition, passages in unison are fairly
numerous in Opus 3.

Another pervasive texture in opus 3 is antiphonal
writing, which presents a contrast between tutti and solo,
one solo group and another, or one solo instrument and
another.

The polarity of melody against bass is characteristic
Of the trio sonata. The "trio" setting, two violins against
bass, is common in opus 3; in fact, concertino sections

often appear in this setting.

B . HARMONY

Vivaldi employs the basso continuo in a somewhat
different way from his predecessors. The sound ideal of
earlier music which highlights the polarity of bass and
treble is not as vivid in Vivaldi's music, and his bass line
is less melodic.

In Vivaldi's Opus 3, the bass voice is usually written
in one of the following ways: a melody conditioned by a
chordal progression: a punctuation-like quarter note, Often
the root or third of a chord alternating with a rest
(example 11);‘62 an "embellished" root or third Of a chord
(example 12a, 12b): a chromatic rising or falling scale,
Often in repeated sixteenth notes (example 11); or a pedal-

point.

 

“Kolneder, yiyaidi, 53.

39

40

Number 11, Movement V.

132

Example 11.
m.

_5
E
a,
5
=
E
__
E
=-

.
r“?
.=

J“

I
1

11
.-
a
1"
n
.—
=

.
.
- 1
_
-
:
-
1
_
.
.

Number 4, Movement II.

‘- ‘-
--—
- -

135
78

._
9

 
 
 

Example 12a.

41

Example 12b. Number 4, Movement II.

m. 91

 

When used in these ways, the bass is oriented more toward
harmony than melody. Kolneder has further pointed out that
the bass in Vivaldi's music not only functions as a harmonic
ground but provides rhythmic support as well.‘63

Talbot has noted that Quantz (probably with Vivaldi in
mind) criticized the static basses, and the "drum bass" in
particular, in the music of some Italian composers. Talbot
justly defends Vivaldi by noting that the simple bass allows
him greater freedom in melodic expression in solo parts
without worrying about the part-writing or balance.“’ In
addition, the abandonment of the basso continuo is
foreshadowed in Opus 3: the harmonically well-formulated

middle voices could often substitute for the basso continuo.

 

“Ibid.
“Talbot, 1131.511, 105.

42

Vivaldi's use of dissonance sometimes appears bold and
inventive. For example, Talbot has noted that Vivaldi uses
the seventh chord with greater license than any previous
composer. Like his contemporaries, Vivaldi introduces the
seventh of a chord by preparation--continuing a tone from a
previous chord-- and by step--moving from a tone a step
away. Talbot has Observed that Vivaldi treats the
resolution of the seventh chord rather freely. He notes
that Vivaldi sometimes transfers the resolution of the
seventh chord to another voice part, even with octave
displacement, and sometimes introduces a seventh chord
through a leap.‘65 Nevertheless, there seems to be no
example of such freedom in dealing with seventh chords in
Opus 3.

In opus 3, Vivaldi uses the seventh chord to build
tension and to create forward momentum. Like other late
Baroque composers, Vivaldi usually combines seventh chords
with chord progressions through the circle of fifths
(example 13).“’ The cadential seventh chords, which make
the return to the tonic more compelling, are also

pervasive.

 

“Ibid. , 103 .

“Bukofzer. WW. 220-

43

Number 5, Movement III.

Example 13.

 

       

    
     

         

 

1.. E
I __
___

~___

:5 ___

_ __ E E
a. a. e
___1 1 1

= =1 =.

s
111.511

   

                 

   

____
.__ .__
___. ___V .
A. ,1.

L.

         

u
s
c

    

44
In his choice of key, Vivaldi shows no preference for
either major or minor mode in Opus 3. Six of the twelve
concerti are in major keys and the other six are in minor.
This balance between major and minor keys reminds one Of
what Newman has suggested:
"It should be noted that Corelli wrote nearly as many
sonatas in minor as in major keys, whereas Bach and
Handel preferred major in a ratio of roughly two to
one, and Tartini and Locatelli in a ratio more nearly
three to one.""7
While Vivaldi seems to employ the major mode more Often in
his later works, in opus 3 the situation is more balanced.
Within the concerti, several key arrangements Of
movements can be found:"’8
1) I-I-I (numbers 5, 9, and 12)
2) I-vi-I (numbers 1 and 3)”
3) i-i-i-i, i-i-i-i-i (numbers 2 and 11)"

4) i-iv-i (numbers 8 and 6)

5) i-i-v-i (number 4)

 

"Newman. W. 79 -

‘wThe upper-case Roman numerals refer to major keys and
the lover-case numerals refer to minor keys.

