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SCRIPTS, INVOLVEMENT, AND ADVERTISING
EFFECTIVENESS: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
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Ingrid M. Martin

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U-M-I

SCRIPTS, INVOLVEMENT, AND ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS:
AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION

By

Ingrid M. Martin

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Advertising

1987

ABSTRACT

SCRIPTS, INVOLVEMENT, AND ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS:
AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION

By

Ingrid M. Martin

This study was undertaken to investigate the potential of scripts
as the theoretical framework to initiate and foster consumers’
advertisement recall and recognition in an attempt to create
changes in their affective and cognitive structures. Scripts are
proposed as an effective tool to increase consumer awareness, to
develop a favorable attitude toward the brand and to increase
purchase likelihood. The level of involvement is proposed as a
variable that can affect the outcome of script applications by
predicting the depth at which an individual processes the
message.

A two by two factorial design is employed to measure the level of
recall and attitude that subjects display under high versus low
involvement and exposure to scripted versus nonscripted
advertisements. The results of the experiment found the script
format to be an effective method to convey print advertisement.
It is then proposed as an efficacious tool to develop public
service announcements as well as to regulate the advertising of
controversial products.

To Wade for his undying patience and encouragement and
to Sevgin for all the confidence and support without
which the struggle would have been insurmountable.

iii

TITLE:

I.

II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One
Introduction

Chapter Two

A.

Script Theory: A Theoretical Perspective
Historical Development

Fundamentals of Script Theory

Script Theory: Some Empirical Applications
Involvement

A Process Orientation

A State Orientation

Central vs. Peripheral Routes Of Persuasion

Chapter Three
Methodology

Research Definition and Hypotheses
Dependent Measures
Independent Measures

The Medium

The Product

The Sample

The Experimental Materials
The Procedures

Independent Variables
Dependent Measures

Coding Procedures

Chapter Four
Empirical Results

Manipulation Checks
Hypothesis One
Hypothesis Two
Hypothesis Three
Hypothesis Four
Hypothesis Five

iv

PAGE NUMBER:

10
18
29
30
36
42

51
51
52
54
56
59
60
61
65
66
68
70

71
71
72
72
73
75
76

VI.

VII.

Chapter Five

Discussion and Conclusions
Theoretical Implications
Managerial Implications
Public Policy Implications
Limitations
Future Research

Appendices

Appendix A: Questionnaire
Appendix B: Booklet 1
Appendix C: Booklet 2

List of References

78
78
81
83
84
85

87
93
94

95

LIST OF TABLES

TITLE: PAGE NUMBER:

I. Script Format 64
II. Nonscript Format 64
III. Analysis of Variance Results

for Hypothesis 3 74
IV. Analysis of Variance Results

for Hypothesis 4. 75
V. Means for Each Experimental

Cell on the Attitude Index 76

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

TITLE: PAGE NUMBER:
I. A Continuum of Script Development 15
II. Four Level of Cognitive Activity 33

vii

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Research concerning consumer response to advertising
efforts years has become an important area of study in
recent years. This field encompasses various topics
ranging from measuring advertising effects on brand and
product evaluation (Mitchell, and Olson 1981; Gardner 1983;
Mitchell 1986) to determining advertising effectiveness
through .consumer attitudes toward the advertising message
(Lutz, MacKenzie and Belch 1982; Moore and Hutchinson 1982)
and applying various consumer behavior models to measure
consumer responses to advertising efforts (Wilkie and
Pessemier 1973; Lutz 1975; Holbrook 1978; Shimp 1981;
Mitchell 1982).

While a massive literature exists in advertising
effectiveness and consumer response to marketing
communications, findings have been neither totally coherent
nor complete (Fishbein and Ajzen 1981; Shimp 1981; Miniard
and Cohen 1981). This current study addresses a portion of
this controversy by presenting a new theoretical framework
as a potential means to better understand and improve
advertising effectiveness. Specifically, the script format
is proposed as an effective framework to initiate and
foster consumers’ advertisement recall and recognition in

an attempt to create changes in consumers’ affective and

1

cognitive structures. The extensive schema and script
literature is, therefore, reviewed to formulate the
conceptual and empirical basis of this study.

Scripts are routine, sequential sets of vignettes that
an individual uses to guide his/her behavior and to reduce
the amount of cognitive processing needed to perform a
task. Their application in advertising effectiveness
research is a fairly new development. One specific example
of script applications to advertising is television media
protrayals, which juxtapose people and plot elements in
highly predictable ways so as to reinforce popular
stereotypical beliefs. These portrayals are incorporated
in widely accepted schemata and scripts which are familiar
to their target audience. The result is a message which is
readily processed, due to the familiar script and increased
advertising effectiveness. Another example is the
McDonald’s advertisement which shows the whole family going
to McDonald’s selecting, ordering and paying for their
food, and then eating their meal.

Application of scripts to the print medium is a fairly
new development. While this medium is very constrained in
using pictures to present and execute a script mainly due
to space limitations, it nevertheless promises to be a
creative and potentially effective advertising technique in
developing advertisements. Common to all of the above
examples is the existance of an event-centered, coherently

linked chain of episodic scripts. These scripts aid in

conveying a message that is readily processed and is more
likely to be recalled due partly to the scripted format of
the advertisement.

Some of the realistic goals of advertising include
increasing the consumer’s memory for the advertising
message, developing a favorable disposition towards the
advertised brand, and consequently increasing purchase
likelihood. Based on the theoretical and empirical
literature in psychology and marketing, scripts are being
proposed here as an effective tool to achieve these goals.
By presenting a subject with a scripted advertisement, the
advertiser may be able to invoke increased awareness and
attention to the message. It is expected that such
increased awareness and attention will then result in
heightened memory for the event and the message, eventually
culminating in a favorable action towards trying and
adopting the advertised brand.

Another implicit concern with advertising memorability
is the effect that scripts can have on consumer attitudes
towards brands as well as advertisements. Abelson (1981)
postulates that concrete information is much more effective
in forming attitudes towards an object than abstract
information. This implies that scripted advertisements
have the potential to favorably change and improve
attitudes towards a message as well as a brand by attaching
certain behaviors to the advertisement. A person’s

attitude toward a product is the result of a series of

'45

episodic scripts relating the experiences either in actual
or vicarious terms to the attitude object. When the
individual is queried about his/her attitude toward a
certain product, s/he recalls the episodic scripts and

responds accordingly.

Due, perhaps in part, to the relatively recent
development of script theory, research on its advertising
applications is virtually nonexistent. The only exception

is an exploratory study by Puto (1984) who found that
script intrusions result in improved recall of advertising
messages. Since, as noted by the author, the design was
informal and the methodology inadequate, the study found no
positive results for measures of attitude change and
behavioral intentions. These findings have not only
suggested the need for further research but also pointed to
the necessity to include some other variables that could
mediate the dynamics of script formats within the context
of advertising effectiveness.

A variable that is proposed to affect the outcome of
script applications in advertising is the consumer’s level
of involvement with the issue. Based on a review of the
literature, a definition of involvement is presented as
”... the complexity of cognitive and behavioral processes
characterizing the overall consumer decision making
process" (Houston and Rothschild, 1977). This is further
exemplified by Cohen (1982) when he states that we should

discontinue the practice of referring to the consumer as in

a state of low involvement or high involvement just because
the individual’s attention is disproportionately going to
something he or she may be interested in (i.e. aspects of
the advertising execution such as the scripted format)
rather than what the advertiser is interested in (i.e. the
issue). Here, then, the concept of personal importance
and/or relevance evoked by the variation in advertising
format becomes the major measure of involvement.

The key point in processing the advertisement is
understanding it. The level of involvement will predict
the depth at which an individual understands the message
stimulus. By understanding, an individual finds the script
that fits thestimulus (message) and then uses it to draw
inferences about the claims made in the advertisement.
This study is an attempt to demonstrate the interaction
between scripted versus nonscripted advertisement format
and the level of issue involvement in predicting
advertising effectiveness.

The study has three major objectives: (1) to develop a

realistic operationalization of the script advertisement

concept that is consistent with its theoretical
underpinnings, (2) to investigate the impact of script
versus nonscript print advertisements on recall and
attitudes, and (3) to explore the impact of issue
involvement on the script versus nonscript print
advertisement format. These issues will be examined to

determine the impact of using scripted advertisements on

advertising effectiveness and on selected consumer
cognitive response variables.

In the next chapter, the theoretical foundation of
script theory is examined in detail along with some of the
empirical applications of script theory in psychology and
marketing. Further, the literature on involvement and
specifically product involvement, is presented. Chapter
Three discusses the research problem and the corresponding
hypotheses. Also presented here is the rationale for the
product, medium, and sample chosen as well as relevant
definitions of measures and their operationalizations.
This chapter includes the results of the pretest conducted
to verify the existence of a story in the scripted version

of the advertisements. Last, the experimental design and

execution are covered along with an overview of the

questionnaire included in the Appendix. In Chapter Four,
the empirical results, along with the statistical tables,
are discussed. Finally, Chapter Five presents the

conclusions based on the empirical results presented in
Chapter Four. The conclusions are discussed in the context
of theoretical, managerial, and public policy implications.
Finally, the limitations of the experiment as well as

propositions for future research are presented.

CHAPTER TWO

A. SCRIPT THEORY:
A THEORETICAL PRESENTATION

Part of our knowledge is organized around stereotyped
activities such as going to a restaurant, shopping at a
grocery store and visiting a doctor. Either by direct or
vicarious experiences, we acquire numerous cultural
stereotypes along with some personal, idiosyncratic
variations on these stereotypes. These routine, sequential
sets of vignettes are termed scripts by Schank and Abelson
(1976) and are the basis for script theory.

In the last ten years, this field has provided an
important approach to research in human memory by
psychologists. This aspect of memorability is what has
made script theory a potential new field of research in
advertising. The effectiveness of an advertisement is
governed by its memorability and script theory provides a
promising theoretical perspective of improving consumers’
memories for advertisements.

This study is developed to determine if there is a
measurable difference of effectiveness between script and
nonscript ads. The major theoretical proposition espoused
here is that scripts provide a useful framework for
understanding and assessing the outcomes of various

advertising activities.

The first part of this discussion will provide the
historical background of scripts and their theoretical
foundations in the form of a literature review. This is
followed by an explanation of the fundamentals of script

theory concentrating on Abelson’s views.

Historical Development

The notion of scripts and script-related theories
provide the conceptual framework used to develop the
theoretical and empirical basis proposed in this study.
Consequently, it is essential to explain the concept in
some depth.

Script theory has its theoretical foundation in 'the
concept of schemata which are proposed to aid individuals
in information processing and recall. To fully understand
the theory on which scripts are founded, a brief discussion
of modern schema theory is needed.

In 1932, J.C. Bartlett developed the concept of
schemata which was then further developed by Minsky (1975)
with frame theory, and finally, Schank and Abelson (1977)
with script theory. In his book Rgmgmbggigg, Bartlett
(1932) defines a schema as an active set of past reactions
and experiences which are organized so as to operate in any
well-adapted organic response. He proposes that the
characteristic properties of schemata are that they are
organized, composed of old knowledge and generative, in the

sense that they can deal with an indefinitely large number

of new instances. His major application of schema was its
role in aiding the reconstruction process individuals use
in recall.

For many years Bartlett’s conceptualization of schemata
lay dormant until Minsky (1975) published his research on
frame theory. This theory builds on the concept of
schemata by giving it a narrower and empirically testable
definition through applications to artificial intelligence.
Minsky (1975) defines a frame or schema as a knowledge
structure which provides general information expected in a
situation in an ordered sequence.

The next development in schema theory came with
Abelson’s (1976) work in script theory. Basically, this
theory posits scripts as schemata held in memory which
contain knowledge of sequences of events or behavior that
are appropriate for a given stereotyped situation [Abelson
1976 and Schank & Abelson 1977]. More specifically Abelson
(1981) describes scripts as one type of schema which
encompasses most of the conceptual issues raised by other
types of schemata "... yet simple enough and well
structured enough to allow more focused analysis and
representation." (Abelson, p. 715).

Information processing via the use of scripts begins
when an individual encounters a new stimulus event. S/he
then draws upon its representation of the event and uses it
to complete the attributes of the stimulus and to generate

predictions about other attributes and ensuing events. The

10

basic structure of the script is a hierarchical one based
on levels of abstractions and a temporal ordering directed
by imputed goals (Taylor & Crocker, 1980).

The theory predicts that the memory trace which
embodies a highly typical and frequent event that occurs in
a particular episode will be forgotten or omitted from the
trace. In other words, scripts aid the encoding, storage
and retrieval of information in episodic memory. Certain
redundant information need not be stored since it can be
extracted from the prototypical script. One needs to only
remember that a scripted event occurred to recall highly
probable segments. The result of this representational
array then is the efficient storage of information in

longterm memory (LTM).

Fundamentals of Script Theory

In his seminal work on scripts, Abelson (1976) provides
the theoretical foundation where he departs from the
‘”classical” view of cognitive and social psychology in
information processing. He attempts to organize the
application of a set of available ideas to areas where they
have been little used. This is seen in the previously
mentioned concept of the relationship between scripts and
episodic memory.

The dominant view in cognitive psychology is that
knowledge is represented through propositional networks

such as John Anderson’s ACT model (Howard, pp. 204-21). In

11

his ACT model, Anderson developed a theory of long term
memory which explains the structures and processes
underlying memory as well as inferential reasoning,
language acquisition and comprehension. These types of
network models are based on the idea that understanding
involves some form of match between inputs and known
propositions. Abelson attacks this view not in the
abstract theoretical but in the practical application of
this concept. The experimental approach used in cognitive
psychology uses what he terms "silly sentences" exclusively
with little or no concern paid to pragmatics, that is, "...
to the effects of available episodic or catergorical
vignettes or scripts on the interpretation of language."
(Abelson, p. 36)

The basic characteristic of a script is in the vignette
which represents the "... raw constituents of remembered
episodes in the person’s experience" (Abelson, p.34). A
vignette encompasses an image of a perceived event and a
conceptual representation of that event. It is important
to remember that the representation is not a verbal-
acoustic code but it would be such that verbal inputs and
outputs could be attached to it (Abelson, 1976). A
convenient conceptualization of vignettes is then thought
of as a picture plus a caption.

A realistic conceptualization of vignettes could be the
idea of networks of nodes containing vignettes which are

linked together by the propositions that contain the

12

temporal ordering characteristics of scripts. The node
contains an abstract, hypothetical vignette which is linked
to other hypothetical vignettes by the variations that can
occur in a script. These variations result from
distractions, interferences, or free behaviors. This may
be the pragmatic theory that Abelson (1976) alludes to in
his research. Scripts then become a coherently linked
chain of vignettes with the simplest version consisting of
two panels. The first panel sets up the situation and the
second resolves it.

Abelson posits three processes that aid in the
development of vignettes in long term memory. First,
vignettes can be stored as single experiences resulting in
storage in; episodic memory. Second, " similarity
groupings can then build up categorical vignettes
instantiated by many single experiences in a given type of
situation" (Abelson, p. 35). Finally, a third level of
processing occurs in which individual features are
processed instead of the specific vignettes from which they
came. These three levels of processing move from episodic

memory to semantic memory as can be applied to a restaurant

script in the following example.

(1) At the episodic level, the individual would process this

ad in the following postulated manner. "I remember the
day I went to Bennigan’s and met this great guy, Brad.
He asked me for a cigarette and the next thing you know

we were deep in conversation getting to know each other.”

(2) At the categorical level, the individual would store the
script in the following way. This would be a generic

16

vignette of going to a restaurant with friends which is
linked with the generic vignette of different ways to meet
a great guy. These two generic vignettes would form a
script as seen in the ad in Figure l.

(3) At the highest level of abstraction, this set of

vignettes would be stored in hypothetical form.
Episodic memory is no longer directly involved but
instead semantic memory is processed using a set of
conditional and inferential concepts and referring to
possible categorical scripts. For example one way to
meet a great guy is in a restaurant where you can
strike up a conversation by asking for a cigarette. If
he doesn’t smoke, you can ask him to light your
cigarette. These two hypothetical situations are all

dependent on the individual situation.

In a later article, Abelson (1981), explores the idea
of a weak script versus a strong script in addressing the
differences in sequencing properties across events. He
defines a weak script as similar to other types of
cognitive schemata that do not use sequence information
and which organize expectations about certain objects or
events. This is in contrast to strong scripts which
involve expectations about the temporal ordering as well as
the hierarchical ordering of events. Evidence for these
properties are found in a series of experiments conducted
by Bower, Black and Turner (1979) discussed later.

Abelson (1981) contends that scripts play a double role
in cognitive psychology. One can "behave" a script, that
is take on the role such as a customer in a restaurant. To
do this, one must understand that this possibility exists
as well as to be able to perform the role. The second
role of scripts is understanding a situation which implies
the cognitive retrieval of previous situations to which the

present situation is similar.

14

Three conditions then become necessary for scripted
behavior to occur. First, one must have a concrete
representation of the script. Second, a situation
eliciting the script must be experienced. Third, the
individual must enter the script. An example of this could
be how a person experiences the restaurant script. First,
she must know how to be a customer in a restaurant; second,
there needs to be a stimulus which makes going to the
restaurant attractive (i.e., satisfy her hunger). Finally,
a decision must be implemented to enter the restaurant and
begin the scripted behavior.

Performance of the script results in behavior which is
appropriate for a given situation. It is the result of
some conscious or unconscious processing of environmental
cues by the individual. Conscious, active information
processing can occur in situations where the scripted
behavior is relatively new to the individual (i.e., going
to an expensive restaurant requires some new variations on

the restaurant script if one is used to only going to fast

food places). This is in contrast to unconscious
processing which is described as ”mindless", essentially
automatic behavior. For example, when someone eats at a
Burger King on a daily basis, this behavior can be

described as more or less automatic or mindless.
It can be generally accepted that people do think
about what they are doing but the intensity and depth of

the processing varies according to the specific situation.

L5

This is explained in Figure 1 where the progression toward
automatic script processing is represented as a continuum
of script development.

FIGURE 1

A CONTINUUH 0E SCRIPT DEVELOPMENT

 

Novel Infrequent Conventional Partially Stereotypical
Situation Situation Situation Stereotyped Situation
Situ];ion
Unecripted Script Conacioue Heat hoto- Strong Photoecript
Behavior and Development Performance of Script Modified Performed Mindleeely
Action Cued Expected Behavior and Performed
LOU HIGH
3;
4 ,

Typicality of the Situation

(Adapted from "Scripts in Organizational Behavior”. (198‘), Acadggz of Management Sciencea. p. 653.)

