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Iris.- Wg-v- - 5 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN EXPLORATION OF PERSONALITY, ATTITUDES AND PLAY SKILL BEHAVIORS OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS presented by Randy Isabelle Olley has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhD degree in Counsel inCL Psychology Major ssor Dam April 10, 1984 MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LIBRARIES ” RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. _'———r W"? 3 '0 2;}21 AN EXPLORATION OF PERSONALITY, ATTITUDES AND PLAY SKILL BEHAVIORS OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS By Randy Isabelle Olley A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling Psychology, Educational Psychology and Special Education 1984 ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATION OF PERSONALITY, ATTITUDES AND PLAY SKILL BEHAVIORS OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS By Randy Isabelle Olley This study explored 20 personality variables, 7 par- enting attitude variables. and 21 adult-child play behaviors. An understanding of these variables was expected to provide information regarding the training of students, parents, or professionals. Three areas were questioned: (1) selected personality characteristics and their relationship to play skills, (2) parenting attitudes relating to play skills, and (3) the potential effect of training on personality, attitudes, and play skills. Correlational analysis of pretest data showed signifi- cant correlations between personality and adult play behav- iors, i.e., “Affiliation" and ”Play" correlated positively with "Takes Lead Without Giving Option." T-test analysis indicated 4 adult play behaviors changed, 3 personality variables, and 4 attitude variables, i.e., "Willingness to Follow Child's Lead," "Endurance," and "Coping" increased significantly. Correlational analysis between changes in attitudes and in play skills found that as students increased in their "Willingness to Follow the Child's Lead" they increased Randy Isabelle Olley their belief that they were more able to cope with the child's demands. This study is a preliminary exploration of potential changes in personality. attitudes, and behaviors, and any statistically significant changes may be due to factors other than course participation such as maturation or school- related experiences. No control group was used. Suggestions regarding future research are made. These are: (1) similar studies with larger samples of students, (2) an experimental study using a control group, and (3) the use of scales measuring empathy, warmth, and genuineness which may be more productive than using personality tests designed to minimize retest score differences. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are several persons who have encouraged and assisted me through this study, and it is with sincere appreciation that I acknowledge them. I am grateful to Dr. Richard Johnson, who accepted the responsibility of chairing my dissertation committee. His supervision and thoughtful assistance were coupled with encouragement and warmth in all our interactions. I am especially grateful to Dr. Gary Stollak, who has provided friendship, intellectual challenge, and support throughout my graduate school years. I appreciate his tak- ing on the task of directing my research and providing many of the necessary resources. I am also grateful to committee members Dr. Harvey Clarizio and Dr. William Hinds for their assistance. I wish to thank Dr. Clyde Folsom of the University of Maine, who consistently said it was possible to finish writing this dissertation despite my doubts. There are several other special pe0ple whom I wish to thank: First, Dr. Diane Kwasnick, for editorial assistance during the final phases of writing, and my colleagues at Boston University for their concern and encouragement. ll Additionally, special thanks to my friend Ira Abel, who has seen me through two graduate degrees. Finally, one person deserves special mention: Dr. William Metheny provided encouragement, love, and under- standing during the five years of graduate school. Without his support. this dissertation may never have been under- taken or completed. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................ CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .............................. CHAPTER 2. THEORY AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ....... Overview .................................. Personality Characteristics of Counse- lors and Day-Care Workers .............. Small Group Practicum Training Versus Didactic Training ...................... Parent Education Programs ................. Client-Centered Theory as a Basis for Parent Education Programs .............. Review of Client-Centered Parent Educa- tion Programs .......................... The Sensitivity to Children Course ..... The STC Course Education Structure ..... Summary ................................... CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH AND DESIGN ....................... Measures Studied .......................... Michigan Screening Profile of Parenting. Porter Parental Acceptance Scale ....... Jackson Personality Research Form-E.... Behavior Measure ....................... Rater Training ............................ Subjects .................................. iv CHAPTER 4. CHAPTER 5. APPENDICES A. 8. Design and Data Collection ................ Structure of the STC Course ............... RESULTS ................................... Summary ................................... DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ................. Overview .................................. Procedures ............................. Discussion ................................ Part 1 of the Study .................... Part 2 of the Study .................... Part 3 of the Study .................... Limitations of This Study and Recommenda- tions for Future Research ................. Concluding Statement ...................... Jackson Personality Research Form-E Scales. Schedule of Videotaping: Fall, Winter, Spring ..... ............................... Behavior Rating Categories .................. Behavior Scale Rating Form .................. Rater Recruitment Letter .................... Interrater Reliability Correlations, Play Behaviors ................................... Thank You Letter ............................ Inter-Item Correlation of Fall Play Behavior. 45 47 50 59 6O 60 61 62 64 64 68 74 75 77 79 84 89 9O 93 94 95 96 97 98 K. Michigan Screening Profile of Parenting Scores Obtained by Students Enrolled in STC Course ...................................... 99 L. Inter-Item Correlation Coefficients for the PPAS Fall Term .............................. 100 M. Jackson Research Personality Form-E Pre- and Posttest Scores ............................. 101 N. Behavior Rating Categories Theoretical Grouping .................................... 102 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................... 104 vi Table 1. 2. LIST OF TABLES Time (T) of Data Collection ................. Correlation of Students' Play Behaviors with Students' Personality Variables for Fall Quarter ..................................... Pre- and Posttest Scores for Students' Play Behavior Skills, Fall to Spring Quarters Pre- and Posttest Scores for Personality Research Form E ............................. MSPP Pre- and Posttest Scores, Fall and Spring ...................................... PPAS Pre- and Posttest Scores, Fall and Spring ...................................... vii 46 52 56 56 58 58 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Since Freud began writing about the effects of child rearing upon children, psychologists and the general public have been concerned with obtaining information and training for parents (Freud, 1955). A market for this information was seen as early as the middle 18005, when several parent- ing magazines were published (Sherrets, et al., 1980). The move to teach parenting skills accelerated with the publica- tion of such books as Hiam Ginott's Between Parent and Child (1965) and Between Parent and Teenager (1967) as well as Gordon's Parent Effectiveness Training (PET)(1970L. Courses and programs have been developed by community mental health agencies, universities, and individual psychologists, social workers, and teachers. The most successful programs involved the parent and child as a unit (Stover and Guerney, 1967; Hornsby and Applebaum, 1978). The adult-child unit forms the basis oftfim "Sensitivity to Children" (STC) course offered at Michigan State Univer- sity. Students enrolled in the course play with a child for thirty weeks. The basic principles of the course can be applied to undergraduate students, as prospective parents, or to parents and professionals. The course adopts the principles of client—centered therapy, formulated by Carl Rogers (1951), and filial therapy, formulated by Bernard and Louise Guerney (1969). Students are taught to reflect ver- bally the child's behaviors, verbal statements, and assumed inner feelings and thoughts. The field of parent education is divided primarily between advocates of client-centered approaches and behavior modification approaches. The behavior modification practi- tioners teach parents responses to specific child behaviors and measure behavior change (Humphrey, 1978; Shuerer, 1977), whereas the client—centered theorists attempt to change attitudes and measure skills such as empathy (Guerney, 1977; Stollak, 1968). It was the intent of this study to extend past research on parenting; that is, this study analyzed the personality characteristics, attitudes of acceptance toward children, and play skill behaviors of college undergraduate students enrolled in a course on child deveIOpment. These variables were chosen because: (1) they are relevant to gaining a better understanding of the training of parents and profes- sionals, and (2) no previous research on the variables has been conducted. This study was designed to explore three areas: (1) personality variables and their relationship to play skills, (2) attitudes toward parenting and their relation- ship to play skills, and (3) the changes and interactions in personality, attitudes, and play skills which occur after training. For ease of analysis, the study was divided into three parts. Part I involved two correlational analyses of the relationships between: (a) personality and play skill, and (b) attitudes toward children and play skills. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) Is there a relationship between personality character- istics and initial level of play skill? (2) Is there a relationship between attitudes and initial level of play skill? Part II questioned whether differences existed between ini- tial and final personality characteristics, play skill levels, and attitudes. Three hypotheses were tested: (3) Is there a change in students' play skills after par- ticipating in the STC course? (4) Is there a change in students' personalities after par- ticipating in the STC course? (5) Is there a change in students' attitudes toward chil- dren after participating in the STC course? Part III of the study examined the posttraining changes which occurred in each category (personality, attitudes, and play skills) through correlation analyses with each other. The following hypotheses tested these questions: (6) Is there a relationship between attitude change and play skill change? (8) Is there a relationship between personality change and play skill change? Is there a relationship between personality change and attitude change? T» RI)». 5 CHAPTER 2 THEORY AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Overview This chapter reviews the literature in four major areas: (1) Personality characteristics of psychologists, counse- lors, and day-care workers as they relate to parenting and child care; (2) The effects of small group participation on personality during training; (3) Parent education programs with special consideration given to studies that focus on client-centered theory; and, i (4) Previous research conducted regarding the Sensitivity to Children (STC) course. Finally, this chapter presents the eight hypotheses tested relating student personality and attitude characteristics, play skill behaviors, and their interrelationships and changes. Training programs in any field are designed to change the behavior of the participants. Generally, training prOgrams in psychology are concerned with modifying specific skills as well as attitudes. The major rationale guiding this research stems from a concern with the need to prepare adults to be skillful caregivers. These adults may be students who will be future parents or graduate students in psychology or related fields. The STC course is offered to undergraduate students. A review of the literature failed to find studies that explore the personality characteristics of undergraduate students as they relate to play-skill development, training athhera- pists, or attitudes toward parenting or child rearing. Typically, studies explored personality in relation to voca- tional choice (Darley & Hagehan, 1955; Korman, 1969; Blocher & Schultz, 1961) as "artists in the making" (Zeldow, 1973) or in relation to caffeine use, drug use, sex role stereo- typing, etc. When undergraduate students are studied in relation to child care, it is in terms of child-care expec- tations as they relate to sex roles and career aspirations (Fisher, 1978) or attitudes toward child bearing (Riegel, 1974). Since previous research does not provide information regarding undergraduate student personality as it relates to parenting attitudes or child care or personality and train- ing with children, a search of the literature regarding these variables as they relate to graduate students in psy- chology was undertaken. Furthermore, a review of the liter- ature on day-care workers, counselors, and psychologists is provided. Personality Characteristics of Counselors and Day-Care Workers Few studies explore the personality characteristics of graduate students in psychology, counseling, or child day care, although some examine the personality characteristics of practicing counselors, psychologists, and day-care workers. Most of the literature focuses on the character- istics attributed to effective counselors as rated by clients or the learning of specific skills such as empathy. The study of specific skills (or behaviors) that are facilitative to therapy was suggested by Truax (1963) in order to "rely less on the learning of general concepts and more upon the teaching of specific behaviors" (p. 262). Research focusing on these skills involves a significant body of literature (Truax, 1963; Truax & Carkhuff, 1964; Carkhuff, 1967; Carkhuff & Berensen, 1965; Truax & Carkhuff, 1967) so that by 1978, Lambert, et al. (1978) indicated that the recent focus of research has been to investigate specific skill acquisition as it is related to effective therapy interventions. Carkhuff and Truax (1965) have stated: There is extensive evidence to indicate that the three therapist-offered conditions (empathy, posi- tive regard, and genuineness) predictably relate to the patient process variable of intrapersonal exploration (p. 333). The conditions have been found to be facilitative of changes between client-therapist (Truax & Carkhuff, 1964, 1967) and are considered important in the "student-teacher and 8 parent-child relationship“ (Carkhuff, 1967, p. 67). Carkhuff and Truax (1965) trained twelve advanced graduate students and five lay hospital personnel for sixteen weeks, finding they were able to learn to respond empathically, genuinely, and with positive regard. Pierce, et al. (1967) measured facilitative conditions exhibited by seventeen volunteer lay mental health counselors. Results indicated that subjects trained by more facilitative supervisors became more capable of exhibiting empathy, respect, genuine- ness, and concreteness themselves. These facilitative con- ditions have been exhibited by therapists during initial interviews, regardless of theoretical orientation (behav- ioral, humanistic, psychoanalytic), when measured by taped interviews and a questionnaire of seventy-two therapists practicing in Hawaii (Fisher, et al., 1975). Studies conducted, such as those by Wicas and Mahan (1967) or Richardson and Oberman (1973), usually correlate personality characteristics "with supervisor, peer or client ratings of effectiveness" (Paynard, 1976, p. 4) and are interested in what is termed "facilitative conditions,” such as empathic understanding (Paynard, 1976; Truax, 1963, 1966; Pierce, Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967). However, studies usually do not explore the interrelationship of personality, attitudes, and therapist behaviors, although Rogers' concept of empathy was process oriented (Marshall, 1977), and these variables may affect skills (Havens, 1968). dEr Ext One study explored ”the relationship between personal- ity characteristics and initial level of counseling skills" (Paynard, 1976, p. 76). In this study, counseling skill was related "to the ability to be flexible in the application of values and sensitivity to one's own needs and feelings” (Paynard, 1976, p. 76). The present study examines distinct personality characteristics, attitudes, and twenty-one specific play skill behaviors and their interrelationship and changes over time rather than a specific therapy skill, such as empathy. A few studies are concerned with estab- lishing the personality characteristics of graduate students training to be therapists. Heikkenen and Wegner (1973) studied the personality characteristics of counselors in training and found them to be more defensive, ”more deviant from social norms and con- ventions, more extroverted, more capable of leadership, higher in social status and less prejudiced than the average person" (p. 276). On the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), advanced graduate students involved in a practicum course appeared "self-confident, poised, sociable, secure, dependable and relatively well-adjusted" (Brams, 1961, p. 28). Wrenn (1952) found beginning graduate stu— dents in a Student Personnel Program to be "more socially extroverted and friendly" (p. 11). This was a similar find- ing to Cottle's and Lewis's study of counselors practicing in a counseling center (Cottle & Lewis, 1954). 