“Number 7 also has the relative minor as the
contrasting tonal area. Nevertheless, its second movement
is tonally ambiguous. The five movements of number 7 are: P
major-tonally ambiguous-F major-d minor-F major.

70Except for the second movement, which is tonally
unstable, all of the movements of number 10 are in the tonic
key. The four movements of number 10 are: b minor-tonally
unstable-b minor-b minor.

45
Most Often the movements within a concerto are written in
the same key (1 and 3 above). This preference for
homotonality reminds one of the sonata da camera, which
generally employs the same key in all the movements.71
Except for the tonic, the varied key centers found in
the fast movements (tempo indications Of Allegro and Presto)
of Opus 3 include the dominant, relative major or minor,
mediant, and subdominant. Although the number of tonal
centers visited in these fast movements is limited, the
tonal plan of each movement shows variety:72
1. in major key movements:
a. I-V-I (number 1, movement III;
number 3, movement I:
number 5, movement I:
number 12, movement III)
b. I-V-I-vi-I (number 9, movement I;
number 5, movement III)
c. I-V-I-vi-iii-I (number 9, movement III)

d. I-vi-I-(V)-I (number 12, movement I)

 

71From his study of Vivaldi's music, Talbot has found
that Vivaldi most often used the same key in all the
movements while his contemporaries tended to employ relative
major or minor keys in the inner movements. Nevertheless,
Talbot is more inclined to see this preference for
homotonality as a way to give the music a more uniform
character than to regard it as an echo of the sonata da
camera. See Talbot, yiyaidi, 145.

72The Roman numerals, large for major and small for
minor tonality, indicate the proper degree of the diatonic
scale in the home key.

46

e. I-vi-I-iii-V-I (number 1, movement I)
f. I-vi-iii-V-I (number 3, movement III)
g. I-vi-iii-V-iii-I (number 7, movement III)

2. in minor key movements:
a. i-v-i (number 2, movements I
and IV; number 4,
movement IV: number 6,
movement I; number 10,
movement IV: number 11,

movement V)

b. i-v-i-III-v-i (number 6, movement III)

c. i-v-III-i (number 4, movement II)

d. i-v-III-(i)-III-i-III-i (number 8, movement
III)

e. i-v-iv-i (number 11, movement III)

f. i-III-v-i (number 10, movement I)

g. i-III-(v)-iv-i (number 8, movement I)

In the twenty-five fast movements of opus 3, the first
modulation is usually to the dominant key: seven of twelve
major-key fast movements visit the dominant first: ten of
thirteen minor-key fast movements go from the tonic to the
dominant. All of the other fast movements, except the first

movement of number 11 and the fifth movement of number 7,73

 

73The first movement of number 11 remains in the tonic
(d minor) and does not modulate to another key. The fifth
movement of number 7 also remains in its tonic key (F major)
without modulation.

47
delay the movement to the dominant by first establishing the
tonality of the relative major or minor.

Talbot has noted that composers at the beginning of the
eighteenth century tended to follow a specific sequence of
keys in major-key fast movements, namely:

I-V-vi-I (or its variants: I-V-iii-I and I-V-vi-iii-
I). A
In minor-key movements the scheme is much the same, except
that the mediant key often precedes the dominant: i-III-v-
i.“ Vivaldi apparently exercises more freedom in the use
of key than his contemporaries. After the tonic, dominant,
and relative major or minor, the most often used alternate
tonal center in opus 3 is the mediant (which may be seen as
the dominant of the relative) in the major-key fast
movements or the subdominant in the minor-key movements.

Of seventeen slow movements (including movements titled
Andante, Adagio, Largo, and Larghetto), only four are in
major keys.75 Two of these four major-key slow movements
visit the parallel minor key{“ Among the thirteen minor-

key slow movements, it appears that only five have

 

7‘Talbot, ”The Concerto Allegro in the Early Eighteenth
Century." Husic_and_netters 52 (1971): 12-

75Number 5, movement II; number 7, movement I;
number 9, movement II: and number 12, movement II.

76Number 5, movement II and number 7, movement I.

