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IIIIJIII "MI W} This is to certify that the thesis entitled An Experimental Study of the Effectiveness of an Environmental Education Program on the Expressed Attitudes of Middle School Students presented by Virginia Migl ierini-Kimyai has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Education degree in WLEC/ww/ Major professor a Date July 13, 1978 0-7639 9E5P11 16 120113 ‘LIIIII/lnfill AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM ON THE EXPRESSED ATTITUDES OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS BY Virginia Miglierini-Kimyai A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1978 ABSTRACT AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM ON THE EXPRESSED ATTITUDES OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS BY Virginia Miglierini-Kimyai The purposes of this experimental study were: (1) to measure the knowledge and attitude scores of the students after completion of a nine-week environmental education program; (2) to determine if occupation of father is a contributing factor in the degree of effectiveness an environmental education program may have on cognitive/ attitude scores; (3) to determine if sex difference is a variable that affects cognitive/attitude scores; (4) to inquire whether an environmental education program may result in a positive correlation between the scores of knowledge about the environment and the attitude toward the environment; and (5) to determine the extent that cognitive/attitude scores relate to "positive" environ- mental actions. The Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS) by Paul B. Hournshell of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina was used as Virginia Miglierini—Kimyai the pretest and the posttest to measure knowledge and attitude. Seventh grade students of the Tehran American School, an American overseas school in Tehran, Iran, were used as subjects. Classroom groups were randomly assigned to the treatment group receiving the environmental educa- tion program and the alternative which was the regular science program. Prior to the beginning of the study a preservice workshop consisting of six sessions on the environmental education program was conducted for teachers. Two weeks after the program for youngsters was completed a voluntary environmental action activity was offered to all subjects on an optional basis to determine the extent an environmental education program influences "positive" action for the environment. Four different statistical tests were used: analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), Pearson Correlation Coefficient, Chi-square test of homogeneity, and the t-test. To adjust for the unit of assignment being the classroom, while the unit of analysis was the student, all hypotheses were tested at the .001 alpha level. The study resulted in these findings: 1. There was a significant difference in cogni- tive/attitude scores between students who received the environmental education program as compared to the students who did not receive the program. The direction indicated that the more positive cognitive/attitude scores were held Virginia Miglierini-Kimyai by students who received the environmental education pro- gram. This finding indicates that an environmental education program may be effective in promoting positive attitudes toward the environment. 2. There was no significant interaction between fathers' occupation and the two programs with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. This finding indicates that fathers' occupation may make no difference in determining a positive attitude toward the environment. 3. There was no significant interaction between sex and the two programs received with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. This finding indicates that one's sex is not an influential factor in develOping a positive attitude toward the environment. 4. The relationship between cognitive and attitude scores of the treatment group and the alternate group were not significantly different. This finding indicates that knowledge is related to attitudes approximately as well in both groups. 5. There was a significantly higher proportion of students who independently volunteered for the environ- mental education action activity as compared to students who did not volunteer for the environmental education activity program. This finding indicates that an environ- mental education program may promote not only a positive attitude toward the environment, but likewise contribute to behavior to improve the environment. Virginia Miglierini-Kimyai 6. Of those students who participated in the environmental education program, there was no difference in cognitive/attitude scores between students who volun- teered to participate in the environmental action activity and those who did not volunteer to participate in the activity. This finding may indicate that there is a ceiling effect in the relationship between knowledge and attitudes. To my husband, Dr. Abbas Kimyai ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this study represents the encouragement and support of many people who have provided professional direction and friendship during the course of the research. Special acknowledgment is given to Dr. Bruce Cheney, Chairperson of the Guidance Committee and Director of the Dissertation. His commitment, positive concern, and gentle encouragement were instrumental in the writer's growth and development throughout the doctoral program. Acknowledgments are given to Dr. Ben Bohnhorst, Dr. Martin Hetherington, and Dr. Samuel Moore II for their valuable contributions during my entire program. They were always ready with helpful and supportive counsel. Each in the truest sense is a teacher. A thank you is also extended to the administrators, cooperating teachers, and participating students at the Tehran American School for their involvement and coopera- tion during the treatment part of my study. A loving gratitude is extended to my children, Laleh and Kayvan, who each in their own special way under- stood their mother's pursuit. Last, but certainly not least, a very special kind of thank you to my husband and partner, Abbas, whose understanding, encouragement, and complete support of this academic endeavor made it become a reality. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . . . Need . . . . . . . . Generalizability . . . . . . Initial Considerations . . . . Statement of Research Questions and the Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . Research Hypotheses. . . . . Assumptions . . . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . Organization of the Thesis . . . II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . Identifying Environmental Areas and Issues . . . . . . Cognitive versus Affective Objectives Correlation between Knowledge and Attitudes . . . . . . . Assessing Environmental Education Programs . . . . . . . . Factors Influencing Environmental Attitudes . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . Description and Selection of the Sample . . . . . . . . . . Independent Measures . . . . . . Page . viii l l 3 4 6 O 6 . 10 ll . 12 . l4 l6 . 18 . 20 20 . 22 . 25 . 27 . 3O . 34 . 37 . 37 . 39 Chapter Page Environmental Education Program. . . . 39 Occupational Level of Father. . . . . 42 Variate of Sex . . . . . . . . . 43 Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . 43 Test Instrument . . . . . . . 43 Voluntary Environmental Action Activity. . . . . . . . . . . 46 Experimental Design . . . . . . 47 Procedures for the Investigation . . . . 48 Preliminary Procedures. . . . . . . 48 Teacher Preservice and Inservice Sessions . . . . . . . . . . 48 Pilot Study. . . . . . . . . . 51 Collection of Data of Study. . . . . . 56 Treatment of Data . . . . . . . 57 Hypotheses and Data Analyses . . . . . 57 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS. . . . . . 62 The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Results for Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . 65 Results for Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . 65 Results for Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . 65 Conclusions for Hypotheses l, 2, and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Results for Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . 67 Conclusion for Hypothesis 4 . . . . . 69 Results for Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . 69 Conclusion for Hypothesis 5 . . . . . 69 Results for Hypothesis 6 . . . . . . 71 Conclusion for Hypothesis 6 . . . . . 71 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 v. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 74 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapter BIBLIOG APPENDI Appendi Implications. . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Investiga- tions . . . . . . . . . . . RAPHY. O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 CES x Environmental Education Program . . . . . Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey. . . . . . . . . Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Cognitive and Attitude Scores Among Various Groupings . . . . . . Mean Scores and Percentage of Mean Scores for Cognitive Subscale and Attitude Subscale for Treatment and Alternate Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . vii Page 83 85 87 93 140 152 153 LIST OF TABLES Variable Matrix. . . . . . . . . . Descriptive Information of Samples in Pilot Study. Shows Sizes, Means, and Standard Deviations. . . . . Descriptive Information of Samples in Pilot Study—-EKOS Scores Are Classified into Cognitive and Attitude Scores. Shows Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Correlation Coefficient . . . . . Descriptive Information of Samples Shows Group Size, Means, and Standard Deviation of Samples. . . . . . . . . . . The Results of ANCOVA for Testing Hypotheses l, 2, and 3. . . . The Results of Testing Pearson Correlation Coefficients of Cognitive and Attitude Posttest Scores for the Treatment and Alternate Groups. . . . . Results of Testing Hypothesis 4 Results of Frequency Cross Tabulation and Chi- -Square Test of Homogeneity for Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance Table for Testing Hypothesis 6 . . . . . . Descriptive Information of Students Who Are in the Treatment Group of Participating in the Environmental Education Program, Classified by Participation and Non— participation in the Voluntary Environ— mental Action Activity. . . . . . . viii Page 49 53 54 64 66 68 68 70 71 72 Summary of Findings for the Hypotheses Tested in this Study. . . . . . . Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Cognitive and Attitude Scores among Various Groupings. . . . . . . Mean Scores and Percentage of Mean Scores for Cognitive Subscale and Attitude Subscale for Treatment and Alternate Groups . . . . . . . . . ix Page 73 152 153 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Background The current crisis and concern about environ- mental problems generates a need to place environmental education as one of the top priorities in education today. A Gallup poll conducted in March 1978 illustrates that over 33 percent of the respondents named environmental problems as the second most pressing domestic issue. The proportion naming the environmental problems has been on the upswing over the last twelve months with 18 percent calling them the number one difficulty facing the nation.1 Concern has also permeated the thinking of the federal government with the establishment of the Environmental Act, October 1970 (Public Law 91:516). To help meet the need, throughout the country universities and schools have developed and implemented hundreds of environmental education curricula. The increased importance in environmental education is well founded, but educators began then to question whether the accumulated knowledge and conventional methods lGallup Poll, released March 12, 1978. of environmental education were meeting the challenges of the various crises. Do these curricula contain environ— mental education materials which are directed "toward developing a citizenry which is knowledgeable about the environment and its associated problems, aware of the opportunities for citizen participation in environmental problem-solving and motivated to take part in such problem-solving?"2 How best can these elements of know- ledge, awareness, and motivation to act be translated into viable school environmental education programs? As a first step toward evaluating their programs, educators have become concerned with discovering and analyzing attitudes which students possess about the environment. These studies have been predominantly surveys to determine individuals' attitudes toward their environment. In addition, studies have been concerned with developing a hierarchy among attitudes in order to obtain knowledge of the relationship among environmental attitudes.3 However, it has now become apparent that one of the greatest weak- nesses of many studies is the lack of valid and reliable instruments for assessing attitudes. Presently, environ- mental education is in the infant stage in applying 2James Swan, "The Challenge of Environmental Education," Phi Delta Kappan, September 1969, pp. 26-28. 3William M. Bart, "A Hierarchy Among Attitudes Toward the Environment," The Journal of Environmental Education 4 (Fall 1972):10-141 standardized assessment techniques. Wheatley, at the Eric Center for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Educa— tion, The Ohio State University, published a paper pre— senting an evaluation of affective instruments which are currently available and some of the test data which have been produced through the use of these instruments.4 With adequate assessment techniques, environment education can begin the much needed experimental research of discovering and analyzing attitudinal changes that are possible or likely as a result of environmental education. This oppor- tunity will h0pefully be pursued in this study. Purpose The main purpose of this study is to determine whether attitudes toward the environment can be arranged in a predetermined direction by an environmental education program. Positive attitudes are considered "encouraging the individual to develop the ability to make thoughtful decisions which will create an environment that allows living a quality life."5 Specifically, this study has a five-fold purpose. First, to measure the knowledge and attitude scores of the 4John H. Wheatley, "Affective Instruments in Environmental Education," unpublished paper, Eric Center for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education, The Ohio State University, 1975. 5Robert E. Roth, "A Model for Environmental Educa- tion," The Journal of Environmental Education 5 (Winter l973):38-39. students after completion of a nine-week environmental education program. Second, to determine if occupation of father is a contributing factor in the degree of effective— ness an environmental education program may have on cognitive/attitude scores of a student. Third, to deter- mine if sex difference is a variable that affects cognitive/attitude scores. Fourth, to inquire whether an environmental education program may result in a positive correlation between the scores of knowledge about the environment and the attitude toward the environment. And, last, to determine the extent that cognitive/attitude scores relate to "poSitive" environmental actions. reel. The literature provides evidence for recognizing the need for determining existing environmental attitudes. For example, Knapp concluded that research on attitudes about environmental issues has been limited and inconclu- sive.6 Swan likewise stated that little research has dealt with developing measurements to assess environmental attitudes accurately. If behaviors related to the environment are indeed based on unexamined values and 6Clifford E. Knapp, "Attitudes and Values in Environmental Education," The Journal of Environmental Education 3 (Summer 1972): 76- 79. 7Swan, "Challenge of Environmental Education," Pp. 27-28. faulty assumptions, some educators believe it should be the responsibility of schools to teach students to examine these attitudes and challenge the assumptions. Swan feels creating a concern for environmental quality should be a function of our schools.8 According to Hungerford and Knapp, the major responsibility rests with the school . . . who should provide a sound environmental education, the goal of which should be the produc— tion of a citizen who is personally involved in decisions and practices regarding resource use and management, and whose values are sympathetic to such resource use. In addition since citizen participation in decision making is an essential part of our political system, it is crucial for the public school systems to effectively teach environmental education. The public demands this of its schools.10 However, a review of studies on attitudes toward the environment indicates that little study has been done on the effectiveness of environmental education programs in the schools. In fact Roth and Helgeson followed their systematic review of environmental education with a call for future research efforts toward evaluating short term 81bid. 9Harold Hungerford and Clifford E. Knapp, "Conser- vation Education: Problems and Strategies," The Science Teacher 36 (May l969):29. 10John Towler and James E. Swan, "What Do People Really Know About Pollution?" The Journal of Environmental Education 4 (Fall l972):54-57. and long term environmental programs' effectiveness and objective appraisal of attainment.11 Hopefully, the research conducted in this study will contribute to a much needed body of data which can be used to determine atti- tude change by an environmental education program. Generalizability It is worth indicating that the findings of this study may have impact far beyond the limits of the study itself. First, since the subjects are being exposed to an environmental education program in the school setting, it is apparently assumed that the schools can effectively alter the attitudes of students in favor of the environ- ment. Second, if attitudes toward the environment can be changed in a predetermined direction by an environmental education program, researchers may be in a better position to determine the effectiveness of environmental education programs. And third, identification of attitude changes toward the environment may be used to increase the effec- tiveness of environmental education programs. Initial Considerations Early in the development of this study certain decisions were made for conducting the research. 11Robert E. Roth and Stanley Helgeson, "A Review of Research Related to Environmental Education," ERIC Information Analysis Center for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1972. 1. Five months prior to the experimental study, a pilot study was conducted. The pilot study involved giving the Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS), developed by Paul B. Hournshell of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, to eighth grade students in the same school where the experimental study was conducted. The reason for this decision was to determine the "existing" environmental cognitive/attitude scores of the school population and the feasibility of using the EKOS as an instru- ment in measuring environmental knowledge and attitudes of students at the Tehran American School. 2. The environmental education program used as the treatment was a program derived from behavioral objectives using Bloom's taxonomy of hierarchical components12 and based on the Spaceship Earth concept developed by Stapp and Cox.13 A copy of the program is included in Appendix A. 3. The research was conducted with seventh grade students. Children 12-13 years of age were chosen 12B. S. Bloom, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives-- Handbook I; Cognitive Domain (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1974). 13William B. Stapp and Dorothy A. Cox, Environ- mental Education Activities Manuals--Upper Elementary Activities and JuniorLHigh Actitivites (Dexter, Michigan: Thomson, Inc., 1974). on the conviction that these are particularly important formative years. Charles Roth rein— forces the decision: The age range encompassed by the beginning of the middle school appears to be a par- ticularly vital one in environmental educa- tion. Sparked by the strong physiological changes taking place in his body, the student begins to strongly question the whole of his world as he begins with a major new phase of his life cycle. Many values come under close private and group scrutiny, even those that have been firmly held since early childhood. New values begin to be flirted with. For these very reasons, it is important to help the young- sters look closely at environmental issues and the personal and cultural values and assumptions that have produced them.14 4. Prior to beginning the study, a preservice work- shop on the environmental education program, consisting of six lessons, was conducted with teachers who taught the program. 