10 The literature reveals more research has been conducted to describe the personality characteristics of practicing therapists than of day-care workers or graduate counseling or psychology students in training. Practicing therapists have been described as "highly controlled, sensitive to the needs of others, doers rather than thinkers, defenders of the established order and somewhat repressed and not given to introspection" (Paynard, 1976, p. 15, citing Mahan & Wicas, 1964). Rogers (1951) believed counselors should be empathic, genuine, and respectful to others. These attributes are found to be positively correlated with Mania on the MMPI and with Dominance, Change, and Autonomy on the Edwards Per- sonal Preference Scale (Foulds, 1969, 1971). It has also been found that counselors' personalities are moderately defensive and not loose or labile (Peebles, 1977). Addi- tionally, practicing therapists possess such characteristics as emotional stability, objectivity, friendliness, and suc— cess in personal relations and scored lower on the MMPI on the Lie and Hypomania scales and higher on Extroversion than others (Cottle & Lewis, 1954). Practicing therapists also scored higher than other professions on Intraception, Exhibitionism, and Affiliation (Kemp, 1962). Most studies of child day-care workers are concerned with program development, hiring, and recruiting. One study examined the ego development of child day-care workers as measured by Loevinger's Ego Development Scale. This study 11 found that child day-care workers were likely to respond in stereotypiCal and moralistic terms to children due to the partial or incomplete internalization of morality in the adult worker (Silver & Greenspan, 1980). Another study com- pared male and female child day-care workers to male engi- neers. Results showed engineers to be higher on the person- ality trait endurance than male caregivers. Male and female caregivers were similar to each other on nurturance, affili- ation, and succorance, although females were more deferring than male caregivers (Robinson & Canaday, 1978). A related area of research focuses on the theoretical orientations of counselors and psychologists based on per- sonality characteristics (Lindner, 1978; Chwast, 1978; Schwartz, 1978). However, the study at hand is interested in personality as it relates to skills and not to personal theoretical orientation. In summary, research on the personality characteristics of undergraduate students as it relates to parenting atti- tudes or skills in playing with children was not found. Research on the personality characteristics of psychologists, counselors, and graduate students in psychology indicates they are self-confident, sociable, dependable, and con- trolled. 0n the EPPS, they have been found to score high on Dominance, Change, and Autonomy. 12 Small Group Practicum Training Versus Didactic Training One of the central aspects of counselor and psycholo- gist training is the clinical practicum (Truax, 1970; Hansen & Warner, 1971; Cormier, Hackney & Segrist, 1974). Studies focus on the role of the supervisor and the effects of practicum on the student counselor (a review of this literature is provided by Hansen & Warner, 1971; and Hansen, Pound, & Petro, 1976). This study is concerned with the latter. A push for an experiential component to graduate training in counseling (Rogers, 1962) brought about major changes in programs which had been primarily didactic (Banikiotes, 1975). Today, practicum is considered "the most important single phase of counselor education" (Pfeifle, 1971, p. 49; Association for Counselor Education and Supervision, 1967; Arbuckle, 1968; Hansen & Moore, 1966). Practicum is expected to provide the student with the skills considered necessary for the effective practice of therapy, regardless of theoretical orientation. Fisher, et al. (1975), using taped interviews and a questionnaire, found practicing thera- pists to engage in empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness during initial interviews, regardless of their theoretical orientation (behavioral, humanistic, psychoanalytic). Today, practicum experiences often provide a combina- tion of didactic learning, feedback, and individual case ex; 13 review. Some programs include a small group component whereby peers and supervisors provide feedback about client- student interaction and the student's personal development is explored (Banikiotes, 1975). Research has indicated that students do change during practicum (Hansen, 1968; Ivey, et al., 1968). The literature indicates a rift in emphasis between exponents of experiential, small group training to enhance self-development and didactic, skill-based training designed to increase techniques (such as empathy). Truax and Carkhuff (1964; 1967) represent the latter group. They believe that skill development is essential since these skills (empathy, genuineness, unconditional positive regard) are facilitative to the counseling process and client improvement. Truax (1963) studied accurate empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness as facilitative conditions. He suggested that it would be wise to further study specific behaviors that are facilitative to therapy in order to "rely less on the learning of general concepts and more upon the teaching of specific behaviors in training therapists for the practice of psychotherapy" (p. 262). In summarizing the work of five years of research with hospitalized schizo- phrenic patients, he found that four patients who showed progress when compared with four patients who had regressed had therapists who were rated higher over a six-month period on accurate empathy. This held true with patients seen In £11 £1 I1 41 Ell 14 either six or eighteen months. Findings were similar for unconditional positive regard, and Truax suggested that "the achievement of a high level of accurate empathy is dependent upon first obtaining at least a minimally high level of unconditional positive regard for the patient" (1963, p. 259). Truax also found that more improved patients had therapists who were rated high on self-congruence. When all three conditions were combined, results continued to show that the three facilitative conditions produced greater gains in client mental health development. Skill development is learned with a didactic practicum experience (Truax & Carkhuff, 1967) whereby feedback is pro- vided (Truax & Carkhuff, 1967; Carkhuff & Truax, 1964; Reddy, 1969; Truax, 1968). Carkhuff and Truax (1965) have demonstrated significant gains in empathic responding of student counselors after 100 hours of training, and Truax and Lister (1971) demonstrated similar gains after forty- eight hours of training. This increased empathic responding after feedback was supported in two research projects designed to explore deficiencies between a didactic, technique-oriented practicum and an experiential, counseling-oriented practicum. Results indicated that the didactic, technique-oriented practicum produced more empathic responses during client-student sessions (Payne & Gralinski, 1968; Payne, et al., 1972). However, there is marked controversy over the need for counselor self-exploration and growth as well as skill 15 acquisition. Some believe more than skill acquisition is needed (McKinnon, 1969). Arbuckle and Wicas (1958) consid- ered counselor attitudes and positive self-perceptions as important as technique. The experiential practicum focuses on counselor behav- ior and feelings and provides trainees with significant opportunities to explore their own personal development and to learn about the counselor-client relationship (Shock, 1966; Kratochvill, 1968). Freud believed that all training analysts should undergo their own analysis in order to understand their own personal histories and dynamics. With- out this understanding, the therapists' own issues could impede or interfere with the ongoing treatment of the patients (Strupp, 1975). To a lesser extent, practicum pro- vides a mechanism for self-analysis. It is here that the trainee can work through personal issues and grow (Montgomery, 1978; Hurst & Jensen, 1968). Shakow has indi- cated that the counselor's self-knowledge, acquired through practicum, is essential to the humanistic practice of psy- chology (Shakow, 1976). Preparation for counseling "means improvement not only in technical competencies, but improve- ment in attitudes, concepts and perceptions of self and tTthEFS" (Shock, 1966. p. 57). Despite the widespread belief in the need for small growips and that "the major goal of the practicum is [the] inteagration of self and counseling techniques as a means of est51blishing meaningful relationships with clients" (Ruble & 16 Gray, 1968, p. 143), little research has been conducted. Austin and Altekruse (1972) stated, "few descriptive or evaluative reports are available on the way small groups should be used in practicum," and Gazda and Bonney (1965) have stated, "little has been done to investigate the appli- cation of group counseling experience on the training of counselors" (p. 191). The component of self-awareness is often achieved through individual therapy (Arnold, 1967). Furthermore, "despite consistent emphasis by the various theories on the importance of trainees developing self- understanding it is somewhat surprising that there is little experimental evidence as to what, if anything, specific techniques designated to foster increased self-awareness actually accomplish“ (Woody. 1971, p. 113). However. group experiences have been found to affect changes in trainees' flexibility. authoritarianism, and dog- matism (Walker. 1977). When Martin and Carkhuff (1968) com- pared two groups of students involved in a practicum experience, they found that participants showed a signifi- cantly more positive change when measured on the MMPI than those students with no group experience during training. Jones (1963) found that students in a group experience éu:quired greater listening skills, greater permissiveness, ac<:eptance, and understanding. Participation in small group Dra<3ticum experiences increased client-centered attitudes and skills in counseling students (Stewart, 1958) and 17 affected both the personality of the trainee and performance (Paynard, 1976; Pfeifle, 1971). Paynard (1976) used three groups of subjects at Wayne State University. Group I consisted of twenty-four counsel— ing practicum students. Group II consisted of eleven stu- dents enrolled in a course entitled ”Counseling Process." The third group had twenty-four members who were enrolled in the "Case Problems" course. Paynard evaluated the students on: (1) counselor communication, (2) counselor helpfulness, and (3) tape ratings of sessions. The Personal Orientation Inventory was administered to see if participation in a group process, as provided by practicum. affected personal growth. Results indicated that practicum students became ”more inner directed. less other directed. more flexible in the application of values. less sensitive to their own feel- ings and more accepting of self" (Paynard, 1976, p. 67). However, Paynard also noted that the change was minimal. Practicum students who were currently counseling in public schools were found to change their perceptions of themselves and of others as well as changing their behaviors during counseling sessions (based on tape rating) (Shock, 1966). The behavior changed in the desired direction toward Sfl"eater empathy. Similar findings were reported by Hurst anci Jensen (1968) after T-group training. When Austin and Alteekruse (1972) studied leader-centered versus group- cen'tered and leaderless practicum groups, results indicated that: the latter rated highest on posttraining client 18 interviews, with the group-centered students ranking second. Students were rated on understanding, affectivity, and exploration. Gazda and Bonney (1965) studied twenty-four school counselors with masters degrees. They were interested in interpersonal behaviors within the practicum group and found that practicum produced more information-giving behav- ior, more interpretation. and increased aggressive behavior within the practicum. They did not relate this to work with clients. Woody (1971) studied the effects of group therapy on forty practicum students divided into experimental and con- trol groups and matched for graduate credits completed and program specialty. The experimental groups met for three weeks and received pre- and posttests, including the Cali- fornia Personality Inventory (CPI). A few significant dif- ferences were found: Deference increased and exhibition and change decreased. Woody suggests these changes may allow the therapist to be more accepting of their clients. McKinnon (1969) was concerned with group counseling experience during practicum as a vehicle to foster "percep— tual and behavioral change" (McKinnon, 1969, p. 199). He ‘flaund that both growth and regression had occurred and that li1:tle verbal behavioral change had been demonstrated during interviews with clients. Havens (1968) studied 159 counselors over an eight-week Peri 0d and found that those rated as high performers on a 19 paper-and-pencil counselor response pretest showed more con- sistent insight over time. Both high and low performers changed little as a result of the eight weeks of training. Patterson (1967) studied counselor personality changes as a result of practicum group experience. His sample con- sisted of (a) 24 and 29 students in a summer institute, (b) 25 full-time counselor master-level students, and (c) 26 full-time noncounselor, education master-level students. He found that regardless of the group, the "more basic person- ality characteristics are less susceptible to change" (p. 447). Graff (1970) found that sensitivity training did pro- duce changes in forty-nine graduate students. After group, those who were more self-disclosing were rated as more effective by clients. Carkhuff and Truax (1965) studied graduate students in clinical psychology and lay personnel involved in didactic and experiential combined practicum. The didactic aspect of practicum emphasized behaviors and skills, and the experi- ential aspect emphasized personal development. Both stu- dents and lay personnel were able to achieve accurate empathy and unconditional positive regard skills almost equal to experienced therapists. Kratochvill (1968) found that eleven female nurses and eleeven occupational therapists involved in a practicum expeerience were able to increase their average level of func:tioning after eighteen hours of training. Shapiro and 20 Gust (1974) studied thirty graduate students in counseling with a control group of thirty students in counseling not yet enrolled in prepracticum. Students received didactic and experiential treatment. Results indicated increased counseling skills, increased peak experiences, and increased interpersonal trust. Apostal and Muro (1970) studied twenty experienced ele- mentary school teachers enrolled in an NDEA institute in school counseling and twelve experienced teachers enrolled in masters—level courses in educational administration. Pretests on the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) and Motivational Analysis Test (MAT) indicated no signifi- cant differences. Experimental groups were conducted by three advanced doctoral students in counselor education. Results of post personality testing were not significant; however, the authors suggested that the experience may be useful as a model since tape analysis showed considerable self-exploration. In summary. practicum experience has provided consider- able controversy in the literature regarding its effective- ness on skill acquisition and development. Furthermore, there are contradictory studies regarding the effectiveness of small group participation on counselor effectiveness. In general, however, the literature supports both practicum and group experience for therapists in training. 21 Parent Education Programs Currently available mental health services cannot pro- vide enough psychological, psychiatric, or social work serv- ices to meet the mental health needs of children (Maguire, 1975). Paraprofessionals and teachers have to be trained to help professional channels (Maguire, 1975; Bartells, 1975; Nicoletti & Flater, 1975). Parent education programs can provide the opportunity to learn the necessary skills to serve as "preventive" mental health agents for children (Guerney, 1964; Reisenger & Ora, 1976; Stollak, 1968). The number of parent education programs has grown during the past several years as professionals have discovered ways to reach parents (Ware, 1977; Reisinger & Ora, 1976; Hornsby & Applebaum, 1978; Duggan, 1977; Durlak, 1979). A wide vari- ety of agencies offer parent education programs, i.e., hospitals, clinics, family service agencies, and colleges (Authier, et al., 1980), and some parents serve as thera- pists for their own children (Sherrets, et al., 1980; Stollak, 1981). However, few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of these programs (Tramontana, 1980). Generally, parent education programs are either behav- ioral or Rogerian in their orientation. Many studies show the efficacy of educating parents through the use of behav- ioral techniques (O'Dell, 1979; Gordon, et al., 1977; Roberts, et al., 1978). These studies typify behavioral research in that they teach parents how to change specific child behaviors, i.e., Roberts, et al., (1978) trained 22 twenty-seven mothers to give single instruction commands to 3- to 7-year—olds. Training involved three conditions. Condition one, called "command training,” taught the mother to give a single instruction followed by a five-second, non- interference interval. Condition two taught the mother to give a single instruction followed by informing the child of a time-out contingency. If necessary, the child was guided to time out and was ignored for two minutes. Condition three was considered a placebo, and mothers were taught active listening skills as devised by Gordon (1970). Condi- tions one and two successfully increased the ability of the mother to give a command and not to interfere with the child's ability to comply. The placebo group was unable to change the child's compliance behavior. Similar results have been found by Baun and Forehand (1981). Rogerian-based programs teach reflective listening and responding skills. These skills are expected to affect the parents' expectations and attitudes. Hampson (1980) trained twenty-one foster mothers in behavioral skills and twenty- one mothers in reflective group counseling. When Hampson compared the training results at the end of the eight weeks, he found the mothers trained in behavioral skills were best at reducing problem behaviors whereas mothers trained in reflective listening skills improved in their attitudes toward their children. Several other studies have compared behavioral and client-centered parent education programs. Bernal, et a1. 