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ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF DIVERSE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES, PSYCHOLOGIES, METHODOLOGIES, AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AS A MEANS TO ESTABLISH A CURRICULUM THEORY IN SUPPORT OF DIVERSE EDUCATIONAL ALTERNATIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS WITHIN PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY William David James Shaw While most Americans do not favor a radical restructuring of our current school organization, chronic tension remains between the schools and the communities they serve. Consequently, the dichotomy between school objectives and human needs has resulted in objectives of maintained disciplines, resulting in discouraging ingenuity and crea- tivity, developing apathetic acceptance and minimizing the school experience to a mere ritual, which has negated a process of providing diversity for learners of a pluralistic society. The demands of the American people for greater emphasis on a specific content area or process has left the school practitioner frustrated and wanting of an organiza- ticmal approach that meets the needs of present day giluralistic demands; these demands do not call for external (Ir even internal revolutionary changes in public school -v~--u~-.v 'u . - ..*d.v-u‘O—-.. . -.. .. a.. I a .. q-cn ‘- ‘- ‘ . I‘HAV“..- .c- \ -.v-..-.' -- .- vb ----... - --‘-‘.-b-DV - a... ‘ —' ;:v‘—~' _ T... ‘-A.--. "'.-~ I l- .— .- I s . "‘-04 ..: "v-- ’v V-o- _.“\... - ; "-~. .D'_'~'. q u...--_ A. I. ‘ s s . ’va.‘ . A . . ..~ 0. ._~--‘ -‘ ' v.7“. - :n. _ VA ‘-. V a 5‘ v .~~ — "..l x ‘ 5. a o _‘ ‘ a n ' . - u.“._ y: -,.-‘. ' r., .. — w ‘-. 2 ~ H-.. u ‘ - vs.. 4 an “ .—v o ‘s ‘- u r .., v». ‘ s. >-:"_ s ‘4 _~ ‘ -._- t. F .‘ " t- n. c n-‘._"-‘ ‘5 “ . .:-'-. .. n s a .‘ , '-- 0-." - -_ . .. ~ ls - § “ :3 - _ V. \ n . -.4 ‘. . ‘- -"~ ‘ § ‘ . I .i s “.... ‘ ‘- " b‘- '-. -h‘ ~ - i‘ ,‘ ‘- ‘ o- ‘. ._~ \, . 'Q N", “ I‘-‘- '. ‘ . " “s ~ n ‘a _ - . “ - ‘-§' ‘4 ‘. .\ .‘ ..- ‘\~ 4-. § . v \ ‘ _ ‘ .\ “ . . \: v \ ‘ “\&.‘ \ ~ 'S K - ~‘ ‘I‘ .. p. ‘ .- (If William David James Shaw organization and/or policies, but it does require a fresh look at developing a system that can best meet today's diversity of demands. Such was the purpose of this study: to synthesize the vast amount of educational research and experience into a general theory for instructional alterna- tive learning environments for implementation and evaluation within public school systems through preserving aspects of the present curriculum and introducing change gradually through a systematic evolutionary approach to the whole problem that will improve attitudes, processes, achievement and programs and relate directly to the immediate life needs of students, helping them to become self-directive human beings in a democratic society. For the practitioner who recognizes the plight of the present educational system, but remains uncertain about what direction to take, the diverse educational alternative learning environmental (DEALE) theory provides purpose as well as power, through alliance with, rather than hostility toward, learners, associates, and administrators. It voluntarily attracts community and parental participatory .involvement, for continuous defining, debating, systemizing, aand continually updating of the curriculum in order that the ruature of the cognitive and affective skills of today's IolJJralistic student will be met and, thus, initiate a leuarning system that is founded upon relevance of the I" 8, I :V -- ‘ a -— —--v 0-- " ~-_. -¢--~.A.a -'_:"‘_v-‘ n s. v.-. -- -vu. . ‘ - -_ ‘ Q 9‘--- ‘ .. r— u-',...- ‘- ‘,.- ‘ - \. . u . .g ‘W-‘ ‘ ~ ‘ n. . c-» ~_. -“ I.-- ‘l‘ - \ " x. k .‘.-- “ -.k ' .. ‘ . — ‘ ; ‘. ‘-~ ~.:,~ - §- ‘ -. ’--“ "~‘ "---3- _- s..~ - .‘ D.‘ \ ‘ u. k- -_ ‘ ‘s s " “_— -2“ “. 'u“ —‘ _ w- _ ‘- ‘_‘-' L. - fi‘- .“ s‘v- . §..‘ ““ . ‘ “‘ ,_~ -._‘ - ‘ “1 ' .'.- ~ ‘ - ~ “‘ h - -_,‘ u. .‘ -‘ ‘ ‘ L- _ I. ’ ‘- ‘U- ..‘ v‘ \ Q- ~ ‘- . ~ .“ ._- “- ‘~‘~A ‘» ‘§,~ “ . -‘ ~_ -‘ _‘- >-- ‘.‘— K h.‘ \9 ‘ \ ~ ~ .- - .- \ _ ‘ \ ‘~ -V- ‘x 5.. ‘ V \ I" -_. ‘ - M‘: \“ .. . . — \ - ‘ \ - ‘ ‘ \4\ v ‘\ \A - ‘ - ~- ‘__ i ‘ ~ » V-_ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘. ‘A " \— ~. ‘ ‘ x \\ ‘ ‘ \ ‘_V ‘ ‘ - — ' :- ~ \ . \~ “. v... ‘ l.‘ '- ‘. ‘ l... - \ ‘ Q ‘\~ ‘ \ . u \ William David James Shaw learner's learning-life style and the teacher's teaching- life style. The need is for a consistent direction and a logical beginning for schools. Thus, the equilibrium point for education today is to assimilate and accommodate the sig— nificant factors of the past with those of the present in preparation for tomorrow and establish a system of educa- tional diverse alternative learning environments within public schools that can supply the consistence and logic that is necessary and sufficient for educational relevance. A discussion of a creative explorative theoretical model focused on a new structure of educational organization, that of balancing a perspective change with concern for existing, effective, operating educational structures, instructional materials and strategies through utilizing a trilogy matrix of philosophy, psychology and communication networks that span the continuum from the traditional per— spective to the organismic. Also, nine environmental subset components: society, the learner, learning, growth and - '~. -.~ " 5 ‘s. _ . ~- ‘ ~ ‘~._ \ ‘u 1;~. - 'u“ ‘.’I I. N... s~ . q ‘~ ‘ ”'n - “\ “~ - ”o .. . ." ‘ ‘ Q‘ ‘ .- ‘.'§ ‘ n; ~..‘ -‘ "‘_‘ William David James Shaw through the use of the curricular—organizational theoretical model. The process of personally designing an environmental learning descriptor through the utilization and systematic application of data accumulated from the theoretical model established a rational way of constructing methodologies that provide individually defined environmental descriptors, based on the following criteria: purposes, activities, and/or behaviors desired, how the use of time and space are to be managed, the constraints imposed, and the evaluation procedures. This sometimes agonizing process of experimen— tation, under responsible supervision and constructively channeled, should be accepted as the priority of education, not as an interruption, negation, or radical movement of the learning process. The formalized learning environmental descriptor then becomes an instrument to voluntarily be shared with ease for consumer distribution, readability and choice, and also facilitates the need for an organizational delivery system that society is demanding. AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF DIVERSE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES, PSYCHOLOGIES, METHODOLOGIES, AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AS A MEANS TO ESTABLISH A CURRICULUM THEORY IN SUPPORT OF DIVERSE EDUCATIONAL ALTERNATIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS WITHIN PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY William David James Shaw A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1975 ii Copyright by WILLIAM DAVID JAMES SHAW 1975 an. c - "z. 50-6-.. ‘..' .. . ..n “u .5. N» . . n... i. e 7 c. - b. a: .C. . a. v. 2 C 3. t: a: 3. .. p. .... —.. a. p. 2. c. .. .... o. A. .5 v? v. .. a. ... A» . . a. Q . F.» .3 6» 3. nu u» . .3 .n. . . A. . . v. .. u.. u“ .. Pi . 0 Ann .ou .Q .n ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge my doctoral committee chairman, Dr. Dale Alam and the other members of my committee-~Dr. John Suehr, Dr. Larry Sarbaugh, and Dr. George Meyers--for their reactions, confrontations, and support during the period of my doctoral study. To Dale, whose friendship assisted me in becoming, and to those significant others, who have shared themselves in helping me to appreciate the now, an overwhelming warmth and very special thanks. To my wife, Mary, for her faith and capacity to understand, and to Jeff and Jamie Marie for their inspiration, words cannot begin to express my gratitude. iii 0... g- \ O a... v. .. 0-w.-’ - _ h n.§ _-. n P..— in Q..- 0" '1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM, NEED, AND PURPOSE . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Basic Assumption Governing School Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 The DEALE Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 The Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 1? Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Questions for Study . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Procedure of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Limitations and Significance . . . . . . 34 Overview of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . a . 37 Limit and Sc0pe of the Review of Literature . 37 A Perspective Overview of Alternatives . . . 39 The Background of the Alternative Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Components and Features of Options and Alternative Progrmas . . . . . . . 44 Types and Styles of Alternatives . . . . 48 The Rationale for Alternatives . . . . . o . S4 Curriculum by Choice . . . . . . . . . . 54 Alternative Accountability . . . . . . . 58 The Legitimization of Options . . . . . . 61 Developing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Potential of Alternatives . . . . . . . . 67 The Impact of Alternatives on Education . . . 71 A New Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Teacher Qualities and Style . . . . . . 71 Elements of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . 74 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 iv - . upofl -_ ”V in" .b. u 0.. "‘"‘ .- 0... ‘iv' - Q ‘ '11 (I! ’1" '1 F O'- Q... Chapter III. REVIEW OF THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES . . . . . Part I. Philosophical Overview Naturalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Value of Education . . . . . . . Learning and the Learner . . . . . . . . Objectives of Education . . . . . . . . . Idealism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . On the Self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Value of Education . . . . . . . . Learning and the Learner . . . . . . . . Objectives of Education . . . . . . . . . Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On the Physical World . . . . . . . . On the Character of Mind . . Social Value of Education . . Learning and the Learner . . . . . . Objectives of Education . . . Pragmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Value of Education . . . . . . . Learning and the Learner . . . . . . . Objectives of Education . . . . . . . . . Existentialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Value of Education . . . . . . . . Learning and the Learner . . . . . . . . Objectives of Education . . . . . . . . . Man and His Growth and Development . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part II. Psychological Theories Humanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Humanistic Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Principles of Humanistic View of Human Deve10pment . . . . . . . . . Behaviorist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Behaviorism . . . . . Basic Principles of a Behaviorist View of Human Deve10pment . . . . . . . . . Cognitive-Deve10pmental View . . . . . . . Characteristics of Cognitive-Development Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Principles of a Cognitive View of Human Deve10pment . . . . . . . . Page 83 88 89 90 91 93 93 94 94 95 97 98 102 102 102 104 105 108 110 111 113 115 117 120 122 124 124 125 128 129 131 133 134 136 137 138 140 . ‘0'.- 1 0" vugb .v0 0 WV oi. fl‘ ff) :34 'U In In (D Chapter IV. V. Psychodynamic View . . . . . . o . . . . . . Characteristics of Psychodynamic Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Principles of a Psychodynamic View of Human Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . Part III. Organizational Communication Theories Six Communication Concepts . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Organizational Theories . . . . . Max Weber's Bureaucratic Model . . . . . The Harvard School Human Relations Theory of Organization . . . . . . . . Simon's Administrative Behavior Theory . Douglas McGregor's Theory Y . . . . . . . Rensis Likert's System IV . . . . . . . . Social Systems Theory . . . . . . . . . . A CURRICULAR-ORGANIZATION THEORETICAL MODEL FOR DEALE O C C C O C C O O O C O O O O O O O O Mainstream's Approach to Terminology . . . . PhilOSOphical Modes . . . . . . . . . . . Psychological Modes . . . . . . . . . . . Communication Modes . . . . . . . . . . Interdependent Philosophical and Psychological Variables . . . . . . . . Interdependent Communication Variables A Practitioner's Approach to Diagnosing an Educational Environment . . . . . . . . . . Parent and Student Decisions . . . . . . . . THEORETICAL APPLICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION . . Berkeley's Alternative Schools Plan . . . . . Genesis High School . . Marcus Garvey Institute Alliance Black House . Odyssey . . . . . . . . . Model A School . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . School of the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . Berkeley College Preparatory . . . . . . On Target School (OTS). . . . . . . . . . King's Alternative for Relevant Education (KARE) . o . . . . . . . . . vi Page 142 142 145 149 151 151 153 154 156 157 159 164 168 168 169 170 170 171 172 193 203 203 204 204 204 205 205 206 207 207 207 207 207 .u .- p:u.ur Vol-9". 0 fl 5 4- 0 ~ 9. .O ‘ h 7!. A0. ~‘. \ \"| V A" 5.. C.. $. . ‘, ‘1- . "nE’jw t . HM‘X‘ A. 13*. ..4 h r5”:— n...’ .— '- E. \W'v-_ n“... in, a ' P \g ‘v'aih'V‘.’ cfu.." M.“' Chapter One West Campus Basic Skills . . . . . Alliance Casa de la Raza . . . . . . Early Learning Center (ELC) . . . . . Kilimanjaro . . . . . . . . . John Muir Child Deve10pment Center . Jefferson Tri- Part Model . . . . . School System . . . . . . . . . . . . The Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . Other Alternatives Within Michigan . . . Educational Park--Grand Rapids . . Howell High School--Howell . . . . Kinawa Middle School--Okemos . . . Open Discovery Program, Defer Elementary--Grosse Pointe . . . . . Pioneer Two--Ann Arbor . . . . . . . Project SEE (Strategies for Environ- mental Education)-—Wyandotte . . . Region Seven, Middle School--Detroit Region Five, Middle School-—Detroit . Cornell Elementary--Okemos . . . . Hemmeter School Alternative--Saginaw Formal Environmental Descriptors . . . Glencairn School--East Lansing . . VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . . Summary of the Study . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications . . . . . . . , . . . . For the Administrator . . . . . . . . For the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . For the Parents . . . . . . . . . . . For the Students . . . . . . . . . . Appendix For the School System . . . . . . . A. 1974 EVALUATIONS OF OPTIONAL OR ALTERNATIVE PROGRAMS O C O O I C C 0 C I O O O O O O O B. STUDENT GENERATED DESCRIPTOR . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY C O O 0 O O O O O O O t“ O 0 C O O O 0 vii Page 207 208 208 208 209 210 211 213 224 225 226 226 227 227 228 229 229 230 231 233 233 242 242 245 251 251 252 253 253 254 261 271 274 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Principles of Order and Organization . . . . . 24 2. Education-by-Choice Model . . . . . . . . . . c 63 3. Alternatives on a Freedom-to-Prescription continulml C O O O C O O O G O O D O O O O O c ‘3 65 4. Analysis of Philosophical Theories . . . . . . 127 5. Analysis of Psychological Theories . . . . . . 148 6. Analysis of Organizational Theories . . . . . . 162 7. The Trilogy and Interrelated Components . . . . 176 8. The Trilogy and Interdependent Variables . . . 178 9. The Variable Analysis Matrix . . . . . . . . . 180 10. The Composite Variable Analysis of Major PhiIOSOphical Components . . . . . . . . . . . 182 11. The Composite Variable Analysis of Major Psychological Components . . . . . . . . . . . 184 12. The Composite Variable Analysis of Major Communicative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 13. The Evaluation Grid . . . o . . . . . . . . . . 188 14. The Environmental Descriptor . . . . . . o . . 192 ~ 15. Continuous Progress Environmental Descriptor . 217 16. Option Block Environmental Descriptor . . . . . 220 17. The Nature of Learning Within an Option . . . . 221 viii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM, NEED, AND PURPOSE Introduction Changes needed in contemporary American education are evolving much too slowly. Although this feeling is much stronger among scholars and intellectuals than the ordinary tax-payer, the populace has become alert to the needs of schools both because of the persistent involvement of com— munities who are seeking answers to the current questions of where their tax dollar is going and what are the returns for their investment, as well as through their own personal experience with schools. The popular critics, Ashton-Warner, Herndon, Holt, 1 Kohl, Kozol, and Silberman, for Change are significantly outweighed by the reality that most schools reveal an lSylvia Ashton-Warner, Spearpoint; Teacher in America (New York: Knopf, 1972); James Herndon, The Way It §pozed to Be (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968); John Holt, Freedom and Beyond (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972); Herbert R. Kohl, Open Classroom (New York: Random House, 1969); Jonathan Kozol, Death at an Early Age (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1967); and Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in the Elassroom (New York: Random House, 1970). I i-. ...--:-I ‘ “.. ‘dQ-aw - - u C. ,g..A~~II F' — 4 yauov-l" ~' I p A.‘ 95"AV' \ U ‘ .. .‘l..- -."AO'- ' H u-Z'. chug-.." _‘. . . .‘gcn .Q'.‘" -. I "“ ~Vllvv- ' n A. ..,. c U. . - V A ...._ .5 .. .. -:"-. pl 7 4 9 (1' (I! unimaginative atmosphere for learning and that the efficacy of current innovation is marginal. Except for some favorable differences in terms of reducing the feeling of regimentation among students and teachers, the inspira- tional evolution of improvement of attitudes, processes, achievement, and programs have not been internalized by many schools. Evidence indicates that many schools ignore much of what is known about teaching and learning. Students are often taught through the accepted structure of grouped— tracked instruction using a common set of aged materials and scheduled according to the maximum class load permissible under the master contract, regardless of the type of teaching-learning experience. Educators have themselves encouraged the pendulum to swing to this side of the continuum by avoiding the difficult task of becoming much more proficient in designing the vari- ables of meaningful educational environmental experiences. Too much time and space are given by professional educators to new scheduling techniques, technology, evaluation pro- cedures, or individualized learning packages, thinking that each new idea that comes along may provide the answer. These professed new ideas are not answers; not until the education profession is able to identify the conditions «essential for an environment in which more effective learning takes place . .;-‘A~O' *9 _' . .‘CU‘UOVII‘- U . v... 'FV 'II:O u. cash g. I. o "" ‘--vo:o u .— nn-‘ . 0-0.... . . U." ‘00--.. b O .- .- .°" I‘-~b- . _ . nun ~-__.' ‘ \ gnu ...__-- _ .v-a..~-.. . - I I..‘.“."- c H... ‘v- -‘ H “fl “‘ I.' u . u ‘ On _ ‘ - . -" . ...— ‘."5A.‘.-. a... 7-- .u .,_v Q :1. ‘:.-__‘ . . Q ‘tl~.A _ '. bynuno_“.‘ : D. QA.‘~I.. .- :‘ 'h It'-t._“. ‘. ‘u. ‘ Q a. V - V. ...: ' .n’ I ha: C:V..cv ‘5‘...\‘ .‘n o ‘7 A -- 2". “‘. I .‘_-: Q ..‘ as ‘I A . '\ 3.“. n: ._ x”. 2 u 1“.“ ~ ‘v‘ ~ ".Ac‘ H..~‘ '1‘“. ,- ~., ‘- “ Cr‘ ‘1 .l“‘l.» A: . . ‘. . N.C $,~P ¥ 0...” b..-” ‘. n‘.‘ . v‘ 7-“ “‘~‘AH“ u..:‘ ‘- ‘~.2»: ‘ ' i ‘ i N :2 ~ ‘ ‘ ‘f‘ ._ ‘AQ ._.. ‘s It is now time to synthesize the vast amount of educational research and experience into a general theory for instructional alternative learning environments for implementation and evaluation within public school systems. The attempt then will be to present educational theories and constructs as a means to establish a curricular- organizational theory that is supportive of educators who are aware and ready to implement diverse educational alternative learning environments within their school. The study will provide historically diverse educational approaches utilizing a trilogy of philosophy, psychology and communicative networks that will span the continuum from the traditional perspective to the organis- mic. Also, nine environmental subset components: SOClety, the learner, learning, growth and deVelopment, education, man, decision making, motivation, and behavior, will be explored within each continuum as essential in the devel- opment of a theory that is necessary and sufficient for acceptance of a diverse educational alternative learning environmental model. A secondary objective in development of the theory will be an established set of matrices for educational practitioners to utilize in becoming aware of the ease of preparation, initiation, implementation and evaluation of the building's readiness for an optional ciiverse educational alternative learning environmental model. . ""' *"rv-. ... can. ac.-. ,. v '. V‘b .- h' " U.-.... ..I . C fi-v -. t-n"; 5-. .“-.l‘_ vu- - ‘ .‘wvv ~_ 5 v—u . ‘ ..I ‘- _ Ar'.‘ bv.- vz.._ Y . VA ‘o- ‘-- \ ‘A~~ 0-. B ”I -.. f H' in ’r 1 [It I“ l ' '- a. .- s ~‘ ‘. a,” I a‘ s‘ A. ~‘ 5‘ n ‘. a g I \ \ \ ~4C‘. \‘.|“i \‘ A‘ 'H ~ ‘0 \ “ ‘A b "s ‘t Q‘- ~ ‘. ‘.. 5 F. g ‘ a- ‘u ‘A I""‘~ _\ V The Problem Experience, research and interpersonal interaction with current practitioners have identified the current problem in today's schools, that of providing diversity for learners of a pluralistic society. Demands are made by many diverse individuals or groups for greater emphasis on the content or that process. Proposals to add or to re-emphasize are more numerous than those to drop or de- emphasize. In the midst of this contemporary urgency, but of conflicting demands, school practitioners find it most frustrating and difficult to be certain of proper directions and even more difficult to move consistently in agreement upon directions in view of these pluralistic needs that now exist in every school district. The problem has two dimensions, the established direction of the school, and the established need of contemporary society. Today's democratic society is characterized by an industrial-technical-military-cultural apparatus with growing heterogeneity of values and intent that has survived with progressive adaptability. The school's direction was to respond to society's needs of maintaining their existence based on the goal of disseminating knowledge and developing new organizations (Df content in an attempt to make schools more academically ixigorous. Many of these new and improved academic curricula . u .. I My. ‘ ~.u-Io~~.. . p v'~-v -0 ~. ‘.'.. hi. I u “ ‘AO‘A - ~ v. vb..-_.‘, ‘ . .. u. "‘ “'A-.... ~ 5-! - '- "".~-.a on. _ A..,.v_ ‘ In. -_‘ u..“‘_‘ a ..‘ . I. v . us o-A“n. ‘ .C" .-.. . n.. . -.~: .. A. ....‘~ ~. ‘ *1 I. D I F A. ‘ ‘t‘u ~5— '- “a.\ .':§.‘ _ '7'u‘, Fe -.. “ no, A A,‘ ' \ v- 3 ‘:.-"Q Q i“ . ._' ~\‘ .. ‘~~. a... _ - 5 -* \ h ‘A v::v . ““h-“C:- H.“- H .'~ \ - A .,I— ’.F~ .- “~u.. M. . -. '- ‘5 ‘ ~ ‘ .. A.‘ ‘. ~ v- ~‘\ ~ ~ . -_.§ ~‘- b‘ ~ v‘.“ ‘\ \.. ‘ '75-! ~ ‘I~~"‘\ ‘H \ “s. A ~ ." ._~ “ ._ A ‘~' ‘3 TA . resulted in more confusion for the specific needs of a pluralistic society and thus the increasing academic rigor of instruction did not solve the basic problems of schools. A second direction of schools attempting to respond to societal needs was to integrate social disciplines within the curricula origin which were thought to be necessary for the maintenance of the control systems of society. Less concerned with academic achievement, schools responded with control and discipline and eliminating the educational direction of attempting to relate to the immediate life needs of students, helped them to become self—directive human beings in a free society. With the renewed concen- tration of discipline inculcation, schools were confronted by severe incorrigible human problems that led to the destruction of human growth and development and buildings. A counter-direction was soon initiated that reflected society's concerns about the atrophy of human development and schools' application of control mechanisms in attempts to maintain discipline which resulted in (energies to adapt programs and instruction relevant to 'the needs of all children regardless of their racial, «economic, or social class antecedents. Specifically, this rmqvement rejected studies which were beyond their powers of cxniceptualization, irrelevant to their needs for learning c Al' A Q- I ' fi-l ... in as» - . "'9! .P- r .- Q—ol vah~ .- . nip-4g u.. .. ‘ c. '8 DHbO'» 'aflq'..- ... p ‘1 'w..u. - ‘ .~- A.\ ‘1‘. .‘_ . ‘- ‘-: i. '\ .- ‘A . 3. ' .i‘ “' ‘. h“ ~—. “'5 how to deal with their life in the now, and inconsistent with the patterns of development open to them. The priority objective of discipline maintenance resulted in discouraging ingenuity and creativity and deveIOping subservient conform— ity, and reducing schools to maintenance organizations, as opposed to learning institutions. In spite of schools' attempts to reflect society's values, not much fundamental change really occurred. The basic assumptions that schools are based on have remained. Schools still perceive as their ultimate objective the pursuance of knowledge-disseminating institutions. The attempts to implement society's needs into the curriculum can be seen in the adoption of new math and science cur- ricula, curricular innovations in social studies, and humanities were instituted, and the system of grading and credits are under investigation and being modified. Open requirements, more student freedom of choice and action, nwdified class schedules, and organizational structures have been tried. Of all the reform and accommodation that schools have attempted, the basic problems of the schools remain, and little if any fundamental change has taken place. 'Fhe basic theme of the schools's direction is as a place to teach information and learning as the process of being eruzulturated within the middle-class ethic. ovot-P'rn- u ‘ 5. .‘o...~5.d..u - on: n----..- .1 I an. 5». ....¢... O'C- .I : "‘ DFA n T F‘ -. .' I... "I‘ \ ‘ Q ‘IR :..‘A ‘ 9.. 5"‘\'“h: - I. "_ . .“t :~~'~ ‘A n...» .n‘ ~.. I \‘fl-l' I. . ~\-._' ‘ "o. ‘ ‘--Z. —I '« ‘--€ ~. \‘.“n.. 'v. \ ‘ ‘ : . h .. .5 ~ 4" n.. :a. ._‘-\.'. ‘fg - 5» ‘- Q. I ‘iv ‘19 F?!- b. v- ; ‘ — 'Q . ‘.,. “A V F- 51" ‘sz -4- ». . I.. s . “v; k I... ‘0 n. Q.‘- '6 .‘ .u‘A .‘ v ~ - A. ‘ . H‘: . I -§ Q ~ v "0- ‘v ‘ ." a- ; c u: ‘ ‘fl . . a t a “ -‘I v. 5'- ‘ \‘ \ I a F. ‘1‘. s 1‘ ‘- s. '4‘. .- ‘I. ’5 .jr . « En. ~4 .l \‘\,. Q “ The present school organizational goal of maintenance and production must be evaluated in light of the community it serves. It can no longer avoid confron- tation with its basic issues. The most critical issue of all is the examination of the fundamental assumptions on which it is structured, to determine whether or not it is doing that which is the most important for the community and students it now serves. The Basic Assumption Governing Scfiool Today The assumption which governs the direction of schools is based upon society's characteristic attitude toward past, present and future and reflected by the schools' approach to learning. In the 1700's the past crept forward into the present and repeated itself in the future. Prepar- ing the learner during this period was to arm him With the skills of the past for these skills were needed in the future. This classical approach was based upon parents or tutor dispersing practical techniques along with a <11early defined, highly traditional set of values. The eniucational enculturalization of societal values by parents, religious institutions, and apprenticeships was the founda- tirnn for educational decision making, and its absolute devotion to the past. --v-~o rs u..--...- .- ..-' . :-.¢.o.-. - . . Ag 4-. ' . . ‘ vu-.-.--. _ up _~, . .— - . ~~ ...- -_ o . ‘0 "n .I‘ Al .'. 'Iu .- "‘--I-..u ‘ . . “‘r “v ‘ .n-., ‘.. . r... 'P. ‘v. "" c.. u '- " ;~‘:.- o...‘~ ~- -. , ‘ o .' H ‘ ‘ Vh.‘ - ‘. I. .I ~ “ n. fit- “ ‘.. _ .._ .. . a ‘ fl" 5.-“ -‘ - ‘ .'. ‘ .- .._ y. M“ ~‘ . _ . .‘~.‘. V ‘ a ’A- -‘.‘ F ‘ syn . ‘0 ' ‘ r-*‘ ' 4‘s- _,. . -.__. . . ._ ‘ ‘p. -‘ T ‘;‘. ._.“ In. .‘ A..R~ ' fi. F ‘V..- b~\ :(. . 7‘- a‘. , . ._‘ “ K . A 6“, '\- :5‘ .. A.‘ .‘I. \\. ‘s “ u , s. ,. I > "- 5... “n .. “. \ " \, ~q‘ .~,‘ '5‘ .. ‘4 ‘ . ‘.‘ a ' ‘. 3‘-‘ ‘5‘.” r ‘4‘ . F ‘ V. ‘ ~ ‘ . ‘ L‘a ‘ ‘~\ \1 The coming of the 1800's required a new value structure for man to cope with his environment. The solution to this new societal need was answered by an educational system that structured itself after the model of the age. This perfect reflection of society with its regimentation, nonindividualization, rigid seating, grouping, grading evaluating was a very effective instrumental adapta- tion for its place and time, as it is in part for some today, but not in totality for all learners. This societal model reflected an educational organization for the learner who not only learned facts that he could use later, but lived as well as learned, a way of life modeled after the one he would lead in the future. The consistent use of the educa- tional process to maintain society's beliefs, values and social behavior has been the model used throughout the years for preparing the learner for the future. Thus, the focus of education today ought to be an organizational evolution- ary movement away from the past and toward the present in preparation for the now. Fundamentally, education is presumed to be the transmission of knowledge. Instruction is based on subjects .1nd the end—product is the mastery by the student of that SLflDject matter that the teacher decides to dispense. A knasic characteristic of this system is that education is a {IrOCESS of screening out the unfit rather than helping .. gzr.- . I. ui‘l‘uc . ‘ ‘ Q.. 1‘ ~ -.-. ‘n--.- ‘ . . - _ ‘ ‘v". a- - "‘ “r" .. ‘ >— "' "‘~ -. a ‘:.-‘,. . . ~- -‘ w... ‘ 'U'.‘ . '- ‘4 .‘~ \ n . .‘. '0 I .~ ‘ ‘n ‘F. ,1 . P‘t .— \» .. " ~ 5. .“ g ._‘_‘ _ ‘ ' u‘-:: ~- ~ "v‘ "LI. ‘ .. a ..‘_" ‘ o H- o.‘ I. ~ -,‘_ ‘5.“ ‘ ‘~. ' ‘- ‘ P‘ -s k. - .._ -. . -._ ‘I _. . ‘n‘: r A."._ ~'~ ‘uT ., .‘. .1 A ‘.h ’ ‘ | ‘. A.“ ‘ '. "- .’ V1" ~ s ..‘\ .’ .‘ ~ "‘4 C . - I N .‘ . l’, .. .- .‘ .: H. - ‘ V‘K:, s x ' \K.’ 0 . "~'\‘“ . 7» ~A . F! v- s .. r ._£ 4: _ . a‘ ‘- ;- ~‘ p -l '0 '2 '\ . 4 ‘_~\ ‘- v‘ .- §‘ ~ to capacitate each youth to achieve his life purposes, the acquisition of knowledge decided by an external force, academic subject matter is held in high esteem and humanis- tic subjects are nonexistent or held in low esteem. Appli- cations of relevance to self and intrinsic problems are coinCidental. The teacher, a distributor of knowledge, works independently within his/her classroom and determines the delivery system of instructional activities which will be conducted within the environment in accordance with a generalized curriculum provided by an outside educational observer for the entire school. Except for occasional supervision from an administrator or supervisor, the teacher has the sole power and authority of what transpires within the classroom, except when outside pressures are exerted which may diminish the teacher's freedom and purposes for that environment. A confrontive question must be asked despite all that has been accomplished within the present educational model. How can schools respond to irregularities which recur and which seemingly cannot be resolved within the (existing organizational structure? These irregularities Eire professed in undesired behaViors of students and re- flecfied.in overt behaviors of disorientation, anxiety, and iscilation. Concerned community members observe the school's :nornnative standards of conduct and behavior as weak or u.""~ "' ‘ U .- - ..-..... I ‘V"“““ .‘ n ~I-I‘ u..--v- a y. -,.~- Ivy... A— p uI-N-..-..., -‘ ._ U u... ¢~ -\ “V'5 A-‘ _ s. .”:IA.... ‘ D ii~h B -‘-~ I- . on. b ..:".V I." .lA-II-L . . ’- I I.' §v . "'vn . ~¢ {I' 10 lacking in relation to what they want (desire) in an educational program for their child. This dilemma that arouses doubts concerning the value of a formal educational experience has resulted from the disparities between the basic objectives and programs of schools and the concerns, problems, needs, and aspirations of parents for their children in attendance. The research data on dropouts or pushouts has significant impact and dramatizes the point of the inapprOpriateness of school programs in offering stu- dents the kind of learning environment that is beneficial for them. The perception of little or no linkage between the educational content of the school and their own life concerns and pursuits highlights the incongruity and incon- sistency for which the system cannot account and represents a pattern of deviation from the desired outcomes of the educational program. Since the curriculum is handed down by tradition and relates to the structure of knowledge, not to the basic needs of students, its function is scholarship not relevance to the specific needs and concerns of becoming an effective liunan being. The stated objectives of the schools relative 'to human growth and develOpment have become mere rubric, for the curriculum and organization of the school persists initrmmt a basic concern for them. The model perpetuated by scfluools is one of conformity to a specific class value -.y<~~.ur4. ! 0‘ orb-vodb » 61“."... h F unto-u 'u.-v- . . h-vno‘-' ,. u“.... -u :3" fl? 2"“ k ". 5.. I’l- i‘~§’ \ b‘:“ ‘ IQ~ 5‘ ‘ \q‘ .t a c ‘_~F‘ § 11 structure and certainly not one of concern for the present existence for personal survival. The schools current function of maintenance, based upon the history of the past, as a base for developing minds for the present is most certainly irrelevant and inadequate. Assuming the objective of schools is the education of all children, the organizational structure and instruc- tion within the system are related specifically to the needs of one specific learning style (the achiever), and little if any is provided for other diverse learning styles (other achievers). The accepted learning style is constantly exercised and extended through additional subject matter, more assignments, or more difficult academic task. For the "others" remediation or tracking has been the solution and the work is not suited to their unique needs, but rather to assist them in developing c0ping behaviors for the present system. Consequently, the dichotomy between school objec- tives and human needs has resulted in objectives of main- tained disciplines, resulting in discouraging ingenuity and creativity, developing apathetic acceptance and minimizing the school experience to a mere ritual. For education the time has arrived to create a pnflalic school environment that is a reflection of the present diverse pluralistic society; therefore, diverse alternative learning environments must be made available 0" :On- : ... a..' A ~‘v-0 ‘ s... ‘ Il'r h... -a- 'F ‘ ‘u‘..._.~ . iv-lg. .. r -.u.,.... . . ..~.-.‘ -- ~ _ . ".""- .uu o -' n. n . ~ ' v- 0..---._“ o n.' . - p.- V .~ 5.. .U‘..‘..>— - o .- ,' |n a. _ ‘~ ." - ‘ n‘ ‘4. ~ .‘ 'o u ‘ .‘...l y“ ‘ 5 o o ..,*. ‘. ‘5 . -‘. ‘ ‘D- -"v--. ‘ ..‘ . ~‘t I . .- o n._ \ “~~' " .3 ‘w - ~‘vr . ‘~.. ‘ I . n '3. “‘ .‘iy—V . u. - ‘I .‘I ‘( a .. “ \ "s .“~ “ w ‘ A. _‘.- .‘ . L 6. .. N ’ ‘ ~~‘. ~-_ - \_ . n‘ . n ~~ 7“.“Q‘ ‘.‘ ‘c ‘- . . ‘.A I ‘~ pp '- -..~ § ‘ ‘ «a a . I . ‘ ‘9‘ .8 “H" A \ n y . . .‘ . § 'Q ‘» ‘ - ‘ fl ‘ a ”‘u. .7 . Q .- . \b. . '5 a .- ' ‘Q..u.._._ a.“ .. . -;‘.‘ “‘ .A ‘~-: u, b. s,. _ f" \‘s ~ \ ‘h a_ . ‘u:x.-.F ‘ >‘u-n~. IE ‘4 I ‘ .. ‘ ' . \ ‘N. x- r F ‘ 12 for any school or community that is aware and ready to have contemporary schools become relevant to the needs of learners and society of the present generation. For the practitioner who recognizes the plight of the present educational system, but remains uncertain about what direction to take, the diverse educational alternative learning environmental (DEALE) theory will provide purpose as well as power, through alliance with, rather than hos- tility toward, learners, associates, and administrators. It will voluntarily attract community and parental partic- ipatory involvement. For continuous defining, debating, systemizing, and continually updating of the curriculum in order that the nature of the cognitive and affective skills of today's pluralistic student will be met based upon DEALE, which will initiate a learning system that is founded upon relevancy and the learner's learning-life style and the teacher's teaching—life style. Today's educational system is not at a standstill. On the contrary, it is undergoing rapid change. But most of this change is little more than an attempt to add onto 'the already defunct system or an effort to refine or re- cflefine the existing process and product which is based on iJnartia of competitive professionally academic guilds. What i1; needed is a consistent direction and a logical beginning .forr schools to move into the present. Thus, the equilibrium - ~v .nv-O . . Ivoonu .- . a. v' - .pu i ‘- u-pb uoH.o Dv-"-. -. —.>— ccuvvu- . . n . no .q.q«. .- 0. ya... -_ "-u-~- ,- ‘o-..-u. 5‘. - .~_ ‘ .'-.' .Olnl- c u '7 I" In. a ,_ 3 .'.~"'Ibyg ’5 s. ‘45“ ‘ .. ‘~1;"n.—~ ' ‘-'-u..-..‘ ‘ “"3. .. , ..--~"v :“ . . ~-__‘ :1.“ ~‘: .. ....‘~ . . . .. :- fl... -§'.‘~ :J.‘ “ Q Q \.v~-“.“_- in... “._\ . 7‘. v.“_‘fi.‘. “u“.- ‘ ‘ :’~.n ' s. t."- ~ .“ ~ . E ‘ .1 .l. . I - . ....: a.“ ‘~. .‘ ‘- I -,‘ . . .‘ . "V. H.“ ~WA. .‘_‘ ~ ‘A ~,r. ‘ . "‘2 A ~- u ‘ p U‘ 4 . n‘ “ ‘ .~ ~: ..“~. - L. ' n ._4 ., .‘. I‘“ n“ F» ‘-.. ‘Q U”. N .. N“, s- V- ".“l‘ '- I- . . :- \‘~ _‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘~ ‘ q I b ‘ ‘\ K'. ‘s 'u u, “‘ ~- ‘ \ . “ .- ~'4~ '». -s\ s 13 point for education today is to assimilate and accommodate the significant factors of the past with those of the present in preparation for tomorrow and establish a system of educational diverse alternative learning environments within public schools that can supply the consistence and logic that is necessary and sufficient for educational relevance. If the new organization is to simulate the present study and not remain a part of a standard and basically unvarying organizational structure, being teacher dominate, student subordinate, having a standardized basic unit of sameness from grade level to grade level, and allowing little experience with other forms of organizational structures and having conflicts of shifting from one organizational form to another, schools must adapt to society's needs today! The need of schools to facilitate adaptation will have to experiment with far more varied environmental arrangements and still other imaginable alternatives, and make a more concerted effort with the process of education as has been the historical effort on the maintenance and production of education. This does not suggest that we can ignore such basics as reading, writing, and mathematics. ‘While it is important to preserve aspects of the present Curriculum and to introduce changes gradually, we need a Eiystematic evolutionary approach to the whole problem. ‘0' -. “i -~ AA Mao-- \ ».. O . . -‘ . . 0- H . .4 I ~. Q - Q 6 ‘V. . a .. "I . N O, k ‘— \ \ i r ‘ 14 The DEALE Objectives The organizational objectives for a diverse educational alternative learning environment (DEALE) model thus becomes clear: a breakup of the rigid organizational structure, cooperative learning by teacher and student, high comfort level of learning through the matching (parallel) learning style with that of a teaching style, an honest effort to establish relevance and respectability for each learner's unique attributes and attitudes, minimization of K-12 public school standardization, choice, and a curricular diversity reflective of the local autonomous pluralistic needs of the local community. When these objectives are implemented and established, any organizational resemblance between the conventionally traditional education direction of sameness and the normative values of a society past will be purely coincidental. Change must proceed very slowly with deep concerted efforts of awareness and understanding by the total school community of what the planned evolutionary change is. The planned strategy for change must be keyed by interpersonal and intrapersonal communication to the community and parents. The preparation of readiness of implementation of differing alternative learning environments must be well established .,. . of "’.V .II‘ -. 5.... . . . .. v-v-A-n- 7" ~5-D-‘fi‘k‘ '- -‘ .‘.. ...--..... .. “I: y‘l‘- ‘4.-— fi".‘v'>v' r.- Uvn- ‘93-.. k.‘ _ n ' u 0-. 9“,. .A I" D u.» b“..' ‘- . "‘ AF~~.."‘._ .— '“' "".'n.o-_u . . § . n 'r' 3:" ‘fi ‘- vi..._‘ '. .. s. _ .. .' V‘OAV_ ---.. u- ._ . vat F'-»-_ u.» ’c - ."~— 3 . I U A? R‘It-r~‘... cw. ‘.9'- K b._‘.. C ." A.. on .‘\ '~‘.~ _ ~"I."‘: - "- n I ‘p ‘ n~_“ :4 ya ‘-'. | b-.- :1“- . 4 zoo... - " c. A. v.." . u u ‘ ‘ I - ~‘.H|"‘ ‘v..‘. A 'IF E‘b.. fl . ‘- "vl'o , . - u-..‘ ‘u “'7‘7- .‘ .. y‘.-“ D'. I ~.:\“v. ’ ‘ ‘ ”V- ._n '4‘ ‘~‘u ‘~ . \- _ . >,~ \ u..‘ . . \ ’A .- . ». ~ I‘-“ 9‘ r A. "s u.. I U n... ‘ ‘ V~ \ “ " ‘\ «‘ n: 2’ ‘7'- g 5" w ““1 FA. ., ~ M» ~ \.‘_H. u . “D-~ x‘~~n T'u F: . ‘k. "'~ F»- ».‘ C“. h,“ 'h ..' ~- I_ n, '1“ «.‘-. ’ “42 ~ . ‘.2r.- ‘V‘ 15‘ ‘ A >4 \p- ~,~ CV ‘ufi C r P- ‘ ~ 8 4 1 I s .Il ‘.~ h_‘ . D " A. ~ " s \‘h ‘ 15 prior to initial attempts of permanence--along with procedures for evaluation and renovation as time goes by. This systematic way toward curricular change will void the community conflict that generally takes place within a community prior to any large innovative change that affects the public community. The purported cooperative effort of the community and school minimizes diversity of change being carried to its extreme that produces a community with no common referent and socially fragmented. The way to resolve the conflict between the need for diversity and the need for common reference points is to distinguish in education an organizational model based upon the pluralistic needs of contemporary society. The objective of this model would be to legitimately establish a condition whereby the process of becoming or being dif- ferent in character or form from one another or from a prescribed standard would allow differences without the pressure of changing oneself namely for the sake of change. It would also be respectful of individual autonomy of each human being. Thus, it voluntarily offers or expresses a freedom of choice in obtaining knowledge of understanding the action and process of seeking truth through instruction, individualized study, and/or experience within an aggregate atmosphere of social and cultural conditions that influence the holistic life of the learner. "I' .. v ~~o¢s o .’-‘VY'I' o - ......_ .. . .r: :- ..Vfi'.lc ...- v . .' fl 0“ ’-- s — \ ‘ "ub 5» g..- _ ‘ Q I' ~-.._' '4 -’ i... _ a Q .” ... "\-— . )- ._... - "'b -..‘... . a ..-'A""o-- .. '7 ‘ .— .“--."-.‘- . o . - :r-..‘_~ .- '- 5. ‘ :....-_,_ -‘. n. . -.'_ _ . u. v- '~. .' ’- t.n...-.A-' ‘ ‘ - 4. :.'.. -F~ ‘ur. ~V‘ ‘ ‘-..' ‘1- ‘ v 9._ . o... n. n.‘ ‘::~.»“ g 5‘. . u. ‘v -:.:~ a ' \ c.‘ . v"VO ’V» 5““. . . ‘a - I-.- A” W‘v.. ~~o ‘ fi‘ 0‘. ‘Q b h ‘b. ~ - V‘ - :37" “. re “' c . “ , w ‘A ‘~:~., ._.. 'i"‘ "r ¢.' x ."I 4‘ 5.“. ‘ ..' . Q ”‘4. C r g, ~ ‘» " ~- ‘ KI“ “‘ '7 p i .._‘ v’ ‘ Q ~ ' ‘ L A ‘_~. "\ a u i‘ . -‘- ‘ n‘ ‘ h ‘ U ‘- s Q' ' -‘\ . ~ .4. L'. \~- . . .F‘ 2 r . .. A... ~. 'A ‘--_~ ‘ -._ \ N . .sA~ ~ ~ . _“ U \ Lb, A. u ‘ As! ‘ | 4 . .s“‘ b F- \_~V\. s‘..‘c_" } .“ l u . v I - S ‘ \ ‘3'5‘ x V '7‘"- ‘. -.‘ 16 Educational diversity can increase the odds toward tomorrow. Instead of standardized curricular organization within the elementary and secondary schools in which expo- sure is based on sameness, the DEALE model will create widely diversified environments that may be freely chosen by the learner based on needs, beliefs and values that are cooperatively felt by the teacher. Thus, learners will be permitted far greater choice than at present: team teaching, self-contained, modular, independent study, or contract learning; they will be encouraged and stimulated by the environment to match their individual learning styles with the teacher environmental descriptor that simulates their needs. Such experimentation, under responsible supervision and constructively channeled, should be accepted as the priority of education (practitioners),not as an interruption, negation, or radical movement of the learning process. The principle of diversity dictates fewer interpersonal profes- sional problems than the present structural system. The result of implementation will produce far more individual- ized human beings, more accepted differences among people, more varied ideas and more support than the contemporary system. Any program of diversification must therefore be accompanied by strong efforts to create common reference points among people through a unifying system of skills n a u q _ i... a a ': snobb u.-- -uw- . ,- AV v:.: n o ho gun's-gal -co _ . o I'A“F-I:~ u a .‘ v..~.u.a ‘3. c ~.—..'. sz. _ ”'- u~--. *.-"" - g..- ‘3. IL n- ~,.' on .~. a Y" -‘.‘ - ._ \- l-‘~“ .~ . a \ "Hu .":.v 'b» I O -.“"‘F nu - u ""TV0_H“ V.- s 9”. U , - s-: V ~ “‘s2‘l“~»~ 54“ . § . I § .A ‘ a. A . Q'vhh‘v.‘ v .~ _\ _ . “: A V - g .‘ 3o.‘ . ‘s 2"“ ‘firw -,A “-24 9'. ‘~ ‘k. ’.‘ ~ VB: Y\c_A ‘ ‘ . ~r‘ .~ ~ ‘ §.~ ‘-s “ \ v ‘ ~INh , “y‘o l“, 0.. .“ - “u‘iaa ‘ >- ‘~bt -_ ‘ r. QH‘ -€ 9 -‘ “Y“ T '9‘ fi'\ “- :4. \ Q ‘Ifl 5‘ . ‘1‘" . N ‘ ~" . ~‘n‘ v 5 17 while all learners should not study the same thing (facts) or retain the same sets of data; all students should be grounded in certain common skills needed for human communication and social integration. The Need for the Study The demand of today is then to alter the traditions to more viable procedures which meet the diverse needs of a modern futuristic society. Society today, more than ever, needs the benefits of an educational program which is inten- sive and extensive, striving to allow legitimized differing environments for differing learning-life styles. The formation of what education is or ought to be is undergoing radical alteration. It is not only a question of how to transmit knowledge, but also a question of how to change the characteristic patterns of human behavior. The realization that public school methods being utilized are not accomplishing the task of providing effective,cognitive or effective educational opportunities to all children. The obvious need then is educational reform within schools, so that each individual learner with unique capabilities, interest and backgrounds may develop to his/her full level of expectation. The dimension sought is a balance between school and societal needs where the curriculum and structure are o a. _A - .‘ \o—n #- -'. ‘ ‘ Uh- :y.au.. ' ' -1 5,. .0... .— ..n ~ aioud-‘A . l 0"? 0‘ ‘ :FVA— .‘.. Db.-.‘ ’ r - AF... ‘FO‘RP;A H .. "------d u... . - _ ‘ .- .I....._‘_: .- g..u.u__“- -‘ .'.--'.‘.s .. .nu.._‘~_‘ - ’. .l". 2“. ... c" . (no..- “u‘ .1.--' . _ ‘ ..:‘ "D-n’ . : ~I‘- “On... by n ‘ ‘ -I‘~ . ' - - .. A”. -“ . U-‘."‘~‘.‘- -- l' ‘ -)";v';u§.:l ‘- “-"“~u. u. o . R‘ " r L - . s.._ 5‘ . .- : "”"L-u.“ u... ~ . ‘.:“*--.._ ¢ ‘- . 4““ A” s... . 5“ : ‘ ‘ “w - v -~ H. h. 'A‘ us. blb.‘ a h... -' ‘_d > n 9. . ‘ .. m." ~a. - .h " .— ' ._ .- “-‘ . s .. Q 1 h - - ~ .- ,‘ ‘F . kc: "~.-.. “ “.‘ I‘. ‘9 :Nstsr“ ‘ ~,~ ~ H ,. .. VIA“‘. “ c .,fi _ 1’.‘_ . ., .. .. o“.l‘. “F ‘. . ..- ‘0' ‘u . q ‘~: \:~ ‘ ...E Fly“. ‘\“.-‘ 2h. \. m,“ ‘ ‘ I b g h,‘"" “‘~.4 ,. \‘- u 'o u. ‘4‘" -,‘ i_. N '- ~u s. A . “‘l Q ~‘-’ .I )3, '~,_L.‘V. \ ""S ‘ G .- ‘ .. “": ~‘ Ps "L V ‘4‘ °,’ A ‘V ..-A ~ I- ."\-“:~ ‘~° ruV-_ ‘4 § ‘.I. ' ,La _ 'Q .“5 "o ‘s 18 actually selected by and/or for, and experienced by each individual child. If the organization and curriculum allows a broad, varied, and flexible learning atmosphere, the optioned environment will be highly appropriate for the individual learning style and specific needs. If the organizational structure and available curriculum is limited and inflexible, there is nominal opportunity for one to seek that which is relevant for one to grow and mature in the educational learning available, and thus one suffers from experiential impoverishment and total growth. The present direction is to enable each individual the opportunity to select and attain one's own curriculum and process, so as to develop an optimum level of competence in each area opted for within the entire school structure. tpon completion of one's educational experience one should be able to function effectively. No two students would necessarily have followed the same program of study, and certainly no two students would have selected at all times the same learning experiential opportunity. Neither would any two individuals necessarily function at the same level of competence, but each would be competent, and in as many respects as his capabilities and aspirations permitted. At present, organizational structure, curriculum and prrcess are frequently based on only one or possibly 13“) types of learning experiences or learning styles and V ' - h' ”v. .A' ~ ~—~ a. ‘4‘ ‘. u “9.. _. ‘ “ h .