48
modulations,"'while the other eight movements either
remain in the tonic or are tonally unstable.7a
LaRue has divided the evolution of tonality (through
the nineteenth century) into five periods: linear tonality,
migrant tonality, bifocal tonality, unified tonality, and
expanded tonality." In opus 3 there are characteristics
which correspond to some of the features of three of LaRue's
categories: migrant, bifocal, and unified tonality. These
categories are defined as follows:
1. Migrant tonality: a harmonic process practiced
mainly from the early Renaissance to the late
Baroque in which the tonality passes constantly
from one temporary key center to another without
establishing consistent directions or any central
gravitational goal. Although it tends to act
against the ascendancy of any key, the circle of
fifths, which emerged in later works, reveals the
tonic-dominant consciousness.
2. Bifocal tonality: a harmonic process

characterized by vacillation between major and

 

7"Number 1, movement II: number 2, movements I and III:
number 3, movement II: and number 8, movement II.

'nMovements I and III of number 4, movement II of
number 6, movement IV of number 7, movement III of number
10, and movement II Of number 11 remain in the tonic key.
The second movements of numbers 7 and 10 are tonally
. unstable.

7"Lame. W. 53.

49

relative minor, without as much wandering as

migrant tonality. The two centers seem to be of

approximately equal importance.
3. Unified tonality, or simply called tonality: a

functional hierarchy of chords centered around a
single tone . 3°
The harmonic process of unified tonality prevails in opus 3;
in fact, the beginnings of several concerti focus entirely
on the tonic chord. Nevertheless, some characteristics Of
bifocal and migrant tonality can be found in these concerti.
In number 1, movement I (D major), for example, one finds
the tonal plan of I-vi-I-iii-V-I, in which the mediant can
be seen as the dominant Of the relative minor and implies a
bifocal tonality oscillating between the tonic and its
relative minor.“1 In addition, the frequent root movement
around the circle of fifths in opus 3 (often combined with
the use of seventh chords) is reminiscent of migrant
tonality.

In Opus 3 modulations take place in both solo and tutti

passages. This is not unprecedented, since Torelli likewise

 

”Ibid.

81Talbot has also observed that Vivaldi exploited the
contrast between the major and minor mode in his music more
than any of his predecessors. In Vivaldi's music, many of
the principal "ideas" appear at some point in the relative
major or minor key, which is never found in Corelli and only
in the "most timid and restricted fashion" by Torelli and
Albinoni. See Talbot, yiyaidi, 112.

50
used both solo and tutti sections to modulate.”: The solo
and tutti passages used for modulation often comprise
melodic sequences supported by such harmonic formulas as
root movement by descending fifths (which seems to be
combined exclusively with descending sequences);83
Movement V of number 11 (measure 139-147) exhibits such a
sequential pattern occurring over the underlying circle of
fifths, which helps to confirm the new key.

LaRue has suggested that the smoothest modulation
results from the use of direct tonic-dominant relationships
or a pivot chord.“’ In opus 3, the modulation is most
often accomplished by means of a pivot chord. Other
modulatory devices used in opus 3 include modulating through
the use of chromatic tones‘as and mode exchanges wherein
major chords shift to their parallel minor or vice versa

(example 14) .86

 

. 82In his later works, Vivaldi tends to assign
modulatory function only to the solo sections. The fact
that modulation can be found in opus 3 in both solo and
tutti sections supports the conclusion that opus 3 is an
early work.

”The circle of fifths and the ascending series Of
sixth chords are, as Bukofzer has Observed, two common
techniques for establishing the key or facilitating the

modulation. See Bukofzer, agaig_ih_§a;ggga_zga, 220.
“LaRue. Whale. 58-

85An example of this can be found in the second
movement of number 3 (measure 80).

“is Talbot has pointed out,‘Vivaldi is "apt to short-
circuit the normal process of modulation, establishing a new
key via its mediant, subdominant, submediant or leading-note

51

Example 14. Number 5, Movement II.

 

V“. A: 1 VI‘. 7 I v I

 

chord rather than the conventional dominant.” See Talbot,
yiyaidi, 110. Nevertheless, this seems not the case in opus
3.

52

Some modulations, mostly those which modulate to non-
tonic and non-dominant keys, may be regarded as passing
modulations and contribute to the tonal fluidity. An
example can be found between measures 106 and 141 Of the
third movement of number 7, where the music modulates from F
major through D minor, A minor, C major, A minor then back
to F major.

