A STL‘BY OF THE INY'ERRELATEONSHIPS 0F SEUECTED MECRANECAL. SKELETAL. AND ANTHROPOMETREC VARIABLES,- AfiD SKILLED PERFORMANCE IN ‘ YHE STAN-DING LONG MM? FOR " THREE AND ONE HALF WAR GLD GIRLS Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D‘ WCHMN STATE UNIVERSITY. MARY LOU STEWART 196:8 0-169 L‘ F ” ulfllfllflmmlflflfiflfllmflflflflmflflmflmlm 3 1293 00992 7090 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF SELECTED MECHANICAL, SKELETAL, AND ANTHROPOMETRIC VARIABLES, AND SKILLED PERFORMANCE IN THE STANDING LONG JUMP FOR THREE AND ONE HALF YEAR OLD GIRLS presented by Mary Lou Stewart has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for LIBRA .c s‘ {VAL " In?) DmVCL W Eh D degree inHealt:hz Physical Education, Recreation ‘ .I' 2 / . ’7 f/ I 7 / . ’ I It . ’ _./ LL (1 i 1‘" ’ LL ’k' 324,) (I F Major professor Date __AnguSL,_LL9_fl8__ .5-3- PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE JAN 11.20”“ 1M animus-n14 ©Wrt 1969 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF SELECTED MECHANICAL, SKELETAL, AND ANTHROPOMETRIC VARIABLES, AND SKILLED PERFORMANCE IN THE STANDING LONG JUMP FOR THREE AND ONE HALF YEAR OLD GIRLS by Mary Lou Stewart The purposes of the study were threefold: (l) to delineate the mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric variables most highly associated with and divergent from skilled performance through cinematographical analysis of the entire standing long jump; (2) to examine the interrelationships of these variables; (3) to pre- sent descriptive information pertinent to the development of skilled performance in the standing long jump in childhood education. The research subjects were 19 Caucasian girls, chronological ages 40 to 44 months, from the upper socio-economic level of society. Testing procedures were completed in 1966 at the Merrill Palmer Institute in Detroit, Michigan. Eight anthropometric measurements were made; an Xray of the left hand was taken and assessed for individual bone age and skeletal age by Dr. S. Idell Pyle; a Walker Compliance Rating, reflecting motivation, was assigned; pediatric histories of each girl were obtained-from the family physician; and measurements of 35 selected mechanical variables were completed. Comparison was made between the research subjects and the Wisconsin Mary Lou Stewart 2 criterion subjects (the skilled performers) on mechanical variables. This comparison (rank with criterion) was included as a variable- Complete data which met the standards of the investigation were available for nine of the 19 girls tested. Three matrices were developed: mechanical, skeletal, and anthropometric. Distance jumped, Walker Compliance Rating, and rank with criterion were in- cluded in each matrix as variables. An elementary linkage analysis was completed for each matrix, then 33 variables were selected from the three matrices so a final elementary linkage analysis could be developed. The data and film record were alsoanalyzed by inspection. The major findings of the study, presented within the context of the limitations of the design, were: 1. Similarities in movement patterns between the research sub- jects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects were more pronounced than differences. Except for take-off angle of the shoulder, angular measurements in the lower segments of the body were similar for the two groups as were average angular velocity measurements of the lower segments, the trunk and the head. 2. Movement patterns which approached skilled performance appeared to associate with greater physical maturity in terms of an increase in developmental age of specific bones, and an in- crease in weight, length and girth measurements. 3. The mechanical variables related to the skeletal and the anthropometric variables, but the skeletal‘and the anthro- pometric variables did not interrelate. 4. Throughout the analyses, a decrease in time spent in force Mary Lou Stewart 3 application and an increase in average angular velocity of the thigh during that time associated with skilled performance. 5. Generally, differences found in performance patterns between the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects were arm pattern relationships that could be discerned at the time of filming. There are two major implications for structuring teaching and learning experiences in early childhood education. First, it is recommended that achievement standards of performance: (a) reflect variability of individual difference; (b) be constructed in percentile charts; (c) serve as diagnostic tools for teacher evaluation of specific developmental levels achieved by an individual child; (d) form the basis for programming specific activities for the individual child based on his level of development. Second, it is recommended that learning experiences be structured for the child to sequentially develop skilled performance. Using the diagnostic tools described above to assess status, the teacher would recognize the next sequence of development of skilled performance. A model of sequential devel- opment of form for the fundamental motor skills needs to be designed. A suggested model is presented. The beginning stages, occurring during early childhood education, would be primarily descriptive. Namely, the experiences would be structured around such questions as, first, "Can you jump quickly?", and secondly, "How did you move your arms?". The use of equipment has been suggested. A STUDY OF THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF SELECTED MECHANICAL, SKELETAL, AND ANTHROPOMETRIC VARIABLES, AND SKILLED PERFORMANCE IN THE STANDING LONG JUMP FOR THREE AND ONE HALF YEAR OLD GIRLS By Mary Lou Stewart A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Health, Physical Education, Recreation 1968 I... l,’ rfi .72 A ‘7’ :3 -" _. / 7 2' ‘ u A." Copyright by MARY LOU STEWART 1968 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It would be an impossible task to thank everyone who has contributed to this study. One is indebted to countless people for their assistance and interest which is acknowledged with gratitude. The author wishes to express special thanks to the following individuals who contributed their time and effort toward the comple- tion of this research. Dr. Janet A. Wessel, chairman of the thesis committee, gave of her great understanding, wise counsel and kindness throughout this endeavor. Dr. William W. Heusner patiently and willingly accepted extra responsibility as he helped guide this project from beginning to end. Data collection became a reality only through the courage, effort and concern of Dr. S. Idell Pyle and Mrs. Helene Barnes. Dr. Jean M. LePere and Mr. Harry Webb served as committee members and Dr. Vern Seefeldt worked diligently without official recognition. Miss Ruth Glassow, Dr. Lolas Halverson and Dr. Elizabeth Roberts generously provided the criterion measures. Dr. Candace Roell was a constant source of moral support. My brother and his wife gave financial assistance and warm encouragement over the years. This is a study of children. Ethics dictate that they and their parents remain anonymous, but without their interest and co- operation, there could have been no investigation. The author is in great debt to these people. iii DEDICATION This study is dedicated with deep affection and admiration to the memory of Ruby M. Reebel and A. Earl Brant, M.D. They were fine people who hoped to see this investigation completed. Both of them loved all children, especially those in their families, and devoted their lives to them. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I THE PROBLEM OF THE RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction. , 1 Statement of the Problem , 4 Limitations . . 4 Definition of Terms . 8 II RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Jumping. . . . . . . . 12 Cinematographical Analysis of the Standing Long Jump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Sex Differences in Jumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Skeletal Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Anthropometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Social-Cultural Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 III METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Overview. . . . . . . . . . 41 Selection of the Total Group of Subjects . . . . . . 41 General Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Measurement Procedures. . . . . 43 Mechanical Analysis of the Cinematographical Data , , 48 Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Statistical Treatment of the Data . . . . . . . . . . 57 Reasons for Rejecting Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . 62 IV RESULTS OF THE STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Analysis Based on Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Elementary Linkage Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Elementary Linkage Analysis Within Variable _ Groupings: Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . .A. . 80 Elementary Linkage Analysis Within Variable Groupings: Skeletal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Elementary Linkage Analysis Within Variable Groupings: Anthropometric . . . . . . . 92 Elementary Linkage Analysis Between Variable Groupings: Mechanical, Skeletal and Anthropometric . . . . . . . . . . 95 Summary of Elementary Linkage Analyses . . . . . . . 98 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Chapter Page v SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Implications for Childhood Education . . . . . . . . 119 Implications for Further Research. . . . . . . . . . 121 LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 vi LIST OF TABLES Anthropometric Data Collected and Specification of Measurement Technique Employed . . . Take-Off Angles of the Valid Standing Long Jumps the Nine Research Subjects . . . . . Comparison of the Nine Research Subjects with the Criterion. Demographic Information for the Nine Research Subjects . Joint Motions of the Humerus at the Shoulder During Phase III for the Nine Research Subjects and the Wisconsin Criterion Subjects . Mechanical Variable Relationships That Show Movement Patterns for the Research Subjects Approaching the Skilled Performance Pattern of the Wisconsin Criterion Subjects in Terms of Direction of Lever Movement . vii Page . 44 51 . 57 64 . 72 86 LIST OF FIGURES Figures 2.1. Individual Bone Ages Compared to Greulich Pyle (1959) Standards for 2 Brush Foundation Female Longitudinal Subjects Filmed at 36, 42, 48 Months of Age . . Camera and Light Placement for Filming. . Wall Markings for Filming . . . . . Determination of Angle of Projection, Center of Gravity, by Superimposing Consecutive Frames Differences in Range of Foot Movement Relative to Hip from Height of Parabola to Landing for Subjects #6 and #16 and Wisconsin Subject #124 . . . . . . Angular Velocities, Phase II, for Most Skilled and Least Skilled Jumpers (Based on Distance Jumped) Compared with Criterion . . . . . . . . Variation in Segmental Inclination of Levers in Take‘Off Frame 0 o o O o o o o o o o o 0 Individual Bone Ages Compared with Chronological Age for Children with Highest and Lowest Skeletal Age . Cluster Analysis for Mechanical Variables, N=9. Cluster Analysis for Skeletal Variables, N89 Cluster Analysis for Anthropometric Variables, N=9 Final Cluster Analysis for Final 33 Variables . Interrelationship of Variables Most Highly Associated with Skilled Performance. . . . . . . . . . . viii Page 31 45 45 50 67 68 70 77 81 90 93 96 99 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Listing of Variables Included in the Data Analysis. . . . 130 B. Measurement Techniques, Mechanical Variables . . . . . . . 134 C. Initial Letter Sent to Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 D. Parental Record Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 E. Parental Permission Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 F. Child's Record Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 G. Physician's Certification Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 H. General Results of the Testing Procedures for the Entire Group of 19 Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 I. Scores of the Nine Research Subjects for the 70 Variables Included in the Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 J. Film Tracings of the Nine Research Subjects and the Two Wisconsin Criterion Subjects at the Six Key Reference Point Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 K. Means, Standard Deviations of the 70 Variables for N=9 . . 165 L. Mechanical, Skeletal and Anthropometric Intercorrelation Matrices for N=7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 M. Mechanical, Skeletal and Anthropometric Intercorrelation Matrices for N=9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 N. Mechanical, Skeletal and Anthropometric Cluster Analyses for N=7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 0. Final Intercorrelation Matrix for N=9 . . . . . . . . . . 180 ix CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM OF THE RESEARCH Introduction Man, in large measure, expresses himself in terms of overt motor behavior or movement patterns. The development of motor be- havior is complex and interesting. As Stott (68) has aptly stated, motor or overt behavior undergoes great developmental changes during infancy and early childhood. The child must learn what motor skills he possesses or can possess. It is through the human achievement of standing and walking against the force of gravity that the baby, relatively immobile at birth, becomes an autonomously mobile individual. Once the child has mastered the skill of walking, other locomotor patterns develop. They include the run, leap, hop, jump and gallop. The child moves from milestone to milestone as he progresses from one motor skill achieve- ment to another. During the 1920's and 1930's, the child growth and development specialists documented, in terms of normative patterns, the key age ranges for accomplishment of the tasks enumerated above. However, their documentation focused on achievement per se rather than quality of movement. For example, in the Bayley (5) scale of motor develop- 2 ment, the milestones were represented by succinct achievement standards: pulls self to feet, walks on tip toes, jumps with both feet. Another difficulty present in earlier investigations was disregard, at times, for possible contributing variables such as sex, developmental age, length and girth measurement, and social-cultural status. One cannot negate the contributions made by the early inves- tigators. The need now is for an extension of their work in terms of appraising the neuromuscular efficiency of the child and his degree of skill in performing the task. Hellebrandt££.lal. (43:23) have summarized the problem as follows: Much of the motor growth and development information available in the literature is descriptive. Furthermore, the picture is drawn with broad strokes that present changes in the form and character of performance in the most general terms. Too little consideration has been given to the evolution of those spatial and sequential components of neuromuscular pat- perning which grant to purposeful movement the qualities so read- ily recognized a skill.... One technique which presents opportunities for detailed analy- sis of the quality of movement by yielding quantitative data is that of cinematographical analysis of the mechanics of movement. In many ways movement in the human body, which operates largely as a third class lever system, is analogous to that of a machine. The laws of physics can be applied to human motion both on a theoretical and a practical basis. In the latter case, film records can be obtained of perform- ance and a frame by frame mechanical analysis can be conducted on the cinematographical data. Bunn (12:275) has explained the procedure. The direction of movement, related body movements, sequence of movements, speed, force, distance, angles, condi- tions of equilibrium and so forth may be determined directly or indirectly by means of the analysis of motion pictures. 3 The present study has focused on one aspect of human movement, the development of a specific motor pattern, jumping, in young girls. The jump was selected for study for a variety of reasons. Jumping is recognized as one of the fundamental locomotor activities in physical education; elementary games, team sports, stunts, tumbling, gymnastics, dance, diving, and track and field demand jumping skill. Investiga- tions of jumping represent an extensive area of inquiry. Studies such as the present one must of necessity be delimited in scope. The standing long jump, a structured form of jumping, was selected for filming at an age shortly following inchoation. From the practical point of view, the action in this skill occurs in the sagittal plane and lends itself to filming with one camera. The standing long jump is a complex, developmental motor task involving the projection of the center of gravity through space. Because of its complexity, this activity offers opportunities for dif- ferentiating distinct skill components, such as velocity of levers; these can be related to such selected developmental factors as bone age. The standing long jump has been included in many physical fitness and motor ability tests from first grade through college. A partial listing would include the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation Youth Fitness Tests, the Army Air Force Physical Fitness Test, the Cozen's Test of General Athletic Ability and McCloy's General Motor Ability Test (52). Carpenter (13) reported a coefficient of correlation of .80 between the standing long jump and eight other tests of motor ability for primary age girls. The standing long jump was one of three measures which became the basis for her general motor ability test in the first three grades. In Fleishman's words: (29:73) ....it is encouraging that our results confirm the superiority of many widely used tests (Broad [Long] Jump, Pull Ups, Softball Throw). Little information exists concerning emerging movement patterns in the standing long jump. The lack of information extends to the interrelationships of the motor patterns and the developmental, anthropometric, and social—cultural variables in this basis motor skill. Statement of the Problem This study was designed to investigate the interrelation- ships of selected mechanical, skeletal, and anthropometric variables, and skilled performance in the standing long jump for three and one half year old girls. The purposes of the study were threefold: (1) to delineate the mechanical, skeletal, and anthrOpometric variables most highly associated with and divergent from skilled performance; (2) to examine the interrelationships of these variables; (3) to present descriptive information pertinent to the development of skilled performance in the standing long jump in early childhood education. Limitations 1. Sample size. An effort has been made in this exploratory study to carefully control variables that could affect performance results and determination of physical developmental status. Chrono- logical age, sex, race, socio—economic classification, investigation 5 of health history and ability to execute a bipedal take-off were considered and controlled; this resulted in a limitation of the sample size to nine children. 2. Cross sectional research. In cross sectional research, a child is measured (or filmed) once and comparison usually is made against a mean value. "Such Studies cannot, however, give us theinforma- tion we need when it is change or velocity in development which we wish to investigate (27:17). 3. Mechanical variable measurement. Limitations exist in the mea- surement techniques of mechanical analysis. Measurement technique has not been standardized. When movement out of the sagittal plane occurred to a marked degree in ‘his study, analysis was based on inspection. Determination of segmental inclination, on which average angular velocity is based, was difficult at times because of the roundness of body contours and the impediment of clothing. If variations in movement of the right and left side of the body were evident, the body segment closest to the camera was measured; no body part obscured another to the extent that measurement could not be made. Ossification of the bone landmarks is not complete at three and one half years of age and as close an approximation as possible was made in delineating bone landmarks. 4. Anthropometric measurement. Anthropometric measurement techniques should be based on internationally accepted standards, and in so far as possible, this was done. The children could not be measured nude and five of the eight measurements were made over clothing. This probably contributed to measurement error. Determination of degrees 6 of pronation and inward rotation of the patella was subjectively based on appraisal by the investigator. 5. Motivation. Dammann (18) found attitude in the completion of a stair-climbing task was related to chronological age. Since motivation may affect performance, the Walker Compliance Rating was included as a variable in this study to reflect motivation in terms of reaction to and enjoyment of the total testing situation. One never knows if a child refuses to participate because he can- not or will not perform. Walker (71) discussed the necessity of specifying difficulties encountered with childhood negativism in reporting research. In the present study, five children irrevocably refused to cooperate and could not be recalled for testing. Their scores are not included in the Walker Compliance Rating.1 This rating was administered by the investigator without the corrobora— tion of another adult. 6. Power/Strength measurments. Theoretically, Bunn (12) and Broer (9) have specified the importance of leg strength in the standing long jump. The measurement of strength presents problems. Fleishman (29) identified four strength factors: dynamic, static, explosive and trunk strength. The factor loading of the standing long jump on dynamic strength was .35; on explosive strength, .66. Explosive strength was defined as the "ability to expend a maximum of energy in one explosive act." (29:64-67) One important finding was that explosive strength is independent of particular muscle groups. Strength tests were excluded from the present investigation for two 1The Walker Compliance Rating Scale can be found in Chapter III. 7 reasons: the lack of instrumentation like Metheny's (59) "Dyna: The Hungry Duck" that would appeal to children and the difficulty of measuring explosive strength with a tensiometer. The design of streng— th measurement techniques for use with young children represents an extensive area of inquiry in itself. 7. Statistical treatment of the data. A cluster analysis was devel- oped from an intercorrelation matrix based on one sample. One should expect some degree of significance of correlation coefficients to be caused by chance alone (42:576). Hays also says: (42:510) A related problem with the value of rx in a sample has to do with selection of cases to appear in the sample, and in particular with systematic restriction of range of X (or Y) values that appear. This introduces a bias in the value of r .... the absolute value of the correlation coefficient tends to be lowered by the introduction of such systematic selection. Definition of Terms ' Growth represents "observable increments in general body size including changes in length and weight of the body or body segments, alterations in the tissue components, and changes in the internal organs." (63:442) Development refers to those "manifestations of physical growth reflected in the expanding functional powers and adjustment capacities of the growing organism." (63:442) Maturation is a process representing attainment of maxi- mum functional capacity of the various body systems. Standing long jump denotes a structured form of the skill of jumping in which the individual stands with his feet together 8 on a mat and on a signal projects his entire body through space, for distance, by pushing off with both feet simultaneously. The bipedal take-off from the supporting surface differentiates the jump from the hop and the leap. Mechanical analysis or cinematographical analysis refers to the process of frame by frame film appraisal in which measurements and computations are made of the position of various body segments and the body as a whole as it moves through space, in time, with direction and force. In this pragmatic approach, one deals with an actual film record and obtains interval data. Theoretical mechanical analysis is the application of the laws of mechanical physics to human motion in the standing long jump. Distance jumped, the measurement of achievement in the standing long jump, is measured on the film record and represents the shortest distance between the take-off mark and the point of contact with the mat of the body segment landing closest to the take-off mark. Criterion measure or skilled performance is the filmed record of standing long jump performance showing the component movement patterns of two, skilled, sixth grade girls in the jump. Determination of degree of skill is based on comparison of distance jumped with national norms (29). Key reference point frames are specific frames in the motion picture film record. They include the following: 1. Initial standing position frame is the last frame in which the angles at the hip and knee stay constant before decreasing as action begins. 