-~.~-‘- . V‘fi .-\... ‘.‘Au 6 19 thus, cmeate a dysfunctional monotonous experience offering little meaning for most and a minimum level of creative effort by many. Schools must change their theories and practices to bring; about constructive reform. The need of reform is not Uncxnnpletely transitionalize the present educational system nor athd onto the already existing structure which has been Uuaauiswer for the past decades, but to focus attention upon the key'critical factors of differing educational philoso- phies, psychologies, methodologies and communicative net- woflus and to provide theoretical data for educators for implementing legitimate optional diverse alternative learning environments for learners, teachers, and parents in their pursuance of learning experiences within the existing public school structure. "The present alienation and frustration of the educational process by 30-40% of the students," as stated bY James Lewis, Jr.,2 clearly indicates an awareness that students are not alike and therefore need an option to learn in an alternative environment that is conducive with their individual heredity, maturation, environmental experiences and 0Wn.special, unique abilities and personalities. Stu- Cmnts require a more than adequate educational experience as \_ 2James Lewis, Jr., A Contemporary Approach to Non- Efaded,Education (New York: Parker Publishing Co., 1969), ”- - alv.“"""“ l‘ I- t‘ "' .,..-. gun I :;¢:"..u-. ... u...-._-. - _. ‘ .A’R-r ‘ - ‘2 c.~ H...“ -., ‘ -.. O I D 1 O t (h (n a ‘v- o a A . £- .2 ,AL v..-- ‘ .- A~.., e... ‘~'~ " 30:. ‘ a.u. h - . F! .7 a .' ~F.Q ‘ . ~..., ~ '- » rh ‘. P t ‘L 20 perceived by educators for today and tomorrow. Education must reflect and absorb the contemporary world and needs of all students and provide them with optional alternative learning environments and mental approaches to humanism, sensitivity and intellectual excellence which will change concepts, educational technology, and instruction. The contemporary literature is stressing the need for theories ranging from the existential self—direction to a renewal of Dewey's democratic ideals to behavioralist con- ditioning. Why education cannot utilize and legitimize all empirically researched and applied theories into one public school system in order to enable students, teachers, and parents the freedom of choice to opt for a type of envi- ronmental learning experience that best meets the viable uniqueness of each individual learner's abilities, interest and life styles is nominal to date due to the absences of supportive data of an optional diverse alternative learning environmental theory. Since the basic organization and instruction of today's educational institutions are focused at the few and are unrelated and irrelevant in the developmental needs of all others, children's expectations for self are voided by other's expectations for them, or are completely divorced of substantial gains in self-knowledge or skill from their school experience. Thus, education has failed to develop ="="" 57:: ‘oo. .-\. ‘ :"5'O ‘r ""2. ukubcv Our“- 5 ' Q " "' .C‘A 0 ..AA VOA. “’ a.“ C . I ”‘2? 56'!“ "C "‘“ . 'ovs. 3125:1339 ha : .. . n.-:~...'° ‘1- vh.~5--'¥' ‘. ‘~‘ A: ~‘. "'1'! u. “Gas (D 'f . (D 1 . .‘Qc. p ~‘b‘; e ‘Ivv »¢§ ‘- 5...’ “ 0"”. ' u-..~:“‘l S"':‘ a " vq M:RI D u II ‘n.I . ‘~P . ' O7- sV§~ fl u~‘ .‘A ‘s ‘ F: 'u v‘ ‘r‘. kp‘eré ‘n by ‘P . ‘tq ' v- sul . a” ‘. t.‘ :5, Iva. v.‘ C ‘v‘.C‘ . § :NQ . u 1 :5 ‘..5t: r u v' f‘ ‘ C ‘1 "a “q .5 ,‘h .‘sze C: I ‘ i .’ -. 1‘ s n A“ ‘C ‘ "1 _’.~-‘_ '& “-6 +1. ‘I 5 .! .'~ "v. .:‘~\ ‘5 s. 21 truly viable diverse alternative programs and instructural strategies that concentrate upon the concern for our plur- alistic society. In fact, the lack of attention within this sphere focuses attention upon the primary objective of pres- ent-day education, that of maintenance of the system rather than service that can be rendered to individuals. This objective has been complimented by another educational objective, that of production and implemented by the strat- egy of mass education which was developed to accommodate the need of the masses and a perpetuation of society's values. Even the current flood of individual learning packages are basically systems for better handling masses of students and spreading the effective control by the teacher over increas- ing numbers of children. The predication upon the possibil- ity that the school can mass-produce a normative product for the perpetuation of society has established a strong founda- tion of tolerance for inability or indifference or diversity to learning. Thus, this custodial function rather than educational function must be examined along with the fruit- fulness of contemporary efforts to reform schools through the guise of adapting instructional materials more relevant to specific interest and needs for achievement; diversifica- tion within school subjects, track system that purports to acconmwdate the diverse needs of its community, special programs implemented to provide for those who have been 1L .. ‘A' p .A_.. '9. a - :d-o p. .‘ . ”2‘. c "u. ., t .A' s.. .“ v0. . M o“ :- AV.“""~F\ r I.» c'. ‘ . “w...“ H ‘ § . O H v: Y‘r‘ an . -h“... ...&».A ‘q “ :“‘ ‘VV‘A1 . .1.“ k “~‘ .- ' \ A"' h .V“:~‘I :CQ. a “‘ . a. , 6. ~ " '2 CN.‘~“ ‘ a.“ a » ~‘ ‘ ~ I h‘.‘ ¢A:‘Q “0‘. s ‘. . ...\-‘ ‘ ."“A .2. cf ‘ . g ‘ - ~ 5 ‘: :5 ‘ "MA ‘8 22 diagnosed as having learning disabilities, and the addition of enrichment and selective classes. The more current attempts to move away from the regimentation of its populace through initiating individual- ized programs for individual motivation and need, and rele- vant strategies to nourish individual human growth and development, and organizing time more efficiently to allow for individual creativity, and instituting processes for children to become active learners rather than passive ones in the learning process has not changed the basic objective of Una school as a place for the dissemination of knowledge. Alltflne current proposals for improvement have not removed the symptoms of failure which result from an educational program which does not have viable alternatives and which is still.irrelevant to the paramount needs of a pluralistic society. Despite the current literature and verbiage given 1x>the educational purposes and functions the present prob- lems have not been resolved. The problems cannot be resolved Within the foundation upon which the existing educational System is based. The need is for a renewed effort to estab- lish a firm foundation that enables education to be socially relevant and personally significant in establishing means of helping all children find useful, self—fulfilled lives for themSelves. This removal is found in the reflection of the dlveI‘Sitysociety now mirrors, so this then becomes the he ‘ ' ...A s.‘, a O. . HI. 6» .- '.‘F‘ ‘phip 8‘ v- .\ I o tn... ' V. II! -r In... q'~ - O- A nu. .~ _ p.— - .m— vyi— v... . V2¢Av b.‘-'. ' \ tug-A P~‘A‘ u... ....-_v‘~~' ‘ U .I‘\AF.'~ ‘y‘- .. '" ‘ r usug.‘.§~ 5..» Q._ ‘ “‘2', A, '- hu“"-.»' ‘5- ~~.'- ‘ VIA neyh ‘C : ‘Av ¥§§§ NA“.:‘ -w Q.‘ I ' h. p ‘,. ‘ a ...‘I. ~ s “‘u“‘ ~t ”c. .. C..~ ‘ . .‘.~ I .\ _ . “vow: AF.“ - “‘~u, ‘ - 23 focus for a new structure of educational organization--that of balancing a perspective change with concern for existing, effective, operating educational structures, instructional materials and strategies. This new organizational approach is called diverse educational alternative learning environ- ment. What it means, the subsets upon which it is based, the conceptual structure, the implications, and hopes are explicated in the following pages. Purpose The purpose of this dissertation is to present an explruatory study of diverse educational philosophies, pswdualogies, methodologies, and networks to afford prac- titioners the supportive data necessary in formulating a cmngruent, consistent, and contiguous matrix that supports diverse alternative educational learning environments vnthin public school systems. The components in Figure 1 represent a suggested Classification of research areas which comprise the in- gredients of a diverse educational alternative learning environmental theory. The classification is not intended as a theory itself, but rather as a starting point from Which hypotheses can be generated by manipulation of vari- ables within the component areas. It is recognized that the - . . 113 IS an obVlous interrelatedness among the component L: 24 .coHpMNflcmmHO paw pruo mo mmamfl ocflum .H musmflm cofluocsm >H0¢£B Emummm amaoom muneenexmem >H smumum m.unmxea aofluomuflp » muowse m.Hommeoz coflpmfluflcfl >nowse H0H>mnom 0>Humuumflcflap< m.cQEfim wasoEm mcoflumaom cmesm mo xnowze Hooaom m.pum>umm quHmEHOM >omuosmwnom mo >Hom£9 m.umnm3 meQMHHm> mucmcomeoo r L ~onemcon coflum>fluoe :oflum>HuOE unflxmfi coflmflomp mcflxma cofimflomp awe :mE coaumospo cofiumospm Hmoflumamcmono>mm ucmemoam>op Emflamfipcoumfixm ucwemoaw>wp Hmucmfimon>ma paw suzoum EmfiuMEmmum paw anOHm Im>Huflcooo mQchmmH Emflammm Hmcumwa umflamuoa>mgmm Hmcumwa EmflammpH mumHOOm oaumflcmesm wuoflUOm Emflamusumz mmHQMHHm> mucwcomfiou mmfinmflnm> mucmcomeou P L p b Fwooqomowmeh HoneomonHmmh — WUOAHmB .HdUHBmMOmmB; . . .l‘ .— _‘ W .. -‘~ A-‘:J ' . ' ' "”' r :c s \ F u. ‘. our-.mn. o A, v. ¢-. “ ‘v~:—. 92‘, 1.. .-.._.“-~_‘_- .' . A .- Inn ..a‘ . a ~..u...b~ .‘.\' . .OvI‘A-“‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ u- .- -‘ --- I 1 c . Q 1“ u.‘ ‘:‘ k.- lb.“L.‘h- n. F .: -~ : uh... ‘~“‘c.u Q Q . . ‘.R.‘.~cc '. O. ‘ ..b§‘\‘~" ~ ‘ u. ‘ .1 ‘ .l. C""§- on. . V ‘ ‘ ‘1 ‘ ‘h u...‘ . on _. :\. \ 3" ‘l . v.~' u‘.‘ b I I ‘t ‘n -. ~“Fn,‘:~:’- “ h \ .‘.‘\b"*~t .. ' ‘ Av.‘ ‘ ‘h t».. ~‘ 'fi c». “ A - .' v‘. . ll “ H‘s . H. A. “~ “N ‘v- “|‘y F c M._ . u I'. \‘ h. \ \ “‘:.,Ch ~ .‘_" . ‘ “It ES“ ‘ i.- § I K‘ V. ' K :‘:::"‘.“ ‘ y... ‘F u .. -.‘. ....,:‘ A“ ‘vhb'.7’§.“ s ‘u‘ ‘P ‘v r‘ 2‘ *V,‘ '. ‘C~;\ . ‘ ‘g. V\. ’ ‘\ FL. .A"' If... ““ ’- ‘. u ”A K,‘ . 25 subsets which have relied on preceding theories in their established existence. Figure l is clearly not intended to be inclusive insofar as this research is concerned, but is meant as suggested for the initial step in building a theory for an organizational instructional delivery system which involves the facilitation of human learning through a systematic identification, development, organization, and utilization of the entire educational spectrum in establishing a formal personalized environmental descriptor. It:huiludes, but is not limited to, the identification of existing systems, the development of instructional delivery swstems, and the organizational development and management Of theprocesses to enable practitioners to assist teachers inlaChieving legitimacy of an educational environment reflective of their teaching—life style. The teacher often becomes the ultimate variable in building and managing the classroom environment. Afraid and unarmed, many teachers lack the confidence and tools to imagine an educational future substantially different from the Present--a system which more justly distributes educa- tional opportunities. Many teachers also lack the oppor- tunity to risk accepting the responsibility for making a System.functional. Therefore, practitioners, consciously or I O O I O I unconSClously must directly interject energies lnto ._ J. g —' . ‘IN :-.-~ :6 ”v .... '1-le ' 1 .pa '9? I fl b . o \r cu. IQAU . . 0.! 9r 8. uni: ‘_""'~l ‘- ‘ ‘ v- o~‘~ the V! 'O 50‘... u...‘ . "v-A.. Q '."‘,..‘ . 9 ' I ::"C"‘ 5.- . - 05‘...‘. ~ ‘..‘ ‘-“"“I~ .tv f ':" "eu¢ .\ . ‘. - K a K Q... ~ N F~v_' ~C.o:. h ":V;£ f‘u'u‘. 5.. v .V‘ 1': ‘¥\‘ 5.3-6 C"-.._‘ "‘.,. "‘h .\ “-\4 a o. d ‘- o . _.‘ ED‘AV- . 5‘~.“‘ A.“~1 LNH “ .H‘ 5 ‘F ?VK ‘““C:C.i §‘1 . "c ‘V Q M¥S“E: “I ,i .“I "':‘-. ”x .1 u LP. 5 ”sue. .‘ E‘ ‘ 26 formulating teacher awareness of the milieu of possibilities amdinplications for them, rather than, the continuance of the present system of unjustice of inhumane deterrants to learning: externally prescribed purposes, inadequate usage of time and Space, strict verbal and nonverbal dependence, external control and evaluation, and the current educational practice of radiating the myths of enculturation for all learners that entrap educators by hiding from them the opportunity of the various alternatives available. The structural change is offered as aprocess tool to: o aid school boards, administrators, teachers and parents to evaluate their school system as to its paradigm and moaffordthe establishing of priorities for consistency of one system approach or to illus- trate the diversity that already exists which lends support and conduciveness for the need of implement- ing alternative learning environments. 0 establish a workable matrix for the building prin- cipal to evaluate the clarity of interpersonal- intrapersonal communication of arriving at the desired goal of production, maintenance, or innovation. ° benefit the community in allowing its priorities to be heard, to establish clarity of communication and understanding, to initiate reciprocal support and 27 trust between school and community, and to aid in innovative implementation of educational change practices. 0 aid and support the building administrator from the millenium of demands by creating a tool that can evaluate the total system and contribute to the maintenance of consistency of objectives. The need is to prove that the use of all educational theories of education are needed within public schools today in order to meet the diversity of learning abilities, that theeestablishment of these theories by teachers into learning environments will establish a better accepting supporting total environment for administrators, teachers, students and parents than the contemporary traditional approach to learning within public schools. The purpose will then be to assist educational Practitioners (professional educators who desire change) in understanding, developing, and implementing diverse alternative educational environments that are consistent with the objectives of the pluralistic community and that through a recognizable awareness and readiness the total Community will conceptualize the viable concept of alter- natiVe environments which will facilitate the continuous diverse needs for education that society is demanding. , .IsJ '.ll' ova—c ‘fl‘v‘ .o-..~ g-- n u.- be I - F", fit one b r , . I. Q. Far.-. A V ‘00 EX-vC.-. .I I . - . :" A':.‘A’ .. Dh:.b.".y.. . if iiZ'erce “- ‘J u . fl ...'.‘ :r.fl a... ‘ I-.. . 'z“”" 5'.- -I»..‘: 7“- C I“ - . ’c“fi-. Q “".v: ”if" . .5“ 1 -“-I§ v \ ‘§ \ . n. I- . "~- ._p'fln“~ ““aa\l ' ;"n. .'I - A '—J O C K) o C C o “A Ln 28 939stions for Study The general purpose of this study is the exploration Cd'an experimental curriculum theory. Included within the exploration will be the establishment of theoretical basis of diverse philosophies, psychologies and communication net- work systems which are supportive of the autocratic, demo- cratic and autonomous modes of education. The key critical factors that form the subsets within each educational the- cuetical mode will also be established and defined. The subset headings will include: society, the learner, learn- ing, growth, education, man, decision making, motivation and behavior. .A. The questions that will be utilized in the formation of a contemporary curriculum theory supportive of optional alternative learning environments are: 1. Has the public school reflected the shifting values and emphases of a contemporary plur- alistic society? 2. Why are some public school systems lethargic in initiating experimental learning situations? 3. Are contemporary public school curricular efforts relevant to student, teacher, and community needs? 4. How much consideration is really given to staff and their effect/affect upon the curriculum as they change their practices, beliefs, goals and values? 5. How does the practitioner determine how to reconcile or integrate the needs of the indi- vidual with those of the school, community, and society as a whole? 9. 29 How can a school environment be designed to create optimum interpersonal relationships between its members and the flexibility and adaptability that may be needed for the school system to survive in the face of a changing environment? Can increasing communication and legitimizing teachers' goals reduce internal conflict and disagreement among a staff? How might one educate tomorrow's youth to truly prepare him/her for the challenges to be faced? What is the relevant environment of a school? Other questions that may be utilized for support in using alternative learning environments are: l. 2. Why must the curriculum preconceive a correct (right) direction for all learners? What functions are schools intended to fulfill for society? How are these functions changing and how well are the schools responding? Whose needs are schools meeting: self, student, society? How can a school environment be created for the internal members of its community which will enable them to grow in their own unique capacities? What kind of school environment creates condi- tions for students to develop a creative individualistic orientation? How significant is the right number and right kinds of communication networks in relation to the needs of a school system? How significant are the convergent and divergent, modes of teaching and learning on the learning process? 3O 9. To what degree have the changing needs and values of society and the development of contemporary schools resulted in an incon- gruency and negation of change? 10. How shall schools evolve in response to social change? 11. What trends can one detect that create problems for schools? 12. How should schools adapt to new circumstances and demands? 13. How in redesigning the public school might one organize it more effectively? 14. Can we avoid alienation or passive resistance to change? 15. How is the effectiveness of schools to be judged? Definition of Terms Recent develOpments in the area of alternatives to education have resulted in a number of new descriptive terms. Their usage has not been precise and their meaning has been vague. For the sake of clarity the following terms have been defined. Diverse.--A legitimately established condition to become or be different in character or form from one another or from a prescribed standardized norm. Educational.--A stage of developmental action or process that concentrates energies of assisting or sharing understanding of the methods of teaching and learning. Alternative.--Offers or expresses a freedom of choice and differences in obtaining knowledge in understand- ing the action and process of learning. O__ ,J. bvh‘ ——._ . D 0*" Ann; r‘ . w \v ». .uli -V‘ V ' I ‘ n . . ‘ _ 'na-ruq..: ~ ouuol.““ ‘ :F". o... . - h " A‘ 7 . V ‘ I ~ 2 ”'1‘ f. "Wei; 5...». e . . ‘ ~ .. ‘ ‘ S .P c¢ A n.. u an... - ,hlp. AI- :- ‘b V- u b...\ n nav..~ "\ ‘ agn- v-_ '0- At- . ‘I “A .‘ 2* V‘ "’5 ‘ I. . A :~..r:- . ‘. “C':‘1 a. '- ‘.::n\' ‘ "sz‘u “\ “s V“q . ..u - ‘\:',~ ‘I H\ I ire . 4 es ‘- t“ .s .-. . "sflhw v‘j a“ ‘ ..C .. ‘R‘ ‘1 "s ‘ \. Ch“ ‘t..7" 31 Learning.--The act or experience of one that gains knowledge of understanding of, or skill in growing through individual study, instruction, or experience. Environment.--The aggregate classroom atmosphere of social and cultural conditions that act upon and influence the holistic life of the learner. Becoming.--The process of undergoing change or development in arriving at the full potential of existence. Practitioner.--One who is currently teaching or administrating within the public school and reflects firm diagnostic behaviors and values the spirit of an inquiry/ experimental attitude. Environmental descriptor.--A public statement by a classroom teacher of his/her purpose(s) for the classroom, the terminal behaviors desired, the way time and space are to be used, the external constraints and the evaluation procedures. Procedure of the Study The procedure of the study is based upon the lgresentation and explanation of an experimental curricular <1rganizational theory to be utilized by practitioners in the field" The established theoretical trilogy of philosophy, psychology and communicative networks that range the con- ti1n1um from the classical to the organismic educational I. Ce w. a. . a a q .n F» a g s s x: .s Q. me ac . a... I E C T. .2 . i S 2. l .3 r... .v a e . . .1 .n C . . e S E C. E i .... e e n. E E .2 e l e t 4.‘ . e .n p” u” a mi. . x .n.. a. «b r a. i» n. .... at ca 4‘ 2‘ 1... :u L; S s s . a. t a. C C i .. . .C E E S ... .l .I 3 .l n . . . 5 a a .3 .3 3 _. ... C. u. l c. 9 ex a» e r C r C. J ‘ a E. a a a“ e .m .. u .H .3 a. 2. c. :u e: u. :. 5 e ‘2 s: . ~.3 a 5 a: any ”a AU 0» Av .~. .A o .q . V.‘ NU no. . .us v ‘ .\ .e .V \ 3H 2 r. v. v. v. A. v. .e a. as a. a. .. ~ L TV ya .3 .‘ u]. v. 3. .3. .. he .. u. s: s. 2. a. w. L. . .2. ... .... .\ as a .. 1m "W "n. 3.. .5 .am 4 - ... .a a «w a . t. .. .. .n... .M .. u e. is se. \ u. . .. uh. ... m . u up» .n . u a J... ...~. .u... “.0. fix a .. .:.. .0... a... .. .. ...... ... .. ... .. an”. . A... filril I. 32 approach will be explored in correlation with the independent and dependent component variables that are congruent with the diverse educational alternative learning environmental theory. The variables underlying the DEALE theoretical model can be explained through an analysis of the components and patterns of association held by individuals who attempt to create an alternative. Therefore, to gain an understanding of the trilogy and the dependent and independent subset variables, the Principles of Order and Organization in Figure l is designed as a referent to reduce confusion in creating an alternative, and to establish an absolute understanding of terminology in commonality of direction of creating, and implementing an alternative. The DEALE theoretical trilogy should allow an intro- spective evaluation of what conceptual framework is presently being professed within the learning environment. It also ought to depict the interrelatedness and interdependence of each variable with that of the other component variables. The Trilogical Matrix will illustrate a compilation «of personal data that should reflect a visual presentation (Jf evaluated data that categorize one's personality and teaching-style on a philosophical, psychological, and communicative continuum from formal to informal, and high- ligflit a pattern of consistent or inconsistent behaviors in a'UI .- ..q a ov“:v_ — o»; iv. in. co». s -. _ h-‘. H -.." 'v‘-vi I h..." ‘F ‘v- - _ ‘ ~ ~--.... u... Q... ‘ ~-.-..‘_ ‘ Q. ‘ n' H ‘ I'II" b. u-“ -' n- _ u. .“\. _ - ::.-. .2. . .‘-—~..~_. & ‘ . C .h. In... _..A_. H .- ... .l.‘-.-‘ s..- c "u. ' . ‘ .-- “".- -‘.-~.. .."“...' . . .. 5" ~..‘ ._u a. ..‘.3 . A. ‘ . ‘ -“ u .A - -‘ ’I' ~. ~‘o-. w- h"'~ .: : a "s w ,-.' ‘u - A-~k ‘ - ‘5. ‘ .‘- 5 ‘vv ‘\ ‘O ‘ ‘ “ s \" . ‘ “"‘~ ' n_ .‘~‘-. ‘§ ...‘. . _ “ ‘ I “” ~ s“ Q..‘ ' ”v h’h- -\ I‘n '.5 - ‘h . I: y \ ‘.‘- .0 ‘\ ~-‘~ ...‘-~\’r-_ —~.~ _ - '\ .1 \ ~ ‘.“\§_“ ~O W _¥ ~~~ ‘\ . \‘ ._:- A . “‘ \, “ \_ ..‘~ ‘4. .- .\' .\ “.~ g» ' - 33 preparation of creating an optional or alternative learning environment. The formal descriptor can then be generated through the utilization of data accumulated in a clear and concise manner that will truly represent one's teaching-learning- life-style. The formal environmental descriptor can then become an instrument that may be disseminated with ease for consumer distribution, readability and choice. The exploratory method of research was used to establish a theory that would present ease of understanding and implementation for any practitioner, kindergarten through higher education: teacher, administrator, or parent. This included an extensive exploration and critical review of literature on alternative learning environments. The investigation supported the expectation that there was a minimum of contemporary curriculum literature available and a complete void in the theoretical area supportive of a DEALE Model, therefore, the primary sources of data pertaining to a DEALE Model included recent dissertations, personal introspection and reflection, dyadic interaction ‘Mith concerned professors, and a practicing public school adndxdstrator, and innovative sensitive teachers throughout Diichigan. Secondary sources included books and articles Exartaining to tested and experimental educational models. ., x' *Q s; .,. ' o --.-.<.‘r'u' ' fli on 'qnuep.‘ avo-h*-..u . qp--.u.. . ,‘- ‘ vvosur *.-u_ - s fl::;‘ ..,‘A“ ~u--& ‘._‘_‘ . . ." FVA L.‘ menu ~-\-¥“a . ' C .‘ .ECS'“:*b :. ~U.O‘~.‘- “- . .l .-A- 7' A‘v_‘- ”W“ u--" V..- -F I~r"""‘\~u ‘v.... t— ‘ \.... . ~ ~.-. 0 .- ‘~“- ‘ 5‘ \— p‘ v...._. :-_ ‘—'§ .-..., a C"-~- \- n v- ..~:o-.._ “‘~...Q A ‘ b 5—\ ‘v . .‘\-~ ‘ .V‘.- " . g .- s‘. A ‘ .‘\. ;‘.._ '\ v‘ >>‘\ “‘. g ‘ ‘ -3 ., * § , ‘ s“ - e v x n v- -‘ 0‘ ~ v..: 0.“ ‘ y‘ “in-- ‘. s a ‘ x ‘. _ ‘~-' ~— ‘ ‘\.. ~ . “ ~‘-.: ‘~ “ ,, ‘*. us ~. ~ ‘- 5... ‘\ ‘\ .' .~ \‘_ r \ \ n. “ -.: \ ‘§ N \ '2 i ‘ - ‘s‘\ ‘b-‘\ \‘.‘:4 \ .‘- .x“ ‘ - c.‘ - ya \ \‘t-Ziv- \ ‘~. 5 ‘\: w ‘ ’\ \ ;\ v.‘ -. ‘ T» . ._; “ ‘ \ A ‘2. -. K I 34 The data were organized and analyzed in the following ways. First, philosophies, psychologies, and communicative networks of the major schools of thought based upon fundamental issues respecting educational aims and procedures are presented. Second, supportive subset dependent and independent variables are examined as to their directional implications and probable consistence, congruency and continuity in the development of diverse educational alternative learning environmental model. Next, a summary is given of its uses and functionality. Limitations and Significance This study has been limited to an exploration and creative establishment of a theoretical base which is formally nonexistent, and does not have as its purpose enmdrically field tested supported data, although impli- cations for the model will be presented based on the development of instrumental matrices that have been ixiformally presented and tested within school environments. The development of a theoretical model supportive of IIEAlE has significance in that contemporary practitioners Imay become responsive to demands for change and at the same thne supportive of current continuing programs. It allows a nuare logical and more fruitful approach in making it pmnssible for educators, parents, and students who want ;:V';v: .0 .V‘.ol--~ “f” fi:-v-.... .“‘.\'~vb..‘l . O ' l . -: “7:!!5 a... .ih'- ”A,“ l...‘ . ‘ '-"V".o~:fl ‘1‘ ”‘§~V_‘ 'v ‘ ‘. Q! . a ‘ ”gr-v: ‘N “ ”‘bf . ‘ ‘ u. “:9. .. _, I§‘h~‘..-! \‘ . ‘ .W“"“~ ’ : ...‘ ,. .2 -b\~.~ v- ‘ . ‘- 2. “r““ u." u v ~ “"b. A ~ -: \"‘ A" ”v V ‘h~v .. v - v‘ ‘ ‘- h“'I"; a A “H AA- A, ‘ we.‘__\‘ cm”. § .~ .. ., ‘ : " ..»~As..‘.. I " Q~ ._ a. v Fa. “:‘-§.‘bc ‘ .“ ~ I... "‘AQ N‘. y b, ‘ a: ‘ ~ \- m?- § I a Q . . ‘- QV_‘\7.:‘ . "‘. m. Vs 35 "something different" to have that option; those who want change can have change. Once an alternative is created, there is a significantly different climate in which to place learners who, because of learning style, temperament, or philosophy, are not happy where they are. If one follows the practice of establishing options on demand for those who wish to participate voluntarily, one can provide improved education for those who are interested, ready, and aware, also there may be more impact on those who presently do not see a need for change and with little success of efforts has been observed. The implication is that a practitioner may use a significant amount of energy to support growth on the part of those who are ready to move and reward those who want to work for change; and in concert, support rather than negate those who are devoted to maintaining the status quo. Overview of the Study A study of the available and related research lencompassing literature that spanned the range of limited Iaublished magazines and articles to unpublished underground literature is reported in Chapter II. The study of related research and a thorough review cof the "Principles of Order and Organization" in the estab- ILishment of a theoretical basis for diverse philosophical, ‘v ’81“ 11 . t EQIIROQ -.. ‘ uu'vuouoy-l- u - I 3 .fl... -. . ~§ . u-V‘h- U. y, | . .p- Avipnn‘ ~ \— VOI- ~d~v_. . , ‘ bu. .. ‘ no -’ I'M- ‘Agu...- I . .2" .‘A h... hi ‘ “ v... - a ‘. no, "‘|‘ O- ' _. u»... v '- -A. a .0 1'. . V. .— ...S . OI. “g':" «- u._‘.' _ ..VH . I. ‘ “A a e . \fi' f‘ sy" b n'. A ”c: “-“ "v— V ' o. I V.. . . n.‘ D A. . A1“ A.‘ -.V“: 9“ u A a .:=--- A. ~. ‘ V l V. .o ‘ -. ‘A ‘Vu: \‘2h‘ '~.. \- N A! n . ya. 5.. .- ‘ . \_:.‘ ‘ h .‘I‘ ‘N " J. 7‘ . V‘n ~ :r s ‘. O I ‘~ '~ ‘5 "n... ‘-.~ - . 1" .- ~ “ g a .‘ 0’ r n ”~ \ ‘ a ‘ I ‘. A“: I A s.‘...v--‘ V‘M ‘ 5: - h! x.“ r. ‘v ‘ u ‘. u\‘ ‘1 y ‘- ~| 's‘q" "H‘ZA‘; ‘- I II ‘. a." e. . “a .‘ u a,“ ‘ ~.Q¥-.‘ 5‘ 36 psychological and communicative network systems of the five modes of education and the definition and explanation of the subsets for each is presented in Chapter III. Also, the highlighting of the positive components of each mode and the synthesization of their basic components in support of the DEALE theory is given in this chapter. In Chapter IV, a discussion of the conceptualization of the basic constructs, the creation of a contemporary theoretical model, and the establishment and illustration of a set of matrices is presented that will afford the practitioner the necessary tools to evaluate the current educational environment and establish an awareness of the ease of implementation of an organizational system that is consistent, contiguous, and congruent with the DEALE Model. Chapter V reports the impact of the theoretical model on practitioners and its applications and implications to education as well as the prescriptive criteria for cre- a1:ing an alternative and a summary of environments that are at; different stages in the development of an alternative. Chapter VI condenses the study into three parts: summary, recommendations, and implications of the curricular- organizational theoretical model which supports the concept Of diverse educational alternative learning environments. A y‘A' Lu!" :u‘. IV"P ‘ '1 ‘u F O C'n‘ up...“ 5‘ i ~ . in “ '" :h H" e..... . .‘c "’1 3'6: ..-_ ‘- "‘ F s‘. :: ’J c CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review of the literature will consist of selected representation of contemporary literature of emerging alternative learning environments. It will be divided into three parts: (1) A Perspective Overview of Alternatives; (2) The Rationale for Alternatives; and (3) The Impact of Alternatives on Education. Each part will be subdivided as follows: Part One: (a) Background of the Alternative Movement, (b) Components and Features of Options and Alternative Programs, and (c) Types and Styles of Alter- natives; Part Two: (a) Curriculum by Choice, (b) Alterna- tive Accountability, (c) the Legitimization of Options, (d) Developing Models, and (e) Potential of Alternatives; Part Three: (a) A New Thrust, (b) Teacher Qualities and Styles, (c) Elements of Evaluation, and (d) Summary. Limit and Scope of the Review of Literature In the review of the literature, the author found a minimum of research of any kind that has been done on optional or alternative programs within the public schools. This limitation of the review on alternatives is due to the 37 It ‘ Q Of... 5.:. "‘" bo.‘. - ‘9'- I U'v.'---.. ' ."" A: ',. v. ~ tn I J D 1 s- 'v. ~ .‘ "-~ "A . —.. ....~" ' i if) l 38 fact that so much of the literature is not published, and cannot be found in libraries, due to its current evolutionary process. Much of the literature is in the form of brochures, handouts, newsletters, articles, and letters. Within and between alternative programs, there is evidence of a great deal of literature evolving. Because so much of the literature is unpublished and can only be found in various clearinghouses and individual alternative programs, it is extremely difficult to locate all the material now being written. This review of the literature will concentrate on the alternative learning environment by choice movement from 1970 to the present. The abundance of literature on this concept is limited due to its freshness of thought and innovative spirit. The sequential development of the how and why of the alternative movement and its concept imple- mentation came out of the progressive era of education in the first half of the century, but here the similarities end.with the progressive movement of the twenties and alternative movement of the seventies. . I ': -:~.r~v- -.._ \l......- ~ #1 u. y..b 5.; ""~.a..- . . h. A: r;:“ 'C' ".5 ~ ._‘l . _- . ‘ .- --- 'v" c.~ 1‘: - n ._ ‘»~.’ ~ n... " “ ~. vs - ‘\C.- ‘ _-_ ‘.~_~“' - =' . I‘. " ”I- we Hi. I :-:.. he 5‘ aue ‘ 3". ”N‘ZCJ‘ L2... “ "u: 1 V “b A’F‘ h- “‘H 5..."? s ‘4- ~‘ . ‘ A ..‘_I‘-‘ ». ‘ ~ .5». C1“ . v:.‘\ u‘s ~‘V :- - u. a ‘ ‘5“‘A s. MELQN‘ “¢. ‘ .i. ‘ V 3'a..‘v. $.C~A s. "C ._ I.» . ‘\ .I .“.,.Q. 3 ““t‘y' "‘ a W g . “‘ “V ‘0 . ‘1‘ § *“ C1 k4 . f‘. «V‘N ., u 4‘ Is ~. use. ‘~‘5Q Q “C x k," v L ‘ 39 A Perspective Overview of Alternatives The Background of the Alternative Movement The American educational dream of offering opportunity for each individual to fulfill his potential has been represented in the curriculum for decades. Every age has its reformers who re-invent the school: Socrates, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Mann, Dewey, and Kozol, through elective subjects or alternative curricula or programs. "But, we geared them toward the same life style and the same essentially 'closed' system, based on status, authority, and conformity."1 The emergence of the alternative on the educational horizon has established as a premise the process of involve- ment and participation. Through involvement, parents, students, and teachers are offered the opportunity to participate in the decision-making process for educational self-determination; and emanating from this experience of involvement and participation, the movement is emphasizing diversity within the school and thus reflects and nurtures cultural pluralism. Slowly, the movement has taken roots in school districts throughout the nation and, 1Donald W. Robinson, "Alternative Schools: Do They Promise System Reform?" Phi Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 443. 40 since 1970 the Center for Options in Public Education at Indiana University estimates that alternative public schools are being planned, developed or operated in more than 1,000 United States communities today. The number of alter- native public schools in operation in 1973 was between 600 and 1,200 with total enrollment of more than 100,000 students.2 These new schools reflecting the spirit of innova- tion are seen by some as the legitimate offspring of the free school created by the counter-culture movement of the late sixties. The ideas on which they were based--and still are--now infiltrate the public school system. The writings of Holt, Kozol, Illich, Friedenberg, and Goodman established a core constituency of ideas, and a legitimacy of effort to the free school movement, "to restore a devotion to what is truthfully human."3 Looking at the movement, Allen Graubard in the Harvard Educational Review, August 1972, reported that the rise of the free school movement began in 1966 and 1967. Around 20 free schools were founded between 1967 and 1969 and another 60 in 1969. By 1970 the number was 150, and there were even more in 1972. "Mike Rossman predicted 340,000 students in 7,000 schools by 1973 and 1,400,000 in as many as 25,000 to 30,000 schools by l975.““ Graubard's final count of 2Vernon H. Smith, "Alternative Public Schools: What .Are They?" NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, p. 6. 3Peter Marin and Vincent Stanley, "Exchange lExchanged," New Schools Exchange, October 31, 1971, p. 3. I“Michael Rossman, "Projections on the New School bkyvement," New Schools Exchange, No. 52, p. 8. 41 346 schools was estimated to be serving between 11,500 and 13,000 students. The average school size was 33 students, with two-thirds of the schools having fewer than 40 students and over 20 percent having fewer than 20 students. The 13,000 free school students comprise much less than 1 per- cent of all school-age children. Graubard's figures also establish that a "considerable number" of free schools close after one or two or three years of existence. His feeling is that at most one out of five new schools closes before the end of its second year. Michael J. Bakalis has stated that, "more and more alternative schools are being born, their average life Span is less than 18 months."5 Sallie Rasberry and Robert Greenway wrote in 1970 that "most of them fail before the end of the first year,"5 because they have neither the base of local tax money nor the added security of state aid, and that federal funds or foundation monies are more the exception than the norm.7 Pursuing Graubard's presentation a step further, the question, are these 346 schools really all free schools? or more important, what are free schools? Jonathan Kozol in 5Michael J. Bakalis, "A State Responds to Educa- tional Need," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, p. 61. 6Sallie Rasberry and Robert Greenway, Rasberry JExercises (Freestone, Calif.: The Freestone Publishing Co., 1970), p. 3. 7Bakalis, "A State Responds to Educational Need," op. cit., p. 61. E u 1' V" ‘“ 5‘) ‘ -‘F‘ y.-- I): u» H..- . ’V‘“‘ F. "0l‘~ In .H" h”~~,\' "' v»... . 0A.. a, ~:""I 5.. ' -;~‘ '- ran. . “vb...‘.-.-‘ ‘ . I H‘. ' I‘\ “*;~-~‘ ‘ nu. ~‘b‘v. ‘. o I -\Fn~.‘ ‘1‘ ... a. - .. -..- . A 'N “ ‘ "av ’ h~v~‘.o5e l C H iv h- 3".“ I .4.» y... y - ."I“ . ‘ 5q|‘--y‘ ”- ‘ .‘~.. - l Um. F _ ‘ Q ‘ A V vs ..E=:C-F ‘u 59‘ ‘ V 'I“ .K‘ “‘ §", q s. . \ ‘- \ ~F ‘ ‘ “t \n A“ 1 y-.. x '~ Q. ‘g ‘ .:‘§:Q~ ‘ "‘ C ‘ K. 5 § .”e l ‘ " ..g‘ I’VY "‘x v," HA‘~ “'o.‘ " ‘I \ a I r. ‘ |.V“£ \ '35.. N"~ "‘r\& ‘s. a“ ~ .‘ ..‘ 42 his book, Free Schools, directs his attention at answering these questions. He establishes that the free school move- ment has always included a wide assortment of very differing kinds of schools, but they have always been held together by two common characteristics: All the Sponsors were attempt- ing to escape public education and create something new and better, and all endorsed the idea of freedom. From the very beginning there were two basic kinds of free schools. One was predominately white middle- and upper-class free schools in which the coercion, regimentation, and authoritarian atmosphere of the public schools was replaced with the free learning environment of "do-your-own-thing" pedagogy. The other was usually poor, black, and inner-city, controlled by the community. Related historically to the earlier civil-rights freedom schools which typified the larger struggle of minority groups against racist institutions for needed fundamental reform of urban schools. These community schools are the antithesis of the "classical" free school, usually having a good deal of structure, required classes, and intensive drill in basic skills. The Intermediate School 201, East Harlem, New York, was established by a group of parents and community residents who prevented the opening of a "model" school as an ultimate protest--a protest against the continued denial of quality education and equal opportunity to black and Puerto Rican - a .- .u---~ . ‘Fa nun .- 5» o"— A 1 g . \Rhl‘filn . Us....-: -‘ O! ‘ D Vv.A—--~ ‘1‘ c.‘ .‘~ f‘l ‘., Ll... ' 43 children, and a protest against the insensitivity and unresponsiveness of a large school bureaucracy to the concerns and aspirations of the community. In the Continuing Directory of New and Innovative Schools in the United States and Canada, published by New Schools Exchange, it lists not only free schools but includes: tutoring projects, junior colleges day-care centers and nursery schools, summer camps, boarding schools, parochial schools, Montessori schools, evening schools and 130 public schools. The NSE directory lists private free schools as only one kind of alternative, along with dropout centers, multi-cultural schools, learning centers, magnet schools, schools-without-walls and open schools.9 It appears that the movement, by focusing solely on "free schools" has been defined much too narrowly, for some- thing far bigger has been occurring in the seventies--the diversification of education into a wide variety of learning options. The basic assumption of the free school movement has always been that most everyone would be happier and learn better in an atmOSphere of freedom. Their creation was in rebellion to the traditional schools' basic assumption that everyone should learn in a similar environment and thus the eMario D. Fantini, "Participation, Decentralization, and Community Control," The National Elementary Principal, .April 1969, p. 25. ’"Continuing Directory of New and Innovative Schools iJl the United States and Canada," New Schools Exchange, No. 81' June 30' 1972, pp. 3_34o 0 v. . ‘ (D (D ‘1) I :'a 9:}'* “Ow u.¢‘..-._ - I if? f‘hv'. ".I hub-t- .0 . .fi: ‘F.F9‘ 5". ‘..-.an- {'30 QR‘H,‘ c.-. ~v..~. in CI“.- :~¢.~ y-‘ “ n 5.. CTQ‘LA w“! \- '..., . .. Ni? C°.~“"‘. o b-"“. : ’A «:9 SALSA '0 V UnqL A: ‘ nc‘v.‘ ‘ ’— ‘u U" ~ ~ufi~Vn ”l‘,’ n . .. ‘m. ‘ 1 V‘ ‘ , Hg. " 9. yeti; ‘; '1: V‘. A a, N“ V". ‘ ‘\~‘Or‘s \ F ‘ I rav- ‘h ‘V R o ‘h.\'e~ m. \ ~‘ il\ A “ .u_::’h 1"; N. '7“ n i“Q ‘ \ ici‘ y- \ I, :‘P ‘. ' H 1 b‘sE 5"» O“~4:v~‘ «4“‘ \ 'F ea F K'. ‘isa‘ b ~~.. : 44 free and Open classroom developed was imposed on all, based on the fact that it was a better form of education. Thus, advocates of the free school movement have and are making the same error as others who have preceded them. For, obviously, everyone does not need and will not accept the intensive learning environment of the black inner-city free school or the white middle- and upper-class "do-your- own—thing" free school, or even the standard conventional public school. Components and Features of Options and Alternative Programs The impossibility of generalizing accurately about alternative schools should be apparent, virtually by definition, each one is different, and the names differ: free school, new school, open school, alternative school. Much of the alternative movement has and is being directed toward making schools more effective for students who have traditionally been early dropouts or to ease overcrowded conditions. "Every alternative is presumably offered as a replacement for the present status quo traditional system."'° There is no one best way for all people to learn, and the assumption seems to be borne out by the wide variety and diversity of schools being organized and operated at this time in the country. 1"Robinson, "Alternative Schools: Do They Promise SYstem Reform?" op. cit., p. 443. .. C. —. .fl #5 V. l in nu C n“ C w: 2. De .2 r; .~« 1 ...~ 2 . . . a. .c v. C C C C n- r. a n“ T. .n.. n. e a. 1-‘ AU . \ Av .... .t E .. C. .s r. S . . e a. .c E ... E I ... r. L a a . .C V4.3 .; a. a. C .... .a I... .e 4. r\ r C. L E .C r S. .. .. a. u. T .u E r. . . .. T. C T. E r E C. C. E C C ,. n: . . z. .3 t n. C .2 :. l . .p. e. a. .» .e C .. .3 5 v. S H“ r v. .3 ...u a? Ca n... .9. a. .. ... _. S .. a. .3 -2 v. u. 1.: n. .. a .. .3 w. 5 a a .Q a. A; C e .C F. C ye C a l .3 .C .. .5. CL: 5 o. e t. at. L. e CID : ‘0 r .9. {a u... at e C. .\ a. .O. at at . h .3 .u. ..‘ as. u .1 n». 1‘ .u t. . \ flu uhb o .b an“ 45 A pluralistic nation, having different kinds of people with different personalities, values, beliefs, behaviors, talents, skills and learning- life styles, must be provided with a wide variety of distinctly different learning environments, . and give parents, students, teachers, and admin- istrators the opportunity to shop around in a diversified educational market place making decisions about their own best interest. The opportunity to shop around has always been available for: fifteen percent of American families. Diverse private schools, from Montessori, to prep, Summerhill to military, religious to secular, ethnic to multicultural have provided choice for those who could afford it. For the masses, how- ever, the only choice was and is a rather uniform public school system. For the most part, "alternatives" within our public schools presently take the form of voca- tional education, dropout prevention, general education, special education, unwed mothers pro- gram and re-entry programs and are not necessarily based on consumer choice. These alternatives often carry with them ego-bruising stigmas. They are based on a status system of human classification-- ranging from fast to slow learners, from academic to general education--that is often dysfunctional for the growth and develOpment goals of the school. Moreover, the mainstream of students, parents, and teachers have not yet been affected by optional education.12 A 1971 Gallup Poll reported that 60 percent of those using public schools were satisfied with them. A critical mass of 40 percent are either dissatisfied (28%) or have no <0pinion (12%). It is in response to the members of this latter group that: 11Robert D. Barr, "Whatever Happened to the Free School Movement?" Phi Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 456. 12Mario Fantini, "Alternatives Within Public Schools," Idui Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 444. .7» A: Q; o. p . .1. A. y «a -u u .h u A.» by. . « .Pu SL A: a: y A N .c LL - c .- ‘fi. ~M.shu b»; \s r. at 5. A» ‘0 ‘H‘ C. h... vs 4: \ .£ V; V\ as F\ Nun ”H.481 h~x - . h an ”v..- O r. ‘ m; rns Ab .nu a.» .. ”a .5 us 9. .5 v. 11 ‘- 2‘ .C 2‘ G» ._u F. Fla .nu 0.. VA .. a» .. P. .c :u on r.» u. . . sm .a E .. - u. .u. A. r. r» .o .«u o. it .. ‘. ct .. a. .. Ft E r\ .. . .. . q 1. ‘. n. e \G a. s. .a at .. Au at h. C» «b p. p... re «C . a a; v. 3L 2. r. .3 v. Ln a: .r .. C» “u re ... r. n: a» e. v. a. 35. #5 at a. eL f. ... C. A. . e .. . S E S c. a» .2 y . A“ a. u .. no —.. a. v. v..«. .. it... acts v. c. as In ». C“. ru 1‘ A. a? :u c» .c a c 8-. at a» a as «D «Q 2‘ ~ .. - - - ‘ - - - 46 many reform—minded administrators have started or are starting small subschools or alternative schools, each with a different educational emphasis. Their intent is to offer students more of a choice about what they'll learn and how they'll go about it.13 In a few instances, individual charismatic leaders initiated innovative programs based on the principles of democratic choice and personalized programs and were able to win support for optional and alternative programs which are characterized by the following features common to all optional and alternative schools and programs: are voluntary programs of choice for most, if not all, of the students and teachers involve teachers, students, and parents to some degree in planning operating, and evaluating the program are locally developed and share comprehensive educational objectives with other schools in the district operate near per pupil costs customary for the district seek diverse enrollments, students representative of the range in the district are small in size, usually informal in style--all teachers usually know all students stress basic communication and mathematical skills and nourish talents and interests are options in core subject areas, not just enrich- ment or elective courses have built-in accountability-—if students do not choose them, they do not survive meet graduation and other requirements normal in the district or area often test out new management or administrative arrangements, different marking systems, cross- graded groups, and multidisciplinary approaches de-emphasize staff differentiation--directors or principals often teach at least one hour a day-- 13Robert D. Barr, Vernon H. Smith, and Daniel J. Burke, "All About Alternatives," Nation's Schools, 90, No, 5 (November 1972), 33. 47 community and resource people often run classes in special subject areas.1“ In most other cases, optional programs grew out of one or a combination of the following: com— munity pressure for more open or informal or different programs (for example, St. Paul Open Schools); attempts to anticipate, meet, or offset integration demands (St. Paul Learning Center); attempts to satisfy state requirements to provide an educational environment for all students of school age (ALPHA in Livonia); or deliberate stimulation and funding by federal or state programs (as in Berkeley). Though countercultural folks have been setting up their own private options to public education for some time now; they were not necessarily based on consumer choice. They usually became alternatives to public schools and out- side of its jurisdiction. Whatever the form an alternative took, it was usually accepted by those dissatisfied with public education; public schoolmen have only recently begun to create alternative schools. Still, the movement seems to escalate every day, and is being publicly recognized as approaching or arriving at an organizational phase. The evolution of: radical alternative schools appear to defy our sense of logic about how organizations function: they seem to challenge our view that without defined structure, goals, and procedures, orga- nizations cannot survive. They stimulate renewed ll’Dolores Paskal and William C. Miller, "Can Options Work in Smaller School Districts?" NASSP Bulletin, 57, No. 374 (September 1973), 48. 151bid., p. 51. I II. II II. . . q .. v. v. ._ v. . . . . . e. v; . r\_ C» ... ._ .... .2 a. 2;” v...“ .... w“ .. p. ...».. C. C. 1. 4. .3 v. Cl... C. +. u. .h T. —. .2 E u. r» S 3. no _ . 