Abelson (1981) addresses several variations that can be
predicted in a particular enactment of a certain script.
These unexpected sources of variations include
interference, distraction, and free behavior. Interference
can be in two forms, as obstacles and as errors. An

N

obstacle is ... something that removes a precondition for
a given event ...” (p. 726) such as the great guy sitting
next to you can’t give you a cigarette since he doesn’t
smoke. An error is the incorrect completion of a certain
script such as instead of giving you a cigarette this great

guy hands you a cigar.

The second type of variation is distraction which is

1.6

defined to be an event of sufficient importance to
interrupt the script action, though it does not interfere
with any uniquely specific event. (Abelson, 1981) An
example would be the unexpected event of a fire in the
restaurant where you are having lunch with this great guy.
The third variation is free behavior which involves those
activities that may plausibly intermix with the ongoing
script such as conversation at the next table. This
conversation may be unattended by the subject and not
affect the ongoing script actions or something in the
conversation may catch the attention of the subject. This
would then become a distraction much like Cherry’s cocktail
party phenomena where semantic processing does occur
outside the subject’s consciousness.

Relating scripts to text comprehension, den Uyl and
Oostendorp (1980) address another important property
related to scripts. They contend that scripts make it
possible to expect certain events which is a critical
notion in advertising. Expectations about product
attributes or a situation can facilitate understanding the
advertisement because it changes the task of understanding
to one of elementary recognition which in turn makes the
search of long term memory much less problematic.

Expectations also provide the groundwork for making
inferences about the future outcome of a script. This
processing can be either active as a top-down process or

passive as a bottom-up process. The level of specificity

17
of one’s expectations can determine the future outcome of a
script. This is dependent on the amount of detail in which
future events are represented and in turn can aid in
greater comprehension of scripts.

A high level of specificity in advertising would imply

a decrease in misconceptions about product/brand
attributes. To test the difference between the
effectiveness of a scripted and a nonscripted ad, it would

be possible to affect different levels of specificity.
These different levels of specificity determine if there is

greater comprehension resulting in greater ad recall.

B. SCRIPT THEORY:
SOME EMPIRICAL APPLICATIONS

The most widely referenced research work in script
theory is the set of seven experiments undertaken by Bower,
Black and Turner (1979), (herein referred to as BBT). The
findings in these experiments have been replicated and
extended by den Uyl and Oostendorp (1980), Leigh & Rethans
(1984), Whitney & John (1984), and Puto (1985). These
experiments were all designed to investigate people’s
knowledge of routine activities and how this knowledge is
used to organize, interpret, and remember narrative texts.
These researchers use scripts as a means to identify how
subjects use knowledge to expand upon what they are
reading.

The set of seven experiments conducted by BBT provided
the foundation for empirically testing script theory. All
the other studies done in pscyhology and marketing are
either replications or applications of these seven
experiments. A discussion about each of the experiments is
therefore necessary at this point. The first experiment

was designed to generate a script for a routine, automatic

behavior. BBT found that there was a high degree of
agreement in the "basic action” language used by
respondents to describe a continuum of events. For

example, in the restaurant script of the 730 actions
mentioned in total, only four were completely unique (given
by a single person).

The second experiment explored the concept that a

I8

19

script is not an undifferentiated linear chain but instead
it is an organization of chunks composed of subsequences of
actions. To determine the boundaries of these chunks,
subjects were required to segment lower level action
sequences in a script. An example is deciding what
subsequence of actions made up a scene (i.e.: ordering
food) in the RESTAURANT script.

In the third experiment, BBT explored the premise that
subjects in recalling text will use the underlying script
'to fill in gaps of intervening actions not explicitly
mentioned in that text. As their short term memory of the
text fades, they rely upon the fully completed (underlying)
script, which results in unstated actions intruding into
recall. This includes generic scripts for similar actions

such as VISITING the DOCTOR and VISITING the DENTIST

scripts. Some primary findings include the following.
First, stated script actions are recalled more than
unstated script actions. Second, the percentage of

unstated script intrusions increased when other story
versions of the same script were read by the subjects. For
example, the DOCTOR and DENTIST scripts have many
overlapping actions which was found to increase the
probability that the unmentioned analogous action can
intrude in recalling the related story of VISITING the
CHIROPRACTOR.

The fourth experiment was an attempt to replicate the

previous experiment using recognition measures rather than

20

recall measures. The important point here is the extent
that "... studying a sentence describing an action
activates associated actions in the underlying script and

." will later be recognized as having

that these actions
been read. (BBT,1979,p.193) BBT attribute this to a
failure to discriminate the source of activation, whether
it is due to an explicit or implicit presentation. Their
results confirm that subjects have a fairly high rate of
false recognition for actions in an underlying Script. In
both experiments three and four, it was found that
intrusions and false alarms increase if subjects read more
than one text that instances the same script (i.e.: Jim
visits his doctor or his dentist).

The issue here is does advertising which uses scripted
behavior have the potential to evoke a script by showing
just small pieces of that script. By examining the
advertisement in Figure l, is it possible that this two
vignette script is capable of instantiating a favorable
memory of a similar situation?

In the fifth experiment, BBT tested the concept that
some scripts are strongly ordered actions. If their order
is arbitrarily changed, recall should prove difficult
because the cannonical order in memory should serve as a
source of proactive interference (PI) against learning of
this new version. Proactive interference is the confusion
that an individual experiences when attempting to process

new information due to information learned at an earlier

21

point in time. The results found that "... in ordered
scripts, misordered actions were recalled less accurately
than their (equivalent) yoked actions (in unordered
scripts), but ordered actions were recalled more accurately
than their yoked actions." (BBT,1979,p.205)

The cannonical order of a script aids people in
learning the order of any new text as well as improving
recall of script actions. The script order stored in
memory is a source for guessing when the presented order
has faded from memory.

Relating events and stories in'a manner 'other than
reciting. their temporal order is common. An example is
sports reporting where the final score is related first
then significant events are recounted in order of their
importance. This tells us that even though scripts are
defined in terms of temporal ordering this is not a
necessary condition in recalling a text.

The sixth experiment tested the idea that temporal
distance between events can be used as an index to
determine the number of alternative actions that a person
can access in the underlying script. Their results found
there to be little relationship between temporal distance
between actions and their distance in long term memory. An
example given by BBT is based on the point that scripts
often have some causal or contingent connections that link
large temporal gaps between events (i.e.: the size of a tip

given to a waiter depends on the service given earlier in

22

the restaurant script).

In the final experiment, BBT investigated how well

people recall different types of interruptions in
comparison to the script actions. They test three types of
interruptions termed obstacles, errors and distractions.
(These terms were defined earlier in the paper.) The

hypothesis is that interruptions will be more memorable
than script actions and that irrelevant actions will be the
least memorable.

The results of the seventh experiment found that
obstacles and distractions were better remembered than
errors. This alone has important implications for its use
in advertising strategy. BBT examines memory for
occasional events by inserting them into script-based
stories to determine the level of deviation from the
"smooth running" script. A scripted advertisement can use
a distraction to increase consumers attention level hence
the memorableness of the advertisement is heightened.

The empirical applications of script theory in
marketing include the Leigh & Rethans (1984) exploratory
study. This experiment was designed to address issues
related to script elicitation and organization within a
consumer decision making context. They developed four
experiments to investigate the existence of script norms in
the context of an automobile purchase. The first
experiment established the existence of script norms. The

second experiment investigated the possibility that oral

23

elicitation was not as effective in determining script
norms as paper and pencil elicitation. The last two
experiments manipulated instructions to subjects in an
effort to determine response sensitivity to task
delineation. The objective of all four experiments is to
explore the conceptual issue of order of events in scripts
in a consumer behavior context. The results of the first
experiment found a high degree of agreement among subjects
on a basic set of actions used to describe the decision
making process. BBT call these basic action language.
This sequence of events was determined to fit a five step
conceptual model of consumer decision making developed by
Olshavsky and, Granbois (1979,1980). The steps include
problem recognition, search, alternative evaluation, choice
and outcomes.

In experiment two the possible effect of oral
elicitation on the context of the proscribed script was
determined. They found that the script seemed to overlap on
some of the most salient features of the paper and pencil
script used in the first experiment. The results were that
the written elicitation involved a more thoughtful process
with more detailed reporting of actions.

The third experiment verified the concept that scripts
are hierachically ordered and that the entering conditions
define the level of appropriate abstraction. For example,
the subjects were asked to report the scripted actions of a

salesperson rather than their own. The data showed that

24

the subjects had little difficulty reporting what they
thought should be the scripted behavior of a salesperson.

The final experiment asked subjects to list all
actions that both the consumer and the salesperson would be
involved in during a sales transaction. The result was a
summary script that reflects not only the temporal ordering
but the interactive nature of the script. This interactive
procedure allowed more specific role decomposition than the
previous experiments but still maintained the same script
,structure.

In summary, the authors proposed the script concept as
a useful tool in describing and explaining consumer
decision making processes. This is due to the fact that
there seems to be a basic action language used to describe
certain behavior and that the structure of scripts is found
to be consistent across different behavior patterns. The
important point is the consistent finding that scripts are
hierarchically organized with varying levels of abstraction.

In the Whitney and John’s (1984) study, they suggest
that sometimes a stimulus may vary from the stored script,
dominating the subsequent recall. As short term memory
fades, this reliance on scripted information will intrude
upon the unstated script actions in recall.

They set up their study by first identifying two
scripts which were relevant to the subjects in the study.
The two scripts were for a McDonald’s purchase episode and

the purchase of a stereo from a large, local discount

25

retailer. The goal of the study was to show that consumers
will intrude unstated script actions when recalling events.
They used two types of manipulations to develop their
narratives.

In one version, a main event was not mentioned in its
usual ordering but instead was moved to another position in
the sequence of events. If subjects were truly guided by
stored scripted actions, then there should not have been
any difference between either the correct version or the
changed version. In other words, Whitney and John
hypothesized that memory for the event is identical
regardless of where it was explicitly mentioned in the
narrative.

The second manipulation was the insertion of actions

in the narrative that was not present in the baseline

scripts. The authors did not expect unstated script
intrusions because no script—based expectations are
triggered regarding these events. Instead, they expected
differences between control and experimental groups. The
importance of this second manipulation is that it
establishes the conditions under which expectations

elicited from scripts do not affect memory.

The results of Whitney and John’s experiments point
toward a script-theoretic mechanism due to the fact that
intrusion did occur when recalling script-based narratives.
They also found that those events that are not part of the

ordered script are not subject to intrusion errors.

26

Another finding was the idea that salient events in a
script are similar to non-salient events in that they are
not affected by intrusion errors.

An important implication of Whitney and John’s study is
its extension to advertising of products. If there are
scripts for advertising, it is possible to expect intrusion
errors to exist in memory across brands in a product
category. This means that advertisers should design their
advertisements to conform to script-based expectations so
as to increase advertising recall.

The Puto (1985) study proposed scripts as an effective
way to improve advertising memorability. He positions
scripts as the ideal mechanism to aid consumers in
monitoring and perceiving multiple incoming stimuli without
having to devote full attentional capacity to each
stimulus. Advertisers seek to increase memory for these
multiple stimuli and to have consumers retain a favorable
attitude toward the brands and products. Scripts are
therefore proposed as a method to better understand and
increase the memorability of advertising messages.

The major finding of Puto’s study was that script
interruptions result in better recall than standard script
actions. This suggests to advertisers that improving
memorability for key points in advertisements can be done
by inserting them as interruptions. The study found no
positive results for attitude and behavioral intention

measures due to the informal design and the inadequacy of

27

the measures.

In another exploratory marketing study, Bozinoff and
Roth (1984) tested some important properties of scripts by
applying them to consumer low involvement decision making
behavior. Consumers who are in the process of making a
routine, inexpensive purchase will use the automatic nature
of this behavior to activate a script which will guide
their behavior.

The results of their experiments provided support for

the automatic nature of scripts. The implications for
advertisers are threefold. First, because of the

unconscious nature of scripts, advertising effectiveness
can be improved immensely by creating interruptions which
make the unconscious script conscious. Second, to create
behavior the advertiser wishes, advertisements should be
related to uncommon activities to make it memorable.
Third, it is not wise to depend on consumers verbalized
intentions because ultimately it is the unconscious script
that guides the routine behavior.

Some of the unresolved issues about script theory are
discussed by Bower, Black, & Turner (1979). The first, and
most important is the inability to measure the tacit,
nonintrospective knowledge people have about stereotyped
procedures and activities. Individuals are only able to
report script knowledge that is accessible to conscious
introspection. This makes the application of script theory

to advertising research problematic in the sense that much

28

of the exposure consumers have to advertising is difficult
to measure due to a cluttered environment. This means it
is difficult to determine what is truly unattended, what is
perceived by the receiver, and what is unattended yet
subconsciously "perceived" by the receiver. In the next
section, the literature on involvement will be reviewed in
terms of its applications to script theory and measuring

advertising effectiveness.

C. INVOLVEMENT

The literature provides different conceptualizations

of the involvement construct. These concepts include ego
involvement, commitment, product or purchase importance,
communication involvement, and issue involvement, just to

name the most frequently used terms.

The common dimensions underlying the involvement
measure have yet to be identified. This literature review
divides involvement into three basic approaches or
orientations. The first is process orientation which
defines involvement as the result of the level of cognitive
processing by the individual. The second approach is state
orientation which views involvement as the determinant of
the direction and intensity of the information processing
performed by the individual. The third approach is based
primarily on Petty and Cacioppo (1979, 1983)
conceptualization of involvement as a moderating variable
in the attitude formation process.

Each approach is reviewed here based on the most
relevant studies in the literature. To avoid the confusion
that exists in the literature, only the involvement studies
with advertising and communication applications are
discussed. Once the three orientations are developed then
five involvement typologies are identified and defined as
the most commonly used in the advertising and marketing
literature. Finally, the review ends with the

identification of issue involvement as the pertinent

29

.30

construct with its application to advertising recall.

A Process Orientation

The first approach which views involvement as a process
oriented construct is founded in Krugman’s (1965,1966)
seminal work on attitude change due to an individual’s
exposure to advertising messages. Krugman postulated that
the individual’s level of involvement was the result of the
depth of the cognitive information processing and decision
making employed. This will in turn determine whether an
individual will develop or change an attitude toward a
persuasive message and/or brand.

Krugman goes on to suggest that under high involvement,
attitude development is more likely to occur due to
exposure to a persuasive message. Attitude is also
mediated by the type of medium used to present the message.
In other words, the print medium is considered to be a high
involvement medium because it is passive, requiring an
active consumer to receive information. The broadcast
media, in turn, are low involvement because they take the
active role allowing the consumer to passively receive
information. This generalization concerning the role of
media as a predictor of involvement level may be disputed.
For example, how active is an individual’s cognitive
processing activity when s/he flips through a magazine in a
grocery store line or in a doctor’s reception area?

Therefore, this claim made by Krugman must be used within

31
the situational context to which it applies.

Another implication underlying Krugman’s
conceptualization of this construct is the two different
models of the learning hierarchy, which explain the
different levels of involvement. Under conditions of low
involvement, affect or attitude does not necessarily
precede behavior whereas under high involvement the
traditional hierarchy of effects still holds.

The common thread throughout the literature of process
oriented conceptualizations is the assumption that
cognitive activity determines the level of involvement.
Some other researchers who have conceptualized the
involvement construct as process related are Batra and Ray
(1982), Antil (1984), Greenwald and Leavitt (1984),
Rothschild and Houston (1977), Zinkhan and Mudderisoglu
(1982), and Sherrill and Shimp (1982). A selected review
of some of the empirical studies which define involvement
as a process oriented construct will be discussed.

The first paper to be reviewed is Zinkhan and
Mudderisoglu (1982) (herein, 2&M) study on how the
constructs of involvement, familiarity and cognitive
differentiation affect advertising recall. They define the
three constructs so as to avoid the semantic confusion that
has resulted in the literature. They point out that
although all three constructs will have similar effects on
recall, they are not identical. The purpose of this study

is then twofold. First, Z&M attempt to clarify the

3_2

measurement confusion that exists between the constructs.
Secondly, they investigate the relationship of these three
measures to advertising recall.

The empirical application of the paper examines the

validity of the measurement process while testing the

strength of the causal relations. The results of the
proposed model, though, show a weak relationship between
the three predictors and advertising recall. The strength

of this study lies in its progress in isolating measures of

these three constructs which can pass stringent tests of

validity. In other words, this is an attempt to show
involvement, as well as familiarity and cognitive
differentiation, as the result of information processing

and decision making employed by an individual.

The next paper is a study by Greenwald and Leavitt
(1984) (herein, G&L) who define involvement at four levels
of audience attention. This is an attempt to conceptualize
involvement within a cognitive framework as a result of
information processing on the part of the subject. G&L use
Krugman’s theory of involvement as the foundation to
develop a model to differentiate across various levels of
involvement. The authors state that by combining increases
in involvement with qualitatively distinct levels of
cognitive activity which require greater amounts of
attentional capacity, the result should be increasingly
durable effects on longterm memory.

They present four distinct levels of involvement which

33

are associated with these qualitatively different levels

of cognitive activity. The difference or distinction
between the four levels is the capacity required to affect
involvement. The four levels are presented in the diagram

in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2

Four Levels of Cognitive Activity

Pre- Focal Compre- Elabora-
Attention_-P Attention—9 hension -_V tion

The authors differentiate between two types of effects,
immediate and enduring, based on the level of involvement
when the subject was exposed to the advertising message.
As far as advertisers are concerned, enduring effects
produced at different levels of involvement are of critical
importance. Involvement at the preattention level has
resulted in a controversial body of research on the effects
of subliminal advertising as well as in psychology with
Cherry’s cocktail party findings (Howard, 1983, pp. 63-5).
Involvement at higher levels are of special interest

since the individual goes through varying levels of

34

information processing and decision making depending on the
amount of attentional capacity. At the focal attention
level, familiar stimuli (i.e. advertising messages) are
perceived and categorized into memory traces. At the
comprehension level, the stimuli result in a memory trace
at the propositional level of representation. At the
elaboration level, memory and attitudes are formed from
specific details presented in the message. As the level of
involvement increases so does the durability of the
cognitive and attitudinal effects._

In their study,’ Sherrell and Shimp (1982) look at the
task of measuring involvement in a laboratory setting.
Their objective is to examine cognitive differences in
experimental subjects who have been manipulated in to
various levels of involvement. To measure the difference
in cognitive activity between high and low involvement
subjects, they developed three distinct measures. These
measures include the personalization of the decision task,

a self report of how much thought one puts into a task of

how meaningful that task was; a self insight accuracy
measure, a self report of how much insight one could claim
for her/his cognitive operations; and the amount of time

that subjects require to complete a decision task.

