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' r '.,".....-n.: h ~71—U-o-av-I- . “w ... -';..--.~r.. .4 u; "v” p..- ' ' ...: ...‘.':’:Z: ”. ..f..-‘:,.'?' ‘... ..I"..,.,, ...... , p n .r P‘ .“ 'VL.’ Lb” ' .- ... { «nor-m anfinmuwua .......u........ w” n. ra- ... ”w va-u - .er; , .. . _ '="- ngm in .‘v'rxrfifi W .,,. . . ;. .fiq.r~:x-m-m- :2: r: w ' .4 . ‘ - . ‘.. -~ new Mu- ......- W' .- ' g , , 2 M: . .-M..-,.._..v.. 7 ........_..::.-. 2~7._....'.'....... ...Q. .... ... my“. .... ”..."... ........ M . 0" ‘- '2.- ' "i‘ ...... "chm-y” .. .p‘m . an Teeter" UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES IllWINlllllll‘llhlllll HUHHI II II 3 1293 00913 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A Study of Student Teachers' Reflective Thinking on Elementary School Children's Social and Moral Deve10pment presented by Yvonne Hoekstra Van Ee has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Teacher Education degree in Major professor Date flZZ/[é/ [5; /7f/ L// MSU is an Affirmariw Anion/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 F —-\. LIBRARY Michigan State University J L- fl PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before due due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE lfil J MSU Is An Affirmative ActloNEquel Opportunity Institution emails-9.1 A STUDY OF STUDENT TEACHERS' REFLECTIVE THINKING 0N ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN’S SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT by Yvonne Hoekstra Van Be A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1991 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF STUDENT TEACHERS' REFLECTIVE THINKING 0N ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN' 5 SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT by Yvonne Hoekstra Van Be The purpose of this study was to describe student teachers’ reflective thinking on elementary school children's social and moral development. The study occurred in the natural environment of the elementary school classrooms to which the student teachers were assigned. The questions addressed included first, do student teachers actually reflect on children's social and moral development? Second, if they do, what is the content of their thoughts? Third, at what level of reflectivity, as described in a model for student teaching, are the student teachers' thought patterns. The field research design of the study incorporated both time- series and process-tracing methods for gathering data from interviews using videotaped teaching situations, journals, and the researcher's field notes on teaching situations and interviews not using the videotape. Emerging thought patterns included, managing the classroom's social environment, the students’ peer social relationships, and the social dimension of learning. The level of reflectivity present included technical rationality and practical action but not the level which incorporates moral and ethical considerations into the thinking pattern. Comparison points exist between the patterns of student teachers’ thinking and the concepts identified as fundamental to mature social and moral development in children. An additional pattern of thinking focused on the student teachers' own social development and relationship with the students. While this pattern did not relate directly to this study, it was so frequent that it should receive attention in additional study. The student teachers' thinking patterns reflect the practical and functional levels but not the theoretical, ethical level as identified by Zeichner and Liston in their model for student teaching. Recommendations include the following: First, undergraduate teacher education curricula at small liberal arts colleges should require courses in child development and social and personality development, both containing a practicum component. Second, a more satisfying model for the student teaching semester would incorporate Schon's (1990) concept of the reflective practicum rather than the levels of reflectivity as described by Ziechner and Liston (1987). Because the student teachers in this study represent a small liberal arts college, the findings may be applicable only in a similar setting. Copyright by YVONNE HOEKSTRA VAN EB 1991 THIS DISSERTATION IS DEDICATED TO VILLIAH DUANE VAN EE, my husband, for his faithfulness, prayers, and encouragement and THEODORE AND HARRIET HOEKSTRA, my parents, for giving me the vision of possibilities vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study of student teachers’ reflective thinking would not have been possible without the cooperation of the seven young women who were the patient, enthusiastic participants in the study. My deepest thanks and appreciation are given to "Mary, Whitney, Joy, Iris, Irene, Maria, and Jacqueline". I have been especially grateful as a graduate student at Michigan State University for the nurturing guidance of the members of my doctoral committee: Peggy Riethmiller, my advisor, mentor, and chair Of my doctoral committee; V. Fred Graham, Marjorie Kostelnik, and R. Arden Moon, who guided independent studies and served as members of the committee. There were many others who have faithfully supported me throughout the course of this study: my colleagues in the Calvin College Education Department, but especially Myra Kraker, who questioned, instructed, and encouraged me; a loyal group of friends including the Byl, DeBoer, DeVries, Doorn, Kruithof, Lenger, Peters, Rottschafer, and Slagter families who cared for me with their prayers, words, and deeds; and my extended family, The Hoekstras, The Van Res, and the Scholten-Scheerings who supported me with continuing prayers and encouragement. To all of them, I express my humble, heartfelt thanks. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .................................................. xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................ 1 Background ............................................. .....1 Purpose .............................................. .......5 Concepts ................................................... .6 Social and Moral Development ............................ 7 Principles of Development ......................... .....15 Student Teachers ....................................... 16 Reflective Thinking in a Model for Student Teaching....16 Delimitations .......................................... ....21 Limitations ................................................ 22 Value of the Study ..................................... ....22 Organization of the Study ............................... ...22 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................... 24 Authority .............................................. ....25 Self-Control ............................................... 31 Empathy, Role-Taking, Guilt ................................ 34 Encouraging Self-control, Empathy, Role—Taking, and Guilt .................................................. 39 viii Prosocial BehaViorO... 0000000000000 I.0.0.0.000000000000000044 Prosocial Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior.......48 Encouraging Prosocial Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior.49 METHODOLOGY ........................... . ................ ....56 Research Focus .......................................... ...56 The Subjects ..................... ..... ...... ...............56 Research Design .................... . ............. ..........58 Selection of Data—Collecting Techniques .................. ..59 Journals ............................................ ...59 Videotape Interviews ................................ ..60 Field Notes ............. ... ............. ...............62 Reliability ............................................. ...62 Validity ................................................ ...63 Confidentiality .......................................... ..64 Data Analysis ............................................. .64 DATA ANALYSIS ............................ ..... ..... ........67 Emerging Thought Patterns: Managing the Social Environment of the Classroom.. ............... ..........................67 Thoughts About Students' Behavior Contain Evaluative Comments .............................. .................70 Thoughts Focus on Maintaining Students’ Attention......79 Thoughts Are Concerned with Behavior Expectations......88 Thoughts Reflect a Concern for the Students’ Perspective ............................................ 96 Thoughts About Students and Their Responsibility for Their Own Behavior .................................... 102 ix Thoughts About Using Positive Reinforcement and Negative Consequences ................................. 110 Thoughts About the Role of Authority in the Classroom.115 Emerging Thought Patterns: The Students’ Peer Social Relationships .................................... . ...... ..120 Thoughts About Students Relating to Each Other........123 Thoughts Regarding Cooperation Among Students ..... ....132 Emerging Thought Patterns: The Social Dimension of Learning ............................. . ............. .......135 Thoughts About the Social Construction of Knowledge...138 Thoughts About the Construction of Social Knowledge...141 Thoughts About Students' Actions As Being Inconsistent With Their Social Knowledge ........................... 145 Thoughts About Cooperative Learning ................... 146 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ............................. .148 The Content of Student Teachers' Thinking ................. 148 Thought Pattern: Managing the Social Environment of the Classroom ......................................... 148 Thought Pattern: Students Peer Social Relationships...152 Thought Pattern: The Social Dimension of Learning.....154 The Level of Student Teachers' Reflective Thinking ...... ..157 Conclusions ............................................. ..159 Implications for Curriculum .......................... .....165 Implications for Further Study ........................... .170 Reflections ............................................... 171 APPENDIX A Letter to Student Teachers ......................... 175 APPENDIX B Research Consent Form ........................ ......177 APPENDIX C Research Participant Data Sheet .................... 178 APPENDIX D Participant Demographics ........................ ...180 APPENDIX E Approval to do the Research ................... .....182 LIST OF REFERENCES ........................................ . . . . . 183 xi LIST OF TABLES TABLES 1. Emerging Thought Patterns: Managing The Social Environment Of The Classroom ..................................... ......69 2. Emerging Thought Patterns: The Students Peer Social Relationships ............................ ....... ......... .122 3. Emerging Thought Patterns: The Social Dimension Of Learning .............................................. ....137 xii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION During the past eighteen years of supervising student teachers in elementary education, this researcher has become increasingly aware of students teachers lack of knowledge regarding childrens' social and moral development. In conferences and interviews, the questions and concerns of the student teachers focused on methods for teaching the academic subjects but seldom focused on consciously facilitating the development of or establishing goals for the development of moral awareness and appropriate prosocial behaviors in their students. This is cause for concern. Organizations such as The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development have identified moral education as a critical priority, and researchers such as Lee Shulman and William Damon have identified knowledge of the whole child as being essential for the teachers of elementary school children. Yet educational research tends to focus on teacher effectiveness in terms of childrens' academic success and not on the teacher's effectiveness in encouraging the students' social and moral development. BACKGROUND The social and moral development of children has long been a focus for research in social and developmental psychology. A cursory survey of the literature reveals a multiplicity of theories utilized by researchers. Gary L. Sapp (1986) identified four theoretical perspectives. The first is the structural— developmental theory presented by Charlene Langdale reporting the research of Gilligan and Lyons as they relate the work of L. Kohlberg. The second is the personological and psychodynamic theory as presented by Peter Lifton, reflecting the Freudian school in the recent research of Haan and Hogan. The third theoretical perspective, reflecting the work of Bandura, Youniss, Mischel and Mischel, and Rest, is the social learning theory. This is followed by a fourth, identified as the cognitive developmental theory presented by Brenda Munsey relecting the work of Piaget and Kohlberg. Each perspective views social and moral development with a different emphasis or arises from differing philosophical theories regarding the nature of persons. Such differences evolve into various ways of thinking about social and moral development. This in turn affects the manner in which the development of the person is encouraged or facilitated. For educators, especially those involved in the education of elementary school children, knowledge of these theories is essential. It is this knowledge which provides educators with a framework for thinking about social and moral development. It is the framework, subsequently, which guides the educators' practice in the classroom. The theory will, in another respect, be given to the child, since, in the process of developing and learning, the child comes to understand how he or she learns and begins to develop ownership of the knowledge. Ultimately, the desired effect for educators in having such theoretical knowledge would be that it provide the focus and design for their thinking and planning, resulting in more effective activities and interactions for the purpose of facilitating more adequate moral reasoning and more appropriate prosocial behavior in the children. A problem arises, however, in the field of teacher education, where frequently theory remains theory and lies in the world of the researchers and teacher educators and seldom becomes knowledge integrated in the practice of teachers. According to Damon (1988), this problem arises because the theory is ignored as being irrelevant since it is too idealistic, or the theory has been grossly misrepresented by the popular media. Subsequently, educators are not encouraged by this less than professional attitude to develop their understanding of the various theories related to social and moral development. Teacher education researchers and national education organizations have identified both the knowledge of the theory and knowledge of related appropriate pedagogy in the area of social and moral development as being of highest importance. As was stated in the introduction, the publication of Resolutions for 1989 from the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development listed moral education as a critical priority. It states that students today must be able to . .address moral issues in their own lives and to fulfill the moral responsibilities of citizenship. In addition the ASCD document states that educators have the responsibility to . . .teach justice, altruism, diligence, and respect for human dignity. . . .These are democratic values drawn from and supported by both religious and secular traditions. If moral education is to go beyond simply knowing what is good, it must also involve loving what is good and doing what is good. Because knowledge of social and moral development is a priority issue, it should receive attention from classroom teachers and from teacher educators. When elementary teacher education programs are reviewed for accreditation or for meeting state certification requirements, the major standards focus on the courses and knowledge development from the various academic disciplines (National Council For Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1991; State of Michigan Department of Education, 1991). Knowledge of child development, especially in the area of social and moral development, is mentioned but has not been a primary concern. Only recently has it even been included in the standards. Accreditation and certification standards represent only a portion of the omission. Much of the current research in teacher education and teacher effectiveness also deals with what teachers know about content of the various disciplines such as mathematics, science, or English. This focus on academics arises from both lack of attention to the literature on child development, but it is very likely that is also arises from the desire to provide more statistically based research which is more easily provided by measuring student achievement in academic areas. Meanwhile, the equally important body of knowledge on the social and moral development of children is being virtually ignored. Lee Shulman (1987, p. 318) in a recent article stated, Critical features of teaching, such as the subject matter being taught, the classroom context, the physical and psychological characteristics of the students, or the accomplishment of purposes not readily assessed on standardized tests, are typically ignored in the quest for general principles of effective teaching. In identifying the knowledge base for teachers, Shulman listed not only content and pedagogical knowledge but also knowledge of learners and their characteristics. The research in children's social and moral development is available and extensive. It remains for teachers and teacher educators to study the research, review the findings, and apply this knowledge to the setting of the elementary school classroom. PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to investigate student teachers' reflective thinking regarding the social and moral development of children in the elementary school. Through this study the researcher hopes to expand the knowledge base for teachers and teacher education by providing information on what student teachers consider when issues of social and moral development are encountered. Specifically, the following questions will guide the inquiry. 1. If selected information on the social and moral development of elementary school children is presented in the student teachers' seminars, will it become a part of the student teachers' reflective thinking? 2. What is the specific content of the student teachers' thinking regarding elementary school children‘s social and moral development as they is involved in the actual teaching process? 3. What is the level of student teachers’ reflective thinking, as identified in the description of reflective student teaching, regarding elementary school children's social and moral development. CONCEPTS The concepts presented in this study are moral and social development, principles of development, student teachers, and reflective thinking. In the following sections these concepts are defined. SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT The process of defining social and moral development is difficult, for these areas are in a sense the same, and writers and researchers frequently refer to them using the same terms. The leading and perhaps most controversial researcher of moral development, psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1976), describes "moral" as follows: A person’s sense of justice is what is most distinctively and fundamentally moral. One can act morally and question all rules, one may act morally and question the greater good, but one cannot act morally and question the need for justice (p. 40). Kohlberg stated that the driving force behind a person's ability to act in a truly moral although not always socially acceptable manner was the person’s ability to reason about justice. This ability to reason is influenced by the person's stage of cognitive development. Here Kohlberg's theory reflects the influence of Piaget's thinking about stage development, logical reasoning, cognitive restructuring, and the hierarchical structures of thinking. Development through each stage lesds to a qualitatively more acceptable level of moral reasoning and judgment. Thus, while Kohlberg's definition and theory are labeled moral development and Stages of Moral Development, they actually refer to the development of moral judgement or moral reasoning, which is only one aspect of the whole social and moral domain. A second researcher, Elliott Turiel, focused his attention on the development of social knowledge in children and adolscents. As with Kohlberg, his thinking was influenced by Piaget, being both developmental and structural. However, unlike Kohlberg and Piaget, Turiel identified two specific social domains which he labeled "convention" and "morality". To these domains he gives the following definitions. Social conventions are behavioral uniformities that serve to coordinate social interaction and are tied to the contexts of specific social contexts. Conventions are based on arbitrary actions that are relative to social contexts. Through their participation in social groups, such as the family, school, or with their peers, children form conceptions about social systems and the conventions, the shared expectations, that coordinate interactions. . . .Whereas conventions are determined by the social system in which they exist and institute part of the definition of the social system, the moral domain refers to prescriptive judgments of justice, rights, and welfare pertaining to how people ought to relate to each other. Moral prescriptions are not relative to the social context, nor are they defined by it. Correspondingly, children's moral judgments are not derived directly from social institutional systems but from features inherent to social relationships--including experiences involving harm to persons, violations of rights, and conflicts of competing claims (Turiel, 1983, p. 3). Turiel’s definitions of social convention and morality provide a sharper focus for understanding the difference between these aspects of the domain, yet they provide a dichotomy which would tend to minimalize the interaction which occurs between the two. Damon (1988, p. 5), however, provides a more extensive comment on the meaning of morality in moral development and emphasizes to a much greater degree the interaction between the social and the moral. 1. Morality is an evaluative orientation toward action and events that distinguishes the good from the bad and prescribes conduct consistent with the good. 2. Morality implies a sense of obligation toward standards shared by a social collective. 3. Morality includes a concern for the welfare of others. This means that moral obligations necessarily extend beyond the individual’s unmitigated selfish desires. The moral concern for others has both cognitive and affective components and bears implications for both conduct and judgment. 4. Morality includes a sense of responsibility for acting on one’s concern for others. Such responsibility may be expressed through acts of caring, benevolence, kindness, and mercy. 5. Morality includes a concern for the rights of others. This concern implies a sense of justice and a commitment to the fair resolution of conflicts. 6. Morality includes a commitment to honesty as a norm in interpersonal dealings. 10 7. Morality, in its breach, provokes perturbing judgmental and emotional responses. Examples of such responses include shame, guilt, outrage, fear, and contempt. While this list is neither exhaustive nor philosophically uncontroversial, it covers most of the moral dimensions that social scientists have identified as critical in human development. Damon also provides a comprehensive description of social development. In this definition two functions of social development are identified. The first function is called socialization. The socialization function includes all of one’s tendencies to establish and maintain relations with others, to become an accepted member of society-at-large, to regulate one's behavior according to society’s codes and standards, and generally to get along well with other people. We may consider this to be the integrating function of social development, since it ensures the integration of the individual into society as a respected participant. . . . The second function of social development is the formation of the individual's personal identity. This function, often called individuation, includes development of one's sense of self and the forging of a special place for oneself within the social order. . .; the formation of a personal identity requires distinguishing oneself from others, determining one’s own unique direction on life, and finding within the social network a position uniquely tailored to one's own particular nature, needs, and aspirations (Damon, 1983, p. 2). 11 Those two functions, while separate, are interconnected, depending on the achievements in one to contribute to the development of the other. They develop over the span of a lifetime and enter into or affect every area of life (p. 2). Inherent in this description are the elements of morality previously presented. In a succinct manner Carolyn Pope Edwards places social and moral development under the rubric of social knowledge. She states that the social world of the child includes society, social relationships, and morality (1986, p. 3): All this basic knowledge, gained through interaction, we can define as social cognition. [Attributed to James Younise] Key parts of it are systems for identifying and classifying self and others; for making inferences about people’s thoughts, feelings, and intentions; for understanding institutions such as the family and the government; and for learning about rules and values that define right and wrong. Social-cognitive knowledge is never just a random assemblage of facts and rules; it is organized, structured knowledge (Edwards, 1986, p. 4). Present in this definition are the essential features of social and moral development identified in the perspectives preceding it. While the preceding definitions are decidedly cognitive- developmental (with the exception of Damon's moral development) and emphasize the cognitive aspect of development, this is not the only approach. Researchers Nancy Eisenberg and Paul Mussen focus on the development of what they identify as prosocial behavior in social development using an eclectic approach drawing information from the 12 theoretical perspectives of psychoanalysis, social learning and social cognitive learning, and cognitive development. In defining the term "prosocial behavior," Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) state: "Prosocial behavior" refers to voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals. Prosocial behaviors are defined in terms of their intended consequences for others; they are performed voluntarily rather than under duress (p. 3). In their perspective, "knowledge of societal norms may be quite separate from conduct that conforms to these norms" (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989, p. 4) but is integral to the process. For "to act in accordance with learned or internalized norms, the child must first perceive the other person’s needs, interpret them accurately, and recognize that the other person can be helped. In addition, the child must feel competent in this situation, that is, capable of providing what is needed, and the cost or risk entailed in helping must not be prohibitive" (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989, p. 5). While their focus is on the child's actions or prosocial behaviors, Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) by no means ignore or demean the integral function of cognition: "An individual's behavior, selfish or altruistic, admirable or deplorable, is the product of a complex interaction among biological, social, psychological, economic, and historical events-~the result of both biological (i.e. genetic) potentialities and environmental (learning) experiences" (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989, p. 3). 13 Using information from the various perspectives and acknowledging the importance of interaction among the domains provides the perspective of Eisenberg and Mussen with a realistic and holistic sense of the social and moral development of elementary children. The concept of interaction between the child and his or her environment and the role this plays in development is central to the Ecological Systems Theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. The ecology of human development involves the scientific study of progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings in which the developing person lives, as this process is affected by relations between these settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are bedded (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 21). In addition, Bronfenbrenner (1979) states: Human development is the process through which the growing person acquires a more extended, differentiated, and valid conception of the ecological environment, and becomes motivated and able to engage in activities that reveal the properties of, sustain, or restructure that environment at levels of similar or greater complexity in form and content (p. 27). Essential to understanding Bronfenbrenner's approach is, first of all, the fact that the developing individual is not simply a passive receiver of whatever the environment brings his or her way. Rather, the individual is a ". . .dynamic entity that progressively 14 moves into and restructures the milieu in which it resides" (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 21). Second, the environment is not passive in the interaction; it also exerts an influence on the individual and subsequent to the interaction is changed. There exists in the interaction a sense of reciprocity. Third, the environment is not merely the immediate surrounding in which the individual finds himself; it includes the broader community extending to the influence of culture as a whole. While Bronfenbrenner did not specifically define social and moral development, he implied that it occurs in an interactive manner between the whole individual and various environments in which she finds herself. He hypothesized that: The developmental potential of a setting is enhanced to the extent that the physical and social environment found in the setting enables and motivates the developing person to engage in progressively more complex molar activities, patterns of reciprocal interaction, and primary dyadic relationships with others in that setting (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 163). Hence, any study of social and moral development using this perspective would be guided by this interactive, epigenetic focus. The ecological perspective along with the others highlights the very complex nature of social and moral development. It is a multifaceted process which affects and is affected by the nature of the child in interaction with the everything that surrounds him or her. 15 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT Within each of the preceeding approaches, the principles of development are assumed and the language of development is incorporated. It is important, however, that these principles of development be clearly stated. The following features are identified by Kostelinik, Stein, Whiren, and Sodermen (1988, pp. 3— 5): 1. Cognitive, physiological, and social development are interrelated. . . 2. All development follows a normative sequence. . . . 3. There is a variation in the rate of development within the same person and between persons. . . . 4. There are optional periods of growth and development. . . 5. Development proceeds toward optimal tendency. . . 6. There is continual differentiation and integration of development. 7. Development is epigenetic in nature. 