9 2. Depth of crouch frame is the frame in which the distance between parallel lines on a grid passing through the top of the head and the bottom of the feet is the shortest as the child crouches in preparatory action for power application. If more than one frame shows the same measurement, the reference frame is the one in which the sum of the angles at the hip, knee and ankle are the smallest. 3. Take-off frame is the last frame in which any part of the foot is in contact with the mat before flight through the air begins. 4. Height of parabola frame is the frame in which the "center of gravity" mark on the crest of the ilium reaches its highest point during flight through the air. 5. Landing frame is the first frame in which some segment of the body contacts the mat following flight through the air. Phases are the divisions of one standing long jump into spe- cific groupings of film frames. The groupings are: 1. Phase I includes the frames from the initial standing posi- tion frame to and including the frame immediately preceding depth of crouch frame. 2. Phase II includes the frames from the depth of crouch frame to and including the take-off frame. 3. Phase III includes the frames from that immediately following take-off frame to and including the landing frame Mechanical variables represent the measurements and computa- tions made from the film record at specific reference point frames in the performance of the standing long jump. They include: 1. Angular measurements at the shoulder, hip, knee, and ankle. 2. Average angular velocities of the arm, trunk, thigh, leg, foot and head. 3. Acceleration,force, angle of projection, and velocity of projection of the total.body at take-off. These variables are computed by measuring changes in the center of gravity of the body which is located slightly higher in three year olds than in adults. "Center of gravity" in the present study is a point in the sagittal plane on the crest of the ilium just slightly anterior to the midpoint of the child's body. 10 4. Time factors: ratios of various phase times to total jump time; time before take-off when the lower arm reaches its maxi- mum vertical height; time of maximum angular velocity of the lower arm before takeooff; and time airborne. 5. Ratio of depth of crouch height to initial standing height. 6. Distance jumped. A complete listing of the mechanical variables can be found in Ap- pendix A. A maturity indicator in the broad sense is "an identifiable point or stage in the development of a structure (or function) which occupies a fixed position in a series." (68:72-73) In the skeletal system, maturity indicators are the "regular series of changes in form that characterize successive stages of [a bone's] progress toward maturity." (37:34) Skeletal assessment is the process by which a roentgenogram of a particular child is compared to a radiographic standard of reference for the purpose of determining bone age. The Greulich anngyle Radiographic Standard of Reference is based on a series of roentgenograms of the hand and wrist of about 1000 healthy children from Cleveland, Ohio. All were white. While this population of children came from a variety of socio- economic levels, the majority of them were from comfortable homes and better than average health circumstances. This standard (37) consists of two series of films: the male hand and wrist and the female hand and wrist, respectively. Each film represents the median skeletal developmental level in a particular chronological age array of 100 films which do not vary by more than two percent, chronologically speaking. Since the median is obtained by ranking ll osseous features of bones individually, for further specificity, the authors have named each standard film the "anatomical mode." Skeletal age or bone age represents the arithmetical aver- age of the assessed ages of each individual bone of the hand and wrist showing ossification in the roentgenograms of the hands of the girls participating in the study. Determination is based on com- parison with the Greulich and Pyle (1959) Standard of Reference. Individual bone ages in this study are the assessments of Dr. S. Idell Pyle. Skeletal variables are the assessed ages of each bone in the hand and wrist showing ossification in the roentgenograms of the hands of the girls participating in the study. Skeletal age is also included as a skeletal variable. Anthropometry is the "systematized measurement of man." (61:146) and is based on internationally accepted standards. Anthropometric variables are the following length, girth weight measurements and foot and leg deviations of the girls in the present study: Standing height Weight Erect sitting height Bicristal width Knee height Thigh length Degrees of inward rotation of the femur viewed at the patella Degrees of pronation of the foot mVO‘Ul-L‘UNH CHAPTER II THE RELATED LITERATURE The review of literature related to the present study will be presented under six headings: (a) jumping, (b) cinematographical analysis of the standing long jump, (c) sex differences in jumping, (d) skeletal assessment, (e) anthropometry, (f) social-cultural factors. Jumping In the jump, the body is projected upward or forward into space by a bipedal thrust against the supporting surface. The land- ing can be made on one or both feet. Previous to the time a child learns to jump, all his efforts have been directed at the propulsion of pushing of one foot against the supporting surface and landing on the opposite foot as in the walk and run. Since the jump involves momentary suspension in the air, some investigators believe it is closely related to the ability to descend stairs (43, 14, 26). To jump, two concepts must be developed by the child and integrated into the motor system: a bipedal take-off and suspension in the air. Espenschade and Eckert (26) consider the standing long jump with its two foot take-off and landing the most difficult form 12 13 of jumping. In the present investigation, girls who were unable to jump did a leap. The concept of suspension in the air was present but that of the simultaneous push with both feet was not. Film anal- ysis has shown another factor is involved in skilled performance of the standing long jump: the deliberate move toward imbalance just prior to take-off caused by the thrust of the center of gravity of the total body beyond the base of support. As the ability to jump emerges in a child's motor skill repertory, many forms of jumping can be observed: in place, off an elevation, over an obstacle, and for attainment of distance. The early studies focused on achievement based on the abili- to to perform the activity and the skill in attaining a specified distance. Several purposes were implied in the design of the investi- gations. One intent was the consideration of jumping ability as a parameter which could be compared with other parameters such as intel- ligence and physical growth. Cunningham (17) organized an experi- mental series of motor tasks with the purpose of viewing gross motor coordination as distinct from general intelligence and physical growth. In the grOup of 100 children, ages 12 to 42 months, it was noted that more than 50 percent could execute bipedal jumps from an elevation eight inches high by 36 months of age. Another category‘of studies was directed at specification of scales and "curves" based on chronological age to show normal range of achievement in various motor skills, including jumping ability. "Motor milestones" or sequence of stages of motor achievement could be identified following development of the scales of age. The scales could also be the basis for appraising a child's total functioning 14 ability and/or determining a particular child's variance from the "norm" performance. Neuromuscular functioning does indeed involve the whole person.... Piaget (1952), in tracing the development of mentality in children, refers to the first 18 months to 24 months of life as the "sensorimotor period". During this period the child's activity becomes progressively more complicated, more controlled, deliberate.... The baby's reaching for and grasping of an object held before him involve cognitive awareness. Such acts obviously are directed visually and with awareness and intent. The level of his mental development, however, is judged objectively in terms of the outcome -- the quality of his motor performance. (68:120) The hurdle jump was designed by Cowan and Pratt (15) as a developmental diagnostic test of motor achievement. The researchers believed maturation was the determining factor in influencing the height achieved in the jump. In order to attain a specific score, a child had to take-off and land with both feet together while per- forming a standing long jump over a bamboo pole which rested on high jump standards. Cowan and Pratt found, in developing a scale similar to the Gesell Grading System,that at 48 months of age, a child would score below C, and could be considered retarded in motor development if he was unable to jump over the pole at the height of three and one half inches. The California Scale of Motor Development, consisting of 76 items arranged in order of difficulty, each with its age placement, was developed by Bayley in 1935. The Scale included such abilities as: walks sideways, stands on one foot alone, jumps from a chair. The Scale is now out of print and is presently being revised (7). In scoring, cumulative points are obtained for what the child passes and each child's score is related to the mean and standard deviation of 15 points attained by children the same age. The jump sequence and age placement, adapted from Bayley (5) is as follows: 1. Jumps off floor, both feet 28. mo. 2. Jumps from chair 32.1 mo. 3. Jumps from height of 30 cm. 37.1 mo. 4. Distance jump, 36 to 60 cm. 39.7 mo. 5. Jumps over rope less than 20 cm. high 41.5 mo. 6. Distance jump, 60 to 85 cm. 48.4 mo. Another Motor Age Scale was developed by McCaskill and Wellman (53). Specific activities were grouped into four main di- visions: steps and ladders; ball acEivitIes; jumping; hopping and skipping. Motor Age represented the median or point at which 50 percent of the children achieved a given score on a battery. Scores were assigned to various stages of each skill according to the per- centage of children at each age who passed them. For example, in the jumping group, jumping 18 inches, alone, with feet together at 37 months of age was assigned a score of 3. Gesell and Amatruda (35) set the "norm" for the jump with both feet in place at 30 months of age on the Developmental Schedule. Recently Frankenburg and Dodds (31) published their Denver Developmental Screening Test designed for early detection of delayed development in children. One hundred five test items were finally selected from a battery of 12 developmental and preschool intelli- gence tests, and were administered to 1036 Denver children between the ages of two weeks and 6.4 years in an effort to find the percent- age of children in each age group passing each item. In the standing long jump, the percentile achievements were as follows: 25 to 50 per- cent of the boys and girls could long jump at 24 to 33 months of age; 75 percent could achieve the skill by 36 months and 90 percent were successful by 39 months. 16 An additional category in the early investigations involved detailed study of the effects of special practice. In 1935, McGraw published her well known study of Jimmy and Johnny. In the years following the investigation it was found the boys were not mono- zygotic twins. Under careful experimental conditions, one baby, Johnny, acted as the control and was restricted in activity. Jimmy was stimulated at frequest intervals in the activities he was capable of performing at the time. The program began at age 20 days. The practice of jumping off a pedestal to a mat was instituted when Jimmy was about 14 months old. At approximately 17 months of age he could jump spontaneously off a stool 14% inches high. 'Johnny never jumped during the experiment but instead cried intensely as he stood on the stool. The last category of the early investigations includes, to the author's knowledge, one study. The Gutteridge (38) research was based on direct observation of children in a natural setting as the youngsters engaged in their usual play occupations. Gutteridge found' that jumping from a high to a low level was in evidence from.24 months of age on. At three years of age, 42 percent of the children were rated as jumping well which meant their movements were well co-ordina- ted; there was evidence of accuracy, poise, grace and display of satis- faction. The ratings were based on observations of jumping from heights and over obstacles 12 to 36 inches high. It is hoped this review of literature has not given the impression that the ages for accomplishment mentioned thus far were to represent rigid, inflexible standards. The above named researchers 17 were well versed in knowledge of children and probably would have subscribed to the interpretation of Gesell and Ilg (36) who called specific tasks like "jumps with both feet in place", growth gradi- cuts. The gradients are intended to show the overall develop- mental sequences of behavior rather than rigid standards of expectancy. Individual differences are too great to permit rigid standards rigidly applied. Generous allowances should be made for age variations. (36:221-223) Cinematographical Analysis of the Standing Long Jump Pragmatic investigation As defined in the first chapter, the mechanical or cinemato- graphical analysis of the standing long jump can be appraised from two points of view, the pragmatic and the theoretical. Both app- roaches have provided bases for selection of mechanical variables in the present study. Variables and measurement techniques are mention- ed in the following review of literature. The first of the analytical studies of the jumping of young children was that of Wilson in 1945. Fewer than ten four year olds were included in this study, an investigation of the three forms of jumping: the running jump, the standing long jump and the vertical jump for children ages four through 12. Wilson used cinematography in her investigation. The camera, with telephoto lens, was position- ed 150 feet from the subject; the children were filmed at 24 frames per second and wore outdoor clothing; the investigator resorted to observation to determine arm action. Five angular measurements at each of four reference points (crouch, take-off, crest of flight l8 and landing) comprised the mechanical analysis. At the time of the Wilson research, measurement techniques were not as refined as later nor was individual segmental position specified to the extent observed in later studies. Optimum depth of crouch "angle” was given in the results without designation of which articulations were included. Take-off angle was measured with the vertical at the back of the hips. These limitations can be under— stood since this investigation represented a pioneering effort. Wilson found no particular pattern at the crest of flight peculiar to the best or poorest jumpers. She also advanced_the theory that any difference in jumping ability among the more highly skilled above the five year age level could be attributed to differences in strength and explosive power rather than movement pattern (76:56). In Halverson's study (39) as reported in Dissertation Abstracts, five year olds were filmed performing the standing long jump. The 32 kindergarten children were put into age and sex groupings. Each sex group was then further divided into two skill groups on the basis of jumping ability. Each skill division was randomly assigned to practice and non practice groups. Films were taken of the standing long jump before and after a two week practice period in whflzh each practice subject was given 20 minutes of guided practice on five occasions. Significant differences for the following variables were found between ability groups on initial and final filming: total distance jumped; range and speed of the movement of the knee just prior to take-off; angle of the trunk with the horizontal at thigh l9 perpendicular; and position of the trunk and thigh at take-off. Velocity and angle of projection of the center of gravity distin- guished between groups in the initial film record only. The angle of projection of the center of gravity for both groups was below a theoretical best angle. As skill increased, angle of projection decreased. Hellebrandt, 35. El: (43) filmed six preschool boys in their study of the standing long jump. Frame by frame performance of these boys was studied by inspection from films covering a period of four to seven consecutive months. Records of three of the preschool boys were reported. The youngest boy was 14 months old when observation began. Detailed analyses for the other two boys were presented for ages ranging from 30 to 43 months. The first halting efforts of one boy's jumping which involved a step off an elevation, were dir- ected toward maintaining balance. "At 21 months of age, this child could move the center of gravity of the body as a whole sufficiently forward to evoke autonomous ankle joint extension before take-off from a low stool." (43:16) Hellebrandt, £5. 31., essentially stressed three character- istics observed in the early phases of jumping. The first was the ability of the boy to restore balance following flight so the integ- rity of the weight bearing segments could be maintained. Degree of propulsive force engendered was dependent on this ability to restore balance. The second was the progression in arm.motion. Initially the arms and shoulders were retracted during take-off and flight. This 20 became a "full blown 'winging' pattern as the arms were moved behind the body to shoulder height, reaching culmination in one child's per- formance at 41 months." (43:18-19) At 43 months of age, this same boy first attempted to swing his arms forward during force application. The researchers also inspected the films taken by Halverson (39) of kindergarten children and found the arms were used as "equili- brators": "abduction at the glenohumeral joint was common and often more marked than humeral advancement." (43:19) In addition, the investigators inspected the films from the Longitudinal Study con- ducted by the Department of Physical Education for Women at the University of Wisconsin. The investigators found the pattern of using the arms as stabilizers persisted through the elementary school years in most of the performances analyzed. Some "winging" also appeared in these years. The forceful, upward, adult male arm swing involving complete elbow extension and shoulder joint flexion at force application was not found in elementary school aged boys al- though one skilled boy closely approximated this pattern. The third characteristic component observed in preschool aged boys was that of head motion. This motion consisted of dorsiflexion during preparatory crouch and ventroflexion as the legs extended for take-off once the concept of jumping.for distance was established. At the crest of flight, the "chin in" reached maximum position. The head then dorsiflexed slightly to expedite leg flexion which absorbed landing jar. The purpose of the head motion, according to the researchers, was to "expedite the limb positioning which is most advantageous" by "secondarily evoking the tonic neck reflexes."(43:20) 21 These researchers discussed the necessity of differentiating between a simple execution of the standing long jump and the forceful projection of the body through space for horizontal distance. The latter, for them, "implied exercise of will and a desire to put forth maximal effort." (43:23) This is a crucial point and differenti- ation is difficult to assess. Their conclusions were: There is nothing in our study which proves that the in- creasingly efficient utilization of the arms to add momentum to the jump is a learned modification of a more elemental response, proceding under cortical direction. It may be no more than the last of a series of spontaneous changes unfolding in response to endogeneous directional forces but affected to a significant degree by opportunities for practice. It remains for us to determine what aspects of the neuromuscular patterning associated with the execution of so called willed or purposive movement are amenable to modification other than the autonomous modulation induced by gradation in the severity of the effort. (43:24) More recently, Waterland (72) focused her research on this problem in studying the autonomous head and shoulder girdle pattern- ing in the standing long jump. Waterland defined this patterning as supportive phenomena in the conjecture that skilled movement results from the integration of willed and supportive processes where stress, causing increased sensory input, might be the agent responsible for evoking the mechanism. Waterland (72) compared five highly skilled and five unskilled college freshmen women in the standing long jump. The measurement technique involved multipkelight chronocyclegraph photographysup- plemented by one stroboscopic picture during filming. The skilled subjects performed three maximal, three moderate and three minimal jumps. The minimal jumps of the skilled women and of the unskilled women were remarkably similar. In general, it was noted that limited 22 mobility of all body segments was present; the arms were held close to the body with a hint of the "winging" pattern discussed previously; the head and shoulder girdle (a supportive component) showed only minimal changes; a markedaxynmetrical positioning of the extremities included one footed take-offs. "The skilled subjects suppressed the supportive components of willed movement." (72:21) Eckert (25) studied the interrelationships of strength and angular measurements during the power application phase of the standing long jump of elementary school boys. She found statistically signi- ficant relationships existed at the hip between isometric extensor strength and angular velocity at the point of maximal angular accel- eration and at the point of maximal angular velocity. Zimmerman (78) and Felton (28) each compared the standing long jump performances of highly skilled and unskilled college women. Ten students were in each category in the Zimmerman investigation, five in the Felton research. Zimmerman analyzed the entire standing long jump and divided it into phases. Phase time for each jumper was recorded. Zimmerman observed greater joint action throughout the jump at the ankle, hip, knee and shoulder among the skilled. The results reported by Felton substantiated those of Zimmerman. The skilled women had greater speed of projection developed by greater range and speed of joint action during force application; a lower angle of pro- jection because of greater lean at take-off (21°); a more horizontal leg position on landing; and a lower position at landing permitting longer time in flight. 