6 1h“ ‘. PI f. C.w . F... a #. no I. “I nu. u... a. 2. v. s . . a... .5. LL HA. no a. 3. c. —....».w .N A E l y. C. v. c n .c o afar}. v... .x .-. >.. fl.» &. C. 5 C 1 2 .2. In. C .2. e 2. mi in r “G M. s waxy». .hka A.» I‘M ’1‘ 48 speculation and theorizing about how small organizations begin, develop, and function. 1. Formation of a free school resembles social movement behavior, in which the direction is slow, halting, unorganized, with neither established leadership nor recognized membership 2. Once boundaries are established and member- ship defined, these programs function as small groups with emergent status system, often charismatic in nature 3. The organizational phase begins with differ- entiation of roles, division of labor, hierarchical structive, and regularized functions 4. Final stage called institutional phase, where the school has survived the passage of several generations of members and succession of leaders.16 Alternative public schools are currently operating in several hundred communities in over 30 states and Canada. Many more communities are exploring, planning and developing alternative public schools. These alternatives have developed with little or no communication with each other and without national or state coordination; to meet specific needs within their local community.17 Types and Styles of Alternatives Right now more than 60 districts are either operating or develOping alternatives, housing them in storefronts, community facilities like the YMCA, refurbished homes, offices or wings of existing school buildings. In some districts the new schools have proliferated: Berkeley, California has 24; Seattle, Washington has 19; Philadelphia, 16Bruce S. Cooper, "Organizational Surviva1--A Com- parative Case of Seven American 'Free Schools,'" Education and Urban Society, 5, No. 4 (August 1973) , 487-490. l7Vernon H. Smith, "Options in Public Education, The Quiet Revolution," Phi Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 434. ‘. "I‘. C.‘ .‘"~—-. "—r Q “My, C “Vow-" ¢ '.|—. g 'h'- L nu. £ ‘HA nun A 4 4"; A . Psi! Vautlr 0&3 U ‘Ioon.5. . CC . . 2. In 1,. .5 a,» C. v . » 4| CL 6 v: . S S . . E .1 . e QC . . J c v. . Q. U. Pr. 6 t. v . .3 .r C nC QC - n D» a: r . L... w .. . C ab . . a. . c. e .... C .3 s .n.. S A. u. T .2. LL x... T. v. C. 2?... C. e t 1. a .1 .2 Aw. .. 1. .t . . v... .. C .. v . r . v . .G C. u . .r. 5. s. to C. at e a: .l a .3 ‘5 C . .. .C. :2. A. t . ma... n.. u .. a». a y .. s . HGH S. . .H‘. «t u... .. .. L... ... c . . .. 49 Pennsylvania has 18, including the pacesetter for in-the- system options. The Parkway School in Quincy, Illinois has five. Other districts like Louisville, Kentucky; St. Paul, Minnesota; Ann Arbor, Michigan; New York City, New York; New Orleans, Louisiana; Dallas, Texas; Cambridge, Massachu- setts; Gary, Indiana; Grand Rapids, Michigan; Cherry Creek, Colorado; Paducah, Kentucky; and Edwardsburg, Michigan are just getting started on two or three schools. Alternatives span a broad spectrum of K-12 styles. Schools without walls and open schools stress self-directed learning and community-based experiences. Cultural and multi cultural schools emphasize racial and ethnic studies. Community schools focus on student decision-making. Learn- ing centers accent special interest and skills in areaslgike ecology, futuristics or the performing arts. "School districts implementing alternatives repre- sent the first evolutionary thrust in public education at the grass-roots level."l’ The multitude of community par- ticipatory involvement makes it impossible to list all the different types of alternative schools. The following is an attempt to introduce the most common types and styles that represent popularly identified middle-sized or smaller communities that have school districts with 50,000 or fewer students. 18Barr, Smith, and Burke, "All About Alternatives," OE. cit., p. 33. 19Vernon H. Smith, "Options in Public Education, The Quiet Revolution," Phi Delta Kappan, September-June 1973-74. ~ - ‘\~‘-‘ V. - n Q ~’.’( ‘ --‘...u-§.. -..y:. ‘- .“ Di. 8‘..- v (1.. 3-: . . . . ‘ .w. .. "I. s . ar. g Q ‘ a.» x A. .44» u ‘ u1. .: i A. v. . . E .. . . .a. t. .1 Experimental Schools in Berkeley, California2 50 0 School Agora Asian Component Black House Casa de la Raza College Prep Early Learning Center East Campus Franklin Multi- Cultural Garvey Institute Genesis Jefferson Tri- Part Model Muir Child Development KARE Kilimanjaro Malcolm X Model A Model Y Odyssey On-Target School of the Arts Basic Skills Career Exploration HUI Work-Study Willard Grade 10—12 K-12 9-12 K-12 10-12 Pre-3 9-12 4-6 9-12 lO-12 K-3 K-3 7-8 K-6 4-6 10-12 7-9 7-9 10-12 10-12 Location* On-site On-site Off—site On-site On—site Off-site On-site On-site Off-site On-site On-site On-site On-site Off—site On-site On-site On-site Off-site On-site On-site On-site On—site On-site On-site On-site Enrollment 125 75 80 85 150 150 175 330 75 160 567 386 142 50 200 400 105 125 200 230 100 250 250 100 150 Major Emphasis Student governance Asian studies Black studies Chicano studies College prep Open community school Continuing educ. Multi-cultural studies Media approach: basic skills Student governance Eclectic Open classrooms Basic skills Student/parent control Environmental studies College subjects Student/parent control Open-ended curriculum Career education The arts Saturation in basic skills Career education Gifted/talented Work experience Individualized learning *"On—site" signifies use of existing schools or district facilities. "Off—site" means location at leased or rented quarters especially for the project. 2°Larry Wells, "Options in a Small District," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, p. 60. 51 Multi-aged-cultural and multi-graded schools: Learning situations where multi-aged and cross- aged groupings of pupils are central features of the program. Examples: Brown School, Louisville (grades 3-ll, continuous progress, community exploration, an emphasis on the theater arts); St. Paul Open School (K-12 open, informal approach); La Casa de la Raza (K-12 structured, familial approach to help Chicano children and youth build language and conceptual skills in both Spanish and English. Mini-schools or schools-within-schools: Smaller, more intimate educational settings, most often on or near the site of the larger school. Some are self-sufficient. Some share students for part of the day with the common school. Examples: Defer Elementary School, Grosse Pointe (an open program and a conventional program side- by-side, grades 1-6); Kinawa Middle School, Okemos, Mich. (grades 6-8 free school and 3 block programs are options to the common school program); Quincy High School, Quincy, Ill. (several option programs). Traditional academic pursuit Flexible sub-school (modular scheduling) Pie individualized instruction Fine Arts aesthetic environment Career occupational skill development Satellite schools: "Spin-off" educational programs which maintain a relationship with the home school and often use the resources and courses available at the parent school or schools. Examples: ALPHA School, Livonia, Mich.; Pioneer II (Earth-works) School, Ann Arbor, Mich. Learning centers or educational parks: Specialized, more sophisticated resources are centralized to pro- vide a richer learning environment which students can elect or come to for specified lengths of time. Examples: St. Paul, Minn.; Grand Rapids, Mich. Community-based schools or schools-without—walls: Use the resources of the community as the basis for most instruction. A home base is maintained in a central area, but students take courses and pursue learning throughout the community, using agencies, organizations, and people as prime sources of information. «‘5 r5... .— |.|,. .. .7 C v. .2 .111. c.. . 1... .c a E T. +. :1. .. T. .t. . v. w. e. r. .d .3 C. _. . . L” e C. .3 .n c. .2. A. h“ A. .1 .u o .2 “a. v. ”a .. C. «u A. v. u}. C .. .3 C r. C a... :4... ... .3 C. 2 A: "(I .3 C. .. F. 1.. 5.. o. 6-. nu. .4 .T. T. T. C S t .. C .. ..... .. S T. C .1. T. r. E t r. .C 1.. Y. ‘¢ 2" ‘Fu a. U T. .7. c. 3 a.» ... 5.1. .. 2. .a. “s Q. .... .2 . . .2 é. .. r Z .3 «C .. QC 5. 3 .. \I .c ~R‘ a . u .. u: I. .. c 1.. T. x g T. . . . . . QC flu L _ ..( p\..v 2. .d . T. .I. Q. . . is. .. u If. t. r. I .r.. Russ 52 Examples: Community High School, Ann Arbor, Mich. Philadelphia Parkway School, Philadelphia, Penn. Special Needs Schools: Educational experiences specifically designed for behavior-problem youth, dropouts, pregnant girls, and so on. Examples: Alternative Education Center and Park School, Grand Rapids, Mich.; Career Study Center, St. Paul, Minn.; Community Laboratory, Tacoma, Wash.21 Some alternatives are highly structured, using programmed materials and following strict behav- ioral objectives. Others may look more like their counterparts outside the system--the free schools. Alternative schools may be more free-wheeling than most traditional ones, but they are also emphatically educational. Though they may go about it unconven- tionally, all teach basic K-lZ skills and, for all practical purposes, meet state requirements for curriculum, accreditation and attendance.22 Unless an alternative school can give assurance that the student will be equipped for further learning, will succeed in college, the option is doomed.23 In addition to these types of options and alterna- tives many districts, especially the smaller ones, are voluntarily opening up enrollment processes to elementary and secondary schools in a district. As exampled by, "Franklin Pierce School District in suburban Tacoma, Washington, where each of the 8,000 students K—12 are 21Dolores Paskal and William C. Miller, "Can Options Work in Smaller Districts?" NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, pp. 49-50. 22Barr, Smith, and Burke, "All About Alternatives," op. cit., p. 34. 23Fantini, "Alternatives Within Public Schools," op° cit., p. 445: “S v-‘v-vv u ‘.g dud ahA~ R” 1.. AW. h... ”a n: .C v. «5 .:0 dc is v. .C an :—.. A: nu QC ~.. CC an .v.. M.» .mu C. .5. y‘ . .. .... C C .7. C L.. 1. .3 .7. s... ‘7. .c C T. E L.. .c .T: E .c .l a. r C T. c. E r y. .xn . . l E . . c. .t a T. T. L. C C S 5. . T. t kg 5 . L.. C t .0 .Q C U C s C. v. .t E a. v. .w. R; t u. I a a. . . . . E .3 .... . . . 3 v; v. .... .C C. S l 2 «J .. . Av s—‘ s \ «u‘ .q. . . . . yo. .. 2. . 3 .Nu .- NR .un. 53 provided with a variety of experiences through which he can ll 21+ react and learn. Parents and students are asked to make choices about what school the students would do best in and staff are given choices about which school they can work best in. Each school is encouraged to develop its own style and compete on the "open market" in the community for stu- dents and staff. Usually, open enrollment is accompanied by criteria to ensure diversity and balance in the student today. While each alternative public school has been developed within its community in response to particular local needs, most of the alternatives share some or all of the following characteristics: 1. They provide options within public education for students, parents, and teachers. Usually these choices are open to all, but there must always be a choice for some so that the alter- native schools have a voluntary clientele. There are many promising innovative schools throughout the country, but if there is no choice of schools within a community they cannot be included in alternative public schools as defined herein. 2. The alternative public schools have a commit- ment to be more responsive to some need within their communities than the conventional schools have been. 3. The alternatives usually have a more compre- hensive set of goals and objectives than their conventional counterparts. While most alterna- tives are concerned with basic skills development and with college and vocational preparation, they are also concerned with the improvement of self- concept, the development of individual talent and uniqueness, the understanding and encouragement of cultural plurality and diversity, and the 2"Edward E. Hill and John Eyres, "Solving Adminis- 'trative Problems in Alternative Schools," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, pp. 83-84. . . E . .I. .4 .2 S C Q» m. I C. \ 5C n s .1 .1. ‘ t .3 S .44 ”h ch x . 5 VI C H. E. S .C t .7. .3 c. T. 1. C E C. .3... .. S ... .C v a . l C t C. C E t I S r S e. S E C I C. 1,. l C E .l 7. e l. C a ”I.-. e ... e .3 t .; .3 .37... S C +. .l L“ a .6. I. .Q r .l +. C S t S W .. c.t S 5-1;..3 S E C. .C rbyw. o. .. find 54 preparation of students for various roles in our society--consumer, voter, critic, parent, spouse. 4. They are more flexible and therefore more responsive to planned evolution and change. Since they originated in today's scientific age, the alternatives have been designed to rely on feedback and formative evaluation as they develop and modify their programs. 5. The alternatives attempt to be more humane to students and teachers. Partly because they tend to be smaller than conventional schools, alternatives have fewer rules and bureaucratic constraints for students and teachers. In many cases the alternative has been designed to eliminate those aspects of the culture of the school which are most unpleasant and oppressive to its clientele.25 Slowly, the alternative movement is beginning to focus more sharply on teaching and learning styles. The hope is to develop alternatives that will provide a better productive match between the two. Some schoolmen, parents and students favor matching teaching-learning styles within the standard public schools. A teacher who con- siders her style to be "open" finds professional satisfaction in having an open environment legit- imized by the school. Before there were alterna- tives, she found it necessary to restrict her style in the classroom and forced by the uniform school to impose it on students who had not nec- essarily chosen it, thus the mismatch often resulted in interpersonal and intrapersonal problems within the classroom.26 The Rationale for Alternatives Curriculum by Choice The alternative represents the first evolutionary thrust in public education at the grass-roots level. It 25Smith, "Options in Public Education," op. cit., p. 435. 26Fantini, "Alternatives Within Public Schools," op. cit., p. 446. v... v, Iv- - '6 crnva v.b- . . a. “it I ..A9 4 - ."'.F.N FV A" . .. ,2 #L 5 .. C C .. C. 2 e. 2.. y... 1 IE ; . . A o . . ... cc .1. S .e l .. . . .. a e .2 v. n 5 C a C. «t E x. at I rt C. .7 «J kw . n c p .1. w .. S a: v. .3 «Q to h k n V ~ . ‘ i . .3 . . .qu .Fu u .. .n.. v . .ut e s: Q. 4‘ c. a . 1-. s . C a. v . Y. r. 1 a a» u... .C .mu 1 a .C v. v. .3 .pu 9“ s s ‘3 . . .C a v... n v Q. a . ah i. 7.. p: a. a: ... r. ”a c. s. a. a. u... v. A. .. 2. C; c. v. :a e: a. u. v. . . .t a. . . a. .u- i. .1 L... ... 1.. . . s. ..s T. .3 . . v. r... .2 .. .. 2. .l .u .n. .5. ~. ~ . l. ‘c. 2.. I arr :rih... .. 55 emerged from a background of specialized needs like overcrowded schools or nonadjusting students who were having problems and those who were concerned with their school's programs. The grass-roots native of alternatives is reflected by the fact that in most districts the new approach is a home-grown innovation, local solutions to local problems. The experts on alternatives can be found right in the community: students, parents, teachers, principals, superintendents or program directors, who have sorted out the complexities and directed their energies toward a constructive strategy in the process of meeting their specialized need. A truly significant point is that alternatives have been developed by community efforts, as a local response to educational problems and that in each case they have not only diversified public education but have democratized it as well. For in each case, students, parents, teachers, and administrators have the freedom to choose their education from a variety of learning options. This approach is better than the 1960's where change was based on intervention strategies from without, whereby in the 1970's only voluntary choice is evidenced. Alternatives are not being developed by educators alone, but through a "broad-based participation" of parents and students who can and do participate in the decision—making process of plan- ning and implementing and also have shown competency to 56 choose for themselves from among the many possible options available. Since there is no evidence that professional educators know appreciably more than parents about what is good for children, it seem rea- sonable to let parents decide what kind of education their children should have while they are young and to let the children decide as they get older.27 John Brener, creator of the Philadelphia Parkway Program, approaches the concept of student choice by stating that: the student must learn how to be free, which involves choosing from among alternatives, and he must learn to be responsible for his choice. . . . It would be easy to justify this from a humanistic point of View, in terms of what it does for the individual student. What it does for society is what makes it so important, how— ever, for survival depends upon the widespread existence of decision-making powers-throughout society. But we learn how to make decisions by making decisions, and to make decisions requires the existence of alternatives, and it is this that we must come to see alternatives as education.28 The alternative idea posits that intelligent decision making is a prime outcome of effective education and that to attain it the student him- self must be permitted and encouraged to make important decisions that directly concern him.29 27Mary Jo Bane and Christopher Jenks, "The Schools and Equal Opportunity," Saturday Review, September 16, 1972, p. 3. 28Donald W. Robinson, "Alternative Schools: Do They Promise System Reform?" Phi Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 443. 29Barr, Smith, and Burke, "All About Alternatives," 0p. cit., p. 34. n“""“ .— y... u :‘a ‘aab \vF ‘sb‘- — AV A u at O.‘ 57 Students and parents are not scheduled or pushed or pressured into alternatives as they might be in a conventional school that has electives or specialized programs for dropouts and where educators always select and place students via diagnostic testing or on some arbitrary basis like home economics, student behavior or administrative whim or bias. They can choose or reject the alternative at will. And since choice implies diversity, the schools most often offer programs that are substantially different from the traditional approach where the assumption is made that there is one best way for all people to learn. "The key advantage offered by alternatives is that it estab- lishes a process to diversify public education and meet pluralistic demands--both on the basis of consumer choice.”0 Although the mainstream of consumers may be satis- fied with the public schools, there is a substantial, often vocal, minority who are not. And rather than cope with a dissatisfied group of parents, the point is to involve them in fulfilling their specific need by sharing in the decision- making process to resolve their concerns that conventional schools, for whatever reason, cannot do. The parent- student-teacher participation of any form of alternative will likely be more lasting than those imposed by educators because they have all been started by dedicated, concerned 3°Ibid. A-v- A " ‘b-o ‘- vigv O Q . ~~ a . :n R‘. wilflv-npo u . ‘IA ppA¢ - and 'c- - ‘O in?! . p... . ‘ v . I \§ ‘ ”5:; R‘ h \v u n.‘ I o ‘ ~ , z a . n“ N ' 0‘ “ . I” k "s "‘5 “r: G“! ‘. Q.‘n‘ -‘ n I~:‘ . s .i. '~ s \‘s a -.: :A y u‘ T’s "‘Vt‘ ~ '_. ». - . v“- \‘~' ~. 5 58 people conscientiously striving to bring a richer educational experience to their children and students, and they are backed with tax money within the school system. Alternative Accountability "Alternatives also establish a new form of account- ability. Any alternative must relate to consumer needs or it will not survive."31 The test of the alternative is the open market place, and the consumer is the judge. This is evidenced by the public school's responsiveness to a real need within its community "and the long waiting lists for alternative environments in many districts indicate that these options do fill a big need--at least at this early stage.”2 Neil Postman points out that Philadelphia Parkway School could not accommodate all the students who applied in 1972 and this was only 5 percent of that city's students. The philosophical approach carries credibility as well. For the typical student who does not want to drop out and whose parents cannot afford a private school, public education provides almost no choice whatsoever. And since options outside the system are undesirable or unavailable for most students, the public school must and is responding 31Donald W. Robinson, "Alternative Schools: Do They Offer System Reform?" Phi Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 443. 321bid., p. 35. .__r__ M“ 1.11.2.4. i" - ..._ " .5 . . . . 'nfi hr- a auu 3.--.- fiAW-u. a - bub‘. ~.- . n ru-A. Ho.-- ~ h. ‘ ...-‘ an arm - a Va h ' “"I . g h VA“... MN“ I“ '\ b-FcF‘~ “‘~‘.bb ‘n\ I\) (a) 59 and holding itself accountable to its community. This is community accountability at its best. The key argument of those who advocate alternative schools is that young people do not all learn as well in the same educational environ- ment and that one way of ensuring compatibility between student and environment is to allow free choice as to type of school. Thus, it becomes crucial to be able to describe for parent "decision makers" in clear terms what is different about alternative schools and how types of students are affected by different schools. To launch programs of alternative schools without providing coherent descriptions of the schools is to make a farce of the whole business of choice-making. It is irresponsible for a school system to have parents face up to choices without presenting them also with information as to the consequences of their choice for their children. Without such information, choices are likely to be made on flimsy, expedient grounds.3 Leonard B. Finkelstein, Director, Alternative Pro- grams, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has described thirteen environmental objectives for possible distribution to help parents understand what is different about alternatives and to ensure a real democratic choice as to the type of environment they want for their child. 1. Have a program that is significantly different from the conventional or regular school program. 2. Be a total program, not just a short class or part of the school day. 3. Have a location, preferably in a community facil- ity, perhaps a wing of a school, or at least a few designated classrooms, so it can be identified geographically from the regular school program. There must be a functional relationship between the off-site unit and the home school. 33William Gardner, "Necessary: Communicate with Parents," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, p. 82. I Q i i a. 'L '5 C. rh.~ u FNJ ‘5 “h C r T r». F...“ r. .1. Ac. Cu rho PM ;. v. D; .C C. L; VI in r... u. e .L VI A e n 4.. ... .5 ..-. C» e n a3 uflu “n ‘1‘ E 90 . . Cs ‘ .. ;L 1 ~ u . C a ‘ ls C s r; C n.“ t C s: e all C c . a .1. e C. 7.. S A. E... e PL \L AM P v 1‘ “L w »l ”NV V. .c dz ‘ 1‘ V ‘ ‘ ‘ u. 4 C C» nu A . C . t .u 0.. CV t r NI.“ S \JJO {’5 t 60 4. Clearly define the student population and the admissions procedure to be served in terms of numbers and description, e.g., 20 academically gifted boys and girls. Student willingness to participate is a criterion. 5. Demonstrate that normal facilities and alloca- tions, as well as various school resources, will be integrated into the program (e.g., chemistry lab., reading program, motivation program, neighborhood youth corps, work study program). 6. Demonstrate the concept of individualized instruction based on variable performance of students. 7. Have a strong program design evidencing a crea- tive perception of learning and instruction, e.g., programmed instruction of curriculum, independent study, off-site visitation, flexible scheduling, experiential learning, and increased opportunities for one-to-one and small group instruction. 8. Provide more informal interaction between teacher and student; create an alternative environment in which students find more Oppor- tunities to participate actively. Through this new relationship, the program will strive to develop a sense of trust and responsibility, new positive attitudes, and improved behavior in students. 9. Have a creative guidance and counseling approach. Group, peer, individual, and special counseling efforts should be reflected in the program. 10. Career development programs are expected to include tasks and activities that enable stu- dents to increase their awareness of career options and help them develop positive self- images. 11. Use community, parents, mental health, and welfare agencies. 12. Include re-entry mechanism for students to the regular school system, if applicable. 13. Not consider removal or isolation of "problem“ students the program's principal objective.3“ As Seattle's Assistant Superintendent Mike Hickey points out: . 3“Leonard B. Finkelstein, "Implementation: Essen- tialss for Success," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, pp. 40-410 .n bay-- ’ fl . a». Q .Q- Cy T. T; l 2. ‘5. a: .1 a: C . a P‘ «C v.1 .c .u :u hint Wu “C Q» Q. I .<. I 1‘ h \ \ fi.\ u ~I 61 Alternatives simply cannot afford anarchy. Vulnerable to budget cuts and bitter criticism from traditionalists, officials of the new schools learn quickly that they have to be accountable for both academic performance and student behavior or they won't last.35 The Legitimization of Options The criterion for determining whether a public school alternative is legitimate and thus account- able involves enhancing the comprehensive goals of human growth which are tied to the noblest ideals of a free society and cannot deliberately exclude or circumvent the law by anyone. Mario Fantini has prescribed that the following criteria must apply before any alternative can be legiti- mized under a public school framework: 1. The alternative must be made available to students, teachers, and parents by choice. It cannot be superimposed. 2. It cannot claim the capacity to replace exist- ing alternatives like the standard school. Premature claims of superiority, belittling the worth of other alternatives, tend to create a negative political climate. The option being advanced is just that: an option for those students, parents, and teachers who are attracted to it. The existing alternatives are just as legitimate as those being proposed. 3. It must give evidence of being geared to the attainment of a comprehensive set of educational objectives, those for which the public school is accountable and not merely selected ones. Public schools are responsible for intellectual and emotional develOpment. They include development of basic skills such as reading, writing, speak- ing, and appreciating; learning-to-learn skills such as critical thinking, planning, problem 35Barr, Smith, and Burke, "All About Alternatives," op. cit., p. 37. 36Fantini, "Alternatives Within Public Schools," op. cit., p. 445. 62 solving; talent and career development; citizenship preparation; a positive feeling of self—worth; and the like. An alternative which emphasizes only the intellectual or only the emotional is suspect. For example, if a free school embraces only the educational objective of joy or "ecstasy" (however viable this is), it is doubtful that such an alternative could be legitimized as a public school. The other range of educational objectives must be also guaranteed to the con- sumer. If such alternatives were legitimized, it is possible to have a student who is happy while in school but unable to read, write, or otherwise qualify for the economic survival needs of modern society. Public schools cannot shortchange the learner because of the limited nature of the public school alternative he may have chosen. The public must be protected from consumer fraud. It is not designed to promote exclusivity-- racial, religious, or socio-economic. Equal access must be guaranteed. It is not dependent on significant amounts of extra money to implement and does not increase the per-student expenditures beyond those of established options. The idea is to utilize existing resources differently--perhaps more effectively.37 The ground rules for legitimizing alternatives within our public schools are critical. Without a publicly recognized basic foundation alternatives will not only be subject to confusion, but possibly illegitimate and un- accountable to those it directly serves, as well as the mainstream that financially supports it. Developing Models Of the many public school systems that have estab- lished alternatives or are developing them with Fantini's 37Ibid., p. 445. Fr"“ '5- 6" o‘u-n P, t- "h m... u. ’ 1 .r..r A .-‘. y {bruno Q. g - \” 6 “¢§- \— y. :F ,n.. ‘fi‘ nu... ‘1 (It—r I I (I! O . 63 criteria, the most advanced user of alternative schools is the Berkeley Unified School District which has developed four distinctive programs: multiculture, community, structured skills-training, and schools—without—walls. Also the Quincy Public Schools in Illinois have developed an Education-by-Choice Plan for its secondary schools. The Plan is best depicted by the following diagram of options and purposes (see Figure 2). T 1. This option could provide a learning environment which is primarily teacher-controlled. A school incorporating some of the ideas of the Classic School or the Struc- tured School with Student Input could create this S environment. T 20 This option could provide a learning environment which would receive direction from both teacher and student, but for the most part would be teacher-controlled. A school incorporating some of the ideas of the Modular School or the Individualized Instruction School might 8 create this environment. T-———————S 3. This option could provide a learning environment where teachers and students together would plan the learning experiences. A school incorporating the ideas of Project To Individualize Education or the Open School could create this environment. T = Teacher S = Student Figure 2. Education-by-Choice Model.* *Mario Fantini, Public Schools of Choice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973), p. 73. a“. UV‘ an 59 A.- “hi- I ‘I ‘ l ‘ v. .2 . -. C .2 E z. z‘ a.» V. «\V :5 e r . z . C . . .2 . v . fl . 3 . av u... .«u .h. 2. —:— - i 64 Alternatives may run the entire pedagogical cnontinuum. The publicized types and styles try to expose tile purpose and function of each alternative, e.g., "open," "1:0mmunity school," "satellite schools," "special needs scihool," and "continuous progress school," but there is stzill a concern surrounding the instructional process itzself. Mario Fantini approaches this concern by placing aalsternatives on a continuum that shows how much freedom (or? independence a student has in choosing the element of lxearning. At one end of the continuum the learner has the fireedom to select the what, with whom, when, where, and how (bf learning. At the other end the learner has little or run choice and is most dependent on the institution for direction. Between these extremes there is a multitude of Enossible options that range from choosing certain content Eireas where others would be required, where the learner may Ilave some freedom in how he pursues the content areas and know he chooses to use time and space. Such a continuum is <3harted in Figure 3. The free-informal environment enables each learner to orchestrate his own education. He had complete freedom to choose the what, with whom, when, where, and how of learning. Such environments may feature an emphasis on "Illich-Reimer mode which de—emphasizes schooling to a Pm mmr‘fi‘”i ‘3 ‘| ~...-».~\-F.... Minn 1.. .....~ ~.-~ -,..~.~ an\Lv~.\-~ ~N...’ ~ —-....-.~..— .—.._..—.:- ~.. .. —...:~....~I-....‘ t\~h.h -f\.~ .u...w¢ \..Z~.~.).~V-...~.. \..--b.-\.h\ 1......5 If] 3.". , "\--. 65 r. . ....I..l..l1l.; IL...:...1.. .35L .4 all!!! I. I .mvwlhvg .mm .mnma scum: .mmmmmw muama wan :.ma00£om oaanam Gflzuflz mw>flumcnmuaaa .wqflucmm oflumz "condom .Edscflusoo coawmfluommHmIOMIEOpmwum m so mw>flumcumuam .m Gunman .UGHO#G00 .UQHQUGQOIHQSOMQB .UOHGUGMOIHQGHMQH Hmppmanpommnsm .mmfipsum mo mesoo mm OMS“ ngpMH .mcfluumm Hmcoflp EmumMm Hmfloom mm nonhumafl Hoflme pm3mfl> ma Egaaofimuso may ma Hoonom .wmusaflmm ucwpsum oz .mucmfidonfl>sm .qcflccmam .uamficoufl>cw m>flaflummeoo ucmpspmluwnomme m>flufluwmfioocoz .prfism m>fluuom Imsm we monomme .poumucmOIGOHusuHumcH .mcficumma ucmpsum mo mmousom Momma on» mum upsum mo mwusoo pmsfimumonm paw Honomma .mmoufiommu mufl paw muflcsaaoo may on Hoonom mo mcficmmo .ucmunoo meow on» on .umammma ou wand .mpumpcmum m>flumEnoc nomoummm concausmumw sawm>m coma mmmum ou mcflpuooom mHHmm IMflp m swam mnmnommu Haaxm Hoflme CH Ho mommmm ucwpsum .mcflnommu Emma means mnmusmo moHSOmmm .HoumsHm>mlnouosHpmcH .mwumu uanmMMHU um .ucmpsum .ucmnmm .monOmmH mH Hmzomme .Eon3 and; gun msflnu meow gamma .Hmnommp ma ucm> one we Honomme cam .mumnS .amn3 .30: wucmpsum upmpmumcn we gmamu pmnmpflwcoo .cowumospm :30 Ilunmsmu on on ma umg3 Hoonom «:ofluozuumsw mmmum ucmpcoo mo was wumuummnouo "pmnHHommHQ >HEHOM mo GOwumuflHmspfl>flpcfl mmcmu mpfl3 m Bonn ou EOpmon madam lacs muamEmuflsme swsounu manflxmam mmoono on Eocmwnm I500 mm: umcummq coflusuflumcfl ou whoa mama we manmumpflmaoo opmHHOHucoo paw mmumnpm Hmcummq ucmucoo confluommum mm: Hmcnmmq pmuumuflvlnmcnqu Hgoméumcafim 358-8380: 258-5% B50273...“ (I) (U 0 9| . , ‘..A‘ o..- .. . . ~‘nu l" .7- 66 EStummerhill model which uses school as a type of permissive self-governing unit." 38 The open-formal environment is an attempt to be irxfcunml in part and overlaps with the free—informal. "The Etrjxtish infant schools, Montessori schools, and schools- vviiihout-walls could be examples of the 'Open' category,"39 where the learner is limited in his range of choices. The learner does have the freedom to choose the when and how, knit: not the what, with whom, and the where of learning. "Schools featuring ungraded continuous progress, Incuiular scheduling, and behavior modification are possible alternatives in the modified"“° -formal environment. The lfiiarner's freedom of choice is restricted to the when, ‘Visthin the schedule offerings, he will learn. "Formally organized, age-graded schools, and uni- fcxrmly regimented academics tend to fall into the stand- aI‘d"“‘«—formal nmde where the learner has no freedom of Cfnoice of teacher, content, methodology, time, or place of learning. "Whatever else the alternative does, it does offer Students 'home bases' that are individually comfortable, and * 38Mario Fantini, "Alternatives Within Public Schools," Eili Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 448. 3’Ibid., p. 448. “°Ibid. “'Ibid. C» v . r . «fig pV~v w‘. u“ s . .~ ~ . a» at .. .h~ a: 67 egfleyable. Any environment on the continuum that is opted ;fc>r"“2 by the students, parents, and/or teacher, will rwaflect a new sense of communion in working toward and eax:riving at the objectives for that alternative, whereas .lairge impersonal schools left them unexcited and uninvolved. The small size of alternatives, together with the inJght of choice, takes us a giant step closer to humanizing our public schools . Potential of Alternatives Recognizing that a wide range of legitimate educa- tzicmnal alternatives within the framework of public education ir1 (operation today have not yet had any effects on the Ineniiistream of public education, advocates of alternatives 1Delieve the concept of options has significant educational, SCDcxial, political and economical potential for the following 1DEELSic reasons: 1. Educational a. the introduction of alternatives enhances the capacity of the school to personalize its approach. b, educational productivity should increase through the process of students matching with a range of differing educational environments and teachers choosing the alternative that best enhances his style and talent. Within this compatible envi- ronment, not only will productivity increase, but conflicts between teachers, parents and students should decrease. \ l”Paskal and Miller, "Can Options Work in a Small S(thool District?" op. cit., p. 48. I t; i 1. I s 1E. V C. 1:1 68 a continuous cycle of organization renewal will be in effect due to certain alternatives being more productive and more often chosen than others, and other alternatives created to replace those in decreasing demand. optional education gives priority to staff renewal and development within the school in helping professionals to become aware of them— selves as professionals and their alternative and provide opportunity for wider variations in teaching style and for more diversity among teachers. the options of choice process will establish a firm foundation of loyalty and affirmation to and for the public school system from dis- satisfied students, teachers and parents of the conventional schools. curriculum planning and organization should return to local control and away from the National Curriculum Guidelines of the 60's. "the administrator will shift from all-around educational handyman to that of a coordinator, facilitator, and conciliator of a school envi- ronment that will allow teachers and students the freedom and support necessary to maximize individual learning and achievement.“3 "alternatives deal with the very substance of education. By creating a range of educational environments, they also break down the imper- sonal system of education. Alternatives provide the basis for creating more intrinsic, humane units within our schools."”“ “3From "Education by Choice," Application for Opera- Er.Sfll§l Grant Under Elementary and Secondary Education Act, ULblic Law 89-10, Title III, Submitted by Quincy Public Sch f serving as options within the system rather than to tile system, as has been the thrust of the private Eilternative school movement.“7 \ “7Michael E. Hickey, "Education by Choice," NASSP 1%, September 1973, p. 19. .mag A". 1..- mung-unqu- “ u 'vfinu. ~.-u ‘\ 5 AI‘. .. ‘5'- ‘A. . AA..-,.'_ 5-..; ‘c- - u 4' fir- 5.. ‘ 5“- n u ‘ '».. l ‘I. n a“ e, u‘... ‘h. u ‘ ‘: x I u..“~ ‘ s n‘ "A ‘n . 5v .I; 1 .~ ‘- Po «F \ ‘~,. 71 The Impact of Alternatives on Education A New Thrust Alternatives are enabling a more relativistic Eprwsczess of education to evolve. Smaller structural units rwegilace the "uni-dimensional" conventional organization mass Earmaciuction of today's educational approach. Education options and alternative programs assume their own sense of ccnnniunity. Both the institution and teacher, say nothing (3f ‘tlie student, assume a new identity as part of a common, often more personalized, social system. The small size of alternatives--enrollment, and lxeajrriing spaces that look more like lounges and workshops tfliaii :formal classrooms, with the right of choice, lends itself to a more humane public school education. Expanding the organizational structure of public GdIJcation to include a wide range of legitimate educational alternatives requires a look at the type of teacher neces- sary to fulfill the purposes and goals of an alternative and also the methods of evaluation. Tea\cher Qualities and Styles The instructional programs of alternatives tend to b . . . - e unique, and this uniqueness demands curricula and meth- 0 , . do10gy different from conventional programs. With greater (2 . or“munity participatory involvement in program dEVEIOPmENt I. ”My. in I 0 u. .u’ ‘ l . . . I L, «I» . J 2. A: C» V. . . .fiu v . Ar» 5L 2‘ .. e p“ p: .n“ n . .. n .2 2H «Du Ox. ‘u R .v » c it 1 l .: uh. he 72 and operation, the teacher must have qualities that heretofore have not been exhibited by the majority of the teaching profession. Critical to the success of each alternative is the identification of the following consistent behavioral characteristics: Strong commitment to the program, 0 Desire and ability to achieve close relations with students with a reduction in the author- ity relationship, 0 A flexibility, openness to change, creativity, 0 Desire and ability to make autonomous decisions, not relying on direction from a support structure, 0 Public relations skills, ability to work effec- tively with lay persons in the community, 0 Ability to develop educational plans in cooperation with students, parents, and staff.“8 The teacher must have the ability and capacity to reflect these behaviors, as they may be critical to a specific alternative program assessment. Further, since the teacher is the heart of the alternative environment, it will be necessary for the teacher to make public his teaching style. This can be revealed by the teachers by stating whether they generate a competitive or noncompetitive educational climate, whether they maintain a formal or informal structure, whether they employ convergent or divergent approaches to learning, whether they attempt to integrate knowledge around problem ‘”Robert J. Stark, "Staffing by Choice," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, p. 95. Wflffi—‘u‘ma‘i :"' Fa . I ' _ . l | Q u ‘un A menu 6 +:_ v. 5‘, p o "u" . i.‘ ¢ . p “ ‘F‘ I..- v. ' :- HAO‘A in. O- f ‘v-_-‘ R:.,A’ h‘” “a. :v-.A’ A "o.' - .— u- . It‘ 1 f e .. ‘4 73 areas or cover each discipline separately and systematically, how they utilize time and space within their environment, and what process or procedure they use for evaluation. Other allies of optional education View a cluster of teachers with similar styles as forming the core staff of each alternative. The diverse alternative descriptors will attract different teachers. Such alternative goals and/or purposes as humanistic, pragmatic, cognitive- developmental or psychoanalytic, each with its own edu- cational prescription, will establish personal relevance to those teachers who feel most comfortable working with anyone of them. The promise of dealing more basically with teaching-learning styles is enhanced by the alternative movement. The match—up of the student's learning-life style with that of the teacher's teaching-life style creates a new teacher role, from one of the conventional information- giver and prodder to diagnostician and learning facilitator. The teachers' main responsibilities then become: "aiding students in setting goals,sharing ways to achieve them, helping facilitate obstacles and keeping records on the child's progress.“9 The matching process to learning establishes a high priority item of personalized relevance within the “’Barr, Smith, and Burke, "All About Alternatives," op. cit., p. 38. ..3 V. . .. C» . . Te ‘5‘!- ~v.. - h .u‘ a.‘ 74 alternative; curriculums embrace noncognitive areas in addition to cognitive. Most attempt to foster positive values and attitudes such as self-confidence, responsibility, respect, honesty, trust, love, initiative, openness, enthusiasm and sharing. Elements of Evaluation "Much of the energy of the alternative schools' movement is devoted to finding financial backing, convincing school boards, soliciting community support, gaining suffi- cient 'autonomy' for experimentation, and offering enjoyable and varied experiences for students. Survival and mainte- nance concerns sometimes overshadow its purpose for being."so To be sure, the purpose is addressed rhetorically in the following description: We want young people to learn more than grammar and geometry. We want them to learn in affective as well as cognitive areas. We want them to learn responsibility, self—direction, and self-esteem. We want them to learn how to relate to others and how to enjoy learning. We want them to learn how to learn. . . .51 The question then becomes, how do you assess these purposes? When, to many parents and board members, home- work, certification, and subject content, supported by an assessment system of testing and grading, give legitimacy s°Philip Deturk and Robert Mackin, "Lions in the Park: An Alternative Meaning and Setting for Learning," Phi Delta Kappan, March 1973, p. 458. 511bid., p. 45. a ,n pyh'vu Novvgu :u ‘h u: ..~ 1. t at n. .2 A: L,» .3 a» .. p1. ..a......p........ PA. A. a a: be...“ «.5 ~ . at e..1. A. .n.. C :- ‘Ib A: ~., he. 1‘ 2a A, G» v; V« Lu ~ua a? s . 75 arnd provide security that the alternative environment is prnoviding "learning." "The institutionalization of school- ixmgy with its polished and understandable norms, 'guarantees' tliat a service is being provided. Most important these same sizandards are also the grounds upon which alternative scihools are usually and unfortunately judged."52 . . . the alternative school itself is learning some things about learning. There are many ques- tions which are unanswered, and there are also a host of new questions which are unanswered, and there are also a host of new questions to ask. The authors suggest that educators who look at the evaluation of learning in schools keep the ques- tions as well as the answers (grades or whatever) in mind. Are we asking these questions? Are students learning to learn? Are they preparing for future learning compe- tence by building self-confidence, gaining an appreciation of group structures, using the school and other resources in a productive way? Is a student learning to overcome his special set of obstacles to effective learning? Is a student learning what there is to learn and which of those options he wants to take advantage of? Learning in these terms requires a very broad alternative context, a context that allows each student to develop his potential. Does learning take place in the alternative school? The answer depends on the individual under consideration, what is meant by learning, and who is making judgment. If the alternative school has done nothing else, it has at least made us sensitive to the depth and scope of this essential educational concern.53 The age of accountability in education is here. Educational programs, particularly alternative pro- grams, face the choice of developing evaluation programs so that their effect can be assessed on their own terms, or being evaluated on the basis 521bid., p. 458. 531bid., p. 460. ‘E-m n..- ..\L it _|'_.. "’1" 76 of terms imposed by an outside agency or group. In my judgment, the best defense is good offense, particularly in the area of evaluating alternative education. Although what is evaluated in a program can be determined only by the objectives of that program, the following are some elements that might be appropriately evaluated: 0 community attitude 0 staff attitude and attitude change over the course of the program 0 parental attitude student attitude community participation (i.e., as volun- teers, on field trips, visits to the school) 0 academic achievement (not for a success/ failure judgment, but for diagnostic information which may be of use in certain situations . academic participation--differentiated from achievement in that it is intended to be descriptive data indicating how many stu- dents are taking what courses and for what extent of time o attendance data from both teachers and students 0 discipline and suspension figure the extent and nature of feedback to the community a follow-up survey of program graduates the holding power of the program changes in student-family relationships program development and growth, both in the size of the program and the scope of its offering 0 student activities outside the school: community work, social work, service . at the elementary level, the number of kids who dash out of the room at recess (in some schools recess is the most exciting thing to happen!).5“ At this point, no matter which evaluation system is dmmen, "most alternatives use standardized tests, mainly to k Sl'Michael Hickey, "Evaluation in Alternative Education," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, pp. 108-109. . _.. f c...— flu. Q wr- gym-mi“; A): '1 (h (I! (h A”... l 'II-b Aw" »u_. AHAw' 'Vh uh . '.'.VQ. . "su ' I (U I f (I, I): 77 look legitimate. Other than that, there's almost no research to substantiate student performance."55 Bane and Jenks in their book, The Schools and Equal Opportunity, have stated that the character of a school's output depends largely on . . . the characteristics of the entering children."$6 Unfortunately, only three possible "outcomes" of schools are discussed by the authors: occupational status, income, and test scores. These three criteria constitute an adequate measure of schools, but if this concept were taken one more degree and established on the factor of the characteristics of the entering child, we would have the premise for alternative learning environments. The one point that stands out as a landmark is that a school evaluation should be determined by whether the students and teachers find it a satisfying place to be. This is a beginning. As for evaluation of overall alternative programs, some models are in the works right now, including one from the Illinois Superintendent of Public Instruction and an- other from Indiana University. The Berkeley School System ‘already has developed a three-phase system, one in which 'the alternative is evaluated in terms of the school's own 55Michael Hickey, "Lessons from Seattle," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, p. 25. . 56Bane and Jenks, "The Schools and Equal Opportunity,‘ op. cit., p. 42. 