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3 1293 01009 9715 HERARY l
Michigan State
1 University
This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled

AN ETHOLOGICAL STUDY OF AGGRESSIVE-ASSAULT
BEHAVIORS AND AGGRESSIVE-ANGER BEHAVIORS
IN ADOLESCENT MALES

presented by

Rebecca S. Rude

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. Counseling, Educational

Psychology, and Special
Education

W

T I ' Major professor

Ridhard L. Featherstone

 

 

degree in

Date March l985

 

MSUiJ an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771

 

 

MSU

LIBRARIES
W

 

 

RETURNING MATERIALS:
Place in book drop to
remove this checkout from
your record. FINES will
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. ll. ‘IIIII Ill ‘ ‘

 

 

AN ETHOLOGICAL STUDY OF AGGRESSIVE-ASSAULT BEHAVIORS
AND AGGRESSIVE-ANGER BEHAVIORS IN ADOLESCENT MALES

By

_Rebecca 3. Rude

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling. Educational Psychology.
and Special Education

1985

Copyright by
REBECCA S. RUDE

I985

ABSTRACT
AN ETHOLOGICAL STUDY OF AGGRESSIVE-ASSAULT BEHAVIORS
AND AGGRESSIVE-ANGER BEHAVIORS IN ADOLESCENT MALES
By

Rebecca 8. Rude

The goal of this study was to determine whether aggressive-
assault behaviors and aggressive-anger behaviors progress in a sequen-
tial pattern. with specific actions occurring before. during. and after
these behaviors are demonstrated. It was hypothesized that (a) there
are specific behaviors which are observable and measurable. which are
characteristic of students in conflict with the teachers and/or other
students. and (b) there are specific behavior groups or behavior types
which are demonstrated in a developmental sequence as the conflict
continues.

To study the phenomena of aggressive-assault and aggressive-
anger behaviors. an ethological study was conducted. The description
of aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors was based on 150
hours of observations made over a seven-week period. of students who
had a high probability for demonstrating these actions. A group of 45
male students between the ages of 13 and 18 was observed. Each indi-
vidual was incarcerated for various reasons and placed as a ward of the

court. in a camp setting.

Rebecca 5. Rude

The observer made written field notes and used video-tape
equipment to record the interactions occurring in the classroom set-
ting. The data were analyzed for identification and sequence of
behaviors. events. and duration of aggressive-assault and aggressive-
anger behaviors. Discrepancies between aggressive-assault and
aggressive-anger incidents were examined to determine if different
overt behaviors exist. Each recorded aggressive-assault and
aggressive-anger case study was evaluated for patterns within each
event. The final determining factors used to label the interaction as
aggressive-assault included (a) the victinfls nonwilling participation
in the interaction; (b) physical contact. i.e.. hit. kick. choke.
wrestle; and (c) the intensity of the incident as perceived by the
victim which was demonstrated by an observable change in the victinfls
behavior.

The data analyses demonstrated consistent patterns in
aggressive-assault behaviors and aggressive-anger behaviors. As a
result of the study. the emergence of a new type of assault was identi-
fied. The assault has been labeled sniper hits.

There are implications and recommendations for teacher-training

programs and teacher-intervention strategies.

TO
JAMES HALSEY RUDE
AND
BARBARA ANN RUDE

WITH LOVE . . .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Early one spring morning in 1980 while I was rushing to beat
the Los Angeles traffic to get to work. I was greeted by a police
officer. After my conversation with the gentleman. I proceeded to
drive slowly to work with my ticket in hand. Angry with myself for
getting caught. I decided right then that things were going to change
in my life. When I got home that night. I started the process that led
me to Michigan State University for my doctoral degree. Through the
last five years. I‘ve never regretted that decision. No words can
describe the knowledge I have acquired as a result of this experience.
This knowledge is not bound by books. but oftentimes can only be felt
in the heart. It is from my heart that I thank the following friends
for their crucial part in this endeavor.

The process of designing an appropriate program to accomplish
my educational goals was directed by Dr. Charles E. Henley. Dr. Henley
provided avenues for new educational experiences and coupled these with
friendship and caring. Two other committee members who played a
critical part in my program were Drs. William D. Frey and Charles V.
Mange. Their contributions have aided me with my dissertation and
future career. The fourth member of my committee was my dissertation

chairperson. This gentle man provided me with wisdom. guidance.

strength. and an everlasting friendship. It is with great honor.
respect. and love that I thank Dr. Richard L. Featherstone.

To research my topic. I required the assistance and cooperation
of many people. I would like to express my gratitude to the teachers
and staff from Ingham Intermediate School District and the camp that
participated in this study. Being videotaped is oftentimes an uncom-
fortable and intrusive imposition placed on someone. However. the
teaching staff in this study maintained their professional standards
and sense of humor while they continued to deal effectively with. at
times. extremely dangerous situations. Additionally. I would like to
thank the students. The picture presented of the students is distorted
since it focuses on aggression; however. the students were vibrant and
sensitive individuals who unknowingly contributed a wealth of informa-
tion to this topic.

My family has always been a never-ending source of love and
support. It is my privilege to acknowledge and thank my sister. Ronda
Ann Wenger. and my brother. Ronald James Rude. for being there through
the Joyous and rough times.

There are old and new friends who encouraged me along my chosen
path. I want to take this opportunity to thank Kendra and Paul Nash.
Monica and Tim Stamets. and Jim and Cheri Sather for their timely
letters. crucial phone calls. and cherished friendship. Additionally.
I would like to thank Sue and Jim Alexander. Philip Cusick. Pam
DiLavore. Fred Erickson. Jane Featherstone. Frances Frey. Lorene and

Tommy Harris. Howard Hickey. Richard Houang. Rhoda Landrus. Kay

(MConnell. the Ozakis. Max Raines. Del Simpson. Peg Towle. Peyton and
Mary Towler. Lisa Webne. Steve and Matthew Wenger. and Steve Yellon for
their very considerate support when it was needed.

The final stages of writing were aided by a very special
person. To Robert H. Ozaki I would like to say mahalo.

The best way to summarize my most treasured experiences at
Michigan State University is to quote a Justice of the Supreme Court.
Benjamin N. Cardozo. He states that "Like many of the finest things of
life. like happiness and tranquillity and fame. the gain that is most
precious is not the thing sought. but one that comes of itself in the
search for something else)‘ In «W'search. I serependitously found
three friends. Patricia Kearly. Kathryn Moran. and Cherie Simpson. who
made learning together fun!

And to my parents. Barbara Ann Rude and James Halsey Rude. for
whom this dissertation has been written and dedicated. I need to thank
them for their unconditional love and support. which have allowed me to

take a road less traveled.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TMLES O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Chapter
I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . .

Introduction . . . . . . .
Statement of the Problem .
Statement of the Purpose .
Design . . . . . . . . . . .

Limitations and Delimitations

Definition of Terms . . . .
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . .

Animal Studies . . . . . . .
Definitions and Theories . .
Aggression as Instinctive

Drive and Aggressive Theory

Learning Theory and Aggression
Related Studies . . . . . . . .

III. DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hypotheses .
Method . . .
Subjects .
Setting .
Procedure .

Analysis . . .

Reliability an Val d ty

1 1

IV. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY . . . .

Case Study l: Quasiagonistic
Summary of Case Study 1 .
Case Study 2: Assault . .
Summary of Case Study 2
Case Study 3: Assault . .

vi

Page

10
13
16
17

20

21
25
25
32
37
48

55

56
56
S6
57
58
63
64

67

72
81

87
88

Summary of Case Study 3

Case Study 4: Anger

Summary of Case Study 4
Case Study 5: Sniper Hit .
Summary of Case Study 5
Case Study 6: Assault . .
Summary of Case Study 6
Case Study 7: Sniper Hit .
Summary of Case Study 7
Case Study 8: Assault . .
Summary of Case Study 8
Case Study 9: Sniper Hit .
Summary of Case Study 9
Case Study 10: Assault . .

Summary of Case Study 10
Case Study 11: Assault . .
Summary of Case Study 11
Case Study 12: Assault . .
Summary of Case Study 12
Case Study 13: Assault . .
Summary of Case Study 13
Case Study 14: Assault . .
Summary of Case Study 14
Case Study 15: Sniper Hit
.Summary of Case Study 15

Case Study 16

Case
Case
Case
Case
Case
Case
Case
Case

Summary of
16A:

Study
Study
Study
Study
Study
Study
Study
Study

16A:
16B:
16C:
16D:
16E:
16F:
16G:
16H:
Case

Aggression-Anger . .

Aggression Anger .
Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Anger .
Aggression-Anger .
Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Assault
Study 16 . . . . .

16B:
16C:
16D:
16E:
16F:
16G:
16H:

V. SUMMARY.

Summary
Results

Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Anger

Aggression-Anger

Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Assault
Aggression-Assault

IMPLICATIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS

vii

Page

90
91
97
98

100
122
124
125
126
127
128
129
129
136
137
140
141
145
145
154
155
162
163
165
165
166
170
177
179
181
184
186
189
191
191
192
193
193
194
194
195
196

198

198
199

Aggressive-Assault Behaviors
Aggressive-Anger Behaviors .
Sniper Hit Behaviors . . . .
Victim Behaviors . . . . . .
Teacher Behaviors . . . . .

Patterns of Aggressive-Assaul

Discussion . . . . . . . . . .

Implications . . . . . . . .
Teacher Training Programs
Intervention Techniques

Recommendations . . . . .
Intervention Techniques
Further Studies . . . .

APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS FOR BODY AND
B. DIAGRAM OF THE LEARNING CENTER .

REFERENCES 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

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FACIAL MOVEMENTS

Page

200
202
203
203
204
205
211
213
213
214
215
216
218

220
221
238

240

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Summary of Aggressive-Assault Behaviors . . . . . . . . . 206

In peace there's nothing so becomes a man.

As modest stillness and humility;

But when the blast of war blows in our ears.
Then imitate the action of the tiger:

Disguise fair nature with hard-favour'd rage;
Then lend the eye a terrible aspect; . . .

Now set the teeth. and stretch the nostril wide.
Hold hard the breath. and bend up every spirit
To his full height. 0n. on you noblest English.

.Hen:y_!. act 3. so. 1

CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

101mm

From the day of our birth. most of our lives are affected by
organizations. Most of us spend our childhood and adolescence in an
educational organization and are employed by an organization once we
graduate from the hallowed halls of our schools. Our leisure-time
activities are intertwined with organizations that allow us to procure
items. engage in social clubs. and demonstrate our beliefs. Organiza-
tions place restrictions on our behavior so that we do not infringe on
the rights of others. Most official occasions in our lives are somehow
sanctioned by an organization. We have become an organizational soci-
ety (Etzioni. 1964). and the climate in these organizations affects our
lives.

Etzioni (1964) posited that the primary purpose of an organiza-
tion is to be efficient and effective. He stated. "Effectiveness of a
specific organization is determined by the degree to which it realizes
its goals. ‘The efficiency of an organization is measured by the amount
of resources used to produce a unit of output” (p. 8). An important
aspect. then. for an organization is the determination of pertinent

goals.

Due to the structure of the educational organization. there are
many sublevels for which goals are drawn. A schematic picture may
present major target goals made at the federal. state. district.
school. classroom. and individual levels. According to Duke. Meckel.
and Maravich (1980). "schools are confronted with control problems that
are more complex and perplexing in some ways than the problems faced by
many other organizations. such as factories and commercial business"
(p. 3). It was Duke et ale supposition that "the control structure
of the school must contend not only with employee behavior but with
client (student) behavior as well" (p. 3). These control problems may
be the root for conflict at all levels of the educational organization
and prohibit the attainment of desired goals.