With regard to cadences, Vivaldi usually uses the
authentic cadence to separate ritornello and solo sections,
while in long ritornello sections, he uses half cadences, or
sometimes deceptive cadences, between groups Of motives.

Talbot has observed that the harmonic rhythm in
Vivaldi's music "fluctuates more widely and more abruptly
than in the music of any contemporary." He has further
claims that an ”eight-fold” or "sixteen-fold" reduction or
acceleration is not uncommon in Vivaldi."' In Opus 3, one
does not find the eight-fold or sixteen-fold reduction
mentioned by Talbot, nor any particularly abrupt changes.

In opus 3, the pervasive sequences and their inherent

harmonies dictate the harmonic rhythm.

 

"Talbot, m, 104 .

C. MELODY

Repeated notes are a characteristic melodic feature in
the Baroque concerto. Pincherle has noted that Albinoni is
the first Venetian composer to use copious repeated notes in
a concerto and has suggested that Vivaldi is inspired to
emulate this elder contemporary. In opus 3, repeated notes
occur in both fast and slow movements. They are often used
at the beginning of fast movements to generate motion

(example 15a, 15b).°°

    

 

 

Example 15a. Number 6, Movement I.
Allegro
“OHIO -'— —-———————___-_____- _—
principal. :z. ' ' x —
Example 15b. Number 12, Movement I.

 

 

 

 

 

”Pincherle thinks these opening notes of a fast
movement have "dynamic quality." Pincherle, Vigaidi, 72.

53.

54
In slow movements, repeated notes usually move in half steps

and form transition-like passages (example 16).

Example 16. Number 11, Movement II.

m. 3 3
Adaglo o nylons/t3

 
 
  
 

 

I.
YIOIIII
moons-II

Similar to the vocal "passaggi," the scale was a
favorite formula for Baroque composers in violin music. It
seems to have been a favored device Of Vivaldi also,
especially to start a piece or movement (examples 17a, 17b,

17c, 17d, 17e).

55

Example 17a. Number 2, Movement II.

Allegro I:

 

Example 17b. Number 2, Movement IV.

m.l32
Allegro

’\

     

 

 

 

Cf)
Example 17c. Number 3, Movement I.
Allegro .

 

Example 17d. Number 8, Movement III.

 

56

Example 17e. Number 8, Movement I.
Allegro
VIOIIII
cancer-tun

   

[1'

 

57
The variety in meter or of note groupings Vivaldi employs
along with these scalic figures gives them a freshness each
time they occur. Furthermore, as Talbot has pointed out,
Vivaldi's use Of scale is somewhat unusual. Vivaldi would
sometimes use an ascending form of the melodic minor scale
in descending motion, or vice-verse, a subtle difference
from the normal use of the scale. An example Of this can be
found in the first movement of concerto number 10: an
ascending form of the melodic minor scale used in descending

motion (example 18).

Example 18. Number 10, Movement I.

    

I. 52

 

:' “ (3 Minor":

Bukofzer has Observed that melody in Baroque music is
"conditioned by and dependent on the harmonic
accompaniment."”' In Vivaldi's music, the melody is not

only conditioned by the chord progression but often becomes

 

”Bukofzer. W. 221-

58
chordal itself. In Opus 3, the arpeggiated chord
figuration, which was already practiced in violin music
during the seventeenth century, occurs almost exclusively in
fast movements. The only exception is the Larghetto of
number 10, which is constructed entirely of arpeggiated
chords (compare example 5). In solo passages, the chordal
figuration often appears in sixteenth-note values; when
occurring in tutti passages, the chordal figuration often
moves in more relaxed eighth-notes. A unique feature of
Vivaldi's use of chordal melody which Talbot has noted
appears in the final movement of number 8 (example 19a,

19b) .

Example 19a. Number 8, Movement III.

 

Example 19b. Number 8, Movement III.

 

59
The chordal figuration gradually moves from foreground to
background when the first violin accompanies the second
violin with arpeggiated chords in sixteenth-notes. This may
be a precursor Of the Alberti bass which would become common
in the Classic period.

The large leap is another favored device Vivaldi shares
with his Italian contemporaries. What distinguishes Vivaldi
from others, as Talbot has pointed out, is the frequent use
of the octave and compound intervals.90 In opus 3, leaps
Of an octave or less appear quite Often in both tutti and
solo passages. Leaps of compound intervals occur less Often
and generally are not extremely large or difficult to play.
This is probably deliberate, since Vivaldi was perfectly
aware Of the varying abilities of those players likely to
perform the work--the students at the Pieta.