8. There are developmental tasks throughout life. . . . Each principle is essential to understanding the developmental process. Of the preceding theories and thinking on social and moral development, the determining perspective and, therefore, definitions which guide this study are selected from those presented by Bronfenbrenner, Damon, Edwards, Eisenberg, and Mussen. In them is found an appropriate emphasis on the interaction between the 16 cognitive, social, emotional, and physiological domains as well as between the child and his or her experiences in the world. In addition, the very specific delineation of moral reasoning in concert with prosocial behavior is necessary for the development of an effectively functioning, morally and socially mature person in society. STUDENT TEACHERS A student teacher is defined as a person who is studying to be a teacher usually in his or her last year at a college and is engaged in practice teaching at a demonstration school, a public school, or at a cooperating private school. Commonly, this means that the student has fulfilled all the requirements of the education program in the college which he or she attends and has been recommended by that college to participate as a teacher in a school classroom while under the supervision of a certified classroom teacher and a college supervisor. REFLECTIVE THINKING IN A MODEL FOR STUDENT TEACHING This study is on student teachers and their development of reflectivity in the student teaching milieu. In the section following is a definition of what constitutes reflective thinking and its importance for development in student teachers. Finally, this section will describe the reflective thinking dimension in the model for the student teacher program at Calvin College. Much of the research on teachers’ thought processes has been conducted by Christopher Clark, Rober Yinger, and Penelope Peterson. The focus of their research has been on developing a model for 17 understanding teachers' thoughts and the manner in which their thinking processes develOp. According to Clark and Peterson (1986, p. 255), "The ultimate goal of research on teachers’ thought processes is to construct a portrayal of the cognitive psychology of teaching for use by educational theorists, researchers, policymakers, curriculum designers, teacher educators, school administrators, and by teachers themselves." The model of teachers' thought processes presented by Clark and Peterson (1986, p. 257) contains two areas. The first deals with teachers’ thought processes, which include teacher beliefs, theories, decisions, and planning, and the interaction between these as it influences the planning activity. The second area deals with teachers’ actions and their observable effects. This includes such things as teachers’ classroom behavior, students’ classroom behavior, and student achievement. These two areas of teachers' thought processes and actions are researched and discussed within the framework of the teachers' planning activity whether it be prior to the teaching act or after it. While this research has provided much information regarding the process teachers use in planning the teaching act, it does not provide the focus for the activity of reflective thinking identified for the purpose of this study. Rather, it is the concept of teachers and, in this situation, student teachers involved in metacognitive activity about the whole teaching milieu that is of concern. Thus, it is the work of Kenneth Zeichner, researcher in 18 teacher education, and his description of reflective teaching that provides information for this study. The foundational concepts of reflective teaching as developed by Zeichner are drawn from the writing of John Dewey. In his 1933 work How We Think, Dewey makes a distinction between reflective action and routine action and how this impacts the individual's sense of everyday reality. On the one hand, routine action is that action which is guided by tradition, authority, and the official definitions within a social setting. In routine action one considers means as problematic but takes for granted the ends toward which they are directed. On the other hand, reflective action according to Dewey (1933, p. 9) entails 'active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further consequences to which it leads' (Zeichner, 1981/82, p. 5). Reflective action, according to Dewey, is a way of perceiving the problems of reality, framing them, and responding to them. Zeichner (1981/82) also presents three attitudes identified by Dewey as being prerequisite to reflective action. The first is openmindedness. It involves being ready to look at all sides of an issue or problem; a willingness to consider all the possibilities and to admit that a presently held conception might be wrong. The second attitude identified is responsibility. Responsibility in this context means that careful consideration is given to the results of any action and their implications for the classroom 19 setting. The third attitude is wholeheartedness, which carries the connotation of being committed. The individual is committed to being openminded and responsible in the teaching setting. Zeichner elaborates the concept of reflective teaching further by defining the various levels of reflection which are present in it. These levels as cited by Zeichner are from the 1977 work of Van Manen. "At the first level of technical rationality. . .the dominant concern is with the efficient and effective application of educational knowledge for the purposes of attaining ends which are accepted as given" (Zeichner & Liston, 1987, p. 24). At this level neither the school context nor the results of action are considered. It is a basic, simple, functioning level. The second level "is based upon a conception of practical action whereby the problem is one of explicating and clarifying the assumptions and predispositions underlying practical affairs and assessing the educational consequences toward which an action leads" (Zeichner & Liston, 1987, p. 24). Here a greater consideration is given to cause and effect relationships and the value inherent in them as they are evidenced in the school setting. The third level incorporates moral and ethical criteria into the discourses about practical action. At this level the central questions ask which educational goals, experiences, and activities lead toward forms of life which are mediated by concerns for justice, equity, and concrete fulfillment and whether current arrangements serve important human needs and satisfy human purposes (Zeichner & Liston, 1987, p. 5) 20 Using Dewey’s concepts for reflective teaching and Van Manen's levels of reflectivity as organizing concepts, Zeichner and Liston describe the student teacher program at the University of Wisconsin which incorporated these concepts and was designed "to stimulate reflection about teaching and its contexts at all three levels" (Zeichber & Liston, 1987, p. 25). The goal of the program was to encourage the development of a teacher who "assesses the origins, purposes, and consequences of his or her work at all three levels" (Zeichner & Liston, 1987, p. 25). These teachers would be technically competent, be able to analyze their practice, be aware of the ethical and moral dimensions of their teaching, and be sensitive to their students respecting them as individuals (Zeichner & Liston, 1987). Such an inquiry-based program, according the Zeichner & Liston (1987), has evolved and changed in the process of development. By its very nature it invites reflection and action. And if that is truly the attitude, disposition, and activity desired for student teachers, then the college program and those professors who supervise in that program should exhibit the same personal and professional characteristics. As Zeichner and Liston (1987, p. 26) state, "If an inquiry-oriented program is to be successful in meeting its goals, then its staff, curriculum, and institutional environment must express these qualities of reflectiveness and self- renewal." The basic concept, program design, and model presented by Zeichner and Liston with its focus on reflective teaching was 21 adopted with some refinements as the organizational framework for the student teacher program at Calvin College. It is with that emphasis on developing a reflective teacher combined with the desire to emphasize the importance of prosocial moral thinking and behavior that the context for this study was determined. DELIMITATIONS It is not intended that this study include all aspects of social and moral development nor to relate fully all the principles related to children's development. Only those concepts and principles as defined and described in the literature review are included. The population studied was small, consisting of seven student teachers, all of whom were female. These seven student teachers were selected from the general student teacher population in the Elementary Education Program at Calvin College. Because of the size and nature of the population, control for validity was a constant concern. Thus, every effort was made to control the setting by providing all of the student teachers with the same seminars, similar classroom settings, and the same requirements. It is not intended that this be an exhaustive study of the reflective thinking of student teachers, but it is intended to provide information to add to the knowledge base on effective teaching. It is intended to provide insight into the appropriateness of a model for student teaching which is based on a model for reflective thinking. And, the study is intended to provide direction for further research. 22 LIMITATIONS Since the student teachers were functioning in a situation which had an element of evaluation present, some of the reflective thinking may have been influenced by what they perceived the eXpectations of the researcher to be. In this setting, the researcher was also the college supervisor. This at times seemed to create some tension and may have had some effect on the responses given. Even though the student teachers were placed in similar settings, no classroom was identical to another and no person was identical to another. This also had some influence on the reflective thinking responses of the student teachers studied. VALUE OF THE STUDY With the existing need for expanding the knowledge base in teacher education, it is the hope of this researcher that this study will provide information regarding student teachers' thinking as it reflects their understanding of and ability to facilitate children's social and moral development. While other researchers continue to study teacher effectiveness through children’s academic achievement, those concerned with teacher effectiveness and the whole child may find this study valuable. In addition, those persons who are involved in developing teacher education programs or who are involved in the supervision of student teachers may find this study to be of value in planning and 23 organizing more effective teacher education curricula and supervison of student teachers that encourages reflective thinking. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY Chapter II contains a review of the literature dealing with the fundamental concepts of children’s social and moral development. Chapter III contains a description of the research design, the participants, and the method of data collection. Chapter IV provides an analysis of the data collected. Chapter V presents the conclusions based on the study, with implications for teacher education curricula, implications for future research, and concluding statements. 24 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE It is only within the last twenty years that researchers have given much attention to children's social and moral development. This research has frequently been motivated by a current social crisis or some social dilemma at the national level with the hope that the results of the research would move social workers, psychologists, and educators to a more enlightened practice. This chapter presents a review of the literature on the concepts selected for this study which focus on the social and moral development of elementary age school children. Each of the concepts selected for use in this study has been identified as basic and crucial to the development of socially and morally mature individuals. First is a review of the literature on the concept of authority and its development in children, focusing particularly on the use of the authoritative teaching style. The second concept presented is self—control, including the research relating effective strategies for its development. The third concept presented is empathy, with its contributing components of role-taking and guilt. The strategies apprOpriate for developing empathy, role-taking, and guilt are also reviewed in the section. The fourth concept contributing to children’s social and moral development reviewed in 25 the chapter is prosocial behavior. Strategies appropriate for facilitating its development are also included. AUTHORITY Knowledge of the role of authority is an essential component to understanding the social and moral development of young children. According to Damon (1977), . authority becomes but one of many social relations with which a child must learn to deal. It is not, as has been assumed by many, a general starting point for the child's acquisition of all social-moral principles. Authority is still considered in this point of view to be of fundamental importance in the child’s life. It is both central in children's ongoing social experiences and a crucial element of the child's developing social knowledge. . . . It does not regulate all of a child's social world, nor does it dominate a child's moral sense. It does govern a child’s relations with many adults and with some peers. It is also a social relation that remains crucial throughout life. Further. . . a child's conception of authority itself undergoes dramatic change and development in the period between infancy and adolescence. Authority, then, must be understood in terms of social relationships that are influenced by differential social power between persons in which the person with the greater power is the recipient of obedience (p. 172) 26 In the cognitive developmental perspective, it is accepted that the child is involved in constructing knowledge through an interactive process between himself or herself, life experience, environment, and people in the environment (Damon, 1977; Edwards, 1986; Eisenberg, 1989). Knowledge of authority is, therefore, constructed by the child, not just enforced or reinforced, and this occurs through an interactive process. Initially, research in this perspective dealt with adult-child relationships, focusing on the effects of parenting styles. One of the first studies of parenting styles, by Alfred Baldwin (cited in Damon, 1977), found that democratic child-rearing was more effective in encouraging goal-oriented, creative children who were more prosocially active. Baldwin’s work was followed and further developed by the significant research of Diana Baumrind in which she focused on the areas of parental control, permissiveness, and democracy. In her work, Baumrind(1971) identified a cluster of behavioral traits and instrumental competence which she felt all parents would like to encourage in their children. This cluster of traits included social responsibility, independence, achievement orientation, and vitality. These traits are the same as those identified elsewhere as being prosocial behaviors or behaviors exhibited by socially and morally responsible persons (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989; Edwards, 1988). In addition, she identified four dimensions of child-rearing behavior: parental control, clarity of parent-child communications, maturity 27 demands, and nurturance." (Damon, 1977, p. 160) which appeared to be instrumental in affecting the development of these traits or social behaviors. By combining or clustering parental ratings on these four dimensions, Baumrind derived three major types or patterns of child rearing practice: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive" (Eisenberg, 1989, p.80). The results of Baumrind's study are succinctly presented by Eisenberg (1989, p. 81). Summarizing her findings, Baumrind concludes that "authoritative childrearing is the only pattern that consistently (and significantly) produced competent children (that is, children high in social competence and social responsibility) and failed to produce incompetent (those low in both social competence and social responsibility) in the preschool years and in middle childhood ...and that is true for both boys and girls” (Baumrind, 1986) Subsequent studies by such researchers as Coopersmith, 1967; Fleshbach, 1974; Hoffman and Saltzstein, 1967; Maccoby, 1989; Whiting and Whiting, 1973; Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, and King, 1979 have supported these findings (Damon, 1983, p. 164). It appears that these findings also support the concept that the adult in the parent—child relationship is the authority figure. That authority figure has the obligation of leadership in the relationship. In Baumrind’s study the child appears to be rather passive in the relationship. As has been stated, however, the child is interactive in his or her relationships and thus exerts some ‘Inl 28 influence on what occurs in those relationships. The child is also actively constructing meaning from the interaction in the relationship. How this child perceives and what the child understands from the interaction are directly related to his or her developmental level and temperament. The most prominent researcher of children's conceptions of authority is William Damon. In his research Damon found that, as children grow and develop, their understanding of authority changes. He theorized that the power of the parental position and the child's physical development were not the only factors which affected the process of understanding. He felt that the child also brought activity to the process and, therefore, influenced the adult in the relationship. Ultimately, the child's construction of knowledge from the interaction affected his or her behavior. As a result of his research, Damon identified six levels of children's conceptions of authority. He describes these levels in the following manner: In general, the progress is as follows: at the earliest level, the child believes that he obeys because he wants to. Parents are obeyed because they tell you what you want to do. Commands that conflict with your desires do not have to be listened to. At the next level, the reality of punishment is grasped. You obey in order to avoid unpleasant consequences. The next level infuses parental authority figures with attributes like physical strength and all-encompassing power that legitimize their commands. You obey mother because she is bigger and 29 stronger, and because she will inevitably find out if you disobey. At the next level, parental command is legitimized by superior virtues like being smarter, and obedience is considered an exchange: the parent has done much for the child in the past and so deserves respect. Toward the end of this progression, you consider it in your best interest to listen to parents. This is because parents have had more experience than children, and they know what is best for you. But when the parent is wrong, it becomes possible to disagree, because the child is now seen as having the fundamental rights of an equal in the relationship. Finally, at the last level, obedience becomes a matter of choice, based upon a temporary and voluntary deferral to someone who cares about your welfare. You obey your mother because she cares about what is good for you and can be helpful. If, in a certain situation, you know more than your mother, she should be the one to listen to you. (Damon, 1983, pp. 166 and 167) He also concluded that how children understand authority does not necessarily depend on social factors such as family, school, or friends nor on environmental factors such as neighborhood or cultural backgroud. "Rather," he states, "it is more the result of each child actively working out the principles of authority and obedience in order to make sense of this important aspect of social experience" (Damon, 1983, pp. 167-168). It may be concluded that the concept of authority develops in the elementary school child as an interactive process in which the 30 child constructs his or her knowledge as maturation occurs and as he or she actively participates in an adult-child relationship. The child's understanding and resulting behavior are further affected by the parenting styles utilized within the relationship. And it is the authoritative parenting style which nurtures the development of mature social and moral behavior. Most research on the role of authority has been conducted through investigation of the parent-child relationship. Yet researchers agree (Damon, 1988; Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989; Edwards, 1986; Hendrick, 1986) that the school setting parallels that of the home and that what is effective in the parent-child relationship is also effective in the teacher—child relationship. It (school) also provides the child with a system of authority that supplements that which the child encounters at home. One researcher (Goslin, 1965) has found that children develop an understanding of school authority in a sequence that parallels the authority levels that Damon found in relation to children's conceptions of parent-child relations. (Damon, 1983, p. 197) On the use of authoritative methods in the classroom Good and Brophy (1986) conclude that not only are these methods better perceived but they are simply more effective in developing cognitive structures in students and in enabling students to be self-disciplined and responsible. In addition, Kostelnik, Stein, Whiren, and Soderman (1988) conclude that children's productivity is increased as a result of the use of such methods. They state that in an authoritative classroom setting children " are better able to 31 independently initiate tasks, can delay gratification, are more cooperative with their peers, and are more constructive in their attempts to satisfy teacher demands" (p. 173). The benefits from understanding and utilizing this knowledge of authority and authority style will be long-term for classroom teachers, especially those working with elementary school children. SELF—CONTROL A second major element in social and moral development identified for the purpose of this study is self-control. In order for the developing person to produce desirable social and moral behaviors, there must be some regulation of the self-desires and emotions. According to Damon (1983, p. 228), by control is meant a feeling of efficacy or personal agency: a sense that one has some power, or causative effect, over the nature of the self and the outside world. . . . Children must feel that they have some influence over the events in their lives, or eventually they develop a sense of futility. Control over the self develops over the span of the individual's entire life. It is not present at birth, but strong evidence of it appears at around two years of age. At that time the child develops memory, has a greater competency in the use of language, enjoys a growing sense of self as a separate being, begins to understand cause and effect relationship, evidences a growing awareness of the feelings of others, and begins to accept responsibility for his or her own actions (Berk, 1989; Damon, 1983; Damon, 1988; Edwards, 32 1986; Hendrick, 1988; Kostelnik et al., 1988; Mischel and Mischel, 1976). To develop self-control Mischel and Mischel (1976) state that a person must incorporate into his own thinking and then utilize certain "contingency rules, which guide his behavior in the absence of and sometimes in spite of immediate external situational pressures" (p. 92). These rules provide the standard by which the individual regulates his behavior in specific situations, and allow the individual to determine whether or not his own standard has been met. While the term "contingency rules" implies a universal standard, Mischel and Mischel (1976, p. 92) conclude, "Different individuals may differ, of course, in each component of self- regulation, depending on their unique earlier histories or their more recent experiences (e.g., situational information)." A second aspect involved in developing self-control is the ability to delay gratification (Damon, 1983). The individual must have a sense of the future, be able to set goals, and realize that the experience of success or reward may have to be put off until a later time. The act of delay itself may provide some individuals with the reinforcement needed, although not all researchers agree on this point (Mischel and Mischel, 1976). Cognitive competence has also been shown by several researchers to have a direct connection to positive moral functioning and is, therefore, an important element in self—control. Mischel and Mischel (1976) cite Vernon (1964) as providing evidence that "Brighter, more competent people presumably experience more success 33 (interpersonally and through work achievements) and hence are more positively assessed by themselves and by others on the evaluative good-bad dimension so ubiquitous in trait ratings. These researchers also cite studies by Aronfreed (1986) '. . . that found intelligence to be significantly correlated with the complexity of the information that children can deal with in their judgments of conduct. . . ’ (Mischel and Mischel, 1976, p. 87). As has been mentioned earlier, the cognitive competencies of elementary school children are not maturely developed. These children will make errors in identifying the intentionality of an act. They may not be able to fully reason through their behavior. They may not fully comprehend the consequences of their behavior. It is only through the interaction of increasing age, socialization practices, and developing cognitive competencies that a more fully controlled individual may emerge. With increasing cognitive competence comes increasing ability to understand cause and effect relationships, a fourth factor affecting the development of self-control. Young children at the age of three maintain a single dimension focus in their cognitive functioning. Therefore, they do not plan well in social situations (Edwards, 1986, p. 154). However, by age four or five this rapidly changes. As Edwards (1986) describes it, most children are able to coordinate two cognitive representations and reflect on simple cause—and—effect sequences. They can talk in a group about the different possible actions that one might take to get a certain desired 34 result; they can also consider the likely effect of each type of action. They become more aware of other peOple’s intentions and motivations and, when other, more concrete aspects of the situation do not compete to steal their attention, they evaluate other people’s actions as good or bad depending on their motivations. (pp. 154, 155). This process continues so that by age six or seven years children are able to manage several cognitive functions, to monitor several aspects of their own behavior while thinking about those of a friend, and to establish their own personal goals. They understand that people are motivated by many things, and they more effectively assess the right and wrong of a situation. Being able to monitor and understand cause-and—effect relationships thus contributes to children's ability to be more self—controlled. Even at the age of ten they are contiually working on developing new dimensions of this element of social development. EMPATHY , ROLE—TAKING, AND GUILT While empathy, guilt, and role-taking contribute to the child's ability to control herself, they are presented separately here for the purpose of identification and clarity. Empathy will be presented first, followed by role-taking, which is integral in the development of empathy. Guilt will be presented last in this section. According to Hoffman (1976, p. 126), 35 Empathy refers to the involuntary, at times forceful, experiencing of another person's emotional state. It is elicited by expressive cues which convey the affective impact of external events upon him. In order for empathy to develop, children must have a sense of who they are and who the other person is, that an emotional state exists, and that they are capable of responding. In developing a sense of self as a separate entity, the child must come to the cognitive awareness that he or she exists apart from other individuals. According to Hoffman (1976), acknowledging the work of Piaget, this occurs at around one and one-half years of age. At this time the young child realizes that objects outside of himself have permanence. But, as Hoffman continues, other researchers have shown that person permanence apart from object permanence occurs at an earlier age. To support this he cites the work of Freiberg, 1969; Spitz, 1950; and Bell, 1970 (Hoffman, 1976, p. 129). Once a child achieves the sense of self as existing apart from others, he must develop the ability to understand that the other functions separately from him in thinking, seeing, feeling, and responding in a given situation. He must also realize and understand the relationship and interaction in the situation. In other words, the child must be able to take on the position or role of the other. According to Damon, role-taking involves being able to ". . . mentally place oneself in another’s position:. . . and is the cognitive realization of another’s point of view," (Damon, 1983, 36 p. 117). The child, in essence, centers less on self and becomes less egoistic in thinking and acting. In studying the development of role-taking, Robert Selman (1976), strongly influenced by Piaget and Kohlberg, suggests five stages of social role—taking. Of these five, stages zero, one, and two are of particular interest in understanding elementary school children. Stage 0 -- Egocentric Viewpoint (Age Range 3-6 yrs.) Child has a sense of differentiation of self and other but fails to distinguish between social perspective thoughts, feelings of other and self. Child can label other’s overt feelings but does not see the cause and effect relation of reason to social action. Stage 1 -- Social-Informational Role-Taking (Age Range 6-8 yrs.) Child is aware that other has a social perspective based on other’s own reasoning, which may or may not be similar to child’s. However, child tends to focus on one perspective rather than coordinating viewpoints. Stage 2 -— Self-Reflective Role-Taking (Age Range 8-10 yrs.) Child is conscious that each individual is aware of the other’s perspective and that this awareness influences self and other's view of each other. Putting self in other's place is a way of judging his intentions, purposes, and actions. Child can form a 37 coordinated chain of perspectives, but cannot yet abstract from this process to the level of simultaneous mutuality. (Based on the work of R. L. Selman as presented in Damon, 1983, p. 125) It appears, however, that the age ranges assigned by Selman to these stages is approximate. Other researchers have identified role-taking ability present in children much younger than two years and have claimed that the familiarity of a setting as well as the motivational factors present in it may be aspects as critical to its development as the age or stage of the child (Hoffman, 1976). As the child becomes aware of the existence and feelings of others, there is an arousal response to the distress of others. It is, initially, an affective response since the child’s ability to process the situation is limited by his cognitive abilities. According to Hoffman (1976), the cognitive functioning ". . . is dependent on the physical similarity between cues of the other's distress and those associated with his own past distresses" (p. 136). As the child develops, there also develops a more efficient, more mature understanding of the affective arousal and cognitive processing interaction. Hoffman (1976) indicates that this growing cognitive awareness allows the child ". . . to respond on the basis of inferred as well as perceptual similarities, and verbal as well as physical expressions of distress. . . and to respond to more subtle types of empathetic distress such as those resulting from another’s feelings of rejection and disappointment as his state of being unfulfilled" (pp. 136-137). Ultimately, the child’s cognitive 38 development should allow him to respond to distress situations he has never experienced yet is able to comprehend because of the inferences he is able to make regarding the others life situation. Mediative cognitive ability, thus, provides the child with the capability of understanding the dynamic interaction of self, other, and situation, subsequently enabling him to respond in a more socially and morally mature manner. The complex emotion of guilt is a significant contributing factor in the development of role or perspective taking, empathy, and also self-control. In addition, the emotion of guilt contributes to the child's developing ability to be responsible in his activity. Hoffman (1976, p. 139) defines guilt as follows: The combination of sympathetic distress or empathy with an awareness of being the cause of another’s distress may be called guilt, since it has both the affectively unpleasant and cognitive self-blaming components of the guilt experience. Personal or true guilt may be experienced directly as the result of commission (things the person did) or omission (things the person did not do which might have helped the other). In order for a child to feel guilty, he must be able to recognize the fact that he is the cause of distress in another or is in some way related to its cause. This typically is the first guilt response a child experiences. As the child matures, the guilt response may result from empathy for another’s situation or from the realization that he is in a position of advantage. 