23 Theoretical basis Theoretical mechanical analysis represents an application of the principles of mechanical physics to human movement. In the stand- ing long jump, the principles have been well defined. ....The problem is not only to produce sufficient force to overcome the inertia of the body and gravity's pull, but also to control the angle at which this force is applied so that the desired purpose is fulfilled. The force that projects the body into space must be exerted by the muscles of the body. It is produced by quick contraction of the extensors of the legs aided by a forceful arm swing (9:152). Bunn (12) and Broer (9) discussed the factors influencing the depth of crouch at the height of the preliminary backswing of the arms. Bunn believed the bend of the knees in the preparatory motions should not be extreme and should be in direct proportion to the strength of the leg muscles (12:118). Broer concurred with additional explanation: A deeper crouch puts the extensor muscles on stretch and gives a greater distance over which acceleration is possible. However, since the body must be lifted through the distance that it is lowered, more work is done when a low crouch is used, and the angle of muscle pull is also changed. The optimal depth of crouch, therefore, depends upon the strength of the leg muscles. (9:152) The purpose of the preliminary backswing of the arms is to put the arms in such a position that the swing forward can be executed through as long an arc as possible thus transferring to the body the momentum of the arms (12:117). The arm swing also helps control the take-off angle of the center of gravity which should move in front of the feet as they thrust down and back (9:155). Proper leg and foot alignment is necessary to insure insta- bility in the forward direction only and to provide force exertion 24 that passes straight through the joint. The legs should be placed hip width apart and the toes should be pointed straight ahead to avoid inward and outward components of force application (9:154-155). During the action of the standing long jump, the body is projected through the air and is subject to the laws governing pro— jectiles. The objective is attainment of distance and the following formula should apply: R =VO sin 29 (12:23) 8 This formula for distance is not really applicable since the center of gravity of the body drops below take-off level in landing. Bunn's correction (12:33) does not completely solve the problem since it is based on the distance between the foot and the center of gravity re- maining constant for both take-off and landing. Take-off velocity of the center of gravity, angle of projection of the center of gravity, and the acceleration of gravity, a constant for a specific place, are the keys to skilled performance according to the formula. With these limitations, the optimum take-off angle specified by Bunn (12:34) is 40 degrees; by Broer, 45 degrees (9:155). Tricker and Tricker (69) have discussed the fallacy of the 45 degree angle recommendation: The one thing which is certain is that the 45 [degree] angle for maximum range of elementary mechanics textbooks has nothing to do with the case. This theory is worked out on the assumption that the velocity of projection remains constant as the angle of projection is varied and this will manifestly not be the case in the long jump... as the angle of projection is increased the velocity of projection will decrease since the body muscles have then to act against the pull of gravity.(69:228). The authors go on to say that the optimum angleamay vary from person to person. 25 Velocity of projection of the center of gravity can be com- puted by us1ng the formula, Vo = 2 33% once d1stance (d) has been measured on the film. As Cooper and Glassow point out (14:157), the importance of knowing V0 is its value in computing the force de- veloped at take-off. This force is dependent in part on the nature of the sup- porting surface and the coefficient of friction between the feet and that surface. The reaction of a mat to the thrust of the feet would not be as great as the reaction of a beatboard to the thrust of the feet. Frictional force on a mat, hovever, might be greater. One of the limitations of theoretical analysis is the inability to determine mass of separate body segments, mass being a necessary variable in the computation of angular momentum. Once the body is airborne in the standing long jump, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be applied. Once the [jumper] has left the ground there is nothing he can do to increase his forward acceleration, but he can affect the distance achieved by changing the configuration of his body and the relative position of the partial masses.... movements may rotate the hips backward and give greater forward reach with the legs (64:395). Tricker and Tricker (69:229) state the neuromuscular task involved: The problem the long jumper.... has to face is that of getting his heels as far forward as possible on landing, without entailing his having to sit down in the pit. The feet, behind the hips on take-off, must be swung forward to catch the body weight on landing (9:156). Theoretically, a backward swing of the arms while airborne would assist in the leg swing forward, and on landing, the arms could then be SWUng forward to add momentum as the trunk moves forward over the feet. Broer says: (9:156) 26 This is a difficult co-ordination to perform in the short time available and it is questionable whether any but the most highly skilled will be successful in its use. The distance in the jump can be increased by extending the reach of the legs just before landing. Cooper and Glassow (14:157) believe the key to the leg reach is the position of the thigh on landing: the more horizontal the thigh, the more skilled the jumper. For safety, kinetic energy (1/2 mvz) must be lost gradually to pre- vent injury. This is accomplished by landing on the balls of the feet on a soft surface followed by immediate flexion in the ankle, knee and hip (74:505). Stability is maintained by swinging the center of gravity up over a sufficiently large base of support. Sex Differences in Jumping No statistically significant difference was reported in the literature regarding sex differences in the jumping ability of young children. Cowan and Pratt (15) found the existing difference, which was slight, favored girls up to age seven in the 'hurdle jump. In the standing long jump, Hartman (41) found girls were slightly su- perior and Wilson (76) reported the median distance jumped by girls was greater than that by boys. At ages five, six and seven years, Jenkins (46) reported the mean distance jumped by boys was greater than that of girls at the same chronological age but less than that of girls of the next older age group. Halverson (39) noted that five year old boys tended to have a slightly better mean score on distance jumped but in few cases was it statistically significant. However, in skeletal growth, girls 27 mature at a faster rate than boys. On this basis, rather than per- formance, sample selection in this study was restricted to girls. Skeletal Assessment If one is interested in knowing how motor patterns change with age as the child grows and develops, age becomes a key factor. Considerable disparity between individuals may exist within a chronological age behause different children have different matura- tional rates. In the determination of physical development, or the assessment of what is basically an internal phenomenon in the human body, the difficulty is especially acute in the United States. As a people we are very heterogenous in national, and to some degree, in racial origin.... In addition, and perhaps more important, there is almost every possible mixture between these and numerous other strains that compose the population of the United States.... There is another factor which makes it dif- ficult to determine the developmental status of children from their age, height and weight alone. The existence of early maturing as well as late maturing strains in our population makes for wide difference in the age at onset of puberty (37:1-2). Skeletal assessment was included in this investigation so children in the study could be placed on as definitive a yardstick of physical development as possible. Also, association could be established between physical development and neuromuscular skill on a basis other than that provided by age, height and weight. In 1904, shortly after the development of radiology, J. W. Pryor published his studies of Xrays of children's hands. He be- lieved bones in the female ossify in advance of those in the male; ossification is bilaterally symmetrical; variation in ossification can be genetically determined. The latter point still represents an area of controversy in skeletal assessment today (1:466). In 1909, 28 T. M. Rotch, after working with Pryor and analyzing 1,000 cases, advanced his theory that the wrist may be accepted as a fairly ac- curate index of general development (1:466). If the wrist can be considered to include the hand, subse- quent research has generally substantiated the earlier conjectures except for the one regarding genetic determination. In the hand, fusion in distal phalanx II in the female occurs very near the date of menarche and can be substituted for iliac crest ossification (11). Based on a computer programmed intercorrelation matrix of data from the Fels Research Institute longitudinal study, Garn (33) reported that for males the bone of greatest utility, yielding the most information on present or future skeletal status, is the epiphysis of distal phalanx V of the hand. Garn's report was based on onset of ossification - the time of first appearance of the particle of hard bone in the cartilaginous bone model and includes study of 73 bones. In females, the epiphysis of metacarpal III has the third greatest information value; the patella and epiphysis of the distal segment of the first toe are first and second,respectively Cost, expense, and time are diminished if a roentgenogram of he wrist can be substituted for a series of Xrays of various sections of the body. They can be further decreased if bilateral symmetrical development occurs. Dreizen, gt. El: (23) found that the difference between the skeletal ages of the two hands exceeded three months in only 13 percent of the 450 children studied and more than six months in only 1.5 percent of the cases. Beer and Durkatz(2) reported the same bones are involved when either the right or left hand is 29 maturationally advanced. Specific centers of ossification did not exhibit different bilateral trends. Following World War 1, attempts were made to relate the cal- cification process as viewed in roentgenograms to chronological age. In the words of Acheson: (1:467) the bones themselves were the yardstick, a yardstick of biological stages to which time was related as a dependent vari- able. It was T. W. Todd, perhaps with insight from the work of Hellman, who achieved the major breakthrough in skeletal assessment. The first step in his work involved recognition of determinators of maturity, later called maturity indicators1 by Greulich and Pyle (37). Secondly, in an extensive, carefully controlled longitudinal study, Todd related the maturity indicators experimentally to a population of normal children in Cleveland, Ohio. The basic procedure involved sequential arrangement of the films in increasing order of maturity for each sex and each chrono- logical age group of 100 healthy children. Chronological age and examination date did not vary in these children by more than two per- cent. The films chosen as a standard were most representative of the anatomical mode of the particular array. The standard film.was then assigned a skeletal age so that time between skeletal ages was com- parable to time between chronological ages (37:31-32). Acheson (1:470) has indicated his measure of respect for the "Cleveland Atlases" which have been twice revised since their original publication by Todd: 1 Maturity indicators were defined in Chapter 1. 30 Because of the care and thought that have gone into [the] compilation of [the Atlases] and the expertise of their authors--in particular Dr. Idell Pyle, who was a pupil of Todd's and who has made the preparation and publication of these atlases her life's work--they hold a place among standards of reference in child development that is unlikely to be challenged. Other skeletal assessment procedures exist. Two of the best known are the Oxford Method and the Tanner-Whitehouse-Healy Method. Both are essentially based on the concept of maturity indicators and each attempts to weigh the contribution of various ossification centers through the development of a specified scor- ing system. Detailed description of these methods is considered to be outside the scope of this paper. Acheson (1) also has expressed criticism of the "Cleveland Atlases"; one criticism has direct bearing on the present investi- gation. In the actual process of skeletal assessment, the film of a child is compared to a standard film and subjectively rated. Interpolations must usually be made in determining bone age. Each bone is considered separately. Skeletal age represents the arith- metical average of the ages of all bones in which ossification has begun. Absence of a center is not acknowledged in computation of skeletal age since bones "not present" are rated 0. Dr. Pyle has long been cognizant of this problem. In the preparatory phases of the present study, she recommended the author read a series of films for bone age. The series read were partially longitudinal and were taken from the Brush Foundation collection. Dr. Pyle also reread these films. Figure 2.1 shows individual bone ages of two girls chosen at random from this series. Comparison has been made against the standard (37). The bone ages, read according 31 R law/9% m mm. M W «H.255: V///////1 .1... N r. H #83 7//////A WW wfl a. H V/fi/IZIA F 8 u an m s. m NA. w w HESS swam WW M W MESS 6 max. new on 9. D ”— WW. $243.5 IL" EPA # Mum H defies mww E .w m H M WRW : = : , C 5H m HI I Mill/Z H. 6 .0 mall/i fin moo 92 S , ,V/I/l/JZ WatghE a» Rm. H Amm ES 0 GENDER.» N DS _ «SE15: swat ogaqum MM NEE: L N I Ezgxk A m D Writ W5 Warrm wok—£6 w ) a A mag m mumc. mm o 333.5 HEARSMS Mag 33% was an ass 32 to this standard of reference, indicated that individual differ- ences in progress of ossification were characteristic for the bones in the hands and wrists of these girls. On this basis, it seemed most logical to use the individual bones ages as well as skeletal age as individual variables. Anthropometry Garn and Shamir (32:35) discussed the role of anthropometry in past studies of physical growth. Anthropometric measurements have played a long and honorable role in studies of physical growth. In fact, the routine caliper and anthropometer measurements beloved of classical physical anthropologists have been the mainstay of most growth investigators. Anthropometry representing measurement for measurements sake may lack value; hence reasons for including anthropometric data must be clarified. Variables like weight, lever length, bicristal width, foot and leg deviations might influence performance in the standing long jump. Theoretically, a basis for consideration of lever length exists. If two levers of different lengths move through identical angles in the same time span, the end of the longer lever has greater linear velocity. However, shorter levers can be moved at a faster rate (14). Bicristal width could assume importance since the weight of the body must be projected through space in the standing long jump and the center of gravity of the total body is located in the general region of the hips, slightly higher in three year olds than adults. Dissipation of force can occur in the power phase of the standing broad jump unless the child can point the toes straight ahead and bend the knees straight forward over the toes (9:155). 33 In 1921, Baldwin was Research Professor of Educational Psy- chology and Director of the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station. At that time he published (3) one of the most extensive reports ever written of anthropometric techniques and measurements conducted on a wide variety of American children of all ages. His annotated sum- mary covers the period between 1875 and 1910. One of the early comprehensive studies which Baldwin cites is that of 24,000 Boston boys and girls made by Bowditch in 1875. Other researchers cited by Baldwin included Peckham, Greenwood, Boaz, Jackson, Barnes, Gardiner and others. Consequently, by 1910, considerable data had been gath- ered for American children living in various sections of the country. Some 30 years following the Baldwin (3) report, Krogman (50) pub- lished an extensive appraisal of anthropometric studies. However, a problem existing in the early anthropometric studies had not been resolved; measrement techniques had not been standardized. Previous to 1870, the French methods of Broca were followed. A German school developed at the time of the Frankfort Agreement in 1882. Regulation and standardization of measurement became a necessity in anthropometry. Without it, little replication of studies or comparisons could be made. At Monaco in 1906 and at Geneva in 1912, international agreements were reached and anthropo- metric measurement was standardized (24). Hrdleka was the represent- ative of the United States at both these conventions and the speci- fications given in his books (44, 45) generally followed the Inter- national Agreements. Hrdlizka, however, accepted the standards of Martin (51) in definition of measurements not considered precise 34 enough in the International Agreements. Hrdlidka spent one week at the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station and assisted in formulating procedures for the anthropo- metric investigations of Baldwin (3). By 1936, McCloy, (54) working within the historical context just described, made additional modi- fications in commonly used techniques to further refine measurement and provide even more rigid standardization. The McCloy techniques were followed in the present investi- gation in measurement of erect sitting height and bicristal width. McCloy did not define measurement techniques for determining knee height. The specification of Simmons (67) was the basis of the method used in the present study, although some modification was necessary. At the time of data collection, the measurement tech- niques followed in the National Health Survey, authorized by Public Law 652, 84th Congress, had not been published. Cowan and Pratt (15) were the only investigators who re- ported findings on the interrelationship of height, weight and jump- ing ability in preschool aged children. They found weig ht and the ratio of height to weight were not important in hurdle jump skill. The effect of height was negligible in achievement in jumping the hurdle. The evidence relating height and weight in the elementary school aged child to standing long jump ability, represented by dis- tance jumped, is confusing. Flynn (30) observed a high multiple correlation coefficient of .917 in 12 year old boys when distance jumped was multiplied by body weight and used as the dependent vari- 35 able in a multiple regression equation with weight, strength index and skinfold total. Degutis (21) reported a multipkecorrelation coefficient of .408 when distance jumped was correlated with body weight, leg length and lung capacity in boys of the same age. Wyrick (77) found no significant relationships between per- formance in the standing long jump and height or weight in 10 to 13 year olds who represented various nationality groups. Seils (66) reported the following partial correlations for first grade girls: standing long jump performance with weight (age held constant), .16; standing long jump performance with height (age held constant), .18; standing long jump performance with weight (height held constant), .10. Despite the fact these low correlations have been reported in the literature, height and weight were included as variables in the present study, which is exploratory in nature. Social-Cultural Factors No studies were found relating socio-economic status and race to standing long jump ability in three year old girls. Hellebrandt, 23231. (43) considers the leg action in the standing long jump phylogenetic. Frankenburg and Dodds (31) included the long jump in their Denver Developmental Screening Test which was designed for early detection of delayed development in young children. If jumping ability is inherent in the organism and emerges naturally as a motor skill in normal, healthy children, it could be affected by the same variables that influence other motor skills which appear at the same relative time on the continuum. 36 The investigation of the literature in this section was undertaken to ascertain first, the influence of race, and secondly, the aspects of socio-economic and family status which affect gross motor skill. In the United States, specification of race presents prob- lems. Over 30 years ago, McGraw (55:91-92) discussed the difficulties. ....Studies concerning racial characteristics of the American Negro, more properly the American amalgam, suggest the following inferences: l. The American Negro is the product of White and Negro miscegenation.... Herskovits [has estimated] that about 80 percent of the American Negro popu- lation has some white blood in its heritage.... 4. Results of studies of Negro racial character- istics in America have been clouded by two very serious experimental handicaps: (a) the degree of admixture of white blood and (b) the effect of environmental factors upon the performances of Negroes. In 1931, McGraw found a difference in sitting unsupported which favored the Negro baby on the Hetzer Wolf Baby Tests, but the difference was not significant. In 61 white infants, Bayley and Jones (8) reported more rapid early mental and motor development in children from low socio-economic groups. Brozek (10) and Gerber (34) reported a remarkable superiority of African children in pay- chomotor skills. Gerber defined specific child rearing practices which she thought might have accounted for precocity on all aspects of the Gesell Schedule and Thomas Tests. In a 1953 study, Negro babies were superior to white in 37 gross motor behavior on the Gesell Schedule up to age two (48). Williams and Scott (75), in a further delineation of this finding, compared Negro babies from upper and lower socio-economic levels. The mean Development Quotient based on the Gesell Schedule was higher for the lower group. An interview schedule was conducted in which Williams and Scott discerned a significant biserial cor- relation between Developmental Quotient and child rearing practice whdhh they acknowledged was difficult to assess. Permissiveness, flexibility and lack of restriction enhanced motor development on the Gesell Developmental Schedule. On a 12 step neuromuscular scale, Scott, 25, 21. (65) re- ported similarity between white and Negro babies whose physicians were engaged in private practice. This pattern persisted until 30 weeks of age when the Negro mother usually returned to work. Then the Negro baby who had a private physician began to approximate the Negro baby who attended the clinic. 0n the Revised California In- fant Scale of Motor Development, in a representative United States samplp, the Negro baby scored consistently above the white on the Motor Scale (6). Bayley attributed this difference to a genetic factor because no differences for educational subgroups were obser- ved. Finally, in 1966, Knobloch and Pasamanick (49) reported that the Negro and white baby were equal in motor development on the Gesell Schedule and motor performance was accelerated over the norms reported a decade or two ago. Maternal (sensory) deprivation apparently influences motor performance. Provence and Lipton (62) found that phylogenetic 38 activities of the first few weeks were not affected by institutional- ization. But sitting, creeping, standing and walking were retarded perhaps because of lack of sensory stimulation. Patton and Gardner (60) reported marked retardation in children, ages 13 to 36 months, who came from seriously disrupted environments. No child in their study was walking. In both these investigations, deviant motor be- havior like excessive rocking was noted. The evidence regarding the influence of special practice on motor skill achievement is sparse and controversial. McGraw (56) did not find extra practice influenced motor skills of the first year of life except for the assumption of erect posture. However, additional practice did affect performance in jumping off a stool. Dennis and Dennis (22) observed no difference in age of walking for Hopi Indians who had been cradled as opposed to those who had not. The applicability of the findings cited above is dependent on knowledge of degree of specificity in gross motor skill in the first years of life. Cratty (16:198) stated that "after the age of two, ... motor abilities, which had been more closely related during infancy, tend to become more specific, a trend which continue(s) into adulthood." Bayley (6:409) wrote that there is "ample evidence that within normal limits, developmental status in the first year of life is a poor predictor of later mental and motor functioning." Whether or not the principle of specificity is characteristic of jumping at three and one half years is questionable. The weight of the evidence cited in this section seemed to dictate that the sample in the present investigation should be 39 restricted to girls of one race from home environments in a specific socio-economic level of society. Summary The review of related literature which has been presented in Chapter II suggests: l. The ability to jump for distance emerges in the motor skill repertory of most children sometime between two and four years of age. However, only two studies have been directed at obser- vation of the components of the total skill pattern in the standing long jump during this age period. Analysis in one study was on inspection. In the other study, the camera, filming at 24 frames per second, was positioned 150 feet from the performers who wore outdoor clothing. 