5. The students participating in the study were classified according to fathers' occupations. The classification of occupations prepared by Alba Edwards for the U.S. Bureau of Census was used for this rating scale.15 The scale determines 14 Charles Roth, "A Massachusetts Audubon Society Program, in Processes for a Quality Environment, pp. 107- 18, eds. Robert S. Cook and George T} O'Hearn (Green Bay: University of Wisconsin, 1971). 15"Alphabetical Index of Occupations and Indus- tries," prepared by Alba M. Edwards, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940). definitions of occupations as for the categories designated as professional and semi-skilled versus skilled. The students in the study were classified by sex. The environmental education program was conducted for a nine-week period, as part of the students' science curriculum. The test to measure the cognitive/attitude scores of the students was the Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS) developed by Paul B. Hourn- shell of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. A copy of the test with the devised answer sheet is in Appendix B. After completion of the environmental education program, a voluntary environmental action activity was offered to determine the extent that attitude scores influence "positive" environmental action. The offering of this activity was no sooner than two weeks after completion of the program in order to take into consideration the "sleeper effect." The "sleeper effect" is an opinion change in the direction advocated by the treatment after a lapse of time that is larger than the change immediately after the treatment. The subjects tend with time 10 to forget the source of the information but to remember the content.16 Statement of Research Questions and the Hypotheses The researcher's primary purpose in this study was to determine whether cognitive/attitude scores toward the environment can be positively changed by an environmental education program. This generalization is based on the theory that before changes in attitudes can occur, there must exist what John Dewey had called a "felt difficulty" or a state of dissonance.l7 Contemporary social psycholo- gists generally agree that three methods can be used to create this dissonance: (1) a person can be forced to act in a way that is incompatible with his professed or real attitude; (2) a person can expose himself to conflicting attitudes held by persons who are in some way important to him; and (3) a person can be exposed to information designed to make him consciously aware of inconsistencies within his own value-attitude system. Since schools usually attempt to deal with attitudes in the latter method, in this study this method was used in attempting to change the construct attitude. 16Carl L. Hovland and Walter Weiss, "The Influence of Source Credibility on Communication Effectiveness," Public Opinion Quarterly 15 (Winter 1951):635-50. l7Ward Weldon, "Dewey's Conception of the Environ- ment as an Educative Force," The Journal of Environmental Education 4 (Summer 1973):56-58. 11 Research Hypotheses From a review of literature, the following hypo- theses have been draWn. In all cases the measure of cognitive/attitude scores was tested by the EKOS test: 1. Students who participate in an environmental education program will receive significantly higher cognitive/attitude scores than those students who do not participate in an environ- mental education program. There will be no significant interaction between fathers' occupation and program received with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. There will be no significant interaction between sex and the program received with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. There will be a significantly higher correlation between the cognitive and attitude scores of the students who participate in the environmental education program compared to students who do not participate in the program. There will be a greater number of students who volunteer for the environmental action activity who participate in the environmental education program than those who do not participate in the environmental education program. 12 6. Of those students in the program, the ones who participate in the environmental education activity will have higher scores on the cognitive/attitude test than those who do not participate in the activity. To adjust for the unit of assignment being the classroom, while the unit of analysis was the student, each hypothesis was tested for statistical significance at an .001 alpha level. Assumptions Probably the most important assumption made by the researcher of the study is that attitudes toward the environment can be measured. Attitudes have generally been divided into three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. The cognitive component has been concep- tualized as a person's factual knowledge of the object or person. The affective component consists of a person's evaluation of, liking of, or emotional response to some object or person. The behavioral component involves the person's overt behavior directed toward the object or person.18 According to Zimbardo and Ebbesen: The cognitive component could be measured by the amount of knowledge which a person has about some topic. The affective component could be measured by physiological responses, while the behavioral component could be measured by direct observation 18Philip Zimbardo and Ebbe B. Ebbesen, Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior (Massachusetts: Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, 1969). 13 of how a person behaves in specific stimulus situa— tions.19 The measurement of attitude in this study is based on the acceptance of these generalizations. Second, it is assumed that the Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS) is an instrument which is able to measure cognitive/attitude scores for the population sample of this study. A pilot study on eighth grade students using EKOS as the assessment instrument perhaps helped verify the reliability of EKOS with the sample population. Also, since Hournshell, author of the test instrument, advocates both knowledge and attitude aspects of environmental education as instrumental in influencing environmental attitudes, the combined score of the cognitive subscale (twenty—three items) and the attitude subscale (twenty-seven items) is considered as a measurement of a "total" attitude (cognitive/attitude score) toward the environment.20 The interpretation of the subscale scores and the total scores by the author of the test was used in this study. Third, it is assumed that the environmental educa— tion program presented to the treatment group is a program lgIbid., pp. 7—8. 20Paul B. Hournshell and Larry Liggett, "Assessing the Effectiveness of Environmental Education," The Journal of Environmental Education 5 (Winter 1973):27-28. 14 which will develop cognitive understanding, belief and attitude change, and provide motivation for behavior change and action. Fourth, it is assumed that the voluntary environ- mental action activity may be considered an example of "acting environmentally." Limitations This study is limited to the extent that the pre- ceding assumptions are invalid. Further, the study is limited by the following factors jeopardizing internal and external validity. It was assumed that: 1. The learning and/or attitude effect or carry-over from the pretest would not significantly affect students' performance on the posttest. 2. The interaction effects of the biases of the sub- jects in the treatment group on environmental education and the alternate group would not be significant. 3. The teacher variable in both the treatment and alternate groups would not affect the students' attitude test scores. Teachers' methods of instruc- tion, personalities, and opinions play a role in the socialization of students' attitudes. Evidence of the amount of such attitude transmissions is neither readily available nor precise. To per- haps minimize teacher variable two months prior to beginning the study, an inservice workshop IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIEEEEEEIEHEEEEEEEEEE=ZfiI—'—f 15 consisting of six sessions was given to the teachers participating in the environmental educa— tion program. In addition during the nine-week program, weekly meetings were held with the teachers. Teachers were instructed to teach the respective programs to the assigned groups. The classes receiving the treatment were to receive the environmental education program. The classes receiving the alternate program were to receive the science unit. To help minimize teacher vari- able, each participating teacher taught at least one class of the environmental education program and one class of the alternate program. 4. The extent students in the environmental education program interact with students not in the environmental education program would not signifi- cantly affect the posttest cognitive/attitude scores. In order to help establish the extent of interaction, after completion of the study, a survey questionnaire was given to the students who participated in the environmental education pro— gram and also to the students who did not participate in the program. This short question- naire asked subjects who received the program their subjective attitude toward the environmental education program. Subjects in the alternate group received a similar questionnaire which helped defined 1. 16 to obtain if and how much they heard about the environmental education program. The factor that students participating in the study were not in the United States but in an American overseas school in Tehran, Iran, would not be significant. Participation in the voluntary environmental action activity was a valid indication of "acting environmentally." Definition of Terms The terms specifically relevant to the study are as follows: Environmental education, as used in this study, refers to developing a citizenry that is know- ledgeable about its environment and its associated problems, aware of the opportunities for citizen participation in environmental problem solving, and motivated to take part in such problem solving.21 Therefore, it might be said, environ- mental education is concerned with developing informed attitudes toward environmental quality. Attitude is defined as a person's favorable or unfavorable expression towards a class of objects or events. Attitudes are primarily characterized by evaluated human responses. The expression of PP: 215wan, "Challenge of Environmental Education," 27-28. 17 an attitude may or may not be accompanied by the associated action beyond the verbal level. A value is a guiding force that determines the choices people make in living their life. Thus, the construct attitude is an indicator of a value or values. Environmental education program, in this study, refers to the program which was used on the treatment group. The program is included in Appendix A. Alternate program, in this study, refers to the science program, consisting of a nine-week unit on physical science offered to the subjects who did not participate in the environmental education program. The physical science unit was developed by participating teachers with the intent not to include concepts about the environment. Cognitive score, in this study, refers to the knowledge subscale of the EKOS consisting of twenty-three items, and it is a measurement of a subject's knowledge about the environment. Attitude score, in this study, refers to the attitude subscale of the EKOS consisting of twenty-seven items, and it is a measurement of a subject's attitude toward the environment. Cognitive/attitude score, in this study, refers to the total score, fifty points, on the EKOS 18 test, and it is a measurement of a subject's total attitudinal orientation toward the environ- ment which embraces orientations that are both cognitive and "attitudinal." 9. Professional and skilled, in this study, refers to an occupation being classified in the upper half of Edwards' occupation rating scale. 10. Semi-skilled, in this study, refers to an occupa- tion being classified in the lower half of Edwards' occupational rating scale. 11. Voluntary environmental action activity refers to the activity offered two weeks after the completion of the environmental education program. This activity is used to measure the level of commit- ment to attitude indicated by the test scores. Organization of the Thesis This chapter contains the problems of the study. The areas covered are the background, purpose, need, and hypotheses. In addition, assumptions on which the study is based, limitations of the study, and definitions for key-terms are included. Chapter II includes an overview, a review of the literature related to the development of the problem, and a summary of the literature pertinent to the study. In Chapter III the overall methods of the study are examined in detail. Specifically, the description 19 and selection of the sample, description of the treatment, instrument, and pilot study, the research design, and the procedures of the investigation are presented, as well as the methods for analysis of the data and research hypotheses. The analysis of the data and the findings based on this analysis are reported in Chapter IV. Finally, Chapter V contains a summary of the findings, conclusions from the study, a discussion of implications for education practice, and recommendations for future research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE A review of literature of some of the available research on the effects of environmental education programs on attitudes revealed very few empirical studies. Most of the research reported was related to conservation and other areas that make up the broad area of environmental concern. The majority of the studies have been directed to assessing the "existing" attitudes and Opinions Of the general public, college students, or high school students. Little research has focused on the environmental knowledge and attitudes of grade or middle school students. Research has indicated that favorable attitudes about the environment are associated with specific charac- teristics of people such as age, sex, social economic scale, fathers' or mothers' occupation, amount of educa- tion, and intelligence. Identifying Environmental Areas and Issues In his research Roth develOped a taxonomic model of over one hundred concepts with the purpose of helping to plan environmental education instructional programs. 20 21 Roth found that scholars from the different disciplines could be used to identify environmental concepts. Academic disciplines and biases did not appear to exist relative to concept preference for the list of concepts to be included in grades K-l6.l For a study designed to determine if there is some hierarchy among attitudes toward the environment, Bart identified a set of twenty positive ecological attitudes. The attitudes were found as a result of examining the literature of groups concerned about the environment. Groups mentioned were the Izaak Walton League, The Audubon Club, and the Sierra Club. Bart stated that the twenty attitudes represented only a subset of the positive eco- logical attitudes that Americans should have. He also suggested that the terms environmental, man, population, use and management could be used in classifying ecological attitudes.2 Stapp developed the spaceship earth philosophy which divides environmental concepts into five basic areas: ecosystems, population, economics and technology, environmental decisions, and environmental ethics. 1Robert E. Roth, "Conceptual Schemata in Environ- mental Management Education," Chapter 2 in Processes for a Quality Environment, eds. Robert 8. Cook and George T. O'Hearn (Green Bay: University of Wisconsin at Green Bay Press, 1971), pp. 21-30. 2William M. Bart, "A Hierarchy Among Attitudes Toward the Environment," The Journal of Environmental Education 4 (Fall l972):10-14. 22 According to the author these concepts encompass the awareness, knowledge, and understanding of the living and non—living world and their complex interactions. The spaceship earth program is also structurally related to attitudes since the author strongly feels the goal of environmental education is to develop attitudes which will motivate people to become actively involved in environmental problem solving.3 Cognitive versus Affective Objectives One of the difficulties in evaluating environmental education is that it is still a relatively young field and is an interdisciplinary undertaking. Because of these characteristics a disagreement still exists among authori- ties in the field over the emphasis and directions that should be pursued. Two major schools of thought have emerged: one stressing cognitive objectives and the other affective objectives. The view that cognitive objectives should be predominant thrust of environmental education has been advocated by Hendee, Stapp, and Roth. In Hendee's opinion, a transmission of facts and information should be a primary concern of environmental education programs, and changes of attitudes, values, and 3William B. Stapp and Dorothy A. Cox, Environ- mental Education Activities--Concerning Spaceship Earth (Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974). 23 cultural perspectives a secondary one.4 Quite similarly, Stapp and colleagues recommended that environmental educa- tion be aimed at "developing a citizenry which is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to resolve the problem and is motivated to do so."5 Another noted environmental educator, Robert Roth, has also stressed the cognitive thrust. He claimed the only effective programs have been those that begin with the knowledge area and then proceed with attitudinal.6 Other noted environmental educators have argued for stressing the affective objectives in environmental education programs. Paul Brandwein, a pioneer in the field, advocated that conservation is an ethic and value.7 4John C. Hendee, "Challenging the Folklore of Environmental Education," The Journal of Environmental Education 3 (Spring l972):A-23. 5James Swan, "Formation of Environmental Values: A Social Awareness," in Processes for a Quality Environ- ment, eds. Robert S. Cook and George T. OTHearn (Green Bay: University of Wisconsin Green Bay Press, 1971), pp. 39-50. 6Roth, "Environmental Management Education," pp. 21-30. 7Paul Brandwein, "Survival as a Quest," in What Kind of an Environment Will Our Children Have?, ed. Frank X. Sutman (Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1971). 24 Similarly, Abram and Rossinger stated that human attitudes and values are at the heart of conservation.8 George Lowe described the environmental education movement as being at the stage of the revaluation of attitudes, values, and beliefs. He felt this important trend will influence what we have to do in the next two decades in education, society, technology, science, and religion. According to Knapp, few people would disagree that students should be assisted in the development of attitudes and values about environmental problems. Disagreement often arises, however, when specific methods are suggested for changing attitudes and values or when certain atti- tudes and values are advocated over others.10 Recent studies have advocated both the cognitive and affective domain in environmental education programs. For example, after summarizing several arguments for stressing one or the other approach, Tanner concluded that 8Robert E. Abram and George Rossinger, "Behavioral Science Applications on Environmental Quality," The Journal of Environmental Education 4 (Fall 1972):l-6. 9George G. Lowe, "The Challenge of Environmental Education," Chapter 9 in Processes for a Quality Environ— ment," eds. Robert S. Cook and George T. O'Hearn (Green Bay: University of Wisconsin Green Bay Press, 1971), pp. 147-56. 10Clifford E. Knapp, "Attitudes and Values in Environmental Education, The Journal of Environmental Education 3 (Summer 1972):?6-79. 25 until we know more, a judicious mix of the cognitive and affective at all grade levels is necessary.11 Stapp concurred with this view: Schools have an important responsibility in providing the opportunity for youth to explore their environment, both physically and intellec- tually, in order to obtain both the factual knowledge (cognitive domain of an attitude) and the motivating concern (affective domain of an attitude) regarding man's relationship and responsibility within the human ecosystem.12 Correlation between Knowledge and Attitudes Hournshell and Liggett completed a study to evalu— ate knowledge about the environment and the attitudes toward the environment of 1881 sixth grade students in North Carolina. The test instrument was the Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS) which is the instrument used in this study. The correlation between the student's knowledge about the environment and his positive attitudes toward the environment, as measured by the test, was extremely high with a correlation coefficient of 0.6. The authors saw this as supporting the contention that a well planned 11Thomas R. Tanner, Ecology, Environment, and Education (Lincoln, Nebraska: Professional Education PuBIicat1ons, 1974). 12William B. Stapp, "Environmental Education—- Approaches for Curriculum Development (K-12)," in Processes for a Quality Education, eds. Robert 8. Cook and George T. O'Hearn (Green Bay: Un1versity of Wisconsin Green Bay Press, 1971), p. 79. “I. l ,. .. 