78 goals, public school goals, and national norms. Still another evaluation model has been developed by the Organization for Social and Technical Innovations Incorporated, Newton, Massachusetts, for the Philadelphia Parkway Program. Another approach to the evaluation process is to reflect on some of the lessons that Seattle has learned in working with alternative education programs in the past several years. Michael Hickey has listed some of these in an effort to share with districts developing alternative programs. 0 "Unstructuredness" is directly proportional to structure. As the Koran puts it: if you don't know where you are going any road will get you there. 0 Alternative education programs must cultivate the acceptance of the community (or at least neutralize resistance) if they are to succeed. 0 The school system must treat alternative pro- grams like something more than an illegitimate child. 0 The school system bureaucracy and effective alternative education programs are not anti- thetical. 0 It takes more to be an effective alternative education teacher than just being "cool." 0 Students want structure. Structure does not have to be oppressive. Middle class values and life style are important to someone who has never experienced them. 0 Our alternative education programs have two main thrusts: rebuild trust, help students learn--in that order! 0 Alternative does not mean the replacement of the existing system. It means providing other choices. 0 Alternative programs are perceived by some indi- viduals as a real threat to the regular system and their jobs. . __ T, ___.,..-9—._.—-14.-L.i‘.'.' ‘ . P-l. .. "‘Q. L ‘m a» V. C.» . 5 VF‘ ‘n- ‘so e' .4.4 ~ '- . ha;- u 'h".t C. G? 5“ 129‘ L- 5h .2 C a a v.‘ vie C « ‘7 79 0 Teachers in alternative programs need a whole new series of skills for which they have received no formal training. 0 The staff burnout phenomenon which occurs in most alternative programs must be countered. 0 The cost of preventing dropouts is much less than the cost of treating the effects of in- adequate education--upon both the individual and upon society. 0 The goals of any program must be apparent to the student from the outset--and they must be attainable.57 "The development of options in public education has been slow and steady work, for success has demanded the re-education of many boards of education, parents and administrators. Public school options have been held In 58 accountable for their efforts by responding to consumer needs and by being measured by these specific needs. What better evaluation can there be, than being evaluated and held accountable directly to the community one serves? Also, a growing body of evaluation data is becoming available that demonstrates their success. At present, public school options are still small by comparison to conventional schools. With the exception of 60 or more school districts that have developed clusters of diverse options, few public schools have more than one, and too often it in- volves only a few students. But it is a beginning that holds promise of the day when all American youth may be able to select learning experiences from a wide variety of educational options both in public school and without.59 S7Hickey, "Lessons from Seattle," op. cit., p. 75. 58Barr, "Whatever Happened to the Free School Move- Inent?" op. cit., p. 457. 5’Ibid., p. 457. v'! I.-L [AOV .. . A. A“ \ v ~‘ 5..." u-_..~ .. u- m..- p ,- . ' ... “ u N. 5. 80 Summary It appears that we have only two alternatives that will satisfy the demands of society. The first is the notion of Ivon Illich recommending "deschooling society," implementation of which would necessitate placing the burden of socialization upon individuals and "convivial" institu- tions who have abdicated those responsibilities in the past. The other alternative is revamping the present system to fulfill the expectations of all elements of our society without abandoning laudable aspects of existing education merely for the sake of change."60 Only when education faces the realities of its failures will alternatives within the system be able to find a legitimate place in the current educational scheme. "If we continue to lose 8,000 secondary students each year and fail to provide new options, we are guilty of profes- sional malpractice."61 Thus, only when we have the freedom (3f choice to choose from a variety of legitimate learning ennvironments can we ever hope to meet the needs of indi- vdxiual students. The process is an enriching one and the pnnoblems are ever-present, but the challenge is there. 60Hunter O. Brooks and Paula R. Banrker, "Alternative Scflnools in a Traditional Setting," Social Education, November 1973, p. 651. 61Leonard B. Finkelstein, "Implementation: Essen- tiaLls for Success," NASSP Bulletin, September 1973, p. 41. W‘ T-—-_-_-u....__._—_7.-17—.‘] \I u I a 1‘. a . I 4 l I l . 1. .r~ 2. a»... .. .. .r~ .a .... a; a: .... at u». 2‘ at s. A: u u. .(,.. ui. s . 3. . n V& l.‘ . a .4 . a 1.: A: E. u“ ~ . . . ... .\ q\~ .. u u e .A, u . Q I .u s v n. .— 81 Successfully planned and implemented, alternatives by choice can advance significantly the noblest themes of contemporary education, including such perennial favorites as individual- ization and humanization of the formal learning process. The results can lead to a new effective- ness in learning (increased educational productiv- ity) and to a rising expression of professional and public satisfaction with public education. Further, if handled sensitively, options can help reduce the political conflicts existing within the ranks of the professionals themselves and between profes- sionals and the lay public--conflicts occasioned by the lack of acceptable and achievable proposals for needed educational reform, conflicts that are polarizing and politicizing our educational institutions.62 As the teachers and administrators become more sophisticated about alternative schools, the movement seems likely to spread like wildfire. And you probably won't see many students who are experiencing relative freedom in establishing a positive thrust in determining their own destiny, or parents who are experiencing real involvement in the decision-making process, trying to put it out. "They've been trying to light fires under school officials for some time now, demanding options within the system. And that's what options and alternative programs are all about."63 62Hickey, "Education by Choice," op. cit., p. 19. 63Bar, Smith, and Burke, "All About Alternatives," op. cit., p. 39; and Hill and Eyres, "Solving Administrative Pro ems in Alternative Schools," op. cit., pp. 83—84. _._..._—‘-—_ P4 ‘._. ‘A.u).. 9.0. .r .A ~ I “Y b (I) n o-v~ ‘ .b‘. e}: Doe. p ‘1‘? ‘v. 82 In the next section the major concern is the presentation of the basic structures of the theoretical trilogy and their major components and independent and dependent variables, and the awareness that can be drawn concerning the consistency, congruity and continuity of the philosophical, psychological and communicative networks for active practitioners in establishing optional or alternative programs in their schools. Dysp- Olc" F Lt”. { “0-, ‘\ CHAPTER III REVIEW OF THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES This review of the research will focus on four areas: (1) exploration of five educational philosophies: naturalism, idealism, realism, pragmatism and existential- ism; (2) exploration of four educational psychologies: humanistic, behavioralist, cognitive-developmental and psychoanalytical; (3) exploration of six organizational communication systems: Max Weber's Theory of Bureaucracy, Harvard School Theory of Human Relations, H. A. Simon's Administrative Behavior Theory, Douglas McGregor's Theory Y, Rensis Likert's System IV, Social Systems Theory of Organization; and (4) nine interdependent philosophical and psychological variables: societal purposes, learner, learning, growth and development, educational purposes, man, decision making, motivation, and behavior; and the interdependent communication variables that are essential components of an educational environment. PART I. PHILOSOPHICAL OVERVIEW This section is acutely valuable in that the comparative study of educational philosophy will enable 83 ll"; ‘4'”: i" b‘t up 3a.. . n‘. OF r-. n... ' 1 In Ar. v... “V "b ‘u - Q. "9 I'- 84 the reader to survey the distinctive thought of each philosophical system and may very well provide fresh insights into current teacher awareness and congruency to educational environments. The philosophies under study have been selected as representative of a continuum that ranges from the traditional to the liberal that are being consciously or unconsciously defended, altered, contradicted or confused. These selected philosophies are presented as referential basic foundations of observable systems now being exercised in education today. The five philosophies constituting the pattern for comparative study are naturalism, idealism, realism, and pragmatism and existentialism. They are named here in the same order in which they will be explored, and the order in which they have arisen historically. The meaning of the name naturalism is strongly implied in the word itself. It is a vieWpoint which regards the world of nature as the all in all of reality. According to naturalism, the physical universe is all that there is. There is nothing, such as the spiritual, beyond it which is different from the natural. Within man there is nothing, such as a soul, which is different from the natural. Nature is all. The point of View held by idealist is not as evident in the name as is naturalism. Idealism is not the philosophy _r___wfi-\f’ ""1 i. A. . .' ' T“? l -I K—‘ —_-4"..’.-.' C u « L. n~. '9 ‘u‘ 85 of the visionary who dwells upon utopian ideals for himself or for society. The distinction of philOSOphical idealism is that it believes reality to be constituted by the same substance as ideas, or minds, or selves. Other names which are near synonyms are mentalism, spiritualism and idealism. This position is the antithesis of naturalism. Nature, for less than being the all of reality, is not regarded as real in itself. The idealist insists that all we know about nature comes to us as thought or idea. Nature is dependent upon God; it is an expression of mind. The mind, which sustains nature, emerges in man and is his inner essence. Reality, therefore, for the idealist is beheld directly not in the external world, but in the inner experience of man. While naturalism and idealism have persisted as distinctive philosophies since early in the history of human thought, realism is a more recent viewpoint. The single distinguishing characteristic that realism has is that it gives deliberate attention to the problem of knowledge. Early naturalism was preoccupied with metaphysics and largely overlooked the problem of knowledge. At the same time, it is alleged by realism, the idealists twisted the knowledge situation about so as to make it look only their way, which was toward an idealist metaphysics. The chief reason for the rise of realism was to set straight the true character of knowledge. Realism accordingly insists that 86 the objects of the external world are real in themselves and are not dependent upon any mind for their existence. The appropriateness of the name is evident in that objects of our experience are regarded as real things. They are independent of our minds. Pragmatism arose in the latter part of the nineteenth century and is singularly associated with American life and thought. In its view of reality, the uncertainty and pre- cariousness of our world is stressed. In regard to knowl- edge, it elevates the use of things above the knowledge of things, utility being of prime importance and capable of realization, whereas knowledge of ultimate truth is impos- sible and is of little practical value. The seeds of pragmatism were fostered by idealism through revolt. Impatient with the great stress on unity made by idealism, William James revolted, insisting that reality is many and that the will of the individual can make a difference. John Dewey, unconvinced by either the absolutism or transcenden- talism of idealism, revolted by describing reality as a liquid process which is constantly changing and in which there is no abiding Spirit. Dewey's supreme imperative is that man must be ever alert to his changing environment and active in solving the problems it increasingly presents. Existential is, as the word implies, a philosophy of human existence. It arose early in the nineteenth century A.“ I 87 in response to a cultural climate in which Soren Kierkegaard observed that man had forgotten what it means to exist, to be an individual who understands what it means to die, to suffer, to decide, to love, to stand apart, as each man is born to stand apart from the rest of the universe and from one's friends. It begins with the individual rather than with history as the pragmatist professed. History can only reply to a situation when human beings find themselves clear- sighted and honest and vigorous. Existentialism is thus an inductive philosophy, a philosophy in which diagnoses always outnumber prescriptions, however important the prescriptions may be. Existentialism surfaced on the world scene through the efforts of four figures in the twentieth century: Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, Gabriel Marcel and Jean-Paul Sartre, who all had rebellion as a common feature. Their rebellion was against the apathy and slumber of the intel- lectuals, against the insensitivity of colleagues, and against the inhumanity and irrelevance of institutions such as the church, the state, and the university. Behind tfluese rebellions is the conviction that many aspects of the envirtnment suffocate the individual and his individuality as atlnan. Kierkegaard reacted against idealism (ideas .repltuzing individuals) and the Hegelian dialectical system as cflxscuring the inevitable ambiguity, confusion, and incom- plettnness of human existence. His objections to realism “P. ;u .I .»~ K:- I». .. 88 were based upon their focus to increase specialization and that its role became one of methodizing and correcting everyday reflections and thus sidestepping the fundamental questions and tagging them meaningless. As for pragmatism the objections are similar, in that it proposes too easy a way to resolve man's problems. Philosophy cannot always be directly learned or applied nor does it always speak immediately to the present. The objections to pragmatism continue that the object of philosophy is a given and that personal problems can be viewed through the scientific inquiry process. For Kierkegaard, philosophy is understood only if it is lived and is founded upon concreteness, personal applicability, and individual commitment. Naturalism The four basic ideas which are most common to naturalism and the men who subscribed to them are: 1. Nature is all the reality there is.--Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus, Lecretius, and Spencer. 2. Reality is comprised of bodies moving in space.-- Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus, Lecretius, and Hobbes. 3. Ultimate reality is force or energy.--Spencer. 4. The most acceptable life is possessed by keeping close to the simple and peaceful way of Nature.-- Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius, and Rousseau. 1J. Donald Butler, Four Philosophies (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, I957), p. 80. 89 Each of the five philosophies builds upon an attitude which is common and apparently well grounded in the mentality of most people. The common attitude on which naturalism builds is that there is order in nature and that this order can be depended upon. Because it builds on this common attitude, naturalism has a universal appeal. But the enlargement of an attitude into a philosophy of life means making it into a total and all-inclusive mental framework into which all other ideas and principles fit, and to which they are subordinate. The following will attempt to outline the perspective of nature in relation to the eight major variables of a learning environment. Social Value of Education Herbert Spencer was not unique in finding that formal education has a basis for existence in nature. Learn- ing is a very natural thing, and the fact that the need for it evokes teaching activities from adults is also truly natural. The chief phenomenon on which the need for formal education is based in the overlong infancy of man requiring sustained protection and guidance for almost two decades. This long infancy of dependence is natural for man; therefore, learning is natural for him. Man does not have the ready-made equipment of animals at birth. His lack is a strength rather than a weakness as long as he is sheltered in infancy and guided as his maturation level proceeds to f: r . -. ‘t‘. —Jg a ”w ix I» use. . s u .. .3... I‘- :. 90 fulfillment. In being without set instinctive patterns of behavior, man has a greater potential and a plasticity in relation to formation of behavior patterns which makes possible successes far beyond those of animals. It is this important dimension of the nature of man which not only makes education possible but requires it as an urgent necessity. Therefore, formal instruction is a natural necessity, not an unwarranted creation of man superimposed upon nature. P‘-‘,u.\k.._!i_h I ‘ A ‘6 .| Learning and the Learner The Naturalist regards the learner from the physical side. The child during infancy is a body and the basic requirement is that of physical survival. Prolonged infancy provides time for the much needed learning by man; not only is the infant dependent upon adults for nourishment, but also for mental nurture. Although dependent on the kind of environment in which to grow physically and develop mentally, the child educates himself/herself in great measure. He/she uses his/her senses in an apparently extemporaneous and purposeless activity, but all the while he/she is building perceptions and establishing relation- ships. This is the child's own educative activity. His/her spontaneous activity is a natural process of acquiring knowledge on which all preceding knowledge is founded. A I ~- 1‘.- w- ‘ I ..b ' D .0. III I). 9‘ 's 91 Thus, what a child enjoys is an important index to the kind of activity which is educative for him at a given stage of his development. The growth and development of the learner is based upon natural rhythms. And to these rhythms education must be attuned if it is to fulfill its function. These unique individual rhythms, not too commonly observed, but present in each child's experience, are the sure guides to learning activity, and whenever there is an effective meeting of adult guidance and childhood response, harmony with the order of natural development is the common ground on which the meeting takes place and learning occurs. Objectives of Education "2 "Complete living is the general aim of the five objectives. An overview conveys the impression that moral responsibility coupled with practical self-sufficiency are virtues of the educated man. This impression is supported by the specific objectives which are now to be discussed. 1. Self-preservation. In order to live completely, as man has first of all to live, he has to con- tinue his own existence. While instinct is the chief guarantee of this objective, education may also help by acquainting the learner with the laws of health and skills for a livelihood. 2. Securing the necessities of life. Financial reward is not life, but it is a necessity in maintaining life. Education should train directly for success in this important function. 2Educational Policies Commission, The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1937), p. 17. l .1; ‘ 'l .——- At. .‘A.’ I- :» . _ --, 92 3. Raising children. Life must be perpetuated into the future in new generations. The most important function that adults have is that of raising children, therefore, education should deal unashamedly both with the care of children in the nursery and the discipline of them as they grow older. 4. Maintenance of social and political relations. If living is to be complete, education must build a wise citizenry who has understanding and mastery of social and political processes. 5. Enjoyment of leisure. Education must expose man to the aesthetic gratification of the tastes and feelings of the complete life.3 The following is specific to the remaining environ- mental components of man and decision making. Naturalists conceive evil as the counterpart of the highest life, the complete life. The complete life is the ultimate objective and evil is something to be avoided, if not escaped, as we manage our daily life and action; evil would seem to be a quality or kind of experience which is inflicted upon us. Much less is it a quality of events in which we ourselves participate or of which we are causes. Evil is a fact of nature; man is nature, therefore, man is evil. As to individual decision making, there are stages of development. At the outset there is autocratic control of the development for the complete life proceeds with order, the second stage constitutionalism is inaugurated in which "the liberty of the subject gains some express recognition. 3Butler, Four Philosophies, 9p: cit., pp. 108-109. I'The Unique Function of Education in American ZDemocracy, op. cit., pp. 184-204. 93 Following this there are successive extensions of liberty as the child evidences readiness and this finally ends in "parental abdication."5 Idealism The basic ideas which are most common to idealism have to do with three chief subjects: God, the self, and knowledge.6 On God 1. "Ultimate reality is of the same substance as ideas"--Plato and Hegel. 2. "Behind the phenomenal world is an infinite Spirit which is both substructure and creator of the cosmos"--The Book of Genesis, the Fourth Gospel, Leibniz, and Berkeley. 3. "One of the two attributes of God is thought"-- Spinoza. 4. "The existence of God is made necessary by certain factors in selfhood a. "The fact that I have an idea of perfect being necessitates that perfect being exists"-- Descartes. 51bid., pp. 229-230. 6Butler, Four Philosophies, op. cit., p. 171. fit?- I‘- 94 b. "The fact that I can perceive qualities in the objective world necessitate a God to create these qualities"--Berkeley. c. "The fact that there is a category of impera- tives in the self necessitates God as the one who guarantees contentment as the accompaniment of moral obedience"--Kant. On the Self l. "The self is the prime reality in the experience of a person"--Descartes, Berkeley, and Kant. 2. "Human selves are like God in that they are spirits, unlike Him in that they are finite"--The Book of Genesis, and Leibniz. 3. "Man as a thinking being is a part of God"--Spinoza. 4. "The human self has freedom of will"--Leibniz and Kant. On Knowledge 1. "By examining his own ideas and testing their consistency, man can achieve truth"--Plato, Leibniz, and Hegel. 2. "The self reads meanings and unity into the objec- tive world"--Berkeley and Kant. 3. "Value and meaning are obtained by relating parts and wholes"--Hegel. 95 Unlike naturalism and realism, there is an abundance of literature on the meaning of idealism in educational practices. For in the same manner as pragmatism, its rebellious off-spring, idealism has shown great interest in education and has decidedly influenced educational thought and practice. Social Value of Education If idealism has a rationale for the existence of the school, it must be one which is fundamentally opposed to that of naturalism. Education exists as an institution of human society because of spiritual necessity and not because of natural necessity alone. The idealist of the nineteenth century exalted human culture and human insti— tutions as being expressions of spiritual reality. Man can only be made man by a cultural birth arrived at through for— mal education. Man has the full potentiality for humanity and even divinity, but left to himself, he will be formed by whatever culture happens to surround him. Now, one reason for the existence of the school is that it embraces the breadth of humanity's contemporary life and the backward reach of its history; thus, humans may be given cultural birth as men. This direction will then pro- 'vide the fullest possible range and depth of humanness for Inan. A significant additional element is that God speaks 'through the culture of man. The contention is that, as the _- -mszr—M 7 " E rm“ 96 school inducts the child into the richness of meaning implicit in being human, it also provides him for inferences concerning the nature of the Divine. The social value of education is that it is a human necessity in order for man to be made truly man. In some measure also it is divinely intended, because of its cultural function as a means of general revelation through which a person may come to see the ultimate context of his life to be that of Spirit, not human culture alone. Another significant point of the idealist is that the individual is also a social being, an objective projec- tion of society in an individuated form. Education, then, necessarily must be a social process and not altogether individualistic. If to be a man, or to be a self, is to be a social being, then a man must have a social setting in which to become a man. To encompass the social dimension generic to individual man requires that his education be social. The school is perceived as the mind of society. It is a thinking institution in the sense that it gives leadership and guidance in thinking. It will encourage thinking and "mind functions" in other institutions and stand in the forefront as the leader and the sole respon- sibility for the transition or transferer of values. 97 Learning and the Learner The idealist regards the learner as "a finite person, growing, when properly educated, into the image of an infinite person, that his real origin is deity, that his "7 nature is freedom, and that his destiny is immortality. The learner's self is the major component in {1377*- education. Although the environment does influence the p . 1.. individual, the individual determines his environment, just 3‘." 3‘ as much as he is determined by it, if not more. "It is the 3 individual personality, which actually picks up the stimuli that affects it, selects them, and in this way creates and determines its environment . . . more liberally and in its social aspects the creation of the environment by personal- ity has the priority."8 The learner's self is deeper than the physical; it is superior to it and able to produce changes in the physical surroundings. The sufficient source of self—activity which educa— tion helps to explore is reached only in an absolute self- active way. The ultimate reality, which education implies to be mental and actual, also implies it to be self-active. The self—activity of man, conditioning his education, is 7Herman Harrell Horne, "An Idealistic Philosophy of Education, Forty-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education," Part I, Philosophies of Education (Bloomington, 111.: Public SchooI’Publishing’Co., 1942), p. 155. 8B. B. Bogoslovsky, The Ideal School (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1936), p. 454. 98 the clearest expression in the limits of time of the imminent and transcendent self-activity of reality. The individual's process of becoming through self-activity accentuates the necessity and importance of education as the only environment that supports and enriches the realization of man's destiny, the finite. Objectives of Education The objectives for which idealism would strive have, of their own necessity, a social as well as an individual frame of reference. The educational ideal must embrace all the various historical ideals, including each as a part in the whole, where truth is found. Concerned for the individ- ual, it must include culture, knowledge, and development as aims; devoted to society, it must aim at efficiency, charac- ter, and citizenship, for individual aims are also second- arily social, and the social aims are also secondarily individual."3 Horne's definition of education has become famous and is representative of the idealist objectives for edu— cation. "Education is the eternal process of superior adjustment of the physical and mentally developed, free, 9Herman Harrell Horne, The Psychological Principles of Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1908), p. 37. r-‘I - ‘ nwfiif—ff-‘P'u‘l‘w-{q .‘u \ 99 conscious, human being to God, as manifested in the intellectual, emotional and volitional environment of man."10 In trying to understand the idealist philosophy of education, it is well to remember that the core is first of all a metaphysical idealist, and secondarily a moral and social idealist. The ultimate real is Spirit; and this ultimately real Spirit is absolutely good and since ultimate reality is ultimate, and since present man and his society are transitory, education must be conformed to the ultimate, which is God. The basic characterization of the idealist-inspired education is that it is ideal-centered. To describe some- what concretely what an ideal-centered education becomes in practice, a discussion of the component variables may be helpful as they operate in the idealist-inspired environment. What is to be learned is dependent upon what the teacher determines is to be taught. The teacher is the center in the idealist pattern of learning. She/he deter- mines what the learner's opportunities for learning and growing shall be and sets the character of the environment in which learning takes place. She/he personally confronts the learner as the single most important influence in his learning experience and conceives objectives or accommodates 10Herman Harrell Horne, The PhilOSOphy of Education, (Rev. ed.; New York: The Macmillan Co., 1927), p. 285. . “(Mfl "WICF- ’51-. ‘cun ' 100 them to the learning experience as they are handed down by superiors. The teacher is therefore the medium of commu- nication between the pupil's mind and the subject matter. Growth and development is explained by the principle of imitation; the process of influence of significant others is assimilated by the learner. The common habits of life arise because youngsters naturally imitate their elders, and by this process grow to maturity, sometimes attaining levels of achievement above those whom they imitate. On the surface this may appear to be copying, but implicitly it is the originality and creative capacity of the child emerging in its earliest observable forms. Thus, the development of the individual is dependent upon four phases: the actual everyday social and mental environment in which the model lives; the main characteristics and typical atti- tudes; the content and method of achievement; and finally the growth and use of the contributions in the course of time and especially its significance to the learner. Motivation is dependent upon three sequential characteristics: interest, effort, and discipline. Inter- est infers a total positive attraction where the individual needs no conscious or voluntary exertion; effort is the conscious and voluntary exertion of the individual to do a job not engaging sufficient interest; and discipline is the external stimuli to stimulate the individual to complete i- u. 1 _,___-fi.— ”...- .- - run-u...- .ml\ 4*... 101 the task. Formal education begins with discipline and moves toward the freedom of self—activity. In the formation of the child to do right, coercion is exercised, "authority begins by being external; it is sufficient if it ends, through habit-formation and self-control, in becoming internal."11 When arriving at the level of being internal the individual has brought his will into existence. Thus when the individual reaches adolescence, his growth has reached a readiness to assume responsibility of establishing a philOSOphy of life and the desire to be successful in society. Decision making follows the same premise as that of motivation and maturation. Education will stimulate the individual to the degree of formation of self activity and free will; then the individual is ready to initiate self- direction through self-decision. Man is perceived as neither bad nor good; she/he is potential and can become either good or bad, depending upon his environment, surrounding influences and his own will. But since realization of ultimate values is such a life task, it is much easier to be evil than to push onward toward the good. A statement of Horne's can summarize the idealist point of view toward man: "men are often ignorant, negli- gent, unaesthetic, willful, perverse, enslaved by bad habits, and far removed from their proper estate.""2 12Herman Harrell Horne, "An Idealistic PhiIOSOphy of Education," Philosophies of Education (Bloomington, 111.: Public School Publishing Co., 1942), pp. 155-156. i igfi—um 102 Realism The following propositions are well established and supported by realists regardless of their differences, and focus on two sets of statements: one on the physical world, the other on the mind.13 On the Physical World 1. "Nature is a primary self-evident reality, a starting point in philosophizing"--Aristotle. w-ur-e- ,-..—.u——u_-n ‘Wfl 2. "The physical world is real, at least for the duration of the temporal order"—-Saint Thomas and Descartes. 3. "There is no thought without extension"--Spinoza. 4. "The primary qualities of experience exist in the physical world"--Locke. 5. "There is something which produces my sensations and perceptions, the thing-in-itself, which cannot be known to be mental in character"—-Kant. On the Character of Mind 1. "Mind is like a mirror receiving images from the physical world"-—Comenius. 2. "The mind of a child at birth is similar to a blank sheet of paper upon which the world proceeds to write its impressions"--Locke. 13J. Donald Butler, Four Philosophies, op. cit., pp. 313-314. 103 3. "Mind is a manifold of ideas or concepts"—-Herbart. 4. "Consciousness is not a substance, it is an aware- ness of experience, and experience is a medium in which objects and organisms are related"--James. Idealism is a comprehensive philosophy which has resulted from intellectualizing the common belief in the reality of mind and self. Correspondingly, realism is the refinement of our common acceptance of the world as being just what it appears to be. According to it, things are essentially what they seem to be; furthermore, in our knowledge they are just the same as they were before entering our consciousness, remaining unchanged by our experiencing them. It ought to be recognized that not all educational practice which corresponds with realism is the conscious expression of a realist philosophy of education. Some edu- cators are conscious of their realism and are deliberate eXponents of it. Many others, however, follow realist practices without having considered the philosophic impli- cations which may be implicit in their professional activ— ities. Hopefully, the present analysis may be of assistance to the awareness of the second group by providing a basis for comparing their practice with their beliefs about life and reality. _ .—-‘ \. rm... a camp” '01-” ' P! g 104 Social Value of Education The social value of education can best be described by singling our philosophers who are recognized as distinc- tively realist educational philoSOphers. John Amos Comenius in his Great Didactic describes the unique function of the school by stating that man is not made man only by his biological birth. If he is to be made a man, human culture must give direction and form to his basic potentialities. This recognition caused him to consider the education of r— n . -mmfi‘Tra—‘q‘i‘l man by man just as essential to man's birth as a human creature, as is procreation. He defined education as formation and that formal education exist as "a true bargaining place of men."1” John Wild has stated that education is both a basic need and a basic right of man. It is the essential duty of any society to make sure that all children born within it are properly educated. Among all the basic rights, the right to be educated is "the most precious and the most in need of adequate realization."ls Harry Broudy states that education must possess a body of tested knowledge and its practitioners must base their art on this knowledge. 1"John Amos Comenius, The Great Didactic, trans. and ed. by M. W. Keating (London: Adam and Charles Block, 1907), Part II, p. 228. 15John Wild, "Education and Human Society: A Realis- tic View," Modern Philosgphies of Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), pp. 37-41. 105 "Education is the final arbiter as to what is to be taught (curriculum), as to how the teaching should be done (method), as to the organization of the school system 16 and as to the qualifications of those (administration)," who shall be permitted to teach at any level of instruction. John D. Redden and Francis A. Ryan insist that the school's chief functioning is "to further, through instruction, discipline, and pupil activity, the development of physical, social, mental, and moral training."17 Learning and the Learner The realist approaches the learner by describing four principles that comprise the essence of the human self. These are the appetitive principle, the principle of self- determination, the principle of self—realization, and the principle of self-integration. The appetitive principle has to do with the physio- logical base of personality. Our appetites disclose the need of our tissues to maintain and reproduce themselves. Physiological life, and therefore the life of personality, cannot go on unless these necessary tissue needs are sup- plied. To satisfy the tissue need, men must be aware of 16Harry S. Broudy, Building a PhilOSOphy of Education (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954), pp. 97-101. 17John D. Redden and Francis A. Ryan, A Catholic Philosophy of Education (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1942), pp. 116-119. 106 them, and in being aware of them, we realize that pleasure and pain are central. The relation of feelings to events conditions a knitting together of elements in avoidance of pain and a seeking of pleasure. Thus, it surfaces the fact that all desires are not necessary desires; their objects are not always the urgent and direct satisfaction of bodily needs. Many desires have their roots in the meanings accompanying tissue needs and their satisfaction. Because of this, a large majority of our desires are borrowed from the culture and have labels of desirable and undesirable. They do not therefore automatically organize themselves into a life which is good, because desire by itself does not enable us to distinguish between real needs and felt needs. The significance of the preceding is educationally important. If teaching begins with the problem of the learner, or the felt needs, it may miss completely the real needs of the learner. The object to which the feeling of need may be attached is not necessarily the real need with which the learner must c0pe. Learning must be guided by other aspects of personality in order to be related to the real and the good. The principle of self-determination in experience is the resistance which the self meets in people, objects and events. Were it not for this resistance, the self :‘ ”Tit-4F“? W1 107 would not be distinguishable from its environment. In order to explain this,one must recognize that the self is a common factor in all experiences. The self has form as well as continuity; it does have a pattern of activity commonly referred to as human nature. The actual self at any given point in its history is the result of its total history to that point. The self is a straining toward the future; it is the result of its past and an awareness of its living toward the future. The self is its envisioned possibilities, thus freedom of the will is central to the developed self and is fashioned not by desire alone but by desires as weighed and chosen by a thinking self. The third principle of self-hood, self-realization, supplements freedom as such with value concerns. The power to become a Self, is among the generic powers of value realization which we inherit in varying degrees as individuals. The potential for self-hood in a particular degree is one of the givens with which man begins. The content for this self-realization must come from the culture. It is the educational provisions of a culture which must bring the potentiality for self-hood and its content together. The fourth and final principle which depicts the nature of the pupil is the principle of self-integration. It is the principle of self-hood which keeps self-determi- nation and self—realization in balance. The self must be ~ -. Plfl 1‘ L:-m’.l 3.1" a “ I 108 applied totally and with commitment in determining which desire is compatible with the self among all the possibil- ities available. The central function of the self is to unify many selves within one personality and this is accomplished through experiences in arriving at selfhood or to the social order. Objectives of Education The objectives of education are determined by the theory of value that one holds for ethics, aesthetics, phiIOSOphy and beliefs as to what the economic, political, social utilitarian, and other values are that lead to the true and finished character of the good life. Central to any objective are the four principles of appetitive, self-determination, self-realization and self-integration. These forms qualify the nature of the good life for mankind, and the good life as an educational aim of man needs to be measured by these forms. The union between the subjective and objective estimates of the good life can be found in these forms. Within each can be found the normal functions which the self should fulfill and in fulfilling them the self will be in constructive relation- ship with.society, from which the objective estimate comes, and in the highest sense, pleasure and pain will be evidences of the fulfillment of these functions. 109 The remaining explanations refer to the environmental variables of decision-making growth and development, motivation and man. The decision-making process of man is determined by the rate of the growth and development of the forms of self hood: self-determination, self-realization and self- integration,from infancy to manhood. Upon the fulfillment of these functions, man distinguishes himself from other forms of organic life and establishes a direction toward the true and finished character, which is intended as the final end, that of a supernatural man who is made so by a supernatural grace with which formal education works as an agent. He is the supernatural man who thinks, judges, and acts constantly in accordance with right reason illuminated by the supernatural li ht of the example and teaching of Christ. 8 Motivation is founded on interest. Interest is explained through overt and covert expressions of deep and fundamental urges which are stimulated by the basic prin— ciples of self. Thus, the learner is self motivated based on the theory of the nature of the learner and the theory of method assisting the learner to apprehend knowledge as relevant to the fundamental ways of his being in any manner 18William J. McGucken, The Philosophy of Catholic Education, Forty First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educationj Part I (Bloomington, 111.: Public School Publications Co., 1942), p. 265. ‘rfi ”fit-effl-‘u-rzgrm-‘j 110 necessary. Finally, the realist sees man as body and soul united in substantial union. He has been redeemed from original sin, but it is its effects which persist in man. These effects are marks of deprivation still left upon man. Consequently, he is "less able to attain truth, is less able to seek good and is more inclined to evil."19 And as stated before and emphasized again, this dilemma can be corrected only by the enlightening of the intellect and the strength- ening of the will through discipline and training. Pragmatism There are five propositions that can be extracted from historical survey of the development of pragmatism. They have been selected as representative of the pragmatic viewpoint and are generally in agreement with the philosophy of Dewey. The propositions and those who have subscribed to them are as follows:20 1. "All things flow; nothing remains the same"-- Heraclitus and Dewey. 2. "It is impossible to gain knowledge of ultimate reality"-—The Sophists and Dewey. 3. "Hypotheses tested by experience constitute the nearest approach to knowledge which we have"-- 19John D. Redden and Francis A. Ryan, From Plus XI, EE§1Christian Education of Youth (New York: The American Press, 1936), p. 145. 20Butler, Four Philosophies, op. cit., p. 443. 111 The Sophists (a modification of their treatment of sense perception) and Dewey. 4. "Science should become a social pursuit by being applied cooperatively to the study of all of the problems of man"--Bacon, Comte, and Dewey. 5. "In order to determine the meaning of an idea, it must be put into practice; the consequences which follow constitute the meaning of the idea"--Peirce, James, and Dewey. Pragmatism has become and is a leading educational philosophy in America. It has given education a primary and central place among social institutions. Most notable has been the influence of John Dewey and in particular, his work, Democracy and Education, which reflects his thoughts and experimentation up to 1916. This work synthesized philosophy and education and defined philosophy as "the general theory of Education."21 Social Value of Education It may be that pragmatism more than any other philosophy requires that there be concern with education as a social institution. To reflect for a moment, natural- ists treated education largely in individualistic terms. 21John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1916), p. 383. 112 Idealists failed to comprehend the essential social strain in their tradition and conceived education largely in terms of the individual, as did the realists. Their tendency is to regard the individual as the most significant physical unit and thus establish social concerns secondary in edu- cation and regard the individual primary. But pragmatists approach education as a means by which society renews it- self, "and it is a process which in its inner essence is social, embracing individuals who, while they are separate and distinct physical and psychial entities, are at the same time society cast into individuated forms."22 Society cannot fulfill its educational task due to the need to supply the volume of learning for each new gen- eration, to meet the complexities of man's present and past heritage, and to assist man in achieving a command of lan- guage, without an institution designed for this purpose. In fact, its main function stems from the relationship of being a specialized institution designed for a particular purpose of presenting society to the child in an uncomplex form which makes learning possible. The school can be selective in a qualitative manner. It can select specific kinds of experiences which are conducive to wholesome nurture and exclude others. The school has the respon- sibility of giving the child a balance and a genuinely 22Butler, Four Philosophies, op. cit., p. 481. 113 representative acquaintance with society at the same time that it simplifies and purifies it. A balanced represen— tative acquaintance with society can only be established through the spirit and approach of the democratic process. Learning and the Learner The learner is to be viewed through the evolution of selfhood and the pattern followed by the genesis of selfhood. First, his biological birth is seen as that which evidences the learner as an active organism, partaking of some kind of movement that constitutes the dynamic world of which he/she is a part. Thus, the point is reflected that the learner is not passive, but is reaching out to engage in the flow of experience. Second, the learner's growth and development is seen at the psychological and sociological levels along with the emergence and acquisition of language which establishes communication of meanings between individ- uals and groups. This preserves past experiences for future experiencing. Last of all, is the emergence of selfhood established through language which provides the opportunity to contrast self with others. This brings the learner into focus with his own conscious experience. This is the pat- tern by which the learner has evolved into a distinct and concrete entity in the individual social life process. The general method by which a person learns is considered to follow the same pattern as effective thinking. “‘5’ WW?“"“‘7 -' ' ' I 114 Experimental method is the method of thought; experimental method is also the method of learning. Learning, like thinking, never begins at a standstill; it always begins in the midst of movement and activity. Thus, learning begins at the point of examining indeterminate elements of a situation strongly enough to see the problem they have established. This initial stage of learning is highlighted by one's interest or motivation, for interest is internal and founded in the relation of the learner to the tensions of his experience. Therefore, motivation to pursue is grounded in interest--tension. When a person has a problem, he is already interested because he is in a state of tension which needs to be resolved, and his interest is attached to possible resolutions. After the problem takes form and is quite clearly understood the following sequential behavior stages occur: a more effective examination of the indeterminancies which constitute the problem; related data are brought together from within the situation and from other comparable situa- tions which have a close bearing upon the problem and its possible solution; the formulation of hypotheses; and the final stage of the learning experience is the stage of resolution in which the new hypothetical patterns are put to the test. Resolutions that prove to be ineffective are discarded and those that prove satisfactory are maintained. .