H’H
W

   

I‘”

I“

 
 

W

l
L

l
l

‘u
M

   

Mal/J, {I

   

f
l

I
I
l

   

I
l

NH

I

 
 

I
l

I
I
I

m

   

WU

 
    

_\
N
0100

    
 

-—4
2:98
(I)

 

THESIS

TY LIBRARIES

 

 

 

IIIIIIIIII“III“

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE BEST OF BOTH WORLDS:
A COMPARISON OF HYPERMEDIA AND VIDEO PRODUCTION

presented by

Rache] Luisa Torgoff

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M. A. degree in Teiecommunication

fi’M/h

ajor professor

 

Date 9-23'7’

 

0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

LIERARY
Michigan Shea
University

4..-... _.—._A

 

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove thIe checkout from your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or before due due.

ll DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ll
[15? ‘2 5 1m 1‘ !

__I

,__I I I

:I II I
II II I
II I I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunlty Institutlon

THE BEST OF BOTH WORLDS:
A COMPARISON OF HYPERMEDIA AND VIDEO PRODUCTION

By
Rachel Lulsa Torgofl

A THESIS

Submitted to Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Telecommunication

1991

W719

62251

ABSTRACT

THE BEST OF BOTH WORLDS:
A COMPARISON OF HYPERMEDIA AND VIDEO PRODUCTION

BY

Rachel Luisa Torgoff

“T he Best of Both Worlds: A Comparison of Hypermedia and Video
Production” provides a look into some of the similarities and differences
involved in producing hypermedia and video projects based upon the author’s
hypermedia project, available at the MSU Department of Telecommunication.
This comparison extends beyond the role of producer and posits research
questions that relate directly to users and viewers. The final analysis asserts
that to provide seamless technical integration of the two media, higher technical
standards are necessary.

The body of the manuscript describes the authoring software program,
HyperCard, its basic elements and structures. Following this, various ways that
hypermedia and television take the user and viewer into account during
program development are discussed. The latter portion moves away from
program layout and style development, and explores some of the resolution,
technical, and production considerations and restrictions, ending with a

personal and theoretical discussion, and the author’s recommendations.

I wish to extend special thanks and gratitude to Dr. Carrie Heeter, Director
of the Comm Tech Lab at Michigan State University. Carrie's encouragement,
and time and energy‘into this project was instrumental in the creation and the
completion of this project. Carrie not only served as my committee chair, offering
guidance and suggestions throughout this process, but also as a friend who
was there when things got hectic. I feel very fortunate to have had Carrie as the
chair of my committee but also to continue to have her as a friend and mentor.
Her creativity and warmth is very special.

Special thanks are also extended to Dr. William Taylor, Professor, in Civil
and Environmental Engineering at Michigan State University. Dr. Taylor's
scientific knowledge and technical expertise in the area of safely managing and
disposing of Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLRW) was very helpful in the
research and development of the hypermedia program, produced for this thesis.

I also wish to thank Bob Albers, Video Production Specialist at Michigan
State University, for his help and encouragement during my time in the Master‘s
program at Michigan State University.

Thanks are also extended to Don Kemp, friend and Chief Engineer at
Michigan State University. Don was always there to lend an ear or explain an
engineering point in a very simple way.

I would also like to thank Julie Soltow for her expertise and assistance in

formatting this manuscript and getting it bound.

Finally, I would like to extend my deepest and warmest thanks to my mom
and my dad, without whom none of this would be possible. I would just like to

say 'Dad, you'd be proud.‘

IABLEQEQQNIENLS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ iv
CHAPTER I ------ - _________ - - - - 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II--- -- ....................................................................... 3
BASIC ELEMENTS OF HYPERCARD .......................................................... 3
CHAPTER III---------- -- - - ...................................................... 9
STACK STRUCTURE .......... - -- .......... - - ................. - 3-9
CHAPTER IV-- ..... - .................... 14
SECOND GUESSING USERS AND VIEWERS 14
CHAPTER V -- -- ____________ 22
CHAPTER VI _____________________________________________________________ 30
TECHNICAL RESTRICTIONS -- ........ -30
CHAPTER VII ................ -- ......... 33
SOUND IN HYPERMEDIA AND TELEVISION ............................................ 33
CHAPTER VIII-- __ - - ..... _ wage
TRANSITIONS ................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER IX----- -- - - ________ - -- _____________________ 42
THE CREATION PROCESS ..... - - ........................................... 42
CHAPTER X ...... -- ------ _________ - ........ 48
CONSCIOUSNESS AND REALITY ----- 48
CHAPTER Xl-- -- ............................................................ 53
RECOMMENDATIONS - - 53
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 54

LI§IQEELGLLBE§

Figure 1 Button script ................................................................................................ 7

Figure 2 A card from Below Ground Vault stack .................................................. 16
Figure 3 Pros and Cons Review card from Intro stack ....................................... 17
Figure 4 Icon Map from Intro stack ......................................................................... 19
Figure 5 Graphic for houses from Intro stack ....................................................... 19
Figure 6 Text field and “OK" button from Above Ground stack ......................... 20
Figures 7a, b, and c Animation sequence from shallow land burial ............. 23
Figure 8 Icon glove used for stylized button ........................................................ .26
Figure 9 “7” button from Above Ground Vault stack ............................................ 35
Figure 10 Icon map card with actual generators listed. ..................................... 36
Figure 11 Actual generators'card from intro stack .............................................. 50

iv

QHAEIEBI

INTRODUCTION

If i were to produce a thesis project in partial fulfillment of a Master’s
degree in the Department of Telecommunication as a video documentary, the
program would take on a linear dimension. There would be a story that would
have a beginning, middle and end and a natural progression and transition
between the segments. For example, if the program was on safely disposing of
and managing low-level radioactive waste (LLRW) in Michigan, when the
program got to a segment that presented 5 disposal options for a low-level
radioactive waste facility, a voice-over, or on camera announcer would ask the
viewer to think about which disposal option they would choose. The disposal
options would be presented in as unbiased a view as possible. To be objective,
these options would be edited together and presented in alphabetical order.

However, the program produced for this thesis was not developed on
video. Rather. it was developed in HyperCard," a hypermedia authoring package
for creating interactive software. Unlike video documentaries, HyperCard
hypermedia programs are not developed in a linear, start-to-finish fashion.

This thesis will discuss the similarities and differences of producing an
interactive hypermedia program as compared to producing a video
documentary program on safely disposing of and managing LLFIW in Michigan.

Chapter 2 explains the basic elements HyperCard, the authoring program
software. Chapter 3 discusses different ways to structure a HyperCard program
along with some of the pros and cons of those structures. Next, Chapter 4 looks
at various ways that hypermedia and television take the user and viewer into

account during program development. Chapter 5 examines and compares with

television the different elements of design style included in the hypermedia
program created for this thesis.

The next section moves away from program layout and style development
and explores some of the resolution, technical and production considerations
and restrictions that exist in the two media. Chapter 7 compares and contrasts
the role of sound use in hypermedia and television. Continuing in this vein.
Chapter 8 looks at transitions, both special visual effects, and various sound
effects.

Chapter 9 deals with the creation process. What comes after the major
program elements have been decided, how they fit, and how they are put
together? Chapter 10 presents a more personal and theoretical discussion,
about the kind of feelings and perceptions the two media evoke from the user
and the viewer. Finally, Chapter 11 presents the author's recommendations.

Throughout the body of the text, research questions that occurred along
the way and would be interesting to study at a later date are also presented.
These questions are highlighted to distinguish them from the body of the text.
Answering the research questions is beyond the scope of this thesis—its goal is

to pose them.

QHAEIE-Bll

BASIC ELEMENTS OF HYPERCARD

In this chapter, the basic hypercard elements and their different uses are
introduced. These elements include: stacks, fields, buttons, and cards. In
addition, the role of typography, (text and graphics), in hypermedia and video is

com pared.

Basic Mechanics of HyperCard

HyperCard programs are organized into sections called stacks. If you think
of HyperCard and it's components as a note card filing system, you will have an
easier time visualizing how it works. Stacks are like tabbed dividers in a filing
box. Within a stack you will find fields, buttons and cards.