39 The child must also be aware that he has the ability to make choices about his actions and has the ability to control his responses. Thus, as he has experiences of guilt and as he develops cognitively, the child is better able to understand and to evaluate his behavior. This process of re—examination should encourage the development of more mature prosocial behavior and morally mature values. The child should then function as a more responsible social and moral individual. Strategies For Encouraging Self-Control, Empathy, And Role-Taking Encouraging self-control, empathy, role-taking, and developing the responsibility for self by accepting guilt are as important in the school setting as in the home. The goal is that these will be internalized by the child to bring about more altruistic behavior. Hoffman (1976, p. 143) refers to "parents" or "loved ones," Eisenberg and Mussen (1989, p. 101) focus on the school community, while Edwards (1986), Hendrick (1988), Katz (1984), Kostelnik et a1. (1988), as teacher educators, write for and focus on the school community. All of these researchers provide practical suggestions for facilitating these listed elements of social and moral development by the classroom teacher. First of all, Hoffman theorizes that "Sensitivity to the needs and feelings of others may be fostered by allowing the child to have the normal run of distress experiences, rather than shielding him from them, so as to provide a broad base for empathetic and sympathetic distress in the early years" (Hoffman, 1976, p. 142). If this is true, then a teacher needs to provide opportunities for a 40 wide range of emotional experiences to occur. The teacher needs to develop the knowledge of when to stand back and allow things to happen and when to step in either to protect the child’s well-being or to facilitate a true learning experience. Children should be allowed to experience the feelings of success and failure, of being liked and rejected, of being happy and sad, and being good as well as bad. These emotions bring to the child the realities of life. Such early experiences provide the basis for continuing development although they must be supervised so that they do not exceed the child’s coping ability. If the teacher decides to intervene, an effective strategy might be the use of direct instruction. Direct instruction provides the child with information about the feelings involved in the situation. It may be that the teacher will have to help identify the child's own personal feeling with him or her or may have to provide information regarding the feelings of the others involved in the situation. As Hoffman (1976, p. 142) states, "Encouraging the child to imagine himself in the other's place, and pointing out the similarities as well as differences between him and others, may also make a significant contribution to the development of altruism." Direct instruction also contributes positively to the development of self-control or self-discipline of young children. "Verbal instructions are the quickest way to let children know what the appropriate, inappropriate, and alternate behaviors are." (Kostelnik et al., 1988, p. 169). It provides the child with immediate information about his behaviors and where they fit in the 41 spectrum of social and moral appropriateness. Direct instruction may also give the child information about how to conduct himself in a more socially acceptable manner, information which for young children is an essential element in development. Equally important is the process of direct instruction in the emotional component which directs the child toward an empathetic response and/or a sense of guilt leading to internalization of the concepts and to more responsible behavior. Use of the I—message is a key facilitator and is part of what Haim Ginott (1972) labels congruent communication or "communication that is harmonious, authentic; where words fit feelings" (p. 67). The teacher conveys to the child in a statement his own feelings regarding a situation. It is done without insult to the child. For example, When Mrs. Brooks, the kindergarten teacher, saw five—year-old Alan throw a stone at his friend, she said loudly, "I saw it. I am indignant and dismayed. Stones are not for throwing at people. People are not for hurting." (Ginott, 1973, p. 73) This style of communication is developed further by Kostelnik, Stein, Whiren, and Soderman (1988) in the personal message. A personal message contains three components. The first is "to recognize and acknowledge the child’s perspective using a behavior, paraphrase, or affective reflection" (p. 176). This enables the adult to verbalize the child’s emotion and bring it into conscious form. The second component of the personal message "describes the adult's emotions, identifies the child’s behavior that led to those feelings, and gives a reason why this is so" (Kostelnik et al., 42 1988, p. 177). This is similar to Ginott's I-message and essentially enables the children to link emotion and behavior. The final component involves "Telling children an appropriate course of action for a particular circumstance" (Kostelnik et al., 1988). This part of the personal message provides the opportunity for teaching social and moral rules. It may also involve the implementation of consequences as a result of rule-breaking and the opportunity to highlight and develop personal responsibility. Used together these components enable the child to actively process the events and feelings of a situation and give him or her specific direction on acceptable, appropriate responses. The personal message is designed to be used to reinforce positive or socially and morally acceptable behavior, as well as to teach the rules that lead to such behavior. Teaching rules to children informs them of the social expectation of their culture as well as of the rules of justice and compassion and enables them to function more effectively in society. According to Turiel, Nucci, and Smetana (as cited in Edwards [1986]), children understand at an early age the difference between conventional rules which are based on the consensus of a societal group and moral rules which are inherent in interpersonal relationships. It is important, then, for teachers to indicate to young children that some rules are more important than others. They should also indicate that violation of some rules is considered to be more serious than others. Hence, the child will also be taught that there are various consequences related to rule violation depending on the type of rules broken. In 43 the process of teaching conventional and moral rules, the teacher should expect argument and excuses from the children, but, as Edwards (1986) encourages, the teacher uses these challenges as opportunities to facilitate the child's development of moral reasoning and understanding. The teaching of rules also provides opportunity for the teacher to set limits. Setting limits on behavior assures the child of safety, prohibits the destruction of property, promotes responsibility for self, and encourages treatment of all people as equal and worthy of respect (Reynolds, 1990, p. 168). By setting limits, the teacher and child understand the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behavior and more easily facilitate the encouragement of self-control. Another factor in developing empathy, guilt, and self-control lies is accepting responsibility for one’s behavior. According to Damon (1988, p. 129) "Taking responsibility for bad deeds means admitting culpability when one has acted wrongly, accepting just punishment, and making restitution for the wrong one has done when this is possible." In setting limits, in using personal messages, and in placing expectations on children, teachers guide and perhaps even insist that children will learn to accept responsibility for themselves and their behavior. In addition, Damon (1988, p. 129) states, "Encouraging children to assume responsibility means in part giving them responsibility, which in turn implies trusting them to rise to the occasion." Children should be respected and treated as potentially 44 responsible individuals. The expectation of an appropriate, age— mature behavior should be part of the classroom atmosphere. With expectation, however, there may also need to be adult insistence. Children must accept and not ignore their social and moral responsibilities. In summary, verbalizing the feelings of self and others, reasoning in disciplinary settings, allowing the child to experience the wide range of emotions, encouraging personal responsibility, and using direct instruction all contribute to the developing of a more empathetic, more self-controlled, more socially and morally mature child. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Early in this paper prosocial behaviors were defined as "voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals" (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989, p. 3). The term as presented by Eisenberg and Mussen includes altruistic behaviors since it is especially difficult to determine the motivational factors supporting such responses. The term prosocial behavior will be utilized to mean the same in this study. It is also assumed that moral reasoning is included as an essential element in prosocial development. The section begins with a brief description of Eisenberg’s levels of prosocial moral reasoning and her model of prosocial deve10pment. This is followed by a descriptive listing of many techniques which facilitate the occurrence of prosocial reasoning and behavior. 45 In Eisenberg’s model (1989) "an individual's level of moral reasoning is viewed as reflecting his or her moral values, as well as other values, needs, and preferences. Moreover, moral reasoning is seen as limited by level of sociocognitive development, and as influenced by situational factors." (p. 87). Levels one, two and three of five identified levels of moral reasoning are described below. The levels of reasoning are predominantly by preschool and elementary school children. Level 1: Hedonistic, self-focused orientation -- the individual is concerned with self-oriented consequences rather than moral considerations. Reasons for assisting or not assisting another include consideration of direct gain to the self, future reciprocity, and concern for others because one needs and/or likes the other (due to the affectional tie). . . Level 2: Needs - oriented orientation -- the individual expresses concern for the physical, material, and psychological needs of others even though the other's needs conflict with one's own needs. This concern is expressed in the simplest terms, without clear evidence of self—reflective role taking, verbal expression of sympathy, or reference to internalized affect such as guilt. Level 3: Approval and interpersonal orientation and/or stereotyped orientation -— stereotyped images of good and bad persons and behavior and/or considerations of other's approval and acceptance are used in justifying prosocial or nonhelping behavior. . . (Eisenberg, 1989, p. 92). 46 In her research, Eisenberg (1989) found that children's reasoning at various levels depended on situational factors as well as other personal factors. In particular studies of various cultures revealed that "to some degree, the values and concerns of the culture," affected the child’s reasoning (Eisenberg, 1989, p. 96). It was also determined that the levels of moral reasoning do not represent an invariant sequence. In addition, it was not clear "whether or not our levels of prosocial moral reasoning accurately depict qualitatively different stages of reasoning (Eisenberg, 1989, p. 98). It may be that in the upper levels especially the modes of reasoning may represent differing value orientation. These findings differ significantly from those of Lawrence Kohlberg (1980) and his widely utilized Stages of Moral Development. In Kohlberg's model, each stage is presented as progressing in an invariant, hierarchical manner with the reasoning at each stage being qualitatively different than the one previous. In addition, as the individual progresses to the thinking of the next higher stage, the characteristics of thinking from the prior stage disappear. Kohlberg claims that movement to the highest stage of reasoning is most desirable and represents the most morally appropriate manner of thinking. One important similarity existing between Kohlberg’s model and that of Eisenberg and Mussen is the assertion that development is limited. As Eisenberg (1989, p. 99) states, "the assumption that there is a ceiling set on the individual's level of moral reasoning to his or her level of logical and/or sociocognitive development 47 seems applicable to the domain of prosocial moral judgment. Young children are clearly incapable of expressing higher level modes or reasoning" This factor, along with the others previously presented, is reflected in Eisenberg’s model of prosocial moral reasoning. According to Eisenberg and Mussen, the prosocial moral reasoning used by an individual is influenced by several factors. First of all, personal factors, beginning with an individual's own goals based on one’s own values, preferences, needs, and affective responses, affect his or her focus of moral reasoning. Of particular importance are the affective factors of empathy and guilt. Next, personal characteristics such as the "degree of positive valuing of other persons, level of self—esteem, and degree of self—concern" (Eisenberg, 1989, p. 99) play a role in one’s development of values, preferences, and affective responses. In turn, personal characteristics are influenced and shaped by socialization factors such as the child-rearing practices under which one is raised, socialization procedures in nonfamily settings, and cultural norms and values. A second major factor is the context of the situation. Variables which are influential include "the cost of helping; characteristics of potential recipient; potential benefits for helping; and demand characteristics" (Eisenberg, 1989, p. 100). The third factor influencing prosocial moral reasoning is how these variables are used in the interpretation of the situation. which depends a great deal on "which aspects of the situation are 48 apprehended, perceived as salient, and/or are distorted" (Eisenberg, 1989, p. 101). The fourth factor identified by Eisenberg (1989) is the complexity of the individual’s cognition with regard to social phenomena" (Eisenberg, 1989, p. 99). This is affected by the individual’s age and cognitive maturity. In general, younger children explain their behavior in terms of concrete rewards while older children make reference more frequently to norms or social approval related to norms. Prosocial Moral Reasoning And Prosocial Behavior It has been suggested and shown that there is a moderate but positive correlation between prosocial moral reasoning and prosocial behavior. Children who have higher levels of moral reasoning tend to be more helping and generous. Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) found that empathetic, other-oriented young children were more likely to share than were lower level children. And they found that higher level reasoning in children tended to bring more altruistic, reasoned behavior. It cannot be expected, however, that a positive correlation between prosocial moral reasoning and prosocial behavior will exist in all situations. As Eisenberg and Mussen (1989, p. 192) point out, in many circumstances, trivial prosocial behavior may be enacted without much conscious processing (e.g., helping to pick up dropped objects). In such situations, situational cues, habitual patterns of behavior, or a variety of personal 49 preferences may be made relevant to what individuals do than are their levels of moral reasoning. Prosocial acts that are not costly may be especially likely to be unrelated to moral reasoning because such behaviors are unlikely to evoke moral conflict and moral reasoning and are likely to be performed rather automatically. (Eisenberg and Shell, 1986) And other factors such as "children's affective reactions and their competencies, needs and wants at a given time" (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989, p. 129) affect their prosocial responses, making such reponses unpredictable. As the research reveals, the development of prosocial behavior and moral reasoning is very complex and at best unpredictable. Yet, some practices serve to facilitate the development or at least the tendency to be more prosocial. And teachers of elementary school children find themselves in an excellent position to facilitate the process. Strategies for Encouraging Prosocial Behaviors When asked what kinds of children were most likely to exhibit prosocial behavior, Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) described them as being sociable, assertive, advanced in role-taking and in moral judgment, and empathetic. These children were also described as having feelings of success and competence. They were able to determine that the cost factor in the present prosocial action was low. This is one of the variables considered when weighing whether or not to act prosocially. Another influencing variable identified was that the recipient of the action was usually liked by the 50 producer of the action or had provided help to that person in a previous situation. But most important, the children had had opportunity to engage in prosocial activities. Several practices contribute to the development of these prosocially thinking and acting children. From the literature and research comes the following information. Modeling provides one of the most frequently identified practices which encourage prosocial behavior. The helping, sharing, and cooperative behaviors demonstrated by the model must be frequently and clearly presented to young children. Highlighting the behavior in the model through verbalization and in the child's performance of it is especially effective in encouraging the same prosocial responses. The model may be a parent, a teacher, or other significant person in the child's life (Damon, 1988; Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989; Kostelnik et al., 1988; Marion, 1986). It is noted by these researchers that, when prosocial behavior is modeled, discussed, and the children have opportunity to practice the modeled behavior, internalization is more likely to occur. Subsequently, prosocial thinking and behavior were exhibited by the children in similar situations. An element strongly related to modeling is television programming. Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) feel that morally responsible adults should advocate programming which presents children with more altruistic models and fewer models who exhibit violent and selfish behavior. 51 Teachers frequently have opportunity to model for children helping, caring, and generally prosocial behaviors. This may occur in situations of behavior management, general classroom procedures, or in specifically framed social learning situations. As with any modeling, the prosocial behavior needs to be highlighted and reinforced. The discipline or management context provides the teacher with a rich setting for encouraging prosocial behavior in young children. Since the four- to eight-year-old child's reasoning ability is developing rapidly along with his or her ability to use language, the use of reasoning is vital. Children should be encouraged to try to understand the feelings of others when conflict arises and they need to also be placed in touch with their own feelings (Damon, 1988; Kostelnik, et al. 1988). Kostelnik et a1. (1988) point out that young children need to be instructed as to how to express their emotions appropriately to others in a verbal rather than physical manner. In addition, the management context is an effective setting in which to verbally label the benefits of prosocial behavior (Marion, 1986) and to reinforce it (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989; Kostelnik et al., 1988; Marion, 1986). Damon (1988) encourages teachers to maintain high standards for the children in the area of moral and prosocial behaviors. Even young children, while being taught to share, care, and empathize, must be expected to produce prosocial behaviors in an age- appropriate manner. In addition, these high standards should include the expectation of developing responsibility for one's own 52 behavior. Children should be expected to accept the consequences for bad deeds as well as the rewards for the good ones. This contributes to the development of fundamental structures for moral reasoning and aids in the development of appropriate values. Hendrick (1990) suggests that the sense and concept of responsibility be developed through meaningful work. Children become more prosocial when they are responsible for cleaning up or setting up activities for classmates, when they assist the teacher, or when they are made responsible for the welfare of peers. Providing opportunities for children to engage in prosocial activities is another major contributor to the development of prosocial behavior. All children need to be given opportunity to role-play situations in which empathy is a factor and to use empathy in play settings (Damon, 1988; Edwards, 1986; Kostelnik et al., 1988; Marion, 1986). Children should be given activities that require working together either with equipment or with information (Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989; Kostelnik et al., 1988; Marion, 1986). And children should be given real-life opportunities to be actively prosocial not only with each other but in simple community settings outside the classroom (Kostelnik et al., 1988; Marion, 1986). Prosocial moral thinking and behavior should also be encouraged through the use of appropriately selected curricula. Moral values and prosocial behaviors should be taught as they naturally occur in any subject area or unit theme. Or they may be specifically planned and presented through the use of current events or a unit developed with a specifically prosocial focus (Damon, 1986). Such curricular 53 selections might focus on honesty, thoughtful behavior, or helping behavior. They might even include a unit on friendship. The method of instruction and the context of instruction play important roles. For young children the key is active involvement using role play or working together as the context in which learning takes place. All children, however, benefit from small-group discussions in which cognitive conflict occurs through the introduction of a problem. Problem-solving strategies are taught and the children are encouraged to use them in the discussions as well as in other conflict situations they encounter (Damon, 1988; Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989; Kohlberg, 1980; Kostelnik et al., 1988; Reimer, Paolitto, Hersh, 1983). In the discussion activity, children develop their communication skills since they must be able to express their ideas to one another. To be able to communicate one’s ideas clearly and completely is critically important if an individual is to function as a morally and socially mature person (Damon, 1988). Communication also plays a key role in peer interaction in any setting. In interacting with peers, children learn to clarify their own thinking and ideas (Damon and Killen, 1982; Damon, 1988; Eisenberg and Mussen, 1989; Turiel, 1983; Wolterstorff, 1980). The structures for understanding moral values develop in the verbal interaction (Piaget in Damon, 1988; Parker, 1987). And children use communication skills to facilitate constructive, cooperative work in a group setting (Damon and Killen, 1982; Damon, 1988). 54 Among the recent pedagogical strategies that incorporate many of the above listed features is the cooperative learning approach as researched and presented by Robert Slavin (1980). Cooperative learning utilizes small groups of children, specific individual and group responsibilities, active communication, high expectation and accountability, and academic content and achievement. The results of Slavin's studies reveal that students involved in cooperative learning activity achieved academically, showed improved race relations, and developed greater mutual concern for one another (Slavin, 1980, p. 323; Schaps, Solomon, and Watson, 1985/86). A variation of cooperative learning as presented by Lillian Katz (1989) is labeled The Project Approach. Small group interaction revolves around a project. A project "consists of exploring a topic or theme such as ’going to the hospital’" (Katz, 1989, p. 2). The project, as with other cooperative learning that involves sustained interaction, "requires content that is relevant, vivid, engaging, significant, and meaningful to the participants (Katz, 1989, p. 43). Around such content young children will interact using active, expressive processes. Through such an interactive setting, intellectual deve10pment and social competence occur. As the preceding paragraphs suggest, many strategies and activities are available to the teachers of elementary school children that encourage the development of moral reasoning and prosocial behavior. The process of developing these behaviors and internalizing them is of critical importance for children and for 55 the future development of a morally and socially functioning society. 56 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter begins with a statement of the research focus followed by a description of the research design. Included in the chapter is a discussion of validity and reliability. RESEARCH FOCUS As was previously described in Chapter One, teachers’ thought processes (as presented by Clark and Peterson[(1986, p. 257]) involve "(a) teacher planning (preactive and postactive thoughts); (b) teachers’ interactive thoughts and decisions; and (c) teachers' theories and beliefs." The focus of this particular study is on the one aspect of teachers' thoughts identified as Teachers' Interactive Thoughts. However, for the purposes of this study the study of Clark and Peterson is not replicated, since their studied population was inservice teachers using think—aloud journals; this study involved student teachers involved in stimulated recall using journals, videotape lesson analysis interviews, and interviews recorded in the researcher’s field notes. 57 THE SUBJECTS In any given semester at Calvin College (Grand Rapids, Michigan), there are approximately sixty to seventy student teachers involved in student teaching in the elementary school. Students are placed at grade levels according to their preference; they are placed in either private or public school according to space available. All students in the Elementary Education Program who qualify for student teaching must have completed the liberal arts core and elementary education teaching methods requirements, passed the Preprofessional Skills Tests, and maintained at least a 2.5 grade point average. Various liberal arts majors and minors are included in these students’ declared college programs. Selection of the students to be studied from this population frame was determined by several factors. During the spring semester of 1991 there were sixty-three student teachers in elementary education. Of that number, seven student teachers were selected for supervision by the researcher. That grouping was determined by school placement and by grade-level placement since the parameters of the study were kindergarten through fifth grade. Of these seven student teachers, four were asked to volunteer for the study. Since all volunteered, the entire group of seven student teachers were involved in the study. Appendix C contains a table providing the pertinent demographic information. All seven student teachers were assigned to private schools serving middle class Caucasian students. These schools utilized no 58 unusual curricula and followed a typical daily elementary school schedule. RESEARCH DESIGN To investigate student teachers' interactive thought processes on the social dimension of children’s development, both time- series and process-tracing methods were selected for use in the research design. In field research the natural setting in which a question to be studied occurs provides the appropriate arena for observation and inquiry. As described in the following paragraphs, the process-tracing method makes it possible to study the thought processes, while the time-series design adds depth and validity to the study. The time—series design which is the "studies of processes occurring over time" (Babbie, 1986, p. 305), allows for the cumulative collection of data. It also provides opportunity to study the changes in the student teachers' thinking over the course of the student teaching experience. To provide access to the student teachers' thinking regarding the social development of the children in the classroom, the process- tracing method seemed most appropriate. According to Shavelson, Webb, and Burnstein (1986, p. 79): Process tracing refers to verbal report methods that attempt to obtain data on the "intellectual processes used by subjects as they render judgments and make decisions or solve problems" (Schulman and Elstein, 1975, p. 4; see also Slovic, Fischhoff 59 and Lichtenstein, 1977). Although process tracing has been used to refer to a variety of methods (Schulman and Elstein, 1975), it most commonly describes research in which a subject is asked to (a) "think aloud" or "talk aloud" while performing a task, (b) recall thoughts after having completed a task, or (c) think aloud, while viewing a videotape of himself performing a task. The first method is usually called a "think aloud" method; the second is often called a retrospective interview; and the third is called stimulated recall. For this study, the third method, labeled stimulated recall was selected. Stimulated recall most accurately replays the situation or event providing the original stimulus for the thinking. It, therefore, allows the student teacher to access his or her thoughts naturally without extraneous suggestion. It would provide the most reliable data on student teachers' thought processes. SELECTION OF DATA—COLLECTING TECHNIQUES The collection of data was accomplished through the analysis of journals written by the student teachers, analysis of videotaped lessons involving both the student teacher and researcher, and from the contribution of field notes kept by the researcher during two interviews conducted without the use of the videotape. JOURNALS Journal writing provides a written account of thinking in process. It has been both utilized and defended as a valid and 60 reliable tool for collecting research data (Bolin, 1987; Yinger and Clark, 1985). For the purposes of this study, the student teachers were asked to keep a daily journal from the first through the ninth week of the student teaching experience. In the journal the student teachers were asked to describe one instance from each day which involved some aspect of social and moral development as described in Chapter Two. After the description was written in the journal, the student teacher was asked to reflect on the event or experience by responding to the following questions: 1. What social and/or moral developmental occurrences made you stop or pause to think at various points in this event? 