Their results found that the two verbal methods were
unable to show significant differences between the groups
(group involvement manipulated using a personalization

technique). Along with the poor results, were some

35

conflicting findings using the self insight accuracy
measures. The elapsed decision time method, however, did
detect significant difference between high and low
involvement groups. They found that high involvement

subjects took significantly more time which suggests that
the personalizing manipulation engaged greater cognitive
activity. This points to the potential usefulness of
decision time measures as a means of determining level of
involvement.

Antil (1983) attempts to clarify the issues surrounding
involvement by reviewing the literature and integrating
divergent views so as to achieve some general agreement.
First, he presents involvement as a directional flow
between three stimuli; product, situation and communication
and the individual. This means that the personal

interpretation or relevance that the individual attaches to

the characteristics of the product will result in
involvement. The same applies to the other two stimuli,
situation and communication. This is critical in that it

shows the level of involvement as a result of the level of
cognitive processing and not a cause of it.
Second, Antil posits that there is an

interrelationship between the three stimuli which combine

to influence the level of involvement. For example, an
experiment consisting of an advertising message
(communication), brand name (product) and a laboratory

setting (situation) would interact to affect the subject’s

36

interpretation hence their involvement level.

The third point he makes is that involvement requires
some effort on the part of the consumers. These consumers
must allocate effort based on the possible benefits and
costs. This, then is the foundation for deciding what
level of involvement a consumer will use in a decision
making situation.

The final point that the author makes is that consumers
have reasons for all their decisions and selections. These
reasons may not be elaborate but consumers do think about
their purchases. A product such as soap may be a low
involvement purchase only because of the high confidence
the consumer has in expected benefits from the brand
purchased, not because the s/he is unconcerned about

product performance.

A State Orientation

The second approach taken by a group of researchers
views involvement as an individual level, internal state
variable. This variable has motivational as well as
directional properties which are evoked by a certain
stimulus or stimuli. This state oriented conceptualization
is founded in the social psychology literature (Sherif and
Cantril 1947) and has been further elaborated by Mitchell
(1978, 1980), Deighton (1982), Park and Young (1982), and
Bloch and Richins (1983). These studies will be reviewed

in an attempt to clarify involvement as a state oriented

3]

construct.
Mitchell (1978) discusses the conceptualization of

involvement as a process oriented construct versus a state

oriented variable. He argues against the process oriented
version for several reasons. Most importantly, defining
involvement as a process can be misleading in many

situations because it assumes involvement is the only
determinant of these processes. For example, extracting
information from an advertisement, the modality, the
content and the structure of the advertisement may also
affect these processes.

As a state variable, involvement has its roots in
social psychology and has been conceptualized in terms of
the relationship between an individual’s values and an
issue or object. The more an issue or object becomes
integrated in a person’s values, the higher the level of
involvement. This is also termed ego involvement or
commitment, depending on the situational context,
(Lastovicka and Gardner 1978; Mitchell and Olson 1975;
Newman and Dolich 1975).

In his paper, Mitchell (1980) develops a conceptual
model to determine the dimensions of advertising
involvement. This conceptualization of involvement views
it as an internal state of an individual with both
intensity and directional properties. He presents 'two
critical stages in the information acquisition process:

attention and processing. The first stage, attention, is

38

defined as having limited capacity which causes individuals
to focus their cognitive resources on a limited set of
stimuli. They must decide which stimuli to attend to and
how much attention to devote to each stimulus.

The second stage is processing where individuals
interpret information, make inferences and evaluate the
information with the aid of semantic processing,
elaboration schemes, scripts, just to name a few. The
factors which affect attention and processing include the
stimulus and the objectives of the individual while exposed
to the stimulus.

An application of the model follows. A group of
subjects are exposed to an advertisement for a new high
speed sportscar. Different individuals with varying needs
will react differently to the stimulus. The content of the
advertisement and the goals of the individuals will
determine the direction and the amount of involvement
during exposure to the stimulus. Mitchell states that the
intensity of the involvement will determine how much
attention is paid to the advertisement. The direction of
the involvement will determine which schema is activated to
aid in processing the advertisement.

Finally, Mitchell suggests the existence of three
levels of involvement which may result in three different
types of information acquisition. One information
acquisition process is caused by a high involvement

condition and two are caused by low involvement conditions.

39

He postulates that the first low involvement condition is a
cause for information acquisition much like the Petty and
Cacioppo (1983) issue and product involvement manipulation.
The "lowest" level of involvement is similar to Krugman’s
(1965) definition of information acquisition under low
involvement conditions.

Two interesting findings in his paper include the
following. First, Mitchell’s work follows the findings of
other studies (Petty and Cacioppo 1979,1983; Mitchell,
Russo, and Gardner 1980) of the effect of involvement on
information processing where a reduced relationship is
found between semantic information and attitudes. Second,
he stresses the point that an examination of factors
affecting the information acquisition process can occur at
different levels. Based on his empirical work on the
effects of involvement on the communication processes
Mitchell (1982,1986) and Mitchell and Olson (1977,1981)
make a strong case for the conceptualization of involvement
as a state oriented construct.

In their paper on the different types and levels of
involvement, Park and Young (1982) (herein, P&Y) examine
involvement’s varying effects in an effort to determine
brand attitude formation. They develop guidelines to use
in research when trying to identify the causes of
involvement in order to understand the multiple effects of
the construct on information processing.

The personal interpretations or motives that an

40

individual attaches to the characteristics of a product,
message or situation will result in a different level of
involvement. These motives or interpretations vary in
intensity and direction. Therefore, P&Y investigate
involvement at the cognitive and affective level of a
learning hierarchy.

Their results include an emphatic suggestion that the
traditional view of attitude formation needs to be
reconsidered as a theoretical framework for the involvement
construct. This is based on the fact that P&Y are able to
disprove the traditional hierarchy of communication effects
as the theoretical foundation from which to measure
advertising effectiveness when using involvement as the
mediating variable.

The next paper to be reviewed is Deighton’s (1982)
study where he identifies a set of heuristics which
consumers are hypothesized to use when deriving inferences
from advertising messages. These heuristics are presented
in the form of a model for the low involvement consumer.
The author presents the model as passing through three
phases. First, the individual recognizes the problem, then
a solution is proposed by the message, and finally, the
solution or proposition is tested for validity.

The underlying assumption in Deighton’s paper is a
state oriented conceptualization of involvement. He
hypothesizes that a set of heuristics will guide the

uninvolved or "low" involved consumer’s information

41

processing under the influence of advertising. In other
words, since the consumer is uninvolved, the depth of
her/his information processing is at a minimal level.

In a reevaluation of the product involvement construct,
Bloch and Richins (1983) (herein, B&R) develop a model
which they use to differentiate product importance and
product involvement. They define product importance as
importance pggggiygg by consumers rather than some
objective level of importance strictly inherent within the
product itself. This is in contrast to product involvement
which is defined by B&R as the general level of interest in
the object or the centrality of the object to the person’s
ego structure.

The two concepts differ in that product importance is a
cognitive state of awareness whereas product involvement is
a motivational, internal state variable determined partly
by product importance. The authors’ conceptualization of
involvement is in terms of an internal state variable with
two dimensions of direction and intensity.

These studies which conceptualize involvement as an
internal, motivational state variable position the level of
involvement as preceding the depth and direction of
information processing. This is in contrast to the process
oriented conceptualization which positions the level of
involvement as a result of the information processing and
decision making employed by the individual. The next

section explores various typologies of involvement to

42

determine the framework within which advertising

effectiveness can be evaluated.

Central vs. Peripheral Routes of Persuasion

This argument is based on the Elaboration Likelihood
Model (ELM) which assumes that different methods utilized
to evoke attitude change may work best depending on whether

the probability of issue or product relevant thoughts

occurring is high or low. It predicts that when
elaboration likelihood is high, the central route to
persuasion is most effective. This is in contrast to the

occurrence when elaboration likelihood is low, resulting in
the peripheral route as the optimal course. The important
implication underlying. the ELM for advertising messages
involves the effective use of different types of appeals
(i.e.: serious, humorous, sexy) for different audiences.
Under this model, involvement is dichotomized into two
types: issue involvement (also known as ego involvement,
product involvement, personal involvement and commitment)
and response (or task) involvement. The first type of
involvement concerns the extent to which the attitude issue
or the product itself has some direct personal relevance or
consequence, and people are concerned with forming a
reasoned opinion (Petty and Cacioppo 1979). The second
type of involvement finds that the attitude response is
important and people are more concerned with expressing an

attitude that will result in immediate rewards rather than

43
forming a reasoned opinion (Zimbardo 1960).

In this study, issue (or product) involvement is the
variable of interest since response involvement is defined
as a situational state variable. High issue involvement is
predicted as the result of information processing via the
central route whereas low issue involvement is predicted
via the peripheral route.

Previous research in psychology and consumer behavior
emphasizes the central route over the peripheral route in
decision making. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), among others,
state that persuasiveness of a message can be increased if
careful attention is paid to the message content rather
than the manipulation of credibility, attractiveness,
expertise of the source. The results of Petty and Cacioppo
(1979,1983) show that under certain conditions (low
involvement) such nonmessage cues as expertise or
attractiveness of a source can have maximal impact on
persuasiveness. This is contingent on the fact that
extensive information processing of message content is not
present. Under this situation, persuasion is determined
more by a well-practiced script such as ”Experts are to be
believed”. This is in contrast to the central route where
persuasion occurs as a result of a subject’s attention and
processing of message content.

Overall, Petty and Cacioppo (1979,1983) found that low
involvement resulted in the celebrity status of the

endorsers being the critical determinant of attitude toward

44

the product. Under high involvement conditions, the
product endorsers had no effect on attitudes but the
potency and relevancy of the information about the product
contained in the advertisement became a powerful
determinant of product evaluations. This tells us the
importance of nonmessage cues under conditions of low
product and issue relevant involvement. The level of

personal relevance contained in the product or issue then

becomes the critical factor of the manner in which
persuasion will occur - the central route or the peripheral
route.

The critical feature of the central route to

persuasion is that attitude change occurs as a result of
indepth thought regarding the information that a person
feels is central to the true merits of a certain
attitudinal position or product. In contrast, the
peripheral route views attitude change as a result of
nonmessage cues or due to simple heuristics which obviate
the need to process issue or product relevant information.
The results of the Petty and Cacioppo (1979) study are
more in line with the ELM than with the Social Judgment
Theory (Sherif, Sherif, & Nebergall 1965) or Krugman’s
Sequence model of involvement (1965,1967). When
involvement is defined as a state variable, the Social
Judgment Model states that it is more difficult to change
attitudes under high involvement conditions. This is not

seen in Petty and Cacioppo (1979). In this study, they

_45

found a lack of interaction effects between the endorser
and the quality of the argument. In other words, Social
Judgment Theory is unable to explain the lack of a

relationship between nonmessage cues and the strength of
the arguments made in the advertisements under high and low

involvement conditions.

In Krugman’s sequence formulation, he states that
under high involvement conditions attitude change precedes
behavioral change but that under low involvement the
opposite occurs. In Petty and Cacioppo (1979) this held
for high involvement conditions but not for low involvement
conditions. Under low involvement, effects were found on
the attitude measures but not on the measures of behavioral
intentions. There should have been, theoretically,
stronger behavioral measures under low involvement but this
did not occur. Instead, the ELM seems to be more
consistent with the findings of Petty and Cacioppo (1979,
1983). This model predicts a greater interaction between
attitude and behavior under high involvement (central
route) than under low involvement (peripheral route). It
doesn’t state a directional or sequential relationship as
the other two models attempt to do. The underlying reason
for the success of the ELM to explain this relationship
rests with the concept of the level of personal relevance
evoked by a message. The next section explores the various
typologies of involvement to determine the framework within

which advertising effectiveness can be evaluated.

46

Involvement Typologies
There are basically five concepts which have all been

studied under the heading of involvement in the marketing

literature: ego involvement, commitment, purchase or
product importance, communication involvement, and issue
involvement (Muncy and Hunt, 1983). Once these concepts

have been identified, the type of involvement which is
relevant to determining the effectiveness of script and
nonscript print advertising messages will be explored by
reviewing several empirical findings.

The first involvement concept to be explored is the ego
involvement construct. According to Ostrom and Brock
(1968) ego involvement can be defined as the degree to
which an object or idea is centrally related to an
individual’s value system. An example of how a product can
become ego involving is seen in an individual who purchases
only European cars because it is associated with the yuppie
subculture and value system.

The concept of ego involvement has its roots in the
social psychology literature. Sherif and Sherif (1967)
define ego involvement as the operationalization of an
individual’s latitude of acceptance, latitude of rejection
and latitude of noncommitment to stands on issues. They
operationalize the construct as the range of the latitude
of rejection where low involvement is characterized as a
narrow latitude of rejection whereas a wide latitude of

rejection is characteristic of a highly involved consumer.

47

Sherif shows that his model holds for both issues and
objects (Houston and Rothschild 1977), by measuring each
salient attribute, since most choice behavior occurs for
objects possessing multiple attributes as choice criteria.
This model predicts that individuals highly involved with
the object or issue of an advertising message will be more
resistant to attitude change than individuals who are not
as involved.

The second involvement concept found in the literature
is commitment. .The distinction between commitment and ego
involvement is.a gray area both in the social psychology as
well as the consumer behavior literature. This is
evidenced by the fact that these terms are used
interchangeably. Lastovicka and Gardner (1979) used two
underlying dimensions to measure ego involvement:
commitment and importance. Freedman (1964) defined ego
involvement as commitment to a specific issue or position.

Although, ego involvement and commitment are related,
ego involvement can exist without commitment and vice
versa. For example, a person may become committed to a
European car as a result of purchasing a BMW. On the other
hand, a person’s commitment to European cars may be related
to that person’s 'self—worth. In this situation, ego
involvement will precede commitment.

Commitment has had numerous implications to both
consumer behavior thought and marketing practice and

continues to be plagued with conceptual and methodological

48

issues. The third concept to be discussed is communication
involvement which was first presented by Krugman (1965).
There are two important characteristics which

distinguish communication involvement from ego involvement.

First, communication involvement occurs at a specific time
(i.e. the advertising message) making it situationally
specific and transitory. This is in contrast to ego

involvement which involves an object or issue which is
enduring. The second important characteristic of
communication involvement is that the connections are made
with any aspect of the person’s life, not just those which
are related to the person’s central value system. In other
words, a person can be involved in a message simply because
of its utilitarian value.

This type of involvement is particularly relevant in
research on consumer information processing and it supports
the idea that the effectiveness of advertising campaigns on
consumer behavior can be understood in the communication
involvement framework. The fourth type of involvement is
purchase or product importance which was developed by
Howard and Sheth (1969). It has been defined as product
class specific not distinguishing between brands and
variously labeled as task importance, product involvement,
and seriousness of consequences.

Purchase importance has also been confused with ego
involvement. It must be remembered that purchase

importance is a result of an individual’s ego involvement

49

with a purchase. Based on the above, a strong need emerges
to isolate the exact effect of this construct on a buyer’s
behavior as well as\to distinguish it from other forms of
involvement.

The fifth way of viewing involvement is issue
involvement introduced by Petty and Cacioppo (1979,1983).
They define the construct as the intrinsic importance or
personal relevance a person attaches to an issue or a
product. They predict that increases in involvement will
enhance the importance of the message contents in producing
attitude change. The underlying assumption suggests that
low involvement persuasion situations may be controlled
through an automatic processing mechanism whereas high
involvement situations are controlled by cognitive
processing on the part of the individual.

This view is supported by Chaiken (1978) who found
that subjects were more affected by arguments used in a
message under high involvement conditions than under low
involvement. Correspondingly, he also found that low
involvement conditions result in subjects being more highly
affected by nonmessage cues such as source attractiveness
or expertise.

In this study, it is issue involvement which is used
as one of the independent measures of interest. This is
due primarily to the fact that a subject, when exposed to
an advertising message, is hypothesized to be concerned

with forming a veridical opinion of the issue or product.

50

The issue of concern here is cigarette smoking and the
product of concern is cigarettes.
An important point to be made is that the key

determinant of whether involvement will facilitate or

hinder attitude change is the extent to which the
information provided in the advertisement appears to
contradict the subject’s initial position. In other words,

does the scripted version of the advertisement portray a
message of social desirability with the issue of smoking
that will elicit counterarguments from subjects.

In to relations to this issue, Petty and Cacioppo
(1979,1981,1983) predict that if an advertisement elicits
primarily counterarguments, then increased involvement
should result in decreased agreement and more negative
attitudes towards the message. In contrast, if the message
content elicits primarily favorable thoughts then
involvement will tend to enhance these positive thoughts
and result in increased agreement. The hypothesized
relationship presented in the next section were derived
previously from the theoretical arguments advanced in this

chapter.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the research hypotheses are
presented, followed by a discussion of the product, medium

and sample selected for the experiment along with the
results of the pretest. Then, the research methodology is
discussed including the procedures used to measure the

dependent and independent variables.

Research Definition and Hypotheses

The research problem involves the investigation of the
effectiveness of script versus nonscript print
advertisements and high versus low product involvement.
This is a 2 x 2 factorial design which attempts to
determine the effectiveness of a message based on its
presentation format and the general level of involvement
the subject holds with the product. The objective is to
determine the most influential format to employ in print
advertisements to better attract the attention and increase
memorability. This is hypothesized to depend on the
degree of involvement that each subject may have with the
product/brand advertised. Based on the literature reviewed
previously and the research problem stated above, the

following research hypotheses are proposed to:

5,1

52

H1: A scripted advertisement will result in higher product
class recall for both low and high involvement subjects
than a nonscripted advertisement.