Pincherle has pointed out that Vivaldi sometimes hides
his melodic line in a "bed" of sixteenth or thirty-second
notes,91 and this feature appears as early as opus 3. The
finale of number 9 particularly captures Pincherle's
attention (example 20a), but several other examples can also

be found in opus 3 (examples 20b, 20c).

 

”Talbot, mag}, 97 .

91Pincherle, yiyaidi, 78. Pincherle says that Torelli
already had them in his music, but Vivaldi has "outdistanced
the Official inventors." Pincherle also claims, from his
study of Vivaldi, that the earliest example using this
device is in the finale of Opus-3 number 9.

60

Example 20a. Number 9, Movement III.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example 20b. Number 2, Movement I.
11141l
p. I r 9
Example 20c. Number 5, Movement III.

 

Ostinato is another Italian preference. The second
movement of number 8 presents an ostinato bass through most
of the movement, while throughout the second movement Of
number 12 an obstinate rhythm is interspersed.

Quite often melodic lines overlap each other via
elision, which occurs when a note functions both as the last
note of one motive or phrase and the first note of the next.
In opus 3, the elision usually occurs in antiphonal passages

or at the junction of ritornello and solo sections.

61

These types of melodic formulas Vivaldi uses are basic
and few in number, but he avoids monotony by his imaginative
variations of them.

Probably owing to the predominance of tonic sonority,
the beginnings of several movements are similar. In
concerto number 4, the first and second movements both begin
with the dominant tone descending to the tonic
(examples 21a, 21b): the first and third movements of
concerto number 6 begin with the dominant tone ascending to

the tonic (see example 15a, example 22).

Example 21a. Number 4, Movement I.

Andante . 5

 

Example 21b. Number 4, Movement II.

 

Example 22. Number 6, Movement III.

 

 

 

D. RHYTHM

Although rhythm is one of the most impressive features
in Vivaldi's music, few scholars devote themselves to a
systematic study of it. As Walter Schenkman has noted, this
is a neglected subject not only in Vivaldi's music, but all
Baroque music as wellfi” LaRue has described rhythm as
"the single most mysterious and problematical of musical
elements." Perhaps this is the reason many scholars discuss
rhythm in Vivaldi's music in only the most general terms,
using phrases like "driving force" or "motoric quality."

Vivaldian scholars such as Kolneder and Talbot escape
this ambiguity by listing several rhythmic devices used by
Vivaldil” Among the various rhythmic features they have
mentioned, Lombard rhythm and syncopation are the two which
have received the most attention from these scholars.

Lombard rhythm (‘jrj, ), also known as Scottish Snap,
was described by Quantz as a device introduced by Vivaldi in
1722.“’ Opus 3, a work from the first decade of the
century, does not contain Lombard rhythm. Nevertheless, its
reverted figure ( Jrj ) appears quite often. While Sol

Babitz observes that the Lombard figures most often occur in

 

‘WWalter Schenkman, "Rhythmic Patterns of the Baroque,"
gagh 6 (1974-75): 21.

'“See Kolneder, yiyaidi, 47-50 and Talbot, yiyaidi,
99-100.

“Talbot, gigaiai, 99 .

62-

63

a descending motion,95

it is interesting to find that this
normal dotted figure usually follows an ascending pattern in
Opus 3.“’ In contrast to the effect of Lombard rhythm,
this normal figure provides a forward momentum.

Syncopation does not receive Vivaldi's attention in

Opus 3 either. Nevertheless, there are some passages which

use a "modified syncopation" (example 23).

Example 23. Number 10, Movement III.

 

Schenkman has pointed out that the anapestic pattern

( F1J5 ) is frequently used at the beginning of Baroque
O.

 

‘”Sol Babitz, "A Problem Of Rhythm in Baroque Music,"
W (1952): 548-

‘“Talbot has observed that the repetition of this
pattern, which he refers to as "saccade," usually appears in
the last part of a grand tutti or in a movement which
imitates the French style.

64

7 Talbot has also suggested that patterns such

movements.9
as (“-1.1 ) or (“a P), with the first two notes on the
strong beat of the measure (or strong part of the beat)
followed by one on a weak beatf” often occur at the

Opening of Vivaldi's phrases. Nevertheless, in opus 3 one
finds only a very few phrases which start on weak beats, as
Schenkman observes, or which begin with two short notes of
even value followed by a long note, as Talbot notes. In
contrast to the scant examples of the above two figures, the
rhythmic pattern $35 is pervasive in opus 3.” This
down-beat figure often appears at the beginnings of

movements or sections in its modified version (compare

example 10, example 24).