___,—.ndll.¢ .1 .1 “In.” a .-.wA~.-maa-nv ' - . ' | 115 This scientific method of learning and problem solving is stated by John Dewey's resolution that "sound education experiences involve, above all, continuity and interaction between the learner and what is learned."23 Objectives of Education Pragmatism has established life as being fluid in character and as being lived in the midst of a world which is fluid as well. Learning situations, both informal and formal are experiences in this continuing movement. Their objectives are always specific to the resolutions which are the outcome of these experiences. Once the objectives are achieved they always give way to a new objective because of new experiences which take the place of the one just past which called for a particular learning different from the particular learning in the present. The pragmatists therefore take the stand that the formation of specific objectives is so difficult as to be almost impossible. In light of the preceding, pragmatists have established general objectives for education. The first generalization about the function of education is that there be more education; the second is to give the learner experience in effective experiencing and partic— ipating in coping behavior with the ever-changing 23John Dewey, Experience and Education, The Kappa Delta Pi Lecture Series (New York: Collier MacMillon Press, 1938), p. 51. :4 ~x. 116 environment; and finally to establish social efficiency. By social efficiency, the pragmatist means a many—sided effectiveness in maintaining social relations of all kinds. The remaining two environmental components to be described are the pragmatist conception of man and his growth and development. Pragmatism has the same confidence in man that he has in nature. Nature is defined as an open and dynamic order of change; therefore, man is perceived with dignity r t: i 1‘: I: L in standing up to his experiences and he has certain possi- bilities for action. But beyond this, there is no real hope. Man's prospect as he faces the future is melioristic, not optimistic nor pessimistic. He has a certain possibility for making the best of his circumstances and achieving a purposeful control, but beyond this there is no sure guarantee that man will be moral. As for the psychological and sociological growth and development, pragmatists approach the individual first as an active organism, partaking of the same kind of movement that constitutes the dynamic world of which they are a part, always reaching out to engage in the continuous flow of experience. He is an organism who participates in meanings and therefore has value experiences which animals do not have. This value experience is achieved through the emer- gence of language. As experience increases year after year, 117 symbols gradually become identified with things experienced and the symbol becomes the referent for communicating mean- ing to others and society. This process becomes the tool for transmission of past experiences for future experiencing. When individuals become practiced in communicating by means of language, there emerges an experience of selfhood which allows for the retention of experience and meanings which enlarge the volume of resourcefulness, thus providing the opportunity for the individual to focus within his own consciousness as never before. And because of the contrast provided by communication, the experience of selfhood comes to exist as what before had been a kind of impersonal expe- riencing. And this experience of selfhood becomes in turn the foundation for one's development in the realms of psychological and sociological growth. Existentialism The following statements are well established and supported by existentialists regardless of their consider- able differences in approaches to man: 1. "Trust is not made, it is found in the mind and heart and actions of each unique individual"—- Kierkegaard. 2. "The end is helping the individual become aware of the meaning of homelessness, of being-at—home, and __- Wflm 118 of alternative choices and ways of returning"-- Neitzsche. 3. "Man exists in a situation constituted by his free- dom which promotes the free development of the total man in the situation in which he finds himself"-- Kierkegaard. 4. "Concern with human longing rather than angelic acceptance of existence"--Schopenhauer. 5. "Any subjectivity is largely a matter of individual isolation, by way of personal choice"--Kierkegaard. 6. "Existential knowing is recognizing; existential living is homeseeking"-—Plato, Augustine. 7. "Inwardness is self-paralyzing unless it understands its need for other individuals, a need not only to be filled, but to fill"--Nietzsche. 8. "The defining feature of Existentialism is the conception that existence precedes essence"-- Jean-Paul Sartre. The existentialists react in common against their phiIOSOphical heritage. It is, perhaps, the force of this reaction against the past that has gained this movement much of the attention it has received. Their emphasis on con- creteness, individuality, and personal experience sets the direction of understanding the individual who has been 119 hidden in the "untruth of the crowd."2” Human conditions must be described in terms that are real and concrete, and the first subject of concern is the person who does the describing. This is not the self as one wishes it to be, nor is it some preestablished ideal self. It is the limited, incomplete, here-and-now self, an individual aspiring to a personal concrete destiny. In a crowd, the sense of self is lost; while alone, an individual is compelled to be what he is. There is no escape from the fact that truth relates to the individual. It is to the individual that philosophy looks for answers to its questions. i The conception that "existence precedes essence" is the defining feature of Existentialism and will be discussed prior to exploring existentialism's impact upon formal edu- cation. Essence and existence are terms with a long philo- sophical history. "Essence" has been used primarily to characterize these features as a thing that are permanently necessary to its being. If the features are absent, the thing cannot be. Traditionally, the notion of an essence of a thing is held to be prior in both being and importance to the particular existence of that thing. Existentialists approach the subject by describing man as the only being who has the intelligence to conceive 21‘Soren Kierkegaard, The Individual, the Point of View for Minork as an Author: A Report to History, trans. by walter Lowrie (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1962), pp. 109-120. V7 1' “. Terr—fluffifi 120 of an essence, and that the essence of a man to be prior to his existence, man would have to pre-exist himself, which is impossible. A man can only form the idea of his essence after he exists. He pre-exists any consciousness he has of himself. When he does define himself, he alone is respon- sible for the essence that he attributes to himself. He fashions his own image and has no permanent nature. He has only the condition that he creates. Thus, for man, exist- ence is prior to essence. With the understanding of this __.__'—-! pro-"MU“. u ‘ ' n ...U . “ ' - o . critical factor that permeates throughout each and every thought, idea, and belief, we now can turn to the major variables of a learning environment. Social Value of Education Formal education serves the community by discovering the truth which the community and the world need, by developing free man who will continue the search for truth when they begin to act. Therefore, the school is not merely the training ground for leaders; it provides the leadership in terms of new ideas, which it tests in its own arenas, and provides the skills of argument, inquiry, and innovation which no balanced5 just, or expanding society can do without. Truth is the seeking of knowledge in an atmosphere of academic freedom. The existentialists perceive academic freedom as neither solely nor mainly the freedom of the teacher but the freedom of community, student and teacher “1 25Nelson B. Henry, Modern Philosophies Cfif Education, The Fifty—Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1955), p. 240. 121 totally involved in a common social situation. If the community is not free or is losing its freedom, it will not understand the importance of freedom for either students or teachers. If students are not free, the community will soon not be free either. If the teacher is not free, neither will his students be free. The community which values truth and progress must encourage freedom of con- science and speech. Truth is not arrived at by majority vote. One man alone may discover it, for the benefit of all. Truth is not made; it is found in the mind and heart and actions of each unique individual. The educators task is the allowance and assistance in the making of free men, not merely informed men. The end of education is the habit of mind of the student. This end is the only standard by which society can judge the success of education. Three habits of the mind which existentialists prescribe to are: discipline, crit- icism, and fertility. This means that a learner's progress is to be judged by his sense of order of reason, his open- ness to controversy, and his ability to originate ideas. The critical mind that develops these three habits will establish a permanence, mold man's character, and, in the end, mold society's character. Society's freedom is based upon its ability to be rational, critical, and fertile. These are the criteria of freedom; freedom itself 122 is the criterion of the quest for truth and the experience of living in the truth. Thus, the value of education to society is the establishment of critical minds to think, to say the truth, no matter how untimely that truth may seem. Learning and the Learner Learning is based upon a complex set of recognitions within the educational experience that the learner as well as the teacher need in order to learn. It is not enough to say that the teacher and learner must recognize one another. The teacher should recognize the student not only as an individual but also as a human being and as a future member of society. It is similarly appropriate that the learner see the teacher, not just as an individual, but as a human being and a representative of the society they are entering. Both teacher and learner have this triple aSpect with these consequences; to see another man as an individual is to treat him as if he per- sonally mattered, as if he was irreplaceable, and as if he imas different from all others. This requires a sensitivity txp differences and a tenderness that one does not extend to aa person insofar as one is thinking of him as one of a type. Tr) look on the same person as a human being is to realize 'that.what he is, I am too, as are others. To look on the iJuiividual as a member of society is to remember that no 123 one lives at all, and never will, unless he lives cooperatively. And so both teacher and learner cooperate in the learning experience, encouraging each other to appreciate this triple aspect of human beings. But the encouragement would be sentimental, false, or irrelevant, if it were too direct and took place away from the context of learning something. It is a delicate balance that teacher and student have between one's recognition of the other as a person, as a human being, and as a member of society and their mutual and yet always differing recog- nition of the subject matter they are cooperating on. One has to assess quickly which side of the learner one can appeal to, in order to open up the potentialities of a certain subject matter. Thus, the learner when learning is assisted by the teacher in a manner that is founded upon the principle of where the learner is. Therefore, the learner will begin at a point of awareness to the experience; their own initiative will be awakened in the pursuance of clearer understanding and from then on, teacher and student will c00peratively compete to recognize the trusts that are between and beyond them. Learning is a process that leads the learner home to help him to return to that which is within him but not of hinu It is immediately concerned with recognition, not decisirni, or action. It can point to the way or ways of __u‘.._ r.— ww 'c‘. t- 124 both happiness and good character; it cannot and ought not to prescribe or enforce. It is the decision to accept the recognition and stay at home. Objectives of Education Existentialism is concerned about the unfolding of the individual as a whole in the situation in which he finds himself. This implies two things: first, that there is some sense in speaking of the individual as a whole, and second, that individuals cannot be considered independently of their situations. The whole person within the environ- ment of time and space that he is born into is the object of education, or the subject. The unfolding, the develop- ment of this subject, is the end. The end is helping the individual become aware of the meaning of homelessness, of being-at-home, and of alternative choices and ways of returning. Specifically, this means that existentialism is concerned primarily with liberal education freeing man from his isolation and his anonymity, freeing his mind from the confusions that prevent him from seeing his situation and his power, to encourage individuals of all kinds and conditions to understand their situation and themselves. Man and His Growth and Develgpment Existentialists view man within a context founded upon a theory of freedom that is based on a broad conception 125 of human potential. Because man makes himself, it is always possible for him to create new values. His values are not presented to him ready-made. He chooses them, and in so doing, he has the power to change his situation. Thus, man is perceived in an optimistic way and given complete respon- sibility for his values. He is not subject to the arbitrary decisions of a capricious God or the immutable conditions of a deterministic view of the nature of man. There is no fixed essence that defines man. Instead, he exists in a situation constituted by his freedom which promotes the free growth and development of the total man in the situation in which he finds himself. Conclusion In concluding Part I of this chapter, let me sketch in retrospect what I have attempted to do. I have suggested a pattern for establishing an awareness of distinct educa- tional philosophies as they relate specifically to an edu- cational environment by considering environmental factors of education and the role of the school in human society. I established the environmental factors as absolutes for each philosophy because I believe that each teacher-practitioner does or ought to take each factor very seriously as the necessary variables for a well-founded, consistent, educational phiIOSOphy. 1: )- L 126 An analysis of the philosophical theories is presented in Figure 4. The knowledge of theory is the decisive core of philosophical thought because it helps one to critically examine the means by which one comes to understand one's belief system and to recognize the prac- tical applications implicit in it for education. We must J‘TI-F'q all have and understand an educational theory and be pre- pared to embrace its aims for education against the chal- lenges of the concerned public, if we intend to reflect our '3‘ ‘1 i g 1 r I.'. philosophical style within the public school. The following section, Part II, will address itself to the four educational psychologies in a similar manner. It will attempt to establish education variables that will assist the practitioner in becoming more aware of his psy- chological approach and nurture better understanding of differing approaches used in education. PART II. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES This section reviews four broadly defined approaches to human development and behavior. They are: humanism, behavioralism, cognitive-developmental and psychoanalytical Psychologies. These four have been selected specifically as representative of the core educational approaches of contemporary learning within public schools today. For each approach the attempt is made to provide an appropriate 127 x. .. 3.. .431 an. ...... ._ .9 .u ._ :OHunoavm o» nonoooumac H00H200n0stm .mowuoosa HmoanOuoawnm mo mwuhaoad .v unamwm undamaonuv can uncuuo mama no uoamwocuum .uuouwuaw m0 uuwuafi canon an caudaaawuu uumuoounno duauaunvou cowacau noon: ca pounouQXu com: unovcwaop manuasu 0>wuwmomnancuoucH documunfilaacuouxu anaucuoucwuauauuuxu adamcuounwuaucuouxu Hangouaaladcuouxu 00H9n>auoz poocuuaon Haw: oouu can panama uwuaucmaon no ucmfim0H0>ou newuu>HuOE no nmuooum unoamoao>op ucwxna unnamummnaonumucH Hucumucalaocumaxu Hmcuoucanaucumuxu accumunwnaucuouxm adamcuoucwnaunuouxu newmwomo p000 Hw>m Hw>u Hw>u Ha>o can @000 :02 ucuacousmwacw hoaowowuuaunmaou acsuowaaoucw Annuanhsmmuuav Hauoa maawmaonnmu Ham nofiunucwwuo 302 cowuaucoauo unnuah owed voomtuuduam cowuousowuo vacuum Goduuuaaauo uuaunh uwmomunm macaquomxm 05Ha> oucuuomaoo no woman nuxouo Huauomaaoucw uo muw>auou nsoonoucomn unoamoao>ao Hoavw>wvcH oasuhum hunaoaunao>u nam>0d pmuwcumuo cowuouwaH can megahsu acupunz nusouu uwcdmuo Houaoaau0QNOIan=umuxn mawnduusc Hucuouxu wocduawuun Hucumuxu musnpwam Hucuouxu mcdcuumq «5050:0951 o>wuuoammuuucopaumon 0>finnomuuaopnomuo 0>aunuauuaavaomuo unopcwmmo Mocunuq baadcmplvoo: anabn scuunnwanwoon spawn an unusumucw no cowuunmmwudm nowunuwanunuasoau cowuaanaAOOm auunuasocn 0.:08 cap on auommuooz avowuom anwauwuaounwxm Euwuoamuum Emwanom anwaumpH anwauuaunz mmoud anunogfioo 128 definition and to describe its general characteristics and basic principles. This exploration will establish the way a person looks at things and how he determines what he finds out, what conclusions he draws, and how valid and useful his conclusions are. The differing approaches of looking at human development will lend supportive evidence for differ- ently held values and perceptions of how one sees children, youth, and adults from different theoretical perspectives, how one studies different phenomena, often seek different I" I: I L goals and arrive at different conclusions dependent upon the way he looks at developmental patterns. These different perspectives and conclusions often result in different impli- cations for human development and education. Another reason for exploring different views of develOpment concerns the belief that it is valuable for the practitioner to examine carefully his own perspective on development and to under- stand and assist others to strive to establish one. Humanism Humanistic psychologists are primarily concerned witillnan's potential, his uniqueness and dignity, behavior {fluit is singularly human and affection for human beings ooupled.with a consuming interest in their emotions and evaliuitions, their imaginations and beliefs, their purposes and plans, their endeavors, failures, and achievements. 129 Characteristics of Humanistic Psychology There are a number of related characteristics of humanistic psychology that can be distinguished. First, according to this view, man's behavior reflects more the operation of internal forces, or self—initiating tendencies, than the influence of external factors. This means that individuals are basically self-determining, rational, and active in shaping their own growth and environments, rather than passive reactors to the conditions of their upbringing and the social forces that impinge upon them. A second related feature concerns itself with the idea that conscious rationality, intent, and decision making characterize human behavior more than does the irrationality of uncontrollable, unconscious impulses. In other words, human beings, even to some degree in early childhood and more fully in youth and adulthood, are thinkers and active planners. Their lives are more a reflection of thinking and planning than of their emotions, impulses, or instinctual make-up. However, the stress on reflective thinking is only paralleled by the importance of the interaction of emotion- ality. In fact, the role of "emotional-cognitive flashes" concerning insight, wonderment, new ways of experiencing and.1nuderstanding the self is highly prized for purposes of personal growth. '1’; WHA 130 A third related emphasis is that placed on man's uniqueness, both as an individual and as a species. Thus, the preferred orientation is man, not animal. If man is to be understood, his uniqueness and wholeness must be defined and used initially. Man's uniqueness is approached through the measure of positive growth, prosocial behavior rather .. "an than antisocial, and self-actualization rather than depres- sion and defeat. Phenomena of curiosity, creativity, imagination, and subjective experience, as well as a concern for social and cultural forces that debase human beings are basic to humanistic direction of having each unique individual reach their fullest potential. A fourth major aspect is the concentration upon man's continuous growth toward successively higher levels of personal integration. This accent on successive growth implies that man is continually involved in the process of discovering his true self-defining, his true sense of being, and learning how to be fully human. A statement on the role of motivation in development is pertinent in connection with this accent on continuing growth. Humanist emphasis on successive growth and achieve- ment of higher levels of personal integration precludes the fact that humans are attracted by the novel, that they are curious and exploratory by nature, that they prefer complex- ity to simplicity, that they like to be surprised, and that 131 boredom is unpleasant. This indicates that man is a seeker of stimulation, not simply one who strives to reduce tension. Thus, the more stimulus input a human receives, the more he will demand, and the more likely he will become an affective and knowledge force in shaping his own development. Finally, in addition to the four major features, a brief note of still other characteristics is relevant. First, more than other psychologies, humanistic psychology stresses the "spirit of man" and his brotherhood with all men. The development of an ability for self—understanding and the understanding of others, described as mankind's shared problem is basic to this spirit of brotherhood; and second, humanism takes a lively interest in and maintains a strong advocacy for job, of self, for self and with others. Basic Principles of Humanistic View of Human Development The implications and plausibility of humanistic behaviors within a learning environment are easily suppor- tive and implemented when a practitioner has as a main ;purpose affection for mankind, respect for individuality, anui a passionate interest in people's behavior as human beings. l. The principal orientation of humanistic development and behavior is normality, health, and positive Well-being. - . ‘ meunjr 132 2. Emphasis is placed on the individual's potential for constructive growth and ever higher levels of personal and social integration. 3. A strong interest in the unique individuality of all humans and that uniqueness and honesty be expressed in internal growth forces that are to be encouraged and respected. 4. The focus on behavior and traits such as self- actualization, creative self-awareness and construc- ‘r‘aJJ-u .019“ Jul" -, 3m -1 -I tive growth tendencies establishes a high priority for the affective domain and its impact upon one's development. 5. The concluding point should be made as to where the humanist stands on the issue of being and/or becom- ing. Traditionally, humanistic psychologists have been preoccupied with long-range goals, plans, and higher levels of personal-social integration. An example: G. W. Allport's classic work, Becoming: Basic Considerations for a Psychology of Personality." The central theme of "becoming" is that man contin- ually strives for unattainable goals in the sense that he is never completely fulfilled or never completely achieves unity of purpose. The current humanistic position about being is perhaps less clear. Abraham Maslow's approach to being and 133 becoming, in trying to capture the essence of the nature of becoming fully human through his arranged hierarchy of priority needs arranged in the order of highest priority to least are psychological, safety, belonging and love, esteem, and for self-actualization. These needs distinguish between the process of becoming and the pure states of being as found in the fleeting "peak" experiences and in other complete states of self-actualization. He further indicates that an experience in pure being can promote further becom- ing and he suggests that they may be aspects of the same process. To carry it one step further, his position seems to be that, human growth never ceases to be a process, an engagement with the future, as new directions are discovered, as new wholes emerge and as previously unknown facets of the self come into being. During the episodes of self-actualization, however, there are more frequent experiences of pure being that transcend, for rare, but intense moments, the life-long process character of human development.26 Behaviorist Behaviorist psychologists are concerned with care- fully controlled and executed experiments in which the "stimulus variables are appropriately manipulated, exact Controls are executed, and the resulting behavior can be g 26Willard B. Frick, Humanistic Psychology: Interviews filth MaslowL_Murphy, and Rogers (Columbus, 0.: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1971), pp. 146-147. 134 accurately observed and measured."27 This psychological approach is attributed to John Watson, who was instrumental in turning psychology away from "mentalism" where there was no open verification through objective observation of the mind. His stress was that psychology should be a science dealing only with natural events, human, and animal behavior, whose occurrence can be observed and empirically stated publicly. Characteristics of Behaviorism As in humanistic psychology, a number of character— istics distinguish behaviorism from other major approaches to human development. The following characteristics are considered to be generally accepted and applicable of the behaviorist. First, a principle that behaviorists most closely agree is that human behavior is learned. It changes primarily as a result of experiences within the environment. Learning is dependent upon three things: a person's matura- tional stage, his opportunity, and his practice within the environment. A second characteristic of behaviorists is their stress for precise methodology, clear behavioral and situa- tional definitions of concepts, and insistence that a con- cept has no meaning unless it can be reflected in a behavior. 27R. W. Lindin, Personality Theory in Behavioristic Psychology, in Concept of Personality, ed. by J. M. Wepman and R. W. Heine (Chicago: Aldine, 1963), p. 258. P~ 1. "gilt” Jim-I. .3“ . 135 They depend first on experience and experiment and only then on theory and conjecture. Third, behaviorists concentrate on comparatively simple situations and simple behaviors-—only situations and behavior that can be precisely manipulated experimentally will in the long run lead to the goals of prediction and control. Also, the laws and interrelations that they find while working on simple experiments will also apply to more complex situations. Fourth, behaviorists work in a laboratory situation where they manipulate one variable at a time to see what occurs, rather than carry out their studies in the natural environment with all its complexity and unpredictability. Related very closely to this concept, is the idea that behaviorists are often interested in the usefulness of their data for advancing the state of psychological science. Fifth, the behaviorists are totally committed in the learning history of the organism with which they are working. Specifically, this means the individual's past experience With rewards and punishments, including the frequency and consistency with which given behaviors have been rewarded and/or punished or ignored. The three central categories: response variables that are overt and observable behavior, Stimulus variables that are inclusive of the events in the Social and physical environment of the organism that affect 136 behavior, and organismic variables which include the anatomical and physiological properties of the organism at the time of observation. The final characteristic is that behaviorists are more interested in general laws than in individual differ- ences. They do not deny the importance of individual dif— ferences, but not many devote much attention to it, due to their focus on generalizations, principles and laws that are universally applicable to behavior. This is in sharp con- trast to the humanistic perspective in which a lively interest is taken in the individual case. Basic Principles of a Behaviorist yiew of Human Deve10pment The implications and plausibility of behavioristic behaviors within a learning environment are easily suppor- tive and implemented when a practitioner has as a main purpose to promote individualization in instruction through individual-oriented programmed learning and other technological advances in education. 1. Learning is the preeminent concern with behaviorism; the how it takes place, the conditions that promote and interfere with it, and the environmental influ- ences which are most subject to manipulation or change. .1. .mefl-fl WTII_. . L‘ 137 2. Man is controlled by the forces in his environment and that all behavior is lawful. If all the facts were known, all behavior could be understood, pre- dicted and controlled, and therefore man's behavior is deterministic and man is not a free agent. 3. There is a strong preference for meticulousness and precision in research methodology and definitions of terms. 4. Behaviorists are likely to be attracted to formal, structured, didactic training approaches to human development and education. 5. As the humanistic perspective applied mainly to personal-social-emotional; the behaviorist per- spective applies to the academic-cognitive- achievement of man's techniques and competencies of human development. Cognitive—Developmental View Cognitive psychologists devote their attention to human development primarily in matters of intelligence, thinking, logic, language, and competencies or efficiency. The organization of this section will be established upon the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget whose approach is largely cognitive. This approach stands in contrast to the approaches championed by behaviorists. Piaget is an “'14—.- i'T-i‘uwwfifiv-fl 138 authentic epistemologist, interested in understanding the origin, nature, methods, and limits of knowledge, partic- ularly with reference to human thought and the cognitive aspects of moral development. Characteristics of Cognitive- Development Psychology _iI First, for Piaget, mature intelligent behavior is the ability to reason and think critically in objective, - um‘flHfiw - u C . abstract, and hypothetical terms. When an individual reaches this level, he is perceived to be at the peak of a developmental pyramid-hierarchy--the lower levels of which have emerged sequentially and in progressively more complex form. Second, four factors act in concert in the progres— sion of the development of thought: biological maturation, physical world experience (of self and with others), social experience, and equilibration. Equilibration occurs when an individual achieves greater cognitive balance or stability at successively higher levels as he reconciles new experi- ence with past experience. The two mechanisms of behavior charge that interaction with each other in the reconcilia- tion process are assimilation, the comprehension of a new experience based on past experience and understanding; and accommodation, a clear and accurate perception and under- standing of an experience. The interactions that eliminate 139 an accurate accommodation are those which mark developmental progress in thinking. The cognitive-developmental theory is based on a sequence-relevant concept of development and also to age periods. Piaget's notion of sequence is also invariant (development proceeds in a fixed order, even though indi- vidual differences in developmental rate are acknowledged). The invariant, hierarchical, sequential stages are divided into four quantitative distinct periods: 28 Period Major Change of Characteristic of the Period the Period Sensori-motor (0-2 years) Stage 1 (0-1 months) Stage 2 (1-4 months) Stage 3 (4-8 months) Stage 4 (8-12 months) Stage 5 (12-18 months) Stage 6 (18-24 months) Development proceeds from reflex activity to representation Reflex activity only and sensori-motor No differentiation solutions to problems Hand-mouth coordination Differentiation via sucking reflex Hand-eye coordination Repeats unusual events Coordination of two schemata Object permanence attained New means through experimen- tation--follows sequential displacements Internal representation New means through mental combinations 28Barry J. Wadsworth, Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (New York: David McKay Company, 1971), pp.’114—115. n'l K . l.- " 140 Periods of Cognitive Development-dContinued Major Change of Period Characteristics of the Period the Period Preoccupational Problems solved through Deve10pment proceeds (2-7 years) representation-~1anguage from sensori-motor development (2-4 years) representation to Thought and language both pre-logical thought egocentric and solutions to Cannot solve conservation problems problems Concrete Reversability attained Deve10pment proceeds operational Can solve conservation prob- from pre-logical (7-11 years) lems--1ogical operations thought to logical developed and applied to solutions to concrete problems concrete problems Cannot solve complex verbal problems Formal Logically solves all types Development proceeds operations of problems-—thinks scien— from logical solu- (11-15 years) tifically tions to concrete Solves complex verbal problems problems to logical Cognitive structures mature solutions to all classes of problems Basic Principles of a Cognitive View of Human Development The implications and plausibility of a cognitivistic behavior within a learning environment are easily supportive and implemented when a practitioner has as a main purpose to assist the individual in his development of thought, creativ- ity, intelligent and problem solving competence. l. The cognitivist mainly is concerned with the rational and prerational variables of human development and behavior. 141 2. An emphasis on the natural environment--the informal, unarranged learning experiences. The concentration on man's relation with the physical, rather than the social and psychological world. In fact, structured, organized, didactic approaches are not much favored by cognitivists; they prefer to have the child actively order his own concrete experience. 3. The cognitivists favor invariant and perhaps biolog- ically determined sequences of development that apply to all of mankind and pay little attention to individual and cultural differences. 4. The cognitive developmentalist typically think in terms of fixed stages and categories rather than flexible processes and agents for developmental change. They are opposed to intervention as a way of improving or speeding human develOpment, because their belief is that an individual will profit from experience only when he is maturationally ready for it to be functional. Maturation, general age related experience, and self directed equilibration (not through arranged learning), are the key factors of human development. Finally, a quote from Piaget that is founded on his perception of the cognitive-developmental theory as applied directly to education as it states Piaget's educational goals and at the same time describes his own accomplishments. 142 The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating what other generations have done-—men who are creative, inventive, and discoverers. The second goal of education is to form minds which can be critical, can verify, and not accept everything they are offered. The great danger today is of slogans, collective Opinions, ready-made trends of thoughts. We have to be able to resist individually, to criticize, to distinguish between what is proven and what is not. So we need pupils who are active, who learn early to find out by themselves, partly by their Spontaneous activity and partly through material we set up for them; who learn early to tell what is verifiable and what is simply the first idea to come to them.29 Psychodypamic View Psychodynamic psychologists are primarily concerned with man's psychological conflict, the nature of anxiety and the acting-out behavior as it relates to helping the indi— vidual develop rational thought about his overt behavior. This concentration on interpersonal intervention for emo- tional stability and adjustment of the individual is directed at looking at things as they are for the individual. Characteristics of Psychodynamic Psychology The concentration of this section will be based on classical Freudian psychodynamic psychology which is characterized by observing children's behavior during both 29H. Ginsburg and S. Opper, Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development: An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1969), pp. 231-232. 143 arranged and free play settings. The characteristics are absolute and clearly used today in understanding human develOpment. First psychoanalysis practitioners have tradition- ally involved themselves with aberration and disease and used this data of disturbed human beings to explain normal and abnormal behavior. They are grounded in the clinical approach rather than the experimental approach in studying behavior. Second, the conviction that early life experiences, notably parent-child and sibling relationships, are funda- mental in determining the quality of personality development. Particularly important are emotional experiences and the early socialization of human instincts. These instincts include sexual energy, self-preservation, and aggression which constitute the base for motivation and much of behavior. Third, the concentration on the individual rather than on the culture, on events that have been traumatic rather than on positive growth experiences, and on the way ileflnich personality is structured than on how change occurs ixllnnman development is evident in psychodynamic psychology. The affective characteristics of personality are viewed as highly immmmtant and the control thereof--through arriving at the development of rational thoughts. 144 Fourth, much of the conceptual structure of psychoanalytic thought is based on the notion of unconscious mental life, such as dreams, slips of the tongue, and sudden flashes of insight, are taken as evidence for the existence of a mental life that is beyond awareness. Fifth, psychoanalytic psychologists, like behav- iorists, are deterministic. Freud was one of the first to establish that all behavior has a cause (is determined) and is capable of being explained by general principles of behavior. Sixth, behavior is viewed as a progression through a series of distinct, predictable stages. This progression is universal and represents a gradual transformation from narcissistic pleasure-seeking, impulse-dominated infant to a reality—oriented, self-controlled adult. Seventh, the dynamic aspect of psychoanalytic per- spective comes from the idea of constant interaction among components of personality within the person and between these components and the person's environment. The three basic components of personality are: the id (biological derives); the ego (basis for reality contact and problem solving behavior); and the superego (the moral conscience and ideal self). 145 Basic Principles of a Psychodynamic View of Human Behavior The implications and plausibility of psychoanalytic behaviors within a learning environment are easily sup- portive and implemented when a practitioner has as a main purpose the diagnosis of individual overt behavior, and the understanding and desire to assist in the emotional development of each personality within that environment. 1. They first look for developmental problems, con- flicts, and anxieties, and then infer the possible motives that underlie variously unproductive or unconstructive behavior. It is a status-quo theory in that the emphasis is on adjustment of the individual to his environment rather than promoting social change. The parents and their child—rearing practices are held completely responsible for all aspects of the child's psychological development. Personality formation is determined mostly by historical forces. Thus, like the behaviorists they leave little room for free will. The dynamic position emphasizes data collecting of phenomena consisting only of verbal reports and overt behavior in analyzing human growth and development. 1m rmm*9m"w " 5. 146 6. The psychodynamicist is equally interested in the individual case (a clinical understanding) as well as the general theoretical principles of explanation. 7. Finally, a general principle of management derived from psychoanalysis is to help the developing indi- vidual to express or channel his instinctual impulses in ways that are socially acceptable, or in ways that are at least not destructive to the self and/or to others. This psychological approach has played an important role in stimulating research concerning the experiences of earliest childhood. Freud established the notion that all behavior is caused and is thus lawful. Many areas of human behavior have been opened and reopened as exemplified by sexuality in general and childhood sexuality in particular. Dynamic psychology has played an important role in making people more aware of themselves and the implications of their own behavior and a more perspective understanding of the repression of early childhood (6-8 years) and adolescence for educators. This section, Part II, has been concerned with educational psychologies--particularly to those aspects of it which supplement a consistent and congruent delivery system and approach to one's own growth and development as well as perceptions of diverse perceptions of how others 0 "ran. 11 'ii- nan- ' "I I "1 Fifi..- . in"... e . . n. 147 approach human development from different theoretical perspectives. This approach is presented in an analysis of psychological theories as illustrated in Figure 5. Here again, the knowledge of theory is crucial to one's understanding of self and others' development. To have a well-established philosophy of education, but a void or inconsistent supportive psychology can only bring confu- sion and havoc for self and others. To have and hold a philosophy and psychology that are understood and consistent can only enrich one's attempts in helping and sharing with others. The concluding section, Part III, addresses itself to six organizational communication theories and selected dimensions within each theory. The purpose is to suggest that without a communication network that is consistent with one's philosophy and psychology, the viable impact one could have within an educational environment would be ineffective and unpredictable. PART III. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION THEORIES This section explores a series of dimensions within Which organizational communication systems can be described as well as selected major concepts relevant to these dimen- Sions. This framework is then applied to six organizational theories. 148 Vt .» bf'kvEIfl. I. 1.! E .uowuomna HuowooHonoamm no mammaocd .m musuwm o>wuaauoalomnwuonuum auwaaaaueupu Hflfluflflcfllflflfihflflxfl own-eaosue>epceuaaeuuuxm Haauocndnuuocapuonam unoauuanoouucuanoao>oo Anneauoau ccnuuuuocs ca nosey-«o maaunuo>acsuaocuouxn uaoucomovlo>uumdod huoaxca no anyone use uoa>un0a unannouoa ocwvcnuuuoocp mca>ao>otvonuuonoum mcw>wuu¢ Huavw>wvcw mo oocuuuauna Hucuouxu unaccomoocwuflucuouxu ucomuoaolauucwvuonsm conduuuauulnowocuuomaoo Haauouaaouaw mo~0>mp 09 ucwmuoad adducuoucanaaancuuuxu unaccomovlmca>wuu¢ Suwaandumdpa naoscwvcoo no uufluuoua uoHAI>uonno auv>00uapnponauououm Ho>0ummo Ho ouuzou Ancuouxu cowuosuwuuaucumuxu ucmpcomuucouncapuonsm cowuuasmficnauuow>mnon Houucoo can uuwpuum 09 pmmonu adducuouxu unoccumoplmcwuo>oomwo wucowowuuu Um>oua uu0«>onoa manousnumx 090Bocouad Dacouuo Hdcuoucn unucwaoo unocosvwca can c0«uoumm»:« floccuuom how £000 no aaaowucmuom waoocwucoo can Hocuuucn acoucmmupcwuo>w90¢ cue no cowcsaaoo van poocuuguoum u0H>unom ceauu>au0z mcwxu6|c0wuwooo an: umuoausm ucmamoHo>ov nusouo umcunuq uonmaw Houowoom Odedac0030hnm unusuanon>onuo>auwcmou Emflanuofi>unmm anwcufiam cauunosou ou nonuuouamd H00fl00d0coaum unou¢ acacomaou 149 The dimensions discussed herein are in terms of structure, function and system level. Communication struc- ture refers to the ways that the networks of communication are organized; it includes the pathways along which messages flow, and it refers to the kinds and locations of intercon- nections among organization members. Communication function deals with the purpose or consequences which messages in the organization are to achieve. System level ranges from the individual behavior within the organization, through dyadic interpersonal communication, to the group, the organizational department, or the entire institutional organization. Six Communication Concepts Within these three dimensions, there are six con- cepts, some dealing with structure, some with function that cuts across the range of system levels that can be applied systematically to organizational theories. They are: c Formality of rules. Some organizational theories stress the significance of coding the relationships between supervisors and subordinates. These rules pertain to the freedom of access to communication, appropriate reference behaviors, and decision-making authority. Other theories place very little empha- sis on rule codification, encouraging modification of procedures as intraorganizational and environ- mental conditions change. .Iun- -n‘ 150 0 Amount of communication. Some theories discourage or put strong restrictions on the level of energy, time, and space, to be expended on organizational communication. Initiation of message flow. Ranges from theories which have messages entirely imposed by the hier- archy to those which give heavy stress to the initiation of messages from subordinates. Directionality of message flow. Some theories are concerned only with vertical downward flow, others E give attention to horizontal flows within organiza— tional levels, and still other theories encourage complex patterns of flows. Flexibility of message flow. According to some theories, messages are to travel only by way of clearly specified pathways/networks, while others, message initiators have considerably more freedom to use a variety of networks for the dissemination of messages. Functions of communication. Message functions in organizations have been categorized in a number of ways, but the one used most frequently treats the functions in the following manner: "production-- getting the job done, innovation--messages concerned with changing various aspects of the organization, 151 and maintenance-~of self-concept, interpersonal relations, and organizational affiliation."30 Organizational theories differ on which functions are acknowledged and the relative emphasis given to each. The selection of six distinctive models were based on their recognition and inclusion within most organiza- tional treatises and their recognition and coverage of the major categories just discussed. The models are: (1) Max Fan; . . t."' Weber's Theory of Bureaucracy; (2) Harvard School (Mayo & Roethlisberger) Theory of Human Relations; (3) H. A. Simon's Administrative Behavior Theory; (4) Douglas McGregor's Theory Y; (5) Rensis Likert's System IV; and (6) Social Systems Theory of Organization. Analysis of Organizational Theories Max Weber's Bureaucratic Model Weber is recognized as having developed the single most powerful theory of organization and his ideal model has been the foundation for all considerations of organizational theory in the last thirty years. Mouzelis' interpretation of Weber, describes the core of the bureaucratic type as 3°D. K. Berlo, "Essays on Communication" (unpublished manuscript, Department of Communication, Michigan State University, 1970). 152 being a system of control based on rational rules. These rules regulate the whole organizational structure and process on the basis of technical knowledge, with the goal of maximizing efficiency. These principles can be seen in the basic characteristics of Weber's ideal model. 1. Fixed and official jurisdictional areas as applied to regular activities, authority to give commands, and the continuing fulfillment of these duties. 2. A firmly ordered system of super- and sub- ordination, with a monocratic hierarchy. 3. Management based on written documents. 4. Thorough and expert training and consequent specialization. 5. Official activities demanding the full working capacities of the members. 6. Management follows rules which are stable, exhaustive and which can be learned.31 Mouzelis also stresses the impersonality of relationships and the clear differentiation of private and public lives of the members of the organization. This data, plus the wide range of writings about the bureaucratic model, suggest a model in which the focus is on the control of the individual. The overview is one of high predictability and the rigid application of formalized rules. This emphasis on formal, known rules, precludes complete restriction of management messages to the production func- tion. The amount of communication would be kept to a min- imum and the initiation of messages would be primarily from 31N. P. Mouzelis, Organization and Bureaucracy: An Analysis of Modern Theories (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967), Chapter 2. 153 the hierarchial tOp—downward, with minimal flexibility. The communication network would follow the organization's author— ity structure, with no interconnection among members outside of authority relationships, thus establishing a relatively restricted and hierarchical communication network. The Harvard School Human Relations Theory of Organization While Weber's Bureaucratic Model is acknowledged as the originator of modern organizational theories, the result reported by Mayo and colleagues in the "Hawthorne Studies Report" have been the creative drive in the development of the human relations field. Schein summarizes Mayo's assumptions, specific to the Human Relations Theory, as: 1. Man is basically motivated by social needs and obtains his sense of identity through relationships with others. 2. Since the industrial revolution, meaning has gone out of work itself and must therefore be sought in the social relationship of the job. 3. Man is more responsive to the social forces of the peer group than to the incentives and control of management. 4. Man is responsive to management to the extent that a supervisor can meet a subordinate's social needs and needs of acceptance.‘2 Through further research Mayo and Roethlisberger have concluded that an organization should be regarded as '— 32E. H. Schein, Organizational Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), p. 59. 154 a social system with two major functions: formal achievement--producing a product and group need satisfaction, and creating and distributing satisfation among the individ- ual members of the organization. They further emphasize that many of the actual patterns of human interaction have no formal representation in the organizational chart. Unlike the Weberian model, the human relations model focuses on informal group interaction and stresses oral communication; it also minimizes the importance of formal rules. Paralleling this, there is a direct focus on peer- horizontal communication, recognizing the importance of group interaction and a minimum of hierarchical communi- cation, thus affording an intermediate level of communi- cation. The model stresses maintenance messages while minimizing production messages and gives no consideration to innovative messages. There is no out-right stress of the flexibility in activated communication linkages, but there is inference to the need for some flexibility while the focus is directed at the stable relationship of indi- viduals to informal groups of which they are members. Simon's Administrative Behavior Theory Simon presents a descriptive model of organizational behavior and thus offers a differing approach from preceding theories which tend to be prescriptive. Simon's central 155 theme is that organizational behavior is a complex network of decision processes that all have an effect on the behavior of all its members. He stresses that the anatomy of the organization is to be found in the distribution and allocation of decision-making. He presents the following factors as evidence for his central theme: I— z i I 1. Division of work between members. 2. The establishment of standard practices (rules). 3. The establishment of systems of authority and influence to transmit decisions down through i the ranks. . 4. The provision of communication channels running E throughout the organization, through which ‘ information for decision-making flows. 5. The training and indoctrination-socialization of its members.33 Simon's approach attempts to integrate the various aspects of organizational behavior that were treated one- sidedly by the Weberian and Human Relations schools. His focus is on the individual. Like the Weberian model, he stresses a rigid hierarchical system of coordination and authority and the provision of clearly designated commun- ication channels through which information can be disseminated. The model stresses the detailing of formal rules and practices and the socialization of members. While acknowledging the existence of informal groups, Simon does not stress peer communication; therefore, the model pri- marily restricts communication to vertical hierarchical 33H. A. Simon, Administrative Behavior (2nd ed.; New York: MacMillan and Company, 1957), pp. 102-103. 156 channels. Through clear, formalized rules, the total volume of communication would be restricted. Simon also stresses production messages, while minimizing maintenance ones. He only recognizes innovative messages via middle and lower management to organizational decision-making. The model implies some initiation of messages by those lower in the authority hierarchy, but only in response to top authority hierarchical request for information. The entire model emphasizes formal established communication channels; therefore, it tends to enforce a minimum of flexibility to communication interactions. Douglas McGregor's Theory Y McGregor focuses on the individual and on his needs that are not met by the monetary reward system or through group membership. He summarizes the basis for his theory in a series of assumptions about human nature: 1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. 2. External control and threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. Men will exercise self-direction and self-control in the services of objectives to which he is committed. 3. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and crea- tivity in the solution of organizational problems is widely distributed in the population. 157 4. Under conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.3“ Theory Y focuses on the individual and his process of self-actualization, thus there is a minimum of formal rules. The model emphasizes independent oral communication with a minimum of written messages, and therefore estab- lishes a relatively restricted volume of communication. The greatest amount of communication will be initiated by subordinates rather than being imposed by higher management. Message content, in particular, innovative messages, are clearly encouraged. The model encourages an even distribu- tion of production, maintenance, and innovative messages, and therefore supports a relatively even pr0portion of messages traveling in each possible direction, with a high degree of flexibility in interaction patterns for the total organizational membership. Rensis Likert's System IV Likert is identified as a leader in the "human relations" school of organization theorists. His emphasis is directed towards management and leadership styles and an overall delegation of decision-making to all participative members of the organization. His basic theoretical position is summarized by the following main points: 3“D. McGregor, "Theory x and Theory Y," in Qgganiza- tional Behavior and the Practice of Management, ed. by D. R. Hampton, C. E. Summer and R. A. Weber (Glenville, I11.: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1968), p. 37. unem‘um-_a 1f?— 158 l. Superiors have complete confidence and trust in their subordinates. 2. Subordinates feel completely free to discuss things about the job with their supervisor. 3. Superiors always seek ideas from subordinates and try to make constructive use of them. 4. High intensity of communication both with groups and individuals. 5. Communication is vertical and horizontal. 6. Downward communication may be openly and candidly questioned. 7. Upward communication is openly encouraged and accepted as accurate. 8. Superiors know and understand subordinates' problems. 9. Interaction is extensive and friendly. 10. Substantial cooperation is sought throughout the organization.35 Although differing from McGregor's stress primarily on the individual, Likert focuses his attention on group decision—making, but they both agree on the opportunity for individual self-actualization through individual involvement. Likert's model of group decision-making minimizes the need of formal rules and emphasizes oral communication. It calls for a high level of communication from each direction and for a minimum of barriers so that all members feel comfort- able in initiating personal—professional communication. Innovative messages are encouraged through the stress of involvement of all personnel in decision-making that affect them. Although the model tends to stress production mes- sages through the elimination of barriers and the soliciting of subordinate information, but at the same time group asRenis Likert, The Human Organization: Its Manage- ment and Value (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1967), p. 20. 159 situations are encouraged and superiors are required to be involved with their subordinates' problems, thus maintenance messages are accommodated in the model. The model indicates the establishment of a hierarchy of interlocking groups; however, it does’accommodate a moderate amount of flexi- bility in communication patterns as a consequence of a general freedom and delegation of control. Social Systems Theory The preceding theories are clearly identifiable with a single author. Social systems theory has originated in the progressive application of general systems theory to social groupings, and as such involves many contributors. In order to identify the principle features of the theory, Schein has been selected to define organization in system terms: 1. The organization is viewed as an open system, in constant interaction with its environment. 2. It is viewed as a system with multiple purposes or functions that involve multiple interactions between the organization and its environment. 3. It consists of many subsystems (groups and roles) which are in dynamic interaction with one another. 4. Changes in one subsystem are likely to affect the behaviors of other subsystems. 5. The organization exists in a dynamic environment with changing demands and constraints. 6. The multiple links between the organization and its environment make it difficult to clearly specify the boundaries. 7. The stable processes of input, conversion, and output may ultimately best describe an 160 organization, rather than such concepts as size, shape, function or structure.3 The seven principles herein stated highlight the major differences from the other models. Also to be noted, the previous models were deterministic in nature, whereby the general systems theory is essentially dynamic and responsive to a range of inputs from an ever-changing environment. The general systems model encompasses a much wider range of variation for each communication variable. The ‘P— outrmafix-‘h "Pm,” amount function, sequence, and direction of communication are determined as a response to the state of the organiza- tion environment and its internal components. Communication takes a central position as the linking process between com- ponents, and the system at any point in time is a reflection of a continual adjustment of states in response to environ- mental inputs and internal stresses on the interdependent components. Social systems theory cannot predict communi- cation patterns because it encompasses flexibility for/to adaptation to diversity. If consistent patterns of inter- relationships between components were maintained, predic- tions could be made along with the other prescriptive models, but its primary contribution is to integrate the 36Schien, Organizational Psychology, op. cit., pp. 115-116. 161 set conditions described in the previous models and allow a consideration of change. The contemporary linkage of Schien's theory with reality can be seen in the emergence of an organizational strategy whereby the organization development is a long-range effort to improve an organization's problem-solving and renewal processes, particularly through a more effective and collaborative management or organi- zation culture--with special emphasis on culture of formal work teams--with the assistance of a change agent, or catalyst, and the use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including action research.37 A summary of the relationship between the commu- nication concepts and the Six organizational theories is presented in the analysis illustrated in Figure 6. The review of a trilogy.--(l) Philosophical theories were compared to their approach to (a) societal purposes, (b) learner, (0) learning, (d) growth and development, (e) educational purposes, (f) man, (g) decision-making, and (h) motivation; (2) Psychological theories were compared to their approach to (a) overt-covert behavior, (b) conscious reality, (c) man, (d) growth and development, and (e) moti- vation; and (3) Organizational communication theories were compared on their approach of (a) formalization of communi- cation rules, (b) amount, (c) initiation, (d) direction, (e) 37W. L. French and C. H. Bell, Jr., Organizatignal Develppment (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973), Article VIII, p. 15. 162 permeebsmcsc .mmfluowne HMGOHumuflcmmHO mo mflm>amc¢ .o musoflm .hH .m .HHH> maofluué .Aahma .muflmum>flca womum cmmflnoflz .umfluomscmfi coeumoflcsasoo accoflumuflcmmuo ca mmcflpmmm= .Hammmsm .2 swwfimm pom mommmm .> pumnoflm "mousom coeum>occH coeum>occH wocmcmucflwz mocmcmpcflmz mocmcwucflmz soaposponm c0fluospoum cofiuosooum coeuospoum cofiuospoum cofluocsm .o ucmficoufl>cm mufl meow coax pmuHEHq Hmeflcflz acfiflcflz muflafloflxwam .m can Emum>m who no mflnmcoflumamu pmmmmuum c30p czop lumuCH on» an Ham Ham Amocouflnom Hmofluum> HMQfiouo> cofluomuflo .v pocHEHmuop pct mam>ma mahflwmwm pmmomefl cmnu Umwomfifl swap osmSOm cmnu mo mmcmu who ucmnom who: unmsom unmsow who: pmmomEH 0H0: comomEH coflpmfluHcH .m cflcufl3 mumum unasoeuume been pwuoeuummm memepmeumuae pmuoeuumwm Hmeeeez ucsoea .m ucmocmmmpnumucfl mmasu m0 mmaomfinm> Hmeflcflz Hmsflcflz pmpoeuummm hoax toe: Speamfihom .H Ewpmmm Hwfloom >H EmumMm w wuomna Hmmhwomflazumom coeflm Hwomz mummocou m.uu0xHA m.uommuooz can own: coflumoflcseaou 163 flexibility, and (f) functional emphases assigned to communication. The study of this trilogy has established the theoretical foundation for a practitioner to be cogni- zant of the basic theories of philosophy, psychology, and communicative networks, and to utilize with ease the application of the following matrices in initiating, implementing, and evaluating alternative learning environments within the public school system. CHAPTER IV A CURRICULAR-ORGANIZATION THEORETICAL MODEL FOR DEALE This section offers an explanation through the use of matrices of the philOSOphical, psychological, and communicative positions underlying the curricular- I—Iu- mm?” organization theoretical model of DEALE. The contrast of the essential components and their interdependent subsets will be illustrated as the rationale for the choice of preparation, initiation, implementation, and evaluation of an educational climate's readiness for optional diverse educational alternative learning environments. Our educational system currently faces a choice between two approaches to learning: the first is a con- tinuing imposition of the present monolithic arbitrary academic educational approach, and the second is the development of alternatives within the public school that match teaching-learning-life styles which provide conditions essential for an environment to be effective and optimal, resulting in a renewal for democratic learning and living. The most important issue confronting educators today is the choice of what system of education bears the greatest 164 165 amount of productivity. To date, no one delivery system has been proven to be better than any other. There is no one “best" way for all children to learn; the best way to approach multiple learning is the way of many ways--that of DEALE! The fact that no best delivery system has emerged, establishes the fact that DEALE shows as much promise, if not more, than any now in existence. DEALE is an evolutionary attempt to be responsive to, not a revolutionary attempt to intervene in, the needs of the entire pluralistic community. Its premise is to accommodate diversity and serve the multitude of abilities, interest, and life styles within the public school system by allowing the opportunity of choice--choice of the learning environment that reflects one's learning-life style. At present, the mainstream has the freedom (liberty) to seek an alternative, but this usually is outside the jurisdiction of the local school system. The DEALE model will incorpo- rate freedom (liberty), but it also includes a choice for parents, students, and teachers in selecting the type of learning environment that best suits their needs, or even the Opportunity to create one, within their school system. Any environment can be legitimate, insofar as it has a sound philosophical and psychological rationale and utilizes a communication network that is conducive and congruent with the rationales. A philosophical rationale w—n... ._.-.-Au.mg.mfik—"fi" ‘1 166 may run the continuum from the "romantic" mode, which holds that what comes from within the child is the most important aspect of development and, therefore, the environment should be permissive enough to allow the inner good to unfold and the inner bad to come under control; or the cultural trans- mission ideology rooted in the classical academic tradition “m, of Western education, which holds that the primary task of education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and social and moral rules of the culture; to the progressive mode, which holds that education should nourish the child's natural interaction with a developing society through in- variant ordered sequential cognitive stages resulting in a higher stage of development in adulthood. The psychological rationale may run the continuum from the maturationists theory of development, which con- ceives of cognitive development as unfolding through inborn pre-patterned stages and emotional development through hereditary stages, an organic approach of development; or the associationistic-learning theory of development, which holds that the environment transmits information or energy to the organism to be accumulated and acted upon. The child's concepts and behavior are viewed as the result of the association of discrete stimuli with one another, with the child's responses, and with his experiences of pleasure and pain--resulting in guided learning and teaching; to the 167 cognitive-developmental mode which holds that development results from an interaction between organismic structuring tendencies and the structure of the outside world, not reflecting either one directly. This interaction leads to cognitive stages that represent the transformation of early cognitive structures as they are applied to the external world and as they accommodate to it. The communicative rationale may run the continuum from the mechanistic to the organic-social systems approach, which in their pure form, are located on opposite ends of the continuum, but not as a dichotomy. Various networks will be found at different points between these polarities and indeed may move back and forth along this continuum, depending upon the style of the alternative environment. In addition, the total school environment may include as many types as there are teachers. "Legitimacy embraces the notion of institutional reSponSiveness, and the authentic involvement of the total community, that is administrators, teachers, students, parents, and the general public,"1in the pursuit of optional or alternative programs. Thus, the formation and purpose of the matrices is to aid the practitioner in the pursuit of establishing optional legitimate educational alternatives in better serving the community. L 1Richard L. Andrews, "How Sound Are the Assumptions ofICompetency-Based Programs," Educational Leadership, 31, No. 4 (January 1974), 311. Mm ' VP“! 97“" 168 Allowing options establishes an approach of not perpetuating a complete change model, but freedom within the system to change or not to change, and the allowance for teachers and students to be respectfully different with— in a specified environment. Thus, teachers and students may establish and participate in an optimum learning environment that is supported from within and from without. The unity of purpose, the acceptance of diversity, of alternatives within the public school, is the underlying rationale for alternates. The following definitions and matrices are offered as a formal process for clearer awareness and understanding in establishing optional or alternative programs within the school Mainstream's Approach to Terminology The significance of this part is to establish a common usage of terms used in the matrices that any layman may use in getting acquainted with and/or in establishing an optional or alternative program within a school. Philosophical Modes Naturalism.--Views the world solely through natural elements and forces, excluding the supernatural or spiritual forces. Idealism.--Maintains that all perceptions of and in the external world come to us as thought or ideas. 169 Realism.-—Views objects of the external as real in themselves and are not dependent upon any mind for their existence. Pragmatism.--Approaches reality from a practical point of view and stresses practical consequences and values as standards by which concepts are to be analyzed and their validity determined. Existentialism.--Emphasizes man's responsibility for generating his own direction as through personal freedom, personal decision and personal commitment. Psychological Modes Humanism.-—IS primarily concerned with individual's behavior that is basically self-determining, rational, and active in shaping their own growth and environments. Behavioralism.--Stress scientific observation of man's behavior based on maturation, opportunity, and environmental influences. Cognitive-developmental.--View man's behavior pri- marily from an intellectual approach, in which man's develOpment is observed as a sequential progression through mental stages. Psychoanalytical.--Approach man's behavior through diagnosis of overt behavior caused by his emotional experiences and early socialization. 170 Communicatipn Modes Bureaucratic.--Stress a very structured system of control based on well-established rational rules by those in authority. Human relations.--Focuses on flexibility of control and minimizes the importance of formal rules and stresses informal group interaction. Administrative.--Combines the bureaucratic formal rules and practices with the human relations socialization of members. I Theorpr.--Emphasizes the importance of the indi- vidual and his process of self-actualization and a minimum of formal rules. System IV.--Combines Theory Y with a focus on group decision-making which minimizes the need for formal rules and accommodates a moderate amount of flexibility due to freedom and delegation of control. Social systems.-—Integrates the set of conditions described in the previous modes and stresses a high degree of trust in a dynamic and reSponsive system that is high- lighted by flexibility for/to adaptation to diversity. Interdependent PhilOSOphical and Psychological Variables Societal purposes.--A body of human beings generally associated together by interest, customs, or social life for a purpose . 171 Learner.--One actively being informed by study, instruction, or experience. Learning.--The modification of behavior through practice, training, or experience. Growth and develgpment.-—Any personRs continuous intellectual, social, emotional, or physical unfolding. Educational pupposes.--The aim of schools that deals with methods of teaching and learning. .Mgp.--Any human individual. Decision-making3--The act of deciding by making a judgment. Motivation.-—A need or desire that causes a person to act. Behavior.-—To act, function, or react in a particular manner. Interdependent Communication Variables Formality.-—Emphasizes the degree of freedom one has in determining his own behavior. Amount.--The level of energy, time, and space one is allowed to interact within his environment. Initiation.--Indicates who originates messages. Directionality.--Indicates from where messages originate. Flexibilipy.--How much opportunity one has inter- acting with others. 172 Functions.-—Emphasizes whether an environment is oriented toward production--getting the job done, innova- tion--the degree of change, and maintenance--keeping things as they are. The preceding overview of basic terminology should «"1 help in the understanding of the next part. A Practitioner's Approach to Diagnosing an Educational Environment Win .5212“.th f-n. - The following matrices are offered in an attempt to establish a rational way of constructing methodologies that will provide the opportunity for individually defined environmental descriptors, which include purposes, activ- ities or behaviors, use of time and Space, constraints and evaluation procedures that can be related to a curriculum theory based on a highly flexible, diversified set of learn- ing opportunities that constitute legitimate processes for attaining the basic purposes, which will permit any member of the public to choose in terms of personal needs and interest the experiences most meaningful and significant to them in pursuing an education, as well as a rationale that is inclusive of sound replicable researched and proven philosophies, psychologies, and communicative theories and constructs of a great range of differing approaches. 173 The matrices will be implicitly as well as explicitly presented, so that the result will be that a teacher will be equipped with the ability to translate and verbalize their goals into Specific classroom behaviors that are conducive with their teaching-learning—life style. The optimum approach in writing individual envi- ronmental descriptors is to have each teacher through reflective introspection and assistance from those directly affected, students and parents, write their own without external professional assistance, but due to the time-tested fact that "the teaching act is often best described as being an initiated intuitive gestalt of many factors perceived by the teacher at the moment in relation to flashes of insight drawn from experience and personal conceptions of teaching that probably has some vague individualized theoretical base,"2 the following matrices are offered to ease the process of diagnosis by assisting the teacher in recognizing the different types of theories and to be aware of their strengths and their apprOpriate uses as they apply to others and themselves. The following matrices are illustrated to explain the strategy for diagnosing an environment. The matrices will be presented and then an explanation of their use will 2ASCD Commission on Instructional Theory, "The Functions of Instructional Theory," Theories of Instruction, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (Washington, D.C.: NBA, 1968), p. 29. 174 be offered. The components in Figures 7-21 represent a suggested classification of researched areas which comprise the ingredients of a DEALE theory. The model is offered to aid the practitioner in an orderly and systematic process of assisting the teacher in creating a legitimate alternative environment that parallels the teacher's teaching-life style. The alternative is based on different styles of teaching and learning. Each teacher has an individually unique personality with a different teaching-life style. Thus, implementing the DEALE model process will liberate teachers and legitimize their differences and establish a freedom from imposing one style of teaching on a classroom, resulting in an environment that is populated by students who desire a particular style and responded positively to this style, while others who do not, will have their freedom to choose another environment that is more conducive to their learning-life style. Given the assumption that each teacher has a unique personality and different teaching style, there are some teachers who are more compatible than are others. Although their styles may be different, there are some basic similar- ities in style that lends itself to compatibility. If these similar styles were represented on the DEALE model evalua- tion grid and legitimately recognized by each teacher - “an... 175 Figure 7. The Trilogy and Interrelated Components. This figure is illustrated to show the sound replicable theoretical bases that constitute the foundation for the theoretical model and the possible conceptual framework that may guide the teacher through day-to—day activities with students and associates. This figure further attempts to depict the possible interrelated variations and complex- ities of each component based on present teacher's teaching- life style and awareness of theory; also it attempts to reflect the possible basis for generating consistent and congruent legitimate alternative environments within the public school. --.. .- _ I I 176 .mucocomsoo floatawunmuGH cam mooaflne 0:9 .5 mhnmflm Hounoom . .n \\\ Emflcmfism Em.amapcmomflxm >H amumam EmfluMEmmum w .Gomfi. Smfiamuogmnmm VXA Emflammm 0>Humuumfisfifip¢ ///. Hmucmsmoam>mo Im>fiuflcmoo Emflampr mGOHpmamm aces: oeuxamcmo.o>mm Oflpmuosmmusm III a Emflamusumz ZOHBANUHZDZZOU $004030me wmmOmQHH mm 177 Figure 8. The Trilogy and Interdependent Variables. This figure is illustrated to Show the subset variables of each major component within the trilogy that one would utilize in creating an alternative environment. It also attempts to depict the interrelations and interdependence of each variable with that of the other psychological and communicative component variables. As Figure 7 attempted to reflect the possible basis for generating a consistent and congruent legitimate alternative, so does Figure 8, but in addition, it establishes a criterion through specified variables to aid the practitioner in assisting the classroom teacher in an orderly and systematic process of creating a legitimate alternative environment that parallels the teacher's teaching—life style. 178 .mmahmflnm> unmocmmmonmch pct wmoHflue 0:9 GOeuocnm sueaebuxmau cofluomufip coeumeueee undofim AUHHMEHOM ZOHBflUHZDSSOU H0H>mnwn cowum>flu08 mGOHmflomv CINE \/ coflumospm ’\’ \ ucmfimoam>mp zuzoum I tfl“ mcwcumma \. tJ\ >p0fl00m NOOAomUMmm .m oHson coflpm>fluoa mcoflmeomp CME coflumospw ucmfimon>mp £H30Hm mcflcumma chnmwa huwfloow WmmOmOQHmm it 179 Figure 9. The Variable Analysis Matrix. This figure is illustrated to be used by the classroom teacher, if possible autonomously, to evaluate what conceptual framework is being practiced in approaching the learner in her jurisdiction. Tiers two and three are to be evaluated in the same manner, specific to what psychological approach is used with the learner and what communicative process is being used within the confines of the classroom. This identical process is to be used for each of the nine variables: society, learning, growth and development, educatflxn education, man, decision making, motivation, and behavior. I I 180 .mflm>HMG< maomflum> one .0 mHDmHm mGOHUMHmm HMHUOm >H Emummm » whomsa 0>Hpmupmflcwap< smasm oeumuocmmusm finances MH0a>m 0 Hmucmemoam>mo OH > memo chm . m H . a m Im>fiuwcooo .u H n m Emaamaucmumwxm Emflumemmnm Emflammm EmflammpH Emflamusumz / / 181 Figure 10. The Composite Variable Analysis of Major Philosophical Components. This figure illustrates the compilation of personal data from the variable analysis matrices, so that a visual representation of personal evaluated data based on the constant variable cri- terion may be observed and evaluated for the purpose of estab— lishing a pattern of consistent or inconsistent classroom behavior and a readiness for creating a legitimate alternative environmental descriptor. 182 .mucmcomsoo HmoflcmowOHflnm “ohm: mo mflmhamc< mahmflum> mnemogfioo 0:9 .oa «upmem 183 Figure 11. The Composite Variable Analysis of Major Psychological Components. This figure illustrates the compilation of personal data from the variable analysis matrices, so that a visual representation of personally evaluated data based on the constant variable criterion may be observed and evaluated for the purpose of establishing a pattern of consistent or inconsistent classroom behavior and a readiness for creating a legitimate alternative environmental descriptor. 184 .mucmcomfioo HMUflmoaonoamm Homo: mo mHmSHmcfi mHQMfiHm> mnemomfioo one .HH munmflm 185 Figure 12. The Composite Variable Analysis of Major Communicative Components. This figure illustrates the compilation of personal data from the variable analysis matrices, so that a visual representation of personally evaluated data based on the constant variable criterion may be observed and evaluated for the purpose of establishing a pattern of consistent or inconsistent classroom behavior and a readiness for creating a legitimate alternative environmental descriptor. 186 .mucmcogfiou obfluMOMGSEEOU Hommz mo mamaamcfl manmwum> mnemomfioo one .NH muooflm 187 Figure 13. The Evaluation Grid. The three dimensional matrix form in this figure illustrates the complete diagnosis of the trilogy; its major components and sub- set variables that constitute the conceptual framework for generating a DEALE model and the ingredients for the creation of a legitimate optional or alternative environmental descriptor. PSYCHOLOGY COMMUNICATION PHILOSOPHY 188 satqerzeA tetoos AI mansKS x Axoeqm aAnensmmpv SUO'II 391:8}! trauma orationeaxna mstuemnn msrteiorAeqaa [equemdoIaAaQ—eariruboo The Evaluation Grid. Figure 13. orixteueoqoxsd msrterquaqsrxa mstqembexa msrteau mSIIEBPI msrteznqeu 06" ¢ 62 «3" A 0 d? i?) d9 gfib 2’ {y 69' .J9' 4&9, 49? <§D 0: a 0 o f satqerzeA 189 through publicly exposing their style based on an environmental descriptor; they could be grouped together and generate a similar educational environment. Teachers, individually or in groups, produce different kinds of classroom environments, different types of classroom social structure. Some may emphasize a certain approach to learning which is markedly different from that of other groups of teachers with other styles of teaching.3 The DEALE model will reflect awareness of teacher's styles, establish a potential for continuous growth, formally indi- cate that teachers are aware and ready to implement an alternative environment, and allow "those" unique styles who have been generating informal classrooms behind closed doors to profess their practice openly and legitimately. Behind each alternative is a teacher or group of teachers with the same basic style. Again, the liberation of the teacher's style through the sanctioning of educational alternatives may make more visible the existence of legitimate differences among teachers, differences which can help individualize learning, increase educational productivity, and enhance professional satisfaction.“ The conceptual framework represented by the Evaluation Grid will categorize the teacher's teaching style on a continuum from "informal" to "formal." Some of the characteristics that differentiate the two extremes follow: 3Mario Fantini, Public Schools of Choice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973), p. 57. “Ibid., pp. 70-71. 02811 Informal environment and human interaction Activity duration is child controlled Teacher structures environment and process Teacher provides guidance, facilitates learning Furniture type and arrangement are based on the child's workshOp pattern Individual or small group activity predominates Children and visitors integrated Teacher-pupil interaction individualistic Curriculum is planned to meet children's interests Emphasis on abundance of con- crete materials to manipulate Teacher non-authoritarian; acts facilitator No difference between work and play Learning by discovery Grouping for several ages Teacher and children determine pattern for the day Child's education the child's responsibility Emphasis on affective emotional as well as cognitive intel- lectual skills Evaluation as diagnosis 190 Traditional Formal environment and human interaction Activity time-scheduled by teacher Teacher structures curriculum Teacher provides the sources of learning Furniture type and arrangement follow a standard pattern Whole-class oriented activity predominates Children and visitors segregated Teacher dominant, child subordinate Curriculum is planned to cover teacher's lesson plan Dominance of textbook Teacher controls, is disciplinarian Dichotomized work and play Learning by being taught Grouping for single age Teacher decides who does what and when Child's education the teacher's responsibility Emphasis on intellectual development only Evaluation as classification Between these extremes there is a multiple of pos- sible Options that range from the teacher offering choices from designated content areas to others requiring specified content, where teachers allow some freedom as to the learn- ing process, the use of time and Space and the degree of external constraints, to the form of evaluation. 191 The theoretical model establishes an opportunity to encourage teachers to free their teaching styles. But, just as important, the theory, supports teachers whose style is standard. While some teachers-learners are attracted to an infor- mal environmental approach, others-—indeed, most-- would continue to profit from the standard. Both styles are needed. It would be an error to favor only those whose teaching styles are "open," or to assume that all learners would learn better from open education. This simply is not the case. . . .5 The model is not advocating the substitution of one mode for another. Rather, it is encouraging and supporting educational pluralism through the freedom to change or not to change one's approach to learning situations by formal- izing their mode by creating a legitimate environmental descriptor to be made public to the community to enable parents and students to make a wiser choice about the environment that best suits their individual needs and desires. The environmental descriptor illustrated in Figure 14 is offered as a description; not a prescription, for every alternative ought to be different based on the uniqueness of the individual, or group of teachers, parents, or students creating it. The parameter of the environmental descriptor is suggested as being limited to one page. The objective is 5Ibid., p. 71. 192 Purposes: Activities/Behavior: Use of Time: Use of Space: Constraints: Evaluation: Figure 14. The Environmental Descriptor. 193 to complete the descriptor by utilizing the data accumulated within the matrices in a clear and concise manner that will truly represent one's teaching style and also establish an instrument that will initiate ease for consumer distribution and readability. ‘-fi Parent and Student Decisions The environmental descriptor is then publicly shared with the community as the referent tool in providing basic ‘rm :5 : .' “59‘1"?” information that will insure those making the decision that they have been properly prepared to make wise choices. The interested parent may then seek out more information on the option through interpersonal interaction with the teacher or request parent-teacher meetings. The parent may allow the student to make the choice, or the parent may request that the school use its own judgment in placing the child. Each and every method herein described is being employed by Okemos Middle School, Okemos, Michigan, which allows the parent to be directly involved in their child's educational future even when_the parent delegates the final decision of Placement to the school. An introspective reflection of the theoretical model as it pertains to questions utilized in the formation of a contemporary curriculum theory supportive of diverse OPtional alternative learning environments. 194 1. Has the public school reflected the shifting values and.emphases of a contemporary pluralistic society? The 1972 Gallup Poll revealed that most Americans, about 60 percent, continue to be satisfied with the pur- poses and procedures of today's schools. This majority of community strength and backing has established a status quo monolithic approach to public education. But, along with this impressive statistic of 60 percent satisfaction, there was 12 percent of the public who expressed no Opinion and a critical mass of 28 percent of the public who expressed dissatisfaction with the present directions of public education. This 28 percent of public dissatisfaction reflects the fact that today's schools are not representative of the shifting values of a pluralistic society. This 28 percent also need to have their right to quality education protected. Therefore, to provide each parent and student with the type of education they want and need will require alternatives and choice. The established sequence in our schools is obviously one alternative. The implementation of the DEALE model will establish for teachers, parents, and students the choice of the kind of education that makes the most sense to them and truly reflects the pluralistic community it serves. 195 2. Why are public school systems lethargic in initiating experimental learning situations? Public schools who have attempted experimental programs have found that they have failed due to teacher energies and enthusiasm burnout, to the financial burden of maintaining them, to the problem of imposing them on .everyone, and to the fact that those affected were not involved in the decision-making process and thus had little, if any, responsibility or commitment to its success. Thus, those public schools who attempted experimental programs modeled a system that was under public criticism, reflected a rapid turnover of professional staff, and a lack of con- tinuity in program, and established a pattern of millage and bond issue failures. The need for alternatives is evident. The process of development and implementation through the DEALE model has taken into account the past experiences of experimental program failures within and without the public school system and has established a credible process whereby those directly affected by the experimental program are initially involved in the preparation, initiation and implementation of the environment. If there is a lack of community support for the alternative, the alternative is generated no further. If there is support, the alternative is created and put into Operation through the concerted effort of the students, 196 parents, teacher, and administrator, all working in concert and being held accountable for its success. 3. Are contemporary public school curricular efforts relevant to student, teacher, and community needs? There are degrees of relevance. For the majority, the primary purposes and goals of schools: planning and carrying out an educational program within the school, in selecting modes of instruction, in allocating resources, and in determining priorities among feasible programs, courses, activities, and innovations, seem to be respected and relevant to their basic needs. However, the established process of education, as it is today, cannot hope to reach each student and establish a basis of relevance when each has a unique and personal learning-life style. The DEALE theory is based on different styles of teaching and learning. Through the use of the matrices, . one can arrive at verbalizing his uniqueness of style and publicly offer this unique style in a descriptor for con- sumer choice. The decision to choose one environment, rather than another, is based on the matching of learning- teaching styles. This liberation of teacher style through the sanctioning of an educational alternative will make visible the existence of legitimate differences between teachers and students, differences that will establish 197 alternate processes toward similar objectives and allow the student to work toward his potential in his own unique learning-life style. 4. How much consideration is really given to staff and their effect/affect upon the curriculum as they change their practices, beliefs, goals, and values? Traditionally, the curriculum decision—making process has filtered downward from its origin in Federal buildings, to state departments, to district offices. And, for teachers who are in the process of professional growth, they find it difficult to find a legitimate avenue within the system to give their input. They must either attempt to maintain the delivery system required by the school system and prostitute themselves, or close their doors and risk the chance of reprimand by using a delivery system that reflects their personality and natural teaching style. The evolutionary process of alternatives within the public school allows for teachers to use it to legitimize their differences and have a direct impact upon the process of teaching that will reflect their growth and not disrupt the inner administrative curricular organizational structure of the school system. With the legitimization of one's delivery style, chosen by parents and students and held accountable by them, the teacher will have the freedom and the process to model honesty and democratic behavior within the school. 198 5. How does the practitioner determine how to reconcile or integrate the needs of the individual with those of the school, community; society as a whole? The promise that we live in a pluralistic nation, having different kinds of people with different personal- ities, values, beliefs, behaviors, talents, skills and learning-life styles, establishes a need to provide a wide variety of distinctly different learning environments, which further indicates a need of organizational renewal. That renewal can be complimented by the use of alternatives and the procedure offered within the theory, which assist in sorting out the complexities and directs itself toward a constructive strategy in the process of meeting individual specialized needs within society. 6. How can a school environment be designed to create optimum interpersonal relationships between its members and the flexibility and adaptability that may be needed for the school system to survive in the face of a changing environment? The key is to implement an organizational system where it is possible for the members within the environment to collaboratively manage the culture of the environment in such a way that the goals and purposes of the organization are attained at the same time that human values of its members within the organization are furthered--organization development. 199 Organization develOpment is the emerging, applied behavioral science discipline that seeks to improve orga- nizations through planned, systematic, long—range efforts focused on the organization's culture and its human and social processes; the foundations and characteristics of the organization develOpment process are: It is data based and experienced based, with emphasis on action, diagnosis and goal setting; it fre- quently utilizes work teams as target groups; it rests on a systems approach to organizations, it is a normative-reeducation strategy of changing; and it is an ongoing process.6 It deals with the system of human relationships as a whole and it deals with each teacher, student, and parent in the context of his individual direction, needs, and teaching-learning-life style. 7. Can increasing communication and legitimizing of teacher's goals reduce internal conflict and disagreement among staff? The use of the organizational development process based on the DEALE theoretical model will significantly advance the acceptance of individual differences and human- ize the formal learning process and reduce the internal conflict existing within the ranks of the professionals themselves as well as between the professionals and lay public, by allowing the teacher to make public his approach 6French, Organizational Development, op. cit., p. 99. 200 to education, and through community choice for that environment, the environment becomes legitimate and considered bona fide by others on the staff. The point to remember is that the theory allows for freedom of differences. Teachers are not forced to change their styles, in fact, it encourages and supports teachers whose style may be standard. The theory of alternatives stresses the legitimacy of every teacher's personality and style of teaching, thus improving staff relations and effectiveness which is based on a firm foundation of acceptance and respect for diversity. 8. How might one educate tomorrow's youth to truly prepare him for the challenges that will face him? Instead of standardized curricular organization within public education in which exposure is based on same— ness, the DEALE model will create widely diversified environ- ments that may be chosen by the learner based on needs, beliefs, and values that are cooperatively held by the teacher. Thus, learners will be permitted far greater choice than at present. They will be encouraged and stim- ulated by the environment to pursue their human potential. They will learn the meaning of freedom, which involves choosing from among alternatives, being responsible for the choice and understanding the consequences of the choice which is the sign of maturity. 201 The alternative idea stresses that intelligent decision-making is the focus of its generation. For anyone to be prepared to meet internal or external challenges, he/ she must be permitted and encouraged to make important decisions that directly affect him--and this is what alternatives are all about. 9. What is the relevant environment of a school? 0 One that: diversifies education into a wide variety of learning Options that reflects its pluralistic community. 0 Allows the freedom of individual choice. 0 Involves students, parents, teachers, administrators and the general public in the decision-making process. . Maintains an Optimum size for interpersonal relations. 0 Is generated through an evolutionary "grass roots" process within the school structure. . Encourages the development of matching teaching— learning styles. 0 Supports flexibility and responsiveness to the social culture of its members. 0 Shares all information that is specific to critical decision-making. o Is accountable for both academic performance and human potential. . Guarantees equal access for all° - Facilitates direction through a participatory concensus process based on cooperative co-existence and collaboration of students, parents, and staff. 202 Today, faith in the American democratic ideal is difficult. Possibly it is even more difficult within the educational institutions throughout the country, due to the period of rapid change and diverse needs. The frustrations and anxieties felt by school systems in attempting to keep pace with today's pluralistic culture has caused many schools to be less open and less able to consider innovation as one of its functions and has returned the school to maintenance and production functions in order to maintain stability within. The need for today's educational institutions is a process for evolutionary change-—a way to use tested experience to change both the direction and the Operational characteristics of the system. The author believes that conceptualization of the DEALE model, applied with sensi- tivity, can provide the process of renewal of the dynamics of the American democratic ideal. The next section reports the impact of the theo- retical model on practitioners and its implications and significance to education in Michigan and a compilation of environments that are at different points on the continuum of alternative educational delivery systems. CHAPTER V THEORETICAL APPLICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION This section will describe the application of the general theory of options or alternative programs as it pertains to school systems throughout the nation and the purpose(s) established for the environment. Secondly, it will specifically focus on one school system within the state of Michigan where the author has shared cooperatively and collaboratively in the facilitation of alternative pro- grams. Thirdly, other examples of environmental descriptors will be offered as illustrations of diverse educational alternative learning Options or alternatives within the state of Michigan that are now being generated within public school systems. Berkeley's Alternative Schools Plan The center of alternatives within the nation lie ‘within the Berkeley, California area. Berkeley's alterna- tive schools plan has generated sixty-plus diverse alter- native or optional programs which range from basic skill development to aesthetic appreciation to self-understanding 204 to college preparatory programs. The following descriptions are offered as random examples of on—going alternatives. Genesis High School With over 160 students in racially balanced numbers, Genesis High School is organized into four "tribes" in which close, individualized contracts are maintained between teachers and students. Each semester, the students nego- tiate their own programs from among the 150 courses Offered. Genesis provides students and community residents with a concrete voice in the educational decision-making process. Marcus Garvey Institute Marcus Garvey Institute is informally structured and offers a wide range of subjects. Much of the curriculum is reality-based, emphasizing learning by doing and full scale apprenticeships are maintained in such places as law offices, pottery studios, and book stores. The philosophy of self-determination permeates the environment which has a two—part instructional approach--heavy stress on the basics and stress as well on ethnic culture. Alliance Black House This alternative at Alliance Black House attracted over 60 tenth and eleventh graders who chose to participate in an environment whose purpose is identity-building. Note the description of Alliance Black House: 205 Students, about 60 during the 1971 school year, turned the cavernous and unlovely facility on Fourth Street into an arts center with their huge murals that strikingly chronicle the black experience. As the walls filled up with the artistic outpouring of students growing in understanding of themselves, Black House grew into a unified learning place with a clear set of goals. When Black House opened for the 1972-73 school year, the history of becoming a particular place for a particular group of students was reflected in a tightly structured curriculum with a heavy priority on mastery of basic skills. For two hours each morning, these courses are taught: reading and writing, Black studies, gen- eral math, Black man and the law, Black literature, chemistry, and political science. The afternoon curriculum includes arts and crafts, geometry, algebra, chemistry, Spanish, Afro-Asian dance, Swahili, boxing, biology and nutritional sciences. Most subjects are offered on a six-week rather than semester basis. In reading, writing and math, teachers work in teams. Each student is diagnosed as to exactly where he is in terms of academic strengths and weaknesses.1 Odyssey Odyssey enrolls about 90 junior high youngsters of grades seven through nine, whose purpose is to establish multi-racial understanding through personalized learning with considerable emphasis on workshop-like projects. Model A School Model A School is a structured skills-oriented subschool of 400 students in grades 10-12. The following descriptive rationale reflects its direction: 1Mario Fantini, Public Schools of Choice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973), pp. 90-91. 206 The offering includes Hindu myths and legends geography of China, Taoism, Greek lyric poetry, African family structure, Renaissance man as the source of order and disorder, Shakespeare, Chinese jade carving, Bunraku puppet theatre, rise of the middle class. Tutorial centers were set up which have become a strength and a model of the program. In double periods daily, students in need of upgrading in reading achievement are in the centers. They move then to the math labs. The centers have become impressive learning stations. Model A, through evolution, has become two p1aces--one where a refined and richly honed academic Offering is served up in heavy doses and teachers work together and combine students regularly each week so that the offering in fact becomes unfrozen and flows--English into history, science into math--and the whole thing into a profile of the life man has lived since the beginning of his time. While this is going on, the 40 percent of the Model A student body who need it are getting drill and tutorial one-to-one help in a living- roomlike setting that is supportive and comfort- able. Aides are stationed in the centers. The climate is almost familylike. In this milieu of people taking care of their futures by getting the basic academic tools, students in the past year have shot up two, three and four grade levels.2 Agora Agora constitutes 100 racially diverse students and teachers, whose purpose is to develop in its students a sense of community. Agora is intended to reach those who are failing, bored, or disenchanted with school. Students choose their own classes and teachers and totally participate in planning and development of the school. 21bid., pp. 93-94. 207 School of the Arts This School of the Arts is composed of 220 students seeking a broad cultural approach or have artistic inclina- tions. The integrated curriculum has English-History- Humanities as a core with a multiple of communication and aesthetic offerings. Required courses are taken at the main high school. Berkeley College Preparatory Berkeley College Preparatory has 50 sophomores and juniors who have chosen an environment that stresses aca- demic excellence and acceptance to college as its purposes. On Target School (OTS) The On Target School (OTS) has 140 culturally diverse students, grades 10-12, who have chosen career- orientation as their direction. King's Alternative for Relevant Education (KAREj King's Alternative for Relevant Education has 140 students, grades seven through nine, who have chosen KARE because of its main purpose of increasing understanding, peOple to- peop le . West Campus Basic Skills West Campus Basic Skills is a grade nine option for any student who is behind in the basic skills. 208 Alliance Casa de la Raza Alliance Casa de la Raza is a kindergarten-through- grade-lZ for 85 students, which has as its purpose, Chicano culture. Early Learning Center (ELC) The Early Learning Center with 150 students of elementary school age can best be described by the following: The main effort at ELC is to build a flexible and open community school. If pupils spend three days on a camp trip, they could spend the next three days at home. There are no bells in the school. The hope is that learning activities will flow into each other, that the youngsters can stay at a pursuit until they want to leave it, that people in the community will come to the school and share their skills and talent with the children. Staff wants to break down the separateness between school and the world around it and school and home.3 Kilimanjaro A group of parents of children of elementary school age, together with several teachers, formed the Parents and Teachers for Alternative Education (PTAE) now called Kilimanjaro. This group of about 50 parents, students and teachers from two elemen- tary schools sought and achieved a learning envi- ronment that was more spontaneous than the standard educational Offering. Located apart from the elementary school, Kilimanjaro has developed a nongraded elementary format, and is Open to com- munity resources. The student body is multiracial and multiethnic in composition. 31bid., p. 102. 209 Wide use is made of parent involvement in the school. Parents learn along with their children. The curriculum emerges from the interaction of the basic parties of interest (children, parents, teachers, community). The participants make full use as well of community resources, such as the university, museums, parks, craftsmen, artists, and older students. Children in Kilimanjaro cook, weave, make pottery, garden and learn the basic skills in an environment which is Open and informal.” John Muir Child Deve10pment Center The kindergarten-to-grade-3 John Muir Child Devel- Opment Center for nearly 400 students grew out of a strong parent-teacher interest in child develop- ment. This twelve-month school offers parents further Options, which they themselves help gen- erate, within the Center itself. Parents are closely involved in the child's school experi- ences. Each classroom has a number of learning centers in science, math and language arts. The social studies curriculum has a strong ethnic studies emphasis. This is an "open" school. The point of the Child Deve10pment Center is to provide the material and equipment for learning and let the child loose to work at the activity stations where his interest lie. The "open" classroom, then, is a place where the learner chooses a subject and learns through doing. Characteristic of the John Muir alternative is an air of heightened bustle-~kids hammering, kilns whirling, rehearsals, music--the sounds, sights and smells of children who seem to have meshed work and play into one and the same phenomena. The child development thrust here provides a curriculum developed around the interests, curiosity and spontaneity of the learner. A strong music, dance and motor develOpment program is maintained.5 “Ibid., p. 102. 5Ibid., p. 103. 210 Jefferson Tri-Part Model The Jefferson Tri-Part Model has over 650 children, kindergarten through grade three, who have chosen a school- within-a-school environment. Parents at Jefferson have access to three distinctive alternatives: 1. The multicultural model, in which cultural diversity is cultivated, 2. The individualized, personalized, learning model with a self-instructional mode, and 3. The traditional model with a teacher- directed pattern.6 Each alternative within Berkeley has a commitment to offer a basic curriculum to all. The similarity of curriculum from school to school is intended; it is the process of arriving at the objectives of the basic curric- ulum that is distinctly different. These diverse processes are the direct reflection and legitimatization of teachers' teaching-life styles, arrived at through support of parents and students who are actively involved in a participatory process of learning. The preceding descriptive overview of Berkeley's Alternative Schools Plan is offered to illustrate the diversity of purposes established by local school commu- nities in meeting their specific educational needs. This general approach establishes a clear idea of the multi- purposes of alternative schools, but does not answer the 6Ibid., p. 105. 211 question, what process is used to generate an alternative within a public school system? The following explanation is an effort to respond to this question by beginning with a man who desired a change within a system and the process used to create it. One School System Edwardsburg Public School System located in the southwest part of the state of Michigan is unique due to one man, Superintendent Richard Fitzgerald, who had a dream of implementing a curriculum based on humanism and alter- native learning environments. His educational philosophy, humanism, is defined as, providing alternative ways of learning for students. It deals with giving students the tools to be individuals, in accordance with their family's style of living, their interest and their abilities. It deals with methods tO encourage a child to determine his or her own worth; with improving self-concept. The philosophy delves deeply into the classroom structure which goes into attempts to make the above a reality.7 The creation and generation of his philOSOphy began with a Mission Statement of the school's priorities; a quality curriculum program\fluufl1included four general goals: basic skills learning development, career and vocational 7Barbara Dempsey, "Community Struggles with Changing System," Part 1 of a lO-part series on the Edwardsburg Schools, The Elkhart Truth, Wednesday, March 13, 1974, p. 7. 212 education, performing and fine arts, and health and physical education and recreation. Other priorities were curriculum workshops to encourage teachers to innovate, and a steering committee of students, parents, nonprofessional staff, teachers, administration, and school board members to work toward improving the school. The Quality Curriculum Program was offered as a guide for direction and designed in broad enough terms to allow for alternative routes to the destination: "To make schools more meaningful for students." A goal workshop was held at Oaklawn, Indiana, on October 10, 1972, with the explicit intent of developing goals and priorities within each of the four general goals. Participatory involvement of the community included: eight administrators, seven board members, Dr. Chester Raber, director of education at the Oaklawn Psychiatric Center in Elkhart, Dr. John Sandberg, dean of the School of Education at Western Michigan University, five teachers, ten students, one representative from each community organization, five community peOple and the senior citizens and pre—school were represented. With the information generated, Fitzgerald wrote the mission statement on priorities as indicated by those in attendance.8 "On May 8, 1973, an open brainstorming session was held for the purpose of the community discussing the 'hows' and 'how much' of the quality curriculum program and its "9 process of implementation. This section triggered the 8Barbara Dempsey, "Community Gets Involved in Curriculum," Part 5, The Elkhart Truth, Monday, March 18, 1974’ p. 3. 9Barbara Dempsey, "Mission Statement, Program Form 'materials,'" Part 4, The Elkhart Truth, Saturday, March 16, 1974, p. 3. 213 establishment of direct community participation in the decision-making process and a curriculum that met the diverse needs of the community. Also, at this time, a citizen's steering committee of teachers, students, and parents was created to increase two-way communication between the school and the community as it pertained to curriculum direction and/or develOpment. Another direction evolved from this session in regard to curriculum. It was a workshop, planned for the last two weeks of July. It was to be held for any teachers or parents wishing to attend. The workshop was to be conducted by Dr. Dale Alam from Michigan State University, experienced in working with teachers and guiding them toward innovation in curriculum. The selection of Dr. Dale Alam was done by Fitzgerald. He knew that his philOSOphical framework toward education was similar to his: humanism in curriculum and alternative learning environments for students. The Workshop Of the 101 teachers within the system, inclusive of the high school, junior high, middle school, Town and Eagle Lake elementary schools, 30 teachers, three administrators and three parents signed onto the program. The workshop established the format of modeling the concepts of humanism and alternatives. Dr. Dale Alam utilized a delivery system 214 that was nonthreatening and shared his expertise in assisting teachers in becoming more aware of what is being done in curriculum and what changes can be made to accomplish the things the individual teachers and parents would like to accomplish. The workshop began with Alam sharing different effects curriculum designs and teaching methods have on students. He also illustrated diverse learning theories in regard to stimulus and response. Before the first day ended, approximately five groups were formed by the participants based on things they were interested in develOping. As the workshop continued, individual groups diversified their original direction and assumed the responsibility for such activities as: developing a social studies program for children from K-12, creating curriculum descriptions for the middle school, improving the junior high unit-step program, generating an innovative special education project, investigating research and the applied techniques of the behavioral modification process, and the development of some kind of alternative learning program in the high school. After lengthy discussion by the high school group about what an alternative might look like, they decided to call 25 students on the telephone; the students were asked to join in and rap about school. The teachers sought ideas on what the students would like to see offered in the way of learning that was not being offered. The teachers wanted to develop some type of "option program for students," built on student's needs. The result culminating in a new Student Option Block for juniors and seniors. At another table, discussion developed between three elementary teachers representing fourth, fifth, and sixth grades from Eagle Lake, the principal and superintendent. The interaction dealt with what could be offered students at Eagle Lake that was not being done. "The idea of an alternative program based on continuous progress was germinated."1° Both groups, high school and Eagle Lake elementary, called upon the resources of Alam and explained what they wanted to do. He told them the first priority was to draw Up an environmental descriptor of what the room would look like and what they intended it to provide for students. After a laborious expenditure of energies by the teachers, an environmental descriptor was completed by both groups and was ready to be presented to the community. The Eagle Lake approach to legitimizing the com- bination fourth, fifth, and sixth alternative was to call ‘ m Rose Wood, "School Tries Open Classroom Learning,‘ EE§_South Bend Tribute, January 20, 1974, p. 4. 216 a meeting of all the parents, who had children in these grade levels. Each was personally contacted, asked in, and given the explanation of the prOposed environment. The room, its purposes, activities, use Of time and space, constraints, intended freedoms and evaluation procedures were explained. Parents were given the option to sign up their children for this alternative environment. It was explained that if the child was not suited for the room, indicative of acted out overt behavior, the parent could request a transfer back to a traditional classroom. The number of students signed up was 82: 27 fourth graders, 16 fifth and 39 sixth graders.11 The environmental descriptor created by the three teachers and shared with the community for the 1973-74 school year is illustrated in Figure 15.12 The classroom's purpose would be to help students gain responsibility, respect, pride, trust, and achievement, while learning basic skills. It also was explained that there would be restraints on the room. Bothering behavior, or that behavior "which is hurting rather than helping," would not be tolerated. There also would be teacher intervention when students diSplayed a lack of self- motivation. ¥ 11Barbara Dempsey, "Workshop Produces Curriculum Change," Part 6, The Elkhart Truth, Tuesday, March 19, 1974, P. 5. . 12Diana Lung, Lynn Gabel, and Gerald Wright, §2X££9nmental Descriptor, Edwardsburg Public School System, Edwardsburg, Michigan, September 1973. 217 Purposes To help students gain: 1. Responsibility--for taking an active part in their learning process. 2. Respect--for themselves and for the rights and properties of others. 3. Pride--in achievements and in themselves as worthwhile and capable people 4. Trust--building confidence in self and others 5. Achievement--progress at their own rate and to their ability Organization of Classroom 1. Daily schedule with specific assignments in basic skills with a variety of options chosen by the student according to his interest. Example of an Individual Daily Schedule: Math—~page 34, 35 (concept conference may be needed) Reading--option of working in reading kit or basal reader (45-60 min. daily-~with weekly reading conference) Spelling--one assignment daily Language--assignment may include (a) language skills in w.b., (b) creative writing, (c) oral communication Science--choice of working on one of three areas, possibly leading to independent study Social Studies-~choice of working on one of three areas with independent projects P.E., Music, Art--work in these three areas will be included in the weekly schedule 2. Options include a variety of learning centers which will be developed and changed by students as well as teachers. These centers will be interesting and meaningful to students. Possible centers: a. Math b. Reading c. Art d. Science e. Language and writing f. Activities Center Constraints That Will Be Operative in the Room 1. Bothering behavior-—there will be intervention when the behavior is hurting, rather than helping. 2. Disinterested-—there will be intervention when there'is a lack of self-motivation. Figure 15. Continuous Progress Environmental Descriptor. 218 Parents were considered to be of prime importance in determining whether their child was suited for the room. Teachers explained that if a child could not handle self— Jnotivation and reSponsibility, the parent could ask anytime along the way that the child be removed to a traditional classroom. When the students arrive in the morning, they get their assignments for the day. Each student has a slot for his or her work. It's a transparent folder with his or her name on it. All slots contain worksheets and all students must turn in all of their work by the end of the day. As students develop responsibility, they are put on weekly folders, instead of daily ones. Then, their work is checked at the end of the week. If students haven't turned in their work at the end of the day, it is Obvious. The slots are empty. And, except for the specific time allotments, the students are on their own. If a teacher finds a student hasn't completed all assignments, then that student knows, the following morning, that he will have to skip recess to get it done. If he still doesn't get it done; if the problem continues, his or her gym class is taken away. The teachers try to avoid taking away gym classes because they feel the subject is important. 219 Should it become Obvious that the situation is not correcting itself, the parent is called for a conference. If that fails to help, then the parent is informed that their child is not achieving, is not self—motivated, cannot handle responsibility, and would do better in a traditional classroom with more structure. Parents do not have to remove their child, even on the advice of the teacher, but they are informed that the teacher will "just do the best we can with the child." The teachers have set up the evaluation process in such a way as to continually keep track of what is happening with every child all the time. An evaluation sheet, explaining the work accom- plished by a child, is sent to each parent every Friday. Subjects are itemized and parents informed if the child did or did not finish his or her work; performed it satisfactorily, and whether extra work was undertaken. A special space for notation indicates to the parent whether the child is moving toward independent study.13 The high school approach to implementing its alter- native, the "Student Option Block," was offered right along with the regular curriculum for students to choose from for the second semester of the school year, 1973-74. Two teach- ers established the environment on the premise that learning is an individual process and presented it to juniors and 13Barbara Dempsey, "Alternative Classroom New Experience," Part 8, The Elkhart Truth, Thursday, March 21, 1974! p. 5. 220 seniors as an option. Forty-three students chose this environment. The teachers contacted the parents to inform them via the environmental descriptor of the purposes and direction of the Option Block. A meeting was held for both students and parents who were interested and questions and answers were then exchanged. At the conclusion of the meeting, parents and students were asked to verbally commit themselves to the alternative. The descriptor that was shared is illustrated in Figure 16. Purposes A. To create an environment that will foster: self-worth creativity self-discipline responsible behavior critical thinking (questioning attitude) acceptance, appreciation of differences self-discovery "helping" relationships B. To create a cooperative rather than a competitive environment C. To individualize content, learning for individual growth academic credit experience credit individual goals set by student--teacher assistance Figure 16. Option Block Environmental Descriptor. 221. The Option Block hopes to build trust and help students learn by Offering choices not contained in the traditional classroom environment.1“ I. Proper Goals? a. self-motivation b. self-direction c. self-evaluation II. Life-Learning Styles a. Teacher-directed The teacher makes nearly all the decisions concerning why, what, how, and when of learning. Student evaluation is carried out by the teacher b. Shared decisions Students and teachers share the responsibility for the why, what, how, and when of learning. Student evaluation is a shared process between teacher and student c. Student-directed The student makes most of the decisions concerning the why, what, how, and when Of learning. Student evaluation is carried on by the students which is shared with his parents and friends III. Importance of Planning a. Options available b. Weekly plans c. Seminars d. Sponsor contacts (for Experience credit) IV. Constraints a. All school rules are in effect b. Destruction of school property will not be tolerated c. No infringement on the rights of others d. Attendance required e. No tardiness Figure 17. The Nature of Learning Within an Option. MAL 1"Vivian Ross, Judy Singley, and Susan Nelson, Environmental Descriptor, Edwardsburg Public Schools System, Edwardsburg, Michigan, January 28, 1974. 222 The support of the parents, the excitement of the students and the enthusiasm of teachers initiated a master schedule change for the second semester. The Option Block was now legitimate and could profess itself as an alterna- tive to the regular program. It combines learning and living into one form. The students spread out in every direction with a teacher—guided goal to accomplish and experi- ence to be gained. Some gain experience-credit by heading for a machine shOp or other business establishments in the area, an elementary class- room, Miles laboratories or one of several dozen other locations where, with the help of Sponsors they are directly involved in learning through experience.15 ‘fi “__m \ ‘.-.- 'lv-‘s .', .4 _“.. .. . This option, which could be termed a small "school- within-a-school" is not intended to replace the regular classroom in the high school curriculum, but offered as a choice for students "who are internally motivated, have some pretty clear-cut ideas about goals they wish to reach, and have communicated with their parents about their direction for learning."16 Students may earn credit in a variety of combina- tions. Within each student's file are individualized learn- ing needs and interest contracts indicating just what kind of credit is being sought. Experience or academic credit 15Barbara Dempsey, "High School 'Option Block' Offers Students Alternatives," Part 9, The Elkhart Truth, Friday, March 22, 1974, p. 7. 16Rose Wood, "Students Test Work Options," The South Bend Tribune, Sunday, March 10, 1974, pp. 33-34. 223 may be chosen by "contracting with any teacher in the building, exploring a subject in another classroom, researching material independently, attending seminars offered daily, working with the facilitators within the environment or working within the community with a resource person.“17 The program is divided into nine-week units, and the students who design their own areas of learning have their files evaluated every two weeks. The facilitators are available when the students need them and every day or two check with the students to see what they are doing. The students also keep a general daily log of their activities to be shared with the facilitator at the end of every two- week evaluation period. Present constraints within the environment are established as a precaution to insure the program's success. The teacher-facilitators "felt they should be careful in the beginning to build in the controls; inform parents of the program's progress and document it every step Of the way so that if we were ever called upon to evaluate it, we would know exactly where we were.“3 —_ 17Beverely Clark, "Edwardsburg High School Offers 'Option Block,'" The Edwardsburg Argus, February 21, 1974, P. 1. 18Barbara Dempsey, "Community Struggles with Changing System," Part 1, The Elkhart Truth, Wednesday, March 13, 1974, p. 7 ‘WT waist-121A. Cr 3' E 1 .1 u' q 224 Edwardsburg's practitioner is Fitzgerald; he saw a need, had a dream, and acted in such a way as to facilitate his philosophy of humanism and alternative learning environ- ments within the span of four years. The "rule" of options for parents and students now has become a part of the school system's policy adopted in January 1974, by the Edwardsburg Board of Education. It reads that such programs must: 1. Have ultimate learning goals similar to those for other students in the schools; 2. The program, though aimed at certain types of individuals, shall only include students who choose the program; 3. Parents are to be considered as significant persons in selection of students and reporting results; 4. The program shall not have as one of its goals to change or eliminate any ongoing regular successful program; and 5. Students shall not be denied the option to return to the normal program.19 Other Alternatives Within Michigan The total array of programs which are briefly described represent a wide variety of types and styles of optional programs. Each community, school district, and teacher has moved in its own fashion. The programs herein described meet most or all of the following criteria: 0 they are voluntary, programs of choice, for most, if not all, of the students and teachers 1’Edwardsburg Public School System, Edwardsburg Board of Education Rules and Regulations, January 1974. w:— -,——_—mt‘. flvjh‘.i_. \Q ~. ”.1. 225 . they involve teachers, students, and parents to some degree in planning, operating, and evaluating the program . they are locally developed and share comprehensive educational Objectives with other schools in the district . they Operate near per pupil costs customary for the district . they seek diverse enrollments, students representative of the range in the district . they are small in size, usually informal in style . they stress basic communication and mathematical skills and nourish talents and interests . they are options in core subject areas, not just enrichment or elective courses . they have built—in accountability-~if students do not choose them, they do not survive . they meet requirements normal in the district .Or area , . often test out new management or administrative arrangements, different marking systems, cross- graded groups, multidisciplinary approaches.2° Educational Park--Grand Rapids Area center for 2,000 high school students take advanced or specialized classes in this program each year. The courses cover the entire range--creative writing, humanities, cultural anthropology, survey of world religions, computer math, advanced chemistry, physics, advanced lan- guages, law, business English, vocational welding, shoe repair, child care aide, print making, senior life saving, 2°Michigan Association of Supervision and Curriculum Deve10pment Task Force on Optional Environments, "Planning for Alternatives in Education," MASCD Newsletter, Number 7, March 1973. 226 weights training, to name a few. Many students come for one or two courses; others may take all of their courses for a semester here. Howell High School--Howell The Howell Student Option Block was the model that Edwardsburg used in creating its Option. With the exception of having 120 students, offering English, social studies and mathematics and running all day long, the two programs are very similar. —. . W--..~ .-._ a... I. . -. Kinawa Middle School--Okemos The Okemos Kinawa Middle School, grades 6-8, a beautifully designed modern facility, offers Students several options in the core programs for four periods each day--the conventional program, a seventh grade interdisci- plinary block, and eighth grade interdisciplinary block, a sixth, seventh, and eighth grade interdisciplinary block, and SWAS (a school-within-a-school) which offers its 80 students an informal, design—your-own education-environment. The SWAS believes that individual maturity and fulfillment develOps when Students have opportunities to make decisions in meaningful areas of their own learning—lives. 227 Open Discovery Program, Defer Elementaryr-Grosse Pointe A school-within-a-school providing an open educational option on the British model for students and their parents, grades l-6. At each grade level, parents and students have a choice of a conventional program or the open program. The first floor of this elderly school con- tains the Open discovery program; the second floor has 1 conventional classes and a few classrooms in transition, '.'ui-‘ll.'n“-'u. '4‘ and the first floor and its corridor contain the open W 3': urn ‘ ‘ program, grades l-6. At the first grade level, students who choose the Open program are also choosing the ITA approach to reading. ITA is also available in the con- ventional program. Some evaluation data are available now at the end of the first year of the program, from the central office. "Open" students did as well as "others" in reading and math. In three dimensions which the "Open" pro- gram strives to develop-~self-directedness, "tuned-in-ness" to learning and working on one's projects, and expressive spontaneity--"open" students at Defer demonstrated significantly positive differences. Pioneer Two--Ann Arbor A "satellite" of Ann Arbor's Pioneer High School, Pioneer Two has 85 ninth-twelfth graders in its second year of operation. Pioneer Two was developed after a group of 228 students submitted a proposal to the Ann Arbor school board requesting an alternative school with an Open, informal, educational style. In addition to the 40 or so different classes that are going on in Pioneer Two, students also take classes at Pioneer, Huron, and Community High Schools. Observers are welcome, but are asked to come prepared to contribute something--equipment, things to eat, run a session--but to participate in some way. Project SEE (Strategies for Environ— mental Education)-—Wyandotte w—n pmmrn-u‘ji'fllm . ~ 5; - I ’. In its second year as a Title III program, SEE emphasizes a process model of learning teaching in the content area of environmental education for the 30 students who are selected to work with it, half of each day, for the year. Students come from the sixth grade, junior high, and senior high levels in approximately equal numbers, are both boys and girls, and are from all schools in Wyandotte. After a six-week summer program (three 2—week programs) focusing on natural and urban environmental and ecological problems in Michigan, students function during the year in cross-aged Quest teams that prepare "GREEPS"--a groovy environmental education package--in response to requests from classroom teachers. 229 Region Seven, Middle School--Detroit One of the court-ordered middle schools was established in each region in Detroit in the fall Of 1971. This middle school was designed to Offer a program to attract an integrated student body of about 460 students, grades 5-8. This middle school focuses on the personal growth of students, building choices, and independent study opportunities in the program. The 17 teachers are organized into four "sets" of four to five teachers. Each set works with about 130 students at any one time--in "sessions" of eight weeks. By the end of the year, all teachers have worked with all students. Region Five, Middle School--Detroit A court-ordered, integration model of 500 students, grades 5-8, opt out of other elementary and junior high schools in Region Five to attend the middle school. This middle school is moving in the direction of personalized, learner-paced programs in content areas, has daily activity period around the lunch break--27 different activities offered--students choose two activities per week each five-week cycle. A unified arts program operates on six- week cycles to offer coeducational class experiences in Shop, clothing, typing, cooking and jewelry or leather crafts.21 21MASCD Task Force on Optional Environments, MASCD Newsletter, Number 7, op. cit. 230 The remaining Options were generated by individual teachers, using the environmental descriptor guidelines in creating an individual alternative learning environment that reflects their personality and delivery system. Cornell Elementaryr-Okemos A student-centered approach is used. Children are from age seven through nine years. There are 45-50 students and two teachers--Joan Stranahan and Coleen Crane. We believe that children begin their lives with a natural curiosity to learn and to explore their environment. You, as parents, have facil- itated this curiosity in such important events as walking and talking. You provided the encouragement and reinforcement that your child needed to expand the understanding of his or her environment. We don't believe this approach that you have begun should stop in the school experience. The teacher can be a facilitator who provides this opportunity by directing and supplying cognitive Skills that help children to further develop the areas of their curiosity. In the environment we are creating, the children will have the Opportunity to spend as much or as little time as necessary in the attain- ment of Skills and concepts. This individualized approach allows children to challenge themselves rather than comparing their accomplishments to others. Objectives: o to create an atmosphere that will foster creative and independent thinking . to develop the child's awareness of personal worth . to help develop in each child social Skills in dealing with peers and adults ' . to provide experiences that will offer opportunity for the mastery of the basic skills (reading, writing, math, etc.) .. 231 . to recognize the need for each child to succeed in experiments compatible with his capacity to learn . to recognize and accept that each child is a unique personality with varying needs, interests, and abilities. The team will be occupying the present activity room and the room now being used by John Brazier's fifth grade class. The two rooms will be connected by an archway. The learning r environment, however, will not be limited to this ‘ area. AS occasions arise, the students may also use the out-of-doors, hall areas, other classrooms and parts of the community. . Our wealth of materials will be increased by fi sharing with other classrooms. We will also draw upon other teachers' expertise in their Special areas. The rooms will be organized into learning centers. These centers will house the various materials necessary to meet each child's needs and stimulate his or her curiosity. Some of the centers provided will be: language arts, writing, social studies, mathematics, science and art. If you are interested in this type of class- room for your child, please feel free to ask any claryifying questions.22 1W3 13 T35 Hemmeter School Alternative-~Saginaw The Hemmeter School Alternative includes grades 1-2 and 3-4, and has two teachers. A brief overview of this Alternative follows: Purposes: A. That each individual will become aware of his/her personal needs B. That each individual will become aware of the needs of others C. Based on awareness of personal needs, each individual will be encouraged to make decisions regarding: 22Joan Stranahan and Coleen Crane, Okemos Public School System, Cornell Elementary, Okemos, Michigan, March 1973. D. 232 l. The options available within each basic Skills area 2. The options available in his/her own behavior ‘ 3. The setting of priorities in selecting enrichment activities ' That each person will recognize the need for basic skills Activities: Centers Interaction Movement Flexibility Resource Room Student Evaluation and Reporting to Parents: A. Conferences based on need or request rather than schedule B. Diagnostic evaluation of basic skills will be Shared in writing C. Children will be encouraged to participate in the evaluation process Time Use: A. The enrichment classes, i.e., reading, music, gym, etc., will be available to students in the program B. Initially there will be more teacher direction in use of time with the intent that when ready each person will become more responsible for his/her time use Belief Statement: I Believe: . Emotions and intellect are part of a whole and cannot be separated. Therefore, understanding our feelings is a necessary part of learning. I feel helping children understand themselves is a primary value. Intellect will take care of itself when children are able to be themselves. Every child has innate fascination and curiosity about his world. Every child is a different individualé-special in his/her uniqueness as a human being. 233 . At the pace of our world, much information is outdated before it can be used. Thinking processes rather than content are of primary importance: 0 in a nurturing, supportive, accepting atmosphere. . a child has the right to discover her/his world and develop her/his own values. I don't want to organize her/his world for her/him. . letting children freely express themselves through art, music, dance, writing or what- fl ever without the rigidity of directed composition. . children are aware of beauty, patterns, sounds, and sensations adults have taken for.granted. . Learning is discovering. . Home, school, and world can be integrated. i . And, I believe in love.23 Formal Environmental Descriptors Glencairn School--East Lansing The seven environmental descriptors were generated over a period, November 1973 to June 1974, by the teachers of Glencairn, East Lansing, Michigan, and a consultant from Michigan State University._ The process, in complete coop- eration of the principal and staff, was to hold several staff in-service meetings using as a referent the DEALE theoretical model. Through information exchange, the teachers became aware of the meaning of alternatives and requested that the consultant spend two hours in each classroom observing and mapping out the various activities, 23Jan Ebelt, Saginaw Township Public School System, Hemmeter Elementary, Saginaw Township, Michigan, April 29, 1974. 234 procedures, and behaviors of the students and teacher. At the conclusion of each observation session, the consultant and teacher would review the data and begin to initiate an environmental descriptor. The teachers had great difficulty in finding the time to spend on this project, so the consultant drew up J the descriptors and shared them with each teacher for direct E— feedback and change, if it were warranted. One teacher in her difficulty sought out her students' assistance in creating her environmental W“. descriptor (see Appendix B). At this time, the environmental descriptors do not meet the criteria for alternatives as listed. Students are still assigned or referred to them. The staff anticipation for the 1974-75 school year is to legitimize their environ- mental descriptors and move toward opening up enrollments to the entire range of students within the building. In conclusion, the following descriptors are offered as models and are indicative of another strategy in assist-' ing teachers in becoming aware and ready to implement alternative educational environments. 235 Teacher A Time: 2:30-3:40 Instruction: Language Arts Level: 5 Date: March 7, 1974 Environmental Descriptor Pur ses: o to establish social acceptance of self and others 0 to share responsibility of time and Space 0 to establish respect for individual learning styles and capacities for growth 0 to establish a respect for learning and skill development Activities/Behaviors: Teacher-- 0 continuous 15 minute individual conferences 0 readily available to assist child in need 0 direction achievement orientation 0 verbally rewarding achievement and accepted behavior . initiated a feedback session to children at end of period 0 communication pattern, primarily information Children-- o requesting additional conferences 0 no overt behavior, well disciplined . had high expectations for selves 0 minimum of socialization taking place utilized quiet box for individual study continuous use of resources within room production orientation on individual contracts felt good about self and others did not want to go home at 3:40 Time Use: 0 children utilized the time and space in pursuit Of completing the lesson objectives at their own rate of learning Constraints: 0 Sign out sheet respect for others instructional contracts teacher soft reprimand and presence in room responsibility of cleaning room before leaving Evaluation 0 assigned materials completed and handed into teacher 0 students working quietly in room r- wsmAn-rm Lilla.» l 236 Teacher B Time: 9:15-9:45 Instruction: Social Studies Level: 5 Date: March 9, 1974 Environmental Descriptor Purpose: to establish a democratic atmosphere of sharing and independent thought to establish respect for individual learning styles to facilitate an awareness and readiness for decision making through research and resources to initiate an exposure to various enrichment activities Activities/Behaviors: Teacher-- very comfortable and competent minimized herself as an external force by awaiting for children to seek out assistance softly initiated instruction and reinstruction walked about room to establish close proximity to each child; stopped at clusters to clarify direction; allowed individual students to continue working unless student sought assistance Children-- comfortable and happy and smiling 0 into various activities: printing, geography. and reading 0 self-motivated o sharing information and feelings 0 use of resources in room 0 assuming responsibility for conduct and skill development Time/Space: o utilized for individual decision making in arriVing at the level of accomplished self motivation and responsibility Constraints: 0 students understanding Of purposes for self and room and reflecting Sign out sheet getting lesson Objectives completed them in their behavior Evaluation readiness for middle school, intellectual and social behavior behavior that reflects a movement away from the need for external control and a move toward internal control that each child grows to his potential according to his unique learning style -_n—a- ‘v‘ a t.