H2: A scripted advertisement will result in higher aided
brand recall for both low and high involvement subjects
than a nonscripted advertisement.
H3: A scripted advertisement will result in higher
unaided brand recall for both low and high involvement
subjects than a nonscripted advertisement.
H3A: High involvement subjects will have higher unaided
brand recall for both scripted and nonscripted
advertisements than low involvement subjects.
H4: A scripted advertisement will be rated more
favorably by both high and low involvement subjects than a
nonscripted advertisement.
H4A: A high involvement subject will have more favorable
attitudes for both scripted and nonscripted advertisements
than a low involvement subject.
H5: A brand portrayed by a scripted advertisement will be
rated more favorably by both low and high involvement
subjects than a brand portrayed by a nonscripted
advertisement.
H5A: A brand portrayed by either a scripted or nonscripted
advertisement will be more favorably rated by a high
involvement subject than a low involvement subject.

The relevant variables to be measured are defined and
operationalized next. This explanation is critical to
understanding the statistical analysis in the final section

as well as to ensure clarity and to avoid problems with

interpretations of the findings.

Dependent Measures
To determine the effectiveness of advertisements two
dependent variables are used: 1) recall and 2) attitudes

These two variables are defined as follows.

5.3

(1) Recall

This variable measures the level of memorability that
an advertisement has when a consumer recalls the product,
brand and message. There are two types of recall measures
used to evaluate the effectiveness of an advertisement. The
first is unaided recall and the second is aided recall with
unaided being a much stronger measure of effectiveness. The
assumption about the strength of unaided recall is based on
the belief that a longer lasting impression has been made
when a subject freely recalls the advertising.

To measure the level of recall, the amount of
knowledge among consumers that can be directly related to
the message must be determined. Recall is used to
determine the extent to.which advertising messages have
been retained by consumers. Both aided and unaided recall
measures were taken in this study. First, subjects were
asked unaided recall questions concerning the product
categories, brands, other advertisements, and topics of the
articles in the stimulus booklet. Then, subjects were

asked to identify the brand of liquor, the brand of

cigarettes and the branch of the military service
advertised in the booklet (aided recall). For the purposes
of this experiment, both recall and recognition measures

were needed to validate the effect of the advertisement
format in terms of product and brand memorability.
(2) Attitude

This variable is a measure of the liking that a

54

subject has toward a product and a brand. This variable
assumes that the consumer is aware and has knowledge of the
product either due to the message or actual experience with
the product.

Attitude tests are used to measure consumers’
dispositions toward a brand/product or the degree of
acceptance of various claims made in the advertisement when
used over time. Seven point semantic differential scales,
previously developed and validated, were used to determine
the subject’s attitude toward the product/brand. Some
examples include "Please rate the advertisement on the
following attributes:" and "Please rate the brand on the
following attributes:". The relevant attitudinal questions
were combined into a composite measure of attitude toward

the advertisement, the product, and the brand.

Independent Measures.

The two independent variables of the study were
advertisement format and level of product involvement.
These two variables were defined and operationalized as
follows.

(1) Format of Advertisement

The format of the advertisement was manipulated between
a script version and a nonscript version. The script
version is comprised of an advertisement with two or more
visual scenes involving a sequence of events, behaviors or

contexts which are familiar and frequently encountered by

s_s

the target audience. Since individuals are hypothesized to

possess scripts for routine behaviors and situations, a
restaurant script was used in the scripted version.
Furthermore, restaurant scripts are found to be one of the

most commonly held scripts by individuals (Abelson 1977).
The nonscripted version was an advertisement with one or
more unrelated scenes, involving some type of brand
comparison or a visual description of the product’s
attributes. In the nonscript version of the advertisement,
the message was the same, as well as the copy with the only
manipulation being the lack of a meaningful script. This
was accomplished by removing one frame from the
advertisement.

These two versions were designed to determine if the
script format is truly more effective in affecting
attitudes and memorability of the message. These variables
were measured in terms of the product, the brand'and the
advertising message. The script format was evaluated to
identify the relationship between memory for key points in
the advertisement and the corresponding effect the
advertisement may have on attitudes toward the product, the
brand and the message.

(2) Issue Involvement

As explained in the previous section, involvement has
been notoriously overdefined by some, underdefined by
others and misdefined by yet others. The definition used

here is the one presented by Petty and Cacioppo

$6

(1979,1981,1983) due to the strong empirical justification
as well as its relevance to the problem on hand. The
conceptualization of involvement is based on the belief
that a subject, when exposed to an advertising message, is

hypothesized to be concerned with forming a veridical

opinion of the issue or product. The issue of concern here
is cigarette smoking and the product of concern is
cigarettes. The level of involvement will determine if

attitude development and cognitive responses occur due to
exposure to a specific message (i.e. an advertisement)
within a specific situation (i.e. flipping through a
magazine).

Since involvement must be conceptualized and
operationalized as a continuous variable, scales were used
to measure the respondents’ level of involvement due to the
product. Zaichkowsky (1985) scale of involvement, which is
proven to produce high reliability levels is used as a
measure of the involvement construct.

In the following subsection, other elements of the

experimental design are explained and justified.

The Medium

Some relevant characteristics concerning the print
medium are now discussed in order to better understand its
role in this experiment. The print medium used here was
the magazine.

Probably the most important characteristic of print is

57

the selectivity in the choice of content that it allows

readers to exercise. With magazines, the reader can read
it where and when s/he wishes, take up where s/he left off
and spend as much or little time as s/he wishes. This

results in the reader being able to discriminate among the
items in which she is interested in more readily than with
the broadcast media.

Another important characteristic includes the role of
this medium in information processing by consumers.
Research on comprehension indicates that print provides

messages that are ”

more easily learned and remembered
...” (Tan, 1985, p.170). The general conclusion here is
that we learn more by reading than by hearing or by hearing
and seeing. (Tan, 1985)

Print can also be a more effective medium for more
complicated messages. This is especially true when the
purpose of the messages is to affect the consumer’s
attitude toward the product. This is evidenced in Chaiken
and Eagley’s (1976) study where subjects were also found to
have a higher comprehension level for more complicated
messages.

This is a significant point since scripted
advertisements are a more complicated format in which to
present a message. This could mean that this format for
messages has the potential to be more effective in print.

This is further evidenced in Chaiken and Eagley’s findings

that subjects exposed to easy messages on videotape

58

perceived the message as more persuasive hence, more
effective (Tan, 1985, 169-77). This tells us that
communication modality interacts with message complexity in
determining the extent of attitude change. Since
advertisements which use scripts tend towards a more
difficult message then print, it may be posited as the
ideal medium to use a script format.

Some other facts to consider about this medium include

the following. First, print has a longer life than other
media. The reader has the time and opportunity to
discriminate among messages. Secondly, print is used as a

source of information of a serious nature rather than
purely for entertainment. This implies that scripted
versions have the opportunity to make consumers aware as
well as increase their knowledge in regards to the
advertised product/issue.

Finally, magazines, which are designed to appeal to
particular interest groups (i.e. housewives, tennis
afficionados, etc.), are able to attract readers to their
advertising because the messages are generally related to
the focus of the magazine. The use of excellent
photography, copy and layout and quality reproduction
enable the reader to do one of two things. The reader
glances at the message and disregards it if s/he is not
interested or reads it thoroughly if it looks interesting.
Since the reader has the ability to process the information

in the message at her/his leisure, the script format can

59

provide her/him with informative as well as persuasive

information about the product.

The Product

The product that was selected for this experiment had
to have certain characteristics. First, it had to be a
product that could be advertised using a script as well as
a nonscript format in print. The only example found thus
far in print is the new Benson and Hedges cigarette
advertisement which was substantially altered to avoid
any complications of brand and advertising familiarity.
Secondly, it was important that the product could invoke
low involvement as well as high involvement among the
subjects in relations to the product, (cigarettes) and the
issue, (cigarette smoking). This would allow the scripts
presented in the message to activate processing of the
information whether the individual consciously or
unconsciously deemed it necessary.

Since activation of a script is believed to occur
automatically through the situational context, the script
version performs the role of activation. An example is the
script version of the Benson and Hedges cigarettes which
presents two scenes for the RESTAURANT script. The two
scenes in the script version are designed to evoke a
familiar experience, whether direct or vicarious, which
provides information on how to select a behavior (which

cigarettes to buy/whether to smoke or not to smoke). In

60

other words, it can be posited that once a subject views the
script version, s/he associates smoking cigarettes with a
fun, social encounter within a socially desirable context
(meeting a good looking person). The two scenes identify
the RESTAURANT script in the context of creating a feeling
of social acceptance for smoking. The experiences evoked
by this script are assumed to be highly social as well as
familiar to the subjects. In the nonscript version, the
advertisement has the modest objective of attempting to

remind those users of the product and this specific brand.

The Sample

The sample selected for this experiment included
undergraduate students at two midwestern universities.
These students were chosen because they are believed to be
the primary target market for the advertisements used in
the experiment. The student were recruited from Marketing,
Advertising and Economics classes. Participation in the
experiment was completely voluntary and no compensation was
provided.

A total of 76 male and female undergraduate students
participated in the experiment. Half of the subjects (38)
received the booklet with the scripted advertisement and
the other half received the nonscript version. The
booklets were randomly distributed in each class to ensure
random assignment to each format cell (script and

nonscript).

61

The Experimental Materials

Two booklets were prepared for the experiment. The
first booklet contained the advertising stimulus (scripted
or nonscripted advertisements) embedded in a set of
articles and advertisements. The second booklet contained
the questionnaire with the dependent measures and the
independent variables.

The first booklet was presented as a newspaper insert
entitled CAMPUS NEWS. It was prepared as a booklet to be
periodically inserted in the school newspaper. Each issue
was proposed to provide pertinent information on a specific
topic of interest to the students. The topic of this
booklet was job hunting for students preparing to look for
either career or summer employment. Each booklet contained
either a scripted or a nonscripted stimulus advertisement
with everything else being the same. (See Appendices B
and C for copies of the booklets.)

The advertisements in the booklet were all directed to
the target market, students. The first advertisement was a
liquor advertisement, the second was the advertising
stimulus, High>Life, and the third was a Coast Guard
enlistment advertisement. The booklet was designed to
appeal to the subjects as well as to be cohesive in its
presentation of information.

Given the importance of the format (script versus
nonscript), manipulation in this study, a pretest was

conducted to assess the degree to which these

62'

advertisements were able to provide this manipulation.
During the pretest, the subjects were presented with one of
two versions of the High>Life cigarette advertisement.
Version 1 contained the scripted advertisement while the
second version contained the nonscripted advertisement.
Using the existence of script versus nonscript as the
dependent variable, a sample of 26 students were used to
complete the pretest questionnaire. The results indicated
a successful manipulation of the format (script/nonscript)
variable.

The basic assumptions behind this pretest are twofold.
First, it is presumed that people rely heavily on scripts
that are well-established in memory. Second, these script-
like structures in memory tend to be fairly general and
some variation exists in the way in which specific
information is interpreted and used in decisionmaking.

This pilot study resulted in a more detailed
description by the subjects who were given the nonscript
version. The variation that arose with the nonscript
version included such statements as "all are attractive and
nicely dressed” and "the second woman has her back to us".

Among the statements made, there were several which
were common to both versions. These statements were also
most often provided as a description for the
advertisements. This includes statements such as "one girl
is smoking and one girl isn’t", "two women go to lunch",

and ”both women notice the good looking man at the next

63

table."
In order to determine the existence of a script, it

was necessary to analyze subjects’ responses to the pretest

questionnaire. An independent judge was used to determine

the number of irrelevant actions/events in both the
nonscript and script advertisements. Once the number was
determined for both, a t-test of difference of means was
performed. It was found that there was a significant
difference (t = 2.34, alpha = .05) between the number of
irrelevant actions in the script and the nonscript

advertisements.

In the final analysis of both versions, it was found
that a story line or script existed for Version 1 but not
for Version 2. The consistent pattern of steps can be seen
in Table l where the corresponding number of times each
step was mentioned is also shown. This consistent script
did not exist for Version 2. Instead the subjects provided
much detail about the one frame with more irrelevant

actions and variation as seen in Table 2.

64

TABLE 1

Script Format

(1) A restaurant scene with two 9
women having lunch together and a
man sitting at the adjoining table.

(2) One woman is smoking while the other 12
is not. The man at the other table
smokes.

(3) The two women are discussing 10

the man at the other table.

(4) The brunette and the man end up talking 10
together and getting to know each other.

(5) The second woman is not smoking 6
and is left out of the conversation.

TABLE 2

Nonscript Format

(1) Three people in a restaurant 11
with two smokers and one nonsmoker.

(2) Brunette smoker is checking out 8
the man.

(3) Both women are looking at the man. 11

(4) All are attractive and nicely dressed. l

(5) Man is at table alone and reading. 3

(6) Man is oblivious to women. 4

(7) Women go to lunch at a nice restaurant 11

(8) Second woman has her back to us. 2

65

This pretest was performed to verify statistically the
existence of a script in the High>Life cigarette
advertisement. It was imperative that the script version
of the advertisement be perceived by the subjects as a
script therefore this pretest was performed solely for that

purpose.

The Procedures
The subjects were in a classroom environment and were
given the first booklet. They were told that the

Advertising Department was interested in their opinions of

the booklet as a whole as well as on the topics of the
articles, the- advertisements, the overall appearance and
other pertinent information. Hence, they were required to

familiarize themselves with the booklet first to be able to
express their views and opinions about it. Since the
subjects paced themselves through the booklet, they could
spend as much time as they wished evaluating each article
and each advertisement. This avoided the time pressure
created by external pacing and allowed the subjects to use
their own personal motivations to guide their information
processing behavior.

Once a subject had finished examining a booklet, s/he
closed it, raised her/his hand and was provided with the
second booklet which contained the questionnaire. The
first page of the questionnaire explained the purpose of

the study again and provided instructions on how to proceed

66

through the booklet. The booklet contained a series of
questions intended to measure the dependent variables of
the study as well as the manipulation checks and other
relevant scales. The subjects were told to go through the
questionnaire at their own pace and to raise their hand
when they were finished. They were then debriefed and
thanked for their participation in the study.

The questionnaires were then marked to identify those

respondents who evaluated the script format from those who

evaluated the nonscript format. This was used later as one
of the checks to determine if the format had been
successfully manipulated. This will be further discussed

in Chapter Four.

Independent Variables

(1) Advertisement Format

The advertisement format could be either scripted or
nonscripted. This variable was manipulated by using a
Benson and Hedges advertisement found in the February
through April issues of various magazines such as Life,
Vogue, Glamour, People, Time, and Penthouse. For the
purpose of avoiding familiarity with the advertisement and
manipulating the advertisement format variable, the
advertisement, the name and the appearance of the
advertised product as well as the copy was altered to
develop a new advertisement for a new hypothetical brand of

cigarettes, High>Life.

62

The script version resulted in a package redesign
along with changes in the copy wording and placement (see
Appendix B). The nonscript version had the second frame
removed from the advertisement and a larger version of the
redesigned cigarette package was inserted in its place
(Appendix C). The copy placement and size was also changed
to create a new advertisement for a new brand of
cigarettes, High>Life.

The manipulation of subjects into script and nonscript
cells was accomplished through randomly passing out the
booklets. However, the questionnaire contained an item
which asked subjects to describe the High>Life
advertisement as if trying to explain it to someone who
could not see it. This question was used as a manipulation

check, the results of which will be discussed later.

(2) Involvement

In this experiment, involvement was not manipulated,
but only measured. While the manipulation of this
construct results in high internal validity, its major
drawback is the lack of external validity associated with
the resulting measure. (See for example Petty and Cacioppo
1983).

Another method, less commonly used, is to allow
subjects to assign themselves to either high or low
involvements groups. This method tends to be high in
external validity. but lacking in internal validity. It

does not control for such variables as amount of prior

68

information, extremes in attitudes, and so on.

In the present study a compromise is proposed in order
to measure involvement without confounding its external or
internal validity. A twenty item scale called the Personal
Involvement Inventory (PII) developed by Zaichkowsky (1985)
is used to measure involvement. An example of the P11 is
found on page six of the questionnaire in Appendix A. This
semantic differential scale was used to capture the concept
of involvement with the product of interest, cigarettes.
The scale’s reliability over time has been checked over two
subject populations for four different products resulting
in Cronbach’s alphas ranging from 0.95 to 0.97. The
reliability of the P11 was checked in this experiment and

was found to have a Cronbach’s alpha of .9889.

Dependent Measures

(1) Recall

Both aided and unaided recall measures were obtained.
For unaided recall, the subjects were asked to list all the
product categories for which they saw advertisements and

then to list all the brand names of the products

advertised. Last, they were asked to list all the topics
of the articles in the booklets. The final unaided recall
measure, level of recall, is comprised of the first two

questions and is explained next.
The subjects were asked to freely recall the product

category and name of the advertised brand. The variable,

69

level of recall, was a linear transformation of these two
variables used to measure free recall. If the subjects
were unable to recall both the brand and the product
category, the variable was coded 0; if s/he recalled either
one of these correctly, the variable was coded l; and if
s/he answered both correctly, the variable was coded 2.
This resulted in a ratio level measure of unaided recall.

The second measure of recall was presented on the
third page where respondents were asked to name the brand
of liquor and cigarettes advertised and the branch of the
military service presented in the insert.

(2) Attitude

Attitude toward _the advertisement and brand were
measured by a set of three scales. Two different scales
were used to measure advertisement attitude in an attempt
to increase reliability.

The scale used to measure brand attitude was adapted
to fit the product and the advertising stimulus. All three
attitude scales displayed high reliability estimates with
Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .8744 to .9289.

Next, some advertisement familiarity measures were
taken to determine if there existed any confounding
influence due to confusion and/or prior exposure to the
Benson and Hedges advertisement. There was a surprisingly
high (32.9%) number of subjects who claimed to have seen
the advertisement previously but only 2 out of 76 (2.6%)

had seen the brand prior to exposure to the experimental

7o_

stimulus. Another measure taken was an attempt to
determine what the subjects may have learned due to their
exposure to the script or nonscript advertisements. The
results of these measures will be discussed in the next

chapter.

Coding Procedures

A procedure developed by Holsti (1969) was used to
compute interjudge agreement and reliability. Three naive
and independent judges were used to analyze subjects’
response to the existence of the script/nonscript format.
A respondent may have been exposed to a script format but
if s/he didn’t perceive the advertisement to tell a story
then the script characteristic failed to elicit a
difference in cognitive processing.

Each judge was trained in the definition and
characteristics of a script and a nonscript format. They

were then instructed to read each description given by the

respondents and to determine how they perceived the
advertising format. After evaluating each response, the
judges marked it as either containing a story, not

containing a story, or that they were unsure if it
contained a story or not. The results will be discussed

under the section on Manipulation Checks in Chapter Four.