 

WSchenkman, "Rhythmic Patterns of Baroque," 22.
Nevertheless, the supporting examples in his article are
from Bach.

”Talbot, 11111.11. 99.

‘”Newman has called this figure one of Vivaldi's
characteristics. See Newman, "The Sonatas of Albinoni and

Vivaldi. " WW 5

(1952): 110. ~

65

Example 24. Number 7, Movement III.

 

One rhythmic characteristic of Vivaldi's music, which
Kolneder has called the three strikes--three accented notes
in even time-value--receives attention in Opus 3. The
opening Of concerto number 8, movement I has an impressive
illustration (compare example 17e). The second movement Of
number 3 also uses the three strikes, but in a gentler

version (example 25).

66

Example 25. Number 3, movement II.

 

Talbot has observed that Vivaldi's "driving force" is
achieved through constant changing of rhythmic patterns:
before the repetition of one rhythmic pattern lost its
effect, Vivaldi shifts the pattern to another.m°

Several movements employ rhythms characteristic of
dance movements. Only six movements are regarded by

Kolneder as dance movements or inspired by dance:

Minuet number 7, V
Gavotte number 8, I
Rigaudon number 6, III

Gigue number 2, IV

dance inspired number 3, I and III

 

10°Kolneder has a similar observation, but he regards it
as the kinetic drive of motivic groups. See Kolneder,

Vivaidi, 50.

67
There are two other movements which should probably be added
to this list because of rhythmic similarity and stylistic
resemblance to the dance. The fourth movement Of number 11
is very much like a siciliano, and the fourth movement of
number 10 resembles a gigue. Five of the eight dance or
dance-inspired movements are the final movements. As with
those of his contemporaries, Vivaldi's final movements
usually exhibit the character of a dance. In general, these
final movements are designed in ritornello form and are

written in a triple or compound meter.

E. GROWTH

There are at least three types Of phrase structure in
opus 3: regular phrases with antecedents and consequents Of
similar length; irregular phrases: and phrases in groups of
three.

The majority of movements in Opus 3 present irregular
phrase structure which proceeds by way of Fortspinnung.
Nevertheless, regular phrase structure sometimes occurs at
the beginning or the end of a movement, especially in a
dance or dance-inspired movement. When talking about
Vivaldi's phrasing, Talbot has applied the terms antecedent
and consequent, saying that Vivaldi often groups units Of
equal length into threes, which results in a grouping of one
antecedent plus two consequents or two antecedents plus one
consequent.101 Although antecedent and consequent are
terms usually reserved for music in the Classic era and
often do not work well for Vivaldi's music, phrasing in
groups of three can be found in opus 3. Examples of
phrasing in groups Of three are found in the second movement
of concerto number 2 (example 26) and the second and third
movements of concerto number 12 (example 27, and compare

example 10).

 

""Talbot, 11331511, 100 .
68 -

69

Example 26. Number 2, Movement II.

Allegro I5 I

 

Example 27. Number 12, Movement III.

 

Fortspinnung, in which sequence and internal repetition
contribute to the flow, is the main method by which both

1” Vivaldi shares with his

tutti and solo achieve length.
Italian contemporaries a preference for sequence. In

opus 3, sequences are often dominated by the descending
fifth root movement: either a progression of the dominant
to tonic, or of a secondary dominant to the chord it
tonicizes. A sequential treatment of a motive or phrase can
range from three to five stages, and two or three different

patterns of sequences sometimes occur successively. In

opus 3, sequences (which are usually diatonic sequences

 

102The internal repetition of a phrase with no long rest
between and supported by harmony, is termed by Hutchings
"kinetic recurrence." Hutchings, Barogae Cohcazto, 43.

70
supported by the harmonic progression of fifths) can be used
either to confirm a key or to modulate.

Many criticize Vivaldi for using sequence too often and
say that he ignores the techniques of enriching or
disguising a sequence the way Bach does. However, the
consideration of inherent dynamics may have been one of the
elements encouraging Vivaldi and his Italian contemporaries
to use such simple sequences.

In addition to sequence, techniques used to achieve
musical length in opus 3 include repetition, imitation,
echo, and response.