26 approach to environmental education can yield positive attitudinal changes. In a study designed to measure the relationship between attitudes and knowledge relevant to environmental issues, Ramsey and Rickson administered a survey question- naire on pollution abatement to 482 high school seniors in three districts of Minnesota--rural, suburban, and inner city. Results indicated that ecological concepts and trade—off costs are likely to lead to moderate rather than extreme positions on both pollution abatement and trade- Off costs. Although the authors contend their study supports the notion of a relationship between knowledge of and attitudes toward environment issues, it also indicated a more complex situation than that of a straight line relationship. The authors concluded there is a circularity between attitudes and knowledge in that one does not solely cause or even precede the other but rather some knowledge may lead to initial formation of attitudes which in turn lead to further gains in knowledge and so on.14 Cohen administered a 75-item questionnaire con- .taining thirty-five environmental information questions and thirty-five attitude questions to 454 students in l3Hournshell and Liggett, "Assessing Effectiveness of Environmental Education," pp. 27-28. 14Charles E. Ramsey and Roy Rickson, "Environ- mental Knowledge and Attitudes," The Journal of Environ— mental Education 8 (Fall 1976):10-18. 27 seven high schools in Indiana. Scores on the environ— mental information section were used to separate a high environmental content group from a low environmental content group. The group with higher environmental content had more uniformity in their responses and tended to select the same responses. The group with more information was also willing to express its attitudes. The author con- cluded that any attempt to develop environmental education programs for schools must consider the variety of students and their range of environmental information and atti- tudes.15 Assessing Environmental Education Programs Environmental education is successful in positively modifying attitudes toward the environment according to a research study conducted by Bowman on 331 college students for a ten-week period at the Ohio State University. The sample consisted of a control group comprised of two sections of an educational methods course and an experi- mental group comprised Of nine sections of an introductory environmental management course, seven of which attended lecture discussion sessions and two of which participated in a Simulation study in lieu of discussion sessions. Students' attitudes toward determinants of environmental 15Michael R. Cohen, "Environmental Information vs. Environmental Attitudes," The Journal of Environmental Education 5 (Winter 1973):5-8. 28 issues as measured by the attitudinal assessment instrument developed by Bowman, did change significantly toward favoring society as the determinant as a result of an introductory environmental management course. There was no significant difference (alpha .05) found between the lecture-discussion methodology or the simulation study methodology utilized within the experiment group in the attitudinal changes that occurred as a result of experi- encing the environmental management course.l6 Likewise, positive results on the effectiveness of an environmental education program were obtained by Aird and Tomera who tested the effects of an instructional unit on a specific environmental problem in the clarification of sixth grade students' values concerning water conservation. A total of fifty Sixth grade students from Similar area schools in Herrin, Illinois, were divided into one class receiving no treatment and another class receiving a two- week activity oriented program on water conservation. Value shifts occurred in the treatment group to signifi- cantly greater extent (alpha .01) than they did in the no treatment group.17 16Mary Lynn Bowman, "The Development and Field Validation of an Instrument to Assess College Students' Attitudes toward the Determination of Environmental Issues," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1972. 17Andrew Aird and Audrey Tomera, "The Effects of a Water Conservation Instruction Unit on the Values Held by 29 In their study on the effectiveness of a student manual in influencing the develOpment of students' atti- tudes toward the protection of the environment, Howell and Warmbrod found that high school students' science classes using the student manual achieved higher attitude scores than students in vocational agriculture classes using the manual. It was the opinion of the authors that the student manual should have been effective to both groups of students. The authors argued that a possible reason for lack of gain in attitude scores of students in vocational agriculture was that the student manual was not used with that group as a "hands on" activity as intended.18 Howie conducted a study to determine the effective- ness of various types of environmental education programs. His subjects included 438 students from fifth grade classes in Prince George's County, Maryland. The students were randomly assigned by classroom groups to four experi— mental conditions: classroom environmental program, outdoor program, combined classroom and outdoor program, no program at all. The posttest instrument was a thirty-item concept/ attitude questionnaire. In every case the students who Sixth Grade Students," The Journal of Environmental Educa- tion 9 (Fall 1977):31-42. 18David L. Howell and Robert J. Warmbrod, "Developing Students' Attitudes toward Environmental Protection," The Journal of Environmental Education 5 (Summer 1974):29-30. 30 received one of the environmental treatments scored significantly higher than the group that received no program.19 ' In one of the first empirical studies dealing with environmental education concept formation and values clarification with respect to kindergarten children, Bryant revealed interesting results. She found kinder- garten children who had experienced the environmental education unit on pollution verbally identified a signifi- cantly greater number of environmental problems than children who did not receive the program. The author concluded that environmental education presented to students at as early an age as possible may give positive results toward attitudinal develOpment.20 Factors Influencing Environmental Attitudes The majority of the studies which have been done to determine what independent variables might be sources of variation in attitudes toward the environment has consisted of surveys on the "existing" attitudes of adults, college students, and high school students. Little 19Thomas Richard Howie, "Indoors or Outdoor Environmental Education," The Journal of Environmental Education 6 (Winter 1974):32-36. 20Covey Bryant, "An Analysis of Strategies for Teaching Environmental Concepts and Values Clarification in Kindergarten," unpublished Master's thesis, South Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, 1976. 31 research has been done on determinants of elementary or middle school children. Tognacci et a1. conducted a series of interviews with 141 randomly selected residents of Boulder, Colorado. Dependent variables included two measures of general environmental goals and five specific Likert attitude scales on conservation, pollution, power plant pollution, overpopulation, and individual population control. Results indicated that the degree of concern about ecological issues, as measured on each of the scales, appears nega- tively related to age and positively related to both social economic scale (SES) and education.21 After reviewing six early studies which probed public response to air pollution, De Groot concluded that variables such as age, sex, race, and SES were poor indi- cations of concern about air pollution. Instead he argued that the overriding determinant for concern was the atmos— pheric quality of the individual's immediate environmental quality.22 lLouis N. Tognacci, Russell H. Weigel, Marvin F. Wideen, and David T. A. Vernon, "Environmental Quality: How Universal Is Public Concern?" Environment and Behavior 4 (l972):73-86. 22Ido De Groot et al., "People and Air Pollution: A Study of Attitudes in Buffalo, New York," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 16 (l967):245-47. 32 The advisability of using socioeconomic status as an independent variable for discriminating between levels of environmental responsibility was borne out by Swan's study. He found that low SES high school seniors from inner city areas were significantly less aware of the air pollution depicted in a series of carefully chosen 35 mm color than their suburban rural couterparts.23 In analyzing data obtained from an environmental survey questionnaire, Pettus found fathers' or family supporters' occupations during childhood had a difference on teachers' attitude toward preparing for a suitable environment. There appeared to be no difference toward environmental issues related to father's occupation.24 Hournshell and Liggett, in the study mentioned earlier in this chapter, found female participants had a significantly more positive attitude toward the environ- ment than did the male participants, but that there was no significant difference in the knowledge.25 23James Swan, "An Analysis of Attitudes and Coping Strategies of High School Youths: Response to Air Pollu- tion," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1967. 24Alvin Morris Pettus, "Measuring Teachers' Atti- tudes Concerning Certain Environmental Issues, with Implications for Environmental Education," unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1974. 25Hournshell and Liggett, ”Assessing Effectiveness of Environmental Education," pp. 27-28. 33 In a later and broader study, Hournshell and Liggett found sixth grade girls from the same population as the earlier research scored higher on both the know- ledge and attitude areas of the EKOS test.26 Steiner produced a pool of Likert items on societal issues related to population and conservation. After revisions, the items were administered to a group of high school seniors in Oregon. Factor analysis produced twelve factors. Among the seven interpreted factors were regard for life, pessimism regarding man-nature interactions, and a belief in technology. Steiner found no significant differences on any of these factors among the seniors when classified according to the amount of science taken in high school, sex of student, or school environment.27 The independent variables of grade, community (urban, suburban, rural), IQ, SES, and sex were investi- gated by Voekler and Horvak. A twenty-five item Likert scale consisting of the four subscales of use/abuse of nature, overpopulation, general environmental concern, and ecology-responsible was administered to 202 fifth and eighth grade students (Southern Wisconsin). While all 26Paul B. Hournshell and Larry Liggett, "Environ- mental Education One Year Later," The Journal of Environ- mental Education 1 (Fall 1976):32-35. 27Robert L. Steiner, "A Factor Analytic Study of the Attitudes of Oregon High School Seniors toward Socially Significant Science-Related Issues," paper presented to the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, March 25, 1971. 34 five independent variables were significant on one or more scales, IQ and grade were the most dominant, predic- table "influences." ‘Almost without exception, the older and higher IQ children were more environmentally respon— sible in all areas of the scales. Sex differences were not significant except that eighth grade boys scored higher on the overpopulation subscale. These results tended to support Vieldermann's survey on pOpulation related issues. According to the authors, the eighth graders due probably to sexual maturity came to understand the real problems of population. Neither Horvat and Voelker's grade school sample nor Viedermann's fared very well on the population subsection. The authors implied population education--at a level apprOpriate to the child's maturity--needs more emphasis in our schools.28’ 29 Summary Most of the research related to assessing the effectiveness of an environmental education program on attitude change appeared to be inconclusive. Although previous research literature is limited, it provides the following implications: 28Alan M. Voekler and Robert E. Horvat, The Development of an Instrument for Determining the Nature of Elementary SOhoOI ChIldren's Environmental DeciSions, Final Report, Project 2-F-026, U.S. Office Of Education, DHEW, Washington, 1974. 29Stephan Viedermann, "Needed Research in POpula- tion Education," The Journal of Environmental Education 4 (1973):51-55. 35 1. Environmental concepts and issues can be identified and tested to determine attitudes toward the environment.: 2. Environmental education within the school curricula can be effective in a positive manner in modifying expressed attitudes about environmental concerns. 3. Environmental education curricula should consist of both the cognitive and affective domain. 4. Knowledge about the environment does have a posi- tive effect on attitudes toward the environment. 5. The relationship between knowledge and attitudes on environment concerns requires further study. 6. A large number of factors influence environmental attitudes. The available information seems to indicate that school should provide a sound environmental education, the goal of which should be the production of a citizen who is personally involved in decisions and practices regarding environmental management and whose attitudes are in the stewardship of resources. If one views environmental education in terms of acquisition and application of attitudes, one cannot over— look the relationship between knowledge and attitudes. Empirical evidence supports the idea that knowledge has a direct bearing on attitudinal change. There is increasing recognition that not all knowledge will lead automatically and quickly to attitudes and behavior favorable to 36 environmental quality. One element of this recognition is that attitudes take time to nurture. Environmental literacy is no short course and environmental education should be incorporated in the curriculum (K-12). Many factors have been identified which may contri- bute to attitude formation. The identification Of these factors will have a bearing on the type of environmental education instruction needed in various school settings. The empirical studies reviewed on the effectiveness of environmental education programs have indicated positive results on expressed attitudes toward the environment. However, further research is needed to determine the measurement of the extent to which transfer is made from verbal responses to action behavior. The foundation for strong citizen action rests, to a large degree, on what happens in our homes and schools. Today's youth will soon be citizens and voters whose decisions will affect not only the immediate environment in which they live but also that of our nation and world. Therefore, it is critically important to gain better insight into the approaches that school systems might con- sider in assisting youth to become more sensitive to the environment and more inclined to participate in coping with environmental decisions. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY This chapter includes a description of the sample and a discussion of the selection of the sample, descrip- tions of the treatment and instrument. The research design and procedures of the investigation are developed with a description of the analyses of the data and research hypotheses. Description and Selection of the Sample The subjects selected for this study were seventh grade students of the Middle School section of the Tehran American School, Tehran, Iran, during the third term of the second semester of the academic year 1975-76. The Tehran American School is a private overseas school with an enrollment of approximately 3200 students in Grades K—12 in the capital city of Iran. The campus where the elementary and middle school students are housed is in the northeast part of the city on ten acres of land located at the slopes of snow-capped Damavand Mountain. All students enrolled in the school are American passport holders and have for various lengths of time 37 38 attended schools both in the states and/or abroad. As stated in its philosophy, "The Tehran American School was established and is operated to provide an American type of elementary and secondary education for American children residing in Tehran."1 According to the school Superintendent, the popula- tion in the school is similar in structure to a middle- upper middle class suburban stateside school. All teachers employed by the school have no less than a Bachelor's degree and a valid teaching credential from one of the fifty states. Physical and teaching facilities of the school are considered comparable to a good stateside school. In these areas the teachers participating in the study felt no problem was encountered in implementing the environmental education program. Subjects selected consisted of 235 students in the eight seventh grade science classes. Since there was no administrative problem in the assignment of particular classrooms to the treatment and alternate groups, a random assignment of classes was performed. Identification names for the eight seventh grade science classes were placed in a hat. The first class drawn from the hat was assigned to the treatment group, the second to the alternate group, the third to the treatment group, the fourth to the lThe Tehran American School Policy Handbook, revised June 1973. 39 alternate group, and so on until four classes were assigned to the treatment group and four to the alternate group. This assignment resulted in 111 students in four classes receiving the treatment of the environmental education program and 117 students receiving the alternative program of the regular science class. In the final study there were 102 students in the treatment group and 103 students in the alternate group. The loss of 23 students from the original random assortment of 228 was due to some of the students withdrawing from the school during the nine-week period of the program. Any student who entered or withdrew from the seventh grade during the nine weeks of the program was not statistically considered. Since both the treatment and alternate groups were in the same school, it was possible to have the teachers teach both a treatment group and an alternate group. Randomization of class groups resulted in each teacher teaching at least one class in the treatment group and one class in the alternate group. Independent Measures Environmental Education Program The independent treatment variable was a nine-week environmental education program. The environmental educa— tion program used as a treatment was a program based on 40 the Spaceship Earth concept developed by Stapp and Cox.2'3 As stated by Tanner, "environmental education must deal with man-man or man-Society relationships only as they 4 The program is are affected by man-earth relationships." action-oriented and includes many processes and techniques advocated by leading environmental educators. The model consists of four integral parts: philosophy and concepts, processes, teaching-learning models, and emphasis. The Spaceship Earth philosophy has been divided into five basic concepts: ecosystems, pOpulations, economics and tech- nology, environmental decisions, and environmental ethics. According to Stapp and Cox: These concepts encompass the awareness, knowledge, and understanding of the living and non-living world and their complex interactions; the social, economic, political and aesthetic influences of the populations of people; the need for, and pro- cesses of decision making; and the development of an environmental ethic which would motivate the learner to adopt a life style compatible with environmental quality.5 In addition, the Spaceship Earth concept includes the two processes of problem solving and valuing. These two 2 . . Stapp and Cox, EnV1ronmental Education Activi- t1es--Upper Elementary. 3 . . Stapp and Cox, Env1rommental Education Activi- t1es--Junior High. 4 R. Thomas Tanner, "Conceptual and Instructional Issues in Environmental Education Today," The Journal of Environmental Education 5 (Summer l974):48. 5 . . Stapp and Cox, Environmental Education Activi- t1es--Concerning Spaceship Earth, p. 10. 41 processes relate to each other and assist the student in carrying out an effective plan of action. Achievement in these two processes can hopefully result in attitude change. Since every environmental encounter should contain a list of the outcomes desired, the program in this study was derived from behavioral objectives using Bloom's taxonomy of hierarchial components. Behavioral objectives provide direction for the learning process, guidance in selecting content and experiences, greater focus on the 1earner--what the learner does; and the opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular learning experience. The behavioral objectives were stated at different levels of complexity and in the cognitive (knowledge), affective (concern), and action domains. Activities in the program were adapted from experiences in Environmental Education Activities by Stapp and Cox,6'7 the Environmental Education Interdisciplinary Curriculum Guide of the Lansing School District, Lansing, Michigan,8 and 100 Teaching Activities in Environmental 6Stapp and Cox, Environmental Education Activi- ties--Upper Elementary. 