23 (1980) was concerned with the effectiveness of behavioral and client-centered programs in reducing child conduct problems. Results indicated that parents receiving behav- ioral instruction reported fewer problems after treatment than parents receiving client-centered instruction. How- ever, the parents' perceptions of improved behavior did not continue over time to be greater than the perceptions of parents from the client-centered group. Tavormina (1975) studied fifty-one mothers and their children who had estimated 105 below fifty. One group of mothers learned reflective skills and read one of Hiam Ginott's books. A second group of mothers read a programmed text in behavioral management. After treatment, mothers were administered a parent attitude scale and behavioral checklist. The results indicated that mothers reduced the number of aggressive statements in both conditions. The behavioral group was found to have a more significant, posi- tive effect on maternal attitudes than the reflective group. Both treatment groups improved in their ability to play with the children. Overall results provided support for the behavioral approach. Schultz, Nystaul, and Law (1980) were interested in the ability of behavioral or client-centered training programs to affect mother-child interaction. They were also inter- ested in measuring outcome based on videotapes of the mother-child pair in a structured task. The subjects were forty-seven mother-child pairs. Twenty behavioral measures 24 were used, such as "respect, dominance, warmth, dependence and independence of the child, disagreement, and encourage- ment" (p. 7). Verbal and nonverbal behaviors were measured. When the mother-child pair participated over a twelve-month period, both the behavior modification and parent effective- ness training instructed mothers were found to encourage independence in the child and to encourage the child to accept responsibility for the assigned task. In 1973, Chilman had concluded that parent education programs produced minimal changes in the areas of informa- tion, attitudes, or behavior change. By 1977, Anchor and Thomason suggested that future research explore "which par- ent characteristics are more likely to be predictive of suc- cess for each model" (p. 140). Anchor and Thomason (1977) compared a behavior modifi- cation program with a client-centered program. Forty-one parents participated in two behavior modification courses and in two Parent Effectiveness Training courses from Janu- ary through March. The parents enrolled in the behavior modification courses read Living With Children (Patterson & Guillon, 1971), and the parents enrolled in the PET courses read Parent Effectiveness Training (Gordon, 1970). Results indicated that neither course was able to produce sustained parent behavior change. In summary, research has not been able to substantiate differences in effectiveness of either the behavioral or client-centered approaches (except with children of minimal 25 intellectual development). Both treatment approaches have produced behavior and/or attitude changes, though these changes do not seem to be maintained over time. Client-Centered Theory as a Basis for Parent Education Programs Client-centered parent education programs are derived from Carl Roger's theory of personality, about which Rogers (1951) stated: This theory is basically phenomenological in char- acter and relies heavily upon the concept of self as an explanatory concept. It pictures the end point of personality development as being a basic congruence between the phenomenal field of experi- ence and the conceptual structure of the self——a situation which, if achieved, would represent freedom from internal strain and anxiety, and freedom from potential strain; which would repre- sent the maximum in realistically oriented adapta- tion; which would mean the establishment of an individualized value system having considerable identity with the value system of any other equally well-adjusted member of the human race (p. 532). For Rogers, personality is comprised of the organism and the self. The organism responds to the world subjec- tively as it changes reality according to unconscious as well as conscious processes. Although the organism responds subjectively, it "is at all times a totally organized system in which alterations of any part may produce changes in any other part“ (Rogers, 1951, p. 487). The self contains two parts: the real self and the ideal self. The real self is the self as it exists, whereas the ideal self is what the person would like to become. 26 When the self and organism are incongruent, the result is anxiety and maladaptive behavior. When they are congruent, a sense of emotional well-being is experienced. Behaviors then reflect the organism and are consistent with one's self-concept (Rogers, 1951). Rogers states that early childhood development affects adult self-concept and behavior. He further states that humans often seem to be internally at war within themselves. This internal warfare results from the child's experiences within the family of conditional (positive or negative) regard. It is this process that teaches the child that some behaviors are worthy and others are not. Eventually, the child exhibits only approved behaviors in order to receive this conditional love. Through this chain, the child learns conditions of worth. Rogers says the child "values an experience positively or negatively, solely because of these conditions of worth which he has taken over time from others, not because the experience enhances or fails to enhance his organism" (1951, p. 209). The child eventually learns to deny true feelings which result in internal incon- sistency. A facilitative environment which fosters a state of congruence and allows for the development of positive condi- tions of worth within the child will contribute to the shap- ing of a positive self-concept. A child who experiences this kind of supportive environment will develop into an adult who is an effective problem solver, has a positive 27 self-concept, has feelings of confidence, has the ability to accept others, and feels more in control of his/her own behavior. Client-centered theory forms the basis for several parent—training programs, i.e., Parent Effectiveness Train- ing (Gordon, 1970) and Sensitivity to Children (Stollak, 1975). These programs will be discussed below. Review of Client—Centered Parent Education Programs Parent education programs based on Rogers's theory are primarily concerned with the general communication of acceptance and warmth. Behavior modification programs, on the other hand, are oriented toward principles of learning, experimental methodology, and measurement (Reichkoff, et al., 1977; Krumboltz, et al., 1966). Thomas Gordon's Parent Effectiveness Training (1970), based on Roger's theoretical orientation, uses many techniques to enhance the parent's ability to reflect a greater acceptance of the child (Essman, 1977). Gordon speaks of listening to children so that the children will want to talk to the parents. He calls this the "language of acceptance” (1970, p. 30). Gordon states: Of all the effects of acceptance, none is as important as the inner feeling of the child that he is loved. For to accept another "as he is" is truly an act of love; to feel accepted is to feel loved. And in psychology we have only begun to realize the tremendous power of feeling loved: It can promote the growth of mind and body, and is probably the most effective therapeutic force we 28 know for repairing both psychological and physical damage (p. 33). Gordon believes that this acceptance can be communicated verbally or nonverbally. Nonverbal messages are communi- cated ”via gestures, postures, facial expressions, or other behaviors" (p. 35). Verbal messages are communicated through "I-messages" and "command messages.” I-messages tell the child what the parent is thinking or feeling about a situation. Command-messages tell the child what to do and often imply that there is something wrong with the child. Gordon lists twelve response types which do not increase the child's feelings of acceptance. These are: (1) ordering, directing, commanding; (2) warn- ing, admonishing, threatening; (3) exhorting, moralizing, preaching; (4) advising, suggesting, or giving solutions; (5) lecturing, teaching, giving logical arguments; (6) judg- ing, criticizing, disagreement, blaming; (7) praising, agreeing; (8) name-calling, ridiculing, shaming; (9) inter- preting, analyzing, diagnosing; (10) reassuring, sympathiz- ing, consoling, supporting; (11) probing, questioning, interrogating; and (1) withdrawing, distracting, humoring, diverting. In order to use I-messages, the parent needs to learn a skill called active listening. Gordon (1970) states: Active listening is not a simple technique that parents pull out of their "tool kit" whenever their children have problems. It is a method of putting to work a set of basic attitudes. With- out these attitudes, the method seldom will be 29 effective, it will sound false, empty, mechanical, insincere (p. 59). Six parental attitudes underlie active listening. These include: (1) genuinely wanting to ”hear what the child has to say," (2) genuinely wanting to “be helpful to him with his particular problem," (3) genuinely accepting the child's feelings or beliefs, (4) genuinely trusting the child's ability to handle and work through his feelings and to find solutions to his problems, (5) appreciation of feelings as transitory, and (6) perception of the child as a unique per- son no longer joined to the parent (p. 60). Gordon's parent education program is designed to teach parents the communication skills detailed above. The pro- gram also encourages changes in parental attitudes toward children. This latter goal is based on the Rogerian belief that unconditional acceptance is necessary for a person to feel accepted. Clearly, parents cannot unconditionally accept all of their children's behaviors. However, they can follow guidelines, developed by Gordon, which increase the ability to become more accepting of their children. Essman (1977) conducted a four-week course for high school girls in which he trained them to use I-messages. to found that the girls were able to learn and effectively use the skill. Although the PET methodology is used widely in teaching both parents and teachers how to more effectively communi- cate with children based on theory, Doherty and Ryder (1980) state, "Despite PET's widespread acceptance, the program has 30 undergone little evaluation—-either empirical or concep- tual. . . . Furthermore, as far as we can determine, PET has never been subjected to conceptual analysis in a profes- sional journal" (p. 409). In addition, programs such as Gordon's (1970) and Essman's (1977), which teach empathic listening and communi- cation skills, have not been concerned with the child's ability to comprehend, process, or respond to the communica- tion. A study of ninety-nine preschoolers by Bates and Silver (1977) used teacher ratings of social adjustment, tests of comprehension of speech, and intelligence measures. They found that the ability to comprehend polite messages was positively correlated with social adjustment in chil- dren. However, this skill is not considered the same as the comprehension of empathic communication. As Dickson (1980) has indicated, ”research on parent-child interaction con- cerned with cognitive socialization has given little atten- tion to communication accuracy, focusing instead on communi- cation as it relates to cognitive development” (p. 119) but not as it relates to the child's receptive skill for empathic messages. Despite the lack of knowledge regarding the child's ability to comprehend empathic messages, other programs have been developed that teach parents how to communicate with their children. These programs are all based on the theoret- ical assumption that clear communication is important for fostering healthy child development. Bernard and Louise 31 Guerney (1969) have been training parents for many years. The programs they have developed are based on Rogerian client-centered theory and applied to parent education. An example of a parent training program designed by Louise Guerney is described below. In 1975, a training program was offered to foster par- ents. The goal of the program was: at the broadest level . . . the elimination of parent expressions that did not take the child's point of view into account and the maximization of parent expressions that communicated to the child an understanding of his viewpoint and his right to have it, preferably stated in feeling terms (Guerney, 1977, p. 8). Guerney administered the Porter Parental Acceptance Scale (Porter, 1954) to test whether the program increased accep- tance. The Sensitivity to Children Scale (Stollak, 1968) was also administered to determine if there was an "increase in undesirable responses" (Guerney, 1977, p. 10). The desired responses were: (1) reflective listening; (2) parent messages; (3) structuring; (4) limiting; and (5) reinforce- ment plus any responses which communicated acceptance but did not fall under one of the five skills (p. 11). Six areas of undesirable behaviors were measured which "did not take the child's point of view into account or were destructive" (p. 11). These were: (1) denial of feelings, (2) criticism of the child, (3) imposing authority or power displays, which included typical punishments, (4) extreme punishments or destructive ideas, (5) nonaccepting words or actions not included in any of the above, such as suggesting 32 that the child will ”not act so silly" after he has had a chance to think things over, and (6) inapprOpriate use of ordinarily desirable responses. Subjects consisted of "25 husband and wife pairs" in the treatment group and "37 women and 20 men in the control group" with nineteen married couples (Guerney, 1977, p. 13). All couples were foster parents of children five to twelve years of age. Subjects were recruited through three Pennsylvania county child welfare agencies. The training program consisted of groups of seven to sixteen people meeting once per week for a total of ten weeks. One and one-half hours each week were devoted to presentation of the model, one hour was spent on skill practice, and homework and practice assignments were required. Results indicated that PPAS measures of accepting attitudes on the part of the foster parents increased after training (p < .05). The tar- geted parent responses, as measured on the STC, also increased and undesired behaviors decreased (Guerney, 1977). Guerney's program emphasizes, as does Gordon's PET, the need for parental acceptance of the child and the deveIOp- ment of communication skills which allow the child to feel accepted. The Sensitivity to Children Course Since 1968, a Sensitivity to Children course (STC) has been offered at Michigan State University (Stollak, 1975). This course provides students with an opportunity to learn 33 parenting skills, to acquire child-development information, and to participate in weekly supervised group experiences. In addition, it offers the opportunity to play with a child in weekly half-hour supervised sessions. The students who select themselves for the course have been found to be sig- nificantly different from other students who enrolled for a general psychology course in their ability to perceive more fully a child's behavior (Michaels, et al., 1979). The students who enrolled during the fall term, 1980, obtained scores similar to those in the normative sample of college students on the Jackson Personality Research Form-E (Jackson, 1974). The STC course draws on Roger's notion of unconditional positive regard, which suggests that one values another per- son irrespective of the specific behaviors in which the per- son is engaged (Rogers, 1961). The STC course fosters "child-centered" play encounters. The undergraduate is asked to: minimize questioning, criticism, praise, teaching, or initiation of activities with the child and is asked to maximize their communication of under- standing and acceptance of the child's inner experiences through reflection and interpretations of the content and feelings expressed in the child's play (Stollak, 1975, p. 9). Because the course emphasizes acceptance of the child's "feelings, needs, wishes and desires as natural and valid human experiences," the student learns to help children to become more aware of their own needs and feelings (Stollak, 1975, p. 3). 