A repetition in opus 3 often has two or three stages.
These repetitions often occur over a dominant or secondary
dominant chord and thus serve to delay a cadence and make
the return to the tonic more urgent. Imitation, which is a
repetition by another voice, often occurs in solo passages
in the concerti for two or four violins and string
Orchestra. In the concerti for four violins, a conversation
between the first and second solo violins is usually
repeated by the third and fourth violins immediately.

An echo, which involves the alternation of the same
motive or phrase by tutti and solo, is inherent of a
concerto and is common in opus 3. The constant exchange of
short motives between tutti and solo is reminiscent of
Corelli. In Opus 3, responses occur between different solos

(usually the first violin versus one of other solo violins),

71
between tutti and solo, or in tutti (often with contrasting
dynamics.)
In opus 3, Vivaldi freely combines techniques as sequence,
repetition, imitation, echo, and response to achieve length.
By correlating these features with the change of key and
recurrent tutti, the essence of ritornello form is achieved.

The ritOrnello form usually refers to a form in which

an opening tutti (in the tonic key) recurs several times in
the middle (usually in the relative keys) and at the end
(back in the tonic) of a piece. In opus 3, this is the most
pervasive form used. Nevertheless, this form allows various
profiles which are variants of the basic ritornello scheme.
Some movements do not open with a tutti but start with
solo(s). Some movements end with new material instead of
the recurring tutti. Some of these ritornello forms can be
categorized as follows:

1) The beginning tutti (also called ritornello for
its recurrent character) recurs one or more times
within the movement and concludes the movement.
Usually the ritornelli begin in the tonic key,
modulate to the dominant or relative major or
minor, and conclude in the tonic.

2) The movement begins with solo(s).

3) The movement has an A B A' B' section at the
beginning.

4) New material concludes the movement.

72

5) Two kinds of recurring tutti material are used.
6) Contrasting material is presented in the middle

(somewhat like an expanded A B A form).
In the movements which open with solo(s), several types
are presented: the Opening solo passage never recurs;103
the solo only recurs near the end:"“ the solo recurs
immediately after the first tutti, but the second appearance
of the solo is somewhat different from the first one and is
followed by the recurrence of the tutti (ABA'B);105 the
tutti has the same or similar motto as the solo.106 Except
for movement III Of number 9 and movement V of number 11,
all of the movements which begin with solo(s) occur in
concerti for four violins and string orchestra.

As for the conclusion, a movement usually ends with the
recurrent tutti, but can conclude with new material. In

this case, the new material is often stated twice, taking on

the responsibility to confirm the tonic key further.107

 

103This occurs in the first movement of number 1 and the
third movement of number 9.

‘MThis occurs in movement III of number 7.

105See movement III of number 1 and movement V Of
number 11.

106This occurs in movement V of number 7 and movement I
Of number 10.

"”Talbot has noted that Albinoni also uses new material
as a coda after the tonic return of the first period. See
Talbot, ”The Concerto Allegro in the Early Eighteenth

Century-" W 5211971): 164-

73
Nevertheless, to conclude with the recurrence Of the Opening
tutti in the tonic was a novelty in Vivaldi's time.108
Within the ritornello form, the most distinctive
section is the ritornello. In opus 3, the Opening
ritornello is Often composed of various groups of

"” and entrusted to the entire orchestra (compare

motives
example 17e).110

These groups of motives provide Vivaldi with a great
store of materials from which to choose for later
ritornelli, which often employ just some of the groups of

motives and recombine them.111

Generally, the concluding
ritornello is the only one which presents all of the groups
of motives. Nevertheless, sometimes only the last group Of

motives is used.

 

"”Talbot, "Concerto Allegro in Early Eighteenth
Century,” 170. Talbot has suggested that although it is
taken from opera, employing a ritornello to conclude the
movement was novel in Vivaldi's time. Talbot also notes
that in Vivaldi's manuscripts this is usually indicated

§Q_QQRQ-

109Scholars such as Kolneder and Talbot have described
the ritornello as being constructed of several groups of
motives which, although the motive groups are sometimes
linked together, is far from an organic entity.

110Some examples of this can be found in the first
movements of numbers 3, 6, 8, and 12.

‘"Kolneder has noted four types of alteration for the
middle ritornelli: variation, transformation, curtailment,
compression. See Kolneder, "The Solo Concerto," in Nag

’ , ed. by Gerald Abraham (Oxford, New
York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 6:315.