7Stapp and Cox, Environmental Education Activi- ties--Junior High. 8Environmental Education Interdisciplinary Curri- culum Guide (LanSing, Michigan: Lansing SchOOl District, 1973). 42 Education.9 All activities were written with the intent to meet the objectives of the program and assist students in clarifying attitudes about environmental education. Teachers participating in this research study made sugges- tions and contributed to the final copy of the program. A copy of the program is included in Appendix A. Occupational Level of Father The subjects were classified according to their fathers' occupations: (1) professional and skilled and (2) semi-skilled. Occupations were determined by examining each student's school folder and then classified according to the rating scale of the U.S. Bureau of Census by Alba Edwards. The scale determined definitions of occupations as to categories designated professional and skilled or semi-skilled. In this study occupations classified in the upper half of Edwards' occupation rating scale were con- sidered professional or skilled. Occupations classified in the lower half of Edwards' occupation rating scale were considered semi-skilled.lo There were 114 subjects whose fathers were considered professional or skilled and 91 subjects whose fathers were considered semi-skilled. 9John H. Wheatley and Herbert L. Coon, 100 Teaching Activities in Environmental Education (The Ohio State University: Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Educa- tion Information Analysis Center, 1974). 10"Alphabetical Index of Occupations and Indus- tries," prepared by Alba M. Edwards, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940). 43 Variate of Sex All subjects were classified into the variate of sex. The final study included 112 females and 103 males. Dependent Measures Test Instrument In response to the expressed need for assessment techniques of attitudes toward the environment, Hournshell developed the Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS) for middle school students. The test includes two aspects of environmental education: (1) knowledge about the environment and man's relationship to it which in this study is referred to as the cognitive score, and (2) attitudes toward the environment which in this study is referred to as the attitude score. In this study, the Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS) was the test used to measure cognitive/attitude scores, both as a pretest and posttest. The EKOS test was originally designed by a team composed of a psychologist and a science educator and field tested with 500 youngsters. It was then analyzed for coverage of Bloom's hierarchial components and submitted to a panel of environmental education experts. Sixty-five items "survived" the panel analysis, and it was adminis- tered to approximately 2,500 sixth grade students in western North Carolina. The test was then administered 44 to approximately 1,500 more sixth graders for possible test revision. An analysis Of the test results shows that students from urban schools scored significantly higher (alpha .05) on the knowledge subscale than students from rural schools; no significant differences between the two groups was found in the attitude subscale. Female participants had a significantly more positive attitude score (alpha .001 level) than did participating males; there was no signifi- cant difference between the two groups on the knowledge sub- scale. In analyzing the subscale scores all the partici- pants showed a significant (alpha .01) positive correlation between mean scores on the attitude subscale and knowledge subscale. In analyzing the subscale scores of all participants, there was a significant (alpha .01) positive correlation between mean scores on the attitude subscale and knowledge subscale. Reliability of the attitude sub— scale was calculated at 0.7742. Reliability of the knowledge subscale was calculated at 0.7130. The revised version of the EKOS consists of fifty Objective items with a twenty-three item knowledge subscale and a twenty-seven item attitudinal subscale. On the know- ledge (cognitive) subtest, the higher the score the more "environmentally informed" the student; on the attitude scale, the higher the score the "more positive or 45 constructive" the student's attitudes are judged to be toward the environment. Since Hournshell advocates both the knowledge and attitude aspects of environmental education as instrumental in influencing environmental attitudes, the combined score Of the cognitive subscale (twenty-three items) and the attitude subscale (twenty-seven items) is considered by Hournshell as a measurement of "total" attitude toward the environment. The interpretation of the subscale scores and total scores by the author of the test was used in this study. The new version of the EKOS test was used in this study. Statistical analyses of results of the revised version are not available at the time of this writing. The revised EKOS test form was also used in the Pilot Test. According to one reviewer: EKOS itself appears to be adequate for assessing general knowledge and opinion about the environment for middle school students. . . . It is hoped that persons who have need for an affective instrument in environmental education will make use of the instru- ment already available; much energy is wasted in instrument development when suitable measures, as the EKOS test, are already at hand.11 A copy of the EKOS test is in Appendix B. 11Wheatley, "Affective Instuments in Environ- mental Education," no page cited. 46 Voluntary Environmental Action ActiV1ty Two weeks after the administration of the last posttest an environmental action activity was offered to all subjects. This activity was an attempt to measure an indication to act environmentally. Review of literature has stressed the importance of such aspects of study. For example, Bowman stated "further study is recommended to discriminate the various levels of commitment such as whether the response indicates a commitment to act as a result of the intensity of the respondent's attitude 12 Aird and Tomera in toward the environmental issue." their attitude study of sixth graders also stressed the importance of measuring the extent to which transfer is made from verbal response to action behavior.13 The voluntary environmental action activity con- sisted of an opportunity for students to paint aluminum trash containers with pictorial or written slogans advoca- ting a concern about littering on campus, and to place the cans in various spots of the school grounds. To eliminate possible persuasion by teachers, the announcement of the activity was placed in the daily bulletin and middle school newspaper and not presented by teachers. Students were 12 Mary Lynn Cox Bowman, "Assessing College Students' Attitudes Toward Environmental Issues," The Journal of Environmental Education 6 (Winter 1974):l-5. l3 . Aird and Tomera, “Effects of Water Conservation Unit on Sixth Grade Students," pp. 31-42. 47 given the following information: (1) All equipment would be supplied; (2) They could work alone or in groups; (3) Students could wOrk in the art activity room before school, after school, during lunch break or at home; (4) Equipment such as paint, brushes, and containers could be signed out to take home. No classroom time was allotted for the activity. The students were given eight school days for completion of the activity. Students placed their names with tape on the inside of the con- tainers. Experimental Design The design of this study may be described as non- equivalent control-group design. The design can best be shown by Campbell and Stanley's representation.14 The notation is as follows. Eight seventh grade classrooms were randomly assigned to the two groups; the treatment group which received the environmental education program, and the alternate group, which received the regular science unit. The 01 and 03 represent, respectively, the pre- test (EKOS) to the treatment and alternate groups. 14Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experi- mental and Quasi-Experimental Design for Research (Chicago: Rand-McNally and Co., 1966), p. 47. 48 The X refers to the treatment of receiving the environ- mental education program. The 02 and 04 designate the posttest (EKOS) given to both groups. The advantages of this design lie in the elimina- tion of history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection, and mortality. A source of internal invalidity could be regression and the interaction of selection and maturation. With this design, interaction of testing and treatment, selection and treatment, and reactive arrange— ments may operate as a source of external invalidity. The variable matrix takes the form of 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. It is represented graphically in Table 3.1. Number of subjects per cell is 18 to 34. Procedures for the Investigation Preliminary Procedures Teacher Preservice and Inservice Sessions. Accor- ding to Stapp, an essential strategy for implementation of an environmental education curriculum is an inservice program for teachers.ls A study by Hournshell and Liggett showed that sixth grade students of teachers who had participated in a preservice program on environmental education Obtained higher scores on the EKOS test compared 15William B. Stapp, "The Concept of Environmental Education," The American Biology Teacher (January 1970): 14-15. 49 Table 3.1.--Variable Matrix. T T1 2 U 81 L U 82 L Legend: Tl: receiving the treatment of the environmental education program. T2: receiving the alternate treatment of the regular science program. U: subjects whose fathers' occupational levels are in the upper half of Edwards' occupational classification and in this study referred to as professional and skilled workers L: subjects whose fathers' occupational levels are in the lower half of Edwards' occupational classification and in this study referred to as semi-skilled workers 81: male subjects 82: female subjects 50 to sixth grade students whose teachers did not participate in preservice sessions.l6 Since a review of literature indicated a strength in teacher preservice sessions, two months prior to the beginning of the study six 45 minute preservice workshops were conducted with all teachers participating in the study. At the preservice sessions teachers gave input and suggestions for the objectives and learning activities of the environmental education program. The preservice sessions included the following: Session I Discussion of program objectives Session II Revision Of Objectives and final draft Session III Discussion Of learning activities Session IV Final revision of learning activities Session V Discussion of EKOS and its administration In addition, during the nine-week program teachers attended weekly sessions to discuss the program. As requested, teachers kept a diary of the lessons and activi- ties taught to all classes participating in the study. From an examination of the teacherS' diary it was found that although teachers may have stressed certain activi- ties over others, the major thrust of the environmental education program was presented by all teachers. At each 16Paul B. Hournshell and Larry Liggett, "Environ— mental Education One Year Later," The Journal of Environ- mental Education 8 (Fall l976):32-35. 51 of the sessions, teachers were advised to teach only the respective programs to their designated classes. Pilot Study. A pilot study was conducted in November 1975. The primary purposes of the pilot study were to evaluate the administrative techniques of the test instrument, the feasibility of using the test instrument as a measure of the knowledge about and attitudes toward the environment of students at the Tehran American School, and the inclusion of fathers' occupation and sex as dependent variables in the experimental study. The importance of conducting a pilot study has been stated by Borg and Gall, "in addition to serving all the purposes of the usual tryout procedures, such as improving data collecting routines, trying scoring tech- niques, revising developed measures and checking the appropriateness of standard measures, the pilot study pro- vides additional knowledge that leads to improved research."17 The pilot study involved the administration of the EKOS to a random selected stratified sampling of eighth grade students by their fathers' occupation and sex. Fathers' occupation was classified into the two subgroups of professional and skilled and semi-skilled 17Walter R. Borg and Meredith D. Gall, Educational Research: An Introduction (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1971), p. 61. 52 using Edwards' occupation rating scale. From these two strata indices eighth grade students in the middle school were divided into four groups: boys whose fathers are professional or skilled; boys whose fathers are semi- skilled; girls whose fathers are professional or skilled; girls whose fathers are semi-skilled. The technique of stratified random sampling was used in drawing the names of 92 students. On November 2, 1975, at 10:00 A.M. in the school's multipurpose room 75 eighth graders were administered the EKOS test. The loss of seventeen students from the original random assignment of 92 students was due to students being absent from school on the test day. Prior to the administration of the test, the sub- jects were informed that they were participating in a research study concerning knowledge about the environment and attitudes toward the environment. They were requested to cooperate in the project by giving the response they felt was the "best" for each of the fifty questions. The test was not timed. The first student completed the test in 12 minutes and the last student in 58 minutes. More than 90 percent of the students finished the test in 45 minutes. In order to evaluate students' familiarity with words on the test, students were requested to encircle word(s) in the test that they were unable to comprehend in context. Questions #3 and #28 of EKOS included concepts 53 related to any state but named North Carolina. In an attempt to have both questions relevant to the students at the Tehran American School the words North Carolina were replaced with "your home state." After EKOS was hand scored the data contained were coded and prepared for transfer to key punched cards for computer analysis. Statistical treatment of the data was performed by the IBM 3600 computer at the Michigan State University Computation Center. Statistical treatment of the data included determination of means, variance, and Pearson correlation coefficients of the population. Table 3.2 shows descriptive information of the pilot study with respect to sample sizes of the four groups and their means and standard deviation of EKOS scores. Table 3.3 shows descriptive information of the EKOS scores classified into the two subscales of cognitive and attitude scores. Table 3.2.--Descriptive Information of Samples in Pilot Study. Shows Sizes, Means, and Standard Deviations. Fathers' Occupation Sex Upper Level Lower Level Sample Sample Size Mean S.D. Size Mean S.D. Male 21 103.52 32.82 10 86.10 37.36 Female 18 86.11 48.37 26 84.77 39.90 54 s ppm mooH 00.: n me.em ee.mm mw.ee mm.em Hm.mm mm.om mm.em mm.me memSmm mm.em oe.me oa.ee oo.me mm.em mm.om oa.mm me.am mam: mpsu O>AD mpsu m>flu OUDD O>Hp mosu O>HD neuum neamoo aepum necmoo neuum neemoo raped necmoo .D.m new: .Q.m com: Hm>mq Hmzoq xmm Ho>mq Noam: coflummsooo . wHOSHmm .ucmHOHmmooo GOHDMHOHHOU comumom can .mcoflpmw>ma Unaccepm .mammz mzoam .mmnoom ocsufluu< cam m>fluflcmou ODGH omflmammmau mum mmuoom mommnlwcoum DOHHm CH mmHmEmm mo coaumEHomcH w>flnmfluommaféfim canoe 55 From 75 students in the pilot study, the sample means shows that students whose fathers are in the upper occupation level tend to have higher scores than students whose fathers are in the lower occupation level. Moreover, the boys seem to have higher scores than girls. The data from the pilot study show that the relationship between cognitive and attitude scores is very low (—.06). Since the pilot study indicated that students whose fathers were in the upper occupation level to have higher scores than students whose fathers are in the lower occupa- tion level and boys have higher scores than girls, the study supports the inclusion of fathers' occupation and sex as two factors in the design Of the experimental study. The pilot study showed a low correlation between cognitive and attitude scores. A study by Hournshell and Liggett indicated that there may be implications of a cognitive-attitude relationship under certain circum- stances.18 However, a study by Ramsey and Rickson on high school students indicated that especially with older students there is a circulatory linkage between knowledge and attitudes with not a straight line relationship, but a complex situation.19 18Hournshell and Liggett, "Assessing Effectiveness of Environmental Education," pp. 28-30. 19Ramsey and Rickson, "Environmental Knowledge and Attitudes,” pp. 10-18. 56 Since such limited research has been done on the relationship between knowledge and attitudes in environ- mental education, the experimental study was to include hypotheses testing on the cognitive and attitude relation- ship. In regard to administrative procedures, the pilot study served to confirm the timing aspects of the EKOS being administered in a regular class period of 50 minutes, that the test presented no problems to the students in regard to reading comprehension and the revision Of questions #3 and #28, and the devised answer sheet was adequate for students' recording their responses. Collection of Data of Study Prior to the treatment, subjects received as a pretest the EKOS. Participating teachers gave to each of their classes the pretest on January 28, 1976, two school days prior to the beginning of the program. The two programs began on February 2, 1976, and subjects received their respective instruction every school day for one period a day consisting of 50 minutes, for a nine-week period. Posttests were administered by participating teachers to their own classes on April 3 and April 5, 1976. In classes where the environmental education program was taught, both the pretest and posttests were considered in the studentfs grade fdr the term. On 57 April 19, 1976, two weeks after the completion of the programs, a voluntary environmental action activity was offered to all subjects. Upon completion of the activity a tally of participating students was taken. Treatment Of Data After the pretest and posttest of the EKOS were hand scored and the number of students participating in the voluntary environmental education activity were tallied, the data contained were coded and prepared for transfer to key punched cards for computer analyses. Statistical treatment of the data was performed by the IBM 3600 computer at the Michigan State University Computation Center. Hypotheses and Data Analyses In this study there are three independent vari- ables: (l) the treatment of receiving the environmental education program; (2) the occupational classification Of the fathers of the subjects; and (3) the sex of the sub- jects. The dependent variables are the scores on the EKOS test, and the response of students to volunteer for the voluntary environmental action activity. The following null experimental hypotheses set the major structure for this study. All hypotheses were tested at a = .001. Glendening and Porter discuss using the individual as a unit of analysis, when the group ought to be used, 58 that the hypotheses may be rejected too often. Thus, to account for the inflation of Type I error, the authors sug— gest the significance be reduced to O = .001 level. Hypothesis 1: Hypothesis 2: Hypothesis 3: Hypothesis 4: 20 There is no difference in the means of the cognitive/attitude scores between the students who received the environ- mental education program as compared to the students who do not receive the program. There is no interaction between fathers' occupation and the two programs with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. There is no interaction between sex and the two programs with respect to cogni- tive/attitude scores. The correlation coefficients between the cognitive and attitude scores of students who participate in the environmental education program and Of the students who do not participate in the environmental education program are not significantly different. 20 Linda Glendening and Andrew C. Porter, "The Effects of Correlated Units of Analysis: Violating the Assumption of Independence," a working paper for Measure- ment and Methodology Program, National Institute of Education, November 1974. 59 Hypothesis 5: The proportions of students who volun- teer for the environmental action abtivity from the environmental educa- tion program and from the alternate pro- gram are not significantly different. Hypothesis 6: Of these students who participated in the environmental education program, there was no difference in cognitive/ attitude scores between students who volunteer to participate in the environ- mental action activity and those who do not volunteer to participate in the activity. Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 constitute the main part of the study. To test for these three hypotheses the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is chosen as the most appropriate procedure to analyze the data. The pretest scores of EKOS will be used as the covariate. This type of design is based on the assumption that individuals within each group and between the groups are independent of each other and scores on each group are normally distributed having equal variance. In addition, ANCOVA also assumes that adjustment within groups sum of squares is that within group coeffi— cients are all estimates of the same common population regression. Hypothesis 4 will be analyzed by using the Pearson Correlation Coefficient as the measure of relationship 60 between cognitive and affective scores. This is because both scores are considered to be interval scales, and their relationship is considered to be linear. The Z-test will be employed to test the significance of each correlation coefficient. Hypothesis 5 will be analyzed by the Chi-square test of homogeneity. The two independent samples are the treatment of receiving the environmental education program and the alternate program of the regular science class. The dependent variable is the responses to volunteer for the environmental action activity. Hypothesis 6 will be analyzed by a t-test. The t-test procedure assumes subjects within and between groups are independent and the scores of each groups are normally distributed with common variance. Summary This study utilized a two group, nonequivalent control-group design in which eight classrooms were randomly assigned into two independent groups. The treatment group consisted of four seventh grade classes in which students received a nine-week environmental education program and an alternate group consisting of four seventh grade classes in which the students did not receive this unit of instruction. The sample of subjects involved seventh grade classrooms from the Middle School 61 section of the Tehran American School, Tehran, Iran, an American overseas school. The unit of assignment was the classroom while the unit of analysis was the student. All hypotheses were tested at d = .001 level. The analysis of covariance was applied to the data to detect any differences between the mean scores of the two groups on the Environmental Know— ledge and Opinion Survey (EKOS). This test was designed to measure knowledge about and attitudes toward the environment. In an attempt to measure a commitment to act in a "positive" manner toward the environment, a voluntary environmental action activity was offered to the subjects two weeks after the completion of the environmental educa- tion program. In Chapter IV, the results and interpretation of the analysis are discussed. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS The data that will be used to answer the questions raised in Chapter I will come from testing the hypotheses, an analysis of correlations between a number of variables, and descriptive information about the students who partici- pated in the study. This chapter presents a description of the samples and the results of analyzing the hypotheses which were stated in Chapter I. The Sample The 205 seventh grade students involved in this study are characterized by the data presented in Chapter III, along with the test data collected. Originally 228 students were assigned to the study. Due to student with- drawal during the nine weeks of the study, there was a loss of 23 students. Thus, 205 students participated in the final study with 102 students receiving the environmental education program and 103 students in the alternate program. Of the 205 students in the final study, 52 par- ticipated in the environmental education activity program. 62 63 The descriptive information of the samples con- sisting of the number of observations, the means, the standard deviations of the pretest and posttest of each group are reported in Table 4.1. Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: There is no difference in the means of the cognitive/attitude scores between the stu- dents who receive the environmental educa- tion program as compared to the students who do not receive the program. Hypothesis 2: There is no interaction between father's occupation and the two programs with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. Hypothesis 3: There is no interaction between sex and the two programs with respect to cognitive/ attitude scores. Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 are analyzed by the ANCOVA procedure. Since the Pearson Correlation Coefficient between the pre- and posttests' scores is .63, the pretest score of EKOS was used as the covariate of the ANCOVA procedure. The results of regression analysis of the covariate showed that the raw regression coefficient is .613, and its standard error is 5.41. The computed square of multiple R is .396 and its F-test is 128.38; with one degree of freedom for the hypothesis and 196 degrees of freedom for the error term, the F-test is significant at 64 vw.n Hm.mm mm.n om.mm moa mv.w no.Hw Hm.n hw.mm moa HGOEDMOHB Hmuoe av.m vv.mm mm.> mm.am hm Hm.n oo.mm an.m mm.mm ma A mmamfimm Hm.w Hm.vm mm.w mm.mm vm mm.w mm.ow om.m ma.mm mm D on.w mm.mm Hm.w em.mm ma hh.n mm.hm mm.m mH.Hm mm u mean: Hm.o mw.vm om.o mm.mm vm mm.v wo.ov mn.m mm.mm mm D om com: om com: ONHm am now: am now: mmflm ummpumom pmmamnm msouo ummunmom ummpmum QDOHU Emumoum OUMCHODam ucmfiummufi .mmamfimm mo QOHDMA>OQ cumwcmum pom .mcmmz .ONHm Qsouw msonm mOHmEmm mo coflumEHomaH ®>HDQHHOmOOII.H.v magma 65 .0001 level. Thus, the covariate does significantly improve the precision of analyzing the data to answer hypotheses l, 2, and 3. Furthermore, the magnitude of the square multiple R indicates that the pretest explains 40 percent of the variation in the posttest. Results for Hypothesis 1 The F-test of Hypothesis 1 is 43.44, and with one degree of freedom for the hypothesis and 196 degrees of freedom for the error term, the test is significant at .0001 level. Since the critical level of the analysis is .001, null hypothesis 1 is rejected. Refer to Table 4.2. Results for Hypothesis 2 The F-test of Hypothesis 2 is .07, and with one degree of freedom for the hypothesis and 196 degrees of freedom for the error term, the test is significant at .7954. Since, the significance level of the test is larger than .001, the critical level of the analysis, the null hypothesis is not rejected. Refer to Table 4.2. Results for Hypothesis 3 The F-test of Hypothesis 3 is 1.79, and with one degree of freedom for the hypothesis and 196 degrees for the error term, the test is significant at .1831. Since the significance level of the test is larger than .001, the critical level of analysis, the null hypothesis is not rejected. Refer to Table 4.2. Table 4.2.--The Results of ANCOVA for Testing Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3. Source df Ms F Signiiicance vel Sex 1 14.89 .50 .4804 Father 1 105.08 3.52 .0621 Ho Treatment 1 1295.59 43.44 .0001* Sex and Father 1 11.93 .40 .5279 Ho Sex and Treatment 1 53.26 1.79 .1831 Ho Father and Treat- ment 1 2.01 .07 .7954 Sex and Father and Treatment 1 41.20 1.38 .2413 Error 196 29.83 *The test is significant at .001. Ho : That source of variate that corresponds to null Hypot esis 1. H02: That source of variate that corresponds to null Hypothesis 2. H03: That source of variate that corresponds to null Hypothesis 3. 67 Conclusions for Hypotheses I, 2, and 3 With the critical level of .001, only Hypothesis 1 is rejected. There is a difference between the treatment and alternate groups on the EKOS posttest scores. There are no interactions between treatment and fathers' occupa-. tions, and between treatment and sex. Further explanation about the means of the cognitive subscale and the attitude subscale is shown in Appendix D. Since the means of the attitude subscale are higher than the cognitive subscale in both, it is possible that the attitude subscale influenced the total score more than the cognitive subscale score. Hypothesis 4: The correlation coefficients between the cognitive and affective scores of students who participate in the environmental educa- tion program and of the students who do not participate in the environmental education program are not significantly different. Results for Hypothesis 4 Table 4.3 shows that the magnitude of correlation coefficients between the cognitive and attitude scores in the treatment group and alternate group are .53 and .47 respectively. Both coefficients are significantly different from zero at .001 level. Table 4.4 shows the r to Z transformation and its variance of both groups. These values were used to 68 Table 4.3.--The Results Of Testing Pearson Correlation Coefficients of Cognitive and Attitude Post- test Scores for the Treatment and Alternate Groups. Pearson Correlation . Significance Coefficient Sample Size Level Treatment Group .53 102 .001 Alternate Group .47 103 .001 Table 4.4.--Resu1ts of Testing Hypothesis 4. Pearson Correlation Fisher r-Z Variance Coefficient Transformation of Z Treatment Group .53 .59 .001 Alternate Group .47 .51 .001 Z (.001) é 3.0 Compute Z = .566 69 compute the Z-test of significant difference between the correlation coefficients of the two groups. The computed Z-test is .566 which is less than the critical value of Z (.001) 3.0. Therefore, the null hypothesis is not rejected. Conclusion for Hypothesis 4 The relationship between cognitive and attitude posttest scores of the treatment and alternate groups are not different. Appendix C shows the samples' correlation coeffi- cients of the eight groups on the pretests and posttests. Hypothesis 5: The proportion of students who volunteer for the environmental action activity from the environmental education program and from the alternate program are not significantly different. Results for Hypothesis 5 The chi-square test is 22.05. With one degree of . freedom, the test is significant at .0000 level. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected at .0000 level. Table 4.5 shows the results of frequency cross tabulation and the Chi-square test of homogeneity. Conclusion for Hypothesis 5 The proportions of students who volunteer for the environmental action activity from the environmental 70 education program and the alternate program are not the same. Furthermore, the frequency cross-tabulation shows that the treatment group has 19.5 percent more volunteer students than the alternate group. Table 4.5.--Results of Frequency Cross Tabulation and Chi- Square Test of Homogeneity for Hypothesis 5. Participation in Environmental Action Activity Participation Non-participation f 41 61 102 Treatment p 40.2 59.8 Alternate ll 92 103 f 52 15.3 205 Total p 25.4 74.6 f: the frequency of responses p: percentage of responses Chi-square test is 22.05, with one degree of free- dom, and the test is significant at .0000 level. Hypothesis 6: Of those students who participate in the environmental education program, there is no difference in cognitive/attitude scores between students who volunteer to partici— pate in the environmental action activity and those who do not volunteer to partici- pate in the activity. 71 Table 4.6.--Analysis of Variance Table for Testing Hypothesis 6. Sum of _ . Significance Source df Squares F ratio Level Participation 1 28.725 .6848 .4099 Error term 100 4194.853 Results for Hypothesis 6 Table 4.6 shows the result of testing Hypothesis 6. The F-test for the difference between participation and nonparticipation is .6848. With one degree of freedom for the hypothesis and 100 degrees of freedom for the error term, the test is significant at .4099. Thus, the null hypothesis is not rejected at .001 level. Conclusion for Hypothesis 6 Though Table 4.7 shows that the sample mean of the participations and nonparticipations in the voluntary environmental action activity are not the same, the F—test difference is not significant. Of the students who are in the treatment group, there is no difference in attitude scores on the posttest for students who volunteer for the environmental action activity and students who do not volunteer for the activity. 72 Table 4.7.--Descriptive Information of Students Who Are in the Treatment Group of Participating in the Environmental Education Program, Classified by Participation and Non-participation in the Voluntary Environmental Action Activity. Sample M a Standard Size e n Deviation Participation 41 38.049 7.546 Non-participation 61 39.131 5.652 Total 102 41.07 6.43 Summary Data collected from an experimental treatment of an environmental education program and participation in a voluntary environmental action activity were used to test six hypotheses. Four types of statistical analyses were used: analysis of covariance, Pearson Correlation Coeffi- cient, Chi-square test for homogeneity, and the t-test. Significance was set at .001 alpha level of confidence for all tests.' Two null hypotheses were rejected. Table 4.8 summarizes the findings of the study. 73 .moemeeueoo no Hm>ma Hoe. pm unmoemeemem pmuomflou Doz mmov. DmODID ouoom momm mufl>flpom GOHDOM mnmucsao> CH :oflummHOHuHmm m pwuomflmm oooo. mHmsquHQU mufi>fluom cofluom humucsao> CH COHDMQHOHDHmm DCOEDMOHB m pmuomnmu #02 com. ummuIN wmuoom mpsuflupm cam m>HuHamOU v cmuowhOM poz Hmma. ummplm ouoom momm ucmfiummue pom xom m emnomflmu uoz emme. pmmunm muoom momm pews Income can Monumm m emuomflmm Hooo. ammuum muoom momm usefiummue H Dmme manmflum> OHQMflHm> coflmflomo OOOMOHMHcmHm HMOHDmHDMDm unoccmmmo pomccwmmch mommnpommm .hcopm wasp CH cmpmme monocuommm on» How mmCHpcflm mo mumfifidmll.m.v OHQMB CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This study was made to assess the effectiveness of an environmental educational program on the attitudes of middle school students. Another purpose was to determine the extent an environmental educational program influences "positive" environmental action. The variables of fathers' occupation and sex were also tested. In addition, the study measured the correlation between knowledge about the environment and the attitude toward the environment. The Environmental Knowledge and Opinion Survey develOped by Paul B. Hournshell of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, was used as the pretest and the posttest to measure knowledge and attitude. A review of literature related to this investiga- tion revealed that few experimental studies have been done on the effectiveness of an environmental education program. This is probably due to the fact that environmental educa- tion is a new area in the school curriculum, and test instruments to measure knowledge and attitudes first needed to be developed. However, Bowman's study on college 74 75 students, Howie's study on fifth graders, and Bryant's study on kindergarteners showed that exposure to environ- mental education programs results in a positive attitudinal 1’2’3 The limited available information on the change. factors influencing environmental attitudes seems to indi- cate that many factors may be influential. In general, research does not single out any particular factor but suggests that many factors may play a part. To what extent and at what age level they are influential is inconclusive. Studies in literature on determining factors were surveys of existing attitudes rather than experimental treatments to affect change. Although literature shows there is a relationship between knowledge and attitude, the type and extent of the relationship is undetermined. Ramsey and Rickson stressed that the relation is not a straight line relationship but a complex interaction between knowledge and attitudes.4 Research conducted on the extent a positive attitude encourages a positive action lBowman, "Assessing College Students' Attitudes Toward Environmental Issues," pp. 1-4. 2Howie, "Indoor or Outdoor Environmental Educa- pp. 32-36. tion,‘ 3Bryant, "Teaching Environmental Concepts and Values Clarification in Kindergarten." 4Ramsey and Rickson, "Environmental Knowledge and Attitudes," pp. 10-18. 76 toward the environment seems nonexistent. Bowman and Aird and Tomera called for the conducting of such research.5’6 Seventh grade students of the Tehran American School, an American overseas school in Tehran, Iran, during the academic year 1975-76 were used as subjects. Classroom groups were randomly assigned to the treatment group receiving the environmental education program and the alternative of the regular science program. Participating teachers each taught a treatment and an alternate group. Prior to the beginning of the study, a preservice workshop on the environmental education program consisting of six lessons was conducted with teachers. The treatment was conducted for a nine-week period as part of the students' science program. Two weeks after the treatment, a voluntary environmental action activity was offered to all subjects to determine the extent an environmental education program influences "positive" action toward the environment. Division of the students into upper and lower levels by fathers' occupation and by sex led to the 2 x 2 x 2 design used in the study. Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 which involved the measure- ment of the effectiveness of an environmental education program on cognitive/attitude scores and interactions of 5Bowman, "Assessing College Students' Attitudes Toward Environmental Issues," pp. 1-4. 6Aird and Tomera, "Effects of Water Conservation Unit on Sixth Grade Students," pp. 29-30. 77 sex and fathers' occupation were tested using the analysis of covariance (AVCOVA). The pretest scores of EKOS were used as the covariate. Hypothesis 4 which involved the measurement of the relationship between cognitive and attitude scores was analyzed by the Pearson Correlation Coefficient. Hypothesis 5, which considered the proportion of students who volunteer for the environmental action activity, was tested using the Chi-square test of homogeneity. Hypothesis 6, which involved a comparison of cognitive/attitude scores of students who had participated in the environmental education program who volunteered for the environmental action activity and those who did not volunteer for the activity, was tested using the t-test. To account for the unit of assignment being the classroom, while the unit of analysis was the student, all the hypotheses were tested at the .001 alphalevel. The results relative to the testing of each hypothesis were as follows: Hol: There is no difference in the means of the cognitive/attitude scores between the students who received in the environmental education program as compared to the students who did not receive the program. The hypothesis was rejected. H02: There is no interaction between fathers' occupation and the two programs with respect to cognitive/ attitude scores. The hypothesis was not rejected. 