Fields are like post-it notes on 3 x 5 cards. The tabbed sections can be
arranged in any order: alphabetically, by subject, by age, etc. Buttons are like
being able to ask someone to do something with the cards, such as find a
particular one, or sort them in alphabetical order.

Cards can have textual, or graphic information, or a combination of the two.
The written information on a card is usually in the form of a field. Fields come in
all different styles and sizes, scrolling, rectangle and plain.

Fields present textual information on cards. The text can be in a variety of
fonts and styles such as bold, outlined, shadowed or italic. Text can also come

in different sizes. From very small to very big.

Role of Typography
The role that text and graphics play in the two media are very different. In

television the use of text and graphics is limited by technical restrictions. In

3

video, text and graphics must have the correct aspect ratio. fit into the essential
scanning area, and due to television’s poor resolution and inability to pick up
detail, be very simple. Furthermore, technical and aesthetic consideration must
also be given to proper use of color, contrast and gray scale (Compesi and
Sherriffs, 1985).

Yet, these same technical considerations and limitations that affect
television do not apply to computers. Due to the precise control available with
computers, which includes being able to easily control every letter-in terms of
font, size, style and precise placement-anywhere on the screen, and the better
resolution available on computer compared to television, typography, text and
graphic elements play a greater role in hypermedia than in video. Television
resolution allows for, at most, about 40 readable characters per line on a
screen, compared to 80 or more on computer (Wurtzle, 1983).

in the hypermedia program designed for this thesis, typography and text
were considered just as much a graphic element as drawings and illustrations
were. In video, text is mainly used to identify the speaker.

In addition, because television is generally viewed from a distance, putting
a lot of textual information makes it difficult for the viewer to read. Conversely,
the distance between the user and the computer is much closer, making it

easier to read (Crockford, 1990).

Altered Fonts

Compared to television, the art of typography and layout has wide use and
impact in hypermedia. In hypermedia fonts can tremendously alter the look and
feel of a program. For example, Courier, Geneva and Helvetica have a very
clean look; other fonts like New York and Times are more classic styles.

whereas Agua Mundo, Black Knight and Brussels are more ornate.

4

Text, Sound and Dialogue

In hypermedia text is used with voice-over sound. The user gets the same
message in two different ways. In video when voice-over and text are used it is
generally in an educational or instructional format, often keyed over a full, single
color background screen with no graphics, only text.

Apple Computer, Inc. suggests one effective technique in hypermedia of
presenting the text and the voice-overs is to break up the text and the voice into
chunks, waiting for hypermedia media user interaction to continue (Apple
Computer, Inc., 1989). Therefore the information is presented almost in a
dialogue versus monologue form. The text can be presented in individual
words, sentences or paragraphs.

The user can actively participate in hypermedia to get to all of the
information. In video there is generally a continuous verbal dialogue or
interaction, which the viewer watches and does not actively participate in when

the dialogue starts and stops.

How do I look?

In hypermedia, the affect and tone of the textual message is just as
important as the style of the graphic presentation. Text and graphics may be
integrated - not just overlaid, but designed visually to work together. For
example, text may be positioned to cover just a clouded portion of a graphic of
the sky in the horizon. In contrast, video sometimes super imposes text, but
otherwise does not usually integrate graphics, showing little concern for the
aesthetic of how background video and superimposed text work together. In
television as long as the text is legible, (Wurtzle, 1983), and does not cover a

critical part of the video, then it is used.

Flipped Cut Text

Since text is so much a part of hypermedia programs, designers are given
many different ways to display text and to present text fields. They can be
presented in such a way that the text can be be rotated or highlighted, or have
borders enclosing it. As with most possibilities, these options add complexity as

well as increasing options. Consistency in hypermedia is a conscious effort.

Pacing Limits

In hypermedia, the user is frequently allowed to control pacing. Even when
the computer is in control of pacing, there is more flexibility than with video.
There are pacing limitations based on CPU speed and authoring software
within hypermedia; different computers can retrieve and access and store
information faster than others (Poole, 1986). But still there is much more
flexibility than with video. Hypermedia can slow things down, freeze, repeat,

modify, and show text at the same time.

Buttons: Start/Stop

Another element found on individual HyperCard cards are buttons. A
button is a “hot spot" on the screen which activates a script when it is clicked on.
As Figure 1 shows, buttons can be scripted and told exactly what to do, almost
like a videotape editor would program an editing machine.

In a video, the editor would program the machine to know where she wants
the music to start, when she wants the music to tag up with the video, and when
she wants the music to stop. A scripted HyperCard button can direct that same
progression.

The same analogy is drawn if just visual cuts were desired. The script of

one type of button tells the computer what order to bring up certain cards, how

6

long to wait before the next card is shown, whether special effects, like a
dissolve will be used to transition between one card and another, whether there

is accompanying audio, and when to start and stop the audio.

 

Script of card button "above"

 

 

on mouseUp Q
play "bytes“
repeat 3 times
set the hiiite of me to true
wait 7 ticks
set the hllite of me to false
end repeat
visual effect dissolve slow
go cd “card 2"
end mouseUp

 

 

 

IDId

 

Figure 1 Button script

Where's the Button?

Buttons can also be scripted to show and hide things like themselves, or
other buttons, or “pop up” text fields or requests for input from the user. They can
compute simulations, control extemal devices like video disc players and much
more (Goodman, 1990). Buttons can be represented by a graphic icon, a word
or words, a combination of both or they can be invisible. No matter what it looks
like, when the user clicks on a “hot spot” something will happen. For example, a
sound may be heard, the user may go to another card or may even be

transported to a different stack.

Navigational Buttons
The script of a button is activated when the user clicks the mouse on it.

Buttons can instantaneously navigate the user around the stack. If the stacks
are preprogrammed and linked together, a button. when clicked on, can jump
the user to a card in an entirely different stack. Thus, buttons are very powerful

transitional links within a stack and between stacks.

QHAEIEBIII

STACK STRUCTURE

In hyperCard hypermedia programs sequences of information are grouped
together in “stacks”. Stacks can have different structures and take on different
functions. The following is a description of some possible stack formations and

their potential uses and their advantages and disadvantages.

Linear I Non-Linear Stacks and the User

Stacks have different structures depending on their purpose, nature and
presentation style. A stack can either have a linear, or a non-linear structure. A
linear stack structure is set up so that every user goes through the same

information on the cards in the same way, a straight line path.

Non-Linear Stacks: Path Structure

Conversely, non-linear stack structures are designed to allow the user to
choose, via predetermined paths or branches, how they want to browse through
the stack(s), or if they want to skip some branches or predetermined paths of a
stack(s) entirely.

Non-linear hypermedia stacks, though not designed specifically to be
individualized, can be used that way. Ten different people going through a non-
linear stack might choose ten different routes to take. Therefore, if different paths

are taken, all users may not get the same information.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
WOULD DIFFERENT USERS CHOOSE DIFFERENT PATHS?

Linear Stacks with Choice
Other stacks are hybrid. They can be set up so that each user goes linearly
through all the information but in some sections of the stack are given a choice

as to the order they want to branch off.

My Stack Design: Combination of Linear and Non-Linear Structure
The stack designed for this thesis was programmed to allow users to be
exposed to all the same information, but had some choices about the order and
pace. For example, in the program designed for this thesis, there are cards in
which all of the users eventually get the same information, but they are given a
choice as to the order which they click on different buttons and thus, how they

navigate through the cards in the stack(s).

RESEARCH QUESTION:
WHEN PRESENTED WITH THE SAME ‘IO OPTIONS AND FORCED TO EVENTUALLY
SELECT THEM ALL, TO WHAT EXTENT WOULD USERS CHOOSE THE SAME ORDER
AND WILL THAT ORDER BE FROM LEFT TO RIGHT? I

User Involvement

In the article, “Publishers, Multimedia, and Interactivity", Brunsman et al.,
suggest incorporating a selection of choice in hypermedia programs for a few
reasons:

1. In hopes of keeping the user involved in the program

-10

2. To give the user the feeling of control and being involved with the
program.

3. Hopefully, having choices will keep the user’s attention for a longer
period of time and keep them motivated to continue (Brunsman et al.,

1 988).