Conflict may exist at the core of the educational organization.
and that conflict may be energizing and vital as well as negative.
Ultimately. it is how one deals with conflict that determines the
measure of success or failure. Educational organizations. like other
organizations. are faced with three major sources of conflict. The
first source of conflict is environmental (Mintzberg. 1979; Scott.
1981) factors. which include social. political. and economic issues
(Dewey. 1959; Wallace. 1982). Intergroup factors such as communication
and collaboration (Pondy. 1967; Thomas & Schmidt. 1976; Schmidt &
Kochan. 1972)1among and between different sectors or programs are
another derivation of conflict in the organization. Finally. indi-

vidual factors (Katz & Kahn. 1966; Smith. 1977). which include role

conflict. are the third possible origin for consternation within a
system.

The classroom has all the characteristics of an organization.
The classroomhs major function. similar to the total educational
organization. is to provide quality education effectively and effi-
ciently. Effectiveness in a classroom is measured by the amount and
quality of learning stimulated in the setting. Efficiency is evaluated
by the cost of resources used to produce the product. An increase in
the number of students in a classroom. along with the students' comple—
tion of the general curriculum. may be indicators of an efficient
classroom. The major sources of conflict in the classroom may be to a
finer degree the culmination of environmental. intergroup. and individ-
ual factors.

There is one significant aspect that differentiates the types
of conflict viewed in the classroom from those in the total organiza-
tion. That component is the possible and sometimes constant threat of
aggressive-assault behaviors from and between students. Aggressive-
assault behaviors in the classroom may stem from one or any combination
of the three factors contributing to conflict. These disruptive behav-
iors in the classroom and at school affect the entire organization and
the community at large. According to President Reagan. each month
6.000 teachers are robbed. 125.000 are threatened with physical harm.
and at least 1.000 are assaulted so severely that they require medical
care ("Reagan Vows to Fight School Crime." 1984). These figures are

staggering when projected over a yearly period. Conflict or disruptive

behavior in the classroom currently poses a tremendous problem that

must be faced by educators.

§InI§m§01_QI_Ihfi_E£them

Recent reports have indicated that classroom problems involving
behavior have reached alarming numbers. particularly at the secondary
level (Duke. Meckel. & Maravich. 1980). Further reports have indicated
that student behavior problems ranging from lack of discipline. tru-
ancy. and disrespect for authority to the use of abusive substances.
violence. and vandalism are the major problems confronting the public
schools and interfere with the ability of educators to accomplish their
objectives (Gallup. 1982). Over the past 14 out of 15 years. the
biggest problem of the local schools reported by the Gallup poll has
been lack of discipline (Elam. 1983). In 1983. parents were asked to
rate the way discipline is handled in their local schools. An A. B. C.
D. and Fail scale was used. Fifty-four percent gave a passing grade of
C or better; however. 39% gave a D or failing grade. and 7% were
undecided (Gallup. 1983. p. 37). This means that two out of every five
individuals polled felt the management of classroom behavior was below
a "C" standard. When queried as to whether parents would want their
children to become a teacher. in 1969. 75% of all respondents answered
favorably. but in 1983. only 45% said "yes." The most frequently cited
reasons for not wanting their children to become teachers were "(1) low
pay; (2) discipline problems; (3) unrewarding. thankless work; and (4)
low prestige of teaching as a profession" (Gallup. 1983. pp. 45-46).

The issue of lack of discipline may be interpreted to mean that schools

are too lenient. or they are not prepared for a crisis and lack the
skills needed for coping with acting-out students. Support of the last
assumption may be demonstrated by the increase of requests by teachers
and administrators for inservice training dealing with behavior-
management techniques and crisis-intervention skills for students who
exhibit aggressive-assault behaviors.

Management of students' classroom behavior has become one of
education's crucial issues. Essentially. disruptive behavior affects
not only the acting-out student but also the classroom. the teacher.
the administrators. and the community. “The acting-out student who
defies teacher imposed rules or structure. often finds him/herself
deficient in key academic skills and frequently functions below grade
level in academic achievement”(Walker & Buckley. 1974. p. 3). When a
student is disruptive. a teacher oftentimes experiences a lack of
control or management of the student and possibly the entire classroom.
This could prove to be a source of frustration for a teacher. Educa-
tional administrators frequently use classroom management an an index
for evaluating teachers (Borich. 1977). Administrators assume and
desire that the classroom should be managed in an efficient and profes-
sional manner with few instances of conflict. School principals tend
to be oriented toward pupils behaving themselves (Knoblock & Goldstein.
1971). Thus. the message is that children's behavior must be con-
trolled; however. the tactics and nuances of this message are left for

the teachers to decipher (Knoblock & Goldstein. 1971). The parents. on

the other hand. presume that their child will be provided with an
education in a safe environment.

Some of these frustrations and expectations experienced by the
employees and clients of the educational organization have been
addressed in the literature. The research regarding classroom manage-
ment is voluminous (Clarizio & McCoy. 1976; Duke. Meckel. & Maravich.
1980; Herbert. 1978; Hewett 8. Taylor. 1980; Long. Morse. 8. Newman. 197;
Reinert. 1976; Walker & Buckley. 1974). Approaches to dealing with the
acting-out student include applications of the psychodynamic. behav-
ioral. biophysical. sociological-ecological. and counter theories.
These approaches usually provide techniques for dealing with aggressive
or acting-out behaviors of students after the crisis has occurred.

The goal of these approaches is to provide students with a
repertoire of socially appropriate behaviors. Yet it appears that a
working theory for predicting the occurrences of aggressive-assault
behavior does not exist. The inability to predict the occurrence of
aggressive-assault behaviors places the teacher in a reactionary posi-
tion versus a proactive position. The teacher then uses what Simon
(1945) labeled a "satisficing model" for decision making. This model
suggests that the persons involved in a crisis will quickly choose the
first action available that will alleviate the problem. Consideration
is not given for the intervention's long-term effectiveness. only to
halting the crisis. Another option is thee"maximizing model" (Simon.
1945). Maximizing one's decision entails brainstorming about various

strategies that may be used to correct the crisis. Ultimately. a plan

of action is developed that may be used by a person/teacher when a
crisis situation arises. To accomplish this task in the classroom. it
is necessary for the teacher to identify any coinciding patterns in the
student's behavior.

Typically. in the ordinary classroom setting. one may experi-
ence occasional demonstrations of acting-out behaviors by students.
These may include behaviors such as nonperformance of assignments.
daydreaming. withdrawal. excessive timevout of seat. running around the
room. disturbing peers. uncooperativeness in groups. ignoring teacher.
noncompliance with adult commands or directions. complaining. arguing
(talks back). swearing. stealing. yelling. demonstrating temper tan-
trums. throwing objects. destroying property. and hitting or fighting
(Bullock & Brown. 1972; Quay. Morse. & Cutler. 1966; Walker. 1979).

Upon evaluating the acting-out childhs behaviors. one may
arbitrarily design a continuum of disruptive behaviors ranging from
least to most severe. Nonperformance of assignment completion might be
a behavior considered less destructive to a classroom environment than
perhaps consistent out-of—seat behavior or student's verbal ization of
complaints. At one end of the disruptive-behavior continuum. a student
may demonstrate behaviors that are offensive and unsanctioned in the
classroom. such as talking to peers. making noises. or ignoring teacher
requests. These are irritating and obnoxious behaviors. but certainly
they do not physically endanger oneself or others. These misconducts
may be described as inconvenient acts. According to Kounin (1977).

"Inconvenient acts are those behaviors which are disturbing but are

without direct harm to the perpetrator or to others and which do not
violate any important moral taboo" (p. 19). Incorporated within this
group of behaviors are those actions that often have been labeled
"horseplay" or "rough and tumble play." The technical term for these
actions is quasiagonistic behaviors. Quasiagonistic behaviors fre-
quently have behavior patterns common to aggressive-assault; however.
the intention of the participants is opposite (McGrew. 1972).

The middle of the continuum might include behaviors that are
demonstrated when an individual is angry. Aggressive-anger behaviors
are a demonstration of emotional reactions of extreme displeasure.
These may include such behaviors as yelling. use of hand gestures.
profanity. and temper tantrums. Aggressive-anger behaviors do not
result in physical injury to either the self or others.

The opposite end of the disruptive-behavior continuum would
include the most severe behaviors found in the classroom and on school
playgrounds. The most destructive behaviors would be physical alterca-
tions or threat of such to another individual. be it student or
teacher. While all of the above-mentioned behaviors are a source of
challenge to a teacher's classroom-management skills. it is the more
severe behaviors that have become a major concern.

Increasingly. teachers are forced to cope with aggressive-
assault behaviors. There are numerous descriptions for aggression.
However. the working definition that will be used is "behavior that
results in personal injury and in destruction of property. The injury

may be psychological (in the form of devaluation or degradation) as

well as physical" (Bandura. 1973. p. 5). Assault is defined as a clear
and present danger of physical injury. Aggressive-assault behaviors
are those behaviors that clearly are threatening to another individual
and result in physical injury to either the perpetrator or the victim
and/or in property damage.

Upon completing an extensive interview of teachers and parents.
Kounin (1977) found that assaults on children by children "were
reported more frequently for school than for home. Boys are more
assaultive on other children in school in both first and third grades
q::<.01); and girls showed this same school-home contrast in the third
grade (p < .02)" (p. 19). Kounin posited that successful classroom
management involves preventing problems before they get started. not
relying on one's ability to deal with them after they have emerged.

To successfully prevent crisis situations in the classroom.
numerous variables need to be examined. Primarily. one must question:
Before entering a classroom. are teachers adequately prepared to effec-
tively deal with students! aggressive-assault behaviors? It is assumed
that to effectively deal with students. teachers must possess the
following skills: the ability to implement an appropriate curriculum
for an individual (Borich. 1977); the competence to assess a disruptive
situation adequately; the faculty to control their own emotional
arousal during an aggressive incident (Ginot. 1965; Zillmann. 1979);
the knowledge to intervene accordingly (Clarizio & McCoy. 1976); and

the understanding that with repeated outbreaks of disruptive behavior

10

one must evaluate and prepare a plan to avoid being in a reactionary
position (Good & Brophy. 1978; Swift & Spivack. 1969L

The first skill to adequately design or implement an approp-
riate curriculum for the student is of major concern. When the curric-
ulum breaks down. one might predict that there may be some acting-out
behaviors exhibited by students (Swift & Spivack. 1969). Assuming that
the curriculum is satisfactory. the next focus is directed toward the
ability to effectively and efficiently identify the disruptive situa-
tion. Cooper (1979) stated that "teachers need to feel that they can
predict and control events in their classroom. and . . . are likely to
be critical. punitive and inhibit verbal initiations from students who
threaten their sense of security" (p. 399). Security appears to be the
crux of the issue inasmuch as. if prediction and control provide secu-
rity for the teacher. the reverse is true when an assaultive incident
occurs. In addition. one cannot intervent nor can one develop an
appropriate behavior plan without the ability to thoroughly assess the
situation. The question then becomes: Are there any predictable
behaviors exhibited by students who subsequently become assaultive that

would enable a teacher to intervene in a positive. preventive manner?

W

The purpose of this study was to observe. analyze. and evaluate
aggressive-assault behaviors and aggressive-anger behaviors to deter-
mine if there exists a sequential pattern of actions before. during.
and after these behaviors are demonstrated. Documentation was made of

the progression of students' aggressive-assault behaviors from

11

beginning to end. .Supplementing the documentation of the aggressive-
assault behaviors was the chronicling of all behaviors that are demon-
strated when a person is visibly angry.

Three major benefits may result from being able to identify the
potential of aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors before
their occurrence. The benefits include helping teachers become more
effective and efficient with behavior management. aiding the teaching
profession by adding information to the body of knowledge regarding
aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors demonstrated by stu-
dents. and reducing the frequency of one major source of conflict
within the educational organization. particularly within the classroom.