2. What were your thoughts at that point? 3. Did your thoughts influence your action? Describe how. The questions used to guide the journal writing are the same as those used in the interviews following the videotaping sessions. The first question initiates the thinking or reflection process, while the second and third are the probe questions. It is important, according to Shavelson et al. (1986), to control the nature of the probe questions in order to keep the data collection as free from distortion as possible. They state, Probes such as McNair's ‘tell me what you're thinking' ask the teacher to report information normally available. Probes such as Peterson and Clark's ‘were you thinking of any alternative actions’ require the teachers to search for specific information 61 that might not normally be heeded and so may distort the thought processes reported" (Shavelson et al., 1986, p. 83). VIDEOTAPE INTERVIEW The data collection also included the videotaping and analysis of each separate teaching situation. These videotaping sessions were scheduled for the second, fifth, and ninth weeks of the student teaching experience. The taping included an entire teaching episode from beginning to end. As soon as possible or at the end of the same school day, the student teacher and the researcher viewed the videotape to analyze selected portions. The portions of the tape typically viewed, as suggested by Clark and Peterson (1986), are the first five minutes, the last five minutes, and from three to five segments of from one to three minutes selected from the entire lesson. The selected segments would highlight social interaction or any segment dealing with the selected themes of social and moral development. The questions asked during the interview were identical to those asked in the journal writing. This was done to facilitate the collection of similar data from both settings. In addition, the videotape viewing interview was audiotaped for later transcription and analysis by the researcher. It is essential for the videotaped interview to be scheduled as soon as possible following the taping. This allows for less interference for retrieving data processed in the long-term memory 62 and allows for keeping some short-term thoughts of the student teacher from being lost completely (Shavelson et al., 1986). The student teachers were free to select the subject matter for each lesson presented since it was not feasible to control this in the natural school setting, which involved two schools and various grade levels. The teachers were asked to limit the lesson length to thirty minutes. It was also suggested that the lesson be designed to have the students actively involved during the lesson so that they be assigned to work in pairs or small groups, thus facilitating social interaction. FIELD NOTES The researcher also kept a journal of field notes. These were recorded during and after each observation and interviewing session in which the videotape was not used and in concert with a review of the journals written by the student teacher. This provided the third source of data. RELIABILITY The reliability of a study using process-tracing is difficult to establish since no situation recorded and discussed would be identical in every respect to a subsequent one or even one implemented in a laboratory setting. In most instances regarding data collection of this nature, reliability is based on the pattern, theme or coding schemes which develop within the protocols and the ESE-‘- 7 «I 63 amount of evidence cited to support them (Glasser and Strauss, 1967; Shavelson et al., 1986). The nature of reliability in this type of research, however, is more accurately defined as "trustworthiness" rather than "consistency of behavior" as is more typical of scientific research (Yinger and Clark, 1985, p.15). The trustworthiness of the data is supported by the inclusion of the time—series method in the design. A sense of constancy is provided by returning to the same setting with the same teacher and children. In addition, if participants are included in the study as collaborative researchers and if they are assured that the data will not be used for evaluative purposes, the information recorded and related will be more accurate (Yinger and Clark, 1985, p.15). The student teachers were encouraged to become collaborative researchers through the journal, and they were reassured of the evaluation process in the consent form. VALIDITY The validity of process tracing data is " still branded as a suspect source of evidence because they are introspective" (Shavelson et al., 1986, p. 80) and because they lack the objectivity of statistical measurement. However, a theory of the measuring instrument as presented by Ericsson and Simon (1980) provides legitimacy to the process. In their work, process—tracing using the videotape within an interview is considered stimulated recall in which information must 64 be obtained from both the long-term and short-term memories. According to the thinking of Ericsson and Simon (1980), the teacher (in this study, the student teacher) may fill in the memory gaps or co-construct information. However, since the videotape is such a rich data source, the stimulation is greater, thus reducing the chances for less authentic information to be given by the preservice teacher. In addition, the probes must be and will be controlled to request information normally available. If these conditions are met, then the data produced may contain some distortion but is still valid (Shavelson et al., 1986; Ericsson and Simon, 1980). In addition, Yinger and Clark (1985) support the use of journals as a valid means of data collection. They cite teachers’ reports of accuracy in the information given as well as stating that journal writing is an authentic cognitive phenomena. To insure a greater measure of content validity in this study, the personal journals, the videotape interviews, and the interviews conducted without the videotape were compared for evidence of collaborative supporting data. CONFIDENTIALITY The participants were asked to sign a consent form allowing the researcher to use the information gathered and to inform them of the procedure utilized to protect their identification (See Appendix B). Each participant was allowed to select a pseudonym. This pseudonym was used on all tapes given to the typist for transcription. The n—n—u—mc .4 65 pseudonym was used on all protocols and in the examples reported in the findings. The participants were also reassured that the findings of the research would not in any manner adversely affect their final grade. DATA ANALYSIS Since the purpose of this study was to discover and describe the nature of student teachers’ reflective thought regarding the social and moral development of elementary school children, the protocols generated were treated as opened-ended questionaires subsequently being studied for common patterns, units of thought or concepts reflecting the social domain. In addition, the protocols were studied for changes in thinking that occur over the time period of the student teaching experience. The procedure for analysis (as suggested by Robert E. Stake [1988] and substantiated by Babbie [1986] and by Glaser and Strauss [1967] as appropriate for field research) is as follows. First of all, the protocols are reviewed using various possible interpretations. Second, the data is searched for patterns, for repeated concepts, or for any recurring theme with adequate supporting evidence. Third, connections between the various elements interacting in the setting, including activities and outcomes, are sought and analyzed for relevance. Fourth, attempts are made to organize the data according to larger concepts or themes and some tentative conclusions are drawn. And fifth, new data is gathered. The prior data is reviewed in light of this new data, 66 specifically with the purpose of disclaiming or supporting the original findings. This process was repeated throughout the period of data collection until the final round of data collection was completed. The presentation of the collected data is appears in Chapter Four. The conclusions based on the collected data are presented in Chapter Five. 67 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS The data collected from all sources during this study is presented in this chapter. It is organized to reflect both the broad thought patterns and the strands of thought which contributed to their formation. Those broad patterns are presented in the following sequence. First is the pattern which reflects thinking about managing the social environment of the classroom. The second section includes thought about the students' social relationships between and among themselves. The chapter concludes with the third pattern, which is the student teachers' thinking about the social dimension of learning. EMERGING THOUGHT PATTERN: MANAGING THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM In the analysis of the data collected from the interviews using the videotape, the journals, and the interviews not using the videotape, the most frequently recurring patterns of thought regarding the social development of the students focused on managing the social environment of the classroom. As Table 1 indicates, 68 there were seven recurring strands of thought which contributed to this pattern. Of the seven those strands dealing with evaluation of student behaviors and those focusing on behavior expected for a quiet, orderly environment occurred most frequently. Of lesser frequency, yet contributing to the development of the pattern, were those thoughts related to the teacher's role as authority in the classroom. Thought Patterns Evaluating students behavior; no action Evaluating students behavior; action Maintaining student attention and quiet Stating behavior expectation Seeing situation; student perspective 30( 9.0) Encouraging personal responsibility Students' responses emotional 69 Table 1 Emerging Thought Patterns: Managing The Social Environment Of The Classroom Interview aResponseldNo. of Frequency Teachers Behavior consequences and reinforcement Her role as authority figure a. Z of responses based on the total responses (N 61(18.3) 7( 100) 32( 9.6) 7( 100) 55(16.5) 7( 100) 24( 7.2) 7( 100) 7( 100) 29(11.7) 6(85.7) 36(10.8) 6(85.7) 19( 5.7) 5(71.4) l4( 4.2) 4(57.1) using the videotape b. X of responses based on the total responses (N c. X of responses based on the total responses (N without the videotape d. The total number of preservice teachers giving Journal b Frequency Teachers 39(10.4) 7( 100) 38(10.0) 7( 100) 59(15.7) 7( 100) 38(10.1) 7( 100) 33( 8.8) 7( 100) 50(13.3) 7( 100) 39(10.4) 7( 100) 50(13.3) 7( 100) 29( 7.7) 7( 100) Interview ResponseldNo. of cResponseldNo. of Frequency Teachers 13(14.2) 6(85.7) 2( 2. 21(23. 17(18. 1) 0) 6) .8) .7) .3) 0) .3) response (N a 7) 1(14.3) 5(71.4) 5(71.4) 3(42.8) 4(57.1) 3(42.8) 5(71.4) 3(42.8) . 332) for the interview s 375) for the journals = 91) for the interview 70 In this opening section of the chapter, the strands of contributing thought are presented with illustrative examples. Each section begins with examples from the videotaped interviews in sequence, from the first interview to the third. These are followed by examples from the journals and interviews not using the videotape. Not all the student teachers are represented in all sections. THOUGHTS ABOUT STUDENTS’ BEHAVIOR CONTAIN EVALUATIVE COMMENTS Uppermost in the student teacher’s mind is the social behavior of the students in the classroom. Specifically, it is the behavior not of relationships between students but simply about who the students are and what impression they make on the student teacher herself. Much of this reflective thought is focused on evaluation of the students’ behaviors. Some thoughts led the student teacher to deeper reflection and action. Data From The Videotape Interview While viewing the first tape, Maria pointed to a student and made the following statements: I think that he is the cutest little kid. I think that he is just such an attractive little kid. When asked if that made a difference in how she related to him, she reponded: No. I think that every one of them is very special. You notice things just like they notice things about you like when you wear 71 a different outfit or something about you. They notice things like that. Sometimes somebody will be real dressed up or like one of the girls will come to school with their hair real curled and I try to make a comment about it. Just to them. * * * * In the second videotape interview, Jacqueline spent time thinking about her fifth grade students. Jacqueline had become more involved in behavior management and was beginning to realize that the interaction between the teacher and students was important. The students were spending a great deal of time being restless and she was having difficulty keeping them focused on the tasks at hand. Her reflections contained several evaluative thoughts. I feel sorry there are a couple kids in there that just cannot concentrate. I mean they try to work at it, but they just can't. I don’t know. It usually works best to let them have a little bit more freedom. It sounds terrible but just to let them. . . like D. is always turned around. I let him move his seat you know. He wanted to get away somewhere else. Just so that he could see better. For him that is all he needed. I just let him do it. That worked earlier in the day. * * * * During the viewing of the second videotape, Whitney began making statements about a boy in her first grade class. While acknowledging the child, she did not take any action which would encourage more appropriate social behavior. 72 That is D., our fifth grade reader. He goes to Mr. S. and reads with them. He always seems to be a little bit bored in our reading groups. I think that he has to be in our groups so that he reads the material too. I don’t know what they are doing with him because he has already read second grade material. I don't know if he is going on to third grade next year. * * * * As we were viewing the third videotape, Mary, who was involved in a kindergarten classroom, pointed to a student. This boy doesn't usually listen too well. I think he relates to the handsome men. He thinks he is such a big hotshot. Then the thoughts continued: He walked in this morning with a butch. So I went up to him and said, "Oh, neat." So he was going, "Oh, Mrs. P. stop it!" He was so embarrassed. . . . He is just a little macho man. He is such a cutey. You would never expect that out of a five-Year- old to be concerned about his hair--a boy either. Mary’s thoughts remained evaluative. They were reflective without providing deeper understanding of the student or aiding her in thinking about her relationship with him as his teacher. Data From The Journals And Interviews Not Using The Videotape The journals and interviews proved to be an excellent collaborative source of data for this category. Several journal entries as well as comments from the interviews contained statements 73 of evaluation regarding students which led to deeper reflection and action on the part of the student teacher. * * * * Maria's thoughts during her second interview continued to focus on the management of her students. As she approached her full-time teaching period, her reflective thoughts on the problem of noise and the need for more effective management seemed to remain at the nonproductive, evaluative level. She had discussed the fact that nothing she said or did made a difference to the students. When asked what she was thinking when she stated that nothing mattered to the students, she said: Some of them it doesn't. I think you could do any punishment to them and they just don’t care. Even in response to the probe, "So then, if they don't care , how are you going to get to them?" she responded, "I have no idea." **** During an interview toward the end of her student teaching experience, Irene evaluated her class and their ability to remain focused during a lesson presentation. They are usually better than they were today. There is always some of that [nonattending behavior] just because they are sitting in their group. That is what they are used to. *zkvkv’c Irene's evaluative thinking was stimulated when she spoke regarding a particular student who appeared with new glasses. 74 Steve just got new glasses on Monday and he is playing with them. When asked what her thoughts were at that point, she replied: That is typical, actually. I mean the glasses are new, but the behavior of fooling around with something else while I am teaching is pretty common. I am planning to talk to him about that. I want to take him aside and have a little talk with him about that. * * * * Whitney’s thoughts were concerned with the restlessness problem in her classroom of first graders. These thoughts led her to reevaluate their behavior and then to apparently effective action. She began the conversation with: They are so restless, too. They are just super restless lately. I don't know it if is the weather or what. I think they always want to go outside. That is why I don't know if they are restless because of the weather or [and then she paused for a moment to think] or if they sit down on the carpet too long or their seats too long or. . . today because they are restless I wanted to do something using the chalkboard, and they kept opening their desks and stuff. So I said put your hands up, and they have glue on them and stick them. [She indicated the desks as she pointed to them.] It worked so well. There was a couple times I had to mention, "Oh, your glue is coming off!" They kind of giggled about that. 7‘:*** 75 In working with her fourth graders in a setting requiring the students to complete a project with another person, Irene noticed that the situation became tense as two boys began to fight over a torn newspaper. When asked what she was thinking, her reflection and evaluation came as follows: This is not worth fighting over and that they shouldn’t make an issue over it. That they are making a mess because there were little shreds of paper everywhere. There were a couple times when S. came up to me and was just being silly. He was just being totally silly with that. Subsequently, she told them to keep their newspapers separate and that they should not be ripping anyone’s newspaper. They had been previously instructed to cut what was needed from teh newspaper. * * * * Joy recorded the following thoughts and effective action in her journal. She identified and made an evaluation of the nonproductive behavior of the two boys which led her to refocus their attention to the task assigned. We had library time on Tuesday, March 12, 1991. Each student is supposed to check out 2 books before leaving. While helping the students to find two books, I noticed L. and J. clowning around. I walked over and offered to help them find some books. As I gathered information on their project, I steered the boys toward some good books. J. checked out two books, as well as L., on sea life. Their excitement towards the subject evolved. Because of 76 my caring interaction with them instead of scolding them, I have gained a closer relationship to both. * * * * Jacqueline continued her thoughts about the restlessness of her students. She made the evaluation statements to her class using an I-message to encourage the students to develop a sense of personal responsibility. She wrote in her journal: In the middle of a spelling lesson the class got extremely restless (talking out of turn, whispering to neighbor, throwing things, wiggling, complaining, etc.) My Thoughts: "I’ll never make it through the day if this behavior continues!" Action: In transition between spelling and reading, kids went nuts. I firmly said, "I cannot take this anymore. I know you people haven’t been able to go out for recess. That isn't fair and you have lots of energy, but I cannot stand the talking out of turn, whispering, etc. If this keeps up, we won't be able to do anything today, and we'll all go home this afternoon with huge headaches. Please help me out!" She concluded by stating that things calmed down. * * * * In one of her journal entries Maria thought about the interruptive behavior exhibited by some of the students during the afternoon storytime. Her thoughts are recorded as follows. I really know there will be a problem when all the boys sit together. Somedays I separate where they sit. Other days there 77 just isn't time. I only read for 15 minutes. I think it's really rude when someone talks or goofs around when I'm trying to read. As a result of her thinking, she decided to have the disruptive student come and sit by her at the front of the group. She did not think, however, that it would end the problem. * * * * Evaluative thoughts reflected Maria's formation of student working groups. She put two boys together who were continual behavior problems particularly in the area of remaining focused on a particular task. It doesn't matter. They are best friends so when they do talk they talk well together. . . . They both squirrel around a lot so I don’t think it would matter who you pair them with actually. I have seen them work with other people and a lot of kids don’t want to work with them because they do squirrel around. I tried to pair them by the way they were sitting but sometimes it is difficult. **** Jacqueline frequently made evaluative statements about the class as a whole group, and those thoughts led her to encourage them with positive comments and expectation statements. During the second to the last interview, we discussed the explicit and detailed rules which guided the playing of a spelling game. After the first round of the game which proceeded extremely well, she said to the class, "You are all excellent spellers, you impress me!" When I asked her 78 what she was thinking at that point in the lesson's progress, she replied with the following: I Because it was right at the beginning and I want them to compete in this. It is not cutthroat. Some of them were a little bit nervous up there. I could tell. They were kind of red and shaky a little bit when it was their turn. They did such a good job when we got through one round. I really was impressed. I wasn't just saying that. Just to let them know what I was thinking. They had studied their words. * * * * In the second interview Mary continued to make statements which evaluated the behavior of her entire class. As her thoughts progressed, however, she began to focus on three students in particular. It was interesting to note that this time her thinking seemed to prompt action rather than isolated comment. I would say that there are four or five children in this class that can be really good or they can be really energetic. The way they act sets the tone for the rest of the class. So, if they are in an energetic mood on this particular day, the whole class seems to follow along. When asked, "How many children are there like that?", she responded There is K., J., N. N. was really off the wall today. He is the one -I wrote his name on Naughty Ned. It is a warning. . . . He was making noises. He has been doing that all morning. 79 THOUGHTS FOCUS ON MAINTAINING STUDENTS' ATTENTION In the data collected, thoughts regarding maintaining student attention and keeping the students quiet occurred frequently. These thoughts were present in the first interviews and journal writings and continued throughout the entire student teaching experience. Much of the thinking seemed to occur in relation to whole class or teacher-directed activity. Less frequent were thoughts about the students’ needing a quiet environment in which to work. Some thoughts did reflect the need for quiet so that students could listen to each other. It remained true, however, that much of the student teacher’s thinking time was concerned with the maintaining or gaining the attention of her students. Data From The Videotape Interviews When Whitney was asked what she was thinking when she called B.’s name, she replied, Because B. was not paying attention. Whitney had noticed in viewing the videotape that B. was whispering to the girl next to her. * * * * Having just observed herself giving the students parameters as to the amount of time they were going to spend on a project as well as some behavior expectations, Jacqueline was asked to relate what she was thinking during that time. 80 Those were the instructions on how to do the lab. So that is when we talked about what an observation is, how do you predict, little things that are key to the lab -- like what a stopper is. We talked about different things like that -- that they have to know -- that are not hard but it is just a lot of details that might be boring. It would be easy to tune out on. * * * * Mary was involved in teaching a lesson to her kindergarteners on the body parts of a spider. On the videotape it was apparent that she had looked at the group for nonattenders. When asked about this, she replied, I kept looking. There was one little boy in the striped shirt who I was watching. He kept kind of turning away and doing some other things at first. I got his attention later on. . . . I want them to be at least looking up. I don’t expect them to all count with me. There will be some that won’t. As long as they are watching. If their eyes are somewhere else, then I have lost them. That is something to think about. * * * * During more than one observation, Joy had her second graders seated at their desks for a lesson presentation. Typically, these were times when the cooperating teacher would have the students seated on the floor in a circular pattern. When asked about her thinking on this matter, she gave the following response I feel more comfortable with it this way. For certain things I will bring them in front of me. When they are at their desks, 81 they are sitting properly and I feel like I have their attention. It is not an intimate thing. It is not an intimate subject. So, I want them to be attentive. When they are sitting on the floor, they are playing with each other's hair. I want them to get the concept. It is apparent from her response that it was imperative that the students attend to the lesson and the activities planned. * * * * During the opening section of a lesson, Iris utilized the concept of packing for a trip and asked questions regarding what types of clothing and other articles might be needed for various types of climate. The students became very involved in the activity giving responses, often spontaneously and without listening to each other. In viewing the videotape she related the following thoughts. I struggle with it [students giving responses] because I want them to be quiet and give good answers, but I was getting what I wanted. I think that they were hearing it. They were paying attention to what I was taking out of my suitcase. So some of the in-between noise —— I guess it didn't bother me as much. * * * * In one particular setting as Jacqueline observed her fifth graders come to the end of a particular activity, she noticed there was desk banging, conversation, and paper shuffling. The following thoughts occurred: 82 Every time we got to an end of an activity there was even more noise. There were more desks banging and papers shuffling than there was before. . . . They don’t need to have all that. It is not an invitation to talk when we stop an activity. They don’t need to use that time in that way. Just put your papers away quietly and get ready for the next activity. Data From The Journals And Interviews Without The Videotape The journal writings and interviews continued and substantiated the student teachers’ reflection on maintaining students' attention and the necessity for quiet times in the classroom. In her writing, Whitney focused on M.'s disruptive and disturbing behavior. Her evaluative thoughts were recorded as follows. M. was not listening to me all morning and was constantly talking out of turn. I realized he was disturbing others and he was showing disrespect for me. During my reading group I pulled him outside in the hall. * * * * Maria wrote regarding the attention problems she encountered with students. She thought about the time wasted and the work that needed to be accomplished. I asked everyone to put away their pencils when we didn't need them because knowing my class they would write, doodle, or mess around with them. We had a lot to finish up and I didn't want any distractions. 83 **** Needing the students’ attention and quiet during the presentation of an assignment prompted Iris’ thoughts, especially when she became aware of the nonattending behavior of two students in her class. She wrote: During some of my teaching time, as I was beginning to explain the assignment and my expectations, two students -- J. and W.-- began talking among themselves. The assignment was some free creative writing, and I think they were just getting excited about it and were discussing their plans. Still, I was also explaining what would be going on the next day (other assignments were due), and I needed their attention. So I stopped, looked at them, and said, "Excuse me, are you talking about something important?" (At first I thought, Oh, no, this is an invitation to them to be hams in front of the whole class! What if they take me up on this question?) But luckily they didn’t, so I moved on with my speech that I really needed them to listen to the assignment and what I had to say before they could have a chance to share their ideas. They quieted down, and I feel the speech was good for all to hear. * * * * A situation of quite a different nature caused Jacqueline to think about maintaining the attention of her fifth grade students. She had been assigned to teach a familiar Bible story and was concerned that her students would "tune out" rather than stay 84 involved and be prepared to re-examine it in greater depth. She wrote: I dressed up as Mary, the sister of Lazarus. I told the students flatly, "I'm not teaching Bible today" and walked out of the room. I came in as Mary and told the story first-person. Her journal then presented the thinking process which had preceded the event. Although the students are familiar with the Lazarus story, I don't think many are familiar with Mary -- or at least haven't heard the story from that perspective. The activity also provided a good change of pace for the afternoon. Student attention should be maintained. * * * * Maria’s thoughts as recorded in her third journal entry focus on not only the problem of maintaining quiet and attention but also include her feelings in response to the problem. My class was very talkative and rowdy (especially specific individuals)! I just about lost my mind telling them to be quiet and sit down and stay busy. So after lunch at storytime, I explained to the class as a class that the longer I have to wait for them to be quiet and listen to my instructions, the longer I'll keep them in for PM recess. * * * * In her fourth journal entry, which was written after she had been in her classroom for several weeks, Whitney continued to identify maintaining attention and quiet as a focus of her thoughts. 