‘ ii. 237 Teacher C Time: 10:45-11:30 Instruction: Language Level: 2-3 combination Date: March 5, 1974 Environmental Descriptor Purposes: o to establish self autonomy until it hinders others“ social, intellectual, and physical growth I 0 to establish a solid foundation of skill development ' o to establish a comfortable and relevant learning atmosphere 0 to pursue an inquiry process learning orientation Activities/Behaviors: Teacher-- close proximity to each and every student cpen to any and all questions an honest human interaction with all gave direction (information and discipline) when needed shared responsibility of direction Children-— 0 working by self and in clusters up to four 0 completing assignments and placing in basket and then going to academic simulations 0 moving about freely, but with purpose 0 moving to learning center for specialized group reading instruction 0 sharing with one another Time/Space: I A a decided by child dependent upon his ability to be self-directed and based upon the referent of skill develOpment Constraints: a teacher's verbal and nonverbal behavior, both positive and negative constructive display . teacher questions social and academic behavior with positive reinforcement Evaluation: o constant movement throughout room to establish close proximity to each child o completion and placement of work in basket on teacher's desk 0 children behavior reflecting feeling of understanding self in all domains 238 Teacher D Time: 9:15-10:45 Instruction: Spelling and Science Level: 4 Date: March 11, 1974 Environmental Descriptor Purposes: to establish an atmosphere of collaboration in pursuance of cognitive and affective goals to establish respect of self and nature to use time and space wisely through individual decision making Activities/Behaviors Teacher-- always a smile when helping children actively moves throughout room motivating and clarifying display of relevant materials throughout responds without cueing answer always open for child to explore the answer through decision making process constantly responding to unique needs of children Children-- o seated by self or in clusters of three 0 working and sharing sincerely 0 free to leave desk to seek answer 0 very comfortable and happy, smiling - displayed Optimum movement tutorial assistance Time/Space utilized by children to explore and investigate new knowledge through the use of the teacher, others, or self Constraints: teacher movement throughout room established expectations of accepted patterns of behavior children assuming responsibility for one another teacher respect for children, children respect for teacher Evaluation: academic--evidence of work completion and growth affective--display of behaviors that represent self confidence, working and sharing information collaboratively, exploring decision making and a respect for individual physical, intellectual and emotional growth 239 Teacher E Time: 3:00-3:35 Instruction: Language Arts Level: Date: 3 March 5, 1974 Environmental Descriptor Purposes: o to personalize the teaching process for individualized learning 0 to establish a firm foundation for individual decision making 0 to utilize time and space in regards to respect and responsibility to self and others Activities/Behaviors: Teacher-- sensitive to the cognitive and affective level of each child and responded to it displayed the interpersonal communication skills of listening with empathy and interacting without taking ownership and message away from the‘child . close proximity to each child-jexcellent relationship 0 actively moving and available throughout room in motivating children minimum of external force Children-- 3 working quietly and industriously by selves or dyads physically, intellectually, and emotionally comfortable smiling, internally motivated and self initiating aware of expectations and direct behavior accordingly Time/Space: used by children to pursue skill development through individual assignments and direction Constraints: lessons written on board and verbalized 0 evaluation of contracts at the end of each day 0 optional academic simulation games available upon completion of assignment a use of technique of turning lights off for silence teacher's constant movement throughout room 0 time out box Evaluation: has each child met his potential for development wise use of time of each child children displaying behavior of respect to self and others n A .~‘vqi ‘FM '2IK‘1A'JPAII'...’ Any)? ' :- _-_'. .fi 240 Teacher F Time: 1:05-2:00 Instruction: Mathematics Level: 4 Date: March 5, 1974 Environmental Descriptor Purposes: to provide an experimental continuum such that the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and understandings acquired may become the instruments for rational comprehension and direction for future experiences to establish an atmosphere in which all individuals are involved and have the opportunity to contribute and of which they are a cooperative part to select content that satisfies and develops the needs and capacities of each child to establish the acceptance of ethical responsibilities for human life and conduct, emphasizing human interdependence Activities/Behaviors: Teacher-- individualized instruction and reinstruction process oriented soft comfortable approach to children 0 remained at desk for students to approach 0 positive and negative constructive feedback dominant force in the classroom utilized resources in the classroom not concerned with children socializing Children-- comfortable, relaxed and responsible social interacting self concept reinforced through interaction with teacher seeking assistance from others and children verbalize trust also reflected in behavior free to leave room and take responsibility for own behavior academic competition with selves and others Time Use: utilized to complete and achieve as many concepts (mathematical cards) as possible Constraints: role taking teacher voice influx children constraining other children in relation to expectations for room Egaluation: proficiency of skill development and continued progress the use of time and space through individual decisions to complete work trust in each child that she/he accomplishes each skill on their own administered skill test after each unit F." 5LT 241. Teacher G Time: 9:00-11:00 Instruction: Language Arts and Social Studies Level: 2 Date: April 23, 1974 Environmental Descriptor Purposes: o to expose and assist each child to the efficient use of time and sapce based upon his/her unique individual capabilities - to establish a personalized approach to academic skill development c to promote a feeling of individual worthiness Activities/Behaviors Teacher-- 0 began time block with complete review of objectives and options 0 included many children in verbal interaction 0 moved about room clarifying reading assignment and delegating responsibilities to children for desk work initiated 20 minute group reading sessions very patient, kind and accepting of all children assisted any child who requested it had complete verbal and nonverbal awareness of total classroom gave assignments that covered the continuum from cognitive to affective Children-- at tables, four to a cluster comfortable, attentive, responsive industrious and self-directed cooperative atmosphere of sharing academic and social concerns smiling and enjoying reading group and seat work working on math flash cards, work sheets: geography, reading, and feelings; work books: geography, hand-writing and coloring Time/Space: o decided by child dependent upon his/her social, academic psychological maturity level Constraints: 0 assignments on board 0 teacher's verbal directions and presence 0 children raised hands for assistance 0 stop sign for leaving room Evaluation: workbook reading groups weekly work sheets in-basket for completed work m CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Summary of the Study EC This study was an attempt to create a curricular I organizational theory based on replicable researched i philoSOphies, psychologies and communicative network ‘rfifi: .. - - theories and constructs to provide theoretical data for educators for implementing legitimate diverse educational alternative learning environments for learners, teachers, and parents in the pursuance of learning experiences within the existing public school structure. It attempted to provide practitioners with a model that identifies the conditions essential for effective learning, that ranges the educational continuum from the conventional to the experimental, and a process that focuses on creating optional or alternative programs based on a systems approach in preparing the practitioner to assist a school system with the innovation, dissemination, integra- tion, and evaluation of alternative educational environments. Specifically, the study was concerned with (l) the need of a curricular-organizational theory that would enable 242 243 education to be socially relevant and personally significant for each learner in his/her pursuance of reaching full potential, (2) the establishing of a supportive set of dependent and interdependent variables for each of the major independent philosophical, psychological, and organizational communicative modes within the trilogy, (3) the synthesiza— tion and conceptualization of the basic constructs into a set of relevant matrices that could assist the practitioner with the necessary tools to evaluate the current educational environment and implement optional or alternative programs that would be consistent, continguous, and congruent with a teacher's teaching-life style, and (4) the investigation and compilation of existing option or alternative environmental descriptions and processes of development as models to help practitioners assist teachers in generating their own personal environmental descriptor. The literature and personal cooperative and collabo- rative participatory involvement with options or alternative programs revealed that there are schools throughout the nation: Berkeley, St. Paul, Okemos, Philadelphia, and Edwardsburg, which have successfully generated diverse educational alternative learning environments that are in fact reflecting the pluralistic communities they serve, resulting in school systems that are concretely responsive to community needs. Studies on the implementation of i! _-— m“ kcflnm .~ - \ ' ‘ ' 244 options or alternative programs can, in some school systems, advance significantly the highest ideals of contemporary education and a democratic society. The results can and have led to a new effectiveness in learning and an increase of professional and public satisfaction with public education. The DEALE theoretical model allows for a legitimate evolutionary change technique for the improvement of atti- tudes, processes, achievement and programs within a school system, building, or classroom. The evidence indicates — manna-u Ornfim VF}... - . '. -. _ ”1 that, given the tools, administrators, teachers, parents, and/or students are capable in identifying the conditions essential for a learning environment to be more enriching and effective. The identified problem of schools not being able to provide for the 28 percent who are dissatisfied With the Operation of the schools can be resolved by the implementa- tion of the theory which directs itself specifically at the pluralistic demands of the diverse individuals or groups within its community. Through the utilization of the DEALE model, a school system could create a total school environ- ment based on diverse alternative learning environments that would reflect the local autonomous pluralistic needs of its community. 245 For the practitioner who recognizes and identifies the problem, the DEALE model will provide purpose as well as power, through alliance with, rather than hostility toward learners, parents, and associates. It will voluntarily attract community and parental participatory involvement. For continuous defining and redefining, debating, system- izing and continually updating of the curriculum in order that the nature of the cognitive and effective skills of today‘s pluralistic student will be met. It will initiate a learning system that is founded upon relevance and be reflective of the learner's learning-life style and the teacher's teaching-life style. Conclusions Several conclusions are supported on the basis of the research gathered for this study. 1. Today's curriculum has an alternative to the preconceived correct direction for all learners. The alternative is a process based on choice. A choice of the consumer to actively participate in the direction of its learning institutions. To generate a learning envi- ronment that reflects specific needs within its pluralistic community. With community involvement and support, the curriculum could model for each student, the diversity of the society he/she lives in and allow for a curriculum to be as flexible as the society it serves. :5 15“ GLII_- It'1_. . a . I'l 246 2. The implementation of the DEALE theory may redirect the school's function from one of maintenance and production to one that establishes a priority for equally balanced functions of maintenance, production and innovation. With a system established on the premise of direct involvement of parents, teachers and students working together in planning, operating and evaluating alternative programs of choice, the schools would be legitimately ful- filling all the functions of an organization that today's pluralistic society demands. 3. The author's observations of schools today indicates that minimal, if not feeble attempts are being made by school personnel to change the awkward imbalance of their school's functions. The weighted direction of the maintenance function and the concern for the production function is established within the system by the concern of most for self-survival. This common referent of self- survival and maintenance orientation is readily understood if one reviews the history of education in this country. As indicated in Chapter I, the history of education is and has been established on the past. What the DEALE model is proposing is an approach which is based on the present, not the past, nor the future-- but the present! One in which it would respond to the imme- diate concerns and needs of its learners. This concept of hf!" ‘1 3555: . I c I 247 education by choice would allow school personnel to be directly responsive to its community in establishing alternative learning environments for those who have been thwarted, ignored, mismatched or dissatisfied within the school community. This approach attempts to meet the demands of the few while maintaining and supporting the F direction of many. It results in a system that allows the complete integration and flexibility of the major functions of a healthy organization. 4. At present, today's schools are meeting the 'Fn #11:». \ needs of 60 percent of the public they serve as indicated by the 1971 Gallup Poll.1 Thus, schools are meeting their needs by meeting the needs of the majority of the students who represent the majority of the community and its needs. This accomplishment must be positively recognized. The question that could now be asked is what of the other 40 percent? The response to this question may be found by subscribing to the DEALE theory and offering it to the community as a means of responding to the minority and specifically to the individuality of each human being within that minority. Subscribing to an organizational system founded on voluntary programs of choice will establish a system lFantini, OE. cit., p. 444. 248 that is responsive to individual needs, school needs and community needs, and establish a process whereby each individual member has the freedom.and responsibility to share his/her concerns and be active in the direction of his/her education. 5. The type of school environment that the DEALE theory is proposing, is one where its administrators, teachers, para-professionals, students, parents and general public have the opportunity based on choice to develop a creative individualistic orientation and to grow and develop in a manner that is conducive in the fulfillment of one's potential. The following characteristics are basic to option or alternative programs and establish a means that are not widely utilized throughout American education today. 0 Voluntary programs of choice 0 Involve students, parents and teachers in the decision-making process 0 Locally developed through an evolutionary grass- roots approach . Seek diverse enrollments o Are small in size . Nurture humanism, sensitivity and skill development 0 Meet general requirements of the district. 249 6. The nature of the communication network within the system and/or classroom is determined by the specific need. A learning environment that is capable and prepared to use any one or all networks is a more viable system and stands to benefit from the strengths of each of its members. This concept is supported by Schein in his response to the i. use of the theory of Organization-Development within systems, I to develop the kind of flexibility and adaptability that may well be needed for the organization to cope with any situa- tion it is confronted by. This flexibility establishes a L direction for OD and reflects the respect for differences ~ that the DEALE model ascribes to, that of acceptance of diversity within our pluralistic society and the attempt to establish legitimate processes within the system that mirrors that diversity. 7. Contrary to expectations, optional or alterna- tive programs of choice have not triggered rampant truancy absenteeism, or vandalism. In fact, just the reverse is true, initial reports from Philadelphia, Grand Rapids, Howell” Edwardsburg and Seattle show that attendance rates stayed.the same as in the standard program, and in some cases, even improved. Seattle not only boosted attendance, but also attracted 1,000 dropouts back to school. The indication is that when an environment is created that 'matches the teacher's teaching style and personality with 250 that of student's learning style and personality; it generates entirely different attitudes toward and among the participants in that environment. The teacher has legitimate autonomy within the system to be him/herself, and the students also have their autonomy which establishes personal attitudes of caring, of being responsible, and of commitment to the purposes of the environment. The impact of this type of climate is such that it directly affects students to reSpond in a very positive manner and accel- - N—' .‘I ‘ m. '- .. :14.“ . erates their motivation in pursuance of their potential and increases the opportunity of successful academic achievements. 8. The strengths or advantages of the DEALE curricular-organizational theory have been sighted through- out the study as supportive evidence, specific to Chapter II and Chapter V. In so doing, it attempted to establish time- liness and clarity at the moment of highest intensity for the reader. The strengths and weaknesses of one program as tabulated in the Edwardsburg Public High School as of June 1974 can be seen in Appendix A. Although this is but one of many options or alternatives within the country, it summarizes in conclusive style what other options or alter- native programs have represented as their strengths and weaknesses. 251 Implications Thoreau stated that if a man does not keep pace with his competition, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer. Let him step to the music which he hears, however measured or far away. Thus, if he were alive today, he might observe practitioners being in step with a different drummer than their associates, that they, in fact, march to different music. The finding of this study certainly supports that View. The implications of the study are divided into five specific areas: First, the administrator; second, the teacher; third, the parent; fourth, the student; and fifth, the school system. Throughout the study there has been a purposeful stress placed on the impact and interrelatedness of the theory on all five areas and that the implementation of the theoretical model may directly involve and affect these areas. The purpose of separating them at this point is to dramatize as clearly and concisely as possible the implications for each as to their opportunity in generating optional or alternative programs. For the Administrator For the administrator, generating an alternative: 0 establishes a systems approach for the administrator to utilize in becoming aware of the ease of prepa- ration, initiation, implementation and evaluation of the building's readiness for alternatives. lithe E 35'»? 3'“! kL Ki. 252 0 allows an administrator (gatekeeper) to evolve into a role of educational leader (practitioner) who facilitates change and can respond to the pluralistic needs that now exist in every school district. 0 represents a process within the school that offers students the kind of learning environment that is most beneficial for them. 0 initiates a learning system founded upon relevancy - for teacher and student alike. . preserves aspects of the existing curriculum and allows for innovation at the same time. 0 nurtures acceptance of individual differences. a. . provides opportunity for affective synthesization E} for affective cognitive/affective educational opportunities for all children. 0 meets the academic standards of the school at large. 0 may be implemented in any size building. 0 establishes a credible and accountable process for learning. 0 affords the opportunity to assist the profession in becoming more aware of themselves. For the Teacher For the teacher, generating an alternative: 0 allows a procedure for the improvement of attitudes, processes, achievement and programs. 0 establishes a much more affective process in designing the variables of meaningful educational environmental experiences. 0 affords the opportunity to utilize an autonomous delivery system that is legitimate. 0 creates a cooperative, rather than competitive, atmosphere for teaching. For the 253 nurtures an environment that is compatible for all, and decreases conflict between teacher, student and parent. provides for wider variations of teaching styles and diversity among teachers. Parents For the For the parents, generating an alternative: ‘fl allows a means to actively participate and involve themselves in the direction of their local schools in relation to what they want in an educational program for their child. gives the freedom of choice of what learning environment they want their child in. rm 35273.35"; 5. «a: in? T: l. . . establishes built-in accountability by responding to consumer needs. nurtures parent loyalty and commitment to the total school program. Students For the students, generating an alternative: responds to their need, regardless of their racial, economic or social class antecedents. encourages ingenuity and creativity and unique patterns of learning. allows more freedom and action in pursuance of their potential. affords a cooperative, rather than competitive, atmosphere for learning. reflects the opportunity to match one's abilities, interest and life-style with a learning environment that is pursuing a similar direction. meets their needs and other graduation requirements. 254 0 creates a more open and humane environment for interaction. 0 builds in responsibility and acceptance of consequences. 0 establishes "home bases" that are individually comfortable and enjoyable. For the School System Because the implications for a healthy school system deal with three general areas: (1) production, (2) maintenance, and (3) innovation, this section will “mu-mat; “w .-- A m |"I '5'! have an explanation of the various dimensions in each of these three areas. The first area, production, has three dimensions: goal focus (which deals with organizational goals); com- munication adequacy (the transmission of messages); and optional power equalization (the way in which decisions are made). A discussion of the implications of each dimension follows: Goal focus.--The direction and systematic appli- cation of the curricular-organizational theoretical model ought to establish a reasonably clear approach to change for the staff and ought to be reasonably well accepted by them, This clarity of approach and nonthreatening process should establish both the necessary and sufficient condi- tions for success within the system. The theoretical model jprocess allows the establishment of purposes (goals) by 255 those directly interested within the community, and thus the purposes ought to be achieveable with existing or available resources and be appropraite--consistent, congruent and compatible with the teacher, parent and student within the optional or alternative environment. Communication adequacy.--Since optional or alternative environments may range the continuum from formal to informal, and consist of student populations from 25 to over 100, the movement of communication within them becomes crucial. This dimension of the theory implies that the systematic process of generating an environmental descriptor takes into account the communication patterns of the system and the personnel facilitating the alternative. Through the public proclamation of the total environmental process, the communication pattern within the environment will be in evidence. Therefore, the implication of the communication dimension implies that there will be relatively distortion- free communication, both vertical and horizontal and across the boundary of the alternative to and from the surrounding environment. Thus, problems within the total school envi- ronment or within the alternative environment may be quickly diagnosed and resolved, due to the environmental data that are publicly available. 256 Optional power equalization.-—In a school organization supportive of alternatives, the distribution of influence should be relatively equitable. Administrators, teachers, para-professionals, parents and students have the responsibilities of establishing and maintaining success for the alternative. The theory implies that the basic stance of those involved in the alternative is that of cooperation and collaboration rather than explicit or implicit coercion. That they would share in an interdependent relationship to each other. The exertion of influence would depend on the influencer (teacher, parent, or student) and the issue at hand, their stake in the outcome, and the amount of knowl- edge or data on hand, rather than on the organization, personal charisma, or other factors with little direct relevance to the problem at hand. The second area, maintenance, also has three dimen- sions: resource utilization, cohesiveness, and morale which deal essentially with the internal state of the optional or alternative environment and its maintenance needs. A dis- cussion of the implications of each dimension follows: Resource utilization.--The concept of choice within the theoretical framework implies that the teacher, with community support, may generate an alternative by choice. This opportunity frees the teacher from a possible situation that is not particularly supportive of the complete energy 257 output of the teacher. The theoretical model establishes a tool for the teacher to legitimize his personality and teaching style and utilize his energies more effectively. Thus, the teacher will work harder to make the environment I a success and feel that he/she is not working against him/herself or against the organization. The fit between teachers' own personalities and teaching styles and the role demands of the system is rewarding for both. It will facilitate a feeling of self-actualization in the position and establish a genuine sense of learning, growing, and developing as human beings in the process of making their contribution to themselves and their community. Cohesiveness.--The implication of the theoretical model implies allowing one to be himself, while allowing others to maintain their own identity. One who has a clear sense of identity, knows who he is underneath all the spe- cific goals set for him and by himself, and likes himself even when there are aspects of his behavior which are unlovely or ineffective, can establish an autonomous model which may afford the opportunity of inner-togetherness and an individual cohesiveness that is not apparent in today's schools. Also, if one is to be himself, he is more willing to allow others to be themselves, implying that a staff who accepts the theory will respect and nurture diversity, and that other members of the teaching profession will feel 258 attracted to this style of environment, want to stay with it, be influenced by it, and exert their own influence in the c00perative and collaborative style suggested above. Morale.—-Personal and staff satisfaction is a goal of all school systems. The theoretical model implies that it has the ingredients to establish the worthiness of each individual within the school community. It gives the demo- cratic right and freedom for each to hold and/or declare their set of individual sentiments, centering around feel- ings of well-being, satisfaction, and pleasure, as opposed V3 astut'tvrzr. .-..‘~ . u-l- . . to feelings of discomfort, unwished-for strain and dis- satisfaction that many school communities hold today. Finally, in the third area, innovation, there are four dimensions of the curricular-organizational theoretical model. These are innovativeness, autonomy, environmental adaptation, and problem-solving adequacy. A discussion of the implications of each of these dimensions follows: Innovativeness.--The implication of the theoretical model tends to invent new procedures, move toward new pur- poses (goals), produces new kinds of trends, diversifies itself, and becomes more rather than less differentiated over time. The model allows individuals--the system--to grow, develOp, and change. This system encourages a process of continuous self-renewal for all within the system. 259 Autonomy.--The adaptation of the theory allows and encourages one to be himself, to respond directly to his personality and teaching style, and to feel and respond to demands from the community. It establishes a means by which one can honestly profess consistent public and private behaviors. Inferring that the dichotomy of behavior that Wm is now present in many schools, saying one thing and doing ? another, thus modeling a role of hypocrisy, may be abolished. This results in a more sensitive and human learning environ- ment that teachers, parents and students desire to be in. Pfi‘mflkfiflfil‘. ,', ' -\. Environmental adaptation.--The notions of innova- tiveness and autonomy are both connected with the idea that the learning environment is in realistic contact with its surroundings. When community needs and schoql resources do not match, the curricular-organizational theoretical model offers a systematic educational process of resolving the problem and a restructuring approach through an evolution of direction by those most concerned. The school can meet the problem by exposing the theoretical concept and directly involve those interested parties in the creation, generation and implementation of an alternative environment that would legitimatize the match between teachers' personalities and teaching styles with that of students who maintain a similar personality and learning style. 260 Problem-solving adequacy.-—Finally, in any learning environment, problems, strains, difficulties and instances of ineffective direction, are inherent. The theoretical model offered in this study has attempted to establish well-developed structures and procedures for dealing with community needs, for generating possible solutions, for deciding on the solutions, for implementing them, and for evaluating their effectiveness. Therefore, any school system advocating the concept of learning environments of choice can conceive of its direction (production- i} maintenance-innovation) as being controllable. This model allows an active responsiveness by schools to community needs and exposes a means to resolve the problem through participatory involvement of concerned members of its community. Here then are multiple dimensional implications of the curricular-organizational theoretical model that have been stated abstractly° The theory will prove its worthiness by the research it engenders and its application within school systems. APPENDIX A 1974 EVALUATIONS OF OPTIONAL OR ALTERNATIVE PROGRAMS APPENDIX A 1974 EVALUATIONS OF OPTIONAL OR ALTERNATIVE PROGRAMS Edwardsburg Public High School The following was obtained from Ms. Ross and Ms. Nelson in a discussion at the termination of the school year, June 1974. Strengths It enables the student to experience individualized learning. It encourages him to meaningfully identify his own learning program which may better fit personal needs/ interest. It provides an environment in which the person progresses at his own speed and in his own learning style. The student tends to get really excited about shaping and pursuing his own educational format. It offers a viable option to the group learning style of the traditional classroom setting. Parents as public school taxpayers have a choice concerning environ- ment, teaching style under which their child is educated. Matching a student's learning style with a program which offers the opportunities he best can grow from is a positive advantage offered by the program. 261 262 The students have the opportunity to develop the ability to function without the external motivation being primarily competitive and under duress. This is not a stimulus-response environment with the stimulus consistently being outside the self. Acceptance, openness and trust fosters the opportunity for the young person to search and speak of his interest, needs and possibilities for self- actualization. It encourages internal motivation on the part of the individual as the strength component for cog- U nitive and affective growth. Evaluation processes certainly evidence abundant possibilities when internal motivation is allowed to surface and be channeled into action. We believe this program soundly stimulates the student's internal curriculum for learning and personal growth. Parents', resource persons', and visitors' verbal and written evaluations indicate significantly positive attitude changes toward school by themselves and on the part of the students. We feel personal attitude about school directly affects learning, and the diverse educational alternative learning environment directly contributes to a more encouraging outlook on the part of those students participating. The evolution of an idea from a concept to a value into professed behaviors has germinated a process that in part looks very much like a School Without Walls. The 263 optional program offers the student the opportunity to earn experience credit from community resource persons through enrichment or career exploration. The program offers more opportunity to encourage the decision-making processes, inasmuch as the student identifies his own learning goals and designs his own program to meet these demands. Particularly in a democracy such as ours, there are many important decisions affecting the person. Kids need to be able to declare their values, direct their actions in terms of responsible self-rewarding choices. The program enhances the student's development of self-affirmation through learning how to make choices and being responsible for the actions which follow. Weaknesses The inability of the Option Block resource teachers to make personal contacts with resource persons outside of the school community and/or to observe Option Block students learning from these experienced sponsors. This is a result of time limitations and supervisory duties delegated by the administration to the Optional Block resource teachers to maintain order throughout the building. Difficulty of securing transportation to facilitate enrichment-learning trips and to make use of community resources . r‘ll’1‘l Cox 264 The high school staff of 30 professional persons could provide valuable resource sponsorships for many learning activities. Their encouragement to Option Block students and their active participation in the program could expand educational and personal human-relations opportunities. Any significant lack of a cooperative and supportive spirit cannot but diminish the possibilities Q that are inherent in the program. To a great extent, the success of the program depends upon a high degree of one-to-one contact between i} students and teachers as resource persons. Professional/ resource persons involved with this program are presently required to teach three additional different classes (three additional preparations) beyond their continuing involvement with the Student Option Block Program. The following is an evaluation of the Continuous Progress Alternative Classroom at Eagle Lake Elementary School, levels four, five and six, also located in Edwardsburg, Michigan. Ms. Ilean Becraft, principal of Eagle Lake, administered an evaluation instrument to the participating students and parents of the Continuous Progress Alternative prior to the conclusion of the 1973-1974 school year. The results of the evaluation survey are as follows: 265 Student Do you feel you are a better student this year than last year? Yes 62 No 11 Neither 1 Are you more responsible for your own learning? Yes 69 No 5 Is it easier for you to trust others than it was one year ago? Yes 42 No 31 Neither 1 Do you go ahead with classroom projects or work and not depend upon someone else to do it? Yes 64 No 9 Yes and No 1 Do you make valuable contributions to classroom discussions? Yes 41 No 20 Yes and No 8 Are you learning new things each day? Yes 64 No 8 Yes and No 1 Do you like to make choices in what you study in science? Yes 74 No 0 Music? Yes 52 No 18 P.E.? Yes 68 No 4 Reading Yes 68 No 6 How would you rate the CPAC room as a learning center? Very good 58 Good 14 Fair 3 Poor 1 If you could make a change in the room, what would it be? 24 responded with "no change" 8 responded with "have it quieter" 5 responded with "have more trust and no stealing" 3 responded with "have a quieter reading area" 266 responded with "have no BW" responded with "no 4th and add another 6th" responded with "more choices of gym" responded with "put people on levels in reading" responded with "math" NNNNW One each responded in the following way: "Let people read for pleasure" "Conference every two weeks" "More teachers" "More games" "Less P.E." 4 "More Art" ’ "Art on a certain day each week" "More Sciences" "More movies" "No B.W." "Don't let teachers have pets" "Less kids" "The games" "Different spelling books" "Keep the room neater" "No reading“ "Have regular spelling books" "Have a talking corner" "Having not to correct our papers" "No desks" "Shut doors when need to get rid of 4th grade" "Change times" "Bigger library--more books" "Better student storage" What is the best part of the room? P.E. __8_ Math 7 ScienE§i_;Z Reading __1 Get to do work by ourselves __6_ All of it __6 Alternatives Budgeting own—time __4 The teachers Spelling._;3 Working ahead __3 Working at own pace 3 Langauge 3 __4 267 Quiet area 2 Individual 3516 2 Making friends with older children __2 Responsibility we have to do our work __2 And one reSponse to the following: Like to talk Big enough for 84 people 6th grade social studies Choice of gyms Get to know more kids Art Polite children The way you learn Cage part 268 Parent The statistics of this report were compiled from 63 percent evaluation forms returned. To determine whether or not the parents were informed about the program before it began and during the year, a scale of 0 to 10 was used with 0 being poorly in- formed and 10 being well informed. The average response to being informed before the program started was 9+. There were two 0s and 29 105. On being informed about the program during the year, the average was 8+ with no Os and 27 103. On both of these questions, the numeral having the highest incidence was the 10. On whether parents preferred letters concerning their child's work daily, weekly, bi-weekly, monthly or every nine weeks the same as report cards, 39 responded they would like the continuation of the weekly letter. Twenty preferred a bi-weekly letter, two a monthly letter and one the same as report cards. The average number of times the parents attended a conference, meeting or visited the room was 3.7 times. Five responded they had attended nothing and two responded that they had been in the room ten times. As parents viewed their student‘s growth in responsibility, trust, achievement, pride and respect, the response averaged a positive 2.8 on a scale from -5 to +5. In growth in responsibility, there were seven responses of no change, three negative responses and 47 positive responses with the median being a positive 3. In development of trust, there were no negative responses, 13 of no change in the child and 43 with improvement in trust. The median was a positive 3. Parents are, and have a right to be, concerned about academic achievement. There was one negative response, nine no change and 49 positive responses in this area. The median rating was a positive 4. Two parents felt their children had gone backward in pride, they had become much more careless in their work. Seven saw no change and 50 parents felt their children had improved with the median improvement at a positive 3. 269 Respect for themselves, others and their property was another goal of the program. Two parents felt their children had gone backward, 11 said there was no evident change and 46 responded that their children developed more respect. The median rating was 3 on the positive side. Thirty-seven parents responded that their children had changed in some area. Of these respondents, two were neutral and could not be considered either positive or negative, four were changes of a negative nature and 31 were positive statements. Of these improved self confidence, liking school better and becoming more responsible were repeated most often. In answer to the question "What did you like least?" several responses indicated that nothing, noise and no desk were what they liked least. The teaching of and learning responsibility was one of the most frequently mentioned things parents liked best. Freedom of choice and enthusiasm of students and teachers were mentioned often in one way or another. The 4th and 5th grade parents were asked: "Would you like your child to continue in the program next year?" One responded, "I will let her make her own decision," three were not sure, three said, "no," and 33 responded with a "yes." Sixth grade parents were asked, "If you had the opportunity would you choose this program again for your child?" One said, "It's doubtful." Another said, "Will let you know when he's in the 8th grade," and 23 responded "yes." Parents were also asked what other information they would like to know. Most responses indicated they would like to know more about the academic progress and the alternatives offered in the various courses. Not too many responded to "What improvements would you suggest for next year?" Evidently most were satisfied. Parents were also invited on their evaluation of the program to make any other comments they would like. Twenty-four parents accepted the opportunity to express their feelings about the CPAC room. Many concerns were expressed,most of which could not be classified as negative. 270 Scholastic Achievement Report Eighty students were given the 1974 edition of the Stanford Achievement test to help determine scholastic growth and see if the achievement goal was reached. Of the 80 students, there were no pre-test scores for six of them. Of the 74 whose growth could be measured, two lost ground, seven gained less than a year, 28 gained from one to two years academically, 18 gained from two to three years and 15 gained more than three years. One student who gained less than a year made a nine-month gain which was the largest gain he had made in six years of school. Many things cannot be measured on an achievement test. And, how a child feels when he takes a test has a lot to do with his scores. Therefore, we can only get a general idea of how successfully we have reached the achievement goal of at least one year's growth for each child. APPENDIX B STUDENT GENERATED DESCRIPTOR APPENDIX B STUDENT GENERATED DESCRIPTOR Teacher C, who was very committed in gathering all possible data concerning her environment, sought out her students' help. She explained to her students that she was attempting to create a description of the kinds of things that went on in the classroom and if they wanted to help out, they could write a descriptive paragraph on what they felt or thought the classroom looked like. The following paragraphs are offered, verbatim, of what sixteen, second and third grade students at Glencairn Elementary School, East Lansing, Michigan, came up with. We have a puppet, Harold, and he is always sleeping in his red bucket. We also have an author's corner where you write stories. Miss Yaw is a nice teacher. She lets us do anything on option time. —-Debbie R. About Teachers: Very creative and very nice. She has nice ideas. She (likes) loves frogs, she even has frog earrings. She even (likes) loves frogs more than her fiance. She even gives us candy when we do something nice and she doesn't yell a lot, makes nice things. What She Makes: The things she makes are very good. She has games that include reading and math and they are fun! About the Children: Miss Yaw makes the chil- dren quiet Without yelling. The kids have freedom like working on the floor. --Patty and Dawn 271 272 It's not delightful because most people would rather play. But, we have options after our work is finished. But, I don't always get my work finished in time. It is kind of delight- ful because there is a rug to take a nap on, and I feel little like it today. We have a time-out booth. We have animals, fish and gerbils. We pick helpers every week. We have a super star kid who has done something nice for someone else. We have a place where you can work if every- one is bothering you. Three balls. We have fun bulletin boards that make it easy to learn. We have a curtained place where you can work alone, too. We have a Snoopy Doghouse that you can work in, too. We have films and an Option board. --Bob Flory and Chris Arnold You are allowed to work on the floor and with a friend. Time Out Box if you want to be alone. When you are going to move, you write three friends that you want to be next to. The class is usually has decorations. We always have animals. You don't have to do all math and reading, we have options that have to do with them. The teacher is very, very, very, very great! -—Tracey Ross and Mary Meade Miss Yaw's class is colorful. We have freedom to move. There's lots of activities. We have two gerbils and lots of fish. Our class is sensitive. -—Mimi Washington Classroom: Children are very active in their work. Options for work and to help us learn with toys. Also, full of brainwork. Teacher: Full of excitement and also very helpful and she likes SnOOpy (from Charles M. Schulz) and frogs. If you do not like these, we suggest you go to Mrs. Pullers classroom 1. Certain feeling for children that no other teacher has. Very high imagination. --Greg Rowe and Brian O'Donnell and Joey Newton 273 In our time-out booth, each kid takes turns going in and out when they don't feel good. It is many colors and a great big box, it has a round door you open and close. You close it by pulling the strings. We have lots of nice pictures hanging in our room. We have to finish our work. We have lots of good Options to do when we finish. We have lots of Snoopy pictures, animals and an aquarium. Painting board. --Kathy O'Berry and Mary Victoria The boys and girls are very active in many r activities such as math and reading and a number of other things. Some boys and girls are too active and need special help from the teacher and other kids. -—Chris Astley We have a cool room, cool people and a cool teacher. We have to work, but we have a lot of fun. We have animals and fish in our room. 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