The identification of aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger
behaviors may increase the probability of teachers predicting the
occurrence of such behaviors before the situation escalates to a crisis
situation. Prediction will allow teachers time (perhaps only moments)
to redirect the aggressive-assault behaviors to ones that are more
socially appropriate and congruous with the student's general behavior
pattern. Thus. if a student has a tendency to demonstrate aggressive-
assault behaviors. the teacher may start instructing the use of
aggressive-anger. nonassertive. or assertive behaviors as alternatives
to physical disputes (Dayton & Mikulas. 1981). Redirection of behav-
iors may eliminate or severely decrease the possibility of injury to
teachers and students alike (Frost & Holmes. 1979k. Accurate identifi-
cation and prediction of aggressive-assault behaviors may permit teach-

ers. administrators. and parents to develop a behavior-management plan

12

that will provide interventions for precursor. during. and after
aggressive-assault behaviors. The establishment of an effective
behavior-management plan may enable teachers to maximize their
resources. enter the disruptive situation from a proactive position
rather than a reactionary one. and increase the likelihood of behavior
change in the student.

The identification of aggressive-assault behaviors demonstrated
by students before. during. and after the incident may have major
implications for the entire field of education. While the severe
acting-out or disruptive student is frequently labeled emotionally
impaired and placed in a special classroom. aggressive-assault behav-
iors are not exclusive to these special settings. As previously stated
(Duke et al.. 1980; Kounin. 1977). there are frequent incidents of
aggressive-assault behaviors in the regular classroom at all age
levels. The ability to identify and predict students'Iaggressive-
assault behavior patterns will contribute to the general body of knowl-
edge for all teachers.

The third major advantage for one being able to reliably pre-
dict the occurrence of aggressive-assault behaviors is that it may aid
in reducing conflict within the classroom. school. and overall educa-
tional organization. Aggressive-assault behaviors in the classroom
affect the following: (a) the perpetrator both positively and nega-
tively due to the consequences of the behavior (Bandura. 1973).

(b) other students in the classroom due to the break in continuity of

the educational program. (c) the teacher due to a lack of control and

13

possible long-range effects on their evaluations. (d) the administrator
as a result of increased workman's compensation claims from injuries
incurred while dealing with students who demonstrate aggressive-assault
behaviors. and (e) the educational organization due to poor publicity
as a consequence of not effectively and efficiently dealing with their
clients.

If a paradigm is perceptible for both aggressive-assault behav-
iors and aggressive-anger behaviors. the result will be an increase in
ability to predict these occurrences. Prediction of aggressive-assault
and/or aggressive-anger behaviors will allow a teacher and support
staff to optimize their management strategies and intervene appropri-
ately. Additionally. it may mean a change in the perpetrator's behav-
iors. continuity in the educational program. a sense of security for
the teacher. reduction in workman's compensation claims. and a decline

in one source of conflict for the educational organization.

Design

The goal of this study was to determine whether aggressive-
assault behaviors and aggressive-anger behaviors progress in a sequen-
tial pattern. with specific actions occurring before. during. and after
these behaviors are demonstrated. If a paradigm is perceptible for
both aggressive-assault behaviors and aggressive-anger behaviors. the
results may be an increase in one's ability to predict the occurrence
of these behaviors when the initial signs of the pattern commence.

Thus it was hypothesized:

14

1. There are specific behaviors which are observable and
measurable. which are characteristic of students in conflict with the
teacher and/or other students.

2. There are specific behavior groups or behavior types which
are demonstrated in a developmental sequence as the conflict continues.

To study the phenomena of aggressive-assault behaviors and
aggressive-anger behaviors. an ethological study was conducted. Ethol-
ogy is the comparative study of behavior patterns. It originated in
zoology. "It is the discipline which applies to the behavior of ani-
mals and humans all those questions asked and those methodologies used
as a matter of course in all the other branches of biology since
Charles Darwin's time" (Lorenz. 1982. p. 1). Its counterpart. ethnog-
raphy. has its origin in anthropology. Ethnography aims at studying a
specific culture. including the verbal behavior (Berreman. 1966;
Overholt & Stallings. 1976). While the two differ in their philosophi-
cal base. their methodology is basically the same» Hence an ethologi-
cal study was implemented using the methodological procedures charac-
teristic of ethological and ethnographic research.

The ethological approach essentially was formulated with
Darwin's (1982) extensive studies of nonverbal communication (Brannigan
& Humphries. 1972). He meticulously described such facial expressions
as sobbing. sulking. bad temper. and anger; these procedures subse-
quently became a central part of ethological studies (Brannigan &
Humphries. 1972). According to Tinbergen (1951). ethological studies

seek to answer questions regarding causation. development. survival

15

value. and phylogeny of behavior. "This division into four kinds of
questions simplifies many features of studying behaviour and avoids
much confusion. particularly between proximate and ultimate causes and
between features of learning (development) and features of motivation
(causation)" (Blurton-Jones. 1972. p. 8). While ethological studies
frequently search for the evolutionary or innate origins of specific
behaviors. it was the purpose of this study to first ferret out whether
behavior patterns existed. thus focusing on the developmental aspect of
behaviors.
One of the features of ethology is "an emphasis on the primary
observational descriptive phase of any scientific investigation"
(Blurton-Jones. 1972. p. 10). The observed behavior
can be analysed into four kinds of criteria--phenomenological. a
unit being all items of behaviour which take the same form; or
functional. all items serving the same kind of consequence (a
special case of this is all items serving the same biological
function): or situational. items occurring in the same situation;
or causal. items sharing common causal factors. (Brannigan 8.
Humphries. 1972. p. 42)

The primary criterion used in this study was the phenomenological and

situational units of behaviors.

While much research has been completed regarding aggression and
hostility. it seems that the phenomenon is seldom studied in the natu-
ralistic setting. To study the stated hypotheses. observations were
made of three classrooms. There was an "open classroom" setting which
meant there were no closing walls encompassing the individual classes.

Because of this setting the observer was able to sit in one position

and view the happenings in all three classrooms simultaneously. The

16

researcher acted as a participant observer and recorded observations by
use of video tape and field notes.

The use of film allowed for interobserver reliability (Corsaro.
1982)L The sound-image record (SIR) provided density. a massive
amount of information resulting from the actions captured on film. and
permanence of record (Grimshaw. 1982L These factors permitted
repeated review of sequences of behaviors. which allowed for minute
analyses (Blurton-Jones. 1972; Grimshaw. 1982L

Over a period of eight weeks. 150 hours of video tapes and
field notes were accumulated. The subjects were 13- to lB-year-old
males who had been incarcerated for a variety of reasons. 'The adoles-
cents lived in a camp setting. and the school facilities were on the

same grounds.

UmitatJQDLanLDelimemns

There were seven major limitations to this study. These limi-
tations included (a) the degree to which the site chosen for observa-
tion was characteristic of an optimal site for collection of SIR data.
(b) the extent to which the SIR data were interpretable. (c) the extent
to which the SIR and participant observer were neutral and objective
recorders of behavior. (d) the extent to which the participant observer
had the ability to operate the SIR equipment and simultaneously collect
field notes. (e) the extent to which the introduction of a measuring
device altered the naturally occurring phenomena. (f) the extent to
which the equipment functioned without faulty performance. and (g) the

extent to which a three-hour introductory inservice presented to the

17

teachers of the research site on March 19. 1983. regarding a hypothe-
sized assault-and-anger cycle affected the teachers' intervention
behaviors in avoiding aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger situa-
tions in the classroom.

This ethological study was limited to 45 male subjects ranging
in age between 13 and 18 years. who were incarcerated wards of the
court. living in a camp setting. The results depict the behaviors
exhibited by these subjects and cannot necessarily be generalized to

other populations.

Deflnmomotlems

The formal definition of terms included in this dissertation
is presented here for reference purposes.

.Acting;gut: Students' behaviors in the classroom setting which
"defy teacher-imposed rules. structures. and/or procedures" (Walker.
1979. p. 3).

.Aggressign: "Behavior that results in personal injury and in
destruction of property. The injury may be psychological (in the form
of devaluation or degradation) as well as physical" (Bandura. 1973.

p. 5).

.Aggrassiyezangen_behayjons: Behaviors that are a demonstration

of emotional reactions of extreme displeasure. These behaviors do not

result in physical injury to either the self or others.

18

.AggLfissile:assault_behayigns: Behaviors that clearly are
threatening to another individual and result in physical injury to

either the perpetrator or the victim and/or in property damage.

.Agon1511g_behaxion: Behavior which normally produces injury to
or flight by the child to whom it is directed. e.g.. attack. threat"
(McGrew. 1972. p. 22).

.Assault: Those behaviors that present a clear and present
danger of physical injury by a perpetrator to a victinn An example of
an assaultive behavior is when the perpetrator is coming toward the
victim with a bat and states that the intent is to harm the individual.
In this case there is a clear and present danger of physical injury to
the victim. and the situation is assaultive.

.DaSQL1nI1Qn_QI_n£92§£31§§_QI_1nte£action: "will comprise the
properties of actions of one or both participants and the relations
between the actions of the two participants" (Hinde. 1979. p. 329).

.Episgde_and_1nc1dent: The occurrence of behaviors before.
during. and after aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger actions are
exhibited.

.Ethology: The comparative study of behavior. An analytical
distinction of fixed motor patterns.

.Inggnyenient_agts: "Those behaviors that are disturbing and
annoying but are without direct harm to the perpetrator or to others
and which do not violate any important moral taboo" (Kounin. 1977.

p. 19).

19

WW: "I nterventi on by

an adult while interaction is in progress. or movement by children to
outside observer's field of view" (McGrew. 1972. p. 26).

WW: Behavior that has been referred to as
"horseplay" or rough and tumble play. "Ouasiagonistic behavior resem-
bles agonistic behavior in commonality of some motor patterns. but the
two seem to function almost oppositely" (McGrew. 1972. p. 22).

W: "Not in close
physical proximity (usually further than two feet apart) or engaged in
common activity (usually not having interacted in 10 or more seconds)"
(McGrew. 1972. p. 24).

M: An incident in which the perpetrator. while
walking past the victim. hits the victim. and rapidly leaves the scene
of the assault.

MW: "In close
physical proximity and usually engaged in common activity' (McGrew.

1972. p. 24).

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Why does man fight? From the beginning of our evolutionary
development. man has found reasons to fight. Initially man's need for
safety and the procurement of food or essential commodities led him to
be aggressive. According to Bronowski (1973). one of the original
reasons man organized group fights or wars was for "agricultural
theftJ' Additionally. it has been shown from the Roman gladiators to
boxing and ice hockey that man will fight for recreational purposes.
Currently. increases in population. high technology. proximity to
others. and stress due to financial. employment. and relationship
upheavals may all be factors relating to the propensity for aggression
in our society. 'The wealth of knowledge and attention devoted to
aggression since the early 19005 perhaps emanates from the fact that
man has increased his ability to obtain and use destructive instru-
ments; and that the use of these sophisticated instruments has esca-
lated the consequences of what at one time may have been a simple
aggressive action (Bandura. 1973).

Whatever the reason. attempts to answer this question have led
to voluminous amounts of research pertaining to aggressive behavior in

animals and man alike. The whats. hows. and why-fors have resulted in

20

21

numerous definitions and camps of theories about aggression. Some
believe aggression to be instinctive. others view it as a drive. and
some posit that aggressive behavior is learned through our culture.
The issue at hand is not necessarily to determine which camp is cor-
rect. for it would be impossible to prove or disprove the theories
conclusively. It is to review some of the salient aspects of these
definitions and theories which made them notable.