CHAPTER FOUR
EMPIRICAL RESULTS
Manipulation Checks
A manipulation check was needed for the script versus
nonscript format since subjects were randomly assigned to
either one of these two categories. To assess the

effectiveness of this manipulation, two measures were used.

First, the three judges’ evaluation scores were
computed to assess the success of the manipulation. Holsti
(1969) developed a procedure to determine interjudge

agreement and reliability when performing content analysis.
Using this method, the average interjudge agreement was
found to be 0.86 and reliability was 0.95, for this study.
These results indicate that the coding procedure used by
the three independent judges provided a reliable basis for
additional analyses.

The second check used was a comparison between the
above results and the method used to identify those
respondents who evaluated the scripted advertisement and
those who evaluated the nonscripted advertisement. Only
those respondents whose responses were found to be
unanimously agreed upon as either a script or a nonscript
versions were then checked by examining the notation made
by the researcher on their respective questionnaires. This

ensured that the format of the advertisement was accurately

21

72

manipulated. The empirical results will now be presented

in relations to each hypothesis.

Hypothesis One.

The first hypothesis states that a scripted
advertisement will result in higher product class recall
for both low and high involvement subjects than a
nonscripted advertisement. All 38 of the subjects exposed
to the scripted format reported cigarettes and 35 of the 38
(92%) subjects exposed to the nonscripted format reported
cigarettes as the correct product class.

A difference of proportions test was conducted to
determine if the format had a significant impact on product
class recall. 1 The results found that (Z=l.78, p<.07) the
script format produced significantly higher product class

recall among both high and low involvement subjects.

Hypothesis Two

The second hypothesis proposes that a script
advertisement will result in higher aided recall for both
low and high involvement subjects than a nonscripted
advertisement. They were asked to name the brand of
cigarettes advertised in the insert. A difference of
proportions test was performed to determine if there was a
statistically significant difference in aided recall levels
between subjects exposed to the scripted version and those
exposed to the nonscripted version. Out of 38 subjects who

viewed the scripted version, 34 accurately recalled the

73

brand name High>Life (90%). This is in contrast to 19 out
of 38 (50%) subjects who could not freely recall the brand
name advertised in the booklet. The calculated Z-value is
3.81 (p<.0002) which results in a statistically significant
difference between script and nonscript formats when freely
recalling brand names.

In the first two hypotheses, tests of difference of
population proportions were used due to the fact that both

variables developed to measure unaided and aided recall

were categorical in nature. This fact precluded the use of
a more powerful test such as analysis of variance. Once
the variables were converted to proportions, it was

possible to conduct a differences of proportions test on
each variable. The other hypotheses, though, had interval
or ratio level dependent variables, allowing for the use of

analysis of variance to interpret the data.

Hypothesis Three.

In this hypothesis, a script advertisement is
postulated to result in higher unaided recall for both low
and high involvement subjects than a nonscripted
advertisement. The subjects were asked to name the product
and the brand name of the product advertised in the
booklet. The resulting measure was a ratio level variable
whose operationalization is described in the previous
chapter. The analysis of variance results found the

advertisement format to have a significant main effects

74

(F=34.568, p<.000) to predict unaided recall (see Table 3).
This implies that a scripted advertisement may be more
effective in unaided recall. This is primarily due to the
commonly held belief that free recall is a 'result of a
longer lasting impression in memory than aided recall.

The involvement variable did not contribute
significantly to main effects in terms of explaining recall
variation (F=.053, p<.60). The two-way interaction of
scripts by involvement was also significant (F=5.ll4,
p<.07) indicating that the effects of these two variables
are not additive. Examination of this ordinal interaction
shows that in the scripted format, recall was lower .for
high involvement subjects than for low involvement
subjects. The opposite was true for the nonscript case
where recall was lower for low involvement subjects than
for high involvement subjects.

TABLE 3

Analysis of Variance Results for Hypothesis Three

‘ SUN 0’ III! SIG
5002C! OP VIRIATTON 3002338 DP 50013! P O?
OIAII EFFECTS 8.947 2 4.474 17.386 0.0
SCRIPTS 8.895 1 8.895 34.568 0.0
NUINV 0.053 1 0.053 0.205 0.6
02-WIY INTERACTIONS 1.316 1 1.316 5.114 0.0
SCRIPTS NUINV 1.316 1 1.316 5.114 0.0
OZXPLAINID 10.263 3 3.421 13.295 0.0
031810033 18.526 72 0.257
OTOTAL 28.789 75 0.384

75

Hypothesis Four.

The hypothesized relationship is that a scripted
advertisement will be rated more favorable by both high and
low involvement subjects than a nonscripted advertisement.
To measure favorability, a seven item attitude scale with a
Cronbach’s alpha of .9289 was used. The analysis of
variance results indicated a significant format main
effects in the creation of favorable attitudes toward the
advertisement (F=3.277, p<.07).

As predicted by the hypothesis, involvement was not a
significant variable in explaining the variation in the
relationship between attitude and advertisement format
(F=2.061, p<.10). The two-way interaction effect was also
insignificant (F=2.061, p<.155). See Table 4 for the

statistical results.

TABLE 4

Analysis of Variance Results for Hypothesis Four

- SO! 0? HEAR SIG
SOURCS OP VRRIRTTOR 5001333 DP SQURRI P OP
0'11! EPPICTS 9.197 2 4.599 2.669 0.0
SCRIPTS 5.646 1 5.646 3.277 0.0
NUINV 3.551 1 3.551 2.061 0.1
02-Hl! INTIRACTTOHS 3.551 1 3.551 2.061 0.1
SCRIPTS NUINV 3.551 1 3.551 2.061 0.1
OSXPLAINID 12.748 3 4.249 2.467 0.0
ORISIOUAL 124.045 72 1 723
OTOTRL 136.794 75 1 824

7_6

Hypothesis Five.
The last hypothesis predicts that a brand portrayed in
a script format will be rated more favorably for both low

and high involvement respondents than a brand portrayed in

a nonscript version. The result of the analysis of
variance did not support this hypothesis. There was no
significant main effects (F=.8l2, p<.448) with no

significant difference in attitude toward the brand between

the script and nonscript versions (F=.050, p<.823).
An examination of the cell means (Table 5), however,
are in the expected direction. They support the results

obtained from the previous analysis in that the script
format results in a more favorable attitude (3.84 for
script/low involvement subjects versus 4.18 for

nonscript/low involvement subjects).

TABLE 5

Means For Each Experimental Cell
On The Attitude Index

Low Involvement High Involvement
Scripts 3.84 3.84
(n=19) (n=19)
Non- 4.18 3.35
Scripts (n=19) (n=19)
Note: Attitude scores represent the average rating of the

brand High>Life on a six item, seven point semantic
differential scale anchored at +1 to +7 (i.e. high quality
- low quality, very good - very bad, etc.).

77
In the last chapter, a discussion is presented on the
empirical results in terms of managerial and public policy
implications, as well as theoretical implications. Lastly,

a discussion of the limitations of this experiment and the

direction of future research is presented.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Thus far the theoretical foundation for this study has
been developed along with the experimental design and
procedures used to conduct the experiment. Next, the
empirical results were presented in the context of each
hypothesis. In this final chapter, the theoretical,
managerial and public policy implications will be discussed
as well as the limitations of the study and suggestions for

future research.

Theoretical Implications

This study was first presented as an attempt to
address the current controversy in the literature
concerning advertising effectiveness and consumer response
to marketing communications. It presented script theory as
a new framework from which to develop a new theoretical
base to better understand and improve advertising
effectiveness and tested the mediating role of scripts and
involvement in this context. Specifically, the hypotheses
proposed the script format as an effective framework to
initiate and foster consumers’ advertising recall and
recognition in an attempt to create changes in consumers’

affective and cognitive structures.

78

79

Scripts have been defined as routine, sequential sets
of vignettes that individuals use to guide their behavior
and to reduce the amount of cognitive processing needed to
perform a task. As presented in Chapter Two, scripts have
been found to aid in conveying a message that is readily
processed and is more likely to be recalled due, in part,
to the scripted format of the advertisement. This was
empirically established in this study through the
confirmation of Hypotheses l, 2, and 3. The hypothesized
mediating effect of the involvement construct, however, was
not substantiated (Hypotheses 3A, 4A, and 5A). That is the
degree of product involvement a subject had did not affect
his/her free recall of the advertisement and his/her brand
attitude. This may be due in part to the controversial
nature of the product (cigarettes) and the issue (cigarette
smoking).

In the first hypothesis, “it was found that the script
format resulted in significantly higher unaided product
class recall than the nonscript format regardless of the
involvement level of the subject. The second hypothesis
was also supported in its claim that script is a more
effective format for aided brand recognition than a
nonscript format.

The third hypothesis found that the script format was
significantly more effective in successfully eliciting
free, unaided recall from subjects. Involvement level was

not found to have any such effect. This last finding is

80
the most critical since free recall is believed to be the
most effective measure of recall. The importance lies in
the reinforcement of the belief in cognitive psychology and
marketing that unaided recall reflects a much more detailed
memory therefore, resulting in a longer lasting and more
easily accessible impression (Howard, 1985).

Another intrinsic concern with the advertising
communications is the effect that scripted messages can
have on consumers’ attitude toward the brand, as well as
the advertisement. Since scripted messages provide
individuals with concrete rather than abstract information,
Abelson (1981) states that scripts play an important role
in forming attitudes toward an object. In this study, the
scripted version is the "concrete" information that the
individual can use to more readily form potentially
favorable attitudes. A person’s attitude toward a product
is the outcome of a series of episodic scenes relating the
experience, either in actual or vicarious terms, with the
attitude object (Abelson, 1981). The result of the
subject’s exposure to the scripted advertisement when
questioned about her/his attitude toward the product, is to
recall the episodic vignettes and respond accordingly.

All but one of the hypotheses (H5) confirmed the
hypothesized impact of scripts on recall and attitude
variables. Even in the case of the unsubstantiated
hypothesis (H5), cell means were found to be in the

expected direction supporting the proposed impact of

8.1

scripts. The hypothesized role of product involvement,
however, was not' supported except for the script x
involvement interaction effects observed in hypothesis 3.
The results obtained in this study imply that the
script format can be an effective method to convey print
advertisement messages. Consistent with the propositions
of the script theory, consumers’ extent of recall of and
attitudes toward the advertisement and the advertised brand
may be affected by the actual or vicarious experience
evoked by the scripted advertisement. In other words, as
evidenced by nPetty and Cacioppo (1983), an individual
exposed to such an advertisement may be influenced by the
peripheral cues, in this case the story in the scripted
advertisement. This finding has important managerial and

public policy implications which will be discussed next.

Managerial Implications

Probably the critical managerial question to be
addressed in the script framework is this: should the more
costly script format be used extensively in print
advertisements?. As noted earlier, the three important

goals of an advertiser include increasing the consumer’s
memory for the message, developing a favorable disposition
toward the product, brand, and message, and consequently,
increasing purchase likelihood.

In this study, it was empirically confirmed that the

script format was significantly more effective in eliciting

8?:

higher recall and recognition measures as well as more
favorable advertisement attitudes. This has important
implications in terms of the ability of the advertiser to
affect secondary demand among consumers as well as to
develop and maintain brand loyalty.

Consumers who are in the process of deciding what
brand to purchase, (i.e. secondary demand), can be more
effectively influenced by an advertisement using the script

format. In other words, to create top-of—the-mind awareness

for a certain brand and message, users and nonusers can be
more effectively reached by the script format. These
results may in effect, override the increased costs

associated with the production of a scripted advertisement.

Furthermore, the fact that the scripted format
resulted in more favorable advertisement attitudes implies
that if a consumer likes an advertisement s/he may spend

more time processing it and thus be more likely to recall

the brand when preparing to purchase in that product
class. In sum, scripted advertisements as opposed to
nonscripted ones certainly seem to promise higher

advertising effectiveness in terms of product and brand
recall and favorable attitudes. Managers should consider
utilizing this powerful approach to advertising message

presentation.

3.3

Public Policy Implications

One of the major implications in this study is
relevant for contributing to the regulatory guidelines
needed to aid advertisers and consumers in certain areas.
There are certain products such as tobacco and liquor which
have created much public controversy with many consumer
protection groups and politicians calling for an outright
ban on the advertising of these products. On the other
side of the fence are the advertisers and the advertising
agencies who feel it is a violation of their First
Amendment right to freedom of speech to ban advertising of
these products.

Then, there are other products/issues such as condoms
and social diseases, which require public information but
due to the lack of regulatory guidelines, are either not at
all advertised or advertised ineffectively. They may be
advertised but the methods used to disseminate the
information/message may not be in an effective format,
medium, etc. The findings of this study have the potential
to help public policy makers develop some guidelines for
the advertising industry to use in preparing messages for
any media, in this case, the print medium.

Since the scripted format is found to be effective in
associating an actual or vicarious experience with
heightened awareness and recall, this could provide a
a set of guidelines for public service announcements

(p.s.a.s). These p.s.a.s can be developed to disseminate

84

information regarding such topics as condoms and social
diseases, as well as teenage smoking and drunk driving
issues.

On the other side of the issue, is the need to provide
guidelines to the tobacco and liquor industries for the
use of the script format which, according to the present
findings, is a powerful tool. In other words, the question
remains as to if and how the scripted advertisements can be
used by advertisers to encourage and increase the
consumption of socially and physically hazardous goods and
services. If the effectiveness of the script format is
indeed demonstrated across other media and product classes,
then perhaps the public policy makers should at least be
aware of this fact.

In summary, the script format, if used correctly can
be an effective tool for public service announcements yet
at the same time can continue to contribute to the
controversy surrounding certain questionable products and

services.

Limitations

Since this research was conducted in an experimental
setting, it has a limitation in external validity like any
other experimental study. Even though the real purpose of
the experiment was not disclosed to the subjects, they
might have given more attention to the booklet and its

contents than they would normally do in a natural setting.

85

While this limitation constrains the generalizability of
the results, some attempts were made to improve external
validity. For example, an advertisement of a real product
was used by altering the actual print advertisement. In
addition, the advertisement was professionally embedded in
a booklet along with other advertisements and articles.

Perhaps the major limitation of this study is the
highly controversial nature of the product class chosen as
the advertising object. It is highly conceivable that the
results obtained herein would have been different had the
opportunity been available to use another scripted
advertisement of an actual product which had less
controversy attached to it. In such a case, the hypotheses
are expected to be even more highly significant.

Finally, the generalizability of these findings to
other media is limited since the study focused on the print
medium, expressly magazines. However, given the
exploratory nature of this study, it should be borne in
mind that these limitations constitute the future research

opportunities which will be discussed next.

Future Research

One interesting extension of this study would be to
compare the script format across different media such as
television and radio. While this was not attempted in this
study due to the expense involved in creating and producing

advertisements, it is an issue that needs to be addressed

86

in order to generalize the present findings.

Another research avenue concerns testing the present
hypotheses across various other product categories,
preferably less controversial durable and nondurable
products. It is expected that such a strategy will produce
even higher statistically significant results. This in
turn would provide a stronger evidence for the effective
and efficient use of the script format by the advertising
industry.

A further extension of this study could be to measure
its dependent variables after multiple exposures to a
scripted versus a nonscripted advertisement. In this
regard, the impact of repetition and other variables that
are previously shown to mediate advertising effectiveness
can also be incorporated into the research design to
increase the internal and external validity of the

findings.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTRUCTIONS

The Advertising Department is developing an insert to be included in
the STATE NEWS periodically which will provide information on various
topics of interest. You are being provided with a sample copy and we
are interested in your opinions on the articles as well as the
advertisements. Take as much time as you need to go through the
articles and the advertisements. Please, do not skip any pages. When
you have finished looking through the booklet, close the booklet, and
raise your hand. You will then be given a questionnaire.

(1) Do not spend too much time reading articles; just skim through
them. You don’t have to read the articles if you choose not to.

(2) You will be asked questions regarding your opinions about the
entire booklet including its appearance, the advertisements, etc.

(3) Don’t switch between pages of the questionnaire. Follow the
order of the questions carefully.

(4) Don’t re-examine the booklet after you begin answering the
questionnaire unless you are told to. F

 

Please be careful with the booklet because it will be reused. 1

 

87

RESPONDENT ID

 

1) Please list all the PRODUCT CATEGORIES (i.e.: detergents, cereals,
frozen foods, etc.) that were advertised in the booklet.

2) Please list all the BRANDS that were advertised in the booklet.

3) Please list all the TOPICS of the articles that were presented in
the booklet.

88

13)

l4)

15)

What was the name of the BRAND of liquor advertised in the

booklet?

What was the name of the BRAND of cigarettes advertised in the

booklet?

What was the BRANCH
in the booklet?

of the military service that was advertised

Circle the number that best indicates how accurately each scale
item describes or fits the advertisement for BIGE<LIPE cigarettes.

16)
17)

18)

19)

Very Good

Very
Interesting

Like Very

Much

Very
Informative

1 .

l

1

2

,3

4

7

Very Bad

Not at all
Interesting

Dislike
Very Much

Not at all
Informative

Please rate the ADVERTISEMENT for HIGH<LIFE cigarettes (NOT THE
PRODUCT) on the following attributes:

20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
26)

Enjoyable
Useful
Effective
Exciting
Pleasant
Interesting

Realistic

1
1
l

2

NNNNNN

3

course-atom

hfib-fihbé

000030000!

QGQQQGQ

7
7
7
7
7
7
7

Unenjoyable
Useless
Ineffective
Dull
Unpleasant
Boring

Unrealistic

Please rate the BRAND of RIGE<LIFE cigarettes in the advertisement
(NOT TEE AD ITSELP)

27) High Quality 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Low Quality
28) Very Good 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Bad
29) Superior 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Inferior
30) Likeable l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not Likeable
31) Most People Most People
Can Identify Cannot
With Its Identify
Image 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Its Image
32) Creates A Creates A
Positive Negative

Image 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Image

Now we would like you to consider only the EIOE<BITE cigarette ad

when answering the next group of questions. OPEN TEE BOOELET TO

TEE CENTER PACE WITR TEE EIGE<LITE CIGARETTE AD. Please refer

only to that ad in the booklet.

33) Have you seen this advertisement before in a previous
publication?

YES (1) N0(2)

 

 

34) Rave you seen this BRAND (EIOE<LITE) before?

133(1) __N0(2)

 

35) In your own words, what did you learn about this PRODUCT from
the ad?