34 Stollak emphasizes the qualities Rogers suggests are necessary for positive development. He utilizes the follow- ing behaviors as indicators of empathy and unconditional positive regard: ”Reflection of verbal content, reflection of motor behaviors, reflection of feelings and participation in fantasy play" (Stollak, 1972, p. 9). These empathic behaviors have been found to be positively correlated with desired child behavior (Reif & Stollak, 1971). The communi- cation to the client of the therapist's acceptance is con- sidered essential by client-centered theorists (Ginott, 1965, 1967; Moustakas, 1959; Axline, 1947). Adult reflec- tion of the child's thoughts and feelings allow the child to become aware of himself (Reif & Stollak, 1972). Several studies have investigated the efficacy of this style of relating and have shown positive results on child development (Baumrind, 1967). Stover and Guerney (1971) found that the verbal expression of acceptance of a child by an adult is a major factor in communication of empathic feeling. The STC Course Educational Structure The three quarter-term STC course provides the student with a variety of learning experiences. Each student attends weekLy small group discussions and supervision, biweekly lectures, and plays one-half hour per week with a child. Ten papers are required each quarter term covering 35 books read, and a report is written on each play session. Each student is videotaped while in a play session. Through these varied and extensive learning experi- ences over the thirty weeks of training, it is expected that the students will become more able to reflect the child's feelings and comply with the child's requests. Research has indicated that a combination of learning modalities is most effective in producing the desired skill acquisition. For example, O'Dell (1979) studied the effects of training in five modalities. The first group was trained from a manual, the second group was trained by film, the third trained by film and evaluated individually on performance, the fourth trained through modeling and rehearsal, and the fifth group was briefly trained using modeling and rehearsal. O'Dell also included a control group which received no training. He found that all treatment groups produced greater outcome skills than the control group. The most effective treatment group involved the use of film plus individual evaluation of skill performance. Other researchers have found that presentation of basic knowledge rather than general rules is more easily utilized by parent trainees (Griffore, 1980). The STC course pro- vides the students with such basic knowledge during their twice-weekly classes. The application of this knowledge to in vivo situations has not necessarily been found transfer- rable for parents, students, or counselors (Lange, 1976), unless a group experience accompanies the acquisition of 36 knowledge (Lange, 1976; Genthner, 1977; Tucker, 1978). The STC course provides this necessary transition through the use of the weekly-supervised, small groups. Tadic (1975) examined the impact of group size on training, finding the small group to be most facilitative of the education of psychotherapists. The group experience provides a transition to i vivo situations as well as an opportunity for modeling. Studies suggest that videotape feedback greatly enhances role play and modeling learning experiences (Rogers, 1951; Truax & Mitchell, 1971; Berger, 1970; Alhire & Brunse, 1974; Baily, et al., 1977; Eyberg & Matarazzo, 1980). In addition, the combination of videotapes with classroom presentation of material has led to better preparation of counselor intern- ships (Fiss, 1978). Summary Few studies have been conducted which examine the per- sonality characteristics of undergraduate students, graduate counseling students, or psychology students. The litera- ture, which is mostly descriptive of practicing psycholo- gists, counselors, and day-care workers, does support the positive impact of group experience on therapist person- ality and skill development, a facet provided in the STC course. The thrust of the literature, however, is concerned with learning specific skills rather than with the interplay 37 between personality, attitudes, and skill acquisition. This study is designed to examine that interplay. The need for parent education courses is noted in the literature, and many different programs have been developed to train parents. However, evaluation of the efficacy of these programs has often been ignored in the literature. This study provides an opportunity to look at the impact of a Rogerian-based training course on personality, attitude, and skill. Previous research conducted on the STC course has shown that students trained by this method became more empathic (Stollak, 1979) and more positive perceivers of children's behaviors (Michaels, Stollak & Meese, 1979). The present study was designed to examine the personal- ity characteristics and attitudes of acceptance toward chil- dren in college students enrolled in a course on child deveIOpment and child play. It further examined how these characteristics and attitudes affected the undergraduates' initial skills in play encounters and their subsequent skill development over the course of thirty weeks. This research also attempted to assess changes in selected characteristics or attitudes which may have altered as a function of the course. The following questions were examined: (1) Is there a relationship between selected personality characteristics and initial play skill level? (2) Is there a relationship between attitudes and initial play skill level? (3) 38 Is there a change in students' play skills after par- ticipating in the STC course? Is there a change in students' personality character- istics after participating in the STC course? Is there a change in students' attitudes toward chil- dren after participating in the STC course? Is there a relationship between change in attitudes and change in play skill? Is there a relationship between change in personality characteristics and change in play skill? Is there a relationship between change in personality and change in attitudes? CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH AND DESIGN This chapter describes the measures used, the training of raters, the selection of subjects, and the design and data collection used in this study. Measures Studied Four sets of measures were studied. These measures included: the ”Michigan Screening Profile of Parenting" (MSPP), the "Porter Parental Acceptance Scale" (PPAS), the "Jackson Personality Research Form-E" (PRF-E), and a behavioral measure of play skills. Michigan Screening Profile of Parenting The Michigan Screening Profile of Parenting research instrument uses a seven-point, Likert-type scale (Helfer, et al., 1977). It is designed to show current parent-child interaction problem areas and past parent-child interaction patterns. Predictive validity does not currently exist for this instrument. Concurrent validation on physical abuse and overt neglect studies indicates that the test is able to identify mothers with known problems in interacting with 39 40 their children and is able to identify parents considered to have no difficulties in interacting with their children. The MSPP yields four scores: Emotional Needs Met (ENM), Expectations of Children (EOC), Coping (COP), and Relationship with Parents (RWP). The MSPP describes how the students perceive their own upbringing and how they cur- rently relate to others. The STC course treats issues of parenting expectations and explores age appropriate expec- tations as well as the students' relationship with their own parents (the latter through small group experience). Test- retest reliability was based on a sample of ninety-two mothers. Stable scores were reported at .85 for the Emo- tional Needs Met scale, .69 for the Relationship with Par- ents scale, .62 for the Expectations of Children, and .65 for Coping. Porter Parental Acceptance Scale The Porter Parental Acceptance Scale (Porter, 1954) was used to discover additional aspects of the trainees' atti- tudes toward children. The PPAS consists of thirty items. Reliability was determined by the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula at .85 for the entire scale. Construct validity was based on qualitative judge ratings rather than quantitative data. The research instrument yields three scores: Allowing Expression of Feelings, Treating the Child as a Unique Person, and Granting Autonomy. The PPAS scale is used to 41 to describe how students, as potential parents, perceive their acceptance of children. The PPAS is based on the assumption that "parental acceptance is revealed in the feelings and behavior which a parent has and displays toward, about, and/or with his child and that such accep- tance exists on a continuum and is subject to quantitative measurement" (Porter, 1954, p. 177). A copy of the PPAS is found in Appendix A. Jackson Personality Research Form-E The Jackson Personality Research Form-E (Jackson, 1974) was used to measure personality variables. The PRF-E yields twenty personality "need" scores. They are: Abasement, Achievement, Affiliation, Aggression, Autonomy, Change, Cognitive Structure, Defendence, Dominance, Endurance, Exhibition, Harmavoidance, Impulsivity, Nurturance, Order, Play, Sentience, Social Recognition, Succorance, and Under- standing. The PRE-E was selected because it measures normal personality functioning instead of psychopathology. The E form also contains two validity scales (Infrequency and Desirability) to determine if any students randomly responded to test items or attempted to enhance their pro- file. Test-retest reliability for each subscale ranged from .46 (Infrequency) to .90 (Harmavoidance). Convergent valid- ity at the .05 level ranged from .24 (Sentience) to .69 laps 42 (Dominance). A copy of the PRF-E scale descriptions appears in Appendix B. Behavior Measure Student behavior during play sessions was assessed one time per quarter during the Fall 1980, Winter 1981, and Spring 1981 terms. The play sessions were videotaped over a five-week period during each ten-week quarter. See Appendix C for schedule. The students were videotaped each quarter as part of their course requirements for small group super- vision. Students and children were aware that they were being videotaped. Children were prepared for the videotap- ing experience by the student in previous sessions, and stu- dents reported little difference in play behaviors during videotaping. The child was brought to the Psychology Clinic at Olds Hall, Michigan State University, by the student. The video- tape equipment was behind a two-way mirror so the children could not see the operation. Eight children asked to see the equipment after the play session. Four had been told they could see the equipment if they wanted by the student. The behavior rating scale used to measure the behaviors on the videotapes was developed by Stollak, Gershowitz, and Reif (1978). The behavior rating scale consisted of twenty- one items clustered into eight categories. These were: (1) Reflection of Verbal Content, (2) Reflection of Motor Activity, (3) Compliance——clarified, (4) Reciprocal 43 Participation in Fantasy, (5) Ask Questions, (6) Rejection, (7) Nonattention, and (8) Directing. For the purposes of this study, the items were reorganized to reflect behaviors considered important within the client-centered perspective. The items were grouped into four variables: (1) Verbaliza- tion, (2) Compliance, (3) Attentiveness, and (4) Reciprocal Participation in Fantasy. The twenty-one behaviors consti- tuting these four variables are defined in Appendix 0. Each of the twenty-one variables were observed and recorded every thirty seconds. The videotape was stopped by the experi- menter using a stop watch to check elapsed time. The raters were unable to see each other's ratings. Each play session was expected to be thirty minutes in length. A total score of sixty points was possible for each behavior, since the possibility of each behavior was scored every thirty seconds by the raters. When a tape was shorter than thirty minutes in duration, the score was adjusted to thirty minutes. Desired behaviors were: (1) Verbal Recognition/Accep- tance of Feelings, (2) Reflects Verbal Content Exactly, (3) Verbal Recognition and Acceptance of Behavior Only, (4) Reflects Motor Activity Only, (5) Shows Willingness to Follow Child's Lead, (6) Follows Only After Reflection of Wish, (7) Child Has Option for Lead Taking, (8) Fully Obser- vant of Child's Behaviors, (9) High Level of Attention, and (10) Reciprocal Participation in Fantasy. 44 Undesired behaviors were: (1) Social Conversation or No Conversation, (2) Slight or Moderate Criticism, (3) Ver- bal Criticism, Argumentative, Preaching, Abusive Language, (4) Takes Lead Without Giving Option, (5) Directs/Instructs Child to Do Something, (6) Asks Questions, (7) Persuades, Demands, Pushes, Interrupts, Interferes with Activity, (8) Marginal Level of Attention, (9) Partial Withdrawal, Preoccupied Partially, (10) Rejection, and (11) Preoccupied Completely, Self-Involved. A copy of the rating form used in the study can be found in Appendix E. Rater Training The tape raters were twelve undergraduate students enrolled in an independent study course. A letter distrib- uted in Abnormal Psychology classes recruited the students. A Copy of the letter can be found in Appendix F. Raters were trained during two three-hour sessions. Training was considered complete when each rater reached 100% agreement with the researcher who trained all raters. Five tapes were used providing the raters with 300 observa- tions to score behaviors as either present or absent. The tapes used to train the raters were from the Fall 1980 term and were not used in this study. The reliability scores for raters is found in Appendix G. 45 Subjects The subjects in this study were thirty undergraduate students enrolled in Psychology 246, 247, and 248, a three- term, thirty-week child psychology course. Twenty-eight female and two male students volunteered to participate in the study. Ages ranged from nineteen to twenty-two years. Twenty-nine subjects were white, and one subject was black. The subjects were aware that their play session at the Psychology Clinic at Michigan State University would be videotaped and rated for a study being conducted while they were enrolled in the course. The STC course wmsgraded on a pass/fail basis, and the students' grades were not dependent on the videotape ratings. Students were informed that the supervisors and Dr. Stollak would be unaware of the rating results. A Departmental Research Form was distributed dur- ing the first class (see Appendix H), and a letter of thanks for participation in the study was sent with the tests in the Spring (see Appendix I). Design and Data Collection This study used the one-group pretest-posttest design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). It differed from the true experimental pretest-posttest control group design in that the subjects were neither randomly selected nor randomly assigned to groups. There was no control group. Subjects were randomly assigned a taping date for each term. (a Tat r - ALL It] a C rt. HI .3 .I a.» A total of 88 videotapes were made: 29 Winter Quarter, and 30 Spring Quarter. 46 29 Fall Quarter, Two taping ses- sions were missed due to child and student illnesses, respectively. sessions were rescheduled. taping schedule appears in Appendix C. Due to occasional equipment failure, some A copy of the randomized video- The personality and attitudinal measures were distrib- uted during class, and students were asked to return them the following week during both Fall and Spring Quarters. During Spring Quarter, phone calls were made to students who did not return the tests within one week of distribution, and postcards were sent to two students who could not be reached by telephone. materials. Table when they were obtained. All thirty students returned the reflects the measures collected and Table 1. Time (T) of Data Collection. T1 (FALL) T2 (WINTER) T3 (SPRING) P1* P2* + + + Bl B2 83 *Personality Measures which include: Jackson PRF-E and attitude measures: PPAS, MSPP. Q +Student Play Behaviors (ratings of play sessions) include the ratings of the videotaped play sessions made each quarter. 47 Structure of the STC Course The STC course provides numerous learning opportunities through role playing, modeling, immediate supervisor discus- sion following play sessions, group discussion with peers and supervisors of videotaped play sessions, didactic pre- sentations of child development and play theories, small group supervision, and the experience of playing with a non- clinic, referred child once weekly foraahaIf-hour session for thirty weeks. During the first meeting of the class, the students are given the Sensitivity to Children (STC) ques- tionnaire, which requires them to read short descriptions of varying problem situations that parents may encounter with a six-year-old child. A sample problem situation is as fol- lows: "You are having a friendly talk with a friend on the phone. Your son, Carl, rushes in and begins to interrupt your conversation with a story about a friend in school." The students are then asked to write briefly how they may respond to, or act toward, the child. During the first ses- sion, they are also asked to complete personality and child care-giver attitude tests. This same set of tests is admin- istered again at the end of the school year. The STC questionnaire is brought to the first small group session, and all groups discuss the various responses which the group members have given. At this time, group leaders have been instructed to avoid comment or presenta- tion of alternative responses. The small group consists of eight to ten undergraduate students and two graduate (“I Ch) 48 students in clinical, counseling or educational psychology, child and family sciences, or social work. The graduate students are supervised by Dr. Gary Stollak. The students attend these small group meetings for an hour and one-half once weekly for thirty weeks. The meet- ings provide a time for supervision of play sessions as well as a time to explore the student's deveIOpment and relations with his/her own parents. Difficulties with any particular child are discussed in light of the student's growing under- standing of child development theory. Occasional role- playing experiences provide an opportunity to test new behaviors within a group setting. The group leaders model affective student behaviors by initially playing the part of the student and then allowing the student to practice the demonstrated behavior. Once each quarter, the undergraduate student and the child visit the videotaping facilities at Michigan State University's Psychology Clinic. The student and child are videotaped for their entire half-hour session. These video- tapes provide an additional base for small group discussion and evaluation of progress in skill development. Undergrad- uates also attend twice-weekly class discussions led by Dr. Stollak. The discussions cover theory and research in child development, play, child psychopathology and psycho- therapy, principles of effective communication with children, and possible solutions to "problems in living with young children" (Stollak, 1975, p. 5). 