In pure physiological terms, by moving their hands to click on the buttons,
users are keeping their blood circulating. The circulation will keep the user alert.

thinking and hopefully motivated to continue.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
HOW LONG WILL THIS PROGRAM KEEP A CHILD'S ATTENTION? DO THE
INTERACTIVE SECTIONS ADD TO A CHILD'S MOTIVATION? DOES A CHILD’S LEVEL
OF MOTIVATION AND ALERTNESS CORRELATE WITH THEIR UNDERSTANDING AND
LEARNING OF THE PROGRAM?

RESEARCH QUESTION:
DOES TAKING AN ACTIVE ROLE AND INTERACTING WITH THE COMPUTER PROGRAM
AND MAKING CHOICES KEEP THE USER'S ATTENTION AND/OR MOTIVATE THEM TO

CONTINUE?

More Non-Linear Stack Designs

Non-linear stacks can be put together in many ways, depending on their
purpose. For instance, a tree structure can be used for a tutorial chart. The stack
would have one main card that had a text field that gave out instructions asking
the user if they needed to review certain sections of material. Each section of

review material would be covered by a separate stack. By clicking on a button

11

next to the section of material they needed to review the user would be
transported to that section.

When'they were through they would click on a button to take them back to
the main card. Either they could go to another stack or quit the program. Thus,
having a tree stack structure like this allows the user to pick and choose the
appropriate stacks. This is a very efficient way to structure a stack.

Another, more free-fonn, non-linear structure Is called a network structure.
in this type of structure there is no hierarchical order, users just browse through
the stacks. Buttons are set up they can easily go from one stack to another. A

network structure is similar to an adventure game (Apple Computer, Inc., 1989).

Too Many Options Can Be Confusing

In a network stack structure, the user is given options about which path to
take, and moves around the stack in a free form manner. Some network
structures have cards that are home bases or like maps that assist with the
options. Because the network structures have complex designs that offer many
different route or path options to navigate through, they can be confusing and

difficult for the user to use (Apple Computer, Inc. 1989).

RESEARCH QUESTION:
IS CONTROL AN IMPORTANT MOTIVATOR AND ENCOURAGER FOR THE USER?
DOES IT MATTER THAT THEY HAVE AN ACTIVE ROLE AND ARE NOT JUST SITTING
BACK WATCHING THE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS? IN A STUDY THAT LOOKS AT
PACING OF PROGRAMS OR SEOUBNICES OF SECTIONS OF THE LLRW
HYPERMEDIA PROGRAM’S DISPOSAL OPTION STACKS, IT MAY BE FOUND THAT
MOST OF THE USERS WOULD CHOOSE A PACE THAT IS SIMILAR TO THAT ON
TELEVISION.

12

RESEARCH QUESTION:
BY CONTROLLING THE PACE THEMSELVES, IS THERE A CHANGE IN THE LEVEL OF
SATISFACTION WITH THEMSELVES AND/OR WITH WHAT THEY ARE DOING?

RESEARCH G UESTION:
WHICH IS GOING TO GENERATE MORE LEARNING—A FREE FORM STACK
STRUCTURE OR A MORE TASK ORIENTED STACK STRUCTURE LIKE MINE, OR ONE
wrm NO CHOICE?

13

RESEARCH QUESTION:
BY CONTROLLING THE PACE THEMSELVES, IS THERE A CHANGE IN THE LEVEL OF
SATISFACTION WITH THEMSELVES AND/OR WITH WHAT THEY ARE DOING?

RESEARCH QUESTION:
WHICH IS GOING To GENERATE MORE LEARNING-A FREE FORM STACK
STRUCTURE OR A MORE TASK ORIENTED STACK STRUCTURE LIKE MINE, OR ONE
wrm NO CHOICE?

13

RESEARCH QUESTION:
BY CONTROLLING THE PACE THEMSELVES, IS THERE A CHANGE IN THE LEVEL OF
SATISFACTION WITH THEMSELVES AND/OR WITH WHAT THEY ARE DOING?

RESEARCH QUESTION:
WHICH IS GOING TO GENERATE MORE LEARNING—A FREE FORM STACK
STRUCTURE OR A MORE TASK ORIENTED STACK STRUCTURE LIKE MINE, OR ONE
WITH No CHOICE?

13

QHAEIEBL!

SECOND GUESSING USERS AND VIEWERS

This chapter compares and contrasts how the user and viewer
are taken into consideration throughout the developmental stages of the project.
For hypermedia, this includes presenting instructions, and review. In addition,
the chapter presents the fact that most hypermedia elements such as buttons,
fields and borders have a purpose. As well, the appearance of these elements

in the program is very carefully timed.

Second Guessing the User In Hypermedia

Throughout the entire stack creation process much more time is spent in
hypermedia, compared to producing a video and keeping the viewer in mind,
trying to. second guess what the user will think and do (Weyer, 1988). One level
of consideration is trying to insure that the user has enough information to know
how to operate the program. For example, when designing a stack for
hypermedia, the producer has to consider whether or not the user will know to
click on a button to continue, whether the user will know to move the mouse to a
specific area for another effect or whether they have to be told (Gygi, 1990).

if they have to be told Should, it be visual, verbal or both? When the user
has to repeat certain actions will they have to be told every time what to do?
Making sure the user knows what to do is an issue that recurs on almost every
screen, at almost every movement. A second level of consideration is user
understanding of program content and emotional and cognitive reactions to

images sounds and words.

14

Second Guessing the Viewer In TV

In video, the viewer is primarily considered at the pre-production,
development stage of production, when decisions are being made about who
the target audience is, and other demographics. Thereafter, art or instinct
dictates.

Rarely is the particular viewer kept in mind during actual production and
post-production. If the viewer is kept in mind during these stages it is not as
continuous or explicit as when creating hypermedia. In video, viewers are not
as integral an element of the production thought process as users are in -
hypermedia. As far as viewers knowing what to do, mostly they simply press

play on a VCR.

Instruction and Review

A video usually does not have instructions or review. However,
hypermedia programs must constantly explain themselves. Some kind of
instruction giving you direction appears on almost every screen. This could be
in the form of an 'OK' button, which continues a progression which had paused
to await user input, or afield that has instructions, or a voice that begins when

you Open the stack or the card.

Instructions, Instructions and more Instructions

Hypermedia programs explain what to do all the time (Gygi, 1990). The
hypermedia program designed for this thesis is full of instructions to help guide .
and engage the user. For example, in the below ground vault disposal option,
there is a text field that says ‘To see the below ground vault, Click on the drive

button .” (See Figure 2) A video documentary may take time in the beginning to

15

explain what the program is about but need not offer help or instructions

throughout the program.

 

[ To see the below M vault,

click on the arm button. ')

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2 A card from Below Ground Vault stack

Interactive Summary and Review

To help users remember key points review cards were also designed.
They are designed in a creative way that allows them to blend in with the style
of the program. It is important for these cards not to stand out and say 'I'm a
review card and therefore i will be redundant and boring'.

Hypermedia summary and review cards were difficult ideas and cards to
come up with. How do you sum up a lot of information simply, make it look
elegant graphically, emotionally appealing, not too complicated or lengthy and
make it interesting and fun by having buttons that are interactive and provide
immediate sound feedback once they are clicked on. f

An example of an interactive review card in the LLRW program shows the
user the pros/cons of the different disposal options and asks them which option
they would choose and where in the United States they would put it. The card is

designed so the user clicks on their chosen disposal option. This pops up

16

ratings of their Chosen option on a scale relative to the other options. Three
measures are compared: cost. accident rate, and manageability. (See Figure 3).
The pros and cons card was designed to be interactive. The buttons bring
up different text fields that show how the disposal options compare to one
another. The interactivity is designed to keep the user's interest, to motivate

users to continue and to present the information as clearly as possible.

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  

m en mum mm In 0 s m
new um um Ina-um '

0 Above Sreuna

V
esn-"owmc
0 Below Ground
00:"-

am:- snc: am-
monium .. v , 1m
w um Lame -W

I I their on the dreamer options to see now they c
2.) Then select the one you think to but, and click

   

    
   
 

  

 

 
  
 

 
  

 

Omi!" IO ICC" Olhll'

Figure 3 Pros and Cons Review card from Intro stack

Purpose in Design

While designing this stack it was apparent that everything needed to have
purpose so the user's attention would be held. One reason might be that
hypermedia program’s are seen as a novelty and not given credibility or taken
seriously as learning tools. In part based on this assumption, there is little room
in the memory and on the disk for unnecessary information. Though there are
time constraints for TV, 28:30 program length for broadcast, there does not
seem to be as rigid a command from viewers about the program content.