First. a brief description of some relevant literature about
animal aggression will be presented. Next. a synopsis will be made of
the significant definitions and theories. Finally. pertinent qualita-
tive and quantitative studies addressing aggression in humans will be

summarized.

Amimnl_§1udles

When evaluating aggressive actions in animals. one must
determine the category. type. and consequences of the attack. Zillmann
(1979) believed consideration should be given to whether the aggression
is conspecific. between members of the same species; or interspecific.
between members of different species. Additionally. the type of attack
should be discerned. be it offensive. behaviors not performed in direct
response to prior aggressive actions; or defensive. behaviors demon-
strated in response to aggressive actions directed at the animal.
Finally. the consequences of the aggressive action are evaluated as
being either predatory. the partial or complete ingestion of the
destroyed animal; or antagonistic. when resolution of some kind is

reached with the aggressive behavior (Zillmann. 1979).

22

Current research has resulted in some conclusions regarding the
types of aggressive behavior both conspecific and interspecific in
animals. Moyer (1971) posited that there are eight subclassifications
of aggressive and hostile behaviors in animals. These destructive-
oriented behaviors include (a) predatory aggression. (b) intermale
aggression. (c) fear-induced aggression. (d) irritable aggression.

(e) territorial defense. (f) maternal aggression. (g) instrumental
aggression. and (h) sex-related aggression. Moyer believed that these
behaviors are based on physiological differences. He contended that
"there are different neural and endocrine bases for each of the above
aggression classes" (p. 30).

Zillmann (1979) stated that there is general agreement on the
basic functions of conspecific aggression. These functions include:
'Na) the procurement of goods. and (b) the safeguarding of reproduction"
(p. 65). In Lorenz's (1966) book Wu. he presented
convincing arguments through objective observations of animals. that
the three functions of aggressive behavior are "balanced distribution
of animals of the same species over the available environment.
selection of the strongest by rival fights. and defense of the young"
(p. 43). He stated that conspecific aggression is the greatest of all
dangers and that while occasionally in the animal kingdom rival fights
result in death to the victim. the aim of aggression is not the
extermination of fellow members of the species concerned. This is
demonstrated in the way animals approach each other. with ritualized

behavior and submissive behaviors when the combatants choose to

23

terminate any further aggression. Both concurred that each function is
not mutually exclusive. According to Zillmann (1979). Lorenzhs addi-
tional point of balanced distribution actually results in fighting for
territory. with the major objective being the safeguarding of reproduc-
tion. Ultimately. the goal of these functions is the preservation of
the species.

Some predatory or antagonistic consequences of aggressive
behavior have been the acknowledgment and use of tools and weapons by
animals. Observations of chimpanzees and baboons made by van Lawick-
Goodall (1971) resulted in these descriptions: "He was the first
chimpanzee we ever saw throwing stones and other objects at baboons
that approached and threatened him" (pp. 209-210). Further notes
stated. "He may raise his forearm rapidly. jerk back his head a little.
run toward his adversary upright and waving his arms. throw stones.
wield sticks. hit. kick. bite. scratch. and pull the hair of a victim"
(p. 247).

It is the use of weapons that characterizes one of the major
differences of aggressive behavior between man and animal. Thus.
van Lawick-Goodall's validation that animal primates are using weapons.
and descriptions of similarities in fighting. were the first of their
kind. According to Tinbergen (1951). "man and the present day primates
have only recently diverged from a common primate stock" (p. 205).
which may account for the similar aggressive patterns. Additionally.
this recent divergence is the reason anatomical and physiological

studies are so valuable for human biology (Tinbergen. 1951). However.

24

man with his sophisticated intellect has far surpassed other conspe-
cific animals in demonstrating a variety of aggressive behaviors.

Relatively speaking. if man has recently diverged from a common
primate stock. might it be logically assumed that studies on animals
pertaining to aggressive behaviors will aptly apply to humans?
According to Feshbach (1970). "the relevance of animal aggreSsion to
human aggression is itself a matter of some controversy because of the
danger of drawing loose analogies from animals to human behavior on the
basis of superficial similarities" (p. 175). Further. he stated that
"it is evident from the animal data that aggression is both species
specific and subject to general behavioral influences. Generalizations
from an animal species to the human species are therefore highly
questionable" (p. 177). Tinbergen (1951) stated that while animal
neurophysiology and animal ethology are becoming more consistent. the
ethological study of man has not progressed as far and that there still
remains a wide gap between the two fields of study and that of the
behavior of man. Scott (1969a) agreed with the divergence and further
believed that there is not a continuum scale leading from primates to
man; thus research on animal aggression. at best. has limited value for
modern man. He additionally concluded: "If we are to understand human
behavior from the biological viewpoint. we must study human beings as
human beings and not try to derive all information from distantly
related animals" (Scott. 1969b. p. 129). Lorenz (1982) contended that
"the mere ascertainment of a reliable analogy. and therewith of a

function common to two behavior patterns in two taxonomically widely

25

distant forms. is of extreme value" (p. 338). However. the analogous

behaviors do not explain where the common function or physiological

nature may be (Lorenz. 1982). Finally. ethologist Peter Medawar (1976)

stated.

Some human beings are aggressive. to be sure. but it is by studying

ourselves and not by studying animals that we recognize this trait
in mankind; indeed. it is perhaps not unfair to say that those who

know most about aggression in animals are most cautious in imputing

any such thing as aggressive "instinct" to mankind. (p. 498)

Hence one must conclude after reviewing the consistency of responses

from both ethologists and behaviorists that in order to make definitive

statements about man and aggression. we must focus the research on man

and not animal primates.

Definitionunubeorjes
W

The past half century seems to have introduced trends in the
explanation of aggressive behaviors. These trends are not mutually
exclusive to decades; there exists overlapping across time. However.
from each period there has stemmed a current or popular approach to
viewing aggression.

There is wide disagreement about the nature of aggression in
man. The term "aggression" stems from the Latin root. ad-gradior.
which means "I move forward)‘ "The traditional meaning includes
dynamism. self-assertiveness. and expansiveness" (Anderson. 1978.

p. 12). The term has since taken on the connotation of the negative

reaction to the previously mentioned descriptors.

26

The first theory to be reviewed stipulates that aggression is
an instinct. "Instinct implies a set. inborn pattern of behavior that
is complete and automatic in response to a given sti muli" (Solomon.
1970. p. 54). Darwin (1909) concurred that instincts are inborn but
added a component that incorporates one's ability to adapt to one's
environment. He posited that "under domestication instincts have been
acquired. and natural instincts have been lost. partly by habit. and
‘ partly by man selecting and accumulating. during successive generations
which at first appeared from what we must in our ignorance call an
accident" (Darwin. 1872. p. 270).

When reviewing the literature of aggression as an instinct. one
will find divergent theories subsumed under this category. In 1924.
Bernard identified thousands of behaviors that he believed to be
instinctive. Among those were instinct to escape restraint. to
counter-attack. to fight. to become angry. of destruction. of attack.
and revenge or injury for past injury (p. 381). Bernard's contribution
was the labeling and listing of behaviors. He did not attempt to
explain in any manner how or why theSe behaviors were instinctive.
Other instinctive theories include Adler%s(l927) proposal that all
human behavior is a result of a need for power and Ardrey's (1966)
contention that aggressive behavior is due to what he termed the
"territorial imperative" or the need-for-possession instinct. These
propositions. however. have not received the acclaim like two other
major instinctive theories advanced in the psychoanalytic and

ethological fields of study.

27

As noted by several investigators (e.g.. Bandura. 1973;
Feshbach. 1970; Solomon. 1970; Zillmann. 1979). Freud's original
psychoanalytic theory postulated the existence of two instincts: the
sexual instinct and the ego instinct. The motivation for these was the
seeking of pleasure and self-preservation and thus the reduction of
tension. After World War I. in his later writings. Freud tried to
provide an explanation for the sadistic. masochistic. and self-
destructive behaviors of man. He revised his instinctive theory to
include a life instinct and its counterbalance. a death instinct. The
life instinct. Eros. was life enhancing. while Thanatos was the
instinct that included tendencies toward aggression and a force whose
aim was the destruction of the organism. "In this conceptual revision.
aggression became an inborn drive rather than a by-product of thwarting
libidinal strivings" (Bandura. 1973. p. 13).

Freud's death instinct and aggressive instinct are controver-
sial and have few true or purist supporters. One element of the theory
that has gathered consensus relates to the issue of relief or purgation
of hostile or destructive pressures. which is known as catharsis (Fesh-
bach. 1970; Zillmann. 1979). Ultimately. it was Freud's view that
"aggression is. in the final analysis. inevitable" (Zillmann. 1979.

p. 121).

The other field of study which attributes aggression to

instincts is ethology.' The first major contributor to the study of

ethology was Charles Darwin. In 1872. he published systematic notes
describing. as is titled. WW

28

Animal. Darwin postulated the existence of three principles that aid
to illuminate what he termed the "theory of the subject" (p. 28).

The three principles include serviceable associate habits.
antithesis. and actions due to the constitution of the nervous system
(Darwin. 1872). Basically. the premise of the theory of the subject is
that man's actions. both voluntary and involuntary. are a result of
nerve-force and become habitual when the mind is induced to a state
that produced the first expression or its opposite reaction. Darwin
proceeded to vividly describe. among other things. the physical
characteristics of rage and anger. His detailed descriptions of human
behavior patterns and cross-cultural description of human expression
were the first of such recorded. His work must certainly be considered
the initial stepping stone for future ethologists.

Aside from Darwin. the primary focus of study for most etholo-
gists has been with animal primates. However. within the last 30 years
more consideration has been given to ethological studies relating to
human behavior. According to Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1971). "ethologists deal
with the observed behavior patterns and label as aggressive every act
that leads to a spacing or subordination. even a display" (p. 73).
Beyond this simple working definition of aggression. there has been
postulated. like Freud. an instinctive theory of aggression from an
ethological point of view. This theory is known as the hydraulic
theory.

How often have you heard someone comment that he needed to

"blow off steam" or had to "get it out of his system" or to "get it off

29

his chest"? These remarks are the simple basis for what is known as
hydraulic theory. According to Lorenz (1966). aggression is sponta-
neous in that it may occur without stimulation. or in a stimulus
vacuum. He posited that "aggressive drive is a true. primarily species
preserving instinct" (pp. 49-50). The hydraulic model which Lorenz
developed explains the spontaneity of this species-preserving instinct.
Zillman (1979) summarized Lorenz's hydraulic theory as follows:

In his energy model of instinctive actions. Lorenz conceived of
energy as a liquid stored in a container. Energy is continuously
provided through an input pipe. There is a constant flow of energy
into the reservoir. The reservoir is drained through an out pipe.
The outflow of energy is regulated by a valve that is controlled by
a spring. This spring responds (a) to the pressure inside the
reservoir and (b) to the pull of external stimulation. The latter
is represented by an outside weight that exerts a pull on the
valve. Energy exists through a horizontal spout. Dependent on the
pressure inside the container. it may drop close to the container
(at low pressure) or shoot farther away from it (at high pressureL
The energy passes through a scale grid and finally reaches a trough
with a leaning. perforated bottom. The holes in the bottom corres-
pond to instinctive actions. Holes in the lower area of the trough
are associated with more basic instinctive actions than those in
higher areas. ‘The more characteristic forms of behavior are thus
advantaged by the downward flow of energy in the trough. The more
specific forms are elicited only at high energy levels. (p. 122)

There are many unresolved questions regarding Lorenz's model.
These include: Does the energy flow ever shut off? Does the valve
ever close or reach some form of homeostasis? Is the drainage benefi-
cial or harmful?

Like Freud. Lorenz viewed aggression as being inevitable.
However. through catharsis or the redirection of energies. aggression
can be modified. Lorenz advocated competitive sports and physical
activities to obtain this release. After evaluating Lorenz's theory.