78 H03: There is no interaction between sex and the two programs received with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. The hypotheSis was not rejected. HO The correlation coefficients between the 4: cognitive and attitude scores of students who participated in the environmental education program and of the students who did not participate in the environmental education program are the same. The hypothesis was not rejected. Hos: The proportions of students who volunteered for the environmental action activity from the environ- mental education program and the alternate program are the same. The hypothesis was rejected. H06: Of those students who participated in the environmental education program, there is no difference in cognitive/attitude scores between students who volunteer to participate in environmental action activity and those who do not volunteer to participate in the activity. The hypothesis was not rejected. Conclusions In View of the testing of the hypotheses held for this study, the following conclusions were drawn. Since hypothesis 1 was rejected the conclusion was made that there is a difference in cognitive/attitude scores between students who received the environmental education program as compared to the students who did not receive the program. The direction of the difference 79 indicated that the more positive cognitive/attitude scores were held by students who received an environmental educa- tion program. The increasing means from pretest to posttest of the treatment group and the alternate group, 6.40 and .61 respectively, are meaningful at the .001 level of significance and indicate a substantial cognitive/ attitude shift in the treatment group. The very slight gain (.61) of the alternate group also indicated that the instrument did not act as a learning vehicle. There was no significant interaction between fathers' occupation and the two programs with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. From this finding, it can be inferred that father's level of occupation may make no difference in determining a positive attitude toward the environment. Likewise, there was no significant interaction between sex and the two programs received with respect to cognitive/attitude scores. This finding indicates one's sex is not a determining factor in developing a positive attitude toward the environment. Although not hypothesized but analyzed, there was no interaction between fathers' occupation and sex and treatment. This could be on the strength of the environ- mental education program in effecting positive attitudes. The relationship between cognitive subscores and attitude subscores of the treatment group and the alternate group *was not different. The magnitude of the correlation 80 coefficients of the treatment and alternate groups are .53 and .47 respectively. The difference of .06 is not statistically significant. This finding indicates that knowledge is related to attitudes approximately as well in both groups. Hypothesis 5 was rejected due to the fact that there was a significantly higher proportion of students from the environmental education program who independently volun- teered for the environmental action activity as compared to students who did not participate in the environmental education program. Over 19 percent more students from the environmental education program volunteered for the activity than from the alternate program. The results indicated that this environmental education program may promote not only a more positive attitude toward the environment, but likewise contribute to behavior that is positive toward the environment. Of those students who participated in the environmental education program, there was no difference in cognitive/attitude scores between students who volunteered to participate in the environmental action activity and those who did not volunteer to participate in the activity. Both hypotheses 4 and 6 were not significant. However, an explanation for these results could be that there is a ceiling effect in the relationship between knowledge and attitudes. Also since hypothesis 6 considered only the group of students who had participated in the environmental education program, this group of students was already a 81 homogeneous group by receiving the treatment of the environmental education program. Discussion This investigation revealed that an environmental education program can have a positive effect on both knowledge and attitude toward the environment. The pre- service program of the teachers may have been a contribu- ting factor in the success of the program. This reinforces the recommendation among educators that implementation of a new program in a school should be accompanied by a 7'8 It preservice and/or inservice programs for teachers. is noteworthy that since this study, the environmental education program has become a part of the curriculum of the middle school program at the Tehran American School and is taught yearly for one term in the seventh grade science program. In addition, the variables such as fathers' occupation and sex do not seem to be determinants in developing positive attitudes toward the environment. Although previous survey research has indicated that these variables do play a part in attitude development, these studies reported on "existing" attitudes toward the environment without treatment to change attitudes in a 7Roth, "Massachusetts Audubon Society Program," pp. 107-18. 8Hournshell and Liggett, "Environmental Education, One Year Later," pp. 32-25. 82 positive direction. It may be assumed that such variables are no longer contributors when students have been exposed to educational programs. The data also demonstrated that an environmental education program was successful in contributing to posi- tive action toward the environment. This empirical evidence supports the idea that positive attitudes can result in subsequent positive behavior. Finally, the study showed in general there is a correlation between knowledge and attitude toward the environment. In addition, it indicates there may be a ceiling effect between knowledge and attitudes and that many factors may contribute to the relationship and affect the ceiling effect. The measurement of the extent to which transfer was made from written responses to action behavior probably entailed many factors besides the treatment. Not to participate in the environmental action activity may have been due to thinking that the activity was art oriented, students being busy withother activities, and/or other factors which involved trade-off costs. It is recog- nized that not all knowledge will lead automatically and quickly to attitudes and also to positive behavior toward the environment. 83 Implications Based on the data collected and findings of this study, the following implications are presented for con- sideration. From this study and those reported in literature it is shown that an environmental education program can have a positive effect on students' knowledge and atti— tude toward the environment. Thus, the schools have an important responsibility in providing the opportunity for youth to explore their environment both physically and intellectually in order to obtain both the motivating con- cern regarding man's relationship and responsibility with the human ecosystem. It is interesting to note that in light of the environmental crisis few school systems have implemented environmental education programs to span the curriculum. It may also be true that schools cannot pro- vide effective environmental education opportunities for students from K-12 without adequate inservice training of classroom teachers at both the elementary, middle, and secondary schools. With educators seeing the positive effects on students' exposure to environmental education, they may be more willing to implement programs in their schools. Since it seems that variables such as sex and fathers' occupation can play minor roles in attitudes toward the environment, if students are exposed to environmental education programs, this is another factor 84 to justify the inclusion of environmental education within the school setting. .Administrators and teachers can do little about their students' home setting, but it is their professional responsibility to provide programs which meet the needs of all students in their schools. It has been shown that there is a relationship between knowledge and attitudes, but that the extent and type of relationship is unknown. For this reason an environmental education pro- gram probably should not be completely of the cognitive domain or the affective domain, but a combination of both. If educators accept the definition that environmental education is an emphasis in education which "aims to develop citizens who will have an understanding of the biophysical environment and associated problems, who will possess a knowledge of how they can help solve problems, and who will be motivated to seek solutions,"9 it is clear that the program should be organized to develop students' attitudes and behavior. Environmental education has been most successful when teachers have examined atttitude questions from different points of view and with total class participation.1 9William B. Stapp et al., "The Concept of 1:1 Environmental Education," Environmental Education 1 (1969). 10Robert E. Roth, "Conceptual Schemata in Environ- mental Management," in Processes for a Quality Environment, eds. Robert 8. Cook and George T. O'Hearn (Green Bay: The University of Wisconsin Green Bay), pp. 21-30. 85 Recommendations for Further Investigations The data obtained in this study and personal observations suggest other areas which need investigation. The findings indicate that an environmental educa- tion program does contribute to an increase in knowledge and positive attitudes and behavior toward the environment. The program administered was nine weeks and part of the science curriculum. Longitudinal research is needed to determine the effects of a one course program for long term retention. Also, since recent recommendations are for environ- mental education programs to be implemented as part Of the total curriculum, research which measures the effect of integrated programs should be conducted. The data presented indicated that factors such as fathers' occupation and sex are not contributing factors to attitudes toward the environment. Survey studies have indicated that other factors such as IQ and Social Economic Status do have an effect on attitudes. Further research is needed to investigate the extent other factors may affect attitudes toward the environment. The study involved the measurement of the extent to which transfer is made from written responses to action behavior. In this study the voluntary action activity was painting trash containers and placing them in various areas of the campus. This activity is limited to the extent it is considered to be an indication to act 86 environmentally. A need exists to develop methods which would specifically permit the observation of the direction- ality Of value shifts made by verbal or written responses to action behavior. Data resulted in showing a relationship between knowledge and attitudes. Earlier research has shown similar results. The extent and type of relationship between knowledge and attitudes should be investigated. 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APPENDICES APPENDIX A ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM UNIT: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATI ON* Major Goals: To develOp in the student (1) an awareness, understanding, and concern for the environment with its associated problems (2) the knowledge, skill, motivation and commitment to work toward solutions to this current and projected environmental problems Sub Goals: Cognitive domain: The student should exhibit knowledge and understanding about the five major concepts of: (l) ecosystems (2) populations (3) economics and technology (4) environmental decisions (5) environmental ethics Affective domain: The student shall display the following behaviors and attitudes: (1) understanding of "trade off" costs in practicing positive environmental action (2) show that he has certain values by acting in environmental sound ways (3) initiate action for remediation of environmental problems in his immediate environment *Adapted from "Michigan's Environmental Future: A Master Plan for Environmental 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"memeaou :COOCHOCCOHOZ >2 CH OHQOOC: mCHm ”OHmCE >HH>HH6< .COCCHHCOU O>HHOOflCO HOHOH>OCOm .>H 101 N m <> ammo SHH>HH6< mwm 4> cumo HHH>HH6C Omm H C> ammo SHH>HH6C Omm OOHCOmOm m COHHOHOHQHOHCH .m SHH>HHOC COOHHOU emHCOECOHH>Cm OHCHCme mm .mm .COOC OOm =HOCB m.OC3 .OHmOZ CHHOm= "HOOhOHm A.CHE .m CCU =mmmnemo. "EHHH .H OCOHHm COHHOHCQOC “OEOU SHH>HH6C mmeHaH meH>HH HHm HO OCOOC OCH HOOE OH OCCHHCOO HHHB CHHOO OCH OCHHOOH IOHQ 30C NMHHCOCH .N HH HO HOHHOmeO mmOHOHOO O COCH HOCHOH CHHOO OCH HO CHOBOHO O we HammeHe CHHHcmeH .H "HHHB HCOCCHm OCH mCHHHOm HOHCOE ICOHH>CO C30 mHC OCHOD .> wOHCHm HOHCOECOHH>Cm ”HCOOCOU O>HHOOflCO HOHOH>OCOm 102 Bibliography Cook, Robert S., and George T. O'Hearn. "A Report of the National Conference on Environmental Education," Processes for a Quality Environment. Green Bay, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin, 1970. Environmental Education Interdisciplinary Curriculum Guide. Lansing, Michigan: Lansing School District, 1973. George, R. W. Environmental Conservation: Program Design. Michigan: Michigan State University, 1974. Mager, Robert F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. Belmont, California: Fearon Publishers, 1961. Pavoni, Joseph L. and others. Preserving Man's Environ- ment. Louisville, Kentucky: Data Courier, Inc., I974. Review of Audio Visual Materials for Environmental Educa- tibn. Syracuse University, Environmental Studies Institute, 1975. Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Activities Manual--Concerning Spaceship Earth. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Activities Manual--Junior High Activi- ties. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Activities Manual--Upper Elementary Activities. Dexter, MiChigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. Wheatley, John H., and Herbert L. Coon. 100 Teaching Activities in Environmental Education. The Ohio State University: Science, Mathematics and Environmental Education Information Analysis Center, 1974. 103 Activity Card IAl "EE" Bee (Environmental Education Bee) 1. Concept to be developed: Ecosystems 2. Understanding to be developed: Terminology used in environmental education 3. Time: 1 hour--also can be used in groups periodically during the unit for reinforcement 4. Materials: 4" x 10" cards, markers 5. Place the following terms on one side of card, definitions on the other side of card 6. Divide groups in teams 7. Each person receives a point for his team when he gives correct definition T = Terms D = Definitions Term: components of an ecosystem Definition: producers, decomposers, nutrients, food chains, food webs, consumers Term: consumers Definition: herbivores, carnivores, omnivores Term: how soil is made Definition: weathering, wind, sun Term: earth cycle Definition: nutrient cycle, carbon dioxide/oxygen cycle, water cycle, energy flow Term: six major ecosystems Defintion: grasslands, deserts, tropics, evergreen forests, decidious forests, temperate rain forests Term: man's effect on ecosystems Definition: air pollution, water pollution, land pollution, noise pollution 104 Activity Card IA (continued) 1 Term: seven limiting factors in natural communities Definition: sunlight, soil, chemicals, land formations, atmospheric conditions, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle Term: protoplasm Definition: basic substance of life Term: cell Definition: basic structural and functional unit of life Term: tissue Definition: a group of cells specialized for a particular function Term: organism Defintion: a complete and entire living being Term: population Definition: all members of a single species inhabiting a given area Term: community Definition: all populations in an ecosystem Term: biosphere Definition: the area of the Earth in which life is possible Term: primary food producers Definition: (1) synthesize inorganic nutrients and energy from the sun (2) produce organic compounds (food for consumers) Term: herbivores Definition: first order consumers, feed on plants Term: carnivores Definition: second-order consumers, feed on herbivores Term: third-order consumers Definition: feed on herbivores and carnivores 105 Activity Card IA (continued) 1 Term: decomposers Definition: degrade tissue into simpler substances Term: transformers Definition: convert decomposed substances into nitrogen compounds Term: periodic changes in the environment Definition: diurnal, nocturnal Term: seasonal changes in the environment Definition: hibernation, estivation, migration Term: seven habitat alterations due to man Definition: agriculture, lumber industry, road construc- tion, drainage and flood control, water, air and land pollution, home construction, industrialization Term: five habitat alterations due to natural causes Definition: fire, glaciation, wind, flood, weather and climate Reference: Pavani, Joseph L. and others. Preserving Man's Environment. Louisville, Kentucky: Data Courier, Inc., 1974. 106 Activity Card IA2 Interaction in an Aquatic Environment Concept to be developed: Ecosystem Understanding to be developed: The interaction of plants, animals, and their non-living environment form many cycles in an ecosystem. Time: 15 lessons--day 1--trip to a pond, collecting materials day 2--set up aquaria days 3-14--observe, record, compile data, draw cycles, discus- sions day 15--dismantle equipment Materials: For each team of four students: a. 5 gallon aquarium (or suitable substitute, such as a pickle jar or fish bowl.) b. Dip net and containers for collected materials. c. Pond water or dechlorinated tap water (aged water). d. Silica sand or fine gravel. e. Rocks about 3 inches in diameter, 3. f. Anacharis (Elodea--obtainable at most pet stores, in our pond), or other water plants, at least twelve 10 inch sprigs. g. Guppies, 2 mature females and 1 male. h. Water snails, 2. i. Daphnia (Water fleas), 50. j. Minnows, 5. k. Pane of window glass (or other suitable cover for aquaria). l. Distilled water (Optional) or used aged tap water. m. Algae culture. Activity Card IA 107 2 (continued) n. Data or record sheets for each student: Name of Water Date Organisms Description of Population Condition Note: The preceding materials list reflects quantities needed for establishing a 5 gallon aquarium. Quantities needed for containers of different volumes should be modified accordingly. For instance, a 1 gallon jar would require only five or six sprigs of Elodea and a 10 gallon aquarium would need about two dozen sprigs. 5. Procedure: a. Plan to set up aquarium at least a week in advance of its use. Thoroughly wash out the aquarium. Do not use soap. Spread a layer of sand or fine gravel about 1 inch deep over the bottom of the aquarium. Pile the three rocks in a corner of the aquarium. Fill to within 5 inches of the top with water. If you use tap water, let the water stand in Open containers for at least 24 hours before filling the aquarium. This allows chlorine or other gases to escape. Using pond water, allow same time to reach room temperature. Take trip to the pond to collect pond water. Place the cut end of each Elodea sprig down into the gravel layer so that it does not float. Add algae to aquarium and more water until it is filled to within 1 inch of the top. Let the aquarium stand in a well-lighted place for two days and then introduce the snails, daphnia, and fish. Activity Card IA h. 108 2 (continued) If possible keep the aquaria near a well-lighted window. If this will subject the aquaria to extremes in temperature, you should place it in a more protected spot in the room. You will then also have to provide a light source of approxi- mately 100 watts about 12 inches from the aquaria. Cover the aquarium with the glass pane to reduce evaporation and to discourage students from adding items to the aquarium. Do not feed the fish or remove any materials erE FEE aquarium in an effort to keep it clean! Add distilled or aged water periodically to maintain the water level. (Distilled water is recommended to prevent buildup of mineral concentration over prolonged period; however, local tap water, if low in mineral content may be used satisfactorily, or pond water, whose mineral content has been checked.) Have students compile a list of the kinds of organisms in the aquarium. Allow students to examine water samples under the microscope. As time passes, different organisms may "appear” (fungi, etc.) and should be added to the list. From class list use charts on ditto sheet to com- pile data on the date set up and every day of the project thereafter. The dates and descriptions of any changes that occur in the aquarium should be recorded. Explain that nothing but water is to be added to the aquarium. Have students compile individual lists of all the interactions they think each kind of aquarium organism may be involved in. If the lists omit any organism it (and its interactions) should be added later. A composite list of organisms and interactions should be constructed and saved for later modification. Ask students to predict the future of life in the aquarium. Mention that they can check the accuracy of their predictions by regular observation. Make room charts, with the students, of the carbon cycle, food chain, and water cycle. Activity Card IA 6. 109 2 (continued) (Optional) Discussion Questions: In groups: How do algae and elodea fit into the CO2 cycle? What do plants need for photosynthesis? What are the end products? Why are these materials (end products) important? What else is needed in this cycle? What can't this cycle do without? Describe evaporation from the water surface. From plants. How is condensation apparent in the aquarium? What part does the animal life play in the water cycle? When water evaporates, it becomes a ? . When it freezes it becomes a ? . If you heard one life scientist talking about the carbon cycle and another life scientist talking about the oxygen cycle, could these life scientists possibly be talking about the same thing? (Let students think about this, discuss it among them- selves, review what they know.) Is energy ever recycled in these natural processes? Discuss: Since water is recycled, the amount of water on earth does not change. Why did we have to add water to our aquarium? Describe the ecological succession that would occur if we added nothing. Water is vital to all organisms to dissolve the chemicals they need. Why must these chemicals be dissolved? 110 Activity Card 1A2 (continued) p. Chemicals in the soil become part of the plant. What happens.tx>these chemicals when plants die? q. Would man fit into the carbon cycle? The water cycle? Explain. Reference: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environ- mental Education Activities Manual--Upper Elementary. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 111 Activity Card 1A3 Role Playing Game Tracing Calcium Concept to be developed: Ecosystem Understanding to be develOped: The interaction of plants, animals, and their non-living environment form many cycles is an ecosystem (carbon or food cycle, mineral cycles, water cycles, etc.). Time: 2 class periods Materials: a. String b. Six pieces of cardboard (approximately 8-1/2" x 11") c. Colored crayon, felt pen, etc. (optional) Procedure: a. Connect string on all six pieces of cardboard so they can be worn around the neck. b. Write the following words individually, using one piece of cardboard for each word: 1. Tooth--(Calcium) 2. Soil 3. Plant 4. Cow 5. Milk 6. Human c. Tell the student that calcium is a mineral. Like water, carbon, or food, minerals go through cycles. d. Next, give the students a chance to role play. Give one student the neck sign bearing the word TOOTH. Explain that teeth are made of calcium. Being a baby tooth, he has just fallen out on to the SOIL. . Activity Card IA e. f. 112 3 (continued) TOOTH will now join hands with SOIL, pointing out that there is calcium in the SOIL. Next, PLANT emerges from the SOIL. The student bearing the name PLANT joins hands with SOIL. We now realize that plants contain calcium. Cows eat plants. Indicate this to the class by having COW join hands with PLANT. Therefore, we can conclude that animals have calcium. Cows produce milk. Indicate this by having COW join hands with MILK. Milk has calcium, too. Who drinks milk? Humans do! Indicate this by having STUDENT join hands with MILK. Humans have calcium 1n their bones. As humans grow up, their baby teeth fall out and decompose in the soil. CHILD now loses a tooth. Indicate this by having STUDENT join hands with TOOTH to form a circle. Th1s circle represents a cycI . Reference: Hart, John W., and Jessie M. Turner. Self Earth Ethic. Level Two. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., 61832. 113 Activity Card IBl Energy Transfer and Loss* Concept to be developed: Ecosystem Understanding to be developed: With each transfer of energy (i.e., food chain) within an ecosystem, some energy is lost (mainly as heat energy). Time: 1 class period. Materials: a. 1 package yeast b. 1 test tube and a cork stopper c. Warm water d. Sugar e. Vaseline Procedure: a. Crumble the package of yeast between your fingers into the test tube. b. Add enough warm water to fill the test tube 3/4 full. c. Add 1/4 teaspoon sugar to the test tube. d. Smear Vaseline on the cork and stopper the test tube firmly but not tightly. e. Observe the following reaction: As the yeast cells use the sugar, it produces a gas. Soon you should notice bubbles of gas forming. As the gas is produced, it presses against the sides of the tube and cork. As the pressure gets higher, the cork should pop off. Discussion Questions: a. What has happened to the cork? Why? b. Why did we place Vaseline on the cork? Did it serve its purpose? *Loss should be considered to mean that the energy is dis- persed making recovery and use impractical. 114 Activity Card IB (continued) 1 c. Was any "work" performed by the cork? Where did the energy come from? d. What helped the yeast cells obtain their energy? Reference: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Activities Manual--Upper Elementary. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 115 Activity Card IB2 Energy Investigation 1. Concept to be developed: Ecosystem 2. Understanding to be developed: Human knowingly and unknowingly waste energy. 3. Time: 3 class periods day l--Introduction of subject and explanation of project and materials day 2--Compile data and write suggestions day 3--Discussion 4. Materials: a. pencil b. paper c. copy of chart for each child d. graph paper How Energy-using Kind Average (Check one) Many Machine or of Time Appliance Energy Used Daily Necessary Helpful 116 Activity Card 1B2 5. Procedure: a. Discuss with your class the sources of energy we use generally in our home, schools and businesses, including internal combustion engines. b. Give each student a chart to take home and gather data on use of energy. If an appliance is not used every day,the weekly time it is used might be divided by 7 to give an approximate daily use time. c. Graph results. Reference: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environ- mental Education Activities Manua1--Upper Elementary Activities. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 117 Activity Card IIAl Experiment: Population Increase = Pollution Increase Concept to be developed: Population Understanding to be developed: A greater awareness of the variety and amount of particulate matter in the air. To determine relationships between amount of pollution and time of day or week. To locate general sources of pollution for the area and to develop some suggestions for improving air quality. Time required for activity: 4 class periods. Materials needed: Microscope slides or glass plates Petroleum jelly Sheet of white paper Masking tape Magnifying glass or microscope fDQJOU'DJ Procedure: Coat one side of each slide with petroleum jelly. Select several different places within your city or residential area to place the slide; e.g., school or home rooftop, window ledges, field. Label the location on masking tape that you attach to each slide. Expose all slides the same length of time (1 day, 1 week, etc.) After collecting the slides, place them on a sheet of white paper with coated side up. Examine under strong light with magnifying glass or microscope. Compare exposed slides with control slides that were left indoors in a closed box or drawer. Record data on chart. 118 Activity Card IIA (continued) 1 Description of Amount of Location Time Exposed Particles Pollution In small groups, attempt to answer such questions as: What kind and amount of particles were collected? What areas had the dirtiest air? What was the likely source of this pollution? How might this pollution be reduced? What might be done by individuals, community groups, industry, or government? Adapted from: Wheatley, John H., and Herbert L. Coon. 100 Teachers Activities in Environmental Education. The Ohio State University: Science, Math and Environmental Education Analysis Center, 1974. 119 Activity Card IIA3 Needs vs. Wants Concept to be developed: Population Understanding to be developed: Human populations have different standards of living which produce different environmental consequences. Time required for activity: Four class periods. Materials needed: Three dittoed charts for each student, pencils, chalk, chalkboard, encyclopedia, and extra dittoes. Procedure: a. Hand out ditto #1. Instruct students to: l. (Individually) List the 5 most important possessions of your family and yourself. (10 minutes) 2. (Individually) Number these in the order of importance to you. (5 minutes) 3. (Small group) Make a list of possessions important to most of the group. (15 minutes) 4. One member of each group copy results onto a single ditto to give to the class the next day. 5. (Next day) Hand out ditto. Class, working in the same small groups, will look up and list the natural resources that went into one favorite possession of each member of the group. They might also look up whether these resources are available in the United States. (30 minutes) b. Hand out ditto #2 (could be on same sheet as #1). Instruct students to: 1. (Working individually) List things you really must have in order to survive. (10 minutes). 2. (In small groups) Consolidate your lists and try to group the items into three or four categories. One person in each group will write these down on paper. (15 minutes) Activity Card IIA 120 3 3. (Whole class) One member of each group will write his categories and list on the board. The class will come up with "food, shelter, and clothing" or something similar. They can then write these categories at the top Of ditto #2; they can complete the ditto (5 minutes) c. (Next class period) Hand out ditto #3 and instruct class to fill in blanks and answer questions. (15 minutes) d. (Next class period) Discussion of meaning of findings for the individual and his feelings about the implications. (one period) Ditto #1 List your List them again What natural resources important with the most are needed for the possessions important first first three? 1. l. 2. 3. 2. 4. 5. 3. Ditto #2 List things you need to survive Categories they fall into: \IGUTbUJNP 121 Activity IIA3 (continued) Ditto #3 , Copy your impor- Which could you give up (Check one tant possessions square for each item) from #1 Completely Twice a Occasionally Never week T. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. If you did the above, how would you feel? If many people did, what difference would it make in your city? in your country? in a poor country? Based on what we have discussed, what possible decisions might you make? Have you made any decisions? What are they? Here is something additional which you might want to think about. It is one detail in a very large problem: The United States contains about 6% of the world's people. We use close to 50% of the world's resources. 122 Activity Card IIA (continued) 3 For example, each person in the United States uses about one ton (2000 pounds) of grain a year. In poor countries, many peOple individually use about 400 pounds of grain per year. Would these facts change your decision above?....... Something to think about! Reference: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environ- mental Education Manual: Upper-Elementary Activities. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 123 Activity Card IIIAl Influence of Industrialization Concept to be developed: Economics and Technology Understanding to be developed: The level of indus- trialization necessary to meet the demands of society has created environmental problems Time: 5 class periods day l--Introduction of concept day 2--Film and discussion day 3--Student and parent survey and Newsreel handout to be read day 4--Fi1m and handout discussed day 5--Discussion on comparison of student and parent survey Materials: a. Student wall chart b. Parent survey c. Ditto of handout Procedure: a. Introduce the understanding using as a background the following: Energy and natural resource consump- tion in the U.S. is at an all-time high and pre- dictions for the future indicate that it will increase sharply. Many of these natural resources are non-renewable. That is, when we use them they cannot be reused or recycled. Today energy use is an important part of our life style. Ironically the solution to many of our environmental problems (land, water, air) requires additional uses of energy and natural resources. Thus we seem to be confronted with somewhat of a dilemma. b. Have students fill out Student Questionnaire handout: 1. How many cars are in use in the U.S. today? (a) 40 million (b) 75 million (0) 112 million 2. How many cars are manufactured yearly? (a) 6 million (b) 13 million (c) 18 million Activity Card IIIA (Questions) 124 1 (continued) 3. How efficient is the auto in terms of energy consumption? (a) 15% (b) 45% (c) 80% 4. How much land in your city is devoted to the use of the automobile? (a) 10% (b) 40% (c) 60% 5. How much air pollution today is attributable to the automobile? (a) 10% (b) 40% (c) 60% 6. Iron, as the basic raw material in the produc- tion of the auto, is a: (a) renewable resource (b) non-renewable (c) recyclable resource resource Show film: "Automobile: The Great Love Affair," color, 56 minutes. (CBS MCGH, 1966) Class discus- sion following the film. Assign for reading the handouts on the energy crisis: "The Energy Crisis," Newsweek, January 1, 1973. Post the student wall chart. Students will fill out their section by the next day. Have students take questions home to get their parents' responses and fill in that section also. Students' or parents' names Questions for wall chart: 1. 2. How do you usually get to school? If you have to go a distance of less than two miles, what form of transportation would you use? Activity Card IIIA 125 1 (continued) If you have to go a distance of more than two miles, what form of transportation would you use? How many cars does your family have? Would you use mass transit (bus, train) if avail- able? Which would you prefer to take: a train or a plane? Do you think the air pollution control devices on autos are necessary? If you had a 1975 model car, would you use no-lead, low-lead or regular gasoline? (For parents, modify #1-5 to apply to when they were the same age as their children now). Discussion Questions: a. How did your answers on the survey compare with your classmates? With your parents? Does your life style demand products from industry? Could you change your life style so that you will not need industry's products? Would you be willing to change your life style? Are you satisfied with the demands you are making now? Adapted from: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Manual: Junior High Activities. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson- Shore, Inc., 1974. 126 Activity Card IIIA2 Advertising and Product Demand Concept to be developed: Economics and Technology Understanding to be developed: Industry created a demand for a product through the use of advertising. Time: 2 class periods. Materials: a. Old newspapers and magazines (women's, men's, hobby, travel, fashion, news, etc.) b. Several large sheets of poster paper c. Paste d. Scissors Procedure: a. Have the students look through the magazines to find advertisements for products that they would like to own, now or as adults. b. The students should cut the ads out and make collages by pasting them on the poster paper. c. Have them make a list of ten products they would like to own whether shown in one of the ads or not. Discussion Questions: a. Ask students to explain the reasons for choosing certain advertisements. What was it about the advertisement that suggested that the product would be good to own? Look at an advertisement someone else chose. What do you think it is about the ad that made the other person choose it? Find an advertisemnet for cigarettes. What else is shown in the ad besides the product itself? What are some extra things shown in the other ads? Activity Card IIIA e. 127 2 Why do advertising men show those other things if all you can really buy is the product itself? Do any of the ads show the product as it is being made? Why or why not? Do any of the ads tell you about problems associ- ated with the product (auto wrecks, injuries to the user, high energy consumption, etc.)? Why or why not? Does any ad show the product when it is old and worn out? Why or why not? The writing on pencils, lightbulbs and some man- hole covers is advertising, too. Do these ads make you want to rush out and buy a pencil or a manhole cover? How are those ads different from those in the magazines? Which of those items on your lists did you first hear about from someone you know? Which ones did you read about? Mark these with a book shape. Which did you see advertised on television? Mark these with a box shape. Which ones did you first hear about on the radio? Mark these with a rectangle. Does advertising play a large or a small role in helping you decide what to buy? Who pays for advertisements? Reference: Stapp: William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environ- mental Activities Manual: Middle Elementary Activities. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 128 Activity Card IIIA3 Pollution Costs Concept to be developed: Economics and Technology Understanding to be developed: There are two kinds of costs associated with pollution: the cost of pre- venting pollution, and the cost of (or damage from) pollution once it occurs. Time: 2 class periods day l--site cleanup and telephone contacts day 2--compiling data and discussion Materials: Your school site and access to it. Large paper or plastic trash bags. Telephone directory and access to a telephone. Paper and pencil for each student. Large sheet of poster paper. Crayons or colored ink markers. Bathroom scale. Old newspaper. Scissors. Shoebox or similar-sized containers. 0 LHFhSCIHHDCLOtTm Procedure: a. On the poster paper, draw a map of your school site and the streets immediately adjacent to it. Ask students to help think of features which should be included, i.e., buildings, paved areas, planted areas, etc. b. Divide the students into groups of five. c. Distribute one trash bag to each group. d. Have the groups collect as much litter from the total area as possible over a one or two hour period. If apprOpriate, also extend the pick up to the streets immediately adjacent to the school site, as mapped on the poster. e. Upon returning, have the students write their names on equal-sized slips of paper as can be used in a name drawing. Activity Card IIIA f. g. h. 129 3 (continued) Place these in the shoebox. Have one student draw three names from the shoebox. These three will contact: (1) the school's custodian. (a) Have them tell the custodian that their class is doing a study of the cost of cleaning up litter. (b) Have them ask him how much time it takes him to pick up litter from the site. (c) Does he consider littering to be a problem at the school? (d) Do outdoor trash cans at the school (if any) help, or are they used only occa- sionally? (2) The school system's Building Maintenance office. (a) Have them phone the office and explain their purposes. (b) Have them ask for the number of custodial personnel employed system-wide. (c) Is school site littering one of the major problems the Office must deal with? (d) Can the office give them an idea of how much money of their annual budget goes to litter pick up and disposal? (e) How does the office dispose of litter after it is picked up? Have the other students sort the litter on sheets of newspaper according to what it is made of, i.e., paper, glass, metal, etc. Have them weigh and record the weight of each pile. 130 Activity Card IIIA (continued) 3 k. On the map, have the students indicate with a small "x" marks those locations where litter was picked up. 1. Have the three students chosen to contact the school's custodian and the Building Maintenance office report their findings to the class. Reference: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environ- mental Education Activities Manual--Middle Elementary. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 131 Activity Card IVAl Land and How the People Want to Use It Concept to be developed: Environmental Decisions Understanding to be developed: Environmental decisions reflect the views of various groups of individuals Time: 4 class periods day l--Select committees and discuss needs day 2-3--Presentations day 4--Boards decisions and why Materials: Pencils and paper Newsprint, felt pens, and rulers Specific areas for group discussions and work Procedure: a. Present the class with the problem of a specific tract of land and its possible development by the community. This land encompasses a virgin forest, small lake, meandering river, and evidence of wildlife. b. Have the students volunteer for one of the following interest groups: industry recreational commercial environmental shopping mall residential c. Explain that this is a make-believe situation. One tract of land cannot accommodiate development by all the interest groups, just one. A board of four will be elected by the class to decide on the issues and arguments presented by the interest groups. The teacher can sit and vote on this board also. d. Have the class elect the board of four. The board can in turn select a chairman. Each board member should be responsible for his own note taking. After the board has been elected give the students on the board a choice of occupation. List some examples: doctor, judge, teacher, retiree, 132 Activity Card IVAl accountant, journalist, salesman, dentist, business man, etc. After making an occupational choice instruct the students to think in that way. e. Each interest group should go to their work areas to discuss reasons for including their particular area of interest. They should choose a spokesman and secretary to list their arguments. Allow about fifteen minutes for this. f. The spokesman for each interest group should present their facts to the board. g. When each group has finished presenting their facts the board should spend about fifteen minutes deliberating the facts. Each member of the board can vote for only one of the interest groups. 6. Discussion Questions: a. What opinions do you have on the presentations of the other groups? Do you think that they had good reasons for wanting their interests included? b. Following the board's decision, what will some of the consequences be in regard to: 1. How many people will benefit from the use of the land? 2. What natural resources will need to be used in order to develop the land? 3. How may the use of the land affect the popula- tion of the community? 4. Will the use of the land create new jobs for peOple? 5. In what ways will the development of the land affect the wildlife in the area? 6. Can you picture what this plot of land will be like five years from now? Reference: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environ- mental Education Activities Manual--Middle Elementary. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, 1974. 133 Activity Card IVA2 This is Me 1. Concept to be developed: Environmental Decisions 2. Understanding to be developed: Values, attitudes and feelings influencing individual decision making. 3. Time involved: two class periods. 