49 The students are required to write ten papers each quarter covering child development or play theory books which they have read, e.g., 0123, by Virginia Axline (1964). The students are also required to submit weekly reports to their small group leaders discussing the past week's play sessions. They are asked to discuss any themes which recur during play, their feelings while interacting with the child, and their expectations for future play sessions. These papers are read by the group leaders and returned with comments to facilitate the student's play skill and personal development. CON Cl‘lt CHAPTER 4 RESULTS This chapter presents the results of the data analysis. Six hypotheses were tested, each having three to twenty-one variables within it. The results report the variables that supported or failed to support each hypothesis. Chapter 5 presents a discussion of the results and conclusions. Hypothesis 1 proposed a relationship between personal- ity characteristics as measured on the Jackson PRF-E (see Appendix B) and level of play skills. Computed were 420 correlations. Twenty-two correlations would be expected to reach significance by chance alone. Fifty-six correlations reached statistical significance and were accepted. A cut- off point of :.45 was selected for reporting correlations, as less than this was considered a weak correlation indicat- ing a common variance of less than fifteen percent. Nine correlations reached or surpassed the 1.45 cut-off criterion. Play skills were measured by a behavior rating scale deve10ped by Stollak, Gershowitz, and Reif (1978) which con- sisted of twenty—one items. Inter-rater reliability coeffi- cients indicated the mean scores across categories were .76 (fall term), .83 (winter term), and .71 (spring term). An 50 .II Hg: 51 inter-item analysis of Fall play behavior scores was com- puted, and variables were found to be essentially indepen- dent of each other. Appendix J presents the inter-item correlations for play behaviors. The following behaviors were found to occur infre- quently and were not used in data analysis: Variable 18 (Partial Withdrawal) and Variable 20 (Preoccupied Com- pletely) were eliminated Fall Quater. For the same reasons, Variables 7 (Verbal Criticism), 14 (Persuades), 18 (Partial Withdrawal), and 20 (Preoccupied Completely) were eliminated from analyses of Spring Quarter data. Table 2 presents the correlation coefficients of the play behaviors with person- ality variables. During the Fall Quarter, the personality and play behavior variables of the college students found to be most highly correlated were: #7: Verbal Criticism, Argumentative, Preaching, Abusive Language was found to correlate negatively with Under- standing (r = -.48, p < .05). #11: Takes Lead Without Giving Option was found to correlate positively with Affiliation, Play, and Impulsivity r = .49, .51, and .45, respectively; p < .05). #12: Directs/Instructs Child to Do Something correlated positively with Autonomy (r = .45, p < .05) and nega- tively with Social Recognition (r = -.45, p < .05). 52 Table 2. Correlation of Students' Play Behaviors with Students' Personality Variables for Fall Quarter (p < .05). ' * Personality Play Variables Variables #7 #11 #12 #13 #16 Affiliation .49 Autonomy .47 Aggression .46 Change .48 Defendence .56 Impulsivity .45 Play .51 Social Recognition -.45 Understanding -.48 *Play variables are as follows: #7 = Verbal Criticism, Argumentative, Preaching, Abusive #11 = Take Lead Without Giving Option #12 = Directs/Instructs Child to Do Something #13 = Asks Questions #16 = High Level of Attention ste IIQE CHI 51 53 #13: Asks Questions was found to correlate positively with Change (r = .48, p < .05). #16: High Level of Attention was found to correlate posi- tively with Defendence and Aggression (r = .56 and .46, respectively; p < .05). Hypothesis 2 proposed a significant relationship between students' attitudes (as measured by the MSPP and PPAS) and their initial level of play skills. Four of the 147 correlations were accepted. Seven correlations would statistically be expected to reach significance. Results need to be interpreted cautiously. The MSPP test measured the students' perceptions of: (1) life within their families, and (2) their current view of relationships within their families. It also measured their perceptions of how well they felt they could cope with a child in crisis. The MSPP scores reported were taken from the respondents' answers to Section B of the Questionnaire which had four scales: (1) Emotional Needs Met (ENM), (2) Relationship With Parents (RWP), (3) Expectations of Children (EOC), and (4) C0ping (COP). Appendix K presents a table of all scores obtained by the students on the MSPP. Coping on the MSPP was found to be significantly cor- related with Shows Willingness to Follow Child's Lead (r = .28, p < .07) on the Play Behavior Rating Scale. COp- ing on the MSPP was also found to be significantly corre- lated with Marginal Level of Attention (R = .49, p < .004) on the Play Behavior Rating Scale. IO pa: inc ilC .5 ac 54 The PPAS test measured the students' beliefs about how they would be as parents. There were three variables: (1) Uniqueness, (2) Feelings, and (3) Autonomy. The scores for this test were summed. Inter-item correlations for the PPAS were computed, and results can be found in Appendix L. 0n the PPAS, Autonomy correlated with Shows Willingness to Follow Child's Lead (r = -.28, p < .07) on the Play Behavior Rating Scale. Autonomy on the PPAS correlated positively with Marginal Level of Attention (r = .49, p < .004) on the Play Behavior Rating Scale. Hypothesis 3 proposed that students would acquire or increase their skills in playing with children during par— ticipation in the STC course. Of the twenty-one variables tested, four supported the hypotheses and seventeen failed to support it. T—tests were computed to determine statistically sig- nificant changes in students' play skills between Fall and Spring Quarters. Significant changes were found for four of the twenty-one variables. Willingness to Follow Child's Lead showed a significant increase in frequency between the two quarters (t = 1.78, df - 28, p < .08). The variable Child Has Option for Lead Taking showed a marginally sig- nificant decrease between Fall and Spring Quarters (t = 1.75, df = 28, p < .09), as did the variable Takes Lead Without Giving Option (t = 1.77, df = 28, p < .09). This reflected the students' increasingly higher skill levels within the compliance skill grouping; that is, lower level C4 Q.» ‘11» y the 55 skills decreased while the highest level skill increased. These results were not surprising when one considers that the course positively and consistently reinforced the former behavior. Further, Marginal Level of Attention (an undesir- able attentiveness skill) became less frequent between Fall and Spring Quarters (t = 2.06, df = 28, p < .05). Table 3 presents the pre- and posttest scores on these variables. Hypothesis 4 proposed that students' personality char- acteristics would change during the period they were enrolled in the STC course. Three variables were accepted, and seventeen variables were rejected. A copy of the scores for this study can be found in Appendix M. Pre- and posttest mean PRF-E score differences were tested. T-tests computed showed statistically significant changes in three of the twenty-one variables on this instru- ment. Students reported themselves as significantly more Autonomous during Spring Quarter than during Fall Quarter (t = 1.53, df = 29, p < .02). Endurance (t = 1.73, df - 29, p < .10) and Succorance (t = 2.68, df - 29, p < .01) both decreased between Fall and Spring Quarters. Table 4 dis- plays the pre- and posttest scores. Hypothesis 5 proposed that students would change their attitudes toward children during the time they participated in the STC course. Students generally reported feeling positively about their own upbringing in their families on the MSPP or about their own skills with children. 56 Table 3. Pre- and Posttest Scores for Students' Play Behavior Skills, Fall to Spring Quarters. . + Pretest Posttest Variable Fall Mean Spring Mean t-Value # 8 53.67 57.57 1.78* #10 15.25 9.90 1.75* #11 7.30 5.70 1.77* #17 1.77 .60 2.06** *p < .10 **p < .05 +Variables are as follows: # 8 = Shows Willingness to Follow Child's Lead #10 = Child Has Option for Lead Taking #11 = Takes Lead Without Giving Option #17 = Marginal Level of Attention Table 4. Pre- and Posttest Scores for Personality Research Form E. Variable Fall Mean Spring Mean t-Value Autonomy 6.23 7.30 2.43* Endurance 9.27 8.47 1.73+ Succorance 8.07 6.67 2.68* *p < .05 +p < .10 L" C: 57 T-tests were computed to examine mean differences between Fall and Spring Quarters. Two of the variables supported the hypothesis, and two of the variables failed to support the hypothesis. Coping increased significantly between Fall and spring (t = 2.60, df = 29, p < .05), and Expectations of Children decreased significantly (t = 2.35, df = 29, p < .05). Table 5 presents a summary of these findings. Mean score differences between Fall and Spring Quarters were computed for the PPAS. T-test results indicated that Feelings (t = 6.19, df = 26, p < .0001) and Autonomy (t = 4.79, df = 26, p < .0001) increased significantly. Therefore, two of the variables supported the hypothesis, and one failed to support it. See Table 6 for a summary. Hypothesis 6 proposed a relationship between change in attitudes and change in play skills. Analysis of the change in PPAS and in play skills, Fall to Spring, indicated that as people increased their skills in following the child's lead, they reported believing their attitude toward allowing a child autonomy decreased (r = -.34, p < .05). One corre- lation was accepted while sixty-two others were rejected. The change in MSPP and change in play skills, Fall to Spring, analysis indicated that as people increased in their Willingness to Follow the Child's Lead, they also increased their belief that they were more able to cope with the child's demands (r = .34, p < .05). It was also found that as people decreased their ability to take the lead from the .hU _ 1.... pr» 0 § 2h 58 Table 5. MSPP Pre- and Posttest Scores, Fall and Spring (p < .05). Variable Fall Mean Spring Mean t-Value Coping 3.64 4.36 2.60 Expectations of Children 4.36 3.56 2.35 Table 6. PPAS Pre- and Posttest Scores, Fall and Spring (p < .0001). Variable Fall Mean Spring Mean t-Value Feelings 36.07 43.52 6.19 Autonomy 40.65 44.23 5.79 59 the child they reported a decrease in a positive view of their relationship with their own parents and a decrease in their perceived ability to cope with children (r = .24, p < .10; r = .25, p < .10, respectively). Two correlations were supported and eighty-three were not supported. Summary Although some correlations were found when looking at personality and play skills or attitudes and play skills, few were above chance level. Additionally, only a small number of pre- and posttest differences were found for changes in personality, attitudes, and play skills. Fur- thermore, it should be kept in mind that this was a prelim- inary attempt to explore some possible course effects. The study did not use a control group, and, therefore, course effects could not be demonstrated. Additionally, changes reported may have been due to other factors, such as the general university experience. CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This chapter summarizes the background, problem, and procedures of the study. It also presents a discussion of the results and conclusions. Finally, implications and recommendations for future research are presented. Overview Parent education programs proceed on the assumption that training parents in specific skills will change their abilities to interact effectively with their children. Client-centered programs are concerned with teaching skills and changing attitudes and expectations parents have toward their children. There are several theorists and programs associated with the client-centered approach, begun by begun by Carl Rogers (1951). Thomas Gordon's "Parent Effectiveness Training (1970), Bernard Guerney's "Filial Therapy (1969), and Stollak's "Sensitivity to Children" (1973) programs represent a few of these approaches. The literature indicates that studies concerned with parent education do not explore changes in parent personal- ity or the impact of parent personality on initial skill levels. However, some studies do explore personality 6O Thi. sea I: .5 cl A AU 1K 1 .91; p\J C C v 1‘17; 61 and attitude changes in counselor and psychologist trainees. This literature indicates that when students participated in small group experiences they acquired greater listening skills, permissiveness, acceptance, and understanding of clients (Jones, 1963). Statement of the Problem The purpose of this investigation was to: (1) explore personality variables of adults (students) and the relation- ship of their play skills to working with children, (2) to explore attitudes that these students held toward parenting and the relationship of these attitudes to their play skills, and (3) to examine the changes which occurred, as a result of training, in the interaction of personality, atti- tudes, and play skills. Listed below are the experimental hypotheses posed in this study with regard to personality: #1: Is there a relationship between personality and initial level of play skill? #4: Is there a change in students' personalities during participation in the STC course? #7: Is there a relationship between change in personality and change in play skill? The following hypotheses, posed as questions, regarded attitudes: #2: Is there a relationship between attitudes and initial level of play skill? PM Re 62 #5: Is there a change in students' attitudes toward chil- dren after participating in the STC course? #6: Is there a relationship between changes in attitudes and in changes in play skills? Regarding play skills, the following question was asked: #3: Is there a change in students' play skills after par- ticipation in the STC course? Procedures In September 1980 and May 1981, the Jackson Personality Research Form E, Porter Parental Acceptance Scale, and Michigan Screening Profile of Parenting scales were adminis- tered to thirty undergraduate students enrolled at Michigan State University in Psychology 246, 247, and 248, a course entitled "Sensitivity to Children." In addition, videotapes of play sessions between the thirty students and thirty "normal" children aged three to six years were made. Video- taping sessions were randomly assigned each quarter. Tapes were rated by undergraduate students solicited from Abnormal Psychology classes offered by Michigan State University. The initial stage of data analysis involved grouping play skill behaviors along client-centered, theoretical lines into four areas: (1) Verbalization, i.e., Verbal Recognition/Acceptance of Feelings; (2) Compliance, i.e., Shows Willingness to Follow Child's Lead; (3) Attentiveness, i.e., Fully Observant of Child's Behavior; and (4) Reciprocal the 63 Participation in Fantasy, i.e., Does Not Change Child's Fantasy. The undesired skills (such as Verbal Criticism, Directs/ Instructs Child, or Rejection) were summed and then subtracted from the desired skills which had been summed. A summary of this grouping is presented in Appendix L. The Fall and Spring ratings for subjects on these play skills were compared (t-tests were computed) to determine if signif- icant changes in these behaviors occurred over the years. No significant differences were obtained using this method of analysis. A second analysis of the play skill behaviors was under- taken. This analysis involved comparing each of the twenty- one play skill behaviors individually. By comparing each of these behaviors, four variables were shown to change signif- icantly from the Fall to Spring terms. These were: (1) Shows Willingness to Follow Child's Lead, (2) Child Has Option For Lead Taking, (3) Takes Lead Without Giving Option, and (4) Marginal Level of Attention. T-tests were used to determine if personality variables changed significantly between Fall and Spring Quarters. Of the twenty variables tested, two were found to be statisti- cally significant (p < .05). Considering the large number of comparisons made and the few significant differences found, it was decided that further analysis of the personal- ity variables would not be conducted except to compute corre- lations between personality variables and play skill variables during Fall Quarter. Attitude measures were 64 examined next. T-tests were computed to determine if the students' attitudes toward child rearing changed signifi- cantly between Fall and Spring Quarters, as measured by the MSPP and PPAS. Following the analysis described above, correlation analyses were computed between play skills and attitude skills (as measured by the MSPP and PPAS for Fall Quarter). Next, correlation coefficients were computed between the change in play skills Fall to Spring and change in attitudes between Fall and Spring Quarters, as measured by the MSPP and PPAS. Discussion Part 1 of the Study The correlation analyses between play variables and personality and play variables and attitudes resulted in a number of statistically significant relationships which were relevant to Hypotheses 1 and 2. Results regarding Hypothe- sis 1 (Is there a relationship between personality charac- teristics and initial level of play skill?) suggest that affiliative people——individuals who enjoy others, are affa- ble, neighborly, warm, and loyal and students who are play- ful (i.e., individuals who are loving and carefree)——-tend to lead the child. Thus, a factor of extroverted playful- ness appears to be related to a tendency to take over the direction of play. Clearly, the ability to follow the child's lead is necessary to promote a sense of autonomy in IO Fur Und and 65 the child. It would therefore be important for future research to assess, in a larger sample, how training can effectively overcome a tendency to lead in peOpIe. Students characterized as impulsive (uninhibited, irre- pressible, impatient, action without deliberation) tended to take the lead from the children. It is possible that stu- dents (or parents) who are impulsive, playful, or affili- ative may benefit from additional instruction regarding how to follow a child and how to reflect the child's actions. Further personality results suggest that students who are Understanding (characterized by being curious, inquiring, and investigative) do not engage in Verbal Criticism or other negative verbal responses. This may be due to their desire to gain knowledge of the child's world, which, in turn, allows the child more freedom of expression. Such a desire for understanding is advocated by most client- centered parent education programs. Students scoring high on the personality trait Change (characterized by innovation and inconsistency) typically questioned the child. Questions were general and focused on whether or not the child was enjoying particular toys or activities. Thus, this behavior may have resulted from increasing boredom with the child's indecision or frequent silences. Apparently, the students' uses of questions was an attempt to alter the situation, suggesting the possibil- ity that these students experienced internal discomfort when there was silence or inactivity. Toleration of a client's sil TIC f U COL SIS 66 silence and inactivity is often a difficult task for psy- chology and counseling graduate students. Perhaps the STC course could benefit the students by placing greater empha- sis on this skill. Correlation analysis further showed that students who scored high on Aggression (characterized by quarrelsome, hostile, belligerent, and retaliative) and who were high on Defendence (characterized as self-protecting, wary, and guarded) tended to give a High Level of Attention to the children with whom they played. It is possible that defen- sive people were Quite sensitive to environmental cues, in this case, more from the child. They may have used this external data as catalysts for setting into motion self- protective maneuvers. Although these behaviors appeared to be highly desired skills under the Attentiveness variable, the internal motivation may not have been optimal for skill development in other areas; that is, these people may have been wary of a child's expression of feelings. Aggressive students may also have engaged in a high level of atten- tiveness, as they may have been concerned with attacks from the environment. Parents with these dynamics would probably benefit from a small group experience which encourages them to examine their defensive and aggressive traits. However, as other results indicated, these two traits did not change signifi- cantly over the thirty-week period, and group processes may not have been sufficient to effect necessary changes. Some 1;.) L1) DI (I) (I) A S! 