Zillmann (1979) concluded that "Lorenz's proposal of spontaneous and

30

accumulating instinctive aggressive energy is without empirical
foundation" (p. 125).

Another major criticism of Lorenz's work is that he "neglects
the role of learning as a determinant of aggressive behavior in
animals" (Feshbach. 1970. p. 177). For example. it is purported that a
catfls innate instinct will lead it to kill rats and birds. Behaviorist
researcher Kuo (1930. 1938) found that by reinforcing appropriate
behaviors. cats could be reared to be non-rat-killing animals or even
to fear their customary prey. rats and birds. Further. Kuo studied a
bird embryo and concluded that the embryo's behaviors were a reaction
to stimuli or environment. not innate behaviors (Lorenz. 1982). ‘There
was a debate over the embryo study as to the behaviors being learned or
innate. After ten years of contemplation. Lorenz (1982) deducted the
following:

It was. as a matter of fact. incorrect to formulate the concepts of
the innate and the acquired as disjunctive opposites; however. the
mutuality and intersection of their conceptual contents were not to
be found. as the "instinct opponents" supposed. in everything
apparently innate being. really learned. but the very reverse. in
that everything learned must have as its foundation a phylogeneti-
cally provided program if. as they actually are. appropriate
species-preserving behavior patterns were to be produced. (p. 8)

Lorenz (1982) further questioned: "How was it possible that
whenever the organism modified its behavior through learning processes.
the right process was learned. in other words. the adaptive improvement
of its behavioral mechanisms was achieved" (p. 8). In 1961. based on a

conditioned reflex known as a feedback circuit. he concluded the

following:

31

Whenever a modification of an organ. as well as of a behavior
pattern proves to be adaptive to a particular environmental cir-
cumstance. this also proves incontrovertibly that information about
this circumstance must have been "fed into" the organism. There
are only two ways this can happen. The first is in the course of
phylogenesis through mutation and/or new combinations of genetic
factors and through natural selection. The second is through
individual acquisition of information by the organism in the course
of its ontogeny. "Innate" and "learned" are not each defined
through an exclusion of the other but through the way of entrance
taken by the pertinent information that is a prerequisite for every
adaptive change. (Lorenz. 1982. p. 9)

Lorenz (1982) further postulated about the phylogenetically
programmed behaviors: "that certain behavior elements. and exactly
those that serve as the built-in "schoolmarm" and conduct the learning
processes along the correct route. are never modifiable through learn-
ing" (p. 9). However.

every "learned behavior" does contain phylogenetically acquired
information to the extent that the basis of the teaching function
of every "schoolmarm" is a physiological apparatus that evolved
under the pressure of selection. Whoever denies this must assume a
prestabilized harmony between the environment and the organism to
explain the fact that learning--apart from some instructive
failures--always reinforces teleonomic behavior and extinguishes
unsuitable behavior. (p. 10)

The ethological approach to aggression. more particularly the
hydraulic theory of aggression. being instinctive and spontaneous. has
generally been abandoned over ti me. This also holds true for Freud's
psychoanalytic theory. As hypothetical forces. the theories seem to
maintain prominence. It appears that the primary factor of importance

from these theories is the concept of energy and the need to release

this energy via some form of activity.

32

Wm

The concept of energy is the foundation for the theory of
aggression as a drive. In 1939. Dollard. Doob. Miller. Mowrer. and
Sears postulated a theory of aggression that has since become»known as
the frustration-aggression hypothesis. ‘This was the first systematic
approach to aggression made by experimental psychologists. The
abridged version of this theory still remains effectual in todayus
research on aggression.

Dollard et ale basic premise was that "the occurrence of
aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration
and. contrariwise. that the existence of frustration always leads to
some form of aggression" Ox 1). It was their contention that
initially there is an instigator which "is some'antecedent condition
of which the predicted response is the consequence" (p. 3). The
termination of a predicted sequence is called a goal response. The
goal response may range from being a gross motor activity such as
throwing a ball or running. to a verbal comment from a peer.

The interference with the occurrence of an instigated goal-response
at its proper time in the behavior sequence is called frustration.
In order to say that a frustration exists then one must be able to
specify two things: (1) that the organism could have been expected
to perform certain acts. and (2) that these acts have been pre-
vented from occurring. A goal response reinforces the behavior
sequence leading up to it. while interference does not.(pp. 7-8)
Dollard et a1. wrote. "The frustration aggression hypothesis assumes a

universal causal relation between frustration and aggression" (p. 10).

Subsequently. Dollard et a1. stated.

33

The dependent definition of aggression is that response which
follows frustration. reduces only the secondary. frustration-
produced instigation and leaves the strength of the original insti-
gation unaffected. Frustration is independently defined as that
condition which exists when a goal-response suffers interference.
Aggression is independently defined as an act whose goal response
is injury to an organism. (p. 11)

Three major points are developed in this hypothesis. These
include: (a) that aggression is always based on frustration. (b) that
frustration always leads to aggression. and (c) that there exists an
almost innate relationship between aggression and frustration.

Sears. Hovland. and Millem'(1940) somewhat revised the second
portion of the frustration-aggression hypothesis and defined aggression
as "any behavior. in short. which is intended to injure another
organism (or organism-surrogate». or which could serve to injure an
organism if it were in range" (p. 275). Then. in 1941. Miller in
collaboration with Sears. Mowrer. Doob. and Dollard retracted the claim
that frustration always leads to aggression. He rephrased the second
segment to read: "Frustration produces instigations to a number of
different types of responses. one of which is an instigation to some
form of aggression" (p. 338). Miller et a1. further stated that "if
instigation to aggression is the strongest then aggression will occur.
If instigation to other responses is strongest then they will occur
before aggression" (p. 339).

Thus the revised frustration-aggression hypothesis is as
follows: (a) "Frustration instigates behavior that may or may not be

hostile or aggressive. (b) Any hostile or aggressive behavior that

occurs is caused by frustration" (Zillmann. 1979. p. 27).

34

Miller et a1. further clarified the issue of whether aggression
was innate or learned by stating: "It is not certain how early in the
infancy of the individual the frustration-aggression hypothesis is
applicable. and no assumptions are made as to whether the frustration
aggression relationship is of innate or of learned origin" (p. 340).
Later. Miller (1964) reported that "there are built in patterns of
human behavior. these patterns may be modifiable enough so that they
are disguised by learning but may still play a crucial role in
motivating socially-learned behavior" (p. 160). Thus one may conclude
that:"the frustration-aggression relationship may be learnable without
being entirely learned" (Berkowitz. 1969. p. 4).

The frustration-aggression hypothesis further formulated
assumptions that could be empirically tested. These pertained to the
factors influencing the strength of instigation to aggression. the
inhibition of aggression. the displacement of aggression. and the
reduction of aggression. Regarding the first of these factors. Dollard
et a1. (1939) maintained that the strength of the instigation to
aggression should have a direct correlation with "(1) the strength of
instigation to the frustration response. (2) the degree of interference
with the frustration response. and (3) the number of frustrated
response-sequences" (p. 28). An example might be that if a child had
two toys. he would be less frustrated or angry if one were taken away
rather than both toys removed.

In addition to factors affecting the strength of instigation.

aggression is also affected by the inhibitory factors. It has been

35

postulated that "the strength of inhibition of any act of aggression
varies positively with the amount of punishment anticipated to be a
consequence of that act" (Dollard et al.. 1939. p. 33). Thus it is
possible that the effects of punishment may reinforce aggressive
behavior. Feshbach (1970) noted that "anticipation of punishment may
be frustrating and therefore increase the instigation to aggression.
while at the same time inhibiting the overt expression of a particular
aggressive act" (p. 170). Bandura (1973) stated that the response an
individual makes to the frustration is dependent on "the types of
responses the person has learned for coping with stress" (p. 53).
Further. he stated that "the highest rate of aggressive behavior is
found in environments where aggressive models abound and where
aggressiveness is regarded as a highly valued attribute" (p. 97).
Consideration has been given to the degree of inhibition and
the strength of the aggressive response. Next. Dollard and his
colleagues (1939) addressed the issue of displacement of aggression.
They hypothesized that "the strongest instigator. aroused by a frustra-
tion. is to acts of aggression directed against the agent perceived to
be the source of the frustration and progressively weaker instigations
are aroused to progressively less direct acts of aggression" (p. 39).
Thus they proposed that an individual will instigate aggression toward
the primary source of frustration but additionally toward an associated
target. ‘These secondary acts of aggression will subsequently weaken
the original instigators. "The occurrence of any act of aggression is

assumed to reduce the instigation to aggression. In psychoanalytic

36

terminology. such a release is called catharsis" On 50). One might
conclude that if individuals are allowed socially acceptable modes of
physical activity or vicarious outlets in which to express their
aggression. their aggression will be displaced and their frustration
lessened. Frost and Holmes (1979) found that displacement activities
following annoyance did not reduce physiological arousal. but it did
reduce the amount of succeeding aggressive actions against the annoyer.
Contributing to this finding are the results of Dayton and Mikulas's
(1981) study. which found that assertive subjects recovered more
rapidly from an aroused state if the alternatives to the aroused
situation were assertive or aggressive. Nonassertive subjects had a
rapid reduction of arousal when the consequences were nonassertive
rather than assertive or aggressive. "This suggests that for many
assertive people assertive behavior is arousal-reducing and thus
perhaps reinforcing and for many non-assertive people non-assertive
behavior is arousal reducing and possibly reinforcing" (Dayton &
Mikulas. 1981. p. 308).

While this theory along with its revisions has been the
foundation for voluminous empirical studies regarding aggression. one
must question the length of time it takes for instigational effects of
frustration to occur; How long can one inhibit the instigator? Could
it possibly become a hydraulic effect? How long does the catharsis
affect the instigator? If frustration effects are long lasting. are
catharsis effects long lasting also? Ultimately what needs to be

addressed in this theory is "whether or not observed violent

37

transgressions occur because of the accumulation of residual instiga-

tory effects of frustration" (Zillmann. 1979. p. 131).

MW

Thus far contradistinctions of the origin of aggression have
included innateness leading directly to aggressive behavior and
frustration causing an aggressive drive which culminates in aggressive
behavior. Both of these theories seem to be based on the action of
aggression. Somehow. via instinct or drive. aggression is acquired and
inevitable. Subsumed within both of these theories. not certainly at
their origin but somewhere along the way. learning plays a role in
aggression (Darwin. 1909; Eibl-Eibesfeldt. 1951; Feshbach. 1970;
Lorenz. 1982; Miller. 1941).

It is learning theory and. yet one step further. social
learning theory that has accumulated prominence and acceptance as a
systematic analysis and approach to aggression. Both of these theories
will be reviewed.

The literature on learning theory as related to aggression is
extensive. The major issues covered in the literature relate to
whether the continuation of aggressive behavior is a result of the
desire to attain rewards. to alleviate aversive stimuli. or to inflict
injury. or a result of incentive theory. Also. the literature has
examined the use of punishment as a deterrent. A thorough review of

studies pertaining to these issues was presented in Zillmann's (1979)

book titled fl9511111y_and_AggLe§§19n. For the purpose of this paper. a

38

synopsis of Zillmann's summary will be made. highlighting the salient
points of interest in these areas.

The fundamental concepts of learning theory. i.e.. the use of
contingent reinforcement or aversives to modify a stimulus. are
functional for all behaviors including aggression. Zillmann (1979)
concluded that in regard to human aggression. "the alleviation of
aversions and the attainment of rewards are largely appraised on
intuitive grounds. As a consequence. it is often unclear whether
reinforcement is negative or positive. and statements about the nature
of reinforcement can be misleading" (p. 178). He found that the "alle-
viation of aversion potentially reinforces both successful aggression
and submission" and that the "attainment of rewards tends to selec-
tively reinforce successful aggression" (p. 178).