74

Sometimes the motivic groups of a ritornello are
interrupted by solo passages (which sometimes carry some
motives from the ritornello) or are played alternately by
tutti and solo.112 Furthermore, as Kolneder has noted,
Vivaldi usually heightens the importance of the entry of the
concluding ritornello by preceding it with a cadenza-like
solo passage,r” which, to an extent, foreshadows the
Classic concerto.

As for solo passages, they are often spun out with
virtuosic figures not related to the ritornello.
Nevertheless, in opus 3, solo passages are sometimes derived
from motives in the ritornelli, or can even have their own
theme. Bukofzer has noted that Torelli and Albinoni tend to
use the former two features in their solo passages most
Often, while Vivaldi favors the latter two."‘ In addition
to the thematic correspondence of the ritornello and solo
passages, thematic similarity between separate solo passages

can also be found in opus 3.115

 

112See the second movement of number 2, the third
movement of number 6 and the first movement of number 8.
Bukofzer has noted that this technique was taken and
perfected by Johann Sebastian Bach. See Bukofzer, Masid in

BQIQQ!§_EI§: 230-

11"'Kolneder, ”Solo Concerto," 316.

”Bukofzer. W, 230-

11sTalbot has noted that in Vivaldi's concerti, although
not common enough to be a rule, the same figure is Often
used to begin the first and last solo passages. See Talbot,
"Concerto Allegro in Early Eighteenth Century," 170.

75

These solo passages which alternate with tutti have two
main functions: contrast and modulation. Besides the
contrast in volume, the differentiation Of figures of
ritornello and solo is most important. The solo passages
usually comprise sequences and repetitions. As was
mentioned earlier, these sequences and repetitions are Often
supported by the harmonic progression of the circle of
fifths or a succession of tonicizations which may facilitate
the modulation.

Talbot has also noted that Vivaldi tends to condense
the ritornelli but extend the episodes. In general, the
tutti sections are more harmonically oriented while the solo
sections Often contain a melodic line which is implied by
the rise or fall of sequences.

While Vivaldi's fast movements most often employ the
ritornello form, his slow movements have more varied shapes.
The various forms which appear in the slow movements of
opus 3 include:

1. a singing melody with the ritornello frame:"6
2. through-composed form, of which there are two

types: one is melodically oriented,117 and the

 

1""See the second movement of number 12.

117See the second movements of number 5 and number 6.

76

other has more harmonic interest and is tonally
unstable;118

3. binary form without the complete return of the
Opening material,’” such as in number 2;

4. chordal tutti alternating with solo figuration,
first at one-measure intervals, while later the
solo extends its length (compare example 25).

5. a "Devisenarie" in which a solo melody is
interrupted by a short tutti passage and is then
reiterated and drawn to a conclusion

(example 28).120

 

1"’See the second and fourth movements Of number 7 and
the second movement of number 11.

119See the third movement of number 2.

1”Pincherle, Viyaidi, 161. -

 

78
The first and last types are derived from operatic
practice. The framed aria design had appeared in the
operatic arias Of Stradella (1644-1682) and was typical of
the opera of the period. Nevertheless, while the solo of
Stradella's arias would be accompanied by the basso
continuo, in opus 3 the accompaniment for solo is usually

provided by upper strings alone without the basso continuo.

CONCLUSION

None of Vivaldi's other published works contains such
variety as can be found in opus 3. The abundant sound
combinations achieved with a medium of only strings and
basso continuo reveal Vivaldi's inventiveness, which
included his scoring for four solo violins, cello and string
orchestra, a combination he never used again in his
published works. The diverse shapes of ritornello forms in
opus 3 contrast greatly with his tendency in later
publications to use stereotypical forms. In view of this,
opus 3 is like an experimental effort in which Vivaldi
allows his imagination free rein.

In Opus 3, Vivaldi also employs the melodic, rhythmic
and harmonic devices used by his predecessors and
contemporaries. Nevertheless, he exceeds them by his
ability to devise numerous variants from simple formulas and
to organize them into large forms. With this in mind,
opus 3 may be seen as the effort of a codifier.

The fact that six of Bach's ten Vivaldian
transcriptions derive from opus 3 may well confirm the
importance of this set. Nevertheless, the significance Of
this work is identified best by Talbot when he says a
thorough study of opus 3 will reveal every feature of

Vivaldi's musical style.

79'

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