2. Cinematographical analysis can be approached from prag- matic and theoretical points of view. To the author's know- ledge, no study has attempted to include all the apparently pertinent mechanical analysis variables involved in the standing long jump. 3. The evidence regarding sex differences in jumping ability is controversial indicating need for restriction of the sample to children of one sex. 4. Extended efforts have been directed at the development of skeletal assessment as a more accurate indicator of physio- logical maturity than age, height and weight. The Cleveland Atlases are recognized as an excellent standard of reference 40 in this area. In skehfial assessment the hand can be accepted as a fairly accurate index of skeletal development and specific ossification centers do not show bilateral trends. Finally, justification exists for analysis of individual bone ages in the hand. 5. To the author's knowledge, no studies have been conducted for preschool children which included the effects of lever length, bicristal width, leg and foot position on standing long jump performance. Nor is there evidence regarding the interrelationship of height, weight and skill in this motor activity at this age. Also, anthropometric measurement techniques should be based, in as far as possible, on inter- nationally accepted standards. 6. Much of the research concerning gross motor skill devel- opment in the first four years of life has been done by speci- alists in child growth and development. They have also studied the interrelationship between motor skill and child rearing practice, race and socio-economic status. The weight of the evidence provides justification for the restriction of these factors in sample selection. CHAPTER III METHODS Overview This study was designed to investigate the interrelation- ships of selected mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric vari- ables and skilled performance in the standing long jump for three and one half year old girls. Selection of the Total Group of Subjects This investigation was conducted at the Merrill Palmer Institute in Detroit, Michigan, during the winter of 1966. Permission was given to the investigator to contact the parents of the girls of the white race, chronological ages 40 to 44months,1 who were enrolled in the Merrill Palmer Institute Nursery School. Alumnae of the Merrill Palmer Institute who operated nursery schools in the suburban Detroit area, the Director of the Wayne State University Nursery School, and interested staff at the Merrill Palmer Institute assisted the investigator in Obtaining 1Hellebrandt and her associates (43) had Observed complete neuromuscular patterning including movement of the arms forward during force application in the standing long jump performance of a boy 43 months of age. On this basis, 42 months, or three and one half years, was selected fer study in the preSent investigation. 41 42 names of parents from the upper socio-economic class1 with eli- gible girls. Letters were sent to 21 parents explaining the purpose of the research and the procedures involved.2 After a lapse of a few days, the investigator called the parents on the telephone to ascertain their decision regarding partiqpation in the study. If the parent consented, arrangements were made for a filming appointment. At least one parent accompanied each of the 19 girls who actually came to the Merrill Palmer Institute to participate in the investigation. General Procedures The filming of the standing long jump, the anthropometric measurements, and theroentgenogram on the hand were all done in the basement of the Program Building at the Merrill Palmer Insti4 tute. The girls wore stretch pants and a T shirt under their winter snowsuits so it was unnecessary to change clothing for the testing. Some of the girls were apprehensive about renoving their shoes and they were permitted to keep them on. The parent(s) remained in the room while the girl was measured and filmed. During that time, 1Two studies were the basis for selection of the demographic characteristics for socio-economic level of classification. Bayley (6) included race, sex, sibling status, education of the parents, and geographic residence. The National Health Survey (70) desig- nated place, age, sex, race, marital status, educational level, occupation, and income. 2A copy of the initial letter sent to the parents explaining the study and the procedures involved can be found in Appendix C. J 43 a secretary worked with the parent(s) and recorded the data for the Parental Record Form and the Parental Permission Form.1 The investi- gator recorded information on the Child's Record Form2 as the girl was tested. Measurement Procedures ‘ Anthropometrig Anthropometric data were obtained first. They are listed in Table 3.1 along with the specification of the technique followed. Cinematographical Next, three trials of the standing long jump were filmed.3 Each girl was given an opportunity to practice one jump and to push the shutter on the camera so she could hear it run. A 16 mm. Bell and Howell camera was used. It was placed on a tripod and was equipped with a Hokuto f2.7, 17mm. lens. The camera was operated at 64 frames per second and was loaded with Kodax Tri X black and white reversal film. Figure 3.1a shows the camera and light placement in relationship to the mat. Figure 3.1b shows the wall markings in reference to the girl's position as she stood « “iw- V---“ "~-"--- 1Copies of the Parental Record Form and the Parental Per- mission Form can be found in Appendices D and E. 2Copies of the Child's Record Form can be found in Appendix F. 3The following results have been reported on the reliability of the standing broad jump: (a) l prial on a 2 footed hop with hop 2 weeks later in 3 year olds: .98 - 2004 (73); (b) Between second and third jump of 3 trials, 4 year olds: t .849 (76). 44 TABLE 3.l--Anthropometric Data Collected and Specification of Measurement Technique Employed Anthropometric Data Collected «‘C— Standing height (inches) Weight (pounds) Erect sitting height (inches) Bicristal width (inches) Thigh length (inches) Knee height (inches) Degrees, pronation (1, 2, or 3. Degrees, inward rotation patella (l, 2, or 3) - —“'--m-~fl--‘~-~u~ -1r‘“ -“-- ~.-“‘ ~—‘ ready to jump. ———~ "-"--~ "~_v '- . m‘““ --‘fi- ----“‘ __‘- V‘r— —__._ Measurement Technique .“4'..“ -‘ -M'“‘.--- .‘I‘ -a- mm-“ - _“ m..-“ "6.“ Damon (19) Girl was weighted with shoes, slacks, shirt on. McCloy (54) McCloy (54) Derived measurement. For com- putation, erect sitting height was subtracted from the sum of standing height and knee height. ' Variation of Simmons (67) Measurement was made with an anthropometer from the top of the sole of the shoe to the joint space of the knee, lat- eral aspect of leg. Subjective rating. A score of 3 represented marked deviation. Subjective rating. This de- viation occurs at the hip but was observed at the knee.‘ A score of 3 represented marked deviation. I -.-“ -.‘--‘--‘—“v‘".-‘-‘--“ The girl was placed on the mat in the initial standing po- sition with her toes touching the toe mark. used. No take-off board was The acromion process of the scapula and the crest of the il- ium just in front of the midpoint were marked by sticking a 1/4 inch square piece of mystic tape on the girl's clothing at these 45 *1 WALL 5s" '9 MAT II é— 3’H II 9 Q: 3';- (- Ia’ To: :1"? 6 7’ 9 3 V) 5 «Jfi; W v PWMD) «45,4 -’ CAMERA Rename FIGURE Old CAMERA AND LIGHT FIACEMENT FOR EWING causal: HORIZONTAL. MN: Van-rem. Wane: m: HORIZONTALIMRK - s I‘IFX"-> Taxman fir 7'41 e 7’ >:' flGUKESII. WALL MARKINGS FOR FILMING 46 points. The investigator then stood beside the girl on the mat as if she too were preparing to jump. The following standardized directions were given to each girl: "I'll say, 'Ready' then you will hear the camera run. Then I'll say 'Jump' and you will jump just as far out on the mat as you can." Following one practice trial, the lights were turned on. The camera was rewound previous to each jump including the practice trial. The girl was praised and encouraged after each jump. "That is fine. Let us see if you can jump a little further." If the girl did a leap or run, she was still encouraged but a suggestion for correct skill performance was given: "That is fine. Next time try to push off with both feet." No actual demonstration of the jump was given. All of the girls knew what the word,"jump", meant and most were aware of the difference between a leap and a jump. Subjects #12 and #13 came together for the testing and saw each other perform. It was nec- essary for subject #15 to see her brother, age five, jump before she would attempt it for the investigator. Skeletal procedures and the Walker Compliance Rating If the girl was able to execute at least one jump, testing was continued and an Xray was taken of the left hand in the Xray room at the Merrill Palmer Institute. The Xray was the last measure- ment taken of the girl and represented the end of the testing pro- 47 cedure. As soon as the girl and her parent(s) left the building, the investigator completed the Walker Compliance Rating. Motivation was reflected in the Walker Compliance Rating. This rating scale was developed by Walker (71) in his somatotype study of preschool children. The specific scale follows: (71:30) Real enjoyment of the situation Active co-operation, mild pleasure Unresisting co-operation . Compliance with traces of uneasiness: moody, coy, embar- rassed. Compliance expressing mild dislike Compliance expressing definite dislike or partial compliance Refusal on initial performance, level six on subsequent one Complete refusal blown—I CDVO‘U1 The Walker Compliance Ratings in the present investigation do not give a complete picture of the total group response since some of the subjects were excluded from the data analysis because of failure to co-operate. These girls could not be recalled for testing. The ratings made by the investigator can be found in Appendix I. The Walker Compliance Rating was variable # 69 in the data analysis. The hand and wrist Xray for each girl was processed by the author using the equipment at the Merrill Palmer Institute. Xrays of the left hand of sufficient quality to be read for bone age with reliability and validity were obtained for nine of the 19 subjects. No Xray was attempted for three of the 19 girls. These roentgenograms were appraised by Dr. S. Idell Pyle. Each bone on each Xray was as- sessed through comparison with the Greulich and Pyle (37) Standard of Reference. The individual bone age readings can be found in Ap- pendix I. The assessments for the lunate, scaphoid, trapezoid and trapezium.were not included in the data analysis as individual vari- ables. Onset of ossification had not begun in these four bones in 48 all of the girls. The lunate was "absent" in two girls; the sca- phoid, in seven; the trapezoid, in seven; and the trapezium, in five. Pediatric history A few days after the girl had been tested, a letter was sent to the family physician explaining the purpose of the research and requesting that the Physicians Certification Form be completed.1 This was a necessary adjunct to the design since research was res- tricted to jumping patterns in "well, healthy" children who had not suffered accidents or illness that would be detrimental to neuro- muscular or physical growth. The doctor was also given a copy of the signed Parental Permission Form. The physicians were most co- operative in returning a medical report on the health histories of the girls. However, many of the doctors were unable to provide devel- opmental data from their files regarding birth weight and length,and first age of sitting and walking unsupported. This developmental data was not included in the statistical analysis for this reason. A summary of the physician's report for each girl can be found in Appendix H. Mechanical Analysis of the Cinematographical Data The first step in the cinematographical analysis was the 1A copy of the Physicians Certification Form can be found in Appendix G. 49 selection of one jump for study for each girl. Inability to exe- cute a bipedal take-off, a determination made from the film record, resulted in the discounting of a child's performance in that trial. Subjects # 6, # l3, and # 15 completed only one successful jump out of three trials. The processed film for two subjects was run through a Fed- eral Enlarger equipped with a condenser system and an Elgeet f 4.5, 51mm. lens. Tracings were made of the projected image of each frame in Phase II in each of the three trials of the standing long jump for these subjects. Take-off angle was determined for each child by superimposing the tracings of the center of gravity mark for the take-off frame and the two following frames so a line could be drawn between the center of gravity marks. The angle formed by the inter- section of this line with a horizontal line on a grid represented take-off angle. Figure 3.2 shows the process of measurement of take-off angle in graphic form. The jump in which take-off angle most closely approximated Bunn's theoretical best angle of 40 degrees (12:34) was selected for study. It soon became apparent the cooling system in the Federal En- larger was inadequate. The film for the remaining subjects was run through an Omegalite D Enlarger equipped with a Kodak f4.5, 75mm. lens. The take-off angles for the nine research subjects are summa- rized in Table 3.2. The rationale for the selection of these nine girls as research subjects will be explained in the last section of this chapter because final determination was based on initial statis- tical treatment of the data. 50 “9.x“: ~ 3".) ' ‘ike’kl- '. , ma ,_ o 0’ “,‘I - 9?, ’ Lléfih; C? l H l - .,\"\/ I. an“ > CENTER OF‘KAVI’Q)” WAL L Sig-.3.- . (MARK 0N luv REFEKEME “a MYE News IN Twp SUPERIMFoSEp x: h‘ FIGURE 3.2 Determination of Angle of Projection, Center of Gravity, by Superimposing Consecutive Frames. Dotted and shaded figure = take-off frame Solid line and clear figure = take-off frame plus one frame After the jump was selected, frame by frame tracings were made of the entire jump from beginning to end for each girl. Key reference point frames were determined according to the definitions specified in Chapter I. The reference point frames were the initial standing position frame, depth of crouch frame, take-off frame, height of parabola frame, landing frame and the frame representing the landing plus seven additional frames. In order to determine linear measurement on the film, Cure- ton's correction factor was used (12:178). For example, if the twelve inch horizontal wall mark measured 1.4 centimeters on the film, each centimeter on the film represented 8.6 inches, the multi- 51 TABLE 3.2.--Take-0ff Angles of the Valid Standing Long Jumps for the Nine Research Subjects Subject Jump #1 Jump #2 Jump #3 5 77° *77° 55° (Bipedal take-off in doubt) 6 *160 7 *410 54° 51° 8 *43° 47° 9 90° 86° *65° 12 69° *45° 63° 13 *53° . 15 *660 16 *36° 52° *Represents the standing long jump selected for study. plier, or correction factor. This had to be determined anew for ~ each girl's film tracings because of possible variation in enlarger position. The camera used in the present study had a spring wind mechanism. To determine frame time, the drop of a four pound bowling ball was filmed three times in succession. Since S = 1/2 gtz, time could be calculated for each ball drop. 32.2 feet per second2 was the value used for g in the formula. Time for the ball drop was divided by the frames of film consumed for the drop. The average of the three frame times was selected as final frame time. That time was .0165 seconds. In the design of this study, 35 mechanical variables were finally selected for inclusion. Choice was based on the research 52 which had been cited in Chapter II. For example, Halverson (39) and Eckert (25) focused on specific measurements in the power ap- plication phase of the jump; Wilson (76) measured angles at vari- our reference points; and Zimmerman (78) divided the jump into phases. The present investigation represents an attempt to evalu- ate the standing long jump in its entirety, amalgamating the mea- surements used in previous studies in this area. The 35 mechanical variables are listed in Appendix A; the cinematographical analysis results for each of the nine research subjects can be found in Appendix I. Tracings for the nine research subjects at each of the six key reference point frames can be found in Appendix J. These tracings must be regarded as close approximations since they have been "processed" a number of times in the production of this paper. One major problem in mechanical analysis is that measurement technique has not been standardized. Both horizontal and vertical reference lines have been used in past studies in measuring seg- mental inclination, the basis for computing average angular velocity. Such a measuring system does not take into account the fact some levers move more than 180 degrees in the standing long jump. An additional consideration was posed in the present investigation. The particular segmental movement patternswhich, in essence, are natural variations during progress of young girls (or boys) toward mature performance of the mammalian standing long jump were unknown. Segmental inclin- ation was measured using a circular protractor. This is described in Appendix B. Determination of angle size and average angular velocity, 53 which is based on segmental inclination, have been important mea- surements in cinematographic analysis (14). In the present study, angles of the hip, knee, ankle and shoulder were measured at depth of crouch, take-off and landing. Angular measurement technique can be found in Appendix B. Average angular velocities were determined for Phase I for the upper arm, lower arm, trunk, thigh, leg, and head. In Phase II of the jump, average angular velocities were computed for the upper arm, trunk, thigh, leg, head, and foot. Plus and minus values were assigned to angular velocity measurements to show direction of movement of levers so patterns could be related to mature per- formance. The specific technique of assignment is explained in Appendix B. In the Waterland (72) study, head motion was measured as the "angle formed by the intersection of a line joining the head and clavicle light with a line from the clavicle light to the light on the greater trochanter of the femur." (72:17) Defibaugh (20) reviewed the methods of measuring head motion and designed a head gonimeter using the plane of the lower surface of the upper teeth as the constant. The measurement technique for head inclination used in the present study is defined in Appendix B, Measurement Technique A, Step 2. Three measurements related to the application of power be— tween depth of crouch and take-off were included. Ratio of depth of crouch height to standing height represented one mechanical variable (#8). Inclusion of the time of maximum angular velocity 54 of the lower arm during power application was suggested by Eckert (25) and incorporation of the time before take-off when maximum vertical height of the lower arm was reached was suggested by the work of Cooper and Glassow (l4). 2 6’ In the theoretical formula for projectiles ( D= V0 Sin 2 8 velocity and angle of projection of the center of gravity assume key importance as they relate to distance jumped. In the present in- vestigation, velocity of the projection of the center of gravity was computed using the formula VO:J;:E§;f-. This formula is based on the center of gravity of a particular projectile taking off and landing at identical heights. This does not occur in the standing long jump. Force was determined from the formula, Ft=mv, with time represented by the time the feet were in contact with the ground in Phase II. Consequently the value of t varied for each subject. Ac- celeration was calculated frOm F = ma. The basic purpose of the standing long jump is the attempted achievement of horizontal distance over a surface while the body is projected through space. Hence, distance jumped has been the key measurement of skill in countless investigations of this activity in physical education. Distance jumped is variable #34 in the present study. Finally, three time factors were included in the data analy- sis, each representing a separate variable: the percentage of total jump time encompassed by Phase I and that for Phase II, and the time airborne. The first two time variables were suggested by the research 55 of Zimmerman (78) and the last by the investigation of Felton (28). Criterion Skilled performance was selected as the criterion in the present investigation. Halverson (40) defined skilled adult per- formance of a fundamental motor activity as the mature stage of the activity. The film of the standing long jump of a highly skilled college woman could have been chosen. However, physical changes in body structure, especially hip width following menarche, could cloud the issue. A decision was made that skilled performance, based on the distance jumped of two skilled, sixth grade girls, should be the criterion measure. The criterion data was provided through the generosity of Miss Ruth B. Glassow, Dr. Lolas Halverson, and Dr. Elizabeth Roberts of the University of Wisconsin. Miss Glassow selected the films of two, skilled, sixth grade girls who had participated in the Longi- tudinal Study conducted by the Department of Physical Education for Women at the University of Wisconsin. Film records of performance in the standing long jump were taken for both these girls in the second and through the sixth grades. The girls had a physical education program-of two class periods per week in their elementary school throughout these years but no guidance in administration of that program was provided by the staff of the University of Wisconsin. One girl was 10 years, 9 months of age, and the other 11 years, 7 months of age, at the time performance was filmed in 1959 when they were in the sixth grade. The distance they jumped was 56 measured on the film. The 10 year old girl jumped 72.4 inches, and the 11 year old, 83.8 inches. With this achievement, the young- er girl would be placed in the upper tenth percentile, and the older girl in the upper first percentile, on the Fleishman (29) norms for 13 to 15 year old girls. The sixth grade film record for these Wisconsin criterion subjects was projected through an Eastman Recordak in the Women's Physical Education Department at the University of Wisconsin. Tracings were made of each frame of the standing long jump perform- ance of each girl. There was only one filmed jump for the criterion subjects at the sixth grade level. Measurement technique used to obtain the data for the criterion subjects were identical to those used for the nine research subjects of this study. The scores for the two criterion subjects on each of the mechanical variables were then averaged. This average score (i) became the criterion for each mechanical variable except those of force and acceleration which could not be computed since weight for the Wisconsin subjects was unknown. The raw scores of the Wisconsin subjects are included in Appendix I and film tracings of them at the six key reference point frames are in Appendix J. In order to arrive at a composite score for each of the nine research subjects, comparison was made with the criterion for each mechanical variable. If a research subject's score was equal to or closest to the criterion, the girl received a point on that parti- cular variable. For example, Wisconsin subject #124 had a take-off angle of eight degrees, and Wisconsin subject #122, 28 degrees. 