In the space below describe the ADVERTISEMENT (NOT TEE MESSAGE)
as if you were trying to explain it to someone who could not see
it. Describe only what you see in the picture.

90

57) On a scale of 1 to 7, how favorable or unfavorable does the ad
make you feel about the PRODUCT:

Not At All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
Favorable Favorable

56) On a scale of l to 7, how believalbe is this ad?

Not At All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
Believable Believable

The purpose of the next set of questions is to measure a person’s
involvement or interest in cigarettes. To take this measure. we
need you to judge cigarettes against a series of descriptive
scales according to how zgg’perceive the product. Eere is how
you are to use these scales:

Make each item a separate and independent Judgement. Do not
worry or pussle over individual items. It is your first
impressions, the immediate feelings about the items, that we
want. On the other hand, please do not be careless, because we
want your true impressions.

IMPORTANT:
(1) Be sure that you check every scale; do not omit any.
(2) Never put more than one check mark on a single scale.

If you feel that the product is quite closel related to one or
the other end of the scale, you should p ace you check mark as
follows:

Unimportant.___: ..E.‘ ....z .___° .___° .___:Important

Unimportant _: _: _: _: _: i: _: Important
If you feel that the product is only slightly related (but not

really neutral) to one end of the scale, you should place your
check mark as follows:

Uninterested.___: .___: _§_: ...: ___:.___: .___:Interested
or
Uninterested 3 _3 __3 _3 L: _: _: Interested

If you feel that the product is very closely related to one end
of the scale you should place your check mark as follows:

Appealing X 3 3 3 .___3 .___= .___= .___‘Not Appealing

Appealing _5_:Not Appealing

91

59)
60)

61)
62)

63)
64)
65)
66)
67)
68)
69)
70)
71)
72)
73)
74)
75)
76)
77)
78)

79)

80)

Unimportant

Of no Concern
to me

Irrelevant

Means Nothing
to me

Useless
Worthless

Trivial

Not Beneficial : : : : : : :

CIGARETTES

 

 

Doesn’t Matter

Uninterested
Insignificant
Superfluous
Boring
Unexciting
Unappealing
Mundane
Nonessential
Undesirable
Unwanted

Not Needed

——_—_—_

 

 

Do you smoke cigarettes regularly?

YES(1)

NO(2)

Important

Of Concern
to me

Relevant

Means Alot
to me

Useful
Valuable
Iundamental
Beneficial
Matters to me
Interested
Significant
Vital
Interesting
Exciting
Appealing
Fascinating
Essential
Desirable
Wanted

Needed

If you do smoke, about how many cigarettes do you smoke per day?

(write exact number)

92

APPENDIX B

BOOKLET 1

 

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«Y:

Ii.

n..sN,u \e , »

BOOKLET l

CAMPUS NEWS

FALL EDITION

     

 

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‘

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3
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.

\'
«,5, M- H5 550 Dm ”er Company O-emboto, KY. 1990, 42 9'00“

 

 

95

 

 

 

filNiHE%

 

JUNO“

It takes sophisticated strategies to capture the career you want. Here ’s how
to write standout résumés, handle interviews and recruiters, get top perks.

 

he time has come for
the hunt.
You‘ve been getting
restless. The job you
have now has done about as
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TH E EIGHT LAWS
OF THE JUNGLE

another. “Fewer and fewer com-
panies have a cradle-to-grave
culture anymore.“ says Peter
Drummond-Hay. a consultant
with Russell Reynolds Asso-
ciates. Inc, an executive-search

you‘vedonewhat youcanforthe firm. “Mergers. acqu'uitions. the
job. Or the job has become a development of leveraged
chore.n otachallenge. Or there's .................................................. buyoum—all have had “”qu
”WwM-m- Mien you set out an yauriab seatdr vie-mwm‘mw
settling signals impending'up- I sttgmaattached to job hunting.

heavaLYoucanalmostfeeltttn YOUI’neOd'hiSmafflHW. lntheexecunvesearchpro-
ywrbonwlt'sumetocarveano femion.”saysWilliamE.Gould.
othernotchinyourrésumé. managing director of Gould &

Somewhere out there is your
quarry: your next job. But in this
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LAWOPTHEJUNGLEifl

You're going to get hired for what you can
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them will matter so much as the attitude
you project of competence. confidence and
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byJaImStaItenbery

RobatLSwamchairmanofSwaint
Swain Inc. an outplacement firm. has de-
veloped a formula for predicting the length
of a job search. it's based on three weighted
categories: The situation of your particular
jobtnarltetandjobchangecounts ZOper-
cent. your resources and background count
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is your attitude and job-hunting behav-
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LAW OFTHEJUNGLE #2

M’snasuchttitgasassctnid
These are heady and volatile times. Firms
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McCoy Inc. an executive-search

firm. “we are very rarely running
into people who say. “Thanks for calling.
but no thanks.‘ People today are almost
always receptive to an approach.”

The average professional in America
who accepts a new job today will change
again within four years. says Robert I. Ger-
berg. author of Robert Gerberg's Job
Changing System. lnevitably. that profes-
sional‘s self-interest will outweigh tradi-
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“Notonlyisjobsecurityathingofthe
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old-line corporations—someone of the

fightsemraceandsocialbackground—

96

103 flunnuc IN THE WORK JUNGLE

wouldprettymuchriseautomatically.un-
leehedidsomethingtern‘blywrongalong
theway.‘l'hatonlyappliedtommofcourse.
Nowitreallydoen'tapplytoanyone.”
Butifanewjobiswhatyou'reafter.the
demise ofjob security holds some good
news: “Today's very fluid labor market
meansthatajobhuntercanmorelikely
findthebet‘fit‘inajob—thebetoppor-
tunity. thebetsalary.“ says Freedman.
Canjobmobilitybecometoomuchda
good thing? Employee risk being catego-
rizedasjobhoppersifthey “-gofromcom
pany to company without being promoted
within.” cautionsStanJohnson.apartner
inchargeofthesearchpracticeofGood-
richtSherwood Company,anoutplace-
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Whathelooksforinjobcandidateare
people who have demonstrated ability
within the companie they've worked for.
But“evmaptomotionineachcompany
canlookliketoomany.”hesays. “Five
suchjob change in seven years. for in-
stancearetoomany.Changingjobsonan
average ofevery two years is too ohm.
However.” he says with a note of irony.
becausehehimselfhasbemwithhisfirm
about a decade. “ten years at the same
placealmostmakeyoususpect.”

LAW OFTHEJUNOLE #3

Hayhyitsdeeatbam.
Thebigpicturecontainsacriticallesonfor
allonceandfuturejobhunterszTheetime
callforesceptionalachievemmtonyour
job.Neverbeforehaveyoubeminsucha
goodpoaitiontoseeyour riskotakingand
creativityrewarded.

“Convmtionalwisdomhasitthstwhm
there is les managerial security. people
takerisks.”saysFreedman.“Whmthereis
more security. people don't—that’s whm
someonetrietocopytheboas.mimicshis
mmtor‘sthinkingandsaya'lwillfiybe-
hind his comet. secure a position in its
m0”

Freedman believe that the increased
riskdaktngandcreativityinthisfiuidjob

gerialandprofesionsl women: “Because
wommdon'ttendasoftmtohavemm-
torstheyfeellesneedtocopyandmimic
andbecomea goodoldboy.‘ Asareult
womm in managerial jobs are often far
more invmtive, much better detective.“
morecreativeandoutspokm.”
Whatalltltismemsisthatintoday'sjob
markmbtrildingacareeralmoatcertainly
willrequireyoutoswitchbackandforth
betwmntherightmindaetforlookingfora
newjobandtherightmmtalattitttdestodo
aterrificjobwhereyonare.

LAW OFTHEJUNOLE #4

Traditywwnyurmiabw'mfitw

11tere'sanoldsayingthatatmidmanage-
mmtlevelandabovefindingyournextjob
willtakeonemonthforeachSlO.(lI)you
eapecttoearn—sismonths foraSéO.M
job. for instance. Various job-hunting ex-
pertshavetheirownversionsofit:

“In the $20.” to $255!!) range. you
reallydoneedatleastthreemonths.”says
RichardEMcCollmpreidmtofJJ.
Gallagher Associate. a career-manage
ment and outplacement firm. “At higher
levels. SSQMandabovesixmonthgat
$80.!!!) to $90111). nine month; over
SlMWwe‘retalkingafullyear—withall
kindsofeceptionaofcotusedepmding
onyourspecialtyandthemarket.”

”Theeisnoruleofthumb.”saysDrum-
mond-Hay. “The only rule is that you
shouldexpectittotakealongtimeThe
morehighlypaidyouare—andthemore
smior—thelongeritwilltake.” ‘

The point of course is to be neither
daunted nor impatient. but rather to perse-
vere. AndalsotoplanaheadzTogetthe
goodjobyouwantbynestyear.youmay
needtostartnow.

LAW OFTHEJUNOLE #5

Nowsuppoaeyou'vebemofi'eedapartic-
ularjob.lsthereawaytoevaltntewhether
the salary increase offered make thisjob
changeworthyourwhile?

“Historically the raise pattern betwem
jobshasbemintheZOtoZSpercmtarm.
That was set in the late '7“. a period (1’
high inflation." says Gould. “Now. be-
causecorporationsdon’t wanttheirsalary
scaletogetoutofwhachtheyareparing
downthoseincreaaeandmakingitupina
front-end.orjoining.bonus—totidesome~
oneoveruntiltheirfirstsalaryreview.”

“We are seeing that people’s average
movebringsanincreasethatrunslStoZO
percmt.” says Johnson. The fact that a
moverequirerelocationdoenotseemto
aflect that increase significantly, because
within a givm industry most bigger compa-
nie' salarie are competitive. “The issue is
ultimately the quality of the job." Johnson
says. “not solely the compensation."

Search consultant Drummond-Hay
agreethat“moneyisonlyoneofthemoti-
vationsthatleadpeopletochangejobaAs
aruleofthumb.though.inmostcasepeo-
pie changingjobs should see an overall im-
provenmtintheircompmsationoflSto
JOpercent. Butotheraspects—suchasan
opportunity to share in profits—could

makeajobchangecompelling.”

“Ifyou'rehappywhereyouareandyou
getanofi'er.”sayscareercotmselorMcCol-
lum. “the newjob should make a change
worthyourwhilenotonlyintermsofsala-
rybutintermsofgrowthstepa."

LAW OFTHE JUNGLE #6

Ifngatsadarmapatgatagsh
Noteveryjobsearchgoesmoothly. But
toughingitoutisnovirtuewhenyourca-
reerisatstake—andwhmprofesionalaid
isavailable'l‘herearethreebasictype:
OCareeeonselotscanhelpyouwithlife
planningandcareerplanningsaysMcCol-
lum: “It's helpful for anyone to go through
somecareecoumdingtositdownandgo
throughone’scareer-developmmt hate.”
Buttherearesometipofisthat youreally
shouldseeksttchadvice“ifyourcareeris
notgoingwellifyoufeelworkisdrudgery.
ifyou'regettinglesandlesoutofyour
job.ifyou’re feeling depremed.” You nor-
mallypayforacareercounselor’stime.
OOatplaceatamt eon-cling is a service
many companies pay for to help employee
whohavebemletgoduetoreorganiution.
For the individual thrust into ajob hunt
involuntarily, it can make a significant con-
tribution to getting organized and
launched. says Swain. whose firm. among
other things. ofi'ers climts videotape ses-
sions fordirect feedback about behaviors
that are counterproductive and attitudes
thatarejeopardizingtheirjobseareh.0ut-
placenmtabocanincludecomtsehngre
searchandrésume'andlettewriting.
OEsecatlve realism-a. sometime called
headhunters or executivesearch cormulo
tantaareretainedbyemployerstofindand
screm qualified job candidates—which
maaasthatiftheygetwindofyouandthey
wantymathmtheycomeafieryou‘l‘here
arewaystogetnoticedbyrecruiterswho
specialize in your field: Becoming visible
and recognized professionally is best.
Therearewaystoletrecmitersknowabout
you too—by being referred through asso-
ciatewho'vehaddealingswith them.for
instanceorbysmdingapersonalizedlet-
ter with your resume. But realistically. ex-
pect that your most promising relation-
ships with headhunters won't be initiated
by you. (See “The Executive Woman's
Guidetol-leadhunters.”pagellO.)

LAW OFTHEJUNOLE #7

"Thebiggetmistakepeoplemakeonajob
campaign.”sayslohnson.“isthattheysell
themselveasaproductbutdon‘tlistento
theneedsofthepotmtialemploye'.”

“Job hunting is a matter ofmarketing

yourself.” says Herman Holtz. author of
Beyond the Rennie? ”more Land the Job
You Want. “Andthefirstruleof marketing
yourselfistobeaconsultanttotheperson
youwanttoselltoJohelpthmrgetwhat
they want. You're selling a
it"sthecustomersperceptionthatcounts.”
Jobhuntingasmarketingandconsulting
is no mere figure of .In fact, says
Johnson. the bet interviewees tend to be
people who really are consultants. and
salespeople in “need driven" fields:
‘1'hey'reusedtnprobingforaproblmiand
tryingtosolveit.“ Byaskingandlistming

Successful quests into
the [ob iungle begin
with a can-do attitude.

you can find out what job your potmtial
entployerwantsdoneandthmyoucan
showymrdeireandabilitytodoit.

LAW OF THE JUNGLE #8

Jobhuntingintheworkjunglemayfeel

likeatetseandsolitarypursuitaperilous
vmture into inhospitable territory. But
fundamentallyjobhunting'uasocialpro—
cessYouaredealingwith communitieof
people—andwhatmatterstothemmostis
howwelltheyregardyouassorneonewho
candowhattheyneeddoingKeepthatin
mindasyoucultivateyoursocialskills

market your attitude. skills and intelli-
genes. Sure, it'sa jungleoutthereButyour
ultimatesuweswilltumonhowwellyou
premt yourself to the people out there—
andonthefollowingpageyou'llfindsome
ofthemostefi‘ectivewaystodothat. I

 

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Jon HUNTING IN THE WORK jurists

ONE LITTLE RESUME-
AND How IT GREw

Reodyforabetteriobfliere ’showtatailor
yourréstnnétoeachnewstageafyourcareer.

byI-lmnaRubin

Asyougoforwardintoeachnewstageof
yourcareeyourrésume'mustalsobecome
moreadvanced.1'herésuméformatthat
lamrchedyououtofyourfirstorsecond
realjobwon'tgetyouabiggeandbette
jobinmiddlemanagenmtAndsimilarly
there’suméthatgotyouthatmiddle-man-
agementjobwon‘tmaketherightimpre-
sionwhmthetimecomestoaeekaposition
atthetop.
Updatingyourrésume’bysimplyadding
yourmostrecmtjobtoyouroldrésumé
sirnplywort'tdo.'l'hatwon‘tgetacrossthe
mesageofyourhighe—levelqualifieations
and aspirations. At each new level you
must recast your earlier entries so they
pointtowardyournewjobgoaLandrefo-
custhewholeformattosmdoutesactly
therightsignalstoyournestemploye.To
showyouhow.hereandonthefollowing
pagearethreestep-by-step-upexample—
fictional resumes for three significant
stageofasuccessfulcaree.

REUMESI‘AGEI:
YOURFIRSTBIOMOVE
After your first or secondjob. yourjob-
huntinggoalchanganou’renottryingto
getintoyotrrfieldanymorewhatyouwant
nowisapositioninwhichyoucanexercise
theskillsyou’veacquired.aasurninggreat-
eresponsibilitie.$oonyourneatrésumé
youwanttoshownotonlywhatyou’ve
lemedbutalsothatyoucanapplythoae
skillsefi‘ectivelyandcreatively.
Oneofthefirstchangetomakeinyour
retune’istodispetmewithajobobjectiveif
you used one before. “Job objective are
uoublenakeualmostanythingyousayin

placenmtfimlnstcadputyourjobgoal
ir.acovelette.wheeyoucandtawatten-
tiontopetinentpointsinyourre'sume'that
will interest a' specific employer in your
cmididacy.

The way you organize the content of

echmtrycanlmdsuppoittothejobbid
you’temakinginyourcovelette.lf.for
instanceyou’reintetetedinthetechnical
aideofyourfieldbutyouspmtpartofyour
time supervising others. you would put
your technical achievemmts and experi-
enceatthebeginningoftheentryandyour
managerial reponsibilitieat themd. If.
ontheotherhand.youwanttoheadins
managerial direction. you would reverse
theorder. lneachentrythescqumceof
information should accmtuateboth your
prioritieandyour strmgths fortheneat

As your job goals
change, the format and
content of your resume

should drmge too.

job you aspire to—and whereve possible
youshouldusenumbesandspecifiethat
dramaticallyillustrateyourpitch.
Earlyinyourcareerit’simportantto
show what you've lear’ned so prospective
ernployes know that you've mastered the
basicsinyourfield.Asimp|eandstraight-
forward staternmt is bet. as in the first
résumépremtedheeforthefictionalJm-
nifer Crandell: “burned to tabulate tet-
marketingdata."
Opinionsdifi‘eaboutwhethetoinclude
nonprofesional involvements (like hob-
bie)onara1suméatthispoint.TomJack-
son. author of fliehd'ect Re’strme’. urge
you to include only those activitie that
relatetoyourprofeasionallifeanddevelop-
mmt. However, Lynn Tendlcr Gilbert. co-
founder with Janet Tweed of Gilbert
Tweed Associate. an executive-search
‘fimfeelsthatit'sworthfiehingyourself
out a bit on a resume. epecially as you

move higher up the ladder. “People hire
people. not resumes,” she points out. “You
don’t want to look myopic about your ca-
reer. and it can provide an opming for
discussion in an interview."

Summejobs are also a point ofdebate.
Jackson thinks that whatever position
you’re currently holding probably exceeds
in responsibility any summer internship. so
why include it? You might end up resisting
information giver in more recent job m-
tries. and a cardinal rule of resume writing
isnottorepeatyburself. “lt makeforvery
boring reading ifyou do.” Jackson warns.
ButheagreewithGilbettthatifyou’ve
had a particularly illustrious internship. ea-
peciallyonethstinvolvesomekindof
award. it might be worth including now—
but not at a later stage.

RESUME STAGE 2:

OAINING GROUND

IN MID-CAREER

It's several years late and you’re several
rungs higher. You’ve had promotions.
maybe switched firms. you've crossed the
threhold into middle managemmt—and
you intend to keep moving up. The resume
you write now must do one fundamental
thing: It must show how you're different
from the rest of the pack. It must change its
enphasis from the skills you’ve acquired to
the valuable achievements you’ve been re-
sponsiblefor.Andtomakeclearjusthaw
valuable you’ve bem. quantitative results
and their long-term effects should be fea-
tured in every mtry.

Ctandell‘s “stage I” resume paved the
way for her transition from a technical/
research position to a creative management
role. Now in the middle ranks of a medi-
ums-size dairy-products company—where
opportunitie to move up are few—Cran-
dellrealizethatshemustespandherback-
ground to include some selling experience.
in order ultimately to become a vice prei-
dmtofmarketingandsaleorevmaCEO
inherfield. Decidingthat herbetrouteis
new-product developmmt. which involve
agreatdealofsaleinteraction.sheslants
allofher “stage 2" résumé(seepage102)to
accmtuate he experience in new-product
planning.

Every job mtry should be stnictured to
reinforce your next job goal. And at this
stageyounolongerneedtodraw attention
to your mastery of the basics. which an
employer take for granted (accordingly
Crandell now omits entirely the in-house
training course she took).

Becarefulnottorepeatpointsabout
yourselfthatarealreadyevident;it'sa
waste of precious space. Crandell. for in-
stance. supervised five people whm she

101

Jon "untrue In THE float junott

weaamiormtalystbutonlyfourwhmshe
joisedRoaebud.soshesiniplydropstlnt
mpectofhejohsinceit'sclearshe‘shsd
considerable managerial experience al-
mdy. Shealsoeditsheresrlierjobmtrie
downtoacoupleofsentmce.sincetheir
importancehasdiminishedinthelightof
helateeaperimce.
Atthisstagesimplybelongingtovarious
organisations won‘t tell prospective em-
ployersthatyouhaveleadetshippotmtial.
lnsteadifyoubelongtoanycommitteeor
aitoneditorislboardsofprofesionaljour-
nals.foresample.highlighttheseconnec-
tionsunde“PtofessionalAfiiliations.”ln-

onlythatyou‘reawell-roundedpersonbut
alsothatoutsideyourownfieldyouhsvea
network ofconnections. which maybeof
valuetoyourcompany.
Yourrésuméatthispointmaynotfit
easily onto one page. and it- needn't any-
more. “Nobody wantstoreadacrowded
one-pager with Veinch margins and no
spacebetwem entrie.” ssysllalf.“lt's bet-
teto havetwopagethatyoucanbreeee

lfyoudodecideonthisopdomyou
shouldmakecetainthatyourteumeis
welldeignedandthatthesecondpage
doen'tlooklikespillove.Anddon’tpad
yourmtriejusttofilluptwopagea.

RESUMESTAOEJ:
SHOOTINGPORTHE‘I’OP
Asyouteachthepointinyourcareewhm
you‘re ready to pmetrate the inne circle.
the structure ofyour r'eumé will change
dramatically. Every mtry on this resume
shouldimpresarcaderwith thebreadth
and range of your talmts and expertise
and.ofcourse.yourleadershipability.
Thebestwaytodothisistobespecific
butnottootechnical.“lfyou°regoingfora
top-managemmtjob. you wanttoemphs-
sizcyourabilitytohandleavarictyoftssks
succesfully;youdon'twanttogetmiredin
thedetailsofeachprojectyoumanaged.”
warnsJackaon.Onegraphicwaytodothis

 

Experience:

Residence:
Business:

 
 

Jennifer Crandell
1500 North Shore Drive
Chicago. Illinois 60625

(312) 555-0000
(312! 355-0000

DUNBAR s GREENSTREET ADVERTISING AGENCY.
Chicago. Illinois

Marketin Research Division.

Publications
and

Education:

 

Affiliations:

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13

YOURFWEI
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education.

 

 

 

This Workjngfmfe/by Kathleen Fury

 

SURVTVING THE BUSINESS BANQUET

Sooner or late. most of IE have to face it.
Often it comes with the spring. just like the
robins out in your backyard. They look so
cute. until you notice what they‘re eating.

It is the gala. annual. le‘s-see-how-we-
all-look-REAL-dresed-up. business
banquet. Whatever its rmson. the event
can bedificult. Wheriyou‘reZJand going
to your first one. it‘s gret fun (“Good
lordhowlongdoyousupposeMrs. An-
derson has owned that chanteuse chiffon
print?"). When you're 45 and have lost
countofthmathey‘rejustpartoftheptice
one pays for belonging.

Here's how to survive.

THE DRESS
Just stop thinking about the men. Just stop
feeling aggrieved that they may be able to
deductthecoatofrmtingatusorgetthe
company to pay for it. Just stop envying
them because the rental company delivered
the ruse to the office. Just remember the
poor guy you work for has never. ever eti-
perimced the thrill of satin clinging to the
skinorsilkswishingaround thelegs. Orso
you have»
Asforgettingyourdrestotheoficein
good shape. unless you are Diane Sawyer
with a limousine and driver. you just have
to do the bet you can. if you have a station
wagon. you could clean out the needle
from the let couple of Christmas tree and
lay it down back there. If you travel to
work by public transportation. the bet
way of keeping the seat next to you unoccu-
pied is toweara surgical mask. indicating a

 

GETTING READY

You'll be doing this. unless you' re Barbara
Walters with a dresing room. in the ladie'
roornattheoifice. ltwasnotdeignedasa
dresing room. for Barbara Walters or any-
one else. But you‘ll manage. like countless
others before you.

Hang the tires up on the edge of a stall.
and work fast. because you'll have to move
it every time a sister needs to get inside. if
there's no full-length mirror. try standing
onthetoiletsestforagoodviewinthe
mirror over the sink. but do watch your
balance

Now it's time to put your makeup on.
The lighting in there was put there for one
resort only: to last as long as possible be-
fore requiring a visit from maintenance. If

 

resemble the light you‘ll be seen in about
as much as your boss resembles Cary
Grant. Tread carefully with your brushes
and swabs. or you'll arrive with Raggedy
Ann cheeks and Little Orphan Annie eye.

COCKTAILS

This part always come first. It's the part
where everybody stands up for an unbear-
ably long time before moving into the actu-
al banquet hall. It‘s the part where every-
body is crushed together. protectively
clutching drinks to their chest and trying
not to let anybody bump into them. Get
club sods. lt‘s not only better for your liver.
it won't love a stain if it spills.

Don‘t take your shoe oil'. 1 know they
hurt. But they probably have tiny straps on
them that need adjusting by hand. and you
neuredly are not going to have room to
bend over and do so.

Now. MlNGLE. That‘s the point of the
cocktail hour. Don t ask me why they
make that the point. when there‘ 5 hardly
evenroomtom'tseaneyebrow. lreadre-
cently that a top network executive has a
plaque on his desk that reads MINGLING :5
MY LIFE.

That's why I'm not a top network execu-
tive. I suppose. If it were up to me. l‘d
eliminate this stage altogether. My own
preference is to ROOT—that is. stand in
one place and hope it's over soon. But min-
gling is expected. and mingle you will.

Here is how you do it. I think. First. as
you move from group to group and person
to person. remember to shout. Second.

don't trouble yourself thinking of some-
thing wonhwhile to say. Even though
you‘re shouting. they can probably get only
every third word. Third. smile. Fourth.
keep moving. To move away. just squeeze
the person nearer you firmly on the

1‘ shoulder and shout. “I'm going to the

bar to refill my glass" He may think you
said "So far thrill your ass." but he‘s al-
ready too numb to be sure of anything.

If this is an interdisciplinary evening.
you may be meeting new people. Now you
will. possibly for the first time. understand
the purpose of The Evening Bag. Though
too small for a lipstick. it can accommodate
several business cards. So put them in there
and think how lucky you are to own your
very own beaded business-card file. which
set you backamereSlZS.

THE MEAL

This is a good time to rernetnber all the diet
tips you‘ve ever heard. like the one about
how Jackie 0 never finishes everything on
her plate.

Don't 3k the waiter what it is. You‘re a
grown-up now. supposedly. or else you‘d
be at home watching cannons on TV.

If you‘re among the throng on the ball-
room fioor. your only job is to eat enough
to ward off lightheadednes and not overdo
the wine. If you're sitting on the dais. in full
view of several thousand people. the rule
are difi'erent. If the thing they've served
you has to be cut with a knife and fork.
don‘t touch it. It's too. too awful to have a
breast of something go skidding off your
plate. sail ofi' the dais and land in the mid.
die of Table #8. They would talk about it
for years. you know them.

If you're having salad. beware of water-
cress tooth. That's when a piece of green-
ery. aided by a little oil. affixes itself firmly
to your from tooth. oflcn covering one so
neatly as to make it appear to have fallen
out during dinner.

HOME SWEET HOME

None too soon. it will end. Get inside your
front door. unhook that push-up bra. slip
out of those snappy shoes and get into your
most comfortable jammie. Unless you‘re
Joan Rivers. you may not have to get that
dressed up again for a year. I

 

Kathleen Fury is a regular columnist jbr
WORKING WOMAN.

103

OPPORTUNITIES
UNLIMITED

in today’s Coast Guard. job and career
opportunities for men and women between
the ages of 17 and 27 are unlimited.

THE ElIUSI'ED OP'I10N
Ifyou want to learn a skill—many of which
are in hi-tech fields-there are over two
dozen job specialties available. including
electronics. aviation machinist and marine
sciences. Saving lives. protecting the envi-
ronment and stopping illegal drug activi-
ties. areonlyafewofthemanyCoast
Guard missions you may perform. You can
advance quickly bequse promotions are .
based upon your own initiative and skills.

TIE RESERVE OPTION
Even if you're still in high school or college.
there are several options to consider. As a
Coast Guard Reservist. you can attend drills
one weekend per month and be paid while
you are being trained. You'll also qualify for
the New Reserve GI Bill and receive
monthly checks to help with college
expenses.

THE COAST GUARD-AN ARMED SERVICE AND MORE

 

 

THE OPTION
Towarthegoldbarsofanofficer. there
are several career paths to follow. One is to
enter the Coast Guard Academy in New

Eagle and small boa! photos by Dan Nmto'.

 

London. Connecticut. You’ll earn a four-
year. expense-paid Bachelor of Science
degree. . if you're a college graduate. you
can enter our Officers Candidate School at
Yorktown, Virginia. Here you'll complete
an intensive 17-week leadership training
school. Either path leads to a commission as
an Ensign.

OF BELONGING
Regardless of the mreer option you choose
in the Coast Guard. you'll get all the bene-
fits...30dayspaidleaveeachyear...free
medial and dental service . . . reduced
prices in any military exchange . . . the New
GI bill for tuition assistance. and much
more. You could work in exciting places
where the Coast Guard operates. . . from
Japan to the Antarctic . . . Hawaii or in the
continental United States. We have part-
time Reserve positions and full-time career
opportunities available now. Contact your
local recruiter or call toll-free:

800-424-8883/@

 

 

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"Now that that's out of the wav...Do you think you could put
in a good word for an entrv level position: $35,000 a year,

APPENDIX C

BOOKLET 2

BOOKLET 2

CAM PUS NEWS

FALL EDITION

     

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107

 

 

 

 

u IN THE n
“JUNGLE

It takes sophisticated strategies to capture the career you want. Here ’s how
to write standout resumes, handle interviews and recruiters, get top perks.

 

he time has come for
the hunt.
You've been getting
restless. The job you
have now has done about as
much as it can for you. and

THE EIGHT LAWS
OF THE JUNGLE

another. “Fewer and fewer com-
panies have a cradle-to-grave
culture anymore." says Peter
Drummond-Hay. a consultant
with Russell Reynolds Asso-
ciates. Inc. an executive-search

you‘vedone what youcanforthe firm. “Mergers. acquisitions. the
job. Or the job has become a development of leveraged
cl notacl ll 8&0" 's .................................................. buyou ll havehadhuge' m.
“WW1” When you set out on yourioh search P'humwmmb'wt'
settling signals of tmpendtngnup- I stigmaattachedtojob hunting.

heavaLYoucanalmostfeelttm ywnneed’hlsmaffhemm. “latheeaecutive-searchpro-
yourbones:lt’snmetocarvean- fanon.”saysWilliamE.Gould.

other notch in your resume.
Somewhere out there is your
quarry: your next job. But in this
wildly competitive terrain. you cannot
evmseewhoelseisout theregunningfor
the job you want. lt's just you against the
jungle Your nerves against the unknown.
Fortunately. even in the work jungle
there are laws.

LAW OPTHEJUNGLE #1

...................................

Yauhavanmoantrultlmywtlfl

You're going to get hired for what you can
do. and nothing communicates your poten-
tial value to an-employer more than your
own beliefin it. Your qualifications. your
education. your work history-none of
themwillmattersomuchastheattitude
you project of competence. confidence and
commitment to your career. And that's a
quantifiable fact.

byJohn Sta/tenberg

Robert L. Swain. chairman of Swain a
Swain Inc. an outplacement firm. has de-
veloped a formula for predicting the length
of a job search. it's based on three weighted
categories: The situation of your particular
job market and job change counts 20 per-
cent. your resources and background count
30 percent. but the entire other 50 percent
is your attitude and job-hunting behav-
ior—the very things you can do the most
about. “Your attitude makes an enormous
difl'erence.” Swain says.

LAW OFTHEJUNGLE #2

flrara’snostdrthitoasasmaiw

These are heady and volatile times. Firms
across the country are shaking up. sizing
down. merging with and gorging on one

firm. “we are very rarely running
intopeoplewhosay.'Thanksforcalling.
but no thanks.‘ People today are almost
always receptive to an approach.”

The average professional in America
whoacceptsanewjobtodaywillchange
againwithin four years. says Robert J. Ger-
berg. author of Robert Gerberg’ 3 Job
Changing System. Inevitably. that profes-
sional‘ s self-interest will outweigh tradi-
tional long-range organizational loyalty.

“Notonlyisjobsecurityathingofthe
past. but so is career security." says Audrey
Freedman. who tracks trends in the labor
market as an economist with the Confer-
ence Board. a business-research organiza-
tioninNew York. “ltusedtobethatsome-
oneenteringatthelowerlevclsoflarge.
old-line corporations—someone of the

dghtsexraceandsocialbackground—

108

103 fluutmc IN THE "out JUNGLE

would pretty much we automatically, un-
lemhedidsomethingterriblywrongalong
theway.Thstonlyappliedtomarofcourae.
Nowit really doesn‘tapplytoanyone."
Brrtifanewjobiswhatyou'reafier,the
demise ofjob security holds some good
news: “Today's very fiuid labor market
meansthatajobhuntercanmorelikely
findthebest‘fit‘inajob—thebestoppor—
tunity. thebestsalary." says Freedman.
Canjobmobilitybecornetoomuchofa
goodthing? Employeesriskbeingcatego-
riaedasjobhOppersifthey“gofromcom-
pany to company without being promoted
within.”cautionsStanlohnson.apartner
inchargeofthesearchprscticeafGood-
richtSherwoodCompananoutplace-
merrt and management-recruiting firm.
Winthelooksforinjobcandidatesare
people who have demonstrated ability
withinthecompanieathey’veworkedfor.
But“evenapromotionineachcompany
canlookliketoomany.“hesays. “Five
suchjob changes in seven yars. for in-
stance.aretoomany.Chsngingjohsonan
avenge of every two years is too ofien.
However." he says with a note of irony.
bdusehehimselfhasbeenwithhisfinn
about a decade. “ten years at the same
placealmostmakesyoususpect.”

LAW OFTHEJUNGLE #3.

Thehigpicturecontairuacriticallemonfor

allonceandfuturejobhuntersfl'hesetimes

call for exceptional achievement on your

job. Neverbeforehave youbeeninsucha

goodpdtion toseeyour riskotakingand
rewarded.

“Conventionalwisdomhmitthatwhen
thereisless security. people
takeriska”saysFreedman. “Whenthereis
moresecurity. peopledont—thats when
someorretriestocopytlrebdmimicshis
mentofsthhrkingandsayn‘lwillfiybe-
hind his comet. secure a pdtion in its
““....

Freedman believes that the increased
risk-takingarrdcreativity in thisfiuidjob

gerialandprofessiorral women: “Because
womendon'ttendasoftentohavemerr-
mtlreyfedleasneedtocopyandmimic
andbecomea goodoldboy.’ Asaresult
women in managerial jobs are often far
more inventive. much better detectives.“
morecreativeandoutspoken.”
Whatallthismeansisthatintoday’sjob
market.buildingacareeralmostcertainly
willrequireyoutoswitchbackandforth
betweerrtherightmindsetforlookingfora
newjobandtlrerightmentalsttitudestodo
sterrificjobwhereyouare.

LAW OFTHE JUNGLE #4

Trwfirgrbwnmml'dwimfina

There’sanoldsayingtbatatmidmanage-
mentlevelandabovefindingyournestjob
willtakeouemonth foreachSlOJIX) you
eapecttoearn—sixmonths foraswflll
job. for instance. Various job-hunting ea-
pertshsvetheirownversionsofit:

“In the $201!!) to $251!!) range. you
reallydonndatleastthreemonths.”says
Richard E. McCollunr. president of). J.
Gallagher Associates. a career-manage-
ment and outplacement firm. “At higher
kvdaSSQWandabovedamonthsat
$80.!!!) to 5mm nine months; over
Slmflflnweretalkingafullyear—withall
kindsdeacepdomofcourse.
onyourspecialtyandthemarket.”

“1hereisnoruleofthumb,”sayst
mond-l-lay."l'heonlynrleisthatyou
sbouldeapectittotakealongtimeThe
morehighlypaidyouarchandthemore
senior—thelongeritwilltake.”

The point of course is to be neither
daunted nor impatient. but rather to perse-
vere. Andalsotoplanahead:Togetthe
goodjobyouwantbynextyear.youmsy
needtostartnow.

LAW OFTHEJUNGLE #5

MW!
Nowsuppoaeyou’vebeenofi'eredapartic-
ularjobJsthereawaytoevaluatewhether
thesalaryincrease ofi'eredmakesthisjob
changeworthyourwhile?