One reason viewers may be more lenient is because they can get up and

do things while the video is on or they can leave and come back again. A user

17

on the other hand, is required to be an active participant with the interactive
hypermedia documentary. Thus, there is more pressure to hold the user’s

anenfion.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
IS THE USER’S ATTENTION AUTOMATICALLY HELD BECAUSE THEY ARE ACTIVELY

INVOLVED?

All Buttons, Cards, Text, Fields and Borders Have a Purpose
According to Stephen Weyer, in his article "As We May Learn,” to keep the
user's attention it is not only important to entertain and engage the user but, it is
just as important to keep the time length down, so the user does not get bored
(Weyer, 1988). Thus, because the stack structure of the LLRW program was
primarily linear, and had a lot of content to present, the length of the program,
when a user used it, had to be kept as short as possible. This meant that all
buttons, cards, text, fields or borders had purpose, those that were in just for fun
and amusement were edited out. For example, in the early stages of the LLRW'S
program development the card sequences for the icon map (see Figure 4), were
2 to 5 cards long with a lot of extra sound and visual effects inserted just for fun.
Yet to keep the overall experience from getting too long, these sequences were

eventually pared down to one card (See Figure 5).

18

etele
government

 

 

 

  

\

    
 

,’ f'fl' V :5 -
14/ ——l—
I." ‘H!“’:.E.le‘jr"filv.mm
. "I ' Done
A m ..
, , rot.
:‘f’Xv’Z/LZ a

  

 

Figure 5 Graphic for houses from Intro stack

Putting in extra elements did not add to the scene, as might be the case in
video. In video the reverse is true. It is common to purposefully put in “extra
sound and visual elements into the setting to add realism and make it feel
natural”. These extra elements, in video, are mostly in the background and do

not necessarily take up more of the viewer‘s time.

Keeping the User’s Attention

As with all media, when putting the hypermedia program together the
designer has to try to keep in mind the user‘s attention level, and consciously
keep them from getting bored or frustrated (Apple Computer, Inc. 1990). If the
flow of the program is repetitious, like the same sound effect heard over and

over, you might lose the user's attention.

19

One strategy for maintaining interest is giving the user control over pacing
of when and how quickly things happen throughout the program. For example,
the 'ok' buttons in the disposal options sections were purposefully placed and
scripted so that the user could control when a sequence started and when they
wanted to continue. The “ok” buttons were placed within the borders of the

written narration text field in the lower right hand comer. (See Figure 6).

 

An above ground vault
would be made out of concrete
or other strong materials
that could survive fl res,

floods, earthquakes, or
tornados.

 

Figure 6 Text field and “OK” button from Above Ground stack

Approximately 1 second after the sound had finished, the “ok” buttons
would pop-up. In addition, the 'continue' and 'more" buttons were scripted in a
similar manner. These buttons would appear on the last card of a sequence

approximately 1 second after the sound was done.

Tightly Timed

To prevent the user from prematurely clicking on the continue or 'more'
buttons and getting ahead of the program everything in hypermedia must be
timed very precisely. For instance, if a 'continue' button showed up before the

program is ready to continue, the user might miss some of the sound from the

20

previous button's script. This would not be so bad if the sound were just a sound

effect. However, some sounds are voice-overs giving important information.

21

QflAELEB IL
STYLE
In hypermedia, creating a look and developing an appropriate style for
your stack is very conscious and very important. The style of a program sets a
tone. Considerations in the development of a style include not only the content
and the target audience, but also borders, consistent use of buttons and fields,

clip art, animation and issues regarding pixel control.

Designed for Children

Since the program developed for this thesis is primarily for children, the card’s
border and visual graphics took on a cartoonish look to disseminate the
information, in a childlike and playful manner. An example of this childlike style
are some of the animated sequences used in the disposal sections, and
illustrated in Figures 7a, b, and c. in addition the sound effects played when
certain cards were opened, the tone and quality of voice-over used in
explanations and finally, the word choice for some of the text were also geared
toward children. A frequent question in my head as I designed the program was
whether a fifth grader, the target audience, would understand or be interested in

this.

Different Style for Adults

On'the other hand if the program were geared toward adults, the voice
over sequences might still exist, but the tone of the voice would be more
authoritative, and factiike than storylike. The script for the written text would be
more scientific and in depth. However, the animated sequences would stay the
same because my second guessing of the user is that their appeal spans the

generations.

22

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 7c

Figures 7a, b, and c Animation sequence from shallow land burial

23

Borders

Development of a segment involves creating the style and the feel of the
program. This includes deciding what, if any, consistent border will be used.
HyperCard cards are like blank sheets of paper. A consistent border is one
technique for making an application hold together, and feel like an integrated
experience as opposed to a compilation of distinct images. Borders can be a
signature, a trademark.

The border designed for the low-level radioactive waste program went
through 6 or 7 design changes before the final design was picked. The main
reason for choosing the final border design was based on aesthetics. The final
border design was not too bold, not too flimsy, the design did not call attention
to itself and served the purpose of containing the screen image. It was also
content-appropriate, consistent somehow with a radiation theme in it’s
unevenness and inconsistency and in its sparseness.

The borders that were ruled out were created before many of the graphics
were created. It was difficult to visualize how the graphic elements would fit
together without all of them there. The next Step was to create a main card
image for one section and design a border to go with that.

A main card image was created and each potential border was pasted into
the design to see how well it fit. Some borders did not work because they were
too thick and bold, others took up too much of the screen and called attention to
themselves, others compartmentalized and separated different images on the
screen, giving the appearance of a picture on the wall or a photograph in an old
photo album, and still other borders appeared too flimsy and did not work

visually to hold the graphic elements together.

24

Consistent Use of Buttons and Fields

The overall style of a hypermedia application also includes consistency in
placement of different visual elements such as, what kind of buttons and fields
will be used and how they will relate to the other graphical elements. Decisions
were made about how to use and where to put buttons, and text fields on the
cards.

Careful planning went into the layout, separating fields and buttons from
the card’s main graphic design. This let the entire graphic be seen and put the
buttons and fields in plain sight, making it easy for the user to find them.

When possible, buttons and fields with similar functions were put in
roughly the same location on every screen. Other alternatives would be to
integrate text fields and buttons with the graphics, making them part of the
scene, Or to formally separate them off into a specific, formatted, on-screen
“toolbox.” The Chosen method was a cross between the two - separated from
picture elements, but not rigidly appearing in exactly the same place.

Another important element was consistency in the style and appearance of
buttons and fields on all of the cards. Three types of buttons were used-round
rectangles with a shadow, transparent, and stylized icons. Words framed by
round rectangles suggest what the button will do. For example, the “continue”
buttons used throughout the disposal option stacks. Transparent buttons,
however were used over fields or graphics that presented information. These
transparent buttons were programmed to highlight off for a specific number of
times at a predetermined rate of Speed. Their main purpose was to draw
attention to whatever they covered. Finally, stylized icons were used as help
guides throughout the program. An example of a stylized icon button is the
glove icon that shows up throughout the LLRW program. (See Figure 8.)

25

Figure 8 Icon glove used for stylized button

Consistency of buttons also extends to choosing a feedback style - what
happens when the user clicks a button. Using principles of sound feedback
developed by the Comm Tech Lab, every button responds with some form of
sound feedback before executing it’s other commands (Heeter & Gomes, 1991).

Furthermore, the buttons throughout entire sections which have similar
functions have the same sound. For example, all of the ‘OK' buttons within the
icon map section make the same sound before returning the user to the map.
More will be said about sound feedback later.

The style of fields and text were also carefully designed. All of the fields
presenting instructions on how to use the software have a rectangular outline
style text field and all of the informational text, which is also accompanied by
voice over, has a shadowed outline style of text field. The shadowed
rectangular outline text fields help them to stand out from the graphic.
Maintaining this level of consistency in documentary videos does not take as
much thought and work in producing documentary videos. Video
documentaries usually either shoot real scenes or dramatize real scenes.
Recording reality offers more natural consistency than constructed reality. Also
in video, there is a larger selection of props that already exist in nature and do

not have to be specially created pixel by pixel.