57 The average (i) of the two performances was 18 degrees. Research subject #6 had a take-off angle of 16 degrees, the value closest to 18 degrees in the group of three and one half year old girls; subject #6 received a point for that mechanical variable. Points accumulated by each of the research subjects for all 35 mechanical variables were then totaled. The total point scores for the nine research subjects were then ranked. This ranking became variable #70 in the study, rank with criterion. Scores for the 35 mechanical variables and consequent rank with criterion for each research subject are shown in Table 3.3. TABLE 3.3.-~Comparison of the Nine Research Subjects with the Criterion "' ‘ 7“ Subjects Total Points Accumu- Rank with lated in Comparison criterion with Criterion. 5 4 4 6 7 2 7 2 6.5 8 2 6.5 9 3 5 12 7 2. l3 1 8.5 15 l 8.5 16 7 2 Statistical Treatment of the Data The first major decision affecting procedural sequence in the statistical treatment of the data was determination of the size of the final research sample. Complete data which met the standards of 58 this investigation were available for nine subjects. However, there was Still some question regarding the medical histories for two of the nine girls, subjects #8 and #13, even though the family physician had stated these girls were"essentflfly'normal" and "well and healthy", respectively. The family physician of subject #8 had written that the mother, by history, had reported that in labor, fetal heart tones were decreased. The girl was delivered vaginally. The girl had asphyxia at birth and was in an incubator a few days. There was some jaundice but no Rh problem. The physican went on to report that the girl was essentially normal with one degree allergies af- fecting the respiratory system. The father of subject #13 was a physician and had certified that his daughter was "well and healthy." However, in the Xray of the hand and wrist of this girl, a distinct line of arrested growth was found on the radium 13 mm. proximal to the metaphysis. The implications of this finding are taken from Greulich and Pyle: (37:19) The carpals and the epiphyses are not the only skeletal structures the development of which is affected by severe ill- ness and other adverse influences. The growing ends of the shafts of the long bones sometimes contain striking and even more permanent evidences of such misadventure. These evidences take the form of transverse lines or bands of increased density in that portion of the shaft which was contiguous with the epiphyseal carilage when the illness or other causative incident occurred. In order to evaluate the effect of these adverse medical his- tories, the computer was programmed to develop two groups of three intercorrelation matrices each (mechanical, skeletal, and anthropo- metric). The first group of three intercorrelation matrices was based on the data for the sample of seven children with subjects 59 #8 and #13 excluded. No question existed concerning the data for these seven subjects. The second group of three matrices included identical data for all nine subjects. Since the basic purpose of this study was determination of variable interrelationships, the computer was programmed to yield descriptive information--means and standard deviations of each of the 70 variables in addition to the intercorrelation matricesl. The intercorrelation matrices were developed as follows: 1. The mechanical variable matrix included the 35 mechanical variables and variables #69, Walker Compliance Rating, and #70, rank with criterion. 2. The skeletal variable matrix included 23 individual bone ages (variables #36 through #58); variable #59, skeletal age; variable #60, chronological age; variable #34, dis- tance jumped; variable #69, Walker Compliance Rating and variable #70, rank with criterion. 3. The anthropometric matrix included eight anthropometric variables (variables #61 through #68); variable #60, chronological age; variable #34, distance jumped; variable #69, Walker Compliance Rating and variable #70, rank with criterion. The mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric matrices for the sample of seven subjects can be found in Appendix L; the matrices for nine subjects, in Appendix M. Means and standard deviations for all of the variables based on data for nine subjects are listed in Appendix K. An elementary linkage analysis, or cluster analysis, (57) was completed for each matrix in each of the two sample size groupings. 1Hays (42:510) explains that "it is not necessary to make any assumptions at all about the form of the distribution, the variability of Y scores within X columns... or the true level of measurement rep- resented by the scores in order to employ linear regression and cor- relation indices to describe a given set of data." 60 Elementary linkage analysis is a method of clustering. It can be used to cluster either people or items, or any ob- jects, for that matter, which have distinctive cluster-char- acteristics... linkage analysis seeks a typal structure... A type is here defined as a category of persons of such a nature that everyone in the category is in some way more like some other person in the category than he is like anyone not in the category. In terms of coefficients of correlation between persons, every person in a type would have a higher correlation with some other person in the type than he would with anyone not in the type. (57:207-213) Types in elementary linkage analysis correspond to factors in factor analysis, except that a typal structure is achieved rather than a simple structure as in factor analysis (57). The linkage is defined as the "largest index of association which a variable has with any or all of the other variables... every variable is assigned to a cluster in terms of its highest degree of association." (57:208) "Each cluster contains one and only one reciprocal pair." (58:442) The present investigation is exploratory and represents an attempt to discern constructs (factors, types) within and between mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric variable groupings. [Definition of constructs] serves the cause of scientific parsimony.... it limits the variables with which the scientist must cope. It also (hopefully) helps the scientist to locate and identify unities or fundamental properties underlying tests and measures. (47:650) Replication of the elementary linkage analyses for seven and nine subjects on each of the three intercorrelation matrices (mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric) was necessary to determine if the adverse medical histories reported for subjects #8 and #13 influenced cluster composition. Despite the fact sample size had been increased by some 23 percent in the matrices for nine subjects, no marked dis- similarities between sample size groupings appeared in the elementary linkage analyses. The decision was made that the statistical analysis 61 should include all nine subjects. The last step in the statistical treatment of the data was the development of a final intercorrelation matrix and a final cluster analysis which could Show the relationships between mechanical, skele— tal and anthropometric variable groupings for the nine subjects. First, the number of variables in each grouping was reduced.1 Since this was an important process, the following guidelines were established: 1. Clusters composed only of reciprocal pairs of variables were examined. If the degree of association pas quite high (a correlation coefficient greager than - .80), one variable of the pair was eliminated. Variable #13 (r= -.78) was also eliminated. 2. All variables which associated with different variables in different clusters in the analyses for seven and nine subjects were eliminated. 3. In many investigations, developmental status has been, and probably will be, determined by chronological age, height and weight. These variables along with erect sitting height, bicristal width, and distance jumped were retained. In physical development studies, skel- etal age rather than individual bone ages has been a key variable; it was also included. 4. Rank with criterion and the Walker Compliance Rating, variables which were a part of each matrix, were retained. 5. If the degree of association between the first and second and between the second and third variables was almost the same in a variable grouping of three, two of the three variables were excluded. (If A=B and B=C, then A=C) 1Hays (42:577) points out that.in an intercorrelation matrix of K variables, "the average of the ( 5 ) intercorrelations among these variables must be greater than (or equal to) -l/(K-l).... given the values of some of the intercorrelations, the average lower limit for all the other correlations is not -1 but some number greater than -1. The larger K is, the closer this lower limit comes to 0." 2Hays (42:503) explains that "as long as we are talking about the correlation coefficient alone, it is immaterial which we desig- nate as the independent and which the dependent variable; the measure of possible linear prediction is the same." 62 6. Variable #32, a second cousin (McQuitty's terminology) show- ing low association, and variable #2, average angular velocity of the lower arm, Phase I, were eliminated. The final intercorrelation matrix included 33 variables. Reasons for Rejecting Subjects The general results of the testing procedures for the 19 children who came to the Merrill Palmer Institute for a filming ap- pointment can be found in Appendix H. Of the 19 children, nine were included in the final statistical analysis. The reasoning for this decision has just been presented in the preceding section of this chapter. Some subjects were excluded for more than one reason. The reasons for the exclusion of 10 of the subjects follow: 1. The child was not Caucasian (2). 2. The child was unable to execute a bipedal take-off (2). 3. The child refused to remove outer clothing and/or to partici- pate (5). 4. The developed Xray film was below the quality needed for valid skeletal assessment (6). Abnormalities and/or anomalies were found in the Xray film (2). The child had suffered an accident or illness which might be detrimental to physical or neuromuscular growth (1). O‘U‘I CHAPTER IV RESULTS OF THE STUDY Analysis Based on Inspection Demographic characteristics of the nine research subjects Table 4.1 summarizes the demographic information for the nine research subjects. The girls in this study represent a relatively homogeneous group from the upper socio-economic level of society. Each girl lived with her mother and father in a home in the suburbs of Detroit, Michigan. All but one girl had been in nursery school for periods ranging from five to 13 months.- The fathers of these children were all college graduates with occupations in the executive and professional class. All of the mothers except one had received college education, and four had graduate education. Two of the mothers were teaching at the time of the investigation; the rest were at home with their children. One couple had adopted their daughter. Each girl in the study had been given periodical medical examinations from the time of prenatal development. To facilitate presentation in the chart, sibling status has been converted to a numerical score of three digits. The first digit signifies birth rank in the family; for example, a 63 64 sound wouao6< u * HHH nausea 5 NH NH mm Hm ouHSOmoom noncoOH oH homeomoum HHN mooz 0H aH om mm OHHSOnoom honOHm nH can deduce m an oN mm mm museumsoe ddaoadaam ma . umHaoso . HHH nausea n NH aH mm om OHHsomoom noumomom NH oHN menace 0 NH oH No no owHaoooom oomuooooo< m HouHuz cam masses «a as on ma AN dwasdmaom mammauud>e< m HHH neuooa 5 MH oH «on «an OHHaomoom omEmOHom n oHH menace mH NH NH mm Hm nonomoa nonomoa o HHH nausea mH 0H ON ow mm HOHOOOH umHucoa m ooooocouu< nonuoz ponumm nonuoz Hosumm Honuoz Hannah moumum Hoonom . monaoz waHHnHm muomuoz ucoachuu< HmoOHumosmm mHHno mo suuHm um ow< GOHumosooo ovoo mavennom noumomom oon mnu you coHumauoon OHnomuwoBon .H.¢ mHomH 65 number two denotes the girl in the study was the second child born in the family. The middle number signifies birth rank of the girls in the family. All of the research subjects were first born girls. The last digit represents the number of siblings younger than the research subject; there was just one "only" child in the sample. Subject #16 had an interesting family background. The mother had been a nursery school teacher and was aware of studies like Gerbers (34) which discussed the interrelationship of motor ability and child rearing practice. The child's mother had delib- erately provided experiences that various researchers had thought might contribute to advanced development in the motor as well as other areas. For example, her child, subject #16, was breast fed until she was 18 months old. This girl had always shown remarkable motor ability. She was able to stand at six months, walk unsup- ported at eight and one half months and could turn a somersault at 12 months. At the time of the filming, the girl could skip and polka with ease. In the present investigation this girl jumped the greatest distance and tied for first ranking with the criterion. Mechanical factors Eight of the 19 children filmed in the present study were able to execute the standing long jump in all three trials. The fol- lowing other performance records were observed: 1. The child was able to execute the jump, but under duress and only after refusing to remove outer clothing (2). 2. The child completely refused to even attempt the skill. It is not known whether these children could nor or would not perform (3). 66 3. The child was willing to attempt the skill, but with evi- dence of running and leaping patterns in all three trials which was discerned at the time of filming (l). 4. The child appeared to be insecure and jumped with affected style like a "jack in the box." (1) 5. At take-off, the child placed one foot before the other on either one or two of the trials of the standing long jump. Some of these walk and leap patterns could be discerned at the time of testing. It was necessary to consult the film record for verification in many cases (4). The Wisconsin criterion subjects were able to execute a pre- liminary backswing of the arms at depth of crouch. In the group of nine research subjects, only one girl, subject #13, placed her arms behind the midline of her body at this point in the jump. This same Subject was the only girl who showed the "winging" arm pattern. Considerable difference in range of movement of the toes relative to the hips was found between the Wisconsin criterion sub- jects and the nine research subjects during flight through the air. Figure 4.1 shows graphically the difference in body positions at the height of the parabola and landing for Wisconsin criterion subject #124, who jumped 83.8 inches; subject #16, who jumped 34.4 inches; and subject #6, who jumped 6.02 inches. In the figure, a line has been drawn between the approximate center of the hip and the tip of the toes in the two reference frames. The difference in range of movement of the toes relative to the hips is readily apparent despite the difference in lever length, change of hip position in space, and variance in time airborne. In general, the directional movements of body levers were the same for the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion sub- jects. Figure 4.2 shows graphically the average angular velocities wfihfiam m. #Humhoam m missus” 252822 9% $34 Ewan” ME Q2323 Q Som§$ no tam: :3: as 0F meta“ 553: L8“. as $25. 2. fluzmummus 2628a; . ..T m MOUE 68 .20.MU\CMU IE5 3M(k€8Aoum§b NUZEK zo ANSV MMUL£DD DNA-2X” 53 .2332an is Quests .mmEoog s53? Newman Si . 9m: mm: Milk “who 33: my viva. 3&3 new: #8.... m3 v.23? nu.- Foc... .35.... the 3.1.... .a§§§§§§§§§§§§§ kV§§§ $3» . § W S B . . \ mm am. A33...» 5% h zozmpa o 232.» #3: §§> ..wfigu ,5. 28.93 ohfimhmsm 8m «Siq ohm 69 for Phase II for the most skilled and the least skilled jumpers (based on distance jumped) in the present study. Comparison of average angular velocites is made with the performance of the Wisconsin criterion (i). Direction of lever movement, reflected as a + or - score, was the same for all of the subjects whose per- formance is portrayed in Figure 4.2, but timing, or range of move- ment within specified phase time, differed. The average angular velocities shown by subject #16, the most skilled in the research group, more closely approximated the angular velocities for each of the levers of the Wisconsin criterion (x) than did those of subject #6, the least skilled in the research group. The greatest difference in angular velocity measurement between research subject #6 and the Wisconsin criterion (i) occurred in movements of the upper arm, trunk, and thigh. If the leg pattern in the standing long jump is phylogenetic and the arm pattern, ontogenetic, one might expect greater variance in the latter. Figure 4.3 is a graphic representation of the seg- mental inclinations of the upper arm, lower arm, trunk, thigh, leg and foot for the nine research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion (i) in the take-off frame. Measurement of segmental inclination was the basis for determination of average angular velocity in.the present study. However, raw scores for segmental inclination were not listed in Appendix I since they were not included as variables in the statistical analysis. In Figure 4.3, all lines in the drawing, which represent lever inclinations, extend from a central point which denotes a bone land- mark in the human body, designated as Point 8 Placement in the measure- 70 UPPER ARM LOWER AKM POINT 5 POINT S _ ._ _. .. .. ACRoMION Recess SCAPULA APEX a F AN“: BACK OF ELBOW wa‘r Una! * TguuK \ \ \ \ \ ‘ Pom-rs \\ APEX 0F ANGLE Jam- 5 565K OF HIPZ'aIIfl" AID! OFME kaosmaifam LEG FOOT l \ \ \ POINT 3 BPOWTS ' [NWT Pomorfva' LATERAL ‘0ch WITH W0 MUEOLUS . FIGURE 4.3 VARIATION w SEGMENTAL INcLlNATlON 0F LEI/ms IN TAKE'OFF FRAME. pomp LINE: mum-non as Wusconsm CAMERION (R) SOLID LINE: mum-non a: A RESEARCH 54:ch x: MORE M one CHILD Snows» SAME INCUNAT/ON 71 ment techniques used in the present investigation (see Appendix B). Each solid, lever line extension denotes the segmental inclination exhibited by one research subject. The dotted line represents the segmental inclination of the average of the two Wisconsin criterion scores (x). The greater variability in segmental inclination of the arms, compared to the other levers, which is evident in the drawing, was found at each of the six key reference point frames. It was impossible to measure average angular velocity of the arms during Phase III of the standing long jump in this investi- gation because many of the children moved their arms out of the sagittal plane during flight through the air. Since the arm motion during this section of the jump might be an important consideration, a joint motion analysis of the humerus at the shoulder was completed for the nine research subjects and the Wisconsin criterionssubjects for Phase III of the standing long jump. The terminology used was derived from Wells (74). The results of the joint motion analysis are summarized in Table 4.2. The skilled arm patterns of the Wisansin criterion subjects varied in timing and, slightly, in direction but the joint action was one of flexion and extension of the humerus at the shoulder. It is difficult to categorize the wide variety of arm motions demon- strated by the three and one half year olds. Excluding the "wing" pattern of subject #13, the following humeral action was generally observed:‘ I. Joint motion at take-off relative to the anatomical position: A. Flexion and horizontal extension (2) B. Flexion (2) 72 .nowuamoa HmoHBOumam osu cu sowxoam .hvoa can no acaavfia oau madcap cowuqmom a monsoon was magmas coamcouxo Hausa Iwwuon .mmouoxwu ouowon museum o>fim .oom undead uswfiam cows :oHuoavv< .coHuosvv< mo aowuwmom a ou cowxofim m* .cowuwmoa, fimofiaoumam nomou mans .muaouo momuwov osu .mmamum can maan wcwvcma u< mo aowncwuxo unwwam huo> Nmafi .mnwwon nowmnmuxo .oaouw ono m nwsonuam woman cw pounce. uoonnsm mafia wHonoumm mo unwfion u< Imam camaou haamowmmn mau< .onma unonm ou coaxoam Gamaoomws .vonomou mg ooa umoaam .cofiuwmon HmOHEOumam cu mo nowxmam ucfiom mwnu um mcunuou mnuoaan .cowmavuxo .moamuw ao>mm mafia wafivcmfi GH .muamum xam mafia aaonmuwm swaounu mmncwudoo can mmamum mo mamas: ou monafiuaoo was «mafi xfim mafia mHonmuma min «0 .mawwon wovfiaosm um cowmcouxm .aoHuUSUAm uswfiam Sums uooflnam uswwon can no mawwon cofixoam mono mmamum know now cowxoah oom amnu mama on noflxoam :Hmcoomfi3 wcfipamq aowufimom osu awaousu mHonmumm man no maonmumm man no unwwom osu amoHBOuma< man on o>fiumaom unwwom man Boom nofiuoz uaHOh cu mucumxma Boum nowuoz unwoh muonmxme um coauoz u:H0h noonnsm Aaqmv m~Ho3_aoum uo>wuop ma %woaoafiauosv .muooHASm nowuouwuo camcoomgz osu was muoomonm noumomom ocfiz can now HHH ommnm mcwusa Hovasonm man up nausea: ofiu mo mnowuoz ucfiOWII.N.¢ manna 73 .mvon can no «canvas onu usages one uaonm nowufimom a on donaouxouoahn vmsawucoo .aOfimnouxouoahn sows nowuonpv< .hoon mo onquHa no“: au>o :oHu namom a on coauoavcw unwaam no“: magmas cowmcouxo HmuaONfiuon .wwo:oxuu ouow non museum ao>um . om usono mo coauwmoa a ow aowxoam mfi .mvon no «canvas scans; swan vovaouxouommn_maum .wawvaaa u< .noauoannm an“: scam uaouxmummhn awaounu coaxofim .aowm naouxo auuaowwuon com umoaau mo unwfiwn umvdaosm um cowufinoa a ounw Gowxoamuoamn announu sausage =Hasaeaaa= an even vane non canons nape mo aofiumaawuaou .oowa umoafim mo nofiuamom a On :onon m* .ason can no «can -eaa on“ vanes; sash nonnamoa m ou commaouxouoa%n uswfifim suw3 aofiuoawvm vmuafiuaoo .aofimcouxmuom%n unwfiflm nufiz cowuoscp< .mmouoxwu cu was: was mmouoxmu ouowon museum no>om monumou coauamom .GOfiuonpaw namnnm suns com sagas» mo nowuwmom m on dowxoam 5* ‘ .muon can no «canons «an onwamn umsn Godmcmuxmummxn mo soauwmom m on aofimaouxm .:o«maouxm .oom uwoaam mo aoHuqmom m on cofixoam 0* wawvamg man nwnounu waonmumm man mo uawwom ego Baum nowuoz uaHOh «Hosanna was no nnwaom «an on «mo-mxae scum gonna: panes aowuwmom amowaoumnm can on o>fiumamm muonoxma up mafiuoz uafiow savanna emsanuaou--~.s manna 74 .hvon mo onHvaa unfinon om¢ unonm one make .mawvama u< .aowmcouxo .oom amsu.ouoa no down naouxo Haunowfiuon Mo nowufinoa u on nowxoamuonhs swaounu counmmm =HHHaeaHs= :a ages on» season .cOHuoavnm uawwam nuoahn swaousu Gowxofih vaaoum menu mo cofiuuaafiucoo nufi3 omma uaonm ou aowxoam o~¢ .ome swnu whoa wouoapnw was make .wafivnoa .aowuosvnm u< .aowuoavvm uosawuaoo .aowuosvv< unwfiam suw3 coma ou cowxmam m~* .hvon «an no oaaasaa can season .muon can cowmcouxouoahn one uaonm .GOfimcouxouoams mo onwavwa onu pawnon one mo aofiuwmom m on cowxofim unwwam mo aofiumaawuaou amau whoa on commaouxouoahm m~¥ .omq noon» .auop no «canvas wouospnm wawvnma um mEp< .cowmcouxo Hmucoufiuon Saws ao>o mamas: Hovaaosm .nowxoam unwwam nu“? aofiuosvv< uswfiam huo> auHB :oHuoapv¢ um cowuwmoa m Ou cowuoavn< NH* wawvamq cowuwmom osu swaounu mHonmumm onu mo «Honmumm man no usmfim mSu Hmo«80um:< can on o>uumaom unwfiom «an aoum aofiuoz unwoh ou unenoxme aoum :oHuoz unwow Muenmxmfi um nowuoz uaHOH noonnam uosanuaoo--~.¢ «name 75 C. Flexion and abduction (3) D. Abduction (1) II. Joint motion from take-off to the height of the parabola: Adduction (3) Extension (1) "Windmill" (2) (See Table 4.2 for specification of pattern) D. Adduction and horizontal extension (2) ow» III. Joint motion from the height of the parabola through landings: Adduction (3) Extension (1) Flexion (2) Horizontal extension (1) Adduction with flexion (l) MUOW> In this study no girl lost her balance following flight through the air. At times the landing of a jump represented the preparatory motion for another jump which immediately followed, and in several cases the girl landed with one foot in front of the other and immediately moved into a walk or run pattern. It appeared that these activities represented the means of maintaining balance and controlling kinetic energy. There was considerable difference between the research subjects and the Wisconsin subjects in body configuration at the reference point of landing plus seven additional frames. Both Wisconsin subjects were in a position of a deep squat at this point with the hips low, behind the feet, and with the arms raised forward as a counter-balance. Al- though all of the three and one half year olds showed some flexion at the hip, knee and ankle at landing plus seven additional frames, no girl had the hips below knee level, and for each one, the upper arm was held quite close to the body, and slightly anterior or posterior to the anatomical position. 