4. Materials needed: a. Pictures from magazines, newspapers, and other sources b. Glue c. Sheet of thick cardboard or heavy construction paper d. Scissors 5. Procedure: a. Cut from magazines and other sources pictures which represent how you see yourself. These pictures might include what you like or dislike in the way of food, sports, etc. Where you live, what you want to be, what you are, where you have traveled. b. Make a collage out of these pictures. When gluing these pictures be sure to overlap them and cover the entire surface. 6. Discussion Questions: a. What do these pictures tell about you? 6. Variations on the same project: a. Do a collage entitled: A Famous Person, or the U.S.A., or Pollution or The City. Adapted from: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Activities Manual-- Junior High. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson- Shore, Inc., 1974. 134 Activity Card IVA3 Poetry Writing 1. Concept to be developed: Environmental decisions 2. Understanding to be developed: Students will express their feelings about a certain area by writing a haiku and drawing a finger-paint picture to accompany the feeling expressed by their haiku. By using these two methods or forms of expression a student may search out his feelings about an object(s) and express these feelings. The student also works with two media of expression, enabling the student to be able to express himself more effectively. 3. Time involved: one-two class periods. 4. Materials: paper, pencils, tempera paints 5. Procedures: Students are asked to write a haiku about a certain area of his environment (the school lawn and building might be a good first attempt). After writing the haiku, the student is then asked to make a finger-paint picture using only two colors to accompany his haiku. The colors chosen by each student should help express his feelings. (For an example of what a haiku is, see below). Haiku is a form of expression, Japanese in origin, used to express kinship with things natural. It is written as follows: lst line has 5 syllables Brimming full of life 2nd line has 7 syllables Heeding nature's starting gun 3rd line has 5 syllables Pond explodes in spring. Post and compare the works. Draw upon differences in interpretation and moods expressed. This can easily bring out socio-economic values and is a good discus- sion motivator. Use in a variety of environments such as parks, ponds, industries, landfills, etc. Adapted from: Environmental Education Interdisciplinary Curriculum Guide. Lansing, Michigan: Lansing School District, 1973. Activity Card IVA 35'ka PEOPLE by Dunagm We've found it! A civilization still in the Stone Age! No con- tact with the outside world for hundreds of years.* 135 4 INSTRUCTIONS: Write a comment about the "bad" side of pro- gress. Is it really important to protect other life forms (like ducks), and other forms of society (even primi- tive ones)? Write your comments below and explain the reason for your choice and commentary based on emotion, scientific knowledge, or because "it is the thing to do?" Is one of these the "best?" Explain. *By permission: Publishers Hall Syndicate, and the Columbus Dispatch. 136 Activity Card VAl Pollution Sticks Concept to be developed: Environmental Ethics Understanding to be developed: Humans can be "stewards" of the earth. Time: one class period Materials needed: a. 31 pick-up sticks with colored markings on them: Sticks Color Points 1 Man Black 60 5 Water Pollution Blue 10 5 Waste Green 6 10 Energy Crisis Red 2 10 Air Pollution Yellow 5 b. Object of the game: the player tries to pick up as many sticks as possible (one at a time) without moving the other sticks. c. Add up points. The black stick may be used to help pick up other sticks. d. Demonstrate to the students that no matter which stick they start with or collect (water, waste, etc.) the problem centers around the Black stick (man) and MAN is the one to solve the problem. Recommended Procedure: a. Divide the class into groups, 3 persons to a set of sticks b. Pass out sticks c. Follow directions to pick up sticks d. Two people watch and keep time, the other person then tries to pick up as many sticks as possible without moving the other sticks 137 6. Discussion Questions: a. Which stick is the most important to get? Why? b. When solving an environmental problem, what role does man play? Adapted from: Stapp, William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Activities--Middle Elementary Activities. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 138 Activity Card VA2 Solid Waste? What's That!! 1. Concept to be developed: Ehvironmental Ethics 2. Understanding to be developed: Humans can be "stewards" of the earth, rather than careless exploiters of it. 3. Time: 2 or more class periods 4. Materials: Garbage bags . Film: "Garbage" (11 min.) Art paper and paint . Cassette tape recorders Chart paper and markers (DO—IOU!” 5. Procedure: a. Introduce and show 11 minute visual essay "Garbage" to class. Use this film to initiate some discus- sion about who is responsible for the maintenance of the earth. b. After students View film ask them to relate what they saw in the film--teacher records this on chart paper--Ask Class if any of the garbage shown in the movie can be found around the room. c. Discuss the reasons for trash in the room and in individual student's desk and lockers. List responses on chart paper. d. Have students armed with large litter bags first clean up the classroom of any trash, then let them loose on the hallways of the school picking up visible trash. e. Have students bring back to the room their trash bags and quickly investigate the contents of the litter bags. Teacher should list on blackboard the kinds of things found and place them in categories, e.g., reusable (1) paper, (2) glass, etc. Adapted from: Stapp: William B., and Dorothy A. Cox. Environmental Education Activities--Middle Elementary Activities. Dexter, Michigan: Thomson-Shore, Inc., 1974. 139 Activity Card VA3 b) Johnnv he. Wsu. MWE Insecure mnuaam' Mont»? «s venue as can: WNI' By pemtssian of John Hart and Field Enterprises, Inc. INSTRUCTIONS: Cartoons are also a form of communication. Read the above cartoon. What is the author trying to say? Is there more to the cartoon than just the characters and the words in the "balloons?" Does the cartoon say anything about the environment? Does it say anything about people and how they act? Write a comment or statement below which tells your feelings and thoughts about the problem. If more writing space is needed, use the other side of this page. APPENDIX B ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION SURVEY ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION SURVEY* Directions: THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS WERE DESIGNED TO OBTAIN YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES ABOUT CERTAIN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS. PLEASE GIVE THE ANSWERS THAT SEEM BEST TO YOU. SAMPLE question is given below: 1. The atmosphere is composed of . . . 1. rock 2. water 3. gas 4. plants THE CORRECT ANSWER IS 3, gas, SO ON YOUR ANSWER SHEET, WRITE NUMBER 1 BESIDE 1A. BE SURE TO USE A PENCIL. YOUR TEACHER WILL TELL YOU WHEN TO BEGIN, BUT YOU MAY TAKE AS MUCH TIME AS YOU WISH. DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO 80. *Paul B. Hounshell, National Science Foundation, School of Education, 205 Peabody Hall, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514. 140 141 ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION SURVEY WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS THE BEST REASON FOR PRESER- VING WILDLIFE 1. It is an important source of food 2. It is an important source of clothing 3. It is essential in maintaining the balance of nature 4. It is an important source of recreation WITH REGARD TO MAN'S SURVIVAL GREEN PLANTS ARE 1. Not important at all 2. Of questionable importance 3. Of some importance 4. So important man cannot survive without them THE POPULATION OF YOUR HOME STATE SHOULD BE Stopped as soon as possible Slowed down somewhat Encouraged to increase Allowed to follow its natural course bWNf—J .0. THE PROBLEM OF AIR POLLUTION 1. Can be solved now if people demand it 2. Can never be solved 3. Can only be solved through new scientific dis- coveries 4. May be solved someday but it will take at least 20 years WATER POLLUTION IS A | 1. Problem in a few states 2. Problem in most states 3. Problem in the United States 4. World wide problem THE LOCATION OF OUTSIDE BATHROOMS NEAR A STREAM OR RIVER 1. Is a dangerous source of water pollution 2. Is a minor source of water pollution 3. Has no effect on water pollution 4. Does not look good 10. 11. 12. 142 SOME OFFICIALS DO NOT WANT THE BUILDING OF LARGER JET PASSENGER PLANES BECAUSE THEY THINK 1. The chances of serious accidents are great 2. It is a source of noise and other pollution problems 3. The money should be spent on conservation projects 4. Even more birds will be killed than in the past THE STUDY OF POLLUTION PROBLEMS Should not be a part of a public school program Should be a part of a public school program Should be left to scientists and college students Should be studied in public school only if you are interested waH INDIVIDUAL CITIZENS SHOULD Become more active in environmental problems Become less active in environmental problems Leave environmental problems to elected officials Ignore all this silly business about environmental problems AWNH AMERICANS HAVE ABOUT 7% OF THE WORLD'S POPULATION AND USE 50%OF THE WORLD'S NATURAL RESOURCES 1. This is fine because we pay for them 2. This is fine because other countries don't need them as much as we do 3. This is fine because if we can't use them Russia will 4. The United States has a responsibility to conserve these natural resources since they really belong to the whole world GOOD CONSERVATION PRACTICES USUALLY COME ABOUT BY The action of one or two interested peOple A hard working elected official The work of groups of concerned citizens The discoveries of scientists bWNl—J 0 MOST POLLUTION PROBLEMS CAN BE AVOIDED IF Forest fires and floods are controlled We learn to control the weather We can halt our growing pOpulation We can limit our pOpulation and educate people to the problems QWNH o o 13. 14. 15. 16. 143 THE UNITED STATES SHOULD l. Attempt to conserve its coal resources 2. Use its coal resources as needed and buy additional coal from other countries 3. Not worry about using up coal resources since a substitute will be developed by science 4. Not worry because our coal supply will last hundreds of years PEOPLE LIKE MYSELF SHOULD 1. Try to become better informed and active in the area of environmental concern 2. Try to force others to learn more about conserva- tion 3. Forget about conservation problems; they are too depressing 4. Not worry about conservation; scientists are working on it WHENEVER BUSINESS, PRIVATE LANDOWNERS, AND THE GENERAL PUBLIC DISAGREE OVER LAND USE 1. The decision should always favor the general public 2. The decision should favor private landowners since the right to own property is stated in the constitution 3. The decision should favor business since it pro- vides jobs for people 4. Multiple land use practices should be considered before a final decision is made IN PLANNING FOR THE WISE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES WE SHOULD 1. Take care of our present needs since they are so urgent 2. Let nature take its course 3. Consider our needs and those of future generations 4. Use up our resources and develop new ones through science 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 144 THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD, ESPECIALLY COASTAL COUN- TRIES, SHOULD 1. Turn more to the fish in the sea as a source of food ' 2. Set up boundaries along their shores and not let other countries fish there 3. Not take ocean fish for food since they contain dangerous amounts of lead and mercury 4. Be practicing good conservation of the ocean's fish supply THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT SPENDS . . . ON POLLUTION PROBLEMS 1. No money 2. A little but not enough money 3. Just enough money 4. Too much money THE MAJOR RESPONSIBILITY FOR CONSERVATION LIES WITH . The government . Big business . Conservationists . The individual DUONH EVERYONE KNOWS THAT FRESH WATER POLLUTION IS A PROBLEM, SALTWATER POLLUTION Is not a problem at all Is a serious problem also Is a minor problem Is a major problem in eastern United States only swaH 0. THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES SHOULD l. Grow as rapidly as possible because people are our most important resource 2. Grow slowly but-steadily 3. Decline as soon as possible to one half its present number 4. Level off and remain steady as soon as possible 22. 23. 145 WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS A REASON FOR BEING CONCERNED ABOUT POLLUTION OF COASTAL WATERS 1. Our major population centers are near the coasts 2. A major source of food is the fish and shellfish of coastal areas 3. Whatever we discharge into our rivers will likely end up in the sea 4. All of the above THE REASON FOR HAVING NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDERNESS AREAS IS TO 1. Have places where timber may be cut and replanted under close supervision 2. Allow ranchers to have places for cattle to graze 3. Preserve parts of nature for recreation and enjoyment 4. To make sure land will be available for future generations to live on QUESTIONS 24 and 25 24. A man had a large pile of rotten stumps, dead tree limbs, old pieces of board and old wooden furniture in his backyard. After a few weeks rabbits, field mice, snakes, and birds were seen at different times around the pile. The neighbors in back and on either side of the man were upset but said nothing. Some of the stuff kept falling into one neighbor's yard. At first he kept throwing it back. Finally when the man was on vacation the neighbor burned the pile. The pile was so large the fire took two days to burn. THE MAN WHO OWNED THE YARD WITH THE PILE IN IT 1. Should never have made such a pile because it was a type of pollution 2. Should have made sure his pile didn't fall on his neighbor's property 3. Did a good thing because the pile provided food and shelter for wildlife 4. Had a perfect right to do what he wanted on his own property 25. 146 THE NEIGHBOR 1. Had every right to burn the pile since it was a source of pollution and bothered him and others 2. Had no business destroying things on the man's property 3. Should have talked to the man first then burned the pile if the man did not remove it 4. Should have talked to the man first and then called the Board of Health if the man refused to cooperate QUESTIONS 26 AND 27 26. 27. 28. One day some businessmen came to town and cut trees and filled in a swamp and stream in order to build a new factory. The local citizens were upset. They said that the business had ruined a scenic spot, had endangered wildlife, put an end to fishing in the area, and had wiped out a source of badly needed water. The business replied that the new factory would supply badly needed jobs and threatened to build their factory in another town. The mayor and city council did not like the idea of cutting and filling but the new factory now meant 200 new jobs for the town so they did nothing. WHO WAS RIGHT? The citizens The businessmen The mayor and city council Each of the three groups were part right and part wrong HchJH O O 0 THE BEST THING TO DO WOULD BE TO 1. Build the factory because the citizens would quiet down when they saw what 200 new jobs meant to their town 2. Organize the citizens to picket the factory 3. Elect a new mayor and city council 4. Have all three groups meet and plan a factory that would please everybody THE POPULATION OF YOUR HOME STATE Is increasing each year Is decreasing each year Has been the same for the last 5 years Goes up and down from year to year QWNH O. O 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 147 THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD IS 3 million 30 million _ 300 million 3 billion bWNH H ITS PRESENT RATE OF GROWTH, THE WORLD'S POPULATION ILL 21» Level off Decrease Continue to increase Increase until it reaches its carrying capacity nbUJNH 0 AIR POLLUTION IS GENERALLY MORE A PROBLEM IN 1. Rural 2. Urban 3. Forests 4. Deserts THE WORLD SUPPLY OF FRESH WATER FOR DRINKING IS Decreasing Increasing Changes from year to year The same as it has always been ubWNH 0 THE WORLD FOOD SUPPLY PER PERSON IS Decreasing Increasing Goes up and down in cycles The same as it was 50 years ago vaJNH O. O DAMAGE IS CAUSED TO FERTILE SOIL FROM . Erosion . Poor crop rotation practices . Poor fertilization practices . All of the above ubLHNI—J WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING CITIES HAVE AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS? 1. New York 2. Los Angeles 3. Asheville 4. All of the above 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 148 WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING POSE THE GREATEST THREAT TO THE SURVIVAL OF LIFE ON EARTH DOOM?“ .0. P3 :1! Di uwaH AN Bacteria Flies Rats Man ENERGY SOURCE FOR THE WATER CYCLE IS The wind The sun The atmosphere The ocean AIR POLLUTANT ONE MIGHT BE EXPOSED TO IN AN AUTOMOBILE IS book)?“ Oxygen Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS OUR MOST IMPORTANT RESOURCE ubWNI-J 0. Minerals Electrical power Man's intelligence The wheel PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS A PROCESS BY WHICH PLANTS bLHk)H Reproduce Breathe Make food Digest food GREEN PLANTS ARE NOT FOUND AT GREAT DEPTHS IN THE OCEAN BECAUSE The water pressure is too great Oxygen and carbon dioxide are not found at these depths The water temperature is too cold Sunlight does not reach the ocean depths 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 149 A MAJOR REASON WHY SO MANY KINDS OF ANIMALS ARE LISTED AS "ENDANGERED SPECIES" WHICH MAY SOON BECOME EXTINCT IS 1. All animals must become extinct sooner or later 2. They have not adapted to natural changes in their environment 3. Man has upset the natural order of things 4. To make people aware that animals other than man are important, too LARGE AMOUNTS OF DETERGENTS IN OUR RIVERS AND STREAMS 1. Make the water look bad 2. Cause a smell that bothers most people 3. Use up oxygen that fish need to breathe 4. Cause the rivers and streams to dry up MOST POLLUTION OCCURS WHERE . Forest fires have occurred . Floods occur . Large numbers of people live . Wind storms are frequent :bUJNl-J FOOD, CLOTHING, SHELTER AND ENERGY ARE MADE POSSIBLE THROUGH THE EXISTENCE OF 1. Green plants 2. Coal and oil 3. Electricity 4. The ocean SCIENTISTS HAVE FOUND THAT THE USE OF D.D.T. IN THIS COUNTRY 1. Has caused minor problems to animal life 2. Has caused major problems to animal life 3. Has caused no problems to animal life 4. Has been beneficial to animal life WHAT GAS IS RELEASED BY PLANTS IN THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS? . Oxygen . Nitrogen Carbon dioxide Water vapor thNI" 0 48. 49. 50. 150 WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING STATES HAS A WATER POLLUTION PROBLEM? . Vermont . Maine - . North Carolina . All of the above 4:.me SOME INSECTS CANNOT BE KILLED BY BUG SPRAY. THIS IS BECAUSE l. The wrong bug spray was used 2. The wrong amount of spray was used 3. Certain resistant individuals survived and reproduced 4. New species of insects are developing everyday ECOLOGY IS 1. The study of natural resources 2. The science of conservation 3. The study of living things in relation to their environment 4. A branch of biology dealing with the study of plants 151 Code # Name Score K Score A Total S ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION SURVEY Answer Sheet 1A 17_____ 34______ l_____ l8_____' 35_____ 2_____ l9______ 36_____ 3______ 20_____ 37_____ 4_____ 21_____ 38_____ 5______ 22_____ 39_____ 6_____' 23_____ 40_____ 7_____ 24______ 4L_____ 8______ 25______ 42_____ 9______ 26_____ 43_____ 10______ 27______ 44______ ll_____ 28_____ 45_____ 12"____ 29_____ 46_____ 13______ 30______ 47______ l4______ 31______ 48______ 15 32 49 -—-—— —U— “ 16 33 50 APPENDIX C PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN COGNITIVE AND ATTITUDE SCORES AMONG VARIOUS GROUPINGS 152 Table C-1.--Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Cognitive and Attitude Scores among Various Groupings. Treatment Alternate Program Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest .6596 .5495 .34 .26 n (23) (23) (34) (34) s .001 .003 .024 .07 Males .21 51 .50 .57 n (28) (28) (18) (18) s .145 .003 .017 .007 .61 .36 .60 .64 n (33) (33) (24) (24) s .001 .019 .001 .001 Females .70 .64 .43 .53 n (18) (18) (27) (27) s .001 .002 .012 .012 .51 .53 .46 .47 Totals n (102) (102) (103) (103) s .001 .001 .001 .001 n: sample size 5: significant level APPENDIX D MEAN SCORES AND PERCENTAGE OF MEAN SCORES FOR COGNITIVE SUBSCALE AND ATTITUDE SUBSCALE FOR TREATMENT AND ALTERNATE GROUPS 153 Table D-1.--Mean Scores and Percentage of Mean Scores for Cognitive Subscale and Attitude Subscale for Treatment and Alternate Groups. Cognitive Subscale Attitude Subscale Mean Percentage Mean Percentage of Mean of Mean Treatment 17.46 75.91 21.23 78.62 Group Alternate 14 24 61.96 18.66 69.11 Group ’- IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII lllllllllllllllllllllllllllIllllllllllllllllllllllllll