In analyzing the reinforcement value of the infliction of
injury. the results have primarily been negative. Zillmann's (1979)
summary stated the following:

(1) Signs of damage failed to reinforce aggression. With the
possible exception of intermale aggression. signs of damage proved
to exert a strong inhibitory effect on later aggression. (2) The
victinfls experience and expression of pain failed to reinforce
aggression. (3) Witnessing an annoyer suffer seems pleasing.
whereas witnessing a neutral person suffer seems disturbing.

(4) There is no evidence whatever that could be construed as sup-
port for the notion that signs of damage and expressions of pain
are inherently reinforcing. (p. 190)

Zillmann's research of the studies pertaining to incentive
theory and aggression concluded that aggression is strongly reinforced

with the attainment of both tangible and nontangible rewards. It is

difficult to determine the exact nature since it is mixed with both

39

positive and negative reinforcement elements. He recapped findings
proving that "marked sex differences seem to exist with regard to the
reinforcement value of both tangibTe and nontangible rewards" and that
"the social approval and encouragement of aggression promotes aggres-
siveness" (p. 197).

Difficulties arise when discussing punishment as a deterrent to
aggressive behavior merely due to semantics. For the purposes here.
punishment will be referred to as aversive control.

Zillmann's summary of the use of aversive control as a
deterrent included the following salient results from research studies:

1. Aversive stimulation that cannot be perceived as manipu-
lated by persons or institutions to control the respondent's behav-
ior suppresses the behavior that precedes and that apparently
precipitates such stimulation. Aversive control in humans func-
tions analogously to aversive control in subhuman species. Its
effects on behavior can be strong and persistent. similar to the
effects of reinforcement. The research evidence does not support
the view that the aversive control of human behavior is ineffective
and necessarily maladaptive.

2. Hostile and aggressive behaviors are under aversive con-
trol. As long as the aversive control cannot be perceived as
manipulative or does not involve stimuli sufficiently intense to
prompt defensive aggressive reactions. aversive contingencies tend
to suppress hostility and aggression.

3. Aversive control becomes ineffective as contingent aver-
sions are matched or dominated by simultaneously operating rein-
forcement contingencies.

4. Aversive stimulation perceived as manipulative by persons
or institutions to control the respondent's behavior does not
necessarily produce effects similar to those resulting from
aversive stimulation not perceived in this way.

5. If aversive stimulation is perceived as legitimate or is
recognized as ultimately beneficial by the respondent. manipulative
aversive control may function analogously to nonmanipulative aver-
sive control.

6. If aversive stimulation is perceived as unjustified and
arbitrary by the respondent. it is likely to promote rather than
suppress hostility and aggression.

7. Little is known about the effects of the punishment of
transgressions. The perceived legitimacy of such punishment again

40

seems to be of great importance. Physical punishment. because its
legitimacy is generally questioned. is not likely to be an effec-
tive punitive measure; if such punishment is regarded as a viola-
tion of legitimacy. it should prompt hostile and aggressive reac-
tions. Strategies employing mild positive punishment and negative
punishment or transgressions together with the reinforcement of
constructive responses appear to be the most effective in the
curtailment of hostility and aggression.

8. ‘Threat of punishment may suppress hostile and aggressive
behavior if the respondent perceives it as likely that the threat-
ened contingency can and will be enforced by the threatener.

(pp. 220-221)

As previously stated. the principles of learning theory are
well accepted as an explanation for the origin and instigators of
aggression. Using learning theory as a basis. Bandura (1973. 1976)
incorporated those major premises into what is known as the social
learning theory of aggression. He believed a theory on aggression
should explain "how aggressive patterns are developed. what provokes
people to behave aggressively. and what maintains their aggressive
actions" (Bandura. 1976. p. 204). Bandura's social learning theory
accomplished this task by defining the origins. instigators. and
regulators of aggression.

The social learning theory definition of aggression includes:
"behavior that results in personal injury and in the destruction of
property. The injury may be psychological (in the form of devaluation
or degradation) as well as physical" (Bandura. 1973. p. 5). Bandura
also took into consideration the effects of these acts on the victim.
Aggressive behavior. unlike other social behaviors. is the one area in
which the spectator does not have to be a willing participant. ‘In
fact. "the behavior that is punishing for the victim can. at least on a

short term basis. be rewarding for the aggressor" (Bandura. 1973.

41

p. 2). Also. the labeling of aggression is based on a variety of
factors. 'There are incidents in which one behavior may be labeled as
aggressive and in another setting the behavior may be considered
appropriate. An example may be the use of a knife as a weapon versus
the use of a scalpel during surgery; or in the classroom environment.
wrestling would be deemed inappropriate. yet on the school yard it
might be viewed as rough and tumble play.

The social learning theory identifies three origins for aggres-
sive modes of behavior. These origins are observational learning.
reinforced performance. and structural determinants.

Observational learning is the foundation of aggressive modes of
behavior. Through observing the behavior of others. one may acquire
strategies or a plan of action that will imitate or exceed the particu-
lar behavior modeled (Bandura. 1973. 1976). However. observation alone
does not guarantee that an individual will respond aggressively. What
occurs is that the individual who is reinforced for aggressive behavior
will predictably behave in the same manner in the future because these
actions become associated with pleasant feelings; conversely. the indi-
vidual who is punished for aggressive actions will decrease those
behaviors. 'The structural determinants that interact with this process
involve the acquisition of the aggressive behaviors and the social
factors that determine whether an individual will use the aggressive
modes previously modeled. This is reliant on whether the individual
determines that the behaviors have some functional value and whether

the behaviors are positively or negatively sanctioned by their culture.

42

There are three major modeling sources of aggressive behaviors
that are influential. The modeling influences come from the family.
the subculture. and via symbolic modeling (Bandura. 1973. 1976).

The family is one of the prominent sources from which
aggressive behaviors are modeled (Bandura. 1973. 1976; Sears. Ran. &
Elpert. 1965). .Additionally. Bandura (1973) reviewed a study he
conducted with Walters in 1959 and reported that "some of the most
aggressive boys came from families in which both parents demanded.
instigated. and condoned assaultive behavior" (p. 95). Unwittingly.
through physical punishment of children who perhaps have hit another
child or committed another transgression. one models disciplinary
actions that are aggressive (Bandura. 1973).

The subculture is another significant influence of modeling
aggressive action (Bandura. 1973. 1796; Polsky 8. Kohn. 1959). "The
highest rates of aggressive behavior are found in environments where
aggressive models abound and where aggressiveness is regarded as a
highly valued attribute" (Bandura. 1973. p. 97)). "In these aggressive
subcultures status is gained primarily through fighting prowess.
Consequently. good aggressors are the prestigious models on whom
members pattern their behavior" (Bandura. 1976. p. 207). 1

Studies have indicated that a higher incidence of aggressive
modeling exists among delinquent than nondelinquent boys (Glueck a
Glueck. 1950; McCord. McCord. 8. Zola. 1959). An example of where we
teach individuals that aggression is a positive form of behavior is in

the military services. Within this subculture individuals are

43

reinforced to fight and kill for the cause of freedom and nationalism.
It has been shown with soldiers returning from wars that a resocializa-
tion process is necessary to reestablish the individual in the main-
stream of society.

The third source influencing aggressive behavior is symbolic
modeling. Symbolic modeling is provided via mass media. Bandura
(1976) believed that "it is not uncommon for people experiencing
appropriate inducement to pattern criminal activities after ingenious
styles portrayed in the mass media" (p. 208). This is exemplified in
the rash of airplane hijackings. peaceful sit-ins modeled after
Gandhi's nonviolent resistance (Bandura. 1976). which progressively
turned violent (i.e.. Kent State). and a robbery identically patterned
after one described in Trevanian's book titled W.
However. mass-media modelings quickly lose their impetus due to the
development of effective countermeasures. the discrepancy between
anticipated and real consequences. and the behavior losing its attrac-
tiveness through overuse (Bandura. 1976).

In addition to explaining how aggressive patterns are acquired.
the social learning theory addresses how they are activated. i.e..
instigators of aggression. Social learning theory postulates that
"most of the events that provoke people to aggress. such as insults.
verbal challenges. status threats. unjust treatment. and inciting
actions. gain this activating capacity through learning experiences
rather than from genetic endowment" (Bandura. 1976. p. 211). The

instigators of aggression include modeling influences. aversive

44

treatment. incentive inducement. instructional control. and bizarre
symbolic control (Bandura. 1976).

Social learning theory identifies four processes by which
modeling influences can motivate aggressive actions (Bandura. 1976).
The first mode is called discriminative function. in which an
individual who has been reinforced for a particular behavior will
repeat the behavior. The second mode is

aggressive conduct that is regarded as emulative and therefore
unencumbered by restraint. Whereas aggressive modeling is pri-
marily instigational. it serves a disinhibitory function in the
case of injurious behavior that is fear provoking. Because aggres-
sion usually incurs severe punishment costs. both instigational and
disinhibitory processes are likely to be involved. (Bandura. 1976.
p. 212)

The third modeling mode of instigation is emotional arousal. which is a
result of watching others aggress. The fourth mode involves stimulus-
enhancing effects. According to Bandura (1976). "modeled activities
inevitably direct observers' attention to the particular implements
being used. 'This directive attentional influence may prompt observers
to use the same instruments to a greater extent. although not necessar-
ily in an imitative way" (p. 213).

In social learning theory. instead of frustration generating an
aggressive drive that is reducible only by injurious behavior.
aversive treatment creates a general state of emotional arousal
that can facilitate a variety of behaviors. depending on the type
of responses the person has learned for coping with stress and
their relative effectiveness.. . . Different forms of aversive
stimulation often have dissimilar behavioral effects. Therefore.
in the social learning analysis injurious behavior is related to
different classes of aversive antecedents. (Bandura. 1976. pp. 213-
214)

45

The different classes of aversive antecedents include physical assault.
verbal threats and insults. aversive reduction in the level of rein-
forcement (when discrepancies exist between observed and experienced
outcomes. discontent generally occurs). and thwarting of goal-directed
behavior (Bandura. 1973. 1976).

The last three instigators include incentive inducement.
instructional control. and delusion control (Bandura. 1973. 1976)
Since humans have the capacity to»cognitively project behavior outcomes
into the future. the demonstration of aggressive actions frequently is
a result of anticipated positive consequences. The instigator is
reliant upon the incentive inducement or anticipated rewards rather
than the possible negative punishment (Bandura. 1976).

It has been found that

by rewarding obedience to directives and punishing noncompliance.
orders eventually acquire eliciting power. After this form of
social control is established. legitimate authorities can success-
fully command aggression from others. especially if actions are
presented as justified and necessary and the agents possess strong
coercive power.(Bandura. 1976. p. 218)
The power instructional control holds over individuals is exemplified
in Milgrim's (1974) research. which demonstrated that some adults will
administer increasingly stronger shocks when commanded. regardless of
the victinfls pleas to halt. Additionally. history has demonstrated via
the proceedings from the Nuremberg trials. the Tate/La Bianca trial.
and the happenings at Jamestown that some people will follow directions
with little consideration of the consequences.

Delusional control is the last instigator identified in the

social learning theory. It has been postulated (Bandura. 1973. 1976)

46

that in addition to external instigators. aggressive behavior results
from some outrageous symbolic control. An example of this is the
attempted assassination of President Reagan by Hinkley. 'The motivation
that led Hinkley to his action was assumed to be based on his falling
in love with an actress and his deluded thoughts that the killing of
the President would gain him favor in the actress's eyes.

The origin and instigators of aggression have been summarized
according to social learning theory. The third and final aspect of
social learning theory deals with the maintenance or regulators of
aggression. The four major regulators of aggression are external
reinforcement. punishment. vicarious reinforcement. and self-
reinforcement (Bandura. 1973. 1976).