76 Skeletal and anthropometric factors Skeletal age, which represents an arithmetical average of the bones showing ossification in the hand, ranged from 33 months to 50 months of age for the nine subjects. Figure 4.4 represents in graphic form the individual bone ages for two of the research subjects and includes an overall comparison with chronological age. In subject #12, four of the metacarpals did not quite achieve an assessment equal to chronological age. In subject #15, only the triquetral was advanced over chronological age. In this study, when the bones of the hand were grouped for any particular girl into five categories (carpals, metacarpals, proximal phalanges, middle phalanges, distal phalanges), ossification appeared fairly even except for the carpals. In subject #7, metacarpal I was considerably advanced in age over the other metacarpals. This same pattern, though not to as great a degree, was evident in subject #8. In subject #5, middle phalanx V was advanced. Statistical appraisal of the skeletal asSessment will be considered in the next section of this chapter. Bone age and skeletal age readings for the research subjects can be found in Appendix I. 4 The chronological age range for the children in the present investigation was from 40 to 44 months. With this homogeneity, no great discrepancies were found between subjects in the anthropometric measurements which are listed in Appendix I. Weight of the nine research subjects ranged from 33 to 43.3 pounds, and height, from 38.1 to 41.7 inches. When plotted on the Bayer and Gray (4) Graphic Growth Record Charts for Girls, all of the research subjects except } ifia‘dfilfflfié‘é‘gfixg Ln, j fi 77 SUBTE :2. SKELEa—fAGE 50 MONTHS “F , fl "TFfi $6383 §£SN$ CAPITATE HAMA7E TRI&UETRAL [MATE ammo APE 2! VM TR 1* new; L06! CAL A65 RADIUS s Hfifihu HHHHH Haas gHHHH 9: i i i 3% 5:? g film-#5 - SKELETAL, LA6 :33 MONTHS I emflj INDIVIDUAL BON A655 COMPAREDREN WITH CHRDNOLO ICALAQE mg HG! sues:- AND LOWESTF swam. 78 two fell within the average maturational rate range between three and four years of age. Subjects #7 and #16 were accelerated in matura- tional rate; their scores fell in the range between four and five years of age on the Bayer and Gray Charts. Elementary Linkage Analysis Various complexities are involved in the interpretation of the elementary linkage analyses which follows. These complexities were caused by the rather large number of variables (70) considered; the fact cluster analyses were completed for sample sizes Of both seven and nine subjects,1 the appearance of inverse relationships bet- ween variables which developed out of the measurement techniques used in obtaining mechanical variable data; and diversification of cluster composition. Several procedures have been developed to facilitate presentation. Average angular velocity will, from now on, be designated by the symbol, a. The "construction of hypothetical entities" (47:680) or the naming of clusters, would be an impossible task. No attempt will be made to label factors. Interrelationships between skilled performance patterns and the various variables in the mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric groupings will be discussed. Skilled performance, as defined in Chapter I, refers to the filmed execution of the standing long jump by the two sixth grade girls, the Wisconsin criterion subjects. 1The mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric elementary linkage analyses for N=7 can be found in Appendix N. 79 Several bases exist for comparison of the skilled performance patterns of these girls with the performance patterns of the nine research sub- jects. The first basis is variable #70, rank with criterion, which represents a comparison of individual mechanical variables in all phases of the standing long jump between the research subjects and the average (i) of the two Wisconsin performances. A low numerical rank with criterion score represents a higher ranking, a performance more closely approximating the criterion for individual mechanical variables. The second basis of comparison is visual inspection of the filmed performance. These results were reported in the first section of this chapter. The third basis is a score. In the mechanical anal- ysis of the data, plus and minus values were assigned to a of levers depending on whether the body segment moved clockwise or counter- clockwise so a comparison could be made between the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects. A limitation exists in this comparison; specification of direction of lever movement does not indicate optimal timing. For example, the Wisconsin average score (Q) for a of the thigh, Phase I, was + 40 degrees per second, repre- senting clockwise movement (+) toward a deeper crouch position. This a score of + 40 degrees per second was derived, as an average, from a scores of +73 degrees per second and + 6 degrees per second. In the research group, the a of the thigh, Phase I, ranged from - 19 degrees per second (counterclockwise movement) to + 104 degrees per second. The raw data scores represent ,the fourth basis of comparison between the Wisconsin criterion subjects and the research subjects. 80 Elementary Linkage Analysis Within Variable Groupings: Mechanical General Figure 4.5 shows the elementary linkage analysis based on the intercorrelation matrix for mechanical variables. Eleven clusters were found. In general, the cluster composition showed that all phases of the standing long jump were interrelated, and that lever movement and position in the preparatory motions were associated with movement and position during power application and landing. In several cases, lever movements in the upper part of the body tended to interrelate. This was also true for segments in the lower part of the body. In one cluster, angular measurements grouped together but in general, a and angular measurements were associated. Projection of the body through space The first three clusters, containing variables showing the highest degree of association, were related to projection of the body through space and the results of that projection. Force and accel- ation formed the first cluster with a coefficient of correlation of .98. It should be recalled that linkage, by definition, represents the "largest index of association which a variable has with any or all the other variables." (57:208). In elementary linkage analysis, degree of association is the only determinant resplnsible for variable position in the first cluster. In computation, the value of acceleration (a=F/m) was found once force was known (Ft= mv) which could account for the high relationship. ruz masses. 45.253? «on. 2322... «when A mf mmswm . ..saofipmflo . >35 of: 3.33 is. zines . f... as“... a. ...”?st % ..Mflnfi “nut; n1 «in. m.» 2.37 Lia 39.3 no u I“ ”new nw t $2.025 urn Saran—wwiiaafim subgmn 3 mam... 3%,... t. . as: ... m . mm... W «a .98 .2». to”. 32.5..» wants, a». _. . uneasa® 81 Huge Huge... 223:3 H435 Mme}. new: 3 v.23: B 3.23 v.25. miPQo U€Po\s .V muted Hung... data 2.8:... 32...... B .3359 .35.... HS. tonguuct » ‘ 82.58 3.9.3.”. . hr. 3893 thumb .. $56 ...... an... .2... ...m‘ 02.1 g§< Elma H33: .H «9.5 @2325 uuztznequ 0. émauu tango m ..wEI. 3 in. ... as. <3 13.52. go .. «$590 r H mate“... s 5U? «maze. Bé . memos... we HfiSfl H was... «233.. 435. «was. v3..."... B Lee. B 30 \I agfio o «m5 83 Distance jumped was found in the second cluster. It was one of a reciprocal pair with a of the thigh during power application (r= -.89). Measurement techniques used in the study are responsible for many of the inverse relationships found in the elementary linkage analyses. For example, a minus (-) value was assigned to w of the thigh when the lever moved counterclockwise. Consequently, as the thigh moved with greater é, counterclockwise, during power appli- cation, distance jumped increased. The thigh moved in this same direction in the skilled performance of the two Wisconsin criterion subjects. V0 and time airborne also related to distance jumped with correlation coefficients of .80 and .86 respectively. As Vo increased and time airborne increased, distance jumped increased. In turn, as time airborne increased, take-off angle of the knee (r= .75) increased, reflecting extension at this articulation at the moment of projection. In summary, in the research group, the mechanical variables related most highly to achievement represented by distance jumped, were, in relative order of association: w, thigh, Phase 113 time airborne; V0; and take-off angle of the knee. The third cluster was composed of two variables, a reciprocal pair: take-off angle of the center of gravity and take-off angle of the shoulder (r= -.874). Take-off angle of the center of gravity was arbitrarily selected in this study. As take-off angle of the center of gravity decreased, the arms, in the take-off frame , were positioned at a greater angle away from the trunk in the sagittal plane (for example, a shoulder flexion of about 90 degrees). The Wisconsin 84 criterion subjects did not move the arms to a position of complete shoulder flexion overhead at take-off, but some research subjects moved them to an overhead position. Relationship of mechanical variables with skilled performance Rank with criterion,variable #70, represented one basis of comparing performance in the research group with that of the Wisconsin criterion subjects. Rank with criterion was determined by comparing the individual mechanical variable scores of the research subjects with the average score of the Wisconsin criterion subjects (Q) on each mechanical variable. The mechanical variables associating most highly with rank with criterion were time ratio determinations. As a child earned a higher rank with criterion score (low numerical score), the percentage of total jump time spent in power application (Phase II) decreased and the percentage of total jump time spent in prepara- tory motions (Phase I) increased. The specific coefficients of correlation involved in these interrelationships can be found in Figure 4.5. Based on the average of the two performances, the Wisconsin criterion subjects spent almost 1/2 (.46) of the total jump time in preparatory action (Phase I) and roughly 1/4 (.22) in power application (Phase II). In the cluster analysis for mechanical variables, a number of interrelationships were found that showed the movement patterns for the research subjects (three and one half years olds) were approaching the skilled performance patterns of the Wisconsin criterion subjects in terms of direction of lever movement. These 85 interrelationships are presented in tabular form in Table 4.3. In general, similarities in directional movement pattern and lever position between the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects in all phases of standing long jump performance were more pronounced than differences in pattern. Specifically, with the two exceptions of take-off angles of the shoulder and the center of gravity, the angular measurements in the lower segments of the body were similar for the two groups as were the w measurements of the lower segments, the trunk, and the head. On the other hand, differences were evident only in the pre- paratory and landing phases of the jump. Major differences were clearly apparent in shoulder angle measurement at depth of crouch and landing and in W of the lower arm, Phase I. The specific inter-j relationships involving the arm pattersn were: 1. w of the upper arm, Phase I, increased counterclockwise (+), in the "right" direction, as shoulder angle at depth of crouch decreased (r= -.73) 2. w of the upper arm, Phase II, increased in a clockwise (-) "right" direction as shoulder angle at landing decreased (r= .74). 3. As the trunk moved with less w in the "right" direction, counterclockwise (+), into the depth of crouch during Phase I, the w of the lower arm during the same phase increased in the "wrong" direction to a position near the body. The research subjects held their arms closer to their bodies, anter- ior or posterior, at depth of crouch and landing, and moved their arms in the "wrong" direction toward a position near the body during the preparatory motions. .aowuwmom noaouo onu cacao» A+w omwzxoofiououaooo w mama noes mo>oa .H ommnm .on onu .oawu dawn on» u< .momwouoawnwmonoxmu as one onu saws aoHuHmoo Hoowuum> o oumBou wdw>oa .uoow mam mo 3 .nwwnu as» mo commence Hmuoonwuon once u wcuuooamou newsman nouoouw ou momoouoov wafivaoa no mamas coax m< Hw.| no. m. HH madam .uoom .3 awvnoH so oawao coax H ommnm .me .m .aowumowgmmo uoaoa wnwuso Gowxoam Hmouov mo sowuooufio onu Ga 3 Houoouw nuwa muaooo coon onu mo ucoao>oa .oafiuumawu osu u< .doauwuom.£osouo mo sumac onu cumaou A+w omfiaxooaououcaoo mama no>oa manna a“ B mama sues woumfioommo ma Amuoom Hoofiumasc soav oumom dowuouguo no“: xaou Honmfin < «5.: mn.: «a E 32: .33 .m. H ownsm $75.3 .b. aowuoufiuo sows xoom . wwmmluom :oHunoa nosouu mo numoo um mamas awn “mafia meow mnu u¢ .Aomnv cononouuoo> unwwfim ma Amy do«uouauo camcoo smwz 059 .H amonm aw cowxmfimouuao> CH mo>oa coon onu was moose mono onu “aofiumowaaam mouow magnum 3 Houwoum sows A+v omwzxooaououcsoo mm>oa mod use m¢ mw.| mm.a A M nonouo sumac .ofiwam mam HH «swam .wsH .m H manna .emme .w aoHumcmaaxm aoHumHmuuoU mo ucmaoeumooo mofinowuo> woumwoomm< ll .uno8o>oz uo>oq mo cofiuoouwn mo messy aw muommnsm nowuouwuo camcoomw3 one no auouuwm mesmEHOHHom ooafifixm onu moanooouua< muomnnam noumomom onu Mom mauooumm uaoao>oz 30am umnH oawsmcowumaom oHomHuo> amowconooznn.m.¢ manna 87 .H mmosm mo maowuoa huouoummoum osu a“ nusouo umaoov mo cofiuwmoa m cm cowuooufio A+v mugs uxooao a ca 3 nova mugs mo>oa nwfinu onu .oawu mafia onu u< .Acowuo>wuoa swam“; mmuwowvaw muoom goo“ nuoaac sod av oomoouoaw wamumm mocmfiaoaoo usages mau . .m. H owosm .nwwsu .m cu omuuofiwou aowum>fiuoa .muoouo cowuwasoauum mafia on wawvama .oawam dam on cowxoam one momoouoov wcfiocofi do onaw a“: m< mm. Nonfiuom moonwaqaoo uoxaoz .cowuuonoua mo udoaoa ago an vuospom momma hooo on» dons wunooo uaHOH awn osu um.a0fimaouno mm momoouocw muonoxou um mamas awn .QEHu mama one o< .cowuamoa noaouo huoumumamua Homoov a wow qu.u «monoxou .oawco mam nuooamou monomuooo omHm aoaouo mo sumov um mamas . ozone sumac .oawam o~xn< maxaw .mommouoov soaouo mo snoop um mamas coax m< mmu roaouo sumac .oamau coax .wwouoxmu um cofiuoaauwuuo menu on :owmcouxo wowuooamou momoouoaw moax mnu HO @HwCN WHOIQXflU .QOQUHUCH UCHODHHQ GBHU m.< . MN” 0053 «Nu—“mam NHOIUXNH. .ommouocw saucepan mafia new o> cam coauoowamam ow can om . o> paw“ ocuopuao mafia mouom magnum Any omfiaxooaououasoo 3 noumon sows P. .1 ooaadn mucouuwn mm>oa nwwnu m£u .momoouoafl vomamh mucoumwv m< mm.u . M HH ommnm .nwwau .3 nowumaouuoo cofiuocmaaxm mo unmausmmsoo moanowuo> wouowoomm< .esaaaucoo--.m.e «Home 88 .oamHa kuuwwmm «nu a“ goose one Boom moss oocofiufimom mum mayo onu mm monumuucfi Hooasoso .oamam mmouoxofi Hooaaonm msu mo mamas Hmonoxmu .mmmoouooo . kuw>mum mo hofi>muw mo nouamo any mo oawam wwouoxmu m¢ mm.u nouaoo .oawdm mwovoxmfi .mommmuo:H maxam may no mamas mmouoxmu mm Auv Gowuoouwv mowaxooHo m cw m mmmfi waxam .mamcw MMOIMJNH nuHB mm>oa cowuwowfiaam umSom wcwuzo xasuu onH mm. HH muonm .xcauu .w nowuofiouuou aofiumaofiaxm mo uaofiowmmooo moanowua> wouoHoOmm< .easaaucoo--m.s manna 89 Elementary Linkage Analysis Within Variable Groupings: Skeletal General Figure 4.6 is a graphic representation of the results of the elementary linkage analysis based on the intercorrelation matrix of skeletal variables for nine subjects. The same number of clusters (eight) appeared in the analyses for seven and nine children. Nineteen of the 23 bones maintained the same relationships in the analyses for seven and nine children. The coefficients of correlation between reciprocal pairs were high, ranging from .98 between the capitate and hamate in cluster 1 to .907 between distal phalanges II and III in cluster eight. In general, bones tended to group in clusters relative to bone position in the hand. Cluster one was composed of carpals. Clusters two and three included bones largely from the middle of the hand: middle phalanges II, III and IV; proximal phalanges III and IV and.meta- carpal V. Bones on the "little finger side of the hand" were found in cluster five; proximal phalanx V, middle phalanx V and distal phalanges IV and V. The "thumb side of the hand" was represented in cluster seven: .proximal phalanges I and II and metacarpal I. Skeletal age and chronological age associated more highly with each other than they did with either distance jumped or rank with criterion. Skeletal age and chronological age each related to the bone age of distal phalanx I with coefficients of correlation of .942 and .76, respectively. wuz mflm<&<> ufiflmxw «on sides)... «Head 9+ MES—L u 96 o a u ”Hugo ...”... ofifiquJoswfiwf$ £242 “5.2. m..." flu.§|lv s a is 1 I 1+ as a. ...... a . “flag“? noses. . . _ 0 2.5.5 59:25 35*; Ea? kmfimxfit so: 3:22.28 of 55mm H. x 255: H xz < .22. x01". uicxoflm A F «mung m2. @ .3 .66 H Q‘s. «a sage Jag 26.2 8253 ..Esfl? sang a MmEfio i 92 The Walker Compliance Rating was inversely related to meta- carpal II (r= -.56)in cluster six. As metacarpal II became develop— mentally older, the child was rated higher in motivation (low numeri- cal score) as reflected in the Walker Compliance Rating. Interrelationships of skeletal variables, achievement, and skilled performance Distance jumped fell in cluster six in association with meta- carpal III (r= .82) and metacarpal II (r = .81). As metacarpal III and metacarpal II became developmentally older, distance jumped increased: the "older" children jumped further. Rank with criterion was found in cluster eight; rank with criterion became higher (low numerical score) as distal phalanx III became developmentally older (r = -.73). The "older" children, based on the bone age of distal phalanx III, were more like the Wisconsin criterion subjects (i) in the components of movement in the standing long jump. The relationship was low (r = -.26) between distance jumped and rank with criterion. Distance jumped and rank with criterion each related to the increase in developmental age of specific bones more than they related to each other. Elementary Linkage Analysis Within Variable Groupings: Anthropometric General Figure 4.7 gives the graphic representation of the results of 93 6.2 «6.63% ofimzomoxfiziq do“. 29.22... «.9538 Ev $59“. 5.5. ha a 21W»: ufi. uh gags: uh we.“ HM. A $1 go‘flfis #34 3a. ariflvfi 9.96 $.6th 039...")? All muimrmb 6> mo .26 «368;;36 xruue. FEW E 66652:» 632.3, aw- 6333, in; 326.6% 32E. 666- ...6 66.6 66 zoiflm Jugs 356$ tam; 663$ 63mm 83.268 tween. _ MMLMBU 94 the elementary linkage analysis based on the intercorrelation matrix of anthropometric variables for nine subjects. There were 12 vari- ables in the matrix and eight were anthropometric measurements. Two clusters resulted from the analysis. In terms of cluster analysis, the relationship of variables in the first cluster was linear with first, second, third and fourth cousins (McQuitpyb terminology). Ten of the twelve variables fell in this cluster showing that all the variables except chronological age and inward rotation of the patella, which were found in the second cluster, were highly interrelated. The heavier children tended to show more pronation, had greater bicristal width, and were taller in terms of erect sitting and standing height. Children who showed higher motivation (lower numerical Walker Compli- ance Rating score) were taller as reflected in erect sitting height and standing height, but they had less knee height. Interrelationship of anthropometric variables, achievement and skilledgperformance. Distance jumped was related to weight, although the relation- ship was not high (r= .51). As weight increased, distance jumped increased. Rank with criterion, one method of comparing anthropo- metric variables with skilled performance, was associated with bi- cristal width (r= -.64) in the first cluster. As a girl's perform- tance approached that of the skilled performer, bicristal width increased. 95 Elementary Linkage Analysis Between Variable Groupings: Mechanical Skeletal and Anthropometric Figure 4.8 shows the final cluster analysis for the 33 se- lected mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric variables included in the final intercorrelation matrix. The 37 variables which were excluded from the final matrix have been designated by an asterisk (*) in Figures 4.5, 4.6, 4.7. Six clusters appeared in the final elementary linkage analy- sis. In general, variables tended to associate with other variables from the same grouping: mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric. Mechanical variables, exclusively, were found in clusters four and five; skeletal, in cluster three. The last cluster, six, contained all of the anthropometric variables. Anthropometric variables related in clusters to mechanical variables, and mechanical variables, to skeletal, but skeletal and anthropometric variables did not associate with each other in clusters. Mechanical variables remained associated with distance_jumped and rank with criterion. A number of cluster relationships found in the separate mech- anical, skeletal and anthropometric analyses were replicated in the final elementary linkage analysis. Several "new" interrelationships of variables were found which indicated that as the research subjects matured physically, their standing long jump performance, as reflected by the mechanical variables, approached that of the Wisconsin criterion subjects. The new interrelationships were as follows: 1. As knee angle on landing decreased to greater flexion, reflect- ing a more horizontal position of the thigh at this reference 96 6.342% mm 45E ME 36% 1233 62¢ 3» $sz «323).... . 3 a6 «a .8 9:. 3 .26.... 62 a ,i . a .18.. of e. as a: $3 r26: 3 Sta 9.3.. m8. 2... pa sfiflfllnv 3.3.6. 6.. in. .6333 n b.1026) .3395 vwasv>< n B 2.5:. .V 20x Humtzn. . an .T Mflwau fix an «$505.6 @ fidm wk. 8 ms. 8. +6. s. 6 a w HXZ .. m .. .Hx . _ . Hqtmqturfié 443:8: ..Eumxm 4t ......quauoczu . duh 36 97 3:22.28 we. Miami E93 ”Fug: x26. 3 36 .65; 866. - . ...... 6 6... 6. ”gusto . . Eng sztm was... Hmusi 223:3 HOfiI m V—Kaflhmw. 2b? v.3 6 .. 6.....6 .. 6. .666; .6528: 63655.3 “SE! 3 6 «6.38 gnaw $666 66 use: Hwy...» Nib: Q\0 u§0\0 .m dmkma .U 98 point frame, ratio of time spent in force application in the jump decreased. 2. As force increased, distance jumped increased. 3. As the angle of projection of the center of gravity decreased, pronation increased and the thigh moved with less w in a clockwise 6+) direction to a position of deeper crouch in the preparatory motions. 4. As weight increased, the trunk moved with less w counterclock- wise (-) in the "right" direction during force application. 5. As metacarpal V became developmentally older, hip angle at depth of crouch decreased. One relationship found in the final cluster analysis showed a difference in performance pattern between the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects. As the upper arm.moved in the "right" direction, counterclockwise (+),t0ward a position behind the body during the preparatory action of Phase I, shoulder angle at landing decreased. Summary of the Elementary Linkage Analyses The summary of the interrelationships of all the variables and the skilled performance patterns will be described according to their similarities and differences. Figure 4.9 presents the similari- ties in graphic form. The basis of selection was the delineation of the mechanical variables associated with skilled performance. These mechanical variables were: Angular measurements: At depth of crouch: hip At take-off: knee, shoulder and ankle At landing: knee and hip 6 measurements: Phase I: head, trunk, thigh, leg Phase 11: head, trunk, thigh, leg, foot 99 Figure 4.9.--Interrelationship of Variables Most Highly Associated with Skilled Performance. (SE:::;. Variables correlate as a reciprocal pair) (€F-—4’ Variables correlate) An Increase in Anthro- Motivation Increases and Age of the F01- pometric Measurements the Mechanical Variables lowing Bones Shows the Child Be- Approach Patterns of Increases comes Heavier and Skilled Performance AS.. Taller AS ............ a, leg, Phase I Knee angle, landing§x ? w, foot, Phase II % ime, Phase II Z time, Phase I /Distal phalanx III Bicristal width 1%————%>Rank with criterion A w, trunk, Phase I Distal phalanx I w, head, Phase II 1"]: Take-off angle, knee Skeletal age \V Pronation Force Time airborne V0 'Wi * Metacarpal III gDistance jumKé/a’ . a, thig , Phase II * Weight{{ w, trunk, Phase II Thigh length Take-off angle, ankle Standing height A Take-off angle, center gravitng 3 Take-off angle, shoulder w, thigh, Phase I Hip angle, landing NV 4x Metacarpal II Erect sitting height (—)Walker Compliance Rating! a, head, Phase I _ Metacarpal V w, leg, Phase II Hip ang e, depth crouch Anthropometric Mechanical Skeletal Variables Variables Variables 100 Time determinations: Time airborne Percentage of jump time spent in Phase I and Phase II Force, angle of projection, velocity of projection of the total body at take-off The anthropometric and skeletal variables which related to these mech- anical variables were specified from the cluster analyses. The anthro- pometric and skeletal variables were: Anthropometric variables: Bicristal width Pronation Weight Thigh length Standing height Erect sitting height Skeletal variables: Distal phalanx III Metacarpal II Metacarpal III Metacarpal V Skeletal age Distal Phalanx I In addition, Walker Compliance Rating and rank with criterion, which associated with skilled performance, were included. On examination of Figure 4.9, it would appear that movement patterns which approach skilled performance are associated with greater physical maturity and higher motivation. The variables that reflected movement patterns divergent from skilled performance were determined in the following manner. In the elementary linkage analyses, five coefficients of correlation, involving five pairs of variables in association with each other in clusters, were found which showed a difference in performance between the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects. For example, the coefficient of correlation between the w of the upper 101 arm, Phase I, and shoulder angle on landing was -.56. An increase in 6 of the upper arm in a counterclockwise 6+) direction to a position behind the body in the preparatory motion of Phase I represented a skilled performance pattern. Decrease in shoulder angle on landing was not representative of skilled performance. All of the research subjects had a shoulder angle on landing smaller than the criterion average (i) of 62 degrees. The five pairs of associations have been listed below so the first variable mentioned represents movement com- parable to skilled performance; the aberration is the second variable. 1. w, upper arm, Phase I, moved counterclockwise 6+) as shoulder angle at depth of crouch decreased. 2. 6, upper arm, Phase I, moved counterclockwise (+) as shoulder angle at landing decreased. 3. w, upper arm, Phase II, moved clockwise (-) as shoulder angle at landing decreased. 4. The trunk in Phase I moved with less w, counterclockwise (+), as the lower arm in Phase I moved clockwise (-). 5. Walker Compliance Rating decreased (higher motivation) as knee height decreased. In summary, examination of the coefficients of correlation, the raw data, and the interrelationships of Figure 4.9 showed only one of the variables in each of the five pairs failed to associate with skilled performance. Through this process, three mechanical variables were- found to represent divergence from skilled performance in arm.pattern relationship. The variables were: w measurement: Phase I: lower arm Angular measurements: Shoulder angle at depth of crouch and landing 102 Discussion General considerations It was reported in Chapter II that Frankenburg and Dodds (31) found all of the children in their study could perform the standing long jump by 39 months of age. In the present investi» gation, only eight of the 19 girls, chronological ages 40 to 44 months, who came to the Merrill Palmer Institute for a filming appointment were able to execute the standing long jump in all three trials. Childhood negativism was a factor in performance failure in five cases. Running and leaping patterns were in evi- dence in one, two or all of the trials for five subjects; it was necessary to consult the film record for final verification of the bipedal thrust. In observation of the performance-of the standing long jump, it might be difficult at times to discern the necessary simultaneous push with both feet. In the initial standing position frame, the Wisconsin cri- terion subjects stood in a semi-crouched position (see Appendix J), looking ahead in the direction of the jump. The research subjects generally stood upright, and many looked at the investigator; some flexion was apparent at the hip and knee. The Wisconsin criterion subjects did not have to move the trunk, thigh and leg very far to arrive at depth of crouch position. For example, the average hi) score for the Wisconsin criterion subjects for w of the trunk during this preparatory motion (Phase I) was + 40 degrees per second. The 103 average 6 of the trunk, Phase I, for the research subjects was + 59 degrees per second with a range of from-+ 21 degrees per second to + 106 degrees per second. Every research subject moved her trunk counter- clockwise (+) in the same directional movement shown by the skilled performers. This difference in initial standing position has been con— sidered in the interpretation of w relationships for the trunk, thigh and leg in Phase I, and for the w of the trunk, Phase II, which was affected by what happened to the trunk in Phase I. For example, the coefficient of correlation between 6, trunk, Phase I and 6, head, Phase II, in the elementary linkage analysis for mechanical variables was -.72. This association has been described as follows in the. study: as movement of the head occurs with greater wAin the directions of dorsal flexion during power application (Phase II), the trunk moves with less w counterclockwise (+) toward the depth of crouch position. One girl moved her thigh the "wrong" direction during Phase I, and another girl m0ved her leg the "wrong" direction at this time; two. Subjects moved their trunks in the "wrong" direction in Phase II. Otherwise direction of movement was the same for the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects- I Hellebrandt, £5. 21. (43) discussed the differentiation of a simple execution of the standing long jump from the forceful pro- jection of the body through space for.horizontal distance. The lat- ter, for them, "implied exercise of will and desire to put forth max- imal efforti" (43:23) This is a crucial point and differentiation is diffiCult to ascertain. No attempt was made to do so in the present 104 investigation. The Walker Compliance Rating, which indicated moti- vation, was based on the girl's reaction to and enjoyment of the total situation. Specification of race in American society presents problems. McGraw (55) discussed these difficulties some 35 years ago. Her inferences were given in Chapter II. In the present study, one child, who appeared to be Caucasian, came for a filming appointment. The mother was predominantly Negro. If the child had been seen alone, the investigator probably would have classified this girl as white. Specific consideration: theoretical mechanics In the analysis by inspection and in the elementary linkage analyses sections of this chapter, motor patterns of the research subjects which were similar to and divergent from skilled performance were specified. Focus will now be placed on these motor patterns. Evidence in the present investigation tends to indicate that the principles of mechanical physics can be applied to human movement. Bunn (12) and Broer (9) have stated that the preliminary backswing of the arms at depth of crouch puts the arms in such a position that the forward swing can be executed through a long are thus transferring the momentum of the arms to the body. The Wisconsin criterion subjects were able to execute a preliminary backswing of the arms at depth of crouch, but only one research subject, the girl who showed the "wing- ing" arm pattern, placed her arms behind the midline of her body at this point in the jump. The armswing also helps control the take-off angle of the center of gravity which should move in front of the feet 105 as they thrust down and back at take-off. The evidence regarding the relationship of V0, projection angle of the center of gravity and distance jumped in this intesti- gation does not completely substantiate the theoretical formula for 2 sin 2? V0 did relate to distance jumped projectiles: D = V (r= .80) in the elementary linkage analysis for mechanical variables for nine subjects; as Vo increased, the girl assumed a deeper crouch position in the preparatory motions of the standing long jump. But Vo correlated inversely (r= -.90) with ratio of depth of crouch height to standing height in the cluster analysis for seven subjects. Tricker and Tricker (69) stated that optimum take-off angle should be less than 45 degrees and might vary from person to person. The stand- ing long jump selected for study in the present investigation was based on Bunn's (12) theoretical "best" angle of a 40 degree projec- tion of the center of gravity. This arbitrary selection might account for the lack of association between distance jumped and angle of pro- jection of the center of gravity in any cluster of the analyses of the present study. Halverson (39) had reported that as skill increased in the kindergarten children studied, angle of projection decreased and was below a theoretical best angle. Felton (28) found skilled college women had a 21 degree projection angle. In the present study, the average (i) take-off angle of the center of gravity of the Wisconsin criterion subjects was 18 degrees and 28 degrees. Normative data is needed regarding optimum center of gravity take-off angles of skilled- jumpers of various ages in standing long jump performance. ‘ An increase in w of the thigh during force application corre- lated with distance jumped throughout the anlyses of the present in- 106 vestigation. Broer (9) stated that the force required for projec- tion of the body through space is derived from a quick contraction of the extensors of the leg. In the Halverson (39) study, support for this theoretical position was also reported. Halverson found a significant difference between ability groups in speed and range of movement of the knee just prior to take-off. In Chapter II, the theoretical position regarding the application of the law of the conservation of angular momentum to the body once it is airborne was stated. Distance can be affected by "changing the configuration of the body and the relative position of the partial masses." (64:395) The problem is one of getting the heels as far forward as possible on landing without loss of balance. Differences were found between the Wisconsin criterion subjects and the research subjects in range of movement of the toes relative to the hips from the height of the parabola to landing. Subject #6 jumped 6.02 inches and the range of movement of her toes relative to her hips was about 10 degrees. Between the same key reference point frames, this range was about 120 degrees for Wisconsin cri- terion subject #124 who jumped 83.8 inches. In this study, as knee angle on landing decreased, reflecting a more horizontal position of the thigh at this reference frame, per? formance in the research group approached that of the Wisconsin criterion subjects in terms of direction of lever movement. Felton (28) had reported the unskilled women in her study had a more horiz- ontal leg position on landing and Cooper and Glassow (l4) believed that the more horizontal the thigh position on landing was associated with greater skill in jumping. 107 Specific consideration: pragmatic mechanical investigation Hellebrandt and her associates (43) had observed, in the boys studied, a progression in arm motion in the standing long jump. Ini- tially the arms and shoulders were retracted during flight and take- off. This becamse a "full blown ‘winging' pattern as the arms were moved behind the body to shoulder height, reaching culmination in one [boy's] performance at 41 months." (43:18-19) This same boy first attempted to swing his arms forward during force application at 43 months. The "winging'pattern was exhibited by one one girl, subject #13, in the present study. This girl, in terms of chronological age, was one of the youngest(40 months); her skeletal age (37 months) was below the average of 41 months, but she was not the "youngest" subject in terms of skeletal age. The skeletal age of the "youngest" girl was 33 months. The next step in the arm progression observed in the Helle- brandt research was the use of the arms as stabilizers: "abduction at the glonohumeral joint was common and often more marked than humeral advancement." (43:19) This arm motion was found in kinder- garten children, and the pattern persisted throughout the elementary years. In the analysis by inspection in the present study, the results of a joint motion analysis of the humerus at the shoulder were given. A wide variety of arm motions was demonstrated by the three and one half year old subjects. Basically the arm pattern observed was that of the stabilization which Hellebrandt and her associates had found in the kindergarten children studied. The skilled arm patterns of the Wisconsin criterion subjects varied in timing, and slightly, 108 in direction, but the joint action was primarily one of flexion and extension of the humerus at the shoulder. Hellebrandt and her coresearchers described this arm action as "augmentation" (43:24); it represents the last step in arm pattern progression. Another characteristic described in the Hellebrandt (43) research was that of head motion. This motion consisted of dorsi- flexion during preparatory crouch and ventroflexion as the legs extended for take-off once the objective of jumping for distance was established. It is difficult to ascertain precisely head motion from this verbal description, but Hellebrandt and her associ- ates included an explanatory drawing in their reported research. The head action was-one of dorsiflexion during force application (Phase II); ventroflexion began at take-off. This same head motion was exhibited by the research subjects in this investigation. In their investigation, Hellebrandt EE‘.S£' (43)reported the following regarding the phylogeny-ontogeny factors in the stand- ing long jump: By the time central nervous system maturation progresses sufficiently-to.permit the jump to be evoked, the leg pattern appears in stereotyped form. It has all the earmarks of a phy— logenetic acquisition--not so the arms.... The integration of the arms with the lower extremities to add momentum to a purposive movement is a learned skill which makes a comparatively late and hesitant appearance. (43:14) Their conclusions were: There is nothing in our study which proves the increas- ingly efficient utilization of the arms to add momentum to the jump is a learned modification of a more elemental response, proceeding under a cortical direction. It may be no more than the last of a series of spontaneous changes unfolding in response to endogenous directional forces but affected to a significant degree by opportunities for practice. (43:24) 109 If the leg pattern is phylogenetic and the arm pattern ontogenetic, one might expect greater variability in the latter. In this study in the analysis by inspection greater variability in segmental inclination of the arms relative to the trunk, thigh, leg and foot was found for the research group at each of the six key reference frames. In addition, in the elementary linkage analyses, the variables that were representative of differences in movement patterns between the three and one half year oldsand the Wisconsin criterion subjects were arm pattern relationships. Finally, Hellebrandt and her associates (43) found the boys studied were able to restore balance following flight through the air so the integrity of the weight bearing segments could be main- tained. Degree of propulsive force engendered was dependent on this ability to restore balance. No girl in the present investigation lost her balance following flight through the air. Specific considerations: skeletal In the skeletal assessment section of Chapter II, Garn's (33) findings were reported. Garn stated that, for the female, in the hand and wrist, the epiphysis of metacarpal III was the bone of greatest utility, yielding the most information on present or future skeletal status. Garn's report was based on onset of ossification; he found that by 1.94 years of age, onset of ossification had occurred in the epiphysis of metacarpal III in 95 percent of the girls studied. In the Greulich and Pyle Standard of Reference (37), onset of ossi— 110 fication in this bone appears between the ages of nine and 12 months in females, some 30 months in time previous to the ages of the research subjects. In this investigation, metacarpal III was a key individual bone which associated with achievement as represented by distafce jumped (r= .82) in the cluster analysis for skeletal variables and with shoulder angle on landing (r= —.68) in the final elementary linkage analysis. In the same section of Chapter II, the problem inherent in the computation of skeletal age for preschool aged children was dis- cussed. Skeletal age represents an arithmetical average of the bone ages of all the bones in the hand and wrist in which ossification has begun. Bones not present are rated 0. Because of this problem, a partially longitudinal series of Xrays of preschool aged girls from the Brush Foundation Collection were read in the preliminary phases of this study. Individual differences in progress of ossification were characteristic for the bones in the hands and wrists of the Brush Foundation girls; consequently, individual bone age, as well as skeletal age, was included as individual variables in the present investigation, Distance jumped, rank with criterion, and Walker Compliance Rating all related to individual bone ages: metacarpal III, distal phalanx III and metacarpal II. Skeletal age and chrono- logical age related to distal phalanx I with coefficients of cor- relation of .942 and .76, respectively. Specific consideration: anthropometric In Chapter II, it was explained that variables like lever length, bicristal width, foot and leg deviations might influence lll performance in the standing long jump. The theoretical basis for inclusion of these anthropometric variables was presented. The elementary linkage analyses indicated that the heavier girls tended to show more pronation, had greater bicristal width, and were taller in terms of erect sitting height and standing height. Higher motivation was related to an increase in erect sitting height and standing height; and as weight increased, distance jumped increased. As this gain in physical maturity, reflected by the greater length, girth, and weight measurements, occurred, motor patterns for the research subjects in the standing long jump approached those of the skilled performers. Cowan and Pratt (15), Seils (66), and Wyrick (77) all re- ported low correlation coefficients between distance jumped and height, and between distance jumped and weight. The results of this study tend to support their findings. A moderate coefficient of correlation was found between distance jumped and weight (r= .51) and a low coeffibient of correlation between distance jumped and height (r= .32). CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary This study was designed to investigate the interrelation- ships of selected mechanical, skeletal, and anthropometric variables, and skilled performance in the standing long jump for three and one half year old girls. Nineteen Caucasian girls, chronological age 40 to 44 months, from highly favorable homes in the upper socio-economic level of society, came to the Merrill Palmer Institute in Detroit, Michigan during the winter of 1966 for a filming appointment. First, eight .anthropometric measurements were made, then the girl was filmed as she performed three trials of the standing long jump on a mat. A 16 mm. Bell and Howell camera operated at 64 frames per second was, used. If the girl was able to execute at least one jump, an Xray was taken of the left hand to determine bone age. Ratings based on the Walker Compliance Rating scale were completed to reflect movi- vation as the last step in the testing procedure. The processed Xray film was appraised for bone age by Dr. S. Idell Pyle. Each bone on each Xray was assessed through comparison with the Greulich and Pyle (37) Standard of Reference. Letters 112 113 were sent to the family physician requesting information on pediatric history. A cinematographical analysis was completed on the filmed record of the standing long jump. The jump selected for study was the one in which take-off angle of the "center of gravity" mark on the ilium most closely approximated Bunn's (12) theoretical best angle of 40 degrees. Thirty-five mechanical variables were selected for study. Choice was based on the research which has been cited in Chapter II. Measurements and computations were made from the film record at six specific reference point frames: initial standing position, depth of crouch, take-off, height of parabola, landing, and landing plus seven additional frames. The variables included: angue lar measurements; average angular velocities; time determinations; ratio of depth of crouch height to hitial standing height; acceler- ation, force, angle of projection, and velocity of projection of the total body at take-off; and distance jumped. Plus and minus values were assigned to average angular velocity measurements to show direct- ion of movement of levers so patterns could be related to mature performance. The criterion measure was the filmed record of the skilled performance of two sixth grade girls. Degree of skill was determined by comparison of the distance jumped by these girls with records in published normative studies. This data was provided by Miss Ruth Glassow and her associates at the University of Wisconsin. The three and one half year olds were compared to the Wisconsin criterion subjects on an individual, mechanical variable basis. Total points 114 accumulated by the three and one half year olds in the comparison were ranked. This ranking (rank with criterion) was included as a variable. The data for this investigation consisted of mechanical variables, skeletal variables (individual bone ages and skeletal age), anthropometric variables, Walker Compliance Rating, and rank with criterion. Complete data which met the standards of this investi- gation were available for nine of the 19 girls who came to the Merrill Palmer Institute for a filming appointment. Some question still existed regarding the medical histories of two of the nine sub- jects. Final determination of sample size was based on initial statis- tical treatment of the data. The data was submitted to a computer which was programmed to develop two groups of three matrices each: mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric. One group of matrices was based on the data for seven subjects; the other, on the data for nine subjects. Rank with criterion, Walker Compliance Rating, and distance jumped were included in each matrix as variables. An elementary linkage analysis, or cluster analysis (57) was completed on each matrix. The analysis focused on delineation of typal or cluster structure and observation of variable relationships within mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric groupings. No marked dissimilarities appeared in the composition of clusters for the two sample sizes. A final decision was made that the statistical analysis should include all nine subjects. On the basis of association within clusters and degree of stability of variables in the analyses for seven and nine subjects, 115 selection was made of 33 variables from the mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric matrices. A final intercorrelation matrix was I developed and a final elementary linkage analysis was completed for these variables to ascertain interrelationships between variable groupings. The data and the film record were also analyzed by inspection. The findings of this investigation, presented within the context of the limitations imposed by the design of the study, were: I. II. III. IV. Eight of the 19 girls, chronological ages 40 to 44 months, who were filmed while performing the standing long jump were able to execute the skill in all three