85 At this point her thoughts exhibit her willingness to provide leadership in the situation. During this week more than ever the students’ noise level is reaching new heights. Talk, talk, talk! During storytime, two boys were talking repeatedly and others were too. At least three times I had to stop to get them to quiet down. I just asked them to sit still and face me or whatever was necessary. Finally, I said that the next time I had to stop the story, I would have to send the people to their seats. The two boys started talking so I had them go to their seats. **** It seemed that the storytime was also a problem time for Jacqueline and her fifth graders. She noticed that "They wiggle and talk especially when situated at the edge of my vision line." She recorded the following thoughts: Reading a story aloud is usually a highpoint of the day for students and for me. However, the wiggling and whispering has got to stop! It’s too distracting —-especially when students don't have copies of the book to follow along. Also--I really like to have students sit in the front of the room with me. I think they can handle it. **** 86 Whitney, who recorded similar thoughts in her journal, discussed the problem of knowing that all students were focused on the task of reading. She wanted to be sure that all the students were following as the reading progressed. For her it was important to have the visual assurance. That was complicated by the fact that the reading table in her first grade classroom is small and the area crowded. She related her thoughts as follows: It was crowded around the table, but I wanted them to have their books flat so they wouldn’t fuss with it. Also, so that I could see if they had their magnifying glass on the right spot and that they were on the right page. If they have it on their laps you can't see that. **** It was during the first interview without the videotape that Jacqueline reflected on the events of the previous day. It was the week prior to spring vacation and the day’s schedule had been altered at various points to accommodate special activities. Her comments on the need for attention commence as follows. Everything was backed up. So it was really a whole period that they missed. So, I had all this stuff to fit in, and then Mrs. V. left. She had a conference. So, she just kind of took off. I had all this stuff at the end of the day. So, we were passing papers, and I told them that we would do Spanish. K. was going to come in and do that. So, we started going over words and it was a flop. No one was paying attention to anything. So, I was 87 like this isn’t working. No one wants to do this. So, I decided to play Spanish ball. They loved it. It was right at the end of the day. * * * * In the second nontaped interview with Whitney, the comments on lack of attention were focused on two children who had evidently worn an outer shirt, found themselves warm, and removed the shirt. Instead of setting the shirts aside, the boys found them to be attractive and distracting playthings. It was a shirt in J.’s hand and he was kind of playing with it and tossing it around. Then, I just scanned over and I saw someone else with one. So, I had them bring it away to get it out of there so that they wouldn’t play with it. . . . It was a distraction. * * * * For the opening section of a science lesson, Maria had designed a survey which required the students close to their eyes and do some voting by a raising of hands. In giving the directions, she had specifically mentioned that she needed the attention and cooperation of her fourth graders. When asked during the conference interview what she was thinking during that time, she replied: Just so they knew that I meant business. It was something different that they probably didn't do before. I just wanted them to listen to the directions and it would go a lot more smoothly. **** 88 In her first interview without the videotape Mary had commented regarding the level of noise and distraction that had occurred during the observation. Her thoughts focused on the expectations for attention that were normal for the situation. Well, when you try to teach a lesson, they are supposed to be quiet and listen. They are supposed to sit in chairs and listen. * * * * During a lesson in which she was observed, Maria stopped and waited for the students to be quiet before she proceeded with an explanation or gave directions. When asked what she was thinking at these times, she stated I would wait and wait and wait. You just heard this little murmur. You would not know exactly who it was that was doing it, but you could hear it. When I am trying to give directions, I do not want to try and talk over that. It is very hard. It feels almost like you are screaming. So, I try and wait until everyone is quiet. **** THOUGHTS ARE CONCERNED WITH BEHAVIOR EXPECTATIONS In the collected data, evidence of thinking about the stating of behavior expectations seemed to emerge slowly. It appeared as though greater classroom involvement encouraged more frequent reflection on the use of behavior expectations. The processes of 89 thought varied from sharing thoughts with students to using the initial thoughts for a more purposeful analysis. Because this strand of thinking was not present in the first interview using the videotape, the presentation of data begins with the second interview with the videotape. This data is followed with the reflective thoughts recorded in the journals. And finally, the data collected from the interviews conducted without the videotape is presented. Data From The Videotape Interview During this particular observation Mary had her kindergarteners involved in a music activity related to her unit on spiders. The children were to imagine first that they had a spider crawling up their bodies and then in a second experience that they had a spider in their hands. During the interview the question was asked, "What did you notice with them lying around on the floor in the classroom?" Her thoughts began with a comparison of the two kindergarten classes which she taught and then proceeded to the immediate situation. They were going under the tables and stuff. See this class is so different. I did this with yesterday’s class and it was great. They just lay down. They did everything and they didn’t make a lot of noise. This class you have to tell every detail. I’m not used to saying that all the time. So I have to learn to do that. . . . I thought ’shoot, I forgot to tell them not to go under the table and I forgot to tell them to stay near the front 90 and to close their eyes'. Once it got started I wanted to stop it and start over again. * * * * At the beginning of her full-time teaching, Maria established a very explicit set of behavior rules with positive reinforcement and logical consequences. During the interview following the final videotape viewing, she elaborated in great detail exactly what she had planned and implemented prior to the videotaping. During the observation and from viewing the videotape, it was obvious that the students were more attentive and cooperated with her. When asked to relate her thinking regarding this, she responded: I just in my mind set the rules and we talked about it as a class. I explained it all very thoroughly to them so they understood it. When it happens, I just take care of it. * * * * In the stating of her expectations to her fourth graders, Irene thought about the social interaction of her student, the social construction of knowledge, and developing independence in following directions. I wrote down four things that were my purpose: to introduce the students to features of the paper and get them to take a closer look at them, to promote cooperation and sharing of ideas, to add variety to their learning. . . and to help them learn to follow directions. I have noticed that sometimes even when I write directions on a sheet they will not really read them. They will just ask me before they even try to understand what is 91 written. So, I wanted them to do some of their own following of directions without coming to me right away. I will help clarify things but I want them to read as well. * * * * At the beginning of the final videotape, Jacqueline observed the sensitive situation she encountered upon returning from a recess break. Her fifth grade students had been involved in a very competitive game of kickball with the fifth graders from another classroom. They had previously asked her to be involved in the selection of teams and to function as referee. She had refused to referee thinking that the students were ready to learn how to manage this very important social dimension of their lives. The thought pattern reflects heavily the expectation placed on the students: they have a responsibility and they should learn how to work with other pe0ple. It is kind of like when you have group work in class, they have to learn how to deal with other people, how to cooperate. Something like kickball, they all want to play. They fight for a while and all of a sudden it is a quick decision because they realize they have to play. They have to get a system going. That happens all the way up to the business world. You have to learn to cooperate and work with people. They can do it! They are old enough! Data From The Journals And Interviews Without the Videotape The journals and interviews provided substantiating examples of these student teachers’ thinking regarding behavior expectations. 92 In her first journal entry, Joy thinks about expectations in terms of consistent enforcement of stated rules. there were four students playing with the blocks for Workshop Way. The rule in the class states that four people can play with these blocks but their conversation may not disturb others. The students became rowdy and didn’t keep their noise level down. Being disturbed by the noise level, I warned the students once. The noise continued. I, then, noticed that the noise disturbed the others in the class. I asked the students to put the blocks away and go back to their seats. * * * * In her journal Maria related her thoughts and statements of behavior expectations subsequent to a spelling game which abruptly ended because the students were "noisy, talkative, and eventually rowdy." She expected that they would be able to manage their behavior in a more socially acceptable manner. Her thoughts continued as follows. They were performing behaviors they knew they shouldn’t be doing. . . . I sat down after the kids got back to their seats. I told them that it wasn't any particular person’s fault that the game was over, but that I was unhappy with the behavior of the entire group. I explained that I shouldn't have had to dictate every minor rule about what was appropriate behavior, but that I had certain behavior expectations for them-- expectations that they knew without me having to tell them, and that we could finish the game if they could prove to me that he 93 they could control themselves, act appropriately, and play the game. **** In her journal Iris reflected on her statement of expectations. In this situation the statements and thoughts were directed at one student rather than at the entire class. The student involved had been reading about something other than what had focused the rest of the class. When the other students were ready to work, W. was not. So before telling W. where he could find the information he needed, I gave him a little lecture. . . . I began with an "I- message.’ I told him that I saw that he was not learning as part of the group, and this upset me because when I teach in front of the classroom, I expect everyone to pay attention. I do not expect to have to repeat the lesson for him personally. I told him that from now on I would expect and appreciate it if he would stay with the class. Then, I told him where to find the information he needed. Her reflection continued: I'm not sure if this will be enough for W. Probably not. But at least he now knows how I feel. * * * * Irene also focused her thoughts regarding expectations on one particular student. Developing a strong sense of responsibility by working with this fifth grade boy was extremely important since he had been appointed editor of the class newspaper. A situation occurred in which the boy wanted to conduct an interview for the 94 newspaper but doing the interview was contingent upon completion of another assignment. When asked if the assignment was completed, he responded with an "I think so." A review of the work, however, showed this not to be the case. When he asked if he could do the interview and then complete the assignment at home, she responded with her expectations: I said I wanted to see that sheet done first thing the next morning or this would be the last time I made a trade off like this. The work cannot take a back seat to newspaper even though he’s excited about it. **~k* With a different focus in mind, Whitney thought about behavior expectations more generally in terms of establishing classroom rules and a positive classroom environment. She was concerned that the students in her classroom would understand what was expected of them and why certain consequences occurred. The thoughts recorded were not related to any specific event nor did they lead to any specific behavior by her. To avoid a negative [classroom] atmosphere, it is important for students to know what is expected of him/her. Class rules should be talked about frequently until desired behavior appears and students are living the rules. I think it is especially important for younger students to be reminded of what is expected of them because rules are often forgotten. **** 95 For the playing of a spelling game Jacqueline had established very specific rules for the purpose of facilitating more thoughtful responses from the students. Two rules that were highlighted were, first, that students must remain absolutely silent during the game, and, second that once a letter was spoken it could not be taken back. After the completion of the game and during the interview she offered the following reflection. It was a very picky rule for one. . . . I really wanted them to think before they opened their mouths. That is how they usually take a test. You can talk about going over and correcting your answers but no matter how hard you try, they just don't do it. So, just to have them be thinking more. Also, that is a point where it just would have been chaos if they didn't remember it. So, I wanted to single it out so that every one remembered. * * * * Jacqueline was also able to have fun with the behavior expectations she required of the students. During the taking of a spelling test the students began to run out of time. There were thirty words to complete in eighteen minutes. Normally, she thought they spent about one minute per word. She realized that a positive challenge could strengthen the developing relationship between teacher and student. The following are her thoughts as she related them in the interview. So, I said, ’We are going to take the world’s fastest spelling test —that you have ever done.’ I said, ’Get ready. You are going to write like the wind.’ They said, 'Yeah! Let's do it. 96 Don’t even read a sentence.' So, we finished a minute before recess. We did it that fast. So, I let them go early. THOUGHTS REFLECT A CONCERN FOR THE STUDENTS' PERSPECTIVE Thoughts regarding empathy and role taking occurred in two dimensions. The primary thought pattern seemed to reflect the student teacher's understanding of the students' perceptions and emotions. This, subsequently, enabled her to deal more effectively with the immediate situation. The secondary pattern of thought seemed to reflect the desire of the student teacher to have her students understand the emotions and perceptions of their peers. Often some disruptive social situation would occur prior to the onset of the thought pattern. Then the thoughtful analysis would focus on how the student felt in the situation. Seldom, however, was there a pattern of thinking in these situations that considered how to encourage the students to develop their understanding of each other’s feelings and perceptions. Nor was there an apparent pattern of thinking that considered using direct instruction either to clarify a situation for the students or to focus on facilitating the development of a more empathetic attitude by the students. In other instances the data revealed the student teacher herself considered the feelings and perceptions of the students in making classroom management or organizational decisions. These are important thoughts for the teacher in that they affected the social environment within which the students interacted. 97 Data From The Videotape Interviews In organizing the class for a science lesson which involved the utilization of both learning stations and the students working in pairs, Irene thought about the composition of her class. It was important to her that this be a science learning experience and not just an opportunity for hurt feelings. In the interview in which she responded to the videotape, Irene related the following thoughts. There are fourteen fourth graders but one was absent today. So, there had to be a group of three. I know that M. often gets left out. So, I wanted to make that group of three just automatically. I said, "Would you three be together without saying E. and A. will you take M. on with you. Just--will you three be a group." Reflecting on that statement, she concluded with: Then the three of them standing up by the board was getting them adjusted to the idea that three of them were working together now. * * * * In observing the first videotape, Mary reflected on how the children felt. I think I pretty much chose the kids who raised their hands. Mainly, because I know we are not supposed to do this but I have such a hard time picking children who do not know because that puts them on the spot. **** 98 During the viewing of the second videotape with Whitney, she identified a student in the class as having very low self-esteem. In addition, she stated that this particular student did not have a positive relationship with a particular girl in the class. In thinking about the situation, Whitney considered the student's perception of and feelings in the situation, made some evaluative statements, and decided to deal with it in a broad, nonspecific manner. Whitney did not seem to consider any strategies which would facilitate the development of empathy and positive social relationship skills. Excerpts to highlight her thinking process follow: She does not get along well with a girl in the class we found out recently. There is a lot of tension between the two of them because it came out that she didn't even want her to be at her home. . I think that she feels that she doesn’t have friends but pe0ple like her. . We have been including her even more now that we realize this problem. We are always very encouraging to her. . . . Well, I don't think that there is the problem that J. sees. I think that it is in her head that she feels that the other girl doesn’t like her and doesn’t want her around. . . . I think they just avoid each other now. * * * * During the interview following the second videotape, Jacqueline related her thoughts from an event that had occurred earlier in the 99 day. It had involved disruptive behavior on the part of the students, a situation which she utilized to develop their understanding of her feelings, their own feelings, and how the social order of events in the classroom should occur. The following presents her thoughts: This morning I stopped I think three times. I said, "I cannot teach like this." I was mad one time. I didn't care. I said, "I cannot teach like this. It is too loud in here." She then verbalized to the students her perception of the situation and identified their feelings for them. She said, I know you have a lot of energy. Yesterday you were not able to go outside. I know that it is not fair. I wouldn't want to be cooped up inside, but we all have to behave. She concluded her thoughts by saying that she felt they could work at the situation together. Data From Journals And Interviews Without The Videotape In her journal Irene reflected on the students' perception of discipline. She had been concerned with using negative consequences and the importance of balancing those with positive reinforcement. It appeared from her thinking that she believed a developing relationship between teacher and student involved a sense of nurturance. It's extremely important to give positive comments or reinforcement because it seems to me students get enough negative from their peers and from teachers when students get 100 into trouble. When I discipline a student for breaking a rule, I try to be stern, but in a loving way. I'm sure students know if a teacher is just yelling at them or if that teacher really cares about them. * * * * In her journal Joy recorded a situation in which she considered the perspective of her students as she went about the task of forming students into groups for the purpose of doing research. She wrote these thoughts. Today, I split the class up into groups as to which animal they would prefer to research. Before doing so I tried to think of ways that I could split up the room without students feeling left out, wanting to be with friends, or being placed into an animal group of no interest to them. * * * * In the process of thinking about and implementing a management strategy that involved small—group rewards, Maria reflected on the possible feelings of various students within the group configuration. Her thoughts acknowledged that students would have reactions. But her thoughts indicated that she felt she had no other option and that her own personal feelings had priority over those of her students. ' After describing in her journal her management strategy, she provided the following reflection: I felt much more in control and I know the people in each group would keep on those few who disobeyed. I realized that it's not 101 always fair for those who don't get a reward because of the people or person in their group. But, something had to be done about the noise and chaos. In a subsequent interview with Maria, this thought process seemed to continue. In this situation, however, the students' perceptions and emotions were involved. The rules of the class had been presented and discussed. The students had been informed. One particular student, however, broke a rule and everyone in the group was affected. Maria's thoughts follow: I said, It is almost the end of the school year. You know the classroom rules. You shouldn't need two warnings for talking out of turn." Well, he was upset because they already lost two stars for his row. They were very mad at him. For me it seemed to be going well. * * * * While wanting her classroom to be orderly and wanting the students to understand that when rules are stated they are to be followed, Iris also realized that there are always exceptions. In thinking about the firm establishment of rules, she expressed the understanding that students might have differing needs. In an interview following an observation she related the following: I said, "I expect this from you in this lesson." I said, "I expect you to stay in your seats and raise your hands." I also added on, "When I am in the front or when I am explaining, or if 102 I am leading something, then I don't want you to get up out of your seat." That sort of thing. I understand when they have to blow their nose and stuff like that. That is different. Like sharpening pencils--that is really distracting to me. * * * * In this particular interview Iris not only thought about a student's feeling, she also considered his perspective of the situation. This thought also reflected her prior actions of positive reinforcement. She appeared to use her thoughts and actions to encourage him socially and intellectually. That was T. The one who plays the waiter has some real learning disabilities. He thought that was pretty funny. Sometimes he has the attitude that I can’t do this so I am not even going to try. . . . I say just try your best. Even though he didn't do that well I was happy that he wanted to go up there. At least he tried. THOUGHTS ABOUT STUDENTS AND THEIR RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIR OWN BEHAVIOR This particular strand of thinking occurred among the student teachers, contributing to the developing overall pattern which focused on the social environment of the classroom. This, however, was one of the lesser strands contributing to the patterns and is, therefore, supported by fewer examples. No thoughts appeared in the data collected during the first interview using the videotape and few in the first journal entries. During the second and third 103 interviews using the videotape, the thinking appeared but not with the regularity of the preceding strands of thinking. In the interviews conducted without the videotape, a few brief thoughts were presented. Data From The Videotape Interviews During the first videotaping, one of the students in Joy's first grade classroom seemed to be distracted by the video camera. During the second taping the same problem occurred. When that portion of the tape was viewed, Joy related the following thoughts. I talked to him about the video. I just wanted to explain. I just reflected back on the behavior. I thought that this would be a semi—appropriate time. I just said, "Do you think that you could be a little bit more mature and responsible." He said, "Yeah." Joy wanted to student to become responsible for his actions, and she used a direct question to facilitate this. * * * * In this particular situation Jacqueline had been dealing with an ongoing problem regarding the presence of distracting items which a student brought to the classroom. The student had been warned on previous occasions that the presence of such items was not appropriate and that, if they appeared, the teacher would keep them in her possession until the end of the day or the end of the week. The previous day a ball had been taken from the student. The student was annoyed by this and asked the teacher constantly for its 104 return. The following thoughts occurred during the viewing of the beginning of the second videotape: She She is very immature for her age. She was screwing around with her ball and I gave her a warning. She had it out so I took it and kept it for a day. . . . Today, she brought it [a toy] again. She sort of just did these faces. Just sort of slam the ball in my face so that I could see it. She was like what are you going to do. I was sick of it and she was so mad. . . . I talked to her a little about it. I just told her that you had your warning. You knew that you lost a ball on Monday. I said, You know that I am going to take it. Why do you do this?" She said, "I didn’t have it out." I said, "You showed it to me. You put it in my face and then hid it is your desk. That counts." paused at this point and then continued. She was just fighting it but not really. She knew. I just walked away and said, "It is your choice." She came back five minutes later and said, "What are you going to do?" I'm thinking I don't know what I am going to do. I said, "You can decide. You know what you should do." Then she came back and gave it to me and was in a big huff. **** During the viewing of the third videotape Iris made the comment that her fifth graders were an excitable group. This caused her to relate an event that occurred the prior day. Her thoughts included 105 students being responsible for their own behavior and accepting just punishment for their behavior. Yesterday at lunch they were going to play kickball with Mrs. W.'s class. I had stepped into the hallway to talk with someone. As I am walking back to the room, six boys were tearing out the door. This was seven minutes early for recess. I went after them and I yelled to them. One boy did hear me and he said, "Hey, you guys! We have to go back in." They all kept running, the other five. So, the sixth one did come back inside and I went out further and tried to call for them again. They didn't come back. So, I made sure I knew who was out there and I wrote their names on the board. Now, they owe me seven minutes of their lunch recess today. She paused for a moment while looking at the names of the boys that were written on the chalkboard and visible on the tape. Then she continued: as They know better than that. They said, "We want to get out there early and get the field and Mrs. B. lets us out early." I said, "Mrs. B. has never let you out seven minutes early and I am not Mrs. B. anyway." I said, "You know better than to go out before you have permission to go or before the bell rings." I said, "Sorry, I am not arguing with you about it." * * * * With her fifth graders Jacqueline used the ongoing kickball game an opportunity to think about and teach responsibility both at the personal and group level. During the organizational time, the 106 students had asked her to participate in and direct the formation of teams and organize the play. The following thoughts occurred in response to the Opening scene on the third videotape in which most of her class was clustered around her at the door of their classroom. When I went out there, right away they wanted me to choose the teams. I wouldn’t do it because that is their time. They have to work on that stuff. I told them that I would go out there but I am not going to set everything up for you. In response to the probe regarding her thinking, she continued: I think that is really important in the choosing of teams for them to work out their own problems. Mrs. B's kids came out and then they just threw a fit, "They can't play! It is our diamond." It is not. The fifth graders have to share it. So, I made them play and they were furious. They decided to play instead of mixing teams to have her class against ours. The other class had their whole class there and we only had twelve. So, my class got creamed. They were furious when they came inside. Data From Journals and Interviews Without The Videotape In the following journal Iris wrote after teaching an entire day without the cooperating teacher being present. She felt that the students were testing her to discover her limits. I think the problem stems from the fact that M. [the cooperating teacher] allows much more noise than I do. So, when I get to take over, they’re still playing by her rules and don't know 107 mine -- or my expectations. Finally, I had had enough. I began a discussion with them with a kind of silly plea -- "Please don't eat any more sugar tonight! You guys are too crazy already!" Then I explained to them that I felt that they knew what kind of behavior was expected of them during work periods -— and that they weren’t acting accordingly. I added that if they think I'm bad/mean today, they haven't seen anything yet. And that I don't like to punish them, but they don’t give me any other choice. I told them that no matter how they felt about me today, it wasn't me just being a big meannie, but it was. . . (and this is where about 6 or 7 kids finished my sentence). . . the way they were acting that brought it on. Her written thoughts ended with So -- if they know this, why do they continue!??!!??! * * * * In a somewhat different pattern of thought yet with the intent that students be responsible for their actions, Jacqueline wrote in a later journal entry regarding the class setting in which the students would present their science projects. She wanted all of the students to listen, to learn from each other, and to be appreciative of each other's work. She incorporated direct instruction into her statement of expectations to the class. In preparation for the class session she wrote the following thoughts: Such a lesson in which students are not directly accountable for material learned has the potential to go haywire. Students 108 could get talkative or restless. Also, these are great projects! Then she recorded the following: I directly approached the class. "For our last science lesson I'm going to give you a chance to share/explain weather projects. You have some great projects! For those of you listening and observing, this is a great chance for you to review some weather concepts, learn some new things about weather, and to see how hard and how well your classmates worked. I am sure that you will give them your full attention-— they deserve it! And won’t you appreciate it when it’s your turn to go up front? **** Maria thought about the importance of having her fourth graders develop personal responsibility throughout her teaching experience but particularly in the setting when she was responsible for the entire classroom. She was somewhat discouraged because she had established the rules for the class and communicated them clearly. Yet, as she reflected, It helps for a while. Usually the same people are the ones that are making noise. The same people are getting on them for making noise. So, she decided that since the students should be responsible for their behavior, they should also be responsible for making the 109 rules and the consequences. By having them participate in the rule- making, she felt she would be teaching them responsibility. Her thoughts follow: We are sitting down Monday morning, maybe at devotions, and they are going to make up the rules. They are going to give me suggestions on what they should do if they misbehave, if they talk without permission, whatever. I am going to make a list on the board. Then, I am going to pick some from it. They are going to know then their consequences before they do whatever they do. So, I am going to have them as a class make it. **** During the same interview Maria related her thinking