“Historically the raise pattern between
jobshasbeenintheZOtoZSpercentarm.
That was set in the late '70.. a period (1
high inflation.” says Gould. “Now. be-
causecorporationsdon’twanttheirsalary
scalestogetmnofwlnchtheyareparing
downthoseincrusesandmakingitupina
front-errd.orjoining.bonus—totidesome-
oneoveruntiltheirfirstsalaryreview.“

“We are seeing that people's average
movebringsanincreasethatrunsIStoZO
percent.” says Johnson. The fact that a
moverequiresrelocationdoesnotseemto
afi'ect that increase significantly. because
within a given industry most bigger compa-
nies' salaries are competitive. “The issue is
ultimately the quality of the job." Johnson
says. “not solely the compensation."

Search consultant Drummond-Hay
agreesthat“morreyisonlyoneofthcmoti-
vationsthatleadpeopletochangejobaAs
amieofthumhthminmostcasespeo-
plechangingjobsshouldseeanoverallim-
provementinthcircompensationoflSto
30percent. Butotheraspects—suchasan
opportunity to share in profits—could
makeajobchangecompelling.”

“Ifyou'rehappywhereyouareandyou
getanofi'er.”sayscareercounselorMcCol-
lum. “the newjob should make a change
worthyourwhilenotonlyintermsofsala-
rybutinternnofgrowthsteps.”

LAWOFTI‘IEJUNGLE #6

Ifngtswckarsnarpadptam
Noteveryjobsearchgoessmoothly.But
laughingitoutisnovirtuewhenyourca-
reerisatstaandwhenprofessionalaid
havaflskaherearethreebasictypes:
OCareercodaloracanhelpyouwithlife
phnningandcareerphnningsaysMcCol-
lum: “lt's helpful for anyonetogo through
somecareercounseling.tositdownandgo
throughorre'scareer-development issue.”
Buttherearesometipotfsthat youreally
shouldseeksuchadvicez“ifyourcareeris
notgoingwelLifyoufeelworkisdrudgery.
ifyou‘regettinglessandlessoutofyour
job. if you're feeling depressed.” You nor-
mallypayforacareercounselor’stime.
OOIthacemaat counseling is a service
many companies pay for to help employees
whohsvebeenletgoduetoreorganintion.
Fortheindividualthrust intoajobhunt
involuntarily. it can makeasignificant con-
tribution to getting organized and
launched. says Swain. whose firnr. anrong
other things. ofiers clients videotape sesp
sions for direct feedback about behaviors
that are counterproductive and attitudes
thatarejeopardizingtheirjobsearch.0ut-
placernentalsocanincludecounseling.»
searchandrésurne'andletterwriting.
OEaecntiva m sometimes called
headhunters or executive-search constri-
tants.areretainedbyemployerstofindand
screen qualified job candidates—which
mansthatiftheygetwindofyouandthey
wantyornthentheycomeafleryouThere
arewaystoget noticedbyrecruiters who
specialize in your field: Becoming v'nible
and recognized professionally is best.
Therearewaystoletrecruitersknowabout
you too—by being referred through asso-
ciates who’ve had dalinp with them. for
instancc.orbyserrdingapersonalizedlet-
terwithyourrésumé. But realistically.ex-
pect that your most promising relation-
ships with headhunters won't be initiated
by you. (See “The Executive Woman's
Guidetol-leadhunters.”page 110.)

LAW OFTHE JUNGLE #7

“Thebiggestmistakepeoplemalteonsjob
campaign.”sayslohnson.“isthattheysell
tlrernselveaasaproductbutdon'tlistento
thenecdsofthepotentialcmployer."

“Job hunting is a matter of marketing

 

yourself.” says Herman Holtz. author of
Beyondthe Réurrré Howrolandthelob
You Want.“Andthefirstruleofmarketing
yourselfistobeacorrsultanttothepersorr
yorrwanttosellto,tohelpthemgetwhat
theywant. You’reselfingaprorniseand
it. -a. I r r ' .I.-a ....-a- as

ILL .: J

is no mere figure of speech. In fact. says
Johnson. the but interviewees tend to be
people who really are consultants. and
salespeople in “need driven" fields:

"racy , _.u. r and
tryingtosolveit.”Byaskingandlistming

Successful quests into
the [ob iungle begin
with a can-do attitude.

youcanfindoutwhatjobyourpotential
employer wants done. and then you can
showyourdesireandahilitytodoit.

LAW OFTHE JUNGLE #8

Jobhuntingintheworkjunglemayfeel

likeatarseandsolitarypursuihaperilous
venture into inhospitable territory. But
fundamentally job hunting is a social pro-
cess. Youaredealingwithcommunitiesof

andowhattheynecddoinchepthatin
mindasyoucultivateyoursocialskillsand
market your attitudes, skills and intelli-
garceSureit’sajungleoutthereButyour
ultimatesmesswilltumonhowwellyou
pruentyouraelftothepeopleaur there—
andonthefollowingpagayou'llfindsome
of“ t ‘ ‘ , ‘ ‘ :.':.:. I

 

For peOple who like to smokléi.

 

. ‘;":ar,'0 7 mg "nccnne av ge' :rgareue. FTC Reporr F2135.

 

SURGEON GENERAL'S WARNING: Smoking
By Pregnant Women. May Result in Fetal
Injury, Premature Birth, And Low Birth Weight.

 

 

 

 

111

 

 

HIGH :CiFE

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112

jot IIIUNTING IN THE WORK JUNGLE

ONE LITTLE RESUME-
AND How IT GREw

Reodyforabetterlbbfliere’showtotar'lor
you'réstmrétoeodrnewstageofyourcaw.

byl-larnaRubin

Asyougoforwardintoeachnewstageof
yourcareeryourresumémustalsobecome
more advanced. The resume format that
launchedyou outofyourfirst orsecond
rmljobwon'tgetyouabiggerandbetter
jobirrnriddlenranagernentAndsimilarly
thenisume'thatgotyouthatmiddle-man-
agernentjobwon'tmaketherightimpres—
sionwhenthetimecanestoseekapdtion
atthetop.
Updatingyourrésume’bysimplyadding
yourmost recentjobtoyourold resume
simplywon‘tdo. Thatworr’tgetacrossthe
messageofyourhigher-levelqualifications
and aspiration. At each new level you
must recast your earlier entries so they
pointtowardyourneWJ'ObIOILandrefo-
custhewhole formattosendouteaactly
the right signals to your next employer. To
showyouhow.hereandonthefollowing
pagesarethreestep-by-step-upesampla—
fictional resumes for three significant
stagesofasuccessfulcareer.

RESUMES'I‘AGEI:
YOURFWTBIGMOVE
After your first or secondjob. yourjob-
huntinggoalchanges.You'renottryingto
getintoyourfieldanymore;whatyouwant
nowisapdtioninwhichyoucanexercise
theskillsyou'veacquired.assuminggreat-
areponrhilitiesJoonyournextrésumé
youwanttoshownotonlywhstyou've
lmrnedbutalsothat you canapply those
skillsefi'ectivelyandcreatively.
Oneofthefirstclnngestomakeinyour
resrnne'istodispensewithajobobjectiveif
you used one before. “Job objectives are
troublemakerstalmdanythingyousayin

placementfirm. Insteadputyourjobgoal
inacoverletter. whereyoucandrawstten-
tiontOpertinentpointsinyourrésurne'that
will interut a specific employer in your
canm'dacy.

The way you orgara'ae the content of

eachentrycanlendsupporttothejobbid
you'remakinginyourcoverletter.lf.for
instmyou’reinterestedinthetechnical
sideofyourfieldbutyouspentpartofyour
tinre supervising others. you would put
your technical achievements and experi-
enceatthebeginningoftheentryandyour
managerial responsibilitiesattheerrd. If.
ontheotherhand.youwanttoheadina
theorder. Ineachentrythesequenceof
information shouldaccerrtuateboth your
prioritiessndyourstrengthsforthenext

As youriob goals
change, the formatand
content of yourrésumé

should charge too.

jobyouaspireto—andwhereverpossible
youshouldusenumbersandspecificsthat
dramaticallyillustrateyourpitch.

Early in your career it's important to
show what you've learired so prospective
employers know that you've mastered the
basicsinyotrrfieldAsimpleandstraight-
forward statement is best. as in the first
re'sumépreaentedhereforthefictionalJen-
nifer Crandell: “Learned to tabulate teat-
marketingdata.”

Opiniondifi'eraboutwhethertoinclude
nonprofessional involvements (like bob-
bies)onarésumeatthispoint.TomJack-
menthorofnehrfeake’nmé urges
you to include only those activities that
relatetoyornprofesionallifeanddevelop-
mart. However, Lynn TendlerGilbert.co-
founder with Janet Tweed of Gilbert
Tweed Associates. an executive-search
'fimfeehthstit’sworthfieshingyormelf
out a bit on a rmume. espee'nlly as you

movehigberuptheladder.“Peoplehire
people. not residues." she points out. “You
don't want to look myOpic about your a-
reer. and it can provide an opening for
discussion in an interview."

Summer jobs are also a point of debate.
Jackson thinks that whatever position
you’re currently holding probably exceeds
in responsibility any summer internship. so
why include it? You might end up resisting
information given in more recent job err-
tria. and a cardirnl rule of resume writing
is not to repeat yburself. “It makes for very
boring reading if you do.” Jackson warns.
ButheagreeswithGilbertthatifyou've
had a particularly illustrious internship. es-
pecially one that involves some kind of
award. it might be worth including now-—
but not at a later stage.

REUME STAGE 2:

GAINING GROUND

IN MID-CAREER

lt‘s several years later and you're several
rungs higher. You've had promotions.
maybe switched firms. you've crossed the
threshold into middle management—and
you intend to keep moving up. The resume
you write now must do one fundamental
thing: It must show how you're difi'erent
fromtherestofthepack. it must changeits
emphasis from the skills you‘ve acquired to
the valuable achievements you've been re»
sponsiblefor. Andtomakeclarjusthow
valuable you’ve been. quantitative rmults
and their long-term elects should be fea-
tured in every entry.

Crandell’s “stage I” re'sumé paved the
way for her transition from a technical/
research pdtion to a creative marragerrrent
role. Now in the middle ranks of a nredi.
um-size dairy-products company—where
opportunities to move up are few—Cran-
dellrealizesthatshemusteapandherback-
ground to include some selling experience.
in order ultimately to becorrre a vice presi-
dent of marketing and sales or even a CEO
inherfield. Decidingthat herbest routeis
new-product development. which involves
a great deal ofsales interaction. she slants
allofher“stage2”résume’(seepage 102)to
accentuate her experience in new-product

8-

Bveryjobentryshouldbestructuredto
reinforoeyournentjobgoaLAndatthis
stageyounolongerneedtodrawsttention
toyourmasteryofthebasics. whichan
employer takesfor granted (accordingly
Crandellnowomitsentirelythein-hone
trainingcoursesshetook).

Becareful not to repeat points about
yourselfthst are already evident; it's a
wasteofpreciorrssrraceCrandelLforin-
stance. superv'ued five people when she

00.0.0.0. ......... 0.00...00.000000000000000...

113

000.000.000.000.

’08 fluurms IN THE float JUNGLE

wasasenioranalystbutonlyfourwhenshe
joinedlloaebud.soshesimplydropsthat
mpectofherjob.sinceit'sclearslre‘shsd
considerable managerial experience al-
rendy.Shealsoeditsherearlierjobentries
downtoacoupleofserrterrces.sincetheir
importancelnsdiminishedinthelightof
herlaterexperience.

At the stagesimply belonging to various
organizations won't tell prospective em-
ployersthatyouhaveleadership potential.
lnsteadifyoubelongtoanycommitteesor
sitoncditorialboardsofprofasionaljour-
nals.for example. highlight theaeconnec-
donunder“ProfessionalAfiiliation.”ln-
cludingcommrmityactivitiescenshownot

only that you‘reawell-roundcdpersonbut
alsothatoutsideyourownfieldyouhaves
network ofconnection. which may be of
value to your company.

Your résume' at this point may not fit
easily onto one page, and it needn’t any-
more. “Nobody wants to read a crowded
one-pager with Vo-inch margins and no
spacebetwemerrtries.” saysHalf. “lt's bet-
tertohavetwopegesthatyoucanbrceee

lfyoudodecideonthisoptiomyou
shouldmakecertainthatyourresuméis
welldesignedarrdthatthesecondpage
doesn'tlooklikespillover.Anddon‘tpad
yourentriesjusttofilluptwopages.

BISUMESTAGES:
SHOOTINGFORTHETOP
Asyoureachthepointinyourcareerwhen
you re ready to penetrate the rnner circle.
the structure ofyour resume will change
dramatically. Every entry on this re'sume'
shouldimpressareaderwiththebreadth
and range of your talents and expertise
andofcouneyourleedershipability.
Thebdwaytodothisistobespecific
butnottootechnical.“lfyou‘re going fora
top-managementjob.you wanttoempha-
sizeyourabilitytohandlesvarietyoftasks
successfully; you don‘t wanttogetnriredin
thedetailsofeachprojectyou managed.”
warrrsJackson.Onegraphicwaytodothis

 

Incidence:
Business:

looked closely with clients to design new-
questionnaires.

age-ly.nlw'nncountl. .
Inplennnted cont-cutting announce that saved

Jennifer Crandell
1500 North Shore Drive
Chicago. Illinois 60625

(312) 555-0000
(312) 555-0000

DUIBAR 6 GIZIUSTRIBT ADVERTISING AGIflCY.

Senior AnalystI Harketing Research Division.

 

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education.

 

 

 

This Working Life/by Kathleen Fury

 

SURVIVING THE BUSINESS BANQUET

Sooner or later. most of us have to face it.
Oflar it coma with the spring. just like the
robinorrtinyourbackyard.‘lheylookso
cute. until you notice what they‘re eating.

It is the
all-look-REAL-dressedmp. business
banquet. its reason. the event
can be difiicult. What you‘re 23 and going
to your first one. it’s great fun (“Good
Lord. how long do you suppose Mrs. An-
derson has owned that chanteuse chifi'on
prism”). When you‘re 45 and have lost
count ofthem. they'rejustpartofthepricc
one pays for belonging

Here’s how to survive.

THE DRESS

Just stop thinking about the men. Just stop
feeling aggrieved that they may be able to
deduct thecostofrentingatuxorgetthe
company to pay for it. Just stop arvying
than because the rental company delivered
the tunes to the oifice. Just remember the
poorguyyouworkforhasnever.everex-
periarced the thrill of satin clinging to the
skinorsilkswishingaroundthelegs.0rso
you hope.

As for getting your dress to the ofice in
good shape. unless you are Diane Sawyer
with a limousine and driver, you just have
to do the best you can. If you have a station
wagomyoucouldcleanoutthencedles
fromthelastcoupleofChristmastreesand
lay it down back there. If you travel to
work by public transportation. the best
way of keeping the seat next to you unoccu~
pied is to wear a surgical mask. indicating a

GETTING READY

You'll be doing this. unless you're Barbara
Walters with a dressing room. in the ladies‘
roornattheofiice. ltwasnotdesignedasa
dressing room. for Barbara Walters or any-
one else. But you‘ll manage. like countless
others before you.

Hang the dress up on the edge of a stall.
and work fast. because you'll have to move
it every time a sister needs to get inside. If
there‘s no full-length mirror. try standing
on the toilet seat for a good view in the
mirror ova the sink. but do watch your
balance

Now it's time to put your makeup on.
The lighting in there was put there for one
rm only: to last as long as possible be-
fore requiring a visit from maintenance. It

ennui. let‘s-seehow-we- (/

 
  

resembles the light you‘ll be seen in about
as much as your boss resembles Cary
Grant. Tread carefully with your brushes
and swabs. or you‘ll arrive with Raggedy
Ann checks and Little Orphan Annie eyes.

COCKTAILS

This part always coma first. It's the part
where everybody stands up for an unbear-
ably long time before moving into the actu-
al banquet hall. lt's the part where every-
body is crushed together, protectively
clutching drinks to their chest and trying
not to let anybody bump into than. Get
club soda lt's not only better for your liver.
it won‘t leave a stain if it spills.

Don't take your shoes off. I know they
hurt. But they probably have tiny straps on
them that need adjusting by hand. and you
assuredly are not going to have room to
bend over and do so.

Now. MINGLE. That‘s the point of the
cocktail hour. Don‘t ask me why they
make that the point. when there‘s hardly
even room to raise an eyebrow. I read re-
cently that a top network executive has a
plaque on his desk that reads MINGLING rs
MY LIFE.

That's why I'm not a top network execu-
tive. l suppose. If it were up to me. To
eliminate this stage altogether. My own
preference is to ROOT—that is. stand in
one place and hope it's over soon. But min-
gling is expected. and mingle you will.

Here is how you do it, I think. First. as
you move from group to group and person
to person. remember to shout. Second.

don‘t trouble yourself thinking of some-
thing worthwhile to say. Even though
you're shouting. they can probably get only
every third word. Third. smile. Fourth.
keep moving. To move away. just squeeze
the person nearest you firmly on the

.‘ shoulder and shout. “I'm going to the

bar to refill my glass." He may think you
said “So far thrill your ass." but he's al-
ready too numb to be sure of anything.

If this is an interdisciplinary evening.
you may be meeting new people. Now you
will. possibly for the first time. understand
the purpose of The Evening Bag. Though
too small for a lipstick. it can accommodate
several business cards. So put them in there
and think how lucky you are to own your
very own beaded business-card file. which
set you back a mere 5125.

THE MEAL

This is a good time to remember all the diet
tips you‘ve ever heard. like the one about
how Jackie 0 never finishes everything on
her plate.

Don‘t ask the waiter what it is. You‘re a
grown-up now. supposedly. or else you‘d
be at home watching cartoon on TV.

If you‘re among the throng on the ball-
room fioor. your only job is to eat enough
to ward off lightheadedneas and not overdo
the wine. If you're sitting on the dais. in full
view of several thousand people. the rules
are different. If the thing they’ve served
you has to be cut with a knife and fork.
don't touch it. lt's too. too awful to have a
breast of something go skidding ofi' your
plate. sail off the dais and land in the mid-
dle of Table #8. They would talk about it
for years. you know them.

If you're having salad. beware of water-
cress tooth. That's when a piece of green-
ery. aided by a little oil. afiixes itself firmly
to your front tooth. oflen covering one so
neatly as to make it appear to have fallen
out during dinner.

HOME SWEET HOME

None too soon. it will end. Get inside your
front door. unhook that push-up bra. slip
out of those strappy shoes and get into your
most comfortable jammies. Unless you‘re
Joan Rivas. you may not have to get that
dressed up again for a year.

 

Kathleen Fury is a regular columnist for
Woaxmc WOMAN.

 

115

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1)

3)

4)

5)

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