The direct external reinforcement (Bandura. 1976) contributing
to the maintenance of aggressive behavior can take the form of tangible
rewards. social and status rewards. the alleviation of aversive treat-
ment. and the expression of injury (i.e.. when hurting an individual in
some way benefits the aggressor). Punishment can also sustain aggres-
sive behaviors by being either inhibitory or informative. The vicari-
ous reinforcement of aggression is based on the premise that seeing
aggression rewarded in others will increase the probability of one
trying on new behaviors and. conversely. seeing it punished will
decrease one's tendency to behave aggressively (Bandura. 1973. 1976).
The last regulator of aggressive behavior is self-reinforcement. This
can either be self-reward or self-punishment for aggression. These

take the form of reconstructing the aggressive incident to minimize

47

one's role. thus resulting in a palliative comparison; justifying
aggression in terms of higher principles; displacement and diffusion of
one's responsibility to the action; dehumanizing the victim; attribut-
ing blame to the victim; misrepresenting the consequences; and gradu-
ally becoming desensitized to the actions and consequences of aggres-
sion (Bandura. 1973. 1976).

The social learning theory of aggression addresses the origin.
instigators. and regulators of aggression. The social learning
theorists' fundamental premise is that people are taught to act
aggressively and through one's family. subculture. and mass media are
reinforced in various manners to maintain these behaviors. While one
may learn to be aggressive. obversely it has been demonstrated that one
may also learn to be nonaggressive (Montagu. 1978). Cultures such as
the Fore of New Guinea (Sorenson. 1978). the lKung of the Kalahari
Desert (Draper. 1978). and the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic (Briggs.
1978) have all taught their children to be nonaggressive through
redirection of activities. This is not to say that these individuals
are immune to aggressive actions. but that these actions are generally
exhibited toward objects or animals and not toward other tribe members.

Heretofore. prevalent information regarding animal studies and
the pertinent theories and definitions of aggression--instinctive.
drive. leaning. and social learning-~have been summarized. The
intention was to provide background information on the salient issues
in this area. The final section examines the literature relating

directly to the observational studies of children and aggression.

48

W

A spectrum of measurements has been used by social scientists
to determine the origin. instigators. and maintaining causes and
factors of aggression. The research ranges from observational studies
to experimental studies. with indirect techniques such as interviewing
somewhere in the middle (McGrew. 1972). Wright (1960) reported that.
of the 1.409 empirical studies conducted between 1890 and 1959. there
were only 110 observational studies performed. Of these 110 observa-
tional studies. only three pertained to the adolescent school-aged
student. whereas the remaining empirical studies used a fairly even
distribution of subjects in the preschool. school. and adolescent age
range. The main reason cited for use of preschool children in observa-
tional studies is that when the child is young. he exhibits more natu-
ral behaviors in front of observers (Wright. 1960). Among the observa-
tional studies conducted. only 12 dealt with the issue of aggression.
Eleven observational studies pertaining to aggression used subjects in
the preschool age range. whereas only one observational study on
aggression viewed adolescent subjects.

The first recording of an observational study of human
behaviors has been attributed to Darwin (1872). He conducted a cross-
cultural study that resulted in descriptors used to characterize rage
and anger. Some of Darwirfls more graphic findings are as follows:
heart beat and circulation affected. face reddens. face becomes purple.
veins on forehead distended. respiration affected. chest heaves.

nostrils dilate. nostrils quiver. mouth froths. hair bristles. frown on

49

forehead. eyes glare. eyes glisten. eyes protrude. lips protrude. lips
retract. snarling. flow of tears. spitting. yelling. slapping. pulling
objects. shaking objects. stamping. jumping up and down. hitting with
the hand. etc. His chronicling of representative human behaviors and
patterns was the first of its kind and the foundation for further
studies. .
Repeatedly. observational and empirical studies of preschool
children have shown that boys consistently demonstrate a higher number
of physical aggressions than girls (Dawe. 1934; Green. 1933; Jersild &
Markey. 1935; Kounin. 1977; McGrew. 1972; Sears. Rau. & Elpert. 1965;
Siegel. 1956; Walters. Pearce. & Dahms. 1957; Werry & Ouay. 1971).
Moreover. McGrew (1972) found that "all-male interactions tended to be
agonistic or quasiagonistic in nature. mixed-sex interactions were
'genuinely' agonistic. and all-female interactions were usually
nonagonistic" (p. 116-117). Most quarrels begin over the possession of
an item or result in injuries to objects rather than another person
(Blurton-Jones. 1967; Dawe. 1934; Muste & Sharpe. 1947; Sears. Rau. &
Elpert. 1965). The frequency of physical assaults decreases around the
age of three years (Dawe. 1934; Jersild & Markey. 1935); however. as
the age increases. there is an increase in the aggressive and
retaliative behaviors exhibited (Dawe. 1934; Green. 1933; Jersild &
Markey. 1935; Muste & Sharpe. 1947). Werry and Quay (1971) found a
decrease in disruptive behaviors around the ages of five and six but
noticed a slight increase at age eight. The mean duration for observed

quarrels by Dawe (1934) was 23 seconds. while McGrew (1972) found that

50

the mean duration of agonistic-quasiagonistic interactions was 12$)
seconds. Hitting. pushing. and pulling were found to be the three
predominantly exhibited aggressive behaviors (Dawe. 1934; Strayer &
Strayer. 1976; Werry & Quay. 1971).

The effects of environment and the family are determinants of
whether children will use aggression to settle disputes (Bandura. 1973.
1976; Muste a Sharpe. 1947; Sears. Rau. & Elpert. 1965). McKee &
Leader (1955) found that children coming from lower socioeconomic
families have a higher propensity to be aggressive. One study found
that upon reviewing the background of students referred for acting-out
and aggressive behaviors. there consistently was a history of separa-
tion or divorce in the family (Felner. Stolberg. & Cowen. 1975). Also
it has been found that the gang leaders of incarcerated juvenile delin-
quents tend to be more aggressive and hostile in order to impress their
peers (Polsky & Kohn. 1959). While the issue of environmental influ-
ences was discussed in the section on social learning theory. it is
further addressed here due to the effect it might have on the popula-
tion in this study.

Another issue of concern is that of supervision. Are children
aggressive due to lack of supervision or because they know a fight will
be stopped when an adult is present. thus making it safer in one sense
to be aggressive? There have been some controversial results regarding
the demonstration of aggressive behaviors with and without the presence
of an adult. Siegel found that when an adult was not present. anxiety

and aggressive actions decreased (Siegel. 1957; Siegel & Kohn. 1959).

51

However. it has also been found that there are fewer disruptions in
structured teacher-present activities than with structured teacher-
absent activities (Pastor & Swap. 1978; Patterson. Littman. & Bricker.
1967). Yet if the activity is unstructured. there are fewer disrup-
tions if the teacher is absent than if the teacher is present (Pastor &
Swap. 1978).

A major emphasis of the ethological research on aggression has
been concerned with the exiStence of dominance hierarchies. "The
usefulness of a dominance hierarchy comes from its power to help
explain a group's social behavior or from its power to provide
organization to otherwise puzzling behavioral phenomena" OWcGrew. 1972.
p. 122). It has been found that linear dominance hierarchies may be a
useful tool in predicting conflict situations in preschool children
(McGrew. 1972; Sluckin A Smith. 1977).

The research reviewed thus far has primarily been time-sample
and event-sample observational studies. Adjunctively. the results from
some experimental studies have been included. Focusing on the observa-
tional studies. one finds that the observations were all of preschool
children. excluding the study conducted by Polsky and Kohn (1959). The
observational periods varied from 40 30-second sessions (Green. 1933)
to an extended study over three years. for three three-month sessions.
The difficulty with most of those studies was that the descriptors were
either nebulous (94%: "inactive pursuits" [Green. 1933]. "bodily

attack." and "moderately assertive" [Patterson. Littman. & Bricker.

52

1967]). or inferential ("undirected energy" [Dawe. 1934] and "competes
for status" [Walters. Pearce. & Dahms. 1957])

While certain traits have been identified as existing during an
aggressive incident. there are a few studies that have described in
.minute detail facial expressions and gestures (Blurton-Jones. 1967;
Grant. 1969; McGrew. 1972). McGrew (1972) studied the existence of
dominance hierarchies in preschool children as determined by win/lose
interactions. In this study he compared 237 agonistic-quasiagonistic
with 65 nonagonistic interactions. Each behavior pattern had a concise
definition to describe the label. Of the 13 behaviors McGrew identi-
fied as possible agonistic interactions. three coincided with Blurton-
Jones's (1967) findings. These three behaviors were back. "the trunk
is extended at the hips so that the head and shoulders move backward"
(McGrew. 1972. p. 99); pull. "the arms are flexed toward the body.
usually the chest. thus drawing an object or person toward the body or
vice versa" (McGrew. 1972. p. 80); and verbalize. which is the vocali-
zation of sound. Blurton-Jones (1967) also found walk to be a consis-
tent behavior demonstrated during agonistic interactions.

These two studies (Blurton—Jones. 1967; McGrew. 1972). along
with Grant's (1969) and Brannigan and Humphries's (1972) accurate
facial and gesture descriptions. have resulted in standardized defini-
tions for some behavior patterns. These definitions are critical to
the present study and were used as the framework for the evaluation of

all behaviors (Appendix A).

53

Beyond the defined behavior patterns. there is only one
theorist who has postulated the existence of stages in actions of
aggression. Bovet (1923) described the five stages when individuals
fight. In Bovet's stages of individual fights. he delineated five
phases: verbal provocation. first assault. the scuffle. anger. and
respite.

Verbal provocation involves teasing. shouting of insults. name
calling. threats. and ultimatums which culminate in a challenge. such
as "If you don't do this. I'll do that." The first assault is when the
adversaries gradually approach each other; "after insults come stones.
then blows with a stick. and then the scuffle. starting with kicks and
punches and leading up to the moment when the adversaries hurl them-
selves on each other. grapple. and throw each other down" (p. 22). The
scuffle in which the adversaries quickly engage is characterized by the
desire to attain a position of advantage. This is accomplished by
pushing or tripping the opponent and being in the top position. thus
enabling the aggressor to deliver blows. Anger. or the fighter-enraged
stage. is when the fighter has pinned his adversary and then proceeds
to bite or scratch rather than hit his opponent. According to Bovet.
"these actions are not considered 'good form' in war" (p. 24). The
final respite stage occurs after the first physical encounter and the
combatants are again face to face. "After this respite they resume
their mutual insults. or set to again without delay. belabouring each
other. or grappling hand to hand. In this way they may condense one or

two of the stages" (p. 25). While the study conducted by Bovet has

54

theoretical and data limitations. he attributed the causes for fighting
to instincts.

The literature review consisted of briefly identifying impor-
tant aspects of animal studies and the most relevant definitions and
theories on aggression. Additionally. research pertaining more
directly to this study was reviewed. Generally. the literature has
addressed origins. instigators. mediating factors. and remediating
techniques for aggression. The most significant investigations. how-
ever. are the ethological studies which present definitions for pat-
terns of behavior. Even with this. the issue of predicting an assault-
ive incident due to the co-occurrence of behavior patterns before.
during. and after the assault was not mentioned in any of the studies

reviewed.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN

The demonstration of aggressive-assault and/or aggressive-anger
behaviors from one individual to another is to a degree one type of
interpersonal interaction.