regarding one particular student. Her concern was for what she perceived as the development of an inappropriate attitude by this boy. Her thoughts revealed that she was personally affected by his behavior. She approached him directly regarding the problem, using an I- message to convey her feelings and to place on him the responsibility for his actions. I talked to J. one to one this morning. It said, "J. it really bothers me because I taught a lot yesterday. Everything we did regardless of what subject it was you said a negative comment about it." I said," Can you think about those things before they come out of your mouth." I said, If you can’t say something positive about something we are doing, don't say anything at all." I said, "This bothers me a lot. It makes me very upset." Then, he kind of looked at me and said, "oh." I 110 said, "Can you try today when I am teaching to not make any negative comments.?" He made one. I looked at him and said, "Eric, remember what we talked about?!" He said, "Oh, yeah." THOUGHTS ABOUT USING POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT AND NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES Thinking about each of these strategies appeared in the data but once again not as frequently as other thought strands. It was not until the second interview using the videotape and the second journal writing that these thoughts emerged. There appeared to be more thinking about appropriate consequences than positive reinforcement. Some of the thoughts came without probes, but some emerged only after information had been given or the student teacher had become extremely frustrated with the students' behaviors. It also appeared that often neither was used as a result of thoughtful reflection. The following examples taken from all sources represent the thinking present in this strand. Data From The Videotape Interviews In her kindergarten setting, Mary frequently used the phrase "Good Job!" as a positive reinforcement. During the interview as the videotape presented her saying this several times she was asked why she used that particular phrase. She replied: Well, I don’t know. It was hard to go over something that was already done. And they were doing a good job. 111 She had not considered reflecting back to the students what it was that they were doing that had met her expectations. This would have provided appropriate information to the students about their behavior and positive reinforcement. Yet, she did not seem to be aware of it. * * * * During the interview following her second videotaping, Jacqueline reflected on the apparent lack of effectiveness for her fifth graders of a selected consequence she had used with them. She had thought about appropriate consequences but had difficulty selecting one. That is what is tough. They really like to stay in for recess which is weird because they hate it when they can't go out. We have science projects due so they will all want to stay in and finish their projects. * * * * With her second graders, Joy considered and utilized positive reinforcement in an effective manner. Her thoughts seem to reflect an appropriate understanding of the use of positive reinforcement. On the opening section of the third videotape she was selecting students to come to the board to work math problems. When questioned regarding this, she related the following thoughts: Because it is a motivation. Usually, I try and get them as involved as possible because they sit more attentively if they are doing it so they can come to the board. I just pick 112 students who I feel are ready because they are listening carefully. I usually give my standards before. As the tape continued, she said to the students at the board and in their seats such things as "You are doing very well" or "You are catching on well." When asked why she used these phrases, she responded If someone tells you that you are doing well and you are, then you want to do more. Then they are ready for the next step. * * * * With her first graders Whitney used a silent cheer for positive reinforcement. The third videotape showed all of the students with their hands raised in a cheering motion, their faces smiling, and their mouths moving but not one sound could be heard. When asked to relate her thoughts related to the silent cheer, Whitney paused and proceeded with the following. They always do it so I do it too. They are just so used to everything from the beginning of the year. They do the silent cheer for everyone. They all do it. . . . Kind of like a routine thing. Data From The Journals And The Interviews Without The Videotape In her second journal entry Whitney recorded the following use of positive reinforcement: I use I—messages frequently for a positive desired behavior. Often the students will come in from recess and not settle down to get to work. All that is necessary is for me to say, "I like how "so—and-so" is reading a book and making good use of her 113 time." Students immediately will look for praise and will model the desired behavior. In the same journal entry she related her actions regarding the use of negative consequences. While the actions reflected her thinking, she did not elaborate on the thinking process. For the student who has been constantly blurting things out loud and pestering others during workshop, I took him aside and said, "I see that you have been disturbing others during workshop. I also hear your voice saying things when a hand is not raised. During workshop we work quietly by ourselves. If you have a question for someone, then whisper quietly to them or ask me for help. I know that you can behave during workshop because I have watched you before. Do you think we could work on the behavior? If you keep talking loudly and disturb others I will have to have you spend some recess time inside. * * * * The data from Maria’s second journal entry presented her thinking regarding the use of positive reinforcement and negative consequences. Two particularly concise, reflective statements of thought are provided: It's extremely important to give positive comments or reinforcement because it seems to me students get enough negative from their peers and from teachers when students get into trouble. When I discipline a student for breaking a rule, I try to be stern, but in a loving way. . . . Sometimes it seems to be necessary to give negative consequences especially when 114 giving choices to a student or when you have given a student a number of tries to behave and they can't. * * * * In her fourth journal entry Irene incorporated the use of consequences in a plan for developing personal responsibility with one of her students. The problem-solving strategy was utilized in presenting the plan. Unique, yet effectively so, is her commitment to be involved in the plan with the student. She recorded her thoughts as follows. I called 0. out for a conference. I felt confident of my plan and of my reason for initiating it (o.'s disruptiveness). I felt a bit nervous just because I had never done this before, but still very able to carry out my plan. 0. and I discussed what I had observed. He admitted that he does do the things I mentioned, and he could see they were disruptive. He agreed to change with my help. We agreed on 2 short taps as a signal to stop talking (or whatever he was doing) and give me his attention. We discussed consequences and are both ready to try the new plan. * * * * During an interview not using the videotape that occurred early in the student teaching experience, Jacqueline was asked to comment regarding her frequent use of positive reinforcement statements. In relating her thoughts she included the use of consequences. Yeah. I will usually let them know. I had told them that I would disqualify someone if they were talking. It was kind of 115 little whispering with a lot of people. There wasn’t one person to pull out. I wasn’t ready to have ten people sit down. It was kind of a reminder and they are usually good. * * * * In an interview conducted later in her student teaching experience Whitney related her thinking regarding the use of negative consequences. In the setting the students had been seated on the floor for a math lesson on telling time. Whitney’s thoughts follow: Sometimes I have the boys sit in the front first and then the girls in the back. It always ends up the girls sit in the front and the boys sit together. I noticed that they ended up scooting back and not paying attention. . . . I have been punishing students a little bit more by having them go to their seats. THOUGHTS ABOUT THE ROLE OF AUTHORITY IN THE CLASSROOM In the classroom setting the student teacher must continually be aware of herself as the model of authority, as the one who facilitates the students' developing concept of authority, and develop her own concept of her authority role in the classroom setting. In addition, knowledge of authority and its role is fundamental to children's understanding of social relationships. It appeared from the data collected that student teachers struggle with their role as authority figure in the classroom. The role was developed as the experience progressed. The patterns of “max-‘1' ‘—' . O 116 thinking regarding themselves in the role of authority occurred much less frequently than did those patterns involving the students' behaviors. This strand of thinking did contribute to the broad pattern of the social environment of the classroom. Data From The Videotaped Interviews In thinking about her role as the authority in her fifth grade classroom, Jacqueline exhibited all the characteristics which contribute to establishing the authoritative style. She communicated her expectations clearly. She expected her students to conduct themselves maturely and responsibly. She accepted her role as leader and utilized control appropriately. And she was nurturing in appropriate ways. The following excerpt was taken from the interview using the first videotape exhibited her early thinking on the matter. P. asked me to work with his best friend. There was someone absent here next to H. and P. thought that he would just slip into that spot. I was thinking if I let them do it then everyone is going to want to work with their friends. I would not be fair because I told them flat out that I had already assigned groups. I guess that they don't know me enough. It sounds kind of stupid but I was holding to my word. **** In a particular situation which occurred near the end of her student teaching experience, Whitney appeared to think about her authority role in terms of control. During her last interview fxm .. .- 3...? V 117 viewing the videotape, she responded with these thoughts to an incident at the pencil sharpener: They are not supposed to sharpen their pencils. I am supposed to. If they have problems with it, I am supposed to do it. **** As Maria’s responsibility in her fourth grade classroom became greater, she not only thought about her role as leader but verbalized it to the students. She had experienced some difficulty in gaining and maintaining a quiet functioning classroom and in establishing herself in the role of leader. In the interview following the last videotape she related her actions and thoughts. She took class time to carefully communicate her expectations and the system of reinforcement and consequences. Then she continued with a clear statement as to the nature of her position as authority. The following reflection was recorded: I said, "This week I am no longer a guest." I said, "Mrs. 0. will be in and out of the room working on things." I said, "I am the teacher for this week." * * * * In an event previously presented as an example of facilitating students’ development of personal responsibility, there also existed Iris’ thoughts and actions that establish her as an authoritative leader in her fifth grade classroom. She utilized clear communication, maturity demands, control, and nurturance in the situation. 118 In the situation, six boys left the classroom seven minutes early at a noon recess. While she tried to get them to return to the classroom, one did but five did not. She wrote their names on the chalkboard and told them they owed her seven minutes from the next noon recess. As the following example reveals, she accepted her role as leader and communicated it clearly to the six boys by her actions. They know better than that. They said we want to get out there early and get the field. Mrs. B. lets us out early. I said, "Mrs. B. has never let you out seven minutes early and I am not Mrs. B. anyway." I said, "You know better than to go out before you have permission to go or before the bell rings." I said, "Sorry, I am not arguing with you about it." Data From The Journals And The Interviews Without The Videotape This confidence regarding her role as leader in the classroom did not come without a struggle. Iris reflected the struggle in the first journal writing: I was the substitute teacher again today. Today, the kids decided to try to test me and see how far they could push me. I'm tied between being firm and letting some things go. With firmness I get what I want, but am afraid the kids won't like me. With letting things go they learn that I won't jump on them, but they will like me. The kids repeatedly got out of hand today. Maybe because N. is gone. Maybe because of the great weather! Maybe because I let them. **‘k~k 119 In the following event recorded in her first journal writing, Jacqueline's thinking reflected her understanding of the nature of authority and the process necessary for her to establish her leadership position in her fifth grade classroom. In the situation the students had been told to get ready for gym class. Since it was the last period of the day, this involved getting coats and books together and coming back to their seats in an orderly manner. Instead of doing what was expected, the students began to visit with their friends or simply did not sit down again. Jacqueline continued with her thoughts: Students are disobeying my clear instructions. I know they’re hyper-—it’s Fri., Mrs. A. is gone, they’ve had 2 birthday treats —-but this behavior is not acceptable--they must respect teacher's authority--without teacher nagging and repeating instructions many times. They must get coats, put books away because we need order in the room Students must prepare to leave. Because I had reminded students to get their coats and quiet down, I simply sat on the stool in the front of the room. When some students caught on while others kept talking, I quietly stated, "I'm waiting until you’re ready. You’re missing your gym time." I knew the majority of students love gym. Immediately, they began hurrying and quieting peers. Eventually, all were back in their seats. ***‘k Erna. ‘9“ 120 In her kindergarten classroom Mary reflected on the difficulty yet the importance of being a consistent authority in the classroom. All the elements of the authoritative style of leadership are evidenced in her last journal writing. L. is an ADD youngster who has a hard time controlling himself. On this particular afternoon, nothing I said made an impact on him. He continued talking aloud, making comments, etc. After 3 warnings, I was fed up with the interruptions and sent him to a bench in the hall. She indicated in her writing that the following section contained her thoughts on the incident. I hated to do this mainly because I’ve not been this strict yet in my student teaching experience. It hurt to have to resort to this. But repeated warnings and "I-messages" had no effect. He was disrupting the lesson and the learning of not only himself but of the other students. I went to him later and he was sobbing. After talking with his mother that afternoon, I realized that I really "hurt" his feelings. As she said, "It takes a lot to make him cry." When I heard this, I really felt badly! But, I had no choice. It is the responsibility of me, as the teacher, to control the children and to provide a learning atmosphere. To let L. continue this behavior would have led to a disastrous and wasted afternoon. 121 EMERGING THOUGHT PATTERNS: THE STUDENTS' PEER SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS In the review and analysis of the data collected from all sources, the student teachers’ thought patterns often focused on the students' peer social relationships. In this section of the chapter the several strands of thought which contributed to this category are presented. All of the student teachers thought about the relationships their students had with each other. As table 2 illustrates, the most frequently occurring strand of thought focused on peer relationships. These were followed by thought dealing with peer cooperation and boy-girl relationships. While the last category occurred less frequently, it was important to the development of their pattern of thinking. .I-‘M ’. n». . 122 Table 2 Emerging Thought Patterns: The Students Peer Social Relationships Thought Patterns Interview Journal Interview aResponseldNo. of, bResponseldNo. of cResponseldNo. of Frequency Teachers Frequency Teachers Frequency Teachers Students relating to each other 14(46.6) 5(71.4) 40(81.6) 7( 100) 3(30.0) 2(28.6) Encouraging cooperation 13(43.3) 5(71.4) 6(12.2) 4(57.1) 6(60.0) 3(42.8) Boy-girl ‘ relationship 3(10.0) 3(42.8) 1( 2.0) 1(14.3) 1(10.0) 1(14.3) a. X of responses based on the total responses (N u 30) for the interview using the videotape b. z of responses based on the total responses (N . 49) for the journals c. z of responses based on the total responses (N . 10) for the interview without the videotape d. The total number of preservice teachers giving response (N . 7) 123 THOUGHTS ABOUT STUDENTS RELATING TO EACH OTHER Thinking by the student teachers in this dimension of social development occurred first in the journal writings and continued throughout them. It appeared in the second and third interviews using the videotape but not in the first. And it was present to a very limited degree in the interview not using the videotape. Most of the thinking seemed to focus on the broad dynamic of the total class, including such things as disturbing each other by making noise or distracting actions. It also included such things as a concern for the attitude of a child, kind treatment of each other, and the romantic relationships between boys and girls as they occur at the elementary school level. The examples begin with the journal writings and proceed to the interviews using the videotapes and then no videotape. The concluding examples are those which relate the thinking on the boy- girl relationship. Data From The Journals And Interviews Without The Videotape In this first example Whitney reflected the occurrence of a fight between three of her first grade girls. One of the girls had become mad at another and was therefore excluded from an invitation to her home. In the situation, Whitney listened to the girls and then identified their feelings in relation to the situation. But she didn’t act, due to lack of time. When she returned to the problem, the girls had already solved it. one the him She She 124 I listened carefully and told D. we would talk it over with all the girls at the next recess. I told her R. was probably just upset and did not mean to be rude. I could not handle the problem right away because I had to take care of the class. At recess we discussed it and they already had solved the problem. I told them I was glad they were friends and asked about Sunday night. All is well. * * * * In her first journal writing, Maria identified the behavior of student in her class as being disruptive to the concentration of remaining class members. She decided to focus on encouraging to become involved in meaningful work. G. would not be quiet nor would he work on his Social Studies. So, I asked him if he needed help. He said yes. My thoughts were that G. was disrupting other kids trying to work and he won't be quiet and work even if you ask him. So I thought if I asked him if I could help, it would at least keep him busy for a while. did help him and he appeared to settle into the working pattern. recorded these final thoughts: He did respond to my help and he got back on task and continued to concentrate. I think he was just frustrated. **** One social problem frequently encountered by teachers of elementary age school children is tattling. It quickly affects the social relationships of those involved. Iris recorded the event and "WW ... 125 her thoughts about her fifth graders in her first journal writing. She appeared to identify the source of the difficulty and attempted to have the tattlers construct an understanding of the level of emotion involved by using direct teacher input. The incident also began a pattern of thinking for Iris; she began to consider actual lessons to enable the entire class to become more effective in their social relationships. This occurred later and is related in the example which follows. Today, I found out who the top tattletales in my class are. Two girls who sit right next to each other! What really strikes me as interesting is how quick they each are to blame others for anything and everything but how evasive/reluctant/and unable they are to admit their own faults and misbehaviors!!! I can’t even remember how many times I heard (just today) "So-and-so..." L. even went so far as to interrupt my "lecture" to tell me that "Someone" (no specific culprit) "knocked her coat of the hook and. . . . "Good Grief, I'm thinking!!" My basic policy was to brush it off as relatively unimportant with phrases like "It's past history L." or "It's nothing to worry about" or "Don’t pay attention to him" or "It's only a game, don’t take things so seriously." I think we need some lessons on fairness and taking responsibility for yourself before worrying yourself about others. I reacted the way I did because I don’t want to add fuel to these girls’ fires. I don’t want to cater to every little minor 126 thing that they bring up because then they will continue to do the same thing and fail to see their own errors. * * * * Approximately one month later, during an interview without the videotape, Iris related that the students continued to have problems relating to each other in a positive manner. They continued to make unkind remarks about each other. It had reached the point that during the playing of a particular game an unkind remark was made and a boy quit. She was moved to provide an ongoing lesson using information which she directly related to the students, but she also involved them in the actual practice of prosocial behavior. Today for devotions I am going to pass out a leaf to everyone with someone’s name on it. We will talk about how at first when people say nice things to you, you remember them and they build you up. It is like a tree and a tree lasts a long, long time. So, I am going to give everyone a leaf and I am going to have them write a nice thing about the person whose name is on the leaf. Then, we are going to put them on the tree. I am not sure if I am going to have leaves available and they can do it whenever they want or if maybe we will just do it at a certain point in the day. She did place a tree on a bulletin board with the leaves the students had completed. At each of the subsequent observations more leaves were present. The students were given opportunity to participate in constructing their understanding of appropriate prosocial behavior. 127 **** In her growing awareness of her role as facilitator in the development of appropriate social relationships, Irene effectively incorporated the use of an I—message with the problem-solving strategy with two of her fourth grade boys. They had entered the classroom after a recess period yelling at each other, each claiming that the other had spit on him. She recorded the following in her third journal writings: Since they had to go to art, I had them write their complaint on a paper and sign and date it. I told them I was very disappointed in their behavior at recess and that they had to stay in the morning recess of the next day to discuss their behavior of not getting along. Neither was very happy but actions like that are really uncalled for. The next day the two boys stayed in at the AM recess. I talked with them and I asked them what they thought the problem was. They said they weren’t sure. I said, "Could it be you can’t get along or respect each other?" They said yes. I asked them to give me some solutions to the problem and the three of us wrote these on the board. Then the two boys dusted the whole room, straightened encyclopedias, books, and magazines together. Recently, (since this event) there hasn’t been any problem and I’ve asked the boys how things are going. They seem to be much better. *7’<*>‘< 128 In her last journal writing, Irene recorded the following sensitive and knowledgeable thoughts regarding developing social relationships: Prayer request time is open talk—time which encourages students to think and talk about people who are suffering or sad, and to be sensitive to what kinds of things should be shared and prayed for. They are very open and willing to share concerns in this way. It helps them learn to care about others and to be sensitive and involved in the concerns their classmates feel. I try to encourage and facilitate this kind of sharing by asking questions for clarification and trying to dig a little deeper to develop the human interest/concern factor. I try to get them to see how other people are feeling and what our response should be. I give them time to pray out loud after sharing so they can feel like active participants. Data From The Videotape Interviews In the interview during the viewing of the second videotape, Iris pointed to one of her fifth grade girls as she was working on an assignment and provided the following thoughts: 8., she is sometimes a little bit different than the other kids. She doesn’t have a lot of friends. . . . Yesterday, when they were lining up to go to gym —- they must have had partners last time -- I heard her ask a girl, "Will you be my partner?" The girl kind of paused and then said, "I am going to go ask so-and- so instead." I thought "Wow!" That is just cruel. **** 129 In her fourth grade classroom, Maria’s thoughts appeared to focus on the management dimension of social relationships. During the viewing of the third videotape, it was observed that a girl in one of the groups turned to give one of the other group members a verbal reminder to be quiet and pay attention or they would lose a star. This elicited a lengthy description of a management strategy involving the use of positive reinforcement, negative consequences, and group cooperation which she had implemented with the class. When asked why she had selected this approach, she related the following. One, because they are very goal oriented. If they have a goal to work towards, they will really work together as a class. Plus, it helps problem people—-the other people keep on them. * * * * In a previously related event in which Jacqueline considered her role as leader in her fifth grade classroom, she also thought about the students as socially responsible and the dynamic of their social relationships. The event is, once again, the class period which followed the kickball game, but in this strand of thinking Jacqueline appeared to focus on the group relationships of her students. For one, they just physically need a break from me. They do not need to hear me giving them directions. Not all kids want to hear that all the time. They have it all day long. That is part of it. Also, they have a responsibility and they should learn how to work with other peOple. It is kind of like when 130 you have group work in class, they have to learn how to deal with other people--how to cooperate. To facilitate their understanding of that process of appropriate prosocial behavior Jacqueline provided time for the students to express their opinions of what happened in the event and how they felt about it. The students were encouraged to evaluate their behaviors as to whether they were right or wrong and to accept their responsibility for what had occurred. The students were then encouraged by Jacqueline to make suggestions as to what needed to be done to make the situation work. They would then have opportunity to practice the behavior at the very next recess. Once, the discussion and instruction time came to a conclusion on the tape, Jacqueline reflected the following thoughts: I wanted to talk to them about what happened at recess, but it was over now. I was like--okay, we have talked about it. We have acknowledged it. Everyone knew what they had to do and how they acted. It was time to get going again. She effectively placed the responsibility for appropriate social relationships directly back on the students. **** Pairs of students were assigned to work together during the science lesson Jacqueline had prepared for her fifth grade students. While viewing the first videotape which recorded the pairs at work, she was asked what her thinking was regarding the design of pairs. She related the following series of thoughts: 131 I said I had worked on the pairs grouping. Because we didn’t have a lot of time. We didn’t have enough time fussing about someone being left out. Friends--it is kind of a big deal. Some kids like to work alone so that would kind of keep them involved too. The instructions as recorded on the videotape showed her telling the students that "boys would work with boys and the girls with girls." Because for this activity it was just with one other person. They are at a very awkward age and if they are with a boy or a girl—-If it was a group of more than two I would mix it normally. It is just with two--that is too personal and too scary. It would distract more than help them. * * * * The boy-girl relationship was briefly mentioned by Whitney who had observed some unnamed event that caused her to think about it. During the viewing of her first graders on the third videotape she commented, They have been really boy-girl, boy-girl type lately. Just recently. The girls always sit in the front and the boys always sit in the back. Nothing more was said, considered, nor did it appear to affect any of her future behavior. A x * * While Whitney’s observation focused on the separation of boys from girls which is a typical first grade occurrence, Iris experienced just the opposite. During the viewing of the third 132 videotape, she watched the students interacting as they were seated and working in their small groups. She reflected the following thoughts. They are really antsy I think because they are looking at each other. They want to talk to each other. They are so social lately anyway with the boy-girl thing. A. [the cooperating teacher] had to have a little talk with them this morning about the boy-girl thing because we heard that they are all split up into couples. . . not all of them; I should say half of them. Yesterday's big news was some couple was supposed to kiss out on the playground which is just way too much for them. So, she had a little talk with them. That’s part of it, I think. Her thoughts reflected her awareness of the social dynamic at work among her students even though she did not have the option to deal with it. THOUGHTS REGARDING COOPERATION AMONG STUDENTS Thoughts regarding cooperation were less frequent but did contribute to the formation of the broad pattern of thinking on the social environment of the classroom. From the data collected, it appeared that the student teachers simply expected the students to know how to function in the small learning group setting and expected that the students would cooperate. Few thoughts were expressed in the interviews or written in the journals reflecting this strand of thinking. When these thoughts did occur, it was near the end of the student teaching experience. 