26

Clip Art

Clip art is loosely equivalent to stock footage - except that clip art can be
modified and integrated into new scenes, while stock footage is more often
used “intact.” Clip art are various images from business graphics, to logos, to
finely illustrated pictures of art.

Clip art is available commercially in books or on software. If in books, the
images can be scanned onto disk and used in hypermedia programs. However,
clip art is rarely consistent with the graphic style of an original hypermedia

design. and most artists reject the use of “canned" images.

Animation

Hypermedia can include animation in several forms such as sequences
that can be paralleled to motion sequences as seen on TV. One concern about
user response to animated sequences in hypermedia is that users, familiar with
television may have high expectations and compare the quality to television. On
the other hand, most people’s previous experience with computers has been
text based, so hypermedia positively violates expectations for computers but
negatively violates TV expectations.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
WILL THE USER, SUBCONSCIOUSLY OR CONSCIOUSLY, REACH AN
UNDERSTANDING AND LEVEL OF ACCEPTANCE AND EVEN ENJOYMENT, THAT
“YES, THIS WAS PRODUCED ON COMPUTER AND THE QUALITY IS NOT AS GOOD AS
TV, BUT SINCE TT WAS PRODUCED ON AN ENTIRELY DIFFERENT MEDIUM, IT HAS A
DIFFERENT FEEI. THAN TV AND THEREFORE, TT IS ACCEPTABLE AND GOOD”?

27

Other Graphic Elements

The vast majority of visual content in hypermedia is static images—either
graphics or scanned photos. Graphics and text use can be a combination of still
or moving images grabbed from video and laying over static or animated text
created on the computer. Television is the antithesis of hypermedia in this
respect - almost every scene contains motion. Hypermedia developers can
capture or scan existing images, they can create new images from “scratch”, or
they can combine and collage existing and new elements.

Though many photo images were scanned for this hypermedia project only
a few were used, I considered the resolution too poor, 2 shades of gray, 72 DPI.
This resolution Is a limitation of HyperCard (Eckhardt, 1990). To include color,
or 250 shades of gray, or 300 DPI one would have to have the photograph
appear in a rectangle as a distinct, non-integrated graphic object. Thus, many

developers find the 72 DPI images to be acceptable.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
MAYBE THESE IMAGES, WTTH SOME ALTERATIONS, WOULD HAVE WORKED AND
BEEN ACCEPTABLE TO THE USER.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
THERE IS A RANGE OF DISPLAY RESOLUTION AVAILABLE ON DIFFERNT
PLATFORMS-HOW MUCH DIFFERNCE DOES IT MAKE TO USERS IF THE GRAPHICS
ARE 2, 256, OR MILLIONS OF SHADES OF GRAY? WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES
COLOR OR BLACK AND WHITE MAKE?

28

RESEARCH QUESTION:
DO VIEWERS ACCEPT THE LACK OF DETAIL IN SCANNED IMAGES OR 30 THEY FEEL

THAT THE IMAGES AREA OF LESSER QUALITY AND THEREFORE NOT AS GOOD?
DOES TT COMMUNICATE LESS EFFECTIVELY? DOES IT AFFECT THE CREDIBILTTY

OF THE PACKAGE?

RESEARCH QUESTION:
THE USE OF STILLS IN HYPERMEDIA EVOLVES FROM TT BEING VERY DIFFICULT TO
INCLUDE MOTTON. WILL THIS PERSIST AS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE IMPROVE?

IS TT THE OPTIMAL WAY TO PRESENT?

RESEARCH QUESTION:
HOW WILL 'QUICKTIME,” A NEW COMPONENT OF THE MACINTOSH OPERATING
SYSTEM THAT ALLOWS ANY MACINTOSH TO SHOW MOTION VIDEO AT 15 FRAMES
PER SECOND, AFFECT THE USE OF INCORPORATING STILLS INTO HYPERMEDIA

PROGRAMS?

Pixel Control

The hypermedia producer has complete control over everything on the
screen down to the last pixel on the card (Poole, 1989). The hypermedia
producer decides everything. The video producer has control over the scene up
to a certain point. For instance, If the video producer is shooting the scene about
outer space disposal of radioactive waste, covering a NASA rocket lift off, they
can choose camera angle and moment to record, but they do not have control
over the speed of the lift off, the background, the spectators, etc. But, in a
hypermedia animation, all graphic elements can be manipulated-from the smile

on a spectator’s face to the intensity of flames when the engines first ignite.

29

QflAELEBMI

TECHNICAL RESTRICTIONS

Before issues of sound are presented, it is important to explore some of the
current technical restrictions of computers which result in limited use of
animation and motion in hypermedia. Hypermedia developers are faced with
limited disk and memory space. This is especially problematic on some of the
internal hard drives of low end, low powered computers (Apple Computers, Inc.,
1989).

These technical restrictions impede the ability of developers to create and
Store and play long, smooth running, animations (Poole, 1989). Limited disk
and memory space creates a big difference in how hypermedia programs
incorporate sound and animation compared to video.

In addition, due to the technical differences between the two media,
challenges are presented when trying to integrate one medium with the other.
Though an indepth look into these differences is beyond the scope of this

thesis, some of the basic differences will be discussed.

Technical Considerations with Video and Hypermedia

In video, there is no memory device that says “were getting to full I can’t
hold any more”, video's capacity restriction is created by length of tape not width
of storage capacity. When looking at ”storage capacity", it is almost as if video,
once again, comes out linear.

In a video program the amount of audio and video can be many, many
layers thick, but only so long in length. Though it is true some VHS tapes can be
used to play at different speeds and lengths, but to play longer, the tape is

stretched, the quality goes down, and the chance for damaging, or ‘tearing" a

30

thinner video tape are greater than damaging a thicker video tape. Video tape
allows the producer to put almost any kind and any amount of information on as
long as it doesn’t go over a certain length.

Computers on the other hand, also have a storage restriction, and some
problem calling up sound and motion. Yet, despite the current memory and disk
storage restrictions, computers do not have the time length restrictions as
placed on video. There is almost no relationship between storage space
needed for a hypermedia element and the amount of time a user eventually
spends with that element.

Additionally, users, can access hypermedia programs at virtually any point
in the program and go “forward” or “backward” (Anderson, 1989). Though,
viewers, if they have their own machines, can access a video at any point,
viewers cannot start a program in the middle and go back ward.

To create and store graphics, animation and sound, computers need
enough memory and disk space. Use of graphics, sound and animation in
hypermedia, demand that the computer have enough memory to call up the
graphics and play the animation at the correct speed (Apple Computer, Inc.,
1990).

Currently, hypermedia animated sequences with sound and graphics may
play at different speeds depending on the type of computer and how fast it is.
The timing of an animated hypermedia program developed on one type of
computer may vary on a faster or slower computer (Bove and Rhodes, 1989).
However, 'OuickTrme', Apple’s new operating system additiOn, should solve
this (Apple Computer, Inc., 1991). Yet, regardless of the tape format used to

record or play a video program, it will always have the same timing.

31

“If ‘ever’ the ‘twaln shall meet”

Though getting too indepth in the technical differences that keep the two
media from seamlessly merging, is beyond the scope of this thesis, a brief
discussion is appropriate. To date the scanning systems for computer and
television are different, though hopefully this will change to allow for seamless
integration between the two media. Computers have a sequential scanning
system, which sees images in sequential units. Television has an Interface
scanning system that consists of alternating fields of even lines and odd lines.
Each television image is actually a combination of two halves of the same
image.

So, when there is an effort to integrate the two media there is a loss in
quality, due not only, as mentioned earlier, to differences in monitor resolution,
but also because of the different scanning systems. It is very difficult for a
hypermedia producer to treat individual frames of video as discrete units of
information as found in a computer program (Crockford, 1990).

Another area to mention briefly, addresses how the medias deal with the
issue of color when one medium incorporates the other. Most color televisions
have the luminance and color information on one composite signal. Computers
do not. Computers have an RGB system.