'V l j) T.) Clr II at! SIL is 1111., low 67 parents and students may require some combination of group training and individual counseling. Students who scored high on Autonomy (characterized as self-reliant, independent, self-determined) during the Fall Quarter were more likely to direct children during play. This may have resulted from an internal sense of self- assurance and leadership abilities. Therefore, direction of play prior to gaining awareness of the child's need for self-direction would be expected. Finally, students who scored high on Social Recognition (characterized as approval-seeking and socially proper) did not direct chil- dren (r = .44, p < .05), which may additionally have reflected their desire for the child's approval and recogni- tion. Hypothesis 2 asked: Is there a relationship between attitudes and initial play skills? Results suggested that students characterized themselves as feeling able to cope with crisis appr0priately on the MSPP and were able to fol- low successfully the child's lead. Therefore, if students (and parents) felt competent about their coping skills and if Coping was a good indicator of well-developed compliance skills, then it may have been possible for these students to begin at an advanced instructional level. One might focus on the most difficult skills to acquire-—for example, Ver- balization of Feelings. Additionally, results indicated that students who felt able to cope in crisis situations may have provided a marginal level of attention. Perhaps these 68 students believed that children required full adult atten- tion only during crisis situations. Results further suggested that students who were able to follow the child's lead, according to videotape ratings, reported on the PPAS that they perceived themselves as less able to allow the child autonomy vis-a-vis encouraging inde- pendence and responsibility. It is possible that these stu- dents, sensitive to the child's need for autonomy and self- directedness, believed that their skill levels did not maximize the child's autonomy. Ironically, those few stu- dents who engaged in the behavior Marginal Level of Atten- tion perceived themselves as fostering autonomy. These students may have perceived lack of attentiveness as a method of satisfying the child's need for independence. The STC course was specifically designed to educate students (and parents) to the difference between lack of attention and the fostering of independence and self- responsibility through a coupling of noninterference and encouragement/attentiveness. The disparate results in this study may reflect the difference often seen between one's reported self-perception and observed behavioral measures. Part 2 of the Study T-tests were computed to determine: (1) any signifi- cant differences between Spring- and Fall-Quarter play skill behaviors, personality variables, and attitudes (PPAS, MSPP), and (2) any student changes during the STC course (”1 Pi 69 enrollment. Analysis of Hypothesis 3 (Is there a change in the student's play skills after participating in the STC course?) indicated that four of twenty-one play skill behav- iors changed significantly (p < .05). Considering the pos- sible effect on the experiment-wise error rate of these many comparisons, the results needed to be considered tenta- tively. Further analysis used only the four statistically significant variables. Results indicated that several compliance skills changed in the desired direction. Shows Willingness to Fol- low Child's Lead increased, while the behavior Child Has Option for Lead Taking and the undesired behavior Takes Lead Without Giving Option decreased. It appeared that, in gen- eral, students were able to learn compliance skills. Students were also able to reduce the undesired behav- ior Marginal Level of Attention while slightly improving their ability to be Fully Observant of the Child. A review of the data for each student indicated that students scoring high in the latter skill during Fall Quarter did not improve their skill between Fall and Spring terms. However, stu- dents who infrequently demonstrated this skill during Fall Quarter improved their skills between the two terms. Improvement in these skill areas helped the students become more attentive and physically closer to the child while allowing the child greater freedom of movement in choice of play activities. It appeared that students could learn the 70 play skill behaviors Compliance and Attentiveness more readily than Verbalization skills. Hypothesis 4 (Is there a change in students' personali- ties after participating in the STC course?) indicated changes in three of twenty variables. The variables which changed were Autonomy, Succorance, and Endurance. Autonomy increased significantly (p < .05) between Fall and Spring Quarters. Students reported themselves as becoming more Autonomous (characterized as self~reliant; independent; self-determined; free of people, places, and obligations). Autonomy is a central personality variable for young adults, and, therefore, this increase may have been the result of maturation. In addition, it was possible that students became sensitized to autonomy issues as a result of the small group experience; that is, the small groups empha- sized the child's independence. Often, group process allowed students to discuss individual development and the process of becoming less emotionally dependent on their own families. Succorance (characterized as seeking support, wanting advice, help-seeking) decreased. This decrease was not sur- prising, given the increase in Autonomy. As students reported themselves as becoming less dependent on others for advice, support, and help, they reported themselves as more self-reliant, independent, and free of people. The decrease in Endurance (characterized as persistent, energetic, deter- mined, and tireless) may have reflected the changed «H» a» in in I] 1 71 perceptions of students at the end of the thirty-week course and another school year. It may also have reflected the tiredness students experienced during final exam preparation. Hypothesis 5 (Is there a change in students' attitudes toward children after participating in the STC course?) showed significant changes on both measures (PPAS, MSPP). The PPAS t-test analysis indicated that students changed significantly from Fall to Spring Quarters on Feelings and Autonomy. Feelings are defined as allowing the child to express negative feelings, accepting and returning positive feel- ings, allowing freedom of emotional expression, and foster- ing open channels of communication. Students reported per- ceiving themselves as valuing Feelings more at the end of the course than at the start. However, play skill data showed no significant increase in students' abilities to communicate their behaviors or feelings to the child. This may have reflected the difference between intellectual acceptance of the importance of the child's feelings and behavioral abilities to speak to a child about feelings. This result was similar to past findings in this area. The previous research has documented that parent education pro- grams are able to significantly change parent attitudes but not directly change behavior (Hampson, 1980). Autonomy is defined as encouraging independence, allow- ing the child to assume responsibilities, and accepting the goal of parenting as fostering the independence of the child que 1111 with C4110 72 from the parent. Students' scores reflected an increased belief that a child's autonomy was important but infre- quently perceived themselves as able to behaviorally carry this belief into practice. To interpret the MSPP results, it was necessary to keep in mind that the scales reflected both positive and negative ranges. The students in the sample scored primarily within the positive range on both the Coping and Expectations of Children scales (which had both shown statistically signifi- cant changes: t = 2.60, df = 29, p < .05; t = 2.35, df = 29, p < .05, respectively). On the Coping scale, one student felt unable to cope during Fall Quarter and there- fore scored in the negative range (feeling helpless and frustrated). However, in the Spring, seven students felt unable to cope effectively with children. Consequently, although students, in general, continued to feel able to cope, several students perceived themselves as less able to cope. The overall range changed from 2.33 to 6.0 Fall Quarter to 2.00 to 5.67 in the Spring. Also, the student receiving the highest score of 6.0 in the Fall received a score of 2.00 in the Spring. This was obviously a dramatic decrease. It appeared that the course may have had a very important impact on this student's child caregiving skills. One interpretation of why students felt unable to cope with children may have been their initial lack of experi- ences with children. Subsequent to confrontation with a child, many students still perceived themselves as able to EHIQTG resear ”fiat Same lirm) {Ive StUde 73 cope. It was possible that students became more sensitive to the difficulties inherent in being with a child through many moods, illnesses, separations, etc. The students who came to perceive themselves as less able to cope and scored in the negative range (i.e., the four score changes from a positive 2.33 to a negative 5.67) may have been work- ing with more difficult children. It was also possible that they had unusually high expectations of themselves when they entered the course. It would be interesting, for future research, to explore the possibility that some parents, or students, may experience difficulty with child rearing if they expect themselves to do exceptionally well. The lowered Expectations of Children scores reported during Spring Quarter by students may have reflected their new awareness of child development and age-appropriate expectations. Few students scored within the negative range so that students generally held age-appropriate expecta- tions. However, in the Fall Quarter, nine students received negative range scores (expecting actions or understanding from the child before the child was old enough to exhibit these), and in the Spring Quarter, three students received negative range scores. Two students remained exactly the same in both the Spring and Fall (scoring 6.00 and 5.67 each term). One student increased the expectation from a posi- tive range of 5.00 to the negative score of 6.67. All other students lowered their expectations. Generally, most 74 students benefited from course instruction and reduced their expectations about children. The overall positive scores on both coping and Expecta- tions of Children may have reflected the students' voluntary entry into the STC course. These students had, by virtue of registering for the course, indicated an interest in chil- dren and their development. Counselors who conduct parent education courses often find that those people who least need parenting programsaue those who most often register for them. The skill levels and attitudes of the students may already have been higher than the general population as well. Part 3 of the Study Correlational analyses between changes in play skill variables, Fall to Spring, and change in attitudes (on the MSPP and PPAS), Fall to Spring,showed significant relation- ships. Hypothesis 6 received support. Correlational analy- ses between changes in personality variables from Fall to Spring and changes in play variables and changes in atti- tudes were not conducted due to the few significant changes in the personality variables as noted above. Therefore, Hypotheses 7 and 8 were not tested. Results of Hypothesis 6 (Is there a relationship between change in attitudes and change in play skill?) indi- cated that during the academic year, as students became more able to follow the child's lead and became more sensitive to the children's need for autonomy, students reported /Z/ 75 perceiving themselves as allowing less autonomy than they had in the Fall. This was in contradiction to results reported indicating that students were more skilled at fol- lowing the child's Iead and that students valued autonomy more. Limitations of This Study and Recommendations for Future Research This study presented several limitations in generaliz- ing results: (1) The play variables studied represented behaviors con- sidered important within the client-centered theoreti- cal perspective. Behaviors which represented other theoretical orientations were neither measured nor analyzed. Results cannot be generalized to other training perspectives. (2) The design (one-group, pretest-posttest) introduced problems of history, maturation, and measurement. (a) The effect of history increased with the length of the interval between testing, as did matura- tion. Because no control group was used, it was impossible to know if any observed differences were possibly from course participation or resulted from participation in other courses or events on campus, etc. (b) The pretest-posttest design may have influenced subjects. The pretest may have been a reactive (6) 76 measure. The thirty-week period between testing may have minimized reactivity, but this further limited generalizability. The sample of self-selected junior and senior students restricted the range of sample and limited generaliz— ability to the larger student body or parents. Fur- ther, the sample was affected by the inclusion of mainly female students and limited understandingcfi'how male students would respond to the course treatment. Of further restriction was the inclusion of only one minority student. The use of a personality test designed to maximize test—retest reliability minimized exploring student characteristic changes and further limited the study. Another limitation involved time sampling of videotaped sessions. The sessions, which were videotaped Fall and Spring Quarters, may not have been representative of other sessions not videotaped. It was feasible that videotaping affected behavior, although students reported sessions to be comparable. The study did not examine possible changes in students' outside course participation (peer relationship, rela- tionship with parents, etc.). Future research might include the following: (1) Studies similar to the present one should be conducted using varied samples of college students and parents. These studies should include larger samples. 77 (2) An experimental study using a control group is recom- mended in order to demonstrate any course effects. The present study provided preliminary data regarding changes occurring in students during STC course enroll- ment. Pre/post-differences may have been due to maturation or other college experiences. (3) Scales measuring empathy, warmth, and genuineness may be more productive. Empathy, warmth, and genuineness are characteristics of counselors which Rogers suggests facilitate client development. If students and parents can be taught these qualities, then they would be more relevant measures of the efficacy of the STC course and parent education programs. (4) The Behavior Rating Scale could be altered to delete several variables which were found to occur infre- quently in the college students studied. These were: (a) Variable #7 - Verbal Criticism, (b) Variable #14 - Persuades, Demands, Pushes, etc., (c) Variable #18 - Partial Withdrawal, (d) Variable #19 - Rejection, and (e) Variable #20 - Preoccupied Completely. Concluding Statement The limitations of this study, as set forth above, placed considerable restrictions on the interpretation of results. Hopefully, the heuristic value of this research outweighed these limitations. 