133 Two of the student teachers seemed to think about cooperation more than the others. The examples from each of the two student teachers are presented together. Data From The Interviews And Journals Irene had her fourth graders working in pairs during a science lesson. She had designed the lesson in this manner so that the students would have to cooperate in order to complete the science tasks. At one point it was observed that she instructed two boys on the correct method for holding the mirror. When asked about the event, she related the following. I saw him kind of looking at it from the side while the other one was holding it like that[she gestured]. He kind of leaned over and didn’t get right over it. I just wanted to point out that both of them should do it separately rather than both trying to look at it at once. Again, Irene had her fourth graders working in small groups, this time focused on using the newspaper. This occurred for the third videotaped observation and was approximately six weeks after the recorded thoughts presented first. When asked about this grouping, she gave the following thoughts: I wanted them to work things out together. I have them in a situation where they can talk about something before they come to me if they don’t get it. They have been comparing how they think they should do something. Then, either one person gives in and says, Oh, I see that you are right." Or if they can’t 134 settle it, then they have to come and ask. It helps them to clarify what they are reading to talk about it like that. In her last journal writings, Irene reflected on the purpose of the group work as these groups worked with the newspaper. She recorded the following thoughts: Students were going to be working on a project that consisted of varied activities with the Grand Rapids Press. They were excited to start working. I thought this activity was a great opportunity for them to share some ideas with each other and to cooperate by talking differences of opinion out before asking for help. I had them work spread out on the floor so that interaction would be facilitated. I monitored their discussions and interjected when necessary. Watching their actions and listening to debates and idea-sharing made the activity seem all the more enriching. * * * * Among the complex patterns of thought related by Jacqueline during the viewing of the event subsequent to the disastrous kickball game were those regarding the lack of cooperation and the need for it. Jacqueline succinctly related her thoughts . . they have to learn how to deal with other people, how to cooperate. Later in her journal, Jacqueline recorded the following event and her thinking which again appeared to exhibit her understanding 135 of effective facilitation of positive social relationships, cooperation, and prosocial behaviors. I introduced "Pentominoes"--a math puzzle for improving and developing spatial sense. The students struggled on their own, busily working for 20 minutes, but they needed help. I didn’t want to merely give them the answers! This defeats my purpose. Also, this is a great opportunity to address the issue of peers as "resources." I asked students to work in pairs to correct each other’s work, help find repeats, and to work together to finish the project of finding all pentominoes. (I wrote 12 on the board.) Some kids didn’t yggt to work with a partner. I told the class that gggh student has a lot of neat ideas to contribute and that putting two or more of these minds together will lead to greater success. I allowed the stubborn ones to work alone, but when most groups had successfully completed the project, each individual student quickly joined a group! Great! EMERGING THOUGHT PATTERNS: THE SOCIAL DIMENSION 0F LEARNING This pattern of thinking emerged subsequent to the main focus on the social environment of the classroom. As Table 3 indicates, there were fewer strands of thought contributing to this pattern and fewer responses in each strand. The most frequently reflected strand of thinking focused on the social interaction involved in constructing knowledge. Though fewer student teachers thought about r__,,.. .. .- 136 it, Those who did, did so frequently. It was followed in frequency by thoughts on the development of social knowledge. All of the student teachers reflected on this but much less frequently. Finally, their thoughts were directed to the use of cooperative learning which was utilized by three of the student teachers. 137 Table 3 Emerging Thought Patterns: The Social Dimension 0f Learning Thought Patterns Interview Journal Interview aResponseldNo. of bResponseldNo. of CResponseldNo. of Frequency Teachers Frequency Teachers Frequency Teachers The social construction of knowledge 8(50.0) 3(42.8) 9(23.0) 3(42.8) 3(21.4) 2(28.6) The construction of social knowledge O(O0.0) O(O0.0) 18(46.1) 7( 100) 6(42.8) 3(42.8) Students’ knowledge of social knowledge does not match their actions 3(18.7) 1(14.3) 6(15.3) 3(42.8) 1( 1.5) 1(14.3) Using cooperative learning 5(31.2) 2(28.6) 6(15.3) 3(42.8) 4(28.5) 2(28.6) a. X of responses based on the total responses (N - 16) for the interview with the videotape b. X of responses based on the total responses (N . 39) for the journals c. z of responses based on the total responses (N - 14) for the interview without the videotape d. The total number of preservice teachers giving response (N . 7) 138 The student teachers who participated in this study exhibited limited patterns of thinking on this concept. In addition, the data revealed that some of the contributing strands were never considered by some of the student teachers. THOUGHTS ABOUT THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE Elementary school children construct their knowledge of social rules as well as the myriad of academic concepts in the social milieu of the classroom and in the context of social interactions with teacher and peers. In the analysis of the data collected, four of the student teachers reflected provided thoughts in this strand. These appeared in the interview using the videotape and in the journal writings. Data From The Videotaped Interviews And Journals In the science lesson designed by Irene, which had her fourth graders working in pairs, she related her thoughts throughout the viewing of the first videotape and in her journal writings. She reflected on the need for cooperation in order for the students to conduct the experiments. But later in the interview she reflected on the fact that this was also an opportunity for the students to encourage each other in the construction of knowledge. It helps some of them to stay with what they are supposed to be doing. That was what they could discuss too before they wrote down a description. They can talk to each other about what they saw and try to figure out how to word it. 139 ***~k The same pattern appeared in Jacqueline’s thinking regarding the science lesson utilizing student pairs she designed for her fifth graders. During the viewing of the first videotape, the pairs were identified and the question asked about why they were used. The following statements appear to reflect Jacqueline's thoughtful understanding of the social construction of knowledge: If they usually don’t understand certain things and one person will understand it and the other won’t, then they can help each other out that way. Later in her journal she reflected on the value of peer learning during the math lesson using the game "Pentominoes." Of significance are these thoughts which she recorded: I told the class that gagh student has a lot of neat ideas to contribute and that putting two or more of these minds together will lead to greater success. ***~k During the viewing of the second videotape, the noise level of the classroom during the work time caused Iris to reflect on the value of working together since it seemed to create a higher noise level. As I watched them, I felt like they were doing their assignments. There were those times when someone got us off track and we were talking about other things. For the most part, though, the conversations I heard between people were like —-there was a question what was the largest difference between 140 your lowest and your highest temperatures. They were comparing things like that and asking which graph are you doing. Some kids were helping other kids do their graphs. It appeared that she understood the value of students discussing and working together. * * * * In the setting in which the fourth grade students were working in small groups focused on tasks related to the newspaper Iris reflected on the importance of cooperation. She also considered the value of the social construction of knowledge by encouraging the students to compare their thinking. During the viewing of the third videotape, she expressed the following thoughts: I wanted them to work things out together. I have them in a situation where they can talk about something before they come to me if they don’t get it. They have been comparing how they think they should do something. Then, either one person gives in and says, "Oh, I see that you are right." Or if they can't settle it, then they have to come ask. It help them to clarify what they are reading to talk about it like that. In the prayer-request time situation previously presented with the data related to developing social relationships, Irene also reflected her awareness of the importance of the social construction of knowledge. During that time she encouraged open discussion and would ask questions. 141 I try to encourage and facilitate this kind of sharing by asking questions for clarification and trying to dig a little deeper to develop the human interest/concern factor. I try to get them to see how other people are feeling and what our response should be. * * * * In designing a lesson on ‘haiku poetry, Iris determined that having the students discuss some elements of the poetry prior to the writing would facilitate their learning. The following thoughts, expressed as she discussed the lesson in an interview, appear to reflect her growing understanding of the function of cooperative, peer learning: I have done some brainstorming with them. That is kind of what the talk—to—your—neighbor kind of a thing is, to get some ideas and talk out some ideas. This class seems--when they talk out loud about some ideas—-they tend to get more going than if you just tell them to individually sit there and think of some ideas. Thoughts About the Students’ Construction of Social Knowledge In the analysis of the data, it appeared that thinking about how students developed social behaviors occurred infrequently. When it did, the student teachers recorded their thoughts primarily in the journals with some from the interviews. The concern for appropriate social behavior was expressed throughout all the data. All of the student teachers thought about presenting and explaining to their “‘1‘ 1.- 142 students the rules and behavior expectations they had for them. These examples were presented in the pattern of thinking related to managing the social environment. The specific thought process recorded in the journal entries which follow reflect the diverse understanding of how social behaviors develop. Data From The Interviews With And Without The Videotape Following a lesson on the various component of prayer and the attitude for prayer, the students in Jacqueline’s fifth grade class had the opportunity to pray. She had appropriately taken the time to teach the expected behavior and then gave the class the opportunity to practice it. She reflected the following thoughts. I was impressed with what the groups came up with and said but one poor boy (nominated to pray seconds before we started) drew a blank. Instead of saying nothing, he said, "Dear Lord, I can’t think of anything to say." The class then had to fight back giggles to finish. When the prayer finished, the students all laughed. I thought-—the class had been respectful. * * * * During the reading of the story one afternoon while her kindergarteners were seated on the floor, Mary noticed that E. was playing with R.’s long, blond hair. It is a rule that the students are not to touch each other while they are seated on the floor in the story corner. I let this go on for a few minutes, hoping E. would stop on his own. When it became apparent that he wouldn't, I motioned for 143 him to come sit by me which he did. This behavior was not socially acceptable to R. When I talked privately to E. helping him to understand how R. might have felt,. . . I also explained to him that when someone asks him not to touch, that he needs to respect other people’s things/person. I hope he will control himself. * * * * Whitney provided the following thoughts during the writing of her second journal. She considered the importance of rules for her first graders. Class rules should be talked about frequently until desired behavior appears and students are living the rules. I think it is especially important for younger students to know what is expected of them because rules are often forgotten. * * * * Presenting expectations and reviewing rules is one method by which appropriate social behavior for the classroom is communicated. In her second journal writing, Maria stated: Tuesday when I taught, I told them before I began the Math lesson what I expected of them (their behavior) and we as a class reviewed the rules. I guess because the limits were fresh in their minds, they obeyed them better. * * * a In communicating socially acceptable behavior, use of the I- message with a negative consequence can be effective. In her third journal writing Iris reflected the following: 144 Today when students came in from recess, they were even rowdier than usual and took a long time settling down to work on DOL (which was on the board). I interrupted their DOL activity, asked everyone to take his/her seat "because I have something important to talk to you about." I stated the poor behavior I had observed this week and how it disappointed me. "Talking out of turn is impolite. If you speak while someone else is, it’s like saying you don’t respect them enough to listen to them. You have a responsibility to the group." Tomorrow you will return from your groups to rows. And we are starting a policy which I’m sure you’ve had to do in lst and 2nd grade —— names on the board, it circled, lose a recess. I expect this behavior to stop and I refuse to keep nagging you. * * * * In the fourth grade classroom in which Maria was working, there emerged a group of four girls who became very exclusive, not allowing anyone else to play or associate with them. Several girls came to Maria complaining about the behavior of the others. Maria spoke directly with all the girls. I explained that it’s very unfair to exclude someone. I tried to make the girls see the other side——how does it feel then you’re the one that’s left out? I also pointed out that for Christians, God expects us to love our neighbor and include him/her. The girls seemed to understand. . . . When I asked them how they can solve the problem, they said, "Accepting others in." 145 THOUGHTS ABOUT STUDENTS’ ACTIONS AS BEING INCONSISTENT WITH THEIR SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE From an analysis of the data collected, this strand of thought appeared infrequently. When it did appear, the student teachers made their statements in the context of a larger issue and did not appear to relate it as a developmental phenomena. Their thoughts conveyed the sense that, because the students knew better, their behavior should match. The following examples provide the illustrations. Data From The Journals In recalling the situation surrounding the kickball event, Jacqueline reflected on her fifth graders’ behavior. Just kind of bad sportsmanship and sort of yelling at another person. They know that that is wrong. I mean we even talked about that this morning. * * * * In her first journal writing Iris wrote about a Silent Spelling Ball game which her fifth graders were to play in silence. However, even after reviewing the rules, the students became "noisy, talkative, and even rowdy". She reflected They were performing behaviors they 5233 they shouldn’t be doing. **7’<7‘< In her second journal writing, Maria wrote that she had to stop her fourth grade class during a math lesson to review the rules of expected behavior. She reflected: 146 Sometimes it seems like you’re constantly reinforcing rules even when students know them. Some of my kids just don't thigk before they do or say something. * * * * In her fourth journal writing Irene reflected on a food throwing incident that occurred between two of her fourth grade boys. This should not be happening. It is not appropriate classroom eating behavior. I need to remind these boys of this (by 4th grade I believe they kggy it is wrong). My reminder needs to have an impact on them. * * * * In her fourth journal writing, Iris provided the following about an encounter with one of her fifth grade boys who was playing with a small penlight during the showing of a movie. I did not want him behaving in this way, yet I did want to give him the chance to control his own behavior. Truthfully, my first instinct was to take it from him but I stopped. I simply called his name and said, "Please put that away and watch the movie." Very clear, very simple, it worked. . . . I know he knew better. THOUGHTS ABOUT COOPERATIVE LEARNING In the data analysis, it appeared that the student teachers who utilized this learning strategy in their classroom understood the theoretical foundation and implemented it appropriately. They o—m am..— it . 147 reflected in their verbal communications and writings their awareness of its advantages for social and cognitive development. The examples parallel exactly those presented in the section entitled "Thoughts About The Social Construction of Knowledge" and need not be presented again. SUMMARY These student teachers' thought patterns appear to focus primarily on the social interaction related to behavior management and the manner in which students behaviors affect the classroom environment. Of lesser frequency were their thoughts reflecting on the social relationships between the students and the social construction of knowledge. The data as presented does provide evidence that all of the student teachers did think about the social dimension of the classroom. While most of their thinking focused on the management of behavior, some began to consider and use social interaction for the purpose of facilitating learning. r'Tu—:" “ “fl 148 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Three major patterns of student teachers’ thoughts regarding children’s social and moral development were identified in this study providing new information for the knowledge base in teacher education. This information will enable teacher educators and educational researchers to design more thoughtful teacher education curricula, will encourage the development of a more reflective thinking style in student teachers, and will provide college superviors with a model for facilitating the development of reflective student teachers. THE CONTENT OF STUDENT TEACHERS’ THINKING Based on the data collected, the student teachers’ thoughts focused primarily on the functions related to the management of the social environment of the classroom. Thought Pattern: Managing The Social Environment Of The Classroom Initially, the student teachers’ thoughts focused on evaluating their students’ behaviors. These thoughts included comments about the students’ appearance, about students’ personalities, and about students’ behaviors. Maria commented that "all of my students are 149 special" while Mary thought one of her boys was "just a little macho man." Evaluative comments were present in the thinking of all of the student teachers and these thoughts continued frequently throughout the entire student teaching experience. At times, evaluative thoughts provided the student teachers with the basis for action, however, frequently these thoughts appeared to have no particular goal setting or planning function. These evaluative comments were the most basic and frequently reflected in the thought pattern. Following evaluative thoughts in frequency were the student teachers’ thoughts on maintaining quiet, attending, rule-keeping students. Whitney was concerned when her students were not "paying attention." Maria felt her class "was very talkative and rowdy". And Jacqueline mused, "I’ll mever make it thought the day if this behavior continues." At times, all the students teachers expressed doubt about achieving their goals of having quiet, attending students. The reflective process did encourage the student teachers to make clear statements of behavior expectations to their students. Later in the student teaching experience, the student teachers’ thought patterns began to reveal consideration of behavior management strategies such as the use of positive reinforcement and negative consequences. A third thought pattern relating to managing the classroom environment was the student teachers’ consideration of the feelings and perceptions of the students in classroom situations. It appeared that identification of the students’ feelings and 150 perceptions was important for the student teachers so that they themselves could understand the events. These understanding enabled the student teachers to then reflect those feelings back to the students involved. It seemed, at times, that the student teachers expected the students to automatically know and understand each others feelings. Thus attempts to communicate feelings or to develop empathetic understanding between students were infrequent. When these infrequent attempts to develop a sensitivity to another’s perspective were incorporated into the thinking of the student teachers, their thoughts included strategies for developing empathy such as teaching rules, using I-messages, and problem- solving. Other strategies such as direct instruction using stories or situations with role-playing were not considered by the student teachers during the time of the study. The fourth contributing pattern found in the student teachers’ thinking focused on the elementary students becoming responsible for their own personal behavior. Personal responsibility contributes to the development of self-control, empathy, and prosocial thinking and behavior. All of the student teachers thought about encouraging self-control in their students and incorporated the concept into their thoughts and goals. This reflective thinking encouraged the student teachers to incorporate into their planning such strategies as I-messages, problem—solving strategies, clear communication, and consistency in maintaining high behavior expectations. Maria and Joy exhibited thoughts on stating clear rules as did all of the other student Jr—trrr - 151 teachers. Only Iris, one of the fifth grade teachers, organized specific curriculum in the form of a "compliment tree" to develop the concept of personal responsibility. She combined it with her concern for the students’ personal interactions with each other. None of the student teachers thought about using the strategies of cooperative learning, role-playing, modeling, or meaningful work for the specific purpose of encouraging personal responsibility. The consistent use of positive reinforcement and behavior consequences was identified as the next frequently occurring pattern of thought. The student teachers thought about positive reinforcement and negative consequences only after they had become involved in the social interactions of the classroom. For Joy and Whitney the framework of their thinking regarding the use of reinforcement and consequences was often that of getting the students to do what the teacher desired rather than thinking about how the use of these strategies would affect or benefit the child. For others, such as Maria and Irene, who wanted the students to be motivated to make appropriate social choices or to change students’ disruptive behaviors, the thinking reflected consideration for the students’ development and sensitive use of the strategies. The final concept which contributed to thinking about managing the classroom was authority. Authority plays a key role in the child’s developing ability to understand and to learn appropriate prosocial behaviors. For the student teachers, thinking about and understanding the role of authority and using it effectively would 3...: m 152 be the key factor in appropriately managing the social environment of the classroom. Within that context, the development and use of an authoritative teaching or leadership style by the student teacher in the classroom would facilitate the children’s understanding of the nature of authority as well as contribute to the children’s social and moral development. While all the student teachers considered the role of teacher’s authority in the classroom, it was not a frequently occurring pattern of thought. It appeared that Jacqueline, Iris, and Irene very consciously and thoughtfully began to implement an authoritative teaching style. Mary and Maria implemented some of the strategies utilized in the authoritative teaching style but did not reflect a knowledgeable understanding of the concept. Joy and Whitney did not seem to understand and accept the authoritative style and the management of the classroom continued to be difficult. For them it appeared to be an illusive concept. THOUGHT PATTERN: STUDENTS PEER RELATIONSHIPS All the student teachers were concerned about their students’ peer relationships. Since peer relationships are an essential component in social interaction and contribute to social development, it would be imperative that at some point the student teachers’ thoughts would reflect on the socialization process. Most frequently in this pattern of thought, the student teachers thought about the relationships their students had with each other. Iris and Jacqueline thought about team play, tattling and boy-girl 153 relationships. Maria and Irene focused on working relationships. Joy, Whitney, and Mary thought about simply having their students get along with each other. But all reflected on the need for positive relationships between and among their students. Secondly, the student teachers thought about c00peration. Five of the student teachers related thoughts about cooperation or the lack of it between students as they worked together in the classroom setting and, in one instance, on the playground while involved in competitive play. Irene, Iris, and Jacqueline specifically thought about the need to develop cooperation among their students and implemented cooperative groups for specific learning situations. The student teachers in the lower elementary grade classrooms never implemented any specific setting requiring cooperation. A concern for a caring or kind attitude and behavior was the focus of Whitney’s thoughts. Three of the girls in her classroom were fighting with one other girl. Whitney noticed the situation at the beginning of the school day but did nothing because she did not want to take the time. She decided to discuss the behavior with the students at the morning recess. When she moved to deal with the situation, the students involved had solved it. In relating her thoughts she made no attempt to explain how she might have managed the situation nor what she actually thought about it. Helping and sharing were also identified as concepts and behaviors contributing to the development of cooperation and peer relationships. Yet, these concepts did not appear in the recorded thought patterns of the student teachers studied. 154 The least frequently reflected concept in this thought pattern focused on boy-girl relationships. These thoughts were few. The student teachers’ thoughts gave evidence to the fact that they had not expected difficulty in these relationships to be a factor in the social dimension of the classroom. Whitney expressed her surprise at the separation of boys from girls in her first grade classroom, and Iris was surprised by the romantic boy-girl relationships in her fifth grade classroom. The student teachers appeared uncertain about how to reflect on these situations and how to act constructively upon them. THOUGHT PATTERN: THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF LEARNING Of the thoughts which contributed to this pattern, only the one which addressed the construction of social knowledge was considered by all the student teachers. This pattern reflected concern for the development of the students’ understanding of social conventions or those "behavioral conformities that serve to coordinate social interaction and are tied to the contexts of specific social contexts. Conventions are based on arbitrary actions that are relative to social contexts" (Turiel, 1983, p.3). In order for social conventions or appropriate social behaviors to be learned, they must be clearly communicated, modeled, discussed, and practiced. These teaching strategies provide the students with information about what behavior is expected, what it looks like, and how it works. 155 The student teachers frequently thought about the social behavior of their students in the context of the classroom environment and the interaction involved in managing those behaviors. Their thoughts focused on providing direct instruction regarding standards for appropriate behaviors in the learning environment. From the very beginning to the very end of the student teaching experience, the student teachers’ thoughts focused on the act of communicating behavior standards. It was apparent, however, that the strategies which combine modeling and discussion of appropriate behaviors, and the practicing of desired behaviors were not present in the student teachers’ thinking patterns. Iris is the one exception in that she actually had her students practice writing kind statements about each other and making them public by stapling them to a bulletin board. For the others, thinking about developing social knowledge consisted of communication and discussion with the students. The second concept contributing to this thought pattern focused on the social construction of knowledge. This concept occurred with less frequency than the prior concept. Only three of the student teachers thought about and organized various class settings in which students needed to cooperate with and learn from each other in order to achieve lesson goals. Irene specifically planned activities for science and language arts in which the students were requested to ask questions of and learn from each other. Iris and Jacqueline did the same. None of the other student teachers reflected this concept at any point during their student teaching experience. r-——:o.»;- 'N 156 The third concept incorporated into this pattern of thinking focused on the students’ social knowledge and actual behaviors. While the student teachers were often frustrated by the students’ repeated lack of attention to behavior expectations, the student teachers seldom thought about the actual lack of consistency between what the students knew to be right or expected behaviors and their actual behaviors. In fact, Iris, Maria, and Jacqueline all commented that the students "knew better" than to behave the way they did. These student teachers, however, did not seem to realize that this is part the of the children's continuing social development. When the research presented by Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) is considered, it becomes apparent that a myriad of factors intervene between prosocial reasoning and prosocial behavior. Factors included are personal goals and characteristics, situation context, interpretation of the situation, and the complexity of the situation which includes one’s feelings of effectiveness in the setting. These student teachers' thinking never consciously included consideration of the above listed factors and, subsequently, their thought patterns did not appear to change. Summary The patterns of thoughts present in the student teachers’ reflections included most of the concepts identified in the literature as being important for children’s social and moral development. Included were thought patterns on the nature of authority and its implications for leadership in the classroom, “mg.