An .RGB system separates the color and allows computers to display more
colors than television. When an attempt is made to encode these colors into a
composite television signal there can be problems. Usually, because of the
differences in the number of colors used in a computer-generated image, there
is a loss of detail when computer—generated images are used on television. In
addition, lines that are only a single pixel wide flicker when transferred to

video—they appear only in one field (odd or even), not both, of the video frame.

32

QHAEIEBILII

SOUND IN HYPERMEDIA AND TELEVISION

In some ways use of sound in hypermedia and video is the same. For
example, both use sound for narrative purposes. However, there are some
dramatic differences. This chapter reveals some of the similarities as well as
some of the differences. Topics include, sound use in both media,
representational sounds and transitions in hypermedia, sound as part of content
not transition, feedback sounds, video’s use of sound as a wall, television as a

visual medium, and the quality of sound in video and hypermedia.

Sound 'Use In Hypermedia and Television

A video or hypermedia program is not complete unless there is sound. The
major difference is that in video, sound is used as a limitless, continuous entity.
ln hypermedia, sound is a non-continuous entity, shorter chunks of sound are
used in very controlled and appropriate places.

In both mediums, sound can be used with or without, graphics, still images
or full motion sequences. The role of sound in hypermedia and video includes
use as a transition, as part of the actual program content, use as a sound effect,
and, as previously mentioned, for hypermedia in particular, as a form of
feedback or reinforcement.

Using sound as a transition is a very helpful technique for both mediums
when trying to save time. For example, if a video were to have a scene of a
geologist looking over Site characteristics in an office, and the next scene
showed the geologist working out in the field, the sound that was heard might
be of machines and sounds of workers in the field, while the shot is Still of the

geologist working in their office. After a few seconds, the camera cuts to the field

33

without having to Show the worker leaving, driving to the field and starting their
field work. All of that information was taken care of with a few seconds of sound.

Sound used as a transition in hypermedia is exemplified in the Space
disposal segment of this thesis. After clicking a button to continue, a sound is
used in Conjunction with graphics to launch the rocket into space without
illustrating every step involved. This visual and aural transition was needed to
make a smooth transition from the launch pad into Space.

Though the same exact idea is not used in the two examples, the
hypermedia program does use a similar, time saving technique. AS with video,
editing motion sequences, hypermedia programs, through the use of sounds,
can omit or group actions.

Other uses of sounds as transitions in hypermedia are to accompany the
sound with a visual transition. For example, in the program when the user
returns to the icon map a visual and audio transition is made. For consistency's
sake, both the sound and video transitions that take the user back to the icon

map stay the same.

Representational Sounds and Transitions In Hypermedia

In the LLRW program, different pictures on the icon map have different
representational, sounds. The purpose was to send a non-verbal message to
the user that they are going back to the icon map. The principles of correct
usage of sounds in television are also applied to HyperCard. For example,
having the sound effect last about the same amount of time as the visual
transition, and starting the sound just before the visual transition starts and

fades out after the visual transition is over.

34

Sounds as Part of Content, not Transition, In Hypermedia

There are times when sound is part of the hypermedia’s program’s content
and not a transitional effect. For example, when the user is browsing through
the above ground vault disposal option and clicks the “?” button, (see Figure 9),

spoken information about that card will start to play.

 

 

 

 

Figure 9 '7’ button from Above Ground Vault stack

Sounds as Feedback In Hypermedia

Sounds are also used in hypermedia to give feedback. an audio response
when the user clicks it. There are several levels of feedback: 'yes, you clicked,
I'm working on it”; providing more information: and setting a mood. This is
illustrated when the user clicks on icon buttons on the map that locates actual
generators of low-level radioactive waste. They hear an eerie type sound that
represents radioactivity. The pictures of places (see Figure 11), that do not
generate radioactive waste make a more neutral sound. It is a subtle

reinforcement of the point.

35

peer eiente

house!

etete
government

nospltele

 

Figure 10 Icon map card with actual generators listed.

Sound effects in video documentaries are very rare. but in hypermedia
they are an integral part of the program. In some designs, including those
advocated by The Comm Tech Lab, the user is getting constant sound feedback
(Heeter and Gomes, 1991). The choice of sound effect is also linked to pace.

In the space disposal sequence, different tempos are used with the
different actions that are being shown. A slower, “heavier" sound effect is used
when the rocket blasts off into space. Conversely, when the space sequence
gets to the part where radiation falls to earth, a higher pitched, “quicker" sound
effect is used. As the feel of the action decreases in weight and becomes lighter,
the accompanying sound, pace and tempo also Change appropriately.

All in all, the principles of correct usage of sounds in television are also
applied to hypermedia. For example, having the sound effect last about the
same amount of time as the visual transition, and starting the sound just before
the visual transition starts and fades out just after the visual transition is over.
Sound effects in hypermedia can also act as an energy source to enhance
illusions—often carry the illusion more then in TV.

In the LLRWS shallow land section, the user clicks on a button to start

covering up the shallow landfill. The sound effects that accompany this

36

animation seem to provide energy for, and play an active role in “covering up ”

the landfill.

Video’s Wall of Sound

In video, sound is like a constant wall, almost like white noise. Television
documentaries are never silent. They would seem unreal if they were. Soap
Operas have silence and they seem weird and unnatural. In documentaries
either there is dialogue, ambient sound or music. Sound is a very integral
structural factor of television (Zettl, 1973). Sound, or some kind of ambiance, or
“room noise”, even if it is “silence”, is constantly around us in our daily lives.
Since documentary television tries to imitate life and reality, it makes sense that

television is never silent and that sound is very vital to the program’s message.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF TELEVISION USED MORE SILENCE? WOULD VIEWERS

REACT NEGATIVELY OR POSITIVELY?

Television as a Visual Medium

Though television is thought of by some primarily as a visual medium, the
audio portion plays a very important role. In fact the audio portion may play a
greater role in relaying the message than the visual part. Because the visual is
coming across in a low-definition resolution, the audio is needed to carry out the
complete message. To support this point turn the sound off of your television set
and try to follow what is going on. Even if the visual is broadcast in high
resolution, HDTV, a talking head does not carry much content, while sound

does. Hypermedia replaces a moving talking head with a still one...for now.

37

However, if you left the sound on and turned the brightness of the image
down you would be able to follow along. Sound is very important to television.
The role of sound in TV is to provide important information, to establish a mood
or aesthetic feel to a scene. For example different types of music help create the
emotions of the scene. Sound used in this way alerts the viewer to what is
coming.

Finally, sound in television provides a constant undercurrent a continuity
that structurally ties everything together. In television sound is an integral
aesthetic entity not separate from the visuals. If we did not hear sound the
content would appear empty. Sound fills the void in television that is created by

silence.

Quality of Sound In Video and Hypermedia

Because sound in television is recorded at the same time the visuals are
recorded, ambient noise is picked up at the same time. The video producer
does not have much control over recording a true, “clean” sound. Yet, in
hypermedia, sound can be totally controlled but tools used are crude and
Speaker quality is poor. It is possible to hook up regular stereo speakers to a

Macintosh to amplify the sound.

38

QHAHEBYJII

TRANSITIONS

Along with similarities and differences in sounds, there are similarities and
differences in the use of special visual effects used as transitions. This chapter
looks at the different uses of Special visual and sound effects. The chapter also
explores the limits and differences of acceptability of unique visual and audio

effects that exist in hypermedia and television.

Visual Special Effects and Visual Transitions In Hypermedia and
Television

The purpose, use, and technical ability of visual special effects, and visual
transitions are very similar in the two media. Television has more sophisticated
special effects, but most of them are computer generated or digital video effects.
The most unique special effect employed in the LLRW program, that would not
be able to be reproduced in television, is the inverse dissolve technique used in
the Space disposal section to blast the rocket ship into space.

In general, the visual transitions used in the hypermedia program would be
familiar to a video producer. They include: wipes, dissolves, zoom open, zoom
close, iris open, iris close. Though hypermedia’s special effects are Similar to
television they are not as sophisticated technically. The effects on television

seem to have a cleaner, slicker appearance.
Limitations of Sound Effects and Special Effects use in Television

In television, there are certain unspoken and unwritten limits of what sound

effects and Special effects are allowed before the program waivers on the edge

39

of being. referred to as being “bizarre” or “arty" and therefore discredited or not
taken seriously.

But just as you do not want to overdo the use of special effects in
television, the same holds true for hypermedia. The main difference between
the two media is in the types of effects that are acceptable and that are within

the guidelines of being standard.

Unusual Sound and Special Effects Accepted In Hypermedia

In hypermedia, the producer can create “unreal“, fun or unusual sound
effects to accompany buttons, and the user would probably consider it normal
for hypermedia. In fact, the effects would probably grab their attention, bUt not
because they violate expectations of the medium. Viewers are not used to these
extra ordinary audio effects on video and would find them out of place.

If these same special visual or audio effects were produced in another
medium, like television documentaries, they might be questioned or thought to
be odd. One example is the invert dissolve sequence used in the space
disposal option.

To simulate lift off into space, and to make the section more fun, an
inverted dissolve sequence was used. The card sequence went from an image
to the inverse of that image to the next card, to the inverse and so forth. This was
a way to use an unusual special effect in an appropriate manner. Here, there
was purpose to this unusual effect. The limits of acceptability of wild special
effects are stretched to their limits and beyond in hypermedia. The main point is

to be consistent.

4O

RESEARCH QUESTION:
DO USERS CONSIDER STRANGE SOUND AND VISUAL EFFECTS NORMAL FOR
HY PERMEDIA? DO USERS FIND WEIRD SPECIAL EFFECTS OUT OF PLACE FOR TV?

Links and Transitions In Television and Hypermedia

When we look at transitions and links we find that in television they usually
are invisible and go unnoticed. Hypermedia takes a different approach.
Sometimes the transition purposely draws attention to it self like when a button
or field “pops up” and is accompanied by a sound.

Moreover, in hypermedia, the user usually has to do something for a
transition to occur. For instance, the sounds used with the buttons when the
user goes from card to card in a disposal option stack. Some of the buttons say
“more“ and start the sentence immediately after the user clicks them. Other
buttons play a sound effect that is scripted with a visual effect, like a dissolve,

that takes you to the next card.

41

CHAEIEBIX

THE CREATION PROCESS

Though the format of the final program is very different in the two media,
hypermedia and video share Similar methods in the pre-production stage of
creating. their programs. For instance, producers in both mediums need to know
who the viewers or users are, the subject matter, and the most appropriate
method or style of presentation.

One shared technique is to create storyboards for video and hyperboards,
such as “StoryCard” for hypermedia. Storyboards outline the visual story of a
video, while hyperboards lay out the visual sequences as well as tie in button
commands that when clicked on, navigate the client throughout the stacks
(Cudlitz, 1989). Differences in the creation process exist mainly in the
“production” and “post-production” stages. Differences also crop up in the
program management area. For example, where copies are stored, the ease of
making copies, and the quality of copies compared to the original. These
seemingly trivial factors affect design process and outcomes quite dramatically.
In the fOllowing sections the process of putting together a hypermedia program

is compared to editing a video program.

The Rough Edit

When editing a television documentary, a rough edit is created. At this time
the opening segment, or introduction is at least roughly timed out. This involves
either laying down a rough of the actual audio and video information or just
allotting the time slot. Then the next section is laid down. The video editor can
not begin in the middle and jump around. In most cases, the video editor starts

very close to the beginning and works to the end of the program.

42

Timing and Program Length Restrictions

If the video producer is unclear about the opening segment, they need to
have a pretty good idea about the total time length of this section so they can
forward the master tape to the time they want the next section to begin. If there
are any major timing changes in the program they give themselves enough
Slack in the front end of the tape to back time the program.

In television, the total program, if it is to be broadcast, must be timed out
exactly. Requirements regarding program length are preset based on FCC
regulations. Television programs can not be changed in length. Editors can only
revise and change existing audio and video segments with insert edits. Insert

editing does not add more time but does allow changes to be made.

_ Creating Havoc

In TV, if a name change was needed, or a shot needed to be changed,
after the show has been edited, the editor has to deal with rigid timing
constraints to make the change or fill the hole. If a shot needed to be changed
then other Shots would be needed to fill the time gap and would need to be the
right length of time. Thus, lengthening of a section in the middle of a TV program

creates havoc. A change in video shot might also require a change in audio.

No More CHANGES!

In video, after the rough edit is done and pretty much during the rough edit,
- major Changes usually occur sequentially in the order which they appear in the
final program. Rarely does an editor back track to make major changes. In video
editing it is very difficult to change one thing and not have that change affect
other elements, and create a snowball effect. Modifying a finished TV Show is

43

generally far more complex and interrelated than modifying a hypermedia

program.

Hypermedia: No Particular Length

Hypermedia programs are not developed in a linear start-to- finish-fashion
like videos. There are no standard timing or length requirements for hypermedia
programs, in part because there is no distribution medium or fixed known
audience. Unlike video, it is difficult to preplan the precise length of a
hypermedia program. The producer does not know the length of a hypermedia
segment or composite package until it is tried out. The more interactivity, the

greater the variability in actual length with different users.

Where do I Begin? The Start of a Hypermedia Project

The development of a hypermedia program takes a very different route
then editing a TV documentary program. Because hypermedia programs are
not constructed in a linear fashion, there is no preset starting point. It does not
matter whether one starts construction of a hypermedia program at the middle,
the end, or the beginning. Generally, a hypermedia designer begins
somewhere in the middle, with a prototype (Apple Computer, Inc., 1989).

Prototypes In Hypermedia

Putting together the first segment of a hypermedia program, a section of
the program that includes the style of: graphics, borders, text, fields, buttons and
sounds in the hypermedia project, winds up serving as a prototype upon which
the design of all of the other segments will be based.

44

The prototype segment may eventually become the middle, the end or the
beginning of the program. The order of the hypermedia program can change

from the original plan as the design evolves.

How does it Work? Hypermedia Design and Testing

During hypermedia segment development, experimentation within a range
of styles and functions occurs. The program is tested for how the styles work
visually and technically, with users and other designs (Apple, Computer, Inc.,
1939)

Making Structural Changes in Hypermedia

ln hypermedia, major structural changes can happen any time and are
relatively easy to make. Many adjustments to hypermedia elements like
introducing or modifying sounds in hypermedia, can be easily done without
affecting or changing other elements. For example, in the final stages of
development of the LLRW program some text changes had to be made for the
hypermedia program. it was very simple to change the text. No other production

elements were affected.

You Added WHAT?

However, when other elements, such as the names and number of cards
or buttons were changed in the LLRW program, this required more attention. All
references to that object in the program element’s script had to be adjusted. For
example, when sequences were shortened, all references to buttons that were
scripted to “pop-up” had to be deleted. if adjustments were not made, when the

computer came to that part of the script, the computer would interrupt the

45

program and put up an error message. Video productions never interrupt
viewers with error messages and refuse to continue.

As the program evolved, some of the state’s went from being shaded to
being unshaded. However, at the time, the “X" buttons were not deleted from
those states. Because the “X” buttons were still scripted the computer thought
they were still there. When the user tried to go to continue with the program the
computer gave an audio feedback sound, along with a written message, asking

where that “X” button was.

Where am I? What mode am i in?

There are very distinct modes of accessing hypermedia programs. One is
the authoring mode, in which you can create actual programs. The other is the
user mode, in which a user interacts with the program. These modes are distinct
on the computer. One can, but should not author an entire program without ever
experiencing it from the user perspective.

In television, even while “authoring”, editors constantly and repeatedly
experience the “user“ or viewer mode. These modes are more of a
subconscious state of mind which the video producer easily flows in and out of.
in hypermedia, though, there are distinct differences between what it is like “to

create” this program and what it is like to “experience” this program.

Program Management

Video and hypermedia provide very different ways of organizing and
keeping track of program elements. Currently, visual elements for video are
stored sequentially on video tape. This all will change with digital video. But for

now, scenes are shot on tape and a log is made for each tape. The logs consist

46

of length of shot, and quality of shot: was it framed correctly, was it steady, was
the exposure correct?

The audio, if recorded at the same time, is also described on that log.
Audio can also be produced on audio tape, separate from video tape, or on a
separate video tape that has a color and text indicator to cue the producer when
the audio starts and what take it is. Hypermedia, on the other hand, does not
store audio and video in the same section, nor use logs to keep track of video
and audio.

In the LLRW hypermedia program, sounds were created, named and
stored separately from the other program elements such as graphics and text.
However, by programming their name in to the computer program, these
sounds could be easily accessed. An informal system of writing the names of
the sounds down was used to keep track of the names of the sounds and what
cards they go to. as changes came up in the graphics or animated sequences,
changes were also made in the narrations or sounds. In video, protocol seems
to be that images follow words, in hypermedia words follow images.

In hypermedia, after the general idea and storyboard is laid out, you create
as you go. Whereas, with video, you storyboard, shoot, log and then make
decisions based on the log. Because it has been around longer, video has a

more formal system set up of how to manage a project than hypermedia.

Backups, Backups and More Backups

A major difference between management of hypermedia and video
documentary is during the creation process. In hypermedia, backups of the
program are made every day and stored on separate disks. If something
happens to one copy there is always a backup. Since every backup is the same

quality as the original, there is no generation loss as is true with video.

47

HOW Many Copies Would You Like?

The ease of making copies of a hypermedia project and knowing they are
the same quality make it convenient to give to others to review and make
comments or changes right on the program. The portability and accessibility of
this medium is very easy. In hypermedia many people can have many copies of
the same version, same quality of a particular work in progress. In video,

however, this is not the case.

Generation Loss

With video, every time a tape is cepied you lose a generation. There is only
one almost perfect copy, the original edited master, and even that is second
generation. Conversely, copies of hypermedia programs are totally revisabie
and they never lose a generation. The quality of a hypermedia program stays

the same copy after copy.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
DOES THIS MEAN THAT HYPERMEDIA PROGRAMS SHOULD BE mBETTER" BECAUSE

THEY ARE TOTALLY REVISABLE AND DESIGNERS GET As MANY CHANCES AS THEY
NEED To GET rr RIGHT?

48

QHABIEBX

CONSCIOUSNESS AND REALITY

This chapter posits that hypermedia consciously incorporates certain
elements into the program, and gives them meaning, where video does not. In
addition, it compares and contrasts hypermedia and video from a personal

theoretical perspective regarding how both media make the author feel.

Conscious Thought and Meaning in Hypermedia

in hypermedia, there is conscious meaning given to all the production
elements created. The glove is used throughout the program as a familiar,
recognizable guide for the user. When clicked on the glove carries out an
action. Either a sound is heard or a visual effect occurs or a combination of the
two. On the Icon Map screen when the users click on potential generators of
low-level radioactive waste, their choice, if correct, is reinforced with a positive
sound. If incorrect, they hear a negative sounding sound.

Another example of conscious meaning, is on the “Actual Generators”
card. The point of this card is to collect the radiation from the actual generators
and put it into a truck. When users click on different buttons of images
representing actual low-level radioactive waste generators an eerie, ominous

sound is heard. (See Figure 11).

49

 

 

Figure 1 1 Actual generators card from Intro stack

Hypermedla’s “Extra Sensory Perceptions"

There is much more opportunity for expression and enthusiasm to come
out in a hypermedia program than in a television documentary. An effective use
of the computer's uniqueness is to have the user's interactions with the
computer be something that can not be replicated in the real world. For
example, the pop up fields and buttons on the ‘pros and cons” card in Figure 2.

This use of the computer's unique ability for expression is very different
from what we expect from television and presents a very vital 'living' arena with
sounds and special effects not heard and experienced in ordinary, everyday
life. Yet, despite hypermedia’s ability to share a wide range of sensory

experiences, computers cannot express a feeling of warmth.

The “Reality” of It All

No matter how hard a hypermedia producer tries, and maybe they Should
not, there is no way to produce a 'real' experience on computer, as achieved an
television documentaries, and expect the same connection between the user

and the hypermedia program.

50

One reason it is very difficult for a computer to relay human emotion is that
there is always something on the screen, such as a “pop-up” field or button, that
says 'I’m different," 'I’m a new technology.“ The computer is more of a tactical,
sensory experiential medium than television.

Television programs on the other hand, in particular documentaries, try to
present topics that reflect what we know in our natural world and touch on
human emotion(s); making a connection with the viewer. Because viewers
passively watch television, versus actively participating in a hypermedia
program, there is more time to let the television program’s message Sink in and
for an emotional connection to develop. However, in hypermedia programs,
users are caught up in thinking about what they are to do rather than relating to

what they just saw.

RESEARCH QUESTION:
DO VIEWERS AGREE THAT REGARDLESS OF HOW HARD A HYPERMEDIA
PRODUCER TRIES, THERE IS NO WAY TO PRODUCE A “REAL” EXPERIENCE ON
COMPUTER? DO USERS AGREE WITH THIS? IS THERE A DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
HOW USERS AND VIEWERS RESPOND? IF SO, WHAT ARE THE MAJOR
DIFFERENCES?

What Does It FEEL Like?

Comparing the “feel" of a video documentary to the “feel" of a hypermedia
program is similar to the feeling of walking into a comfortable home—with lots of
_ wood furniture, that is simple (Shaker style), and that of a new modern home
filled with angular furniture, like high tech design museum quality furniture,

which is interesting, but does not lend itself to being touched.

51

The irony is that hypermedia programs, especially touch screen programs,
lend themselves to much more user interaction and actual tactile connection
than video programs. Video does not offer this range of sensory experience.

The viewer does not directly interact with the television program in a tactile way.

52

QHAEIEBXJ

RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter offers the author's recommendations based on first hand
producing experience in both media, and synthesizes conclusions drawn from

other studies.

The Task at Hand

Whichever medium you choose, the object is to make the program, and the
production elements that happen within, appear seamless. It is important for a
person, whether a viewer or a user to have an experience and not be constantly
reminded of the vehicle providing this opportunity.

For good quality integration of the two media there needs to be technical
advancements in both media. Television’s future for integrating and being fully
compatible with computers involves a non-interlaced system, a digital encoded
system versus analog, a component versus composite monitor, and to make
synchronization accurate, a frame rate that is a whole number of 60 fps instead
of 59.94. fps. I

Technological changes for the computer industry are different. Though
currently it is cost prohibitve to expect to see broadcast-quality video on
computer, the hypermedia producer needs to continually demand higher quality

hardware and software for “desktop video” productions.

53

Anderson, J. 'Multimedia: About Interface.‘ MAQNQBLQ. March 1989. pp. 88-
91 .

Apple Computer, inc. (1990). The Apple Guide to Publishing, Presentations and
Interactive Media. Cupertino, CA: Apple Computer, Inc.

Apple Computer, Inc. (1989). W Reading.
MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

Bove. T. & Rhodes, 0. (1990). DuelsMaszinthLmultimadiamndtmk Carmel.
IN: Que Corporation.

Brunsman, S., J. Messerly, & S. Lammers. (1988). 'Publishers, Multimedia, and

interactivity. In S. Ambron., and K Hooper (Ed.,) WM
Redmond, WA- Microsoft Press, pp. 273-282.

Compesi, R. & Sherriffs, R. (1985). Won, Boston.
MA: Allyn and Bacon Inc.

Crockford, D. (1990). “Integrating computers and television. ' In B. Laurel (Ed..)
R.eading, MA: Addison
Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., pp. 455-460.
Cudlitz, S. 'Star Quality'. MW. June 1989. pp. 117-123.

Eckhardt, R. “Monochrome Monitor Mania.‘ MAQWQBLD April 1990. PP. 133-
140.

Goodman, D. (1990). W (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Bantam.

Gygi, K. (1990). 'Recognizing the symptoms of hypertext" .and what to do about
it." In B. Laurel (Ed)
Reading, MA Addison Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., pp. 279-288.

Heeter, C., & Gomes, P. (1991). 'Next generation hypermedia: It's time for
talking pictures.‘ Unpublished manuscript, Comm Tech Lab, Michigan
State University.

Poole, L.’ (1986). Weights. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press.

54

.Poole, L 'Mac TV Tools'. W September 1999. pp. 209-216.

Weyer, S. (1988). 'As we may learn. ' in S. Ambron., and K. Hooper (Ed.,)
Wm Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, pp. 87-104.

Wurtzle, A. (1983). W. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hili
Book Company.

Zettl, H. (1973). W. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth publishing 00.,
inc.

55

 

NICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES
llllIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIHIIHIIIIIIIWWIIIHI
31293009134762