trials; examination of the film record was necessary for verification of the simultaneous thrust with both feet. Variables tended to cluster with variables from within the same grouping: mechanical, skeletal and anthropometric. Anthropometric variables related in clusters to mechanical variables and mechanical variables, to skeletal, but skeletal and anthropometric variables did not associate with each other in clusters. All phases of the standing long jump were related: lever movement and position during the preparatory motions associated with movement and position during power appli- cation and landing. In general, similarities in directional movement pattern and lever position between the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterien subjects in all phases of standing long jump performance were more pronounced than differences in 116 pattern. Movement patterns which approached skilled perform- ance appeared to be associated with greater physical maturity and higher motivation. The mechanical variables associated with skilled performance were: Angular measurements: At depth of crouch: hip At take-off: shoulder, knee, ankle At landing: knee, hip w measurements: Phase I: head, trunk, thigh, leg Phase II: head, trunk, thigh, leg, foot Time determinations: Time airborne Percentage of jump time spent in Phase I and Phase II Force, angle of projection, velocity of projection of the total body at take-off. In general, individual bones tended to group in clusters rela- tive to bone position in the hand. High coefficients of cor- relation were found between reciprocal pairs in the cluster analysis for skeletal variables. An increase in developmental age of the following bones and an increase in skeletal age associated with skilled performance. Distal phalanx I Distal phalanx III Metacarpal II Metacarpal III Metacarpal V Anthropometric variables were highly interrelated. The girls who weighed more showed greater pronation, had greater bicristal width, and were taller in terms of erect sitting and standing height. This increase in physical maturity associated with skilled performance. The anthropometric variables involved were: VI. 117 Bicristal width Pronation Weight Thigh length Standing height Erect sitting height Walker Compliance Rating, the measurement of motivation, and rank with criterion, one method of comparing performance be- tween the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion sub- jects on an individual, mechanical variable basis, also assoc- iated with skilled performance. Differences in performance were found between the research subjects and the Wisconsin criterion subjects. The research subjects tended to: A. move the lower arm clockwise toward the body in as- suming the depth of crouch position. B. hold their arms closer to their bodies, anterior or posterior, at depth of crouch and landing. C. use the arms as frontal plane stabilizers instead of augmentors of movement at take—off and flight through the air. D. show less range of movement of the leg relative to the hip during flight through the air. E. have the hips above knee level seven frames following landing. These differences could be representative of ontogenetic or late appearing phylogentic patterns. Greater variance was observed in segmental inclination of the arms relative to the trunk, thigh, leg and foot in the re- VII. VIII. IX. 118 search group at all the six key reference point frames. Throughout the analyses, the average angular velocity (6) of the thigh during force application associated most highly with achievement as measured by distance jumped. Velocity of projection of the center of gravity was related to dis- tance jumped, but projection angle of the center of gravity was not. Moderate relationship (r = .51) was found between distance jumped and weight, and low relationship (r = .32), between distance jumped and height. Rank with criterion related throughout the analyses to time ratio determinations: as less time was spent in power appli- cation, and more in preparatory action, rank with criterion increased. Distance jumped and rank with criterion each re- lated to the increased developmental age of specific bones more than they related to each other. Skeletal age and chronological age associated in clusters with each other, but not with distance jumped, rank with cri- terion, height or weight. Skeletal age and chronological age each related to the bone age of distal phalanx I, but more variance was accounted for in the association of skeletal age and distal phalanx I. Distance jumped, rank with criterion, and the Walker Com- pliance Rating each related to physical maturation as evi- denced by an increase in developmental age of individual bones: metacarpal II, metacarpal III, and distal phalanx III. The bone age of metacarpal III was related to shoulder angle on landing, distance jumped, and skeletal age. 119 Implicatiom for Childhood Education There are two major implications of this investigation for structuring and teaching learning experiences in physical activity in early childhood education. First, it is recommended achievement standards of performance should reflect variability of individual difference. It is suggested that these be constructed in percentiles such as the Denver Develop~ mental Screening Test which indicates no absolutes for variability of performance. The following chart is an adaptation of the Denver percentile charts (31:185): 24 Mo. 2% Yrs. 3 Yrs. 3% Yrs. 4 Yrs. 4% Yrs. 5 Yrs. A893 I 1 j. J, L i- I T‘ 1‘ r l I rt r 1 2 Ft. Distance] Jump 25% 50% 75% 90% (Percentage of child- ren achieving jump) tody Form - Sequential Development of Arm Pattern (Percentage of children achieving specific arm pattern) The evaluation tool for form could be subjectively appraised through visual inspection by the teacher. Movies or still pictures taken from movies depicting sequential movement of body form is the recommended format for visual inspection. These developmental standards will serve as diagnostic tools for the teacher to evaluate the specific develop- mental level achieved by an individual child. As such, the dflgnostic tools will serve two vital functions° (1) programming the specific 120 activities for the individual child based on his level of development, (2) evaluating changes occurring in the learning situation. Second, it is recommended that the learning experiences be structured for the child to sequentially develop skilled performance. His present status would be evaluated using the diagnostic tool des- cribed above. Thus, the individual's present level of development would be diagnosed, and the next sequence of development for attaining skill performance, recognized by the teacher. A complete sequential development of form for the fundamental motor skills (run, hop, leap, throw, catch, and so forth) for the teacher is not to be found in the literature. An example of a suggested model that would be helpful for the teacher would be as follows: Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Attemptsactiv- Efforts direct- Trunk, leg Trunk, leg ity, but seeks ed at general patterns emerge. patterns more help or support. body control. Arms assist in refined, but (38:172-173) balance in unnecessary specific skill. movements stil ~ evident. Under each stage, sequential pictures would be presented, showing the motor patterns thought necessary before struc- turing experiences for the next stage. Spefific examples for the teacher in structuring learning experiences in the standing long jump for sequential skill development might be as follows. The beginning stages, occurring during early childhood educa- tion would be primarily descriptive, such as: "Can you: 121 jump over this little brook or over this wider one?" (achieve jumps of greater distance) squat way down and make yourself very small; then, when the drum sounds, jump as far as you can?" (develop a deeper preparatory crouch position) swing your arms up high as you jump?" (use the arms to augment movement) jump quickly?" (decrease the time spent in force application) "How do you: move your arms when you jump?" land when you jump?" get ready to jump?"» In addition, equipment can be designed, or if existing equipment is available, it can be utilized to enlarge opportunities for the child to experience jumping in many different situations. The basic skills of dropping into a deeper crouch and jumping quickly could be learned on a flexible board or a mini-trampoline. To insure success in the beginning stages, the adult could hold the child's hands. A gentle lifting of the arms during flight through the air might show the child how the arms could be used to augment movement. Implications for Further Research Areas for further research suggested by the findings of study include the following topics: 1. Measurement technique in cinematographical analysis needs to be standardized. 2. The design of this study could be replicated with a larger sample representing other socio-economic groups and other races. 122 Improved filming techniques should be incorporated in the pro- cedures so all body planes can be recorded on the film record. Markings to show rotation in body levers need to be developed. 3. The performance of subject # 16 in this study suggests that investigation of the interrelationships between child rearing practice and development of specific motor skills such as jumping should be undertaken. 4. Specification of direction~of lever movement does not indicate optimal timing. Normative data of the actual average angular velocities exhibited by skilled performers in the standing long jump are needed as criteria. 5. The factors affecting motivation in the performance of the standing long jump at various ages should be studied. 6. Techniques for measuring explosive strength in young children need to be developed. 10. LITERATURE CITED Acheson, Roy M. "Maturation of the Skeleton." Chapter 16 in Falkner, Frank. Human Development. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1966. Baer, Melvyn and Durkatz, Josephine. "Bilateral Asymmetry In In Skeletal Maturation of the Hand and Wrist: A Roentgeno- graphic Analysis." American Journal of Physical Anthro- pology, 15: 81-196, June, 1957. 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Point S Placement: Acromion process of scapula Average angular velocity of lower arm, Phase I Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Apex of angle, back of elbow joint Average angular velocity of trunk, Phase I Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Apex of angle, back of hip joint Average angular velocity of thigh, Phase I Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Apex of angle, front knee joint Average angular velocity of leg, Phase I Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Lateral malleolus Average angular velocity of head, Phase I Measurement Technique: A. (See Appendix B) Percentage of total jump time Phase I consumes Ratio (in percentage) of depth of crouch height to initial standing height Time (in seconds) before take off when maximum angular velocity of lower arms occurs, Phase II, (Take 1/2 of time between the two adjacent frames in which this maximum angular velocity occurs) Size of angle at the hip between the trunk and thigh, depth of crouch frame Measurement Technique: B Size of angle at the knee between the thigh and leg, depth of crouch frame Measurement Technique: B 130 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 131 Size of angle at the ankle between the leg and foot, depth of crouch frame Measurement Technique: B Size of the angle at the shoulder between the humerus and trunk, depth of crouch frame Measurement Technique: B Time in seconds before take off when arms (lower arm) reaches maximum vertical height, Phase II Angle of projection of the center of gravity mark with the horizontal (Measurement of the movement of the center of gravity mark taken from the grid using both horizontal and vertical reference points. Measured in take off frame + 2 frames) Vo computation (Velocity of projection of center of gravity) Computation of force (time = time feet are in contact with mat, Phase 11) Ft = mv Computation of acceleration at take off using F = ma formula Size of angle at the hip between trunk and thigh, take off frame Measurement Technique: B Size of angle at the knee between thigh and leg, take off frame Measurement Technique: B Size of angle at the ankle between leg and foot, take off frame Measurement Technique: B Size of angle at the shoulder between humerus and trunk, take off frame Measurement Technique: B Average angular velocity of upper arm, Phase II Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Acromion process of scapula Average angular velocity of trunk, Phase II Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Apex of angle, back of hip joint Average angular velocity of thigh, Phase II Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Apex of angle, front of knee joint 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 132 Average angular velocity of leg, Phase II Measurement Technique: A. Point S Placement: Lateral malleolus Average angular velocity of foot, Phase 11 Measurement Technique: A. Point 8 Placement: Tip of toes Average angular velocity of head, Phase II Measurement Technique: A Percentage of total jump time Phase II consumes Size of angle at the hip between trunk and thigh, landing frame Measurement Technique: B Size of angle at the knee between thigh and leg, landing frame Measurement Technique: B Size of angle at the ankle, between leg and foot, landing frame Measurement Technique: B Size of angle at the shoulder between humerus and trunk, landing frame Measurement Technique: B Distance jumped Time in seconds child is airborne Bone age, radius Bone age, capitate Bone age, hamate Bone age, triquetral Bone age, metacarpal I Bone age, metacarpal II Bone age, metacarpal III Bone age, metacarpal IV Bone age, metacarpal V Bone age, proximal phalanx I 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone age, age, age, age, age, age, age, age, age, age, age, age, age, 133 proximal phalanx II proximal phalanx III proximal phalanx IV proximal phalanx V middle middle middle middle distal distal distal distal distal Skeletal age Chronological age Standing height Weight phalanx II phalanx III phalanx IV phalanx V phalanx I phalanx II phalanx III phalanx IV phalanx V Erect sitting height Bicristal width Thigh length Knee height Degrees, pronation in the foot Degrees, inward rotation, patella Walker Compliance Rating Rank with criterion APPENDIX B MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES, MECHANICAL VARIABLES MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE A: AVERAGE ANGULAR VELOCITY OF A SEGMENT Step 1: For determination of segmental inclination a circular protractor was placed over the traced image so the X axis was parallel to the mat surface and the Y axis, perpendicular to the mat. 0 degrees pointed up, toward the child's head. Point S was placed on the anatomical landmark specified in the variable description. The degree at which the center of the other end of the segment (lever) intersected the circle re- presented the measurement. The positioning of the circular 00 [NAM XI 27; NOS ‘100 ‘ rowrS HACIMENT' protractor is shown in the drawing below: mo" Step 2: For measurement of head inclination, a line was drawn from the tragus of the ear to the apex of the chin. Point S was placed on the tragus of the ear. The measurement re- presented the degree at which the extended line intersected the circle using the circular protractor described above. Step 3: Average angular velocity of a segment was then de- termined as follows: 1. The degrees the distal end of the humerus,radius,ulna,and head moved was measured. 134 135 2. The degrees the proximal end of the trunk, thigh, leg, foot moved was measured. 3. The difference in degrees was measured between the position of the lever in the two frames specified in the definition of phases. That value was divided by the time that elapsed between the two lever positions to obtain the average angular velocity measured in degrees per second. 4. Plus or minus values were assigned as follows: A. When the humerus, radius and ulna, trunk, leg, foot moved CLOCKWISE, a minus (-) value was assigned; COUNTER- CLOCKWISE, a plus 6+) value was assigned. B. When the thigh and head moved CLOCKWISE, a plus (+) value was assigned; COUNTERCLOCKWISE, a minus (-) value was assigned. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE B: ANGULAR MEASUREMENT £925: A line was drawn through the center of the leg parallel to the long axis of the tibia and through the foot from the toe to the heel along the sole. The following angle represented the measurement: Leg Anterior Posterior Foot 136 Knee: A line was drawn through the center of the thigh parallel to the long axis of the femur and through the center of the leg parallel to the long axis of the tibia. The following angle at the intersection of these lines represented the measurement: Thigh Anterior Posterior Leg flip: A line was drawn through the center of the trunk parallel to the long axis of the spine and through the center of the thigh parallel to the long axis of the femur. The following angle at the intersection of these lines represented the measurement: Trunk Anterior Posterior Thigh Shoulder: A line was drawn through the center of the trunk parallel to the long axis of the spine and through the center of the upper arm parallel to the humerus. The following angle at the intersection of these lines represented the measurement: Inclination Line, Trunk Inclination Line, Upper Arm APPENDIX C INITIAL LETTER SENT TO PARENTS Dear (Parent's Name): This letter concerns a research study on the development of locomotor skills that I am conducting at the Merrill Palmer Institute. Mrs. . . . . director of . . . . Nursery School suggested you be contacted. The problem is that children of a specific age are needed for this study. As you know, research studies have to be care- fully controlled. In the present research design, girls, ages 3 years, 4 months, through 3 years, 8 months, who are free from physical disabilities will be included. All of the children presently enrolled in the Merrill Palmer Institute who are eli- gible are participating. The basic objective of the research is the investigation of normative patterns in locomotor skills, and the procedure would involve your bringing your child to the Merrill Palmer 4 Institute. The actual data collection would consist of three parts and will take only 45 minutes. First, we will take measurements like height, weight, and hip width. Secondly, a motion picture film will be taken of the child performing some locomotor skills. Thirdly, an Xray will be taken of the hands to determine the child's level of physical maturation. The Xray at Merrill Palmer Institute has been licensed and will be operated by the qualified technician with the child wearing proper protective equipment. If you are interested, we would like to include your child in this study. I will call you in a few days and get your final decision. At that time, if you are willing to participate, final arrangements can be made. Thank you for your consideration of this matter. 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E a» 44% g 3384.55393th on on 2! 3339833 Variable 34 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 169 INTERCORRELATION MATRIX ANTHROPOMETRIC VARIABLES N=7* 34 X ~03 36 54 31 ~25 08 06 38 ~13 ~55 ~17 60 ~03 X ~29 ~07 ~39 28 ~08 53 03 32 578 ~20 61 36 ~29 X 77 803 ~01 25 18 46 50 ~66 43 62 54 ~07 77 X 68 25 ~02 32 796 24 ~49 27 63 31 ~39 803 68 X 36 ~31 07 63 52 ~77 16 64 ~25 28 ~01 25 36 X ~58 ~02 70 29 ~08 ~41 * = Decimal points have been omitted 65 08 ~08 25 ~02 ~31 ~58 X ~27 ~25 ~29 ~08 13 66 06 53 18 32 07 ~02 ~27 X ~04 63 47 62 67 38 03 46 796 63 70 ~25 ~04 X 09 ~54 ~29 68 ~13 32 50 24 52 29 ~29 63 09 X 00 39 69 ~55 578 ~66 ~49 ~77 ~08 ~08 47 ~54 00 X 23 70 ~17 ~20 43 27 16 ~41 13 62 ~29 39 23 APPENDIX M MECHANICAL, SKELETAL AND ANTHROPOMETRIC INTERCORRELATION MATRICES FOR N=9 170 171 antic awn mzi §&.4(§Bo ...-x u 3 8.3.3 8 on ow on 8.8 8 an S n“ 3.3 8 «88.3.8-3 8.3.8 on 8.8.3 8.8 8 8 2. ma 8 2. 8 n 8-8.88.8 8 8 8 3-8 8 8.8 8.8-8.8.91818 8 8 8.8 8 8.8 3.8 8.8 8 8 8 .R 8 8.2.- n 8 8-8 8 8-8-8 8-8.8.: 8-8 8 8 8 8 8 a 8.8 8.8-8.8.8 8-8-8 8.8.8 8.8. 8 888.8 M 8.3 8 .8.8.8 8 3 8.8-8.8 3 8 8 8 8 8 8-8 8.8.8.838 8.8.8-8 8-R-8 8- 8 3 8- 8- 8. u 8 8-3 8 3-8 8. 8 8- 8 8-8-8 3- 8. 8.8.8 8- 8 8.8 3 8.8 8.. 8 8. 8 8 R- 8- 8 8 8-8 3 8 u 8-8-8-8 8 8 8.8. 8 8 m: S 8 8.8 8.8-8-3-8-3-8-8.8.8-8-8.8 8-8-8. 8 8 8 8 8 8-8- a 8 8 3.8.8-8.8 8.8.8 8 8 8. 8.8 8 8-8.8.8. 3 8 8 8.8 8 8 8 8 8- 8 cm nu 8.8-3 8-8 a 8 8.8-8.8 8.8 8.8-8-8 8- 8.8.8 8.8 8 8 8 mm 8 8.8 8 883 8 8- 8 8 8 8-8-8 8-8 8 a 8.8.8 8. 8 8 8.8 8 8 8-3.8.8 8-8-8 8. 8.8 8 8.8. 8 8 8 8 8 8 8.8 8 8 3-8 3.8.8. u 8 8 3.8.8 8 8-8-8 9 an 3 8.8 mm 8-3.8.8188 388.888-80.8- 8 8 3-8-8 8 8 8.8.8.8 n 8 8-8-8 8. 8 8.8.8 9. 8 8.8 8 8 3 8.8.8-8 8.8.8-318 8 8 8 8 8.3 8-8 8.8-8 8 8 u 8.8-8.318 3.3 8 8 8 8-8 8-8.8.8.; 8.8 8-8 8.8 R R 8. 8 8 8.8.8 8.8-8 8 8.8.8. n 8 8 3-8. 818.8- 8.8.8 8 8 8 2. 8 8.8 8 8 3 8 R 8 8 n8 8 8.8 8.8- 8 8. 8- o« 8- 8- 8- 8 n 8 8 8 8 8.8- 3- 8- 8-8 8-8 8 8 S- ? 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8.3 8 8-8.8.8.? 8 3 8 8 8 8.8. 9-8-8.8...“ 8 8 a 8-8 8-8 8.8. 3.8.3. 2 8-8 8 8 8.8.8 8 8. 8.88.3 8.8.8 8.8.8 8 8. 8 8.8 8.8-R-8- x 8-8 8.3 8-8-8 8 3 3.8-8.8 3.8 8 8 8-8-8.8 8 8 3 8 8 3.3- 88-818 8 8 8 8 8. a 8-8 .8.8.8 8 8- 8.8 83.8-8.8-8.888 8 8 8 8.8.8 918-883 8 8.8.8 8 8.8.3 8. u 318-918-888 8 8.8 8-8 8-8 8 8. 8.8.8.8 8 8 8.8 8 8 3- 3 8.8 8 R 8 8.8 3. n 8 8 8 8 $- 8 8 8.8 8-8-8 8 8 8.8.8 8 8 8.8-8 8 8 8 8 8.8.8 3 8.2 8.8.8 a 8 R 8 8 8 8 8.8.8 8.8 2. 8 «88.8.8 8 8 8.8 8.2.8. 2 2.3 8 8 8. 8-8 3.8 8 u 8 8 8 8 8 8 R-8 8-8 8 8 8.8.8 R 8.8-8.8 8.8.8- 8 8.8.8 3 2.8.8 8.8 8 8 a 88.3. 3 8 8.8 R-8-8 8 8 8.8 R 8 8 8.8.8 8.8.8. 2 8 8.888. 8.8 8 8.8 8 8 88 n 8 8 8 8.8-8.8.8-388 8-8 a. 8 an 3.8 R 8.3.8- 8.8.3-8 8.8 an 3.8 8-8 8.8 8 3 8 u abmwnninmm«nonmwmmuwwunmanufiwaowmaou snow 3333.33 m o u. w «in N «0.333 8 395333 saw-$3 HO] (“3 "“0500 o 2 gb aga- 53381358938 172 .338 53 83 338 1:88 a 3 883-8-838-8-3383038-838-8-3-8-31818-88838 8.3.8.8 3 u 3 8 8 8 8-8 3 3 3 3 3. .8 8-8-8 833.888 8-8 8.8-8-8 8.3 n8883883833833888338383888 3.8 88. u 8 3. 8 8 ~88 08.8 3. 888 8 3888.83. 8 8 8 3. 8 8 8 8-8 8 8 x 8888388~383 3 8 8 8 8 3 8 3 3 3 8-8-8 8 8 3 8.8 3 3. «8 x 08388 8. ~88 8 R88 8 8 8 8 3 3 3 3.3 3 3 8 8.8.8 8 8888 n 8838888 8 8 8 8 8 3 3 3 3 3 3 8 8 3 3 3 8.8 8 2. 388888 a 88888 88088 8 8 8 8 3 8 3 8 3 8 8 3 8 8.3 3 3888.8 3888 u 8 8 0888 8 8 8 888 8 8 8 3 8 3 8 8 8.3 88382. 88888 «2.88883 338 883833 38 8.3 3 083. ~88 3. 382.. n 3888888 8 8 8 8 3 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8-338388~88w838u388888883888R888 838888888888888u88383.838383333 8.8 888 Rm8 8 8 8 888. 8 x 8 8 8 8 2. 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 nn-mm-wa~ 8 3 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 3 u 888 8 88888.8 8 Q. .88 8 3-8-8 8 8 8 8 8 R 8 8 8 3 8. 88 x 088 883 888 8 8 38:88 8.8 8 383 8 3 8 3. 8 8 8 8 8 8 08 u 888 8 8.8.3 3. 8 8 8 i. 8.8-888883888388888888u838883R38 3-3-3 83 8 3 3 8 8 8 8 8 8 88888 8 a 883. 3 3 3 838? 8.3-3 3. 8 3 8 8 8 8 8 3 3 3 383 8 3 3m x 388 8 888 8 3 8.8 8 8 3 3 3 3 8 8 8 8 S 8 8888888 3 38 u 8 3 888 8 3 3.8-3838388388388838388 «88888 88888-018338888888383838 u"3338 3.8-388388838R38§8833088®83 x888 3.8-8 8 3 3 3 8 3 3 8 8 8 8 38388 8 ~88 8 8 3 3. x .88 888-3883338388388388388888388mn8 888838388.88838883883388888 n 883.338-8888883-8.88888888838388 388888888883.8833333333338888 a mnz 3455; dam g BOHENOQEE I 0 3.- 2. 3. 8 3 8 3 8 8- 8 8 8. 3 8 8 8 .8 8 8 8 8 8 8- 8 8- 8 8 3 8 3 8 8 8 3 8 3 8 .3 8 3 8 3 8 8 3 3 8 8 3 8 8 R 8 8 n 8 8 .885, Variable 34 6O 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 173 INTERCORRELATION MATRIX ANTHROPOMETRIC VARIABLES N=9* 34 X 26 32 51 29 01 13 ~07 34 11 ~49 ~26 6O 26 X ~18 03 ~30 34 02 19 05 51 46 ~29 61 32 ~18 X 799 762 30 39 29 55 28 ~59 09 62 51 O3 799 66 45 15 36 822 15 ~45 ~02 63 29 ~30 7628 66 32 ~23 09 62 41 -7620 08 64 01 34 30 45 32 X ~06 13 707 15 ~06 ~64 * = Decimal points have been omitted 65 13 02 39 15 ~23 ~06 X ~11 ~05 ~27 ~07 ~14 66 -07 19 29 36 09 13 -11 x 08 25 42 35 67 34 05 55 822 62 707 ~05 08 X 00 ~50 ~42 68 11 51 28 15 41 15 ~27 25 00 X 00 28 69 ~49 46 ~59 -45 ~762 ~06 ~07 42 ~50 00 X 19 70 ~26 ~29 09 ~02 08 ~64 ~14 35 -42 28 19 X APPENDIX N MECHANICAL, SKELETAL AND ANTHROPOMETRIC CLUSTER ANALYSES FOR N=7 174 175 $2 “adsg 32$: 3?? 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