“ "1 .t- 157 developing socially appropriate behaviors for classroom interaction, developing behaviors for appropriate peer interaction, encouraging cooperation, and the social construction of knowledge. These thought patterns at times encouraged deeper reflection by the student teacher, at times encouraged evaluation, and at times were futile. At times, the patterns of thought encouraged appropriate actions and at times resulted in inaction. The patterns of thinking revealed the frustrations of the student teachers but also the implementation of strategies that effected change. All the student teachers but eXpecially Irene, Iris, and Jacqueline reflected the thinking patterns that related their beginning ability to understand and utilize concepts and strategies that would encourage at least partially the development of morally and socially mature children. THE LEVEL OF STUDENT TEACHERS’ REFLECTIVE THINKING The theoretical basis for the reflective model of student teaching as described by Zeichner and Liston (1987) includes the use of Van Manen’s three levels of reflective thinking. These levels include technical rationality, practical action, and critical reflection. The first level, of technical rationality, was present in all the patterns of thinking. The student teachers’ thoughts included those elements basic to the social functioning of their students in the classroom setting. This was evident in the first major thought pattern identified and in the high frequency with H ‘F—: 158 which the thoughts in that pattern occurred. All of the student teachers considered such basic goals as gaining students’ attention, establishing rules, and maintaining an adequately functioning classroom. These simple, functional thoughts remained throughout the entire experience and were evident in all of the student teachers thinking. As the student teachers progressed through their experience, they begin to assess the "educational consequences" and "underlying assumptions" that Zeichner and Liston identify as being present at the practical action or second level of reflective thinking. Whitney, Joy, and Mary’s thoughts seldom functioned at this level. For them the situation of the moments required attention and thoughts directing decisions were based on personal emotion or personal desires even at the very end of their student teaching. Joy’s thoughts on class management were, "I feel more comfortable with it this way." Mary stated, "For me sitting there looking at children on chairs . . . I don’t favor, it just doesn’t give me the feeling it would if I had them on the floor." The educational consequences of their actions were not considered. Irene, Iris, Jacqueline, and Maria's thoughts reflected the second level toward the end of their student teaching experience. The data from the last interview showed that Irene had every activity and behavior incorported into the goals of the lessons. Iris’ thinking about time usage for appropriate educational purposes emerged in educational goals for the classroom. Ability to merge I1 159 educational goals and practice began to guide some of the student teachers’ thinking. None of the student teachers’ thoughts, however, appeared to include the third level of reflection which "incorporates moral and ethical criteria into the discourses about practical action" (Zeichner & Liston, 1987, p. 25). The student teachers did not question whether the content of their teaching affected the social arrangements of life nor did they question the greater needs of society. Irene’s thinking approached this level in the setting of her prayer request time in which she wanted ". . . to dig a little deeper into the human interest factor." But, her thinking did not reflect a keen interest in any particular social issue. There was no plan to bring any social issue into a particular lesson nor to develop the issue with the students other than to bring to their attention. CONCLUSIONS The student teachers’ thought patterns included many social development concepts occurring with varying levels of frequency and levels of reflectivity. The major pattern of thought focused on the functional aspect of managing students' social behaviors while the more complex concepts of social development appeared less frequently. All of the student teachers’ thought patterns developed during the occurrence of some specific classroom situation or event. Every example, every interview conversation, and every interview recorded showed the student teachers reflecting in a responding mode 160 to some particular event or situation that had occurred in the classroom. The situation provided the parameters for the thinking process. The student teachers' considerations and conclusions focused on that one particular event. When the event ended, the thoughts were also concluded. This situation specific thinking may have been induced by the nature of the questions asked by the researcher. It seems, more likely however, that each event in the social domain is so new to the student teachers at that point in their experiences, that they were not able to think or act much beyond the immediate situation. Schon (1989), suggests in his reflective model that before reflection can occur knowledge of the basic situation or function is necessary. Knowledge is constucted through experiences with concepts, rules, procedures, and theories in specific situations. The data suggests, second, that the student teachers of the upper elementary students generated more thoughts and actions reflecting social development concepts than were the student teachers of the younger children. These student teachers in grades four, five, and six thought specifically about their role as leader in the classroom, about peer relationships, and about social knowledge. These student teachers in the upper grades also planned some specific activities to achieve social development goals. The student teachers in the lower elementary grades did not consider social development concepts with sufficient frequency for their thoughts to affect their classroom goals or their planning. The 161 literature, meanwhile, suggests that just the opposite should be the case. It could be assumed that the student teachers in the upper elementary grades had more courses in child development and therefore a broader knowledge base of information. That was not the case in this research setting. The number of psychology or child development courses taken by the student teachers in the lower grades ranged from one to five. The number of similiar courses taken by the student teachers in the upper grades was one or two. It does not appear that simply taking a course directly affects the quantity or level of the student teachers reflective thinking. A third conclusion suggested by the lack of data is that the term moral development never explicitly occurred in the student teachers’ thinking. There was no conscious mention of the development of values or moral principles, and there were no goals or plans to teach them. Values appeared to be assumed or to automatically exist but were not a conscious concern of the student teachers. Thinking about, planning for, and the use of appropriate strategies to facilitate moral development occurred only in the context of behavior management. Then, the thinking of the student teachers appeared to be missing the knowledge of moral development concepts and principles. A fourth conclusion is based on a major thought pattern which was identified during the data analysis but was not presented elsewhere in the study because it did not relate directly to the concept of children’s social and moral development. It was a very T1 162 strong pattern of thinking which the researcher identified as "Thought Pattern: Regarding The Student Teacher’s Own Social Development And Interaction With The Students." The pattern included thinking about how situations in the classroom affected her emotionally, about personalities in the social setting with evaluative comments, about her own past personal experiences as they related to the school setting, and about her own social relationship with the students both individually and as a class. It seemed that the student teacher needed to reflect on their own social development in the social context of the classroom prior to or in concert with their reflecting on the social development of the students. Since the classroom is a place of vibrant social interaction, the same factors which Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) identify as being important in the social functioning of children seemed to also be factors that affected the social functioning of the student teachers. It was Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) who suggest in their model for developing prosocial behaviors that the tendency to social action is encouraged by three major factors. The first is knowledge about appropriate behavior in the setting. The second is familiarity with or experiences with functioning in that setting. And third is feeling in control or having the ability to be effective in the setting. In addition, these researchers identify the personal characteristics of sociability, assertiveness, empathetic sensitivity, and role-taking as being present in socially adept people. It may be that in the social context of the TI...- a. ... 1' N 163 elementary school classroom, the student teacher who thinks about and plans for the social and moral development of her students and possesses these identified personal characteristics and utilizes his or her knowledge about children’s social and moral development. The student teacher, then, must be given the opportunity to utilize his or her knowledge and social skills in the classroom setting. With adequate knowledge of children's social and moral development and the opportunity to apply the knowledge, the student teachers would be empowered to effectively reflect upon the experience. With more frequent thoughts and experiences comes a higher probability that the student teachers would consciously plan for and encourage the social development of their own students. If this is accurate, and further research is needed to support this assumption, then student teachers themselves must be morally and socially mature individuals in order for them to address competently and effectively the issue of social and moral development in their planning for their students. Fifth and finally, it appeared from the data that only the technical and practical action levels of reflection and not the level of ethical, critical reflection as described by Ziechner and Liston (1987) were represented in the student teachers’ thoughts. This finding suggests that concepts critical to children's social and moral development were not considered by the student teachers at a more mature level of thinking. This conclusion, however, raises a question as to the value of using these levels of reflective thinking as the basis for a model 164 of student teaching in which reflective activity is encouraged. The use of the level or stage concept is linear and hierarchial. The student teachers’ thinking was situation specific, and it may be that their thinking is influenced by the number of experiences in similar situations. Yinger and Clark (1983), suggest that teachers’ thoughts in the planning process are cyclic in nature. They state that each time a situation in planning is encountered, the teachers’ thoughts are shaped by present experiences and thoughts which in turn influence their thinking about similar experiences or events in the future. These experiences and thoughts build on each other in a cyclic manner. Could it be that the cyclic pattern of thoughts and experiences more accurately represents the student teachers’ deve10pment of reflective thinking? This researcher suggests that the data presented indicates the cyclic nature of student teachers’ thinking. This conclusion suggests that utilizing levels of reflection for the purposes of developing reflective student teachers is not appropriate. The concept of levels does not provide a model for student teaching that encourages the developmental aspect of reflective thinking. It conveys the sense of attainment or acheivement rather than progress. The teaching process is not static but developmental. It matures over time with additional knowledge and experience. The model for student teaching should contain a theoretical foundation which emphasizes the cyclic nature of developing teaching ability and should provide for reflective thinking development. Fm'n‘uv new 165 SUMMARY It appeared from the data that there existed a range of moral and social maturity in the student teachers studied. This was reflected in the type and frequency of some of the evaluative thoughts and statements of the student teachers. It was reflected in their varied understanding and implementation of authority. And it was reflected in their thoughts regarding their own personal interactions with the students. This provided at least some explanation for the high number of evaluative thoughts and for the student teachers’ focus on the social interaction between themselves and the students. This varying range of social and moral maturity would also provide some explanation for the student teachers’ own personal, social needs taking precedence over those of the students. As the student teaching experience progressed and as the student teachers became more competent, those student teachers who were more socially and morally mature were able to think about and plan for the social and moral development of their students. In this study Irene, Iris, and Jacqueline exhibited the reflective thoughts which would support this conclusion. IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM Based on the conclusions drawn from the study, implications for two areas of curricula seem to be apparent. The first area deals with undergraduate teacher education in small, liberal arts colleges similar to Calvin College. The second area deals more specifically with the design of the reflective student teaching model. 166 Undergraduate Teacher Education Curriculum It appeared that a great deal of student teachers’ thinking on social and moral development focused on managing the social setting of the classroom and on what the results of their actions might be. The student teachers’ thoughts reflected a sense of insecurity in knowing which strategy to select and how the students in the classroom might react. The student teachers also thought frequently about their relationship with the students and whether or not the students would accept them as "the teacher". This researcher began to speculate that perhaps these student teachers were lacking in adequate knowledge of child development, were lacking in experiences that require planning for the social and moral development of their students, and were lacking in experiences that might encourage some initial experimentation in this area. A survey of the elementary education program requirements at Calvin College revealed that seven specific courses combining knowledge and teaching methods in the academic subjects are required. This is compared to only one course in child development without a practicum and that course is optional. Without adequate knowledge of child development and the principles of that deve10pment, student teachers will have difficulty knowing or thinking about the topic. With the State Department of Education (1991) requiring knowledge of child deve10pment for teacher certification, Calvin College and similar small liberal arts colleges should examine their programs for adequate course requirements. It is imperative that at least one course in child development with a practicum component be ....” ~—_ 1 d III”. 167 required of every student entering elementary education. It would also be highly desirable to require a course in social development which would also have a practicum component. These courses would provide the knowledge required by the State Department of Education while the practicum would provide the experience in applying the knowledge. The practicum would also provide the setting for developing the reflective thinking schema the college students as they consider their beginning experiences with elementary school children. This would then provide for two of the components essential for facilitating mature social behaviors for the student teachers. With knowledge, experience, and guidance in reflective thinking, student teachers would be enabled to more effectively think about and plan for facilitating the development of socially and morally mature children. The Reflective Student Teaching Model As was previously stated, the model for encouraging reflective student teaching as implemented at Calvin College appeared to be restrictive both in using the levels of reflectivity developed by Van Manen and described by Zeichner and Liston (1987) and by treating the student teaching situation as problematic. Both have implications for curricular change. Most of the student teachers' thinking as presented in the data focused on events and responses to these events that were continually occurring in the classroom. The classroom setting was not static but fluid and vibrant. To always be treating that situation as problematic was impossible. Many thoughts were 168 statements rather than questions as was seen in the "evaluation comments" and the "student responsibility" thought patterns. The student teachers did not seem to have the framework for thinking about nor the experience necessary to effectively use a problematic format. In addition, as was previously noted, analyzing the student teachers’ thoughts by evaluating their level of responding did not seem to contribute to facilitating the student teachers’ development. These levels of reflection were restrictive, inflexible, and could not be well utilized to make any truly significant statements about the student teachers’ thinking. A more satisfying approach is suggested by Donald Schon as "reflective practice" (1990, p. 1) in which the problematic situation is less rigid and the elements of artistry and repeated reflection are introduced. Included in reflective practice are three elements: Knowing-in-action, reflection—in-action, and reflection on reflection—in—action. "Knowing-in-action" refers to the sorts of know—how we reveal in our intelligent actions-- publicly observable, physical performances like riding a bicycle. . "(Schon, 1990, p. 25). In reflection-in-action, "the rethinking of some part of our knowing—in-action leads to on—the—spot experiment and further thinking that affects what we do--in the situation at hand and perhaps also in others we shall see as similar to it" (Schon, 1990, p. 29). Schon suggests that in professional practice, "There are an art of problem framing, an art of implementation, and an art of 169 improvisation—-all necessary to mediate the use in practice of an applied science and technique" (1990, p. 13). Briefly, to utilize this approach in actual practice, the professional person must identify in his or her thoughts the actual situation, reflect on his or her actual actions in the situation, and provide new or alternate solutions to try. The activity is repeated and is cyclic in nature. In actuality, this cyclic process of experiences and thinking reflects more closely the process utilized by the student teachers studied. If identified as the theoretical basis for the student teaching model, the model would be more effective in facilitating the student teachers’ thinking and development. Schon’s reflective practice approach would introduce to the student teaching model a more creative, interactive, cyclic dimension and would encourage the student teachers to become more reflective and creative in dealing with classroom situations, particularly those involving the social and moral development of children. The reflective practice approach would give to the student teaching model a theoretical basis that reflects a greater sensitivity to the developmental rather than the evaluative aspect of the student teachers’ teaching knowledge and actual teaching ability. It would also convey to the student teachers a sense of the ongoing, developmental character of the teaching process of which knowing-in-action and reflection on reflection-in-action are critical features. If the student teaching program utilizes Schon’s concept of reflective practice, then the college supervisors of student 170 teachers must allow for and encourage reflection-in-action, continuing reflection, and creative action. Student teacher seminars must be designed to allow for reflection, open-ended discussions of reflection and action, and must encourage creative responses. In addition, the role of the college supervisor would be one of facilitating the student teachers’ development in reflective practice. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Because only seven student teachers comprised this small population, the immediate question becomes that of obtaining similar results if the study was repeated with a similar population. Would students in elementary education programs in other small liberal arts colleges have similar thought patterns? Is the size of the population the major factor influencing the results? Or is it the personal characteristics of the individuals who comprise the population that are the major contributing factor? Additional study is encouraged. With additional data, these questions regarding the influence of the nature of the population on the findings could be answered. A variation to this study is also suggested by this researcher. It would be of interest to have the student teachers, comprising the population to be studied, take one of the tests which assess and define personality type or to take one of the measures of social and moral maturity and compare these measurement results to the student teachers’ emerging patterns of thought. Is there a correlation ’. F fam‘. v. a . 171 between the student teachers’ personalities or social maturity levels and their patterns of thinking? These are questions worthy of future consideration and study. REFLECTIONS It became apparent at the conclusion to this study, that explicit thinking about or planning for the development of values, more mature moral thinking, or more mature moral behaviors was infrequent. The student teachers seldom considered values such as honesty, caring, and sharing as themes for teaching. The student teachers dod not attempt to plan for discussions of moral dilemmas, or of social or moral issues, or to encourage beginning skills in dealing with these issues. This was particularly true of the student teachers in the lower elementary grades where these concepts should regularly occur in the curriculum. When the moral aspect of social development is neglected the normal, adequate development of the child is interrupted. A vacuum is created rather than a solid foundation against which the child is able to reason and on which to base his or her decisions regarding appropriate social behaviors. This lack of thinking regarding moral development may have developed for a variety of reasons. Values education when treated as separate curricula continues to be a source of controversy. Schools are criticized for using values based curricular materials and are ignored when nothing is used. In addition, if curricular materials reflect too closely Judeo—Christian values and reasoning, 172 then schools are critized as being pervayors of religion. Teachers are given little guidance or mixed information regarding values and moral education curricula and subsequently avoid the concepts completely. The student teachers, then, have no model nor adequate information for including values and moral education. In private, Christian schools the void is also present. Values and moral development curricular materials are critiqued and, therefore, not used. In fact, attempts to introduce specific values style curricula meet strong resistance. It also appeared from the manner of thinking used by the student teachers that they anticipated or expected that values would already be maturely developed in their elementary school children. Therefore, the student teachers studied did not seem to think it was necessary to teach values or develop lessons based on moral issues. This assumption is faulty since moral development like any other domain is continual and epigenetic. This researcher feels that greater attention must be given to the development of values, more mature moral reasoning, and more mature moral and prosocial behaviors. Teachers and especially student teachers need guidance in developing curricular materials which facilitate the development of mature social and moral behaviors. It is suggested that social and moral development including values be consciously developed through the existing elementary school curricula. 173 SUMMARY The thought patterns of student teachers regarding elementary school children’s social and moral development have been described in this study. These thought patterns were identified using a process—tracing and time—series design. The study concluded that student teachers do think about children’s social and moral development and that three major patterns of thinking were present. It was determined that the student teachers’ thinking was situation specific and was primarily simple and functional. This later statement is modified somewhat by the fact that in certain situations, some of the student teachers did reflect greater insight. It was suggested that this might be related to the student teachers’ own level of social and moral development. It was also suggested in the study that much of the student teachers' thinking on children's social and moral development occurred in concert with or subsequent to their thoughts about their own social development. Suggestions for curricular change were made based on the findings of the study. First, it was suggested that at least one course in child development be required at the undergraduate level for students in elementary education programs and that a second course in social development is highly desirable. Second, it was advised that the basis for the model of student teaching be changed from the problematic, levels of reflection as suggested by Zeichner and Liston (1987) to a model of reflective practice as suggested by Schon (1990). 174 It is important for the reader to remember the limitations of this study. The population studied was small in number and was taken from the elementary education program in a small Christian, liberal arts college. In addition, all the members of the population were female. The researcher was also the the college supervisor of these student teachers. Student teachers’ thinking patterns provided information about their knowledge of children’s social and moral development. These thought patterns also provided information about how that knowledge was utilized. The student teachers’ thought patterns suggested the manner in which curricular changes might be made. These student teachers’ thought patterns also encouraged the design of a more creative, interactive model for a student teaching program. “ ‘7 ...—I APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTER TO STUDENT TEACHERS 175 APPENDIX A LETTER TO STUDENT TEACHERS March 5, 1991 Dear Student Teacher, As some of you may know, I am currently in the process of implementing research dealing with student teacher thinking. The focus of the research is on the reflective thinking processes used by student teachers as they consider the social and moral development of the children in their student teaching classrooms. I would like to include in the study information generated by you through the journals you write, the notes I take during my observation of you, and from your responses given during our post— observation conferences together. In brief, what you will be required to do is the following. During the weeks of student teaching you will be required to keep a journal. This is normal procedure for the student teachers that I supervise. The writing in your journal will provide data. Secondly, during the student teaching weeks you will be videotaped three times. During the post—observation conference we will view the tape together; stop it to ask questions and make comments at selected points; and record our conversation. This is also a normal part of my supervision and observation activity for the semester and will provide the second source of data. It will be implemented and completed during the school day. Third, as I observe, you will see me writing many notes. These notes will serve as the third source of data. As you can see, the research will not require any additional activity by you that is not already a part of the student teaching semester. To alleviate any fear that you might have regarding the confidential use of the data collected, let me describe the steps I will take to assure it. The journals, notes, and tapes will be given pseudonyms. The data when presented in the dissertation writing will use the pseudonym and will not be associated with you personally in any way. I will be the only person dealing with the data except the typist. The pseudonym will be in place when she works with the materials. All materials will be kept in locked I n'r‘i' -‘.' 176 storage so no one else will have access to it. In addition, the research data will not be used to determine your evaluation or grade for student teaching. A consent form is attached for you to complete. I encourage you to sign the form. By doing so you will enable me to proceed with my research. You will also contribute greatly to our growing understanding of the student teaching experience and how we, as teacher educators, may become more effective in our work. It is, however, your choice whether or not to participate. Thank you for your thoughtful attention to my request. If you have any hesitation or questions, please call me at 616-243-8014 or 616-957-6205. Sincerely, Yvonne H. Van Ee Associate Professor anux_io... azw APPENDIX B RESEARCH CONSENT FORM 177 APPENDIX B RESEARCH CONSENT FORM No. Fictitious Name Name (Please Print): I, hereby, give permission to Professor Yvonne H. Van Ee to use information gathered this semester from my student teaching journal, from observation notes, from videotaped teaching sessions analysis, and from data recorded during the post-observation conferences for the purpose of research. I understand that all information will be kept completely confidential. I understand that the use of the information will not be related to me and that as research it will not adversely affect my grades or recommendations. I also understand that my consent to participate is completely voluntary. Signed Date APPENDIX C RESEARCH PARTICIPANT DATA SHEET . .. .....f VI ‘11 178 APPENDIX C RESEARCH PARTICIPANT DATA SHEET Date: No. Name: Phone: Address: Birth Date: Male or Female: College Major: Minor: Directed Teaching School: Cooperating Teacher's Name: Grade Level: List by title the courses in Psychology or Child Development you have taken. 1. 2. L- mf“. - . 179 List by school and grade level any prior teaching experience you have had. 1. 2. -.. . ..-—V ~ ."4 Anh- APPENDIX D PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHICS 180 APPENDIX D PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHICS NAME Mary (014) Age: 33 years College Major: Language Arts Grade Level: Kindergarten Number of Psychology Courses Taken: 3 Whitney (009) Age: 22 years College Major: Social Studies Grade Level: First Number of Psychology Courses Taken: 6 Joy (008) Age: 22 years College Major: Social Studies Grade Level: Second Number of Psychology Courses Taken: 2 Maria (010) Age: 25 years College Major: Spanish Grade Level: Fourth Number of Psychology Courses Taken: 2 Irene (011) Age: 22 years College Major: Language Arts Grade Level: Fourth Number of Psychology Courses Taken: 2 Iris (012) Age: 22 years College Major: Language Arts Grade Level: Fifth Number of Psychology Courses Taken: 2 181 PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHICS CONTINUED Jacqueline (013) Age: College Major: Grade Level: Number of Psychology Courses Taken: 23 years English Fifth 1 APPENDIX E APPROVAL TO DO RESEARCH 182 AUEPETHIIXIIZ IUEPRKHAAI.TPO*IMD IUBSEUHRCEI MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY OFFICE Of VICE PRESIDENT FOR RESEARCH EAST LANSING 0 IICHIGAN 0 ”I.“ AND DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL March 19, 1991 Ms. Yvonne H. VanEe 641 Broadview, SE Grand Rapids, MI 49507 RE: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF STUDENT TEACHERS’ REFLECTIVE THINKING 0N SELECTED AEEECTS 0; SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN, 91-09 Dear Ms. VanEe: The above project is exempt from full UCRIHS review. The proposed research protocol has been reviewed by another committee member. The rights and welfare of human subjects appear to be protected and you have approval to conduct the research. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval one month prior to March 19, 1992. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notifed promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. 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