78 The result of this study suggested that students were even less likely to change personality characteristics than counselors when exposed to small group practicum experi- ences. Students were able to learn play skills which enhanced their ability to be attentive to a child and to comply with a child's wishes. However, students were unable to significantly increase their verbalization skills. Stu- dents who scored high on verbalization skills remained the same, but others did not significantly increase their skills. Students valued the child's autonomy and feelings more while reducing their expectations of children. They also became somewhat insecure about their ability to cope withchildren in a crisis. Several correlations were found between initial play skills and personality variables, suggesting that affili- ative, playful, autonomous, and impulsive students tended to engage in less desired and undesired compliance behaviors. Students scoring high on social recognition needs did not engage in this behavior. Aggressive and defendent students exhibited desired attentiveness skills, and students who enjoyed change engaged in undesired verbalization behaviors. Attitude and play correlation analyses indicated that stu- dents who felt they could cope with children showed the highest level of compliance skills. APPENDICES 79 APPENDIX A lie-e Once it you here children. their egee end ens: P P A S Lieted helow ere eewerel eteteeente deecrihing thinge which children do end eey. Following eech eteteeent ere tive reeponeee which euggeet were of feeling or coureee oi ection. heed eech eteteeent cereiully end then plece e circle eround the letter in l trout oi the 333 reeponeu which one: neerly deecrihee the feeling you ueuelly hewe or the couree of ection you think you would enet generelly teke when your child would eey or do theee thinge. It in poeeihle thet you eey (ind e tew eteteeente which deecribe e type ot hehewior which you think you eey never experience with your child. In euch ceeee. nerk the reeponee which eoet neerly deecrihee how you think you would feel or whet you think you would do. 5 he eure thet you enewer every etetennnt end eerk only‘ggg reeponee tor ench- eteteeent. l. "hen em child would he ehouting end dencing with excite-ent et e tine when I went peece end quiet. it would: e. “eke we feel ennoyed h. fluke en went to know here ehout whet eecitee hie/her c. Hoke ee feel like puniehing hie/her d. Hoke en (eel thet I will he gled when elhe in peer thin etege e. like no (eel like telling hillher to etop 2. "hen IV child would niehehewo while othere in the group elhe ie with ere heheving well. I would: e. See to it thet elhe hehevee en the othere h. tell hinlher it in inpatient to hehewe well when elhe ie in e group c. let hielher elnne i1 elhe ien't dieturhing the othere too each d. Lek hie/her to tell no whet elhe would like to do e. help hie/her tied none ectivity thet elhe cen enjoy end at the eene tine not dieturh the group 3. "hen Iv child would he unehle to do eonnthing which i think in inportent tor hie/her. it would: e. fluke ee went to help hinlher tied eucceee in the thinge elhe cen do h. Hoke en (eel dieeppointed in hielher c. Heke no wieh elhe could do it d. ueke en reeliee thet elhe cen't do everything e. leke en went to know here ehout the thinge elhe cen do 5. 9. 80 When ny child would seen to be more fond of someone else (teecher. friend, reletiwe) then no, it would: e. Hoke ee reelise thet elhe is growing up h. Pleese no to see his/her interest widening to other people c. Hoke es feel resentful d. Hoke us feel thet elhe doesn't eppreciets whet I here done for him/her e. Make no wish elhe liked no more When ny child would he faced with two or more choices and would have to choose only one, I would: e. Tell hie/her which choice to nnke end why b. Think it through with him/her c. Point out the edventeges end dissdwentsges of each, but let hie/her decide for himself/herself d. Iell him/her thet I so sure s/he cen neke e wise choice and help hie/her foresee the consequences e. Make the decision for hie/her When ny child would neke e decision without consulting no, I would: e. Punish hie/her for not consulting no h. Encourege him/her to nuke his/her own decisions if s/he can foresee the consequences c. Allow him/her to neke many of his/her own decisions d. Suggest thet we telk it over before elhe nekes his/her decision e. Tell hie/her thet s/he must consult no first before asking e decision When my child would kick, hit. or knock his/her things about, it would: e. Make so feel like telling hie/her to stop h. Make so feel like punishing hie/her c. Pleeee ne thet elhe feels free to express hinself/herself d. Make so feel thet I will he gled when elhe is pest this stege e. Make no feel annoyed When ny child would not be interested in none of the usual activities of his/he ege group. it would: e. Make no realize thet eech child is different h. Make no wieh elhe were interested in the sens ectivities c. Make we feel diseppointed in hie/her d. Make no went to help hie/her find weye to neke the most of his/her interests e. Hake no went to know nore shout the ectivities in which s/he is interested When ny child would set silly end giggly. I would: e. Tell hie/her I know how elhe feels h. Pey no ettention to him/her c. Tell hie s/he shouldn't ect thet wey d. Hoke hie/her quit e. Tell hie/her it is elright to feel thet wey, but help him/her find other wnys of expressing himself/herself. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 81 When ny child would prefer to do things with his/her friends rsther then with his fenily. I would: - e. Encourege hin/her to do things with his/her friends h. Accept this so pert of growing up c. Plsn specisl activities so thet elhe will went to he with the family d. Try to nininise his/her soepcistion with his/her friends o. Hoke hie/her stsy with his/her fsnily When ny child would dissgree with no shout something which I think is inportsnt, it would: s. Make no feel like punishing hie/her h. Plesse no thet elhe feels free to express himself/herself c. Make no feel like persusding hin/hor thet I on right d. Hoke no roslise s/he hes ideee of his/her own e. Make no feel snnoyed When ny child would nishoheve while others in the group s/he is with ere hehsving well. it would: e. Hake no rosliso thet elhe does not elweys hehsve so others in his/her group h. Hoke no feel enhsrrsssed c. Hoke no went to help hie/her find the best ways to express his/her feelings d. Make no wish s/he would hehsve like the others e. Make no went to know nore shout his/her feelings When ny child would he shouting end dancing with excitement or s tins when I went pence snd quiet. I would: s. Give hie/her sonething quiet to do h. Tell hie/her thet I wish s/he would stop c. Hoke hie/her be quiet d. Let hie/her tell no shout whet excites hinlher e. Send bin/her sonowhoro else When ny child would seen to he nore fond of someone else (teecher, friend. rolstive) then no, I would: s. Try to nininize his/her essocietion with thet person 1:. Let hill/her hsve such essocistions when I thinkshe is resdy for then c. Do sons speciel things for hie/her to renind hin/her of how nice I on d. Point out the woeknesses end fsults of thet other person s. Encourege hie/her to crests end nsintein such sssocistions When ny child would ssy engry end heteful things shout no to ny fece. it would: e. Hoke no feel snnoyed h. Hoke no feel thet I will he gled when s/ho is pest this stsge c. Plosse no thet s/ho fools free to express hinselflherself d. Hsko no feel like punishing hinlhor e. Hoke no feel like telling hinlher not to telk to no thet wsy When ny child would show s deep interest in oonething I don't think is inpor- tent. it would: s. Hoke no reelieo s/he has interests of his/her own h. Hoke no went to help hie/her find weyo to noko the nest of this interest c. Hoke no fool diseppointod in hie/her d. Make no went to know noro shout his/her interests o. Hoke no wish slhe were sure interested in things I think ere important for him/her 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 82 When .7 child would be unable to do sone things es well ss others in his group, I would: e. Tell hie/her slhe nust try to do es well es the others h. Encourege him/her to keep trying c. Tell bin/her that no one cen do everything well d. Cell hie/her ettention to the things slhe does well s. Help him/her neko the nest of the ectivities which slhe cen do When ny child would went to do sonething which I en sure will leed to diseppointnont for hin/her. I would: e. Occesionelly let him/her csrry such en sctivity to its conclusion h. Don't let hin/her do it c. Advise bin/her not to do it d. Help hin/her with it in order to sees the disappointment e. Point out whet is likely to heppen When ny child would set silly end giggly. it would: s. Heke no feel thet I will he gled when slhe is pest this stsge h. Plesse no thet slhe feels free to express hinself/herself c. Heks no feel like punishing hie/her d. Make no feel like telling him/her to stop e. Hoke no feel snnoyed When my child would he feced with two or note choices end has to choose only one, it would: ' e. Make no feel thet I should tell hinlher which choice to neko end why h. Hoke ne feel thet I should point out the edventages end disedventeges of es. c. Make no hope thet I heve prepered hie/her to choose wisely d. Hoke no went to encourege hinlher to neko his own choice s. Hoke no went to neko the decision for hie/her When ny child would he unehle to do sonething which I think is inportent for hin/her. I would: e. Tell him/her slhe nust do hotter h. Help hinlher neko the nest of the things which slhe can do c. Ask hie/her to tell no nore shout the things which slhe can do d. Tell him/her thet no one cen do everything e. Encourage hie/her to keep trying When ow child would disegree with no shout sonothing which I think is inportsnt. I would: e. Tell hie/her slhe shouldn't dissgres with no h. Hoke hinlher quit c. Listen to his/her side of the prohlen end chenge ny nind if I on wrong d. Tell hie/her nsyhe we cen do it his/her wsy soother tins s. Bxplein thet I'sn doing whet is host for hinlher When nu child would he unshls to do sons things so well es others in his/her group. it would: s. Hoke no reelizs thet slhe cen't he host in everything h. Hoke no wish slhe could do ss woll c. Hoke no fool enherreseed d. Hoke no went to help hinlher find success in the things slhe cen do e. Hoke no went to know nore shout the things slhe cen do well 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 83 When ny child would neko decisions without consulting no it would: s. Hoke no hope thet I hsve prepsred hinlher sdequstely to neko his/her decisions h. Hsks no wish s/hs would consult no c. asks no feel disturbed d. asks no went to restrict his/her freedon e. Plssse no to see thet ss slhe grows slhe needs no less When ny child would ssy engry end heteful things shout no to ny fees. I would: s. Tell hie/her it's ell right to feel thet wey. but help hin/her find other wsys to express hinsslf/herself h. Tell hie/her I know how slhe feels c. Psy no ettention to hie/her d. Tell hin/her s/he shouldn't ssy such things to no e. asks hin/her quit When ny child would kick, hit end knock his things shout, I would: s. Hske hinlhsr quit h. Tell hie/her it is ell right to feel thet woy. but help hie/her find other wsys of expressing hinself/hstself c. Tell hie/her s/he shouldn't do such things d. Tell hin/het I know how slhe feels e. Pey no ettention to hie/her When ny child would prefer to do things with his friends tether then with his fsnily, it would: s. Hsks no wish slhe would spend note tine with us h. Hske no feel resentful c. Plesse no to see his/her interests widening to other people d. Hske no fool slhe doesn‘t sppreciete us e. Meke no reslire thet slhe is growing up When ny child would went to do sonothing which I en sure will leed to dissppointnent for hie/her, it would: e. Msks no hope thet I hsve prepsred hie/her to neet dissppointnent h. Make no wish slhe didn't hsve to neet unplesssnt experiences c. Make no went to keep hinlher fron doing it d. Hoke no reslirs thet occssionslly such an experience will be good for hin e. Hsks no went to postpone these experiences When ny child would he disinterested in sono of the ususl sctivities of his/ her egs group, I would: e. Try to help hie/her resliss thet it is inportsnt to he interested in the ssno things so others in his/her group b. Cell hislhsr ettention to the sctivities in which slhe is interested c. Tell hie/her it is slright if slhe isn't interested in the ssno things d. See to it thet s/he does the ssno things es othets in his/her group s. Help hie/her find woys of nsking the nest of his/her interests When ny child would show s deep interest in sonothing I don't think is inportsnt. I would: e. Let hie/her go sheed with his/her interest h. Ask hie/her to tell no note shout this interest c. Help hie/her find woys to neko the nest of this interest d. be everything I cen to discoursge his/her interest in it s. Try to interest bin/her in nor. worthwhile things Scale Abasement Achievement Affiliation Aggression Autonomy 84 APPENDIX B JACKSON PERSONALITY RESEARCH FORM-E SCALES Description of High Scorer Shows a high degree of humility; accepts blame and criticism evenwhen not deserved; exposes himself to situations where he is in an inferior position; tends to be self-effacing. Aspires to accomplish difficult tasks, main- tains high standards and is willing to work toward distant goals; responds positively to competition: willing to put forth effort to attain excellence. Enjoys being with friends and people in general, accepts people readily, makes efforts to win friendships and maintain associations with peOple. Enjoys combat and agrument: easily annoyed; sometimes willing to hurt people to get his way; may seek to "get even“ with people whom he perceives as having harmed him. Tries to break away from restraints, confinement, or restrictions of any kind: enjoys being unattached, free, not tied to people, places or obligations: may be rebellious when faced with restraints. Defining Trait Adjectives meek, self-accusing, self-blaming, obsequitous, self-belittling, surrendering, resigned, self-critical,humble, apologizing,obedient, yielding, deferential, self-subordinating. striving, accomplishing, capable, purposeful, attaining, industrious. achieving, aspiring, enterprising, self- improving, productive, driving, ambitious, resourceful, competitive. neighborly, loyal, warm, amicable, good-natured, friendly, companionable, genial, affable, coopera- tive, gregarious, hospitable, sociable. . aggressive, quarrelsome, irritable, argumentative, threatening, attacking, antagonistic, pushy, hot- tempered, easily-angered, hostile, revengeful, belligerent, blunt. unmanageable, free, self- reliant, independent, autonomous, rebellious, unconstrained, individualistic, un- governable, self-determined, non-conforming, uncompliant, undominated, resistant, lone-wolf. 85 Scale Description of High Scorer Defining Trait Adjectives Change Likes new and different inconsistent, fickle, experiences: dislikes flexible, unpredictable, routine and avoids it: wavering, mutable, may readily change opinions adaptable, changeable, or values in different irregular, variable, circumstances: adapts capricious, innovative, readily to changes in flightly, vacillating, environment. inconstant. Cognitive Does not like ambiguity precise, exacting, Structure or uncertainty in informa- definite, seeks certainty tion; wants all questions meticulous, perfection- answered completely; istic, clarifying, desires to make decisions explicit, accurate. based upon definite know- rigorous, litera, avoids ledge, rather than upon ambiguity, defining, rigid guesses or probabilities. needs structure. Defendence Readily suspects that self-protective, justify- people mean him harm or ing; denying, defensive, are against him: ready to self-condoning, defend himself at all suspicious, secretive, has times; takes offense a 'chip on the shoulder“ easily: does not accept resists inquiries, pro- criticism readily. testing, wary, guarded. Dominance Attempts_to control his governing, controlling, environment, and to commanding, domineering, influence or direct other influential, persuasive, people: expresses opinions forceful, ascendant, forcefully; enjoys the leading, directing, role of leader and may dominant, assertive, assume it spontaneously. authoritative, powerful. Endurance Willing to work long persistent, determined, hours: doesn‘t give up quickly on a problem: persevering, even in the face of great difficulty: patient and unrelenting in hiw work habits. steadfast, enduring, unfaltering, persevering, unremitting, relentless, tireless, dogged, energetic has stamina, sturdy, ' zealous, durable. 86 Scale Description of High Scorer Defining Trait Adjectives Exhibition Wants to be the center of colorful, entertaining attention; enjoys having unusual, spellbinding, an audience: engages in exhibitionistic, behavior which wins the conspicuous, noticeable, notice of others: may expressive, ostentatious, enjoy being dramatic or immodest, demonstrative, witty. flashy, dramatic. Harm- Does not enjoy exciting fearful, withdraws from avoidance activities, especially if danger, self-protect- danger is involved; avoids ing, pain-avoidant, care- risk of bodily harm, seeks ful, cautious, seeks to maximize personal safety. safety, timourous. Impulsivity Tends to act on the “spur hasty, rash, uninhibited, Nurturance Order of the moment“ and with- out deliberationz gives vent readily to feelings and wishes; speaks freely, may be volatile in emotional expression. Gives sympathy and comfort, assists others whenever possible, interested in caring for children, the disabled, or the infirm: offers a “helping hand” to those in need: readily performs favors for others. 'Concerned with keeping personal effects and surroundings neat and organized; interested in developing methods for keeping materials methodically organized. spontaneous, reckless, irrepressible, quick- thinking, mercurial, impatient, incautious, hurried, impulsive, . foolhardy, excitable. sympathetic, paternal, helpful, benevolent, encouraging, caring, protective, comforting, maternal, supporting, aiding, ministering, consoling, charitable, assisting. neat, organized, tidy, systematic, well-ordered, disciplined, prompt, consistent, orderly, clean, methodical, scheduled, planful, un- varying, deliberate. 87 Scale Description of High Scorer Defining Trait Adjectives Play Does many things ”just playful, jovial, jolly, for fun”; spends a good pleasure-seeking, merry, deal of time participating laughter-loving, joking, in games, sports, social frivolous, prankish, activities, and other Sportive, mirthful, amusements; enjoys jokes fun-loving, gleeful, and funny stories, main- carefree, blithe. tains a light-hearted easy-going attitude toward life. Sentience Notices smells, sounds, aesthetic, enjoys, sights, tastes, and the physical snesations, way things feel; remembers observant, earthy, aware these sensations and notices environment, believes that they are an feeling, sensitive, important part of life; is sensuous, open to sensitive to many forms of experience, perceptive, experience, may maintain responsive, noticing,, an essentially hedonistic discriminating, or aesthetic view of life. alive to impressions. Social Desires to be held in high approval seeking, proper, Recognition esteem by acquaintances; well-behaved, seeks concerned about reputation recognition, courteous, and what other people think makes good impressions, of him; works for the seeks respectability, approval and recognition obliging, agreeable, of others. socially sensitive. Succorance Frequently seeks the trusting, ingratiating, 'sympathy, protection, love, advice, and reassurance of other people; may feel insecure or helpless with- out such support: confides difficulties readily to a receptive person. dependent, entreating, appealing for help, seeks support, wants advice, helpless, confiding, needs protection, requesting craves affection, pleading, help-seeking, defenseless. 88 Scale Description of High Scorer Defining Trait Adjectives Understand- Wants to understand many inquiring, curious, ing areas of knowledge; values analytical, exploring, syntehsis of ideas, intellectual, reflective, verifiable generalization, incisive, invetigative, logical thought, particularbrprobing, logical, when directed at satisfying scrutinizing, theoretical, intellectual curiosity. astute, rational. Desirabil- Describes self in terms ity as desirable; consciously or unconsiously, accurately or inaccurately, presents favorable picture of self in responses to personality statements. Infrequency Responds in implausible or pseudo-random manner, possibly due to careless— ness, poor comprehension, passive non-compliance, con- fusion, or gross deviation. 89 APPENDIX C SCHEDULE OF VIDEOTAPING:* FALL, WINTER, SPRING Subject WEEK Code Number Fall Winter Spring U1 w mVVmekwkmmeVme-b«hmmeWOWONVU‘ICDCDUW ammmmhmhoohumbmmmmmwmwmwbmmhuww \Imxlxloommoommnmmmmmhmmmmpmmmbmmmm *Videotapings were done between the fourth and eighth weeks of each quarter. Quarters were ten weeks in duration. 90 APPENDIX D BEHAVIOR RATING CATEGORIES Verbal Recognition and Acceptance of Feelings: Examples-— You're proud of how you fixed that; that made you feel good; that made you angry; you feel better already; you're enjoying that; you really like smashing that. Reflection of Verbal Content Exactly: Restates the content of that remark, i.e., Child: That's a car, this is a truck. Student: That's a car, this is a truck. Verbal Recognition and Acceptance of Behavior Only: Examples-—You got it that time; you really stabbed him; you're getting a workout; bam, bop, etc., you're hit- ting the mother doll. Reflects Motor Activity: Student described the motor behav- ior of child. Example——Child examines marbles. Stu- dent: Now you're picking up the green marbles. Social Conversation or No Conversation: Examples-—I'm not so good at building toys; Mary's been away most of the summer; mothers aren't very good at that; these are nice toys. Slight or Moderate Verbal Criticism Stated or Implied: Examples——That's cheating; the head you made is too big; you'll ruin the floor; that's not fair; you'll have to be more careful; watch what you're doing; no, not that way. Verbal Criticism: Argumentative, Preaching, Openly Reject- ing, Abusive Language: Examples-—Jt's not nice to feel that way; you're nasty; I'm talking to a dope; you're not so hot yourself; you're a fresh kid; you see, I told you to do it the other way. Shows Willingness to Follow Lead of Child: Behavior com- plaint with the child's directions or lead is suffi- cient, i.e., you want me to do it for you; I'm supposed to pick them or simply moving to do so; you'd like me to play catch with you (or simply doing so at the child's request). 91 Follows Only After Reflection of Wish: Student responds to child's commands, suggestions, or requests, but only after reflecting child's request, command, suggestion, etc. Example-—Child: Go get the ball. Student: You want me to get the ball, okay. Child Has Option for Lead Taking: Choice left to the child but mitigated by direct or indirect suggestions; gives unsolicited praise; volunteers information, asks for information. Example——What shall we do? What would you like me to make? You did that right; shall we pre- tend it [the phone] rings? It's under the table; you can shoot this if you want. Good (good reinforces a certain type of activity and therefore represents a degree of control). Takes Lead Without Giving Option: Unsolicited instruction on how to do or accompliSfiTsomething; teaching; praise accompanying a suggestion; questions with intent to guide the child. Example-P1ay with what you have; you have to keep practicing; maybe the best way is to aim it; see if you can do it again just like that; are you sure that's the way it goes? Directs or Instructs Child to Do Something: Initiating new activity when there has been no previous sign of inertia and/or resistance shown by the child. Example——Put the tinker toy away first; why don't you paint something; let's play with clay; you'd better put him back together; don't squeeze water in there. Asks Questions: Student interrogates child. Example—— Student: What do you want to do today, Jim? Student: How many brothers (or sisters) do you have, Jim? Persuades, Demands, Pushes, Interrupts, Interferes with Activity: implicit resistance or inertia on the part of the child which the student is seeking to overcome. Example-—You've got to play with something else now; You'd better give me one; You can't do that anymore; I told you not to turn out the lights; That's enough of that; no, take this one. Fully Observant of Child's Behavior: More attention is given to the chiid than to other stimuli, such as the objects the child is using. Such attention is not necessarily sympathetic or constructive. The adult may be involved in a joint activity, e.g., role playing, games. He participates in an active way physically as well as verbally when it is appropriate. 92 High Level of Attention: Although not involved in anything other than which also involves the child, the adult's concentration here is almost exclusively on activities per se rather than child's behavior. Joint activities, such as card playing and dart shooting; the adult is keenly interested in the game itself (i.e., the cards that turn up) without paying attention to the child's reaction and behaviors. Marginal Level of Attention: The adult is involved in his own independent activity to a degree that interferes somewhat with attention to the child. No joint activ- ity. Adult is preoccupied with own activities to the extent that he is not always providing company, e.g., briefly primping in a mirror, briefly attending to own attire, inspecting nails. The adult may occasionally remark spontaneously on the child's activity. Partial Withdrawal, Preoccupied Partially: Adult may infrequently observe child's activity but does not com- ment spontaneously. Adult may be so involved in his own role (e.g., in independent play) that he fails to attend to the child's apparent needs. He responds promptly, however, when alerted by the child. Rejection: Student conveys to child that either child or child's productions are not acceptable. Rejection can be conveyed through vocal, facial, or postural expres- sions. Preoccupied Completely, Self-Involved: Here, the child is ignored and must repeat or prompt to get a response from the adult. The adult is completely absorbed with an independent activity or with his own thoughts for prolonged periods or engaged in prolonged self- grooming, seemingly unaware and uninterested in child's behavior. Reciprocal Participation in Fantagy: Student is involved in child's fantasy behavior butlclearly does not contrib- ute anything more to its structure or content. Partic- ipation can take the form of merely watching, laughing, reflecting motor or verbal content, or responding to child's cues in a passive manner. Example——Child and student have puppets. Child: I'm a strong alligator. Student: You're a strong alligator. Child: [Yeah, and you're a chicken. Student: The chicken's going to lose its neck (in response to child's action). 93 APPENDIX E BEHAVIOR SCALE RATING FORM ”fiwumz wucc >m<fizAO>2H >AA¢mmmo rédam mmmzmhmszH mfiaazambzu \ Q UZHIPwZOm :mHz b0 o~mam< .02H204mzm .m>Hb<=mm ho MUZAhu . v . . . . "amm232 moou 94 APPENDIX F RATER RECRUITMENT LETTER MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLMY EAST LANSING ' WHOM ° W ”1000“”? [W mom-G Dear Student: As part of a research project we have made videotapes of approximately 30 undergraduates each of whom have completed approximately 30 play sessions with a 4-7 year old child. Each undergraduate has also completed a wide variety of personality tests and child caregiving attitudes questionnaires. we are inter- ested in studying the factors that influence the play behavior of these adults and children especially over time. For example, are some adults initially more "sensitive" and ”empathic" than others? Do personality characteristics and child caregiving attitudes of the adults correlate with their play behavior? Do some adults, who are less skillful in the beginnigg become more skillful over time? What personal characteristics correlate with the ability to change? And what are the effects of the adults on; the children. including the feelings, fantasy and aggressive behaviors they ex- press over time? At this time we are looking for persons to help us with this project. especially to help us analyse the approximately 100 videotapes. There will be several orientation and training sessions where persons will learn the scoring system. After training each rater will observe and rate some of the videotapes. The more students there are who wish to help us the fewer would be the number of tapes each would need to rate. In any case, we do not expect anyone to work more than 3—4 hours a week (at times convenient for them) over the next 9-10 weeks. Ifgyou are interested in helping you can receive up to 2 credits of Psychology 490 or 491 during the Spring or Fall 1981 terms. There will also be readings regarding children's play and child therapy, and bi-weekly meetings to discuss activities and problems. We believe that this will be a useful educational experience for those who anticipate becoming mental health professionals, parents or teachers. If you are interested in helping us, or even just wish to learn more about the project before deciding. please come to 129 Snyder Hall either SaturdayI April 6th, at 10 a.m. or Wednesday, April 0th at noon. If you are interested but cannot make it at any of these times please call Dr. Stollak at 351-4791 between 8-9 p.m. as soon as possible. Thank you, , .' j”/ 1’ . ( ’/' . / -';’/-.l~“ ” [:1".~’.."j/. /~v /C ww: ’ Gary 3. Stollak, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology 129 Snyder Hall 353-8877 GES:cc HSU as as .‘V/wwsuuv Anson/£4“! (”upon-any leuueuue 95 APPENDIX G INTERRATER RELIABILITY CORRELATIONS PLAY BEHAVIORS Variables Term Fall Winter Sprig; Verbal Recognition/Acceptance of Feelings .938 .958 .905 Reflects Verbal Content Exactly .930 .956 .836 Verbal lecogniton and Acceptance of Behavior .930 .737 .813 Reflects Motor Activity .919 .926 .917 Social Conversation or None .941 .920 .980 Slight or Hoderete Verbal Criticism .425 .909 .389 Verbal Criticism; Argumentative, preaching abusive language . 985 . 900 . 171 Shows willingness to Follow Child's Lead .886 .912 .517 Follows Only After Reflection of Hish .751 .902 .626 Child Hes Option for Lead Taking .870 .932 .826 Takes Lead without Giving Option .731 .844 .627 Directs/Instructs Child to do Something .842 .896 .611 Asks Questions .722 .753 .905 Persuades, Demands. Pushes.lnterrupts .826 .789 .227 Fully Observant of Child's Behavior .809 .890 .503 High Level of Attention .917 .923 .863 Marginal Level of Attention .829 .912 .505 Partial Withdrawal. preoccupied partially .715 Rejection ' 1.0 .969 .999 Preoccupied completely-self involved -.02 Reciprocal Participation in Fantasy .966 .968 .919 96 APPENDIX H RESEARCH CONSENT FORM .MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Psythology DEPARTMENTAL RESEARCH consm' roan I have freely consented to take pa::d2: a scientific study being conducted by: ’0 PW under the supervision of: Academic Title: //é::7 M Aaxfim The study has been explaiéZd to me and I understand the ex- planation that has been given and what my participation will involve. I understand that I am free to discontinue my participation in the study at any time without penalty. I understand that the results of the study will be treated in strict confidence and that I will remain anonymous. Within these restrictions, results of the study will be made available to me at my request. I understand that my participation in the study does not guar- antee any beneficial results to me. I understand that, at my request, I can receive additional explanation of the study after my participation is completed. Signed: Date: 97 APPENDIX I THANK YOU LETTER May ll, 1981 Dear Students: I want to thank you for your cooperation in helping with my dissertation this year as part of your course work for Psychology 2u6-2u7-2u8. These series of tests will complete the necessary data. Please complete the tests as soon as possible (within a week) and return them to Dr. G. Stollak. All or the necessary information for the answer sheets has been completed by me in advance... your name, course number, and coded identification. Please do not change any of the coded information. On the green answer sheets, please be sure to answer the first 258 questions on page 1 or the answer sheet (marked at the top next to the instructor's name) and the remaining questions on page 2 (also marked at the top next to the instructor's name). Again, thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely Rivka Olley Encl. 98 APPENDIX J INTER-ITEM CORRELATION OF FALL PLAY BEHAVIOR ooo. new. mno.u mow. nmo.| «#0.: ohm. vmo.u Mom. doc. odd. o-.n om~.o moo. can. and. ~n~.u one. -~.| ~o~.| m~o.u ovo. omo.n oho.| ooo. om~.| om~.I on“. com. hm~.| Amo. mmo.l owe. how. onn.n hm“. mvm. mm~.| mao.l ooo. can. nmv. oov.| «Ga. and. mmN. Boo. moo. «no.1 own. man. ~oo.u ~o~. oov. mom. moo. vm~.n ovo. oom. van. Non. o~m.u mo~.| own. oon. Hod. ooo. m-.| mud. ooo.| ~n~.| Nan. moo. ~N~.| nod. mmo.n mom. Hon. 5mm. ova. non.| omn.l odv.| cvo.a mmN. ovn.a ~o~.n mmv.l omn.| onn.a noo.l omo. nmo.l vho.o vho.| mod. oo~.| now. omo. «HA. ono.| ovN. NNA.I vhd.l man.l ado. vna.c hmo. oo~.a moo. omo. Nao.n coo. ona.a nmo.| moo.l vno. doo.l vnN.| ooo. son. on~.| com. mon. hon. cvv.| mod. ooo. omo. nmo.u mmm.| Noo. hoN.I onm.l Noo.I one. n-. vow. vd~.n v-.0 th.I Non.| moo. o~o.n moo. poo. o-.n omn.n oo~.I non. oo~.n hwu.l o~v.o won. ova. ~nn.| Nov.n ~oo.n can. omm.n moo. m-.0 voo. Non. ova. won. oNN. one. mac. ~vo.u mom. and. h«~.| Foo. ~oo.l ann.u mom. vmo.l umo.u moo. ~m~.l ov. «no. oou. no". moo. 00“.: nn~.I ana.l o~o.n moo. ~o~.c o0. oma.l moo. moo.u cod. vn~.a NNA. ~mo.n ovo.l moo. vmm. nn~.| ovn.l coo. coo. ova. ooo.l ooo. oo.~ Hm om on oa ha mg mg on ma NH an 0A a o h o o v n N a 99 APPENDIX K MICHIGAN SCREENING PROFILE OF PARENTING SCORES OBTAINED BY STUDENTS ENROLLED IN STC COURSE a. n 7700070770337333337307773370 6 8 .N 6600060660336333335306653360 3 8 G o 0 O o o O ......... o o o ...... o o .N %w co4A47ZJn44£41o4.4AwdiuqodéafiibcofiidaoQZan414 .4 I P. nu P. .l aJQZUnunZdnuqiénu7§IQZI717LIv/QZ/anZdoo7QIQZU .4 .M .5120nunZJnufildnufiZbeaSZDsuGZOQIDnUQZJsoGZOQZU .b o O o o O o o o O o o o O o o o o F. 925n4623so445n4dédoo725n4324047242o4£4n4443174 «J O. n nunZUvIQZdnunZUnu7L57/nZUnUQZJ7I79/QZU7I7AUQZU .0 .0 .N .UnuniboaiZUnunZUcufizbnuDZUQJQZOcufiZJnUHIOnUQZU Re pm ......... o o o O o o 0 o O O o o O o O O O o o %w cud;boc1;£nw4A4725n4485715n44;31o1841:b044341. so .I at no F. .1 “U7L/nUOZJ 1:51o7ldvanU147AJ .b O. .1 ancunluao .JoaQZbeofilunufiiboa 1. «J a eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee a e pr ,09a414nqfiibunZJcJRanw1L4:44;DQJ?T4A4RZDA444¢ 4. 1. 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S.D. 100 APPENDIX L INTER-ITEM CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR THE PPAS FALL TERM Expression of Feelings l 7 9 ll 13 15 19 22 2 1 - .22 .21 .03 .39 .16 .03 .35 . 7 .03 .23 .16 .17 .22 .17 -. 9 .29 .00 .15 .37 .11 .I 11 .16 .20 .04 -.12 .1 13 .10 -.03 -.18 -.0. 15 .21 .23 .SL 19 .51 -.02 22 .25 25 26 Uniqueness 2 3 8 12 16 17 21 23 29 BC 2 - .06 -.08 .21 -.10 .03 .08 —.05 .07 .L 3 .25 .35 .22 -.18 .29 .30 .45 -.0 8 .ll .57 .29 .31 .35 .38 -.2. 12 .16 .28 -.07 .32 .11 . 2 16 .04 .06 .45 .15 -.07 17 .31 .23 .08 .13 21 .36 .26 -.21 23 .33 -.07 29 -.11 30 - Autonomy 4 5 6 10 14 18 20 24 27 28 4 - -.39 -.09 -.16 .08 .03 .22 -.01 .20 .02 5 .29 -.08 -.02 .ll .54 -.01 -.13 .23 6 .29 .00 -.ll .35 .00 -.16 .10 10 -.04 .02 -.08 -.l7 -.19 .17 14 -.ll -.01 .22 .14 .04 18 .26 -.34 -.03 .50 20 .02 .14 .25 24 .31 -.26 27 -.13 28 101 APPENDIX M JACKSON RESEARCH PERSONALITY FORM-E PRE- AND POSTTEST SCORES FALL SPRING Scale Standard Standard Mean Deviation Mean Deviation ABasement 6.47 2.46 6.50 2.42 ACHievement 10.07 3.70 9.90 3.39 AFFiliation 10.43 3.78 10.30 2.81 AGGression 6.83 3.09 7.63 2.27 AUTonomy 6.23 2.81 7.30 2.98 CHange 9.07 2.48 9.23 2.86 COGnition 9.20 3.22 8.80 3.13 DEFerence 6.43 2.42 6.70 2.68 DDMinance 8.17 3.76 8.97 3.52 ENdurance 9.27 3.10 8.47 3.33 EXhibition 8.72 3.81 8.79 4.02 HArmavoidance 8.75 4.52 8.64 4.53 Impulsivity 6.77 4.01 7.40 3.49 NURturance 13.27 2.07 13.27 1.55 0RDer 6.70 4.44 5.47 3.97 PLay 9.38 2.57 9.59 2.73 SENtience 11.27 2.31 11.60 1.94 SocialRecognition 7.93 2.70 7.60 2.76 SUCcorance 8.07 3.46 6.67 3.32 UNDerstanding 9.17 2.72- 9.17 3.41 INFrequency .33 .66 .37 .93 DESirability 12.21 2.82 11.86 2.95 II. III. 102 APPENDIX N BEHAVIOR RATING CATEGORIES THEORETICAL GROUPING Verbalization A. Desired Skills 1. Verbal recognition of feelings 2. Reflects verbal context exactly 3 Verbal recognition and acceptance of behavior only 4. Reflects motor activity 8. Undesired Skills 1. Social conversation or none 2. Slight or moderate criticism (said or implied) 3. Verbal criticism: argumentative, preaching, abusive language Compliance A. Desired Skills 1. Shows willingness to follow child's lead 2. Follows only after reflection fo wish 3. Child has option for lead taking 8. Undesired Skills Takes lead without giving option Directs/instructs child to do something Asks questions Persuades, demands, pushes, interrupts, interferes #WN—fi Attentiveness A. Desired Skills 1. Fully observant of child's behavior 2. High level of attention 3. Marginal level of attention 103 B. Undesired Skills Partial withdrawal, preoccupied Partiality Rejection Preoccupied completely, self-involved hum- IV. 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