Most research on social interactions and relationships has been
paradigmatic. in the sense that it has involved taking one theo-
retical model or set of postulates. based perhaps on classical or
operant conditioning. or on the concepts of norms or of complemen-
tary needs. and seeing how far it would go. (Hinde. 1979. p. 7)
According to Hinde (1979). research needs to provide a description of
relationships. a categorization of their properties. and classification
of these properties so that we can convert our limited knowledge and
experimental findings into generalizations that have specific ranges of
validity. This would involve "the identification of relations between
behavior and events inside or outside the organism which precede.
accompany or follow it" (Hinde. 1966. p. 4). A relationship implies
the existence of some reciprocal interactions between two people.
involving an interchange over a period of time. The interchanges have
some degree of mutuality. such that the behavior of each takes into
account some degree of the behavior of the other. yet this reciprocity

of interchanges does not imply cooperation (Bandura. 1973; Hinde.

1979). The most severe interactions that do not require cooperation

55

56

are aggressive-assault behaviors. These interchanges along with

aggressive-anger behaviors were the primary concern of this study.

Hypotheses

To study the phenomena of aggressive-assault behaviors and
aggressive-anger behaviors. an ethological study using ethnographic
research principles was conducted. 'The objective of this study was to
determine whether aggressive-assault behaviors and aggressive-anger
behaviors progress in a sequential pattern. with specific actions
occurring before. during. and after these behaviors are demonstrated.
It was hypothesized that:

1. There are specific behaviors which are observable and
measurable. which are characteristic of students in conflict with the
teacher and/or other students.

2. There are specific behavior groups or behavior types which

are demonstrated in a sequence as the conflict interaction develops.

Method
511.121.9915

The description of aggressive-assault behaviors and aggressive-
anger behaviors was based on observations made of students who had a
high probability for demonstrating these actions. .A group of 45 male
students between the ages of 13 and 18 years was observed. Each
individual was incarcerated for various reasons and placed as a ward of

the court. in a camp setting. The school program and camp program were

57

administered by separate agencies. The school program functioned year

round.

fitting

The field study observations of the students' interactions were
conducted in the school environment. The reason was to observe the
students in a setting to which they were most accustomed. The most
naturalistic setting in this case was the classroom. Since most human
behavior is influenced by the setting. the naturalistic environment
assists in providing consistency to the behavior (Wilson. 1977).

The school classrooms were situated on theicamp facilities.
There were eight classrooms. The classrooms consisted of a gym. a
vocational-education center. a computer classroom. a driver education
classroom. and the learning center (1c). The learning center (Appendix
B) was a large. rectangular-shaped room that provided space for four of
the general education classes and had one general meeting area. Each
class was divided by a floor-to-ceiling portable wall. The entrance to
each class was an approximate 8-to-10—foot open space. Students could
view their counterparts in other classrooms; thus it was not uncomnuui
for a student in classroom 1 to yell a comment to a student in class-
room 3.

The main school office was next to the learning center. and it
had two observation windows. These windows jutted out in an "L" shape.
From the apex of this "L." one could clearly observe the happenings in
three out of four of the classrooms. A table and chair were situated

within three feet of the shorter observation window/wall. The

58

participant observer daily set up the camera on this tableand situated
herself back in the corner. Any student entering or leaving the learn-
ing center passed in front of this area or was in plain view when the
camera was rotated on its axis.

The physical climate of the learning center was dependent on
the weather in general. If it was cold outside.ione wore a coat inside
the learning center; if it was hot outdoors. the same prevailed
indoors. Finally. the students were on a six-period program. During
the transition period to the next class. the majority of the students
were required to pass through the general meeting area of the learning

center.

Emeduce
The basic method used in the field study was participant

observation. Observations were made over a seven-week period from

May 21. 1983. through July 15. 1983. Three weeks involved viewing
students from 9:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon and from 1:00 to 3:00 p.m. For
four weeks. during summer school. observations were made from 9:00 a.m.
to 12:00 noon. During this seven-week period. the students were
observed for 150 hours.

In this study the field worker was a passive participant
observer. Using the strategy of "polite refusal" (McGrew. 1972).
interactions with the students were minimized. Upon entering the
learning center the students would proceed to their designated

classrooms. At this time many salutations were directed toward the

59

field worker. Occasionally students would ask information questions
about the field worker or questions regarding school work. The
students were informed that the field worker was observing how their
teachers taught. i.e.. the strategies used when the teacher was or was
not present in the classroom. The majority of questions were ignored
by the field worker. Any responses given were brief. typically direct-
ing the student back to the teacher.

The observer's field notes recorded summaries of happenings in
the classrooms. To further enhance and supplement the observations.
the use of video-tape equipment was employed to record the interactions
occurring in the setting since it is difficult for either observer or
the SIR equipment to completely record the description of a behavior
sequence (Marler. 1966).

W. The SIR equipment used was a Sony 3600
reel-to-reel video-tape recorder and camera. A Sony TV zoom lens was
attached to the camera. ‘The zoom lens provided a view of single-
classroom occurrences at one time and. with adjustments. allowed for
close-up shots of individuals. However. the zoom lens limited to some
degree the viewing of minute details. One-half-inch black and white
Scotch video tape was used for recording the data.

The equipment was placed as unobtrusively as possible on a cart
and a table in one corner of the learning center next to the west wall
and observation window/wall. Thus both the camera and the primary
observer were visible to the students. The camera was positioned such

that classrooms 1. 2. and 3 could be observed. ‘Two microphones were

60

hidden in the learning center area. one between classrooms 1 and 2 and
one near classroom 3.

The locked-off-camera (LOO) mode was used. This is the
dominant recording mode used currently'(Grimshaw. 1982). Essentially.
the camera was immobile but was turned on its axis to focus on various
parts of the learning center. The field worker would focus the camera
on a classroom that had students who were demonstrating off-task
behavior. out-of-seat behavior. or verbal bantering with peers or the
teacher or on students who were commonly the victims of others' abuse.
If there were possibilities of aggressive-assault behaviors or
aggressive-anger behaviors being exhibited in two classrooms simul-
taneously. the camera would be focused on one class and the field
worker would write descriptions of behaviors being demonstrated in
another class. Occasionally the camera would be scanned across the
learning center to pick up the general activity in the center. During
transition periods. when the students transferred from one class to
another. the camera usually was focused on one of the entrances to the
learning center.

Video recordings were made the entire time students were in
school. with the exception of approximately three hours when the
machinery was faulty. There were approximately three to six minutes of
"down time"iat the end of each video tape when the participant observer
was required to change video tapes.

.Nanna111e_obsenxations. The collection of SIR data employing

the LOC mode was supplemented with narrative recordings. or field notes

61

by the observer. The primary purpose for collecting pencil-and-paper
narrative recordings was that one could not guarantee that when stu-
dents did demonstrate aggressive—assault or aggressive-anger behaviors
they would do so in the learning center. The taking of field notes
gave the observer freedom to move around the premises. not being
restricted solely to the learning center. where the camera was posi-
tioned. Typically. students who demonstrated aggressive-assault and
aggressive-anger behaviors were escorted to the broom closet and a
counseling session. termed by theschool an "adjustment." was held
between one or more teachers and the student(s) involved in the disrup-
tive actions. The narrative recordings allowed for the accumulation of
data during all aspects of an incident. unrestricted by location.
Occasionally the observer would make a judgment that the immediate
turning and focusing of the camera on a particular incident had the
possibility of escalating an incident. Under these rare circumstances.
the observer would rely solely on the narrative recordings.
The field notes were also used as markers when reviewing the

SIR data. The descriptions of behaviors provided landmarks on the
video tapes. This allowed for direct comparison of written and SIR
data. Corsaro (1982) stated.

When using more than one collection technique (e.g.. field notes.

AV recording). data obtained at one point in time with one tech-

nique can serve to identify dimensions in the settings. which are

then sampled using another technique at a later point in the
research. (pp. 152-153)

62

The numbers registered on the video-tape player were recorded in the
field notes. thus allowing the viewer to find any specific segment of
the tape readily.

,Data_colleg119n. The initial stage of data collection con-
sisted of receiving permission from administrators and teachers to use
their classrooms as the site for the study. Additionally. the
participant observer interviewed the teachers and administrators to
gather preliminary information about the school. the behaviors of
specific students. and any overall concerns about behavior-management
techniques used when aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors
were exhibited. These discussions revealed that 21 assaultive or
disruptive incidents had occurred between January 1. 1983. and May 19.
1983. Some teachers expressed reticence to be video taped. Teachers
presented concerns about the open classroom environment. the lack of a
time-out room. the visible confrontive or facing-off behaviors from
students. and the general behavior-management program for the school
and camp setting. stating there was a lack of support on the part of
administration.

Using field notes and SIR equipment. data were collected over a
seven-week period. The procedures followed over these seven weeks
included:

Week 1: The observer. with the assistance of SIR. narratively
recorded the happenings in the classroom. The video-tape recorder was
set up and was in operation daily from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. Reliance

on the video-tape recorder was limited to allow for the desensitization

63

of the students to the recording device (Grimshaw. 1982). The video
tapes were used to establish intraobserver reliability between the
field notes and the video-tape recordings. One 30-minute video-tape
segment was used as the primary data source for the first week.

Week 2: Field notes and video-tape recordings were made.
The field notes were the primary source used for data evaluation for
week 2. The adjunct use of the video tapes further established
observer reliability. The daily use of the SIR equipment provided one
more week for the students to become desensitized to the camera.

Weeks 3 through 7: SIR data and field notes were collected.
Since the LOC technique was employed. field notes were used as a
supplement for happenings out of the range of the camera. .All data
collected over the seven-week period were used for evaluating patterns

in aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors.

Analysis
The data collected were analyzed for identification and

sequence of behaviors. events. and duration of aggressive-assault and
aggressive-anger behaviors. Discrepancies between aggressive-anger and
aggressive-assault incidents were examined to determine if different
overt behaviors existed. Each recorded aggressive-assault and
aggressive-anger case study was evaluated for patterns within each
event. The generalizability of any emergent theories of behavior
patterns occurring during each event was then tested by examining
analogous instances indexed in the aggregate of recorded materials

(Erickson. 1982).

64

A doctoral graduate student from Michigan State University
acted as an independent judge. The independent judge was trained to
observe and count defined behaviors from segments of the video tapes.
Given ten video-tape segments. a comparison of behavior counts was made
between the independent judge and the primary observer. .A Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient was used to provide a predictive
measure of the variability between the judges (Hays. 1981). The

formula that was applied is as follows:
N 2 xi)’. - (2 xi) (2 Y!)

Aw - (Mlle? - (all .

The correlation coefficient between judges was .9975. The highly

 

r5 =

significant results of this correlation represent the relative
performance between judges. given training and well-defined observable

behaviors.

.Ballah1113¥_ind_!ilid111

Ethological and ethnographic research occurs in the natural
setting. ‘The studying of human behavior presents many problems. one of
which is that the behavior exhibited is never static. Due to this. the
issues of reliability and validity are more questionable in the quali-
tative versus the quantitative studies.

Replication and design were the two major problems in regard

to internal reliability in this study. particularly the issue of

65

interrater reliability (Le Compte & Goetz. 1982). In this instance
replication was controlled since each sequence of actions of
aggressive-assault behaviors and aggressive anger behaviors was treated
as an individual case study. The design and interrater reliability
issues have previously been addressed.

Le Compte and Goetz (1982) referred to five major problem areas
that need to be addressed by ethnographers to enhance external relia-
bility. These include "researcher status position. informant choices.
social situations and conditions. analytic constructs and premises. and
methods of data collection and analysis" (p. 37).

The first concern. researcher status position. refers to the
extent to which the observer is a participant in the study. The
observer in this study took the role of a passive participant. and
involvement with the subjects was limited to morning greetings.
occasional nods. and rare responses to questions directed at the
observen. The>issue of informant choices refers to those who provide
data. In this study informants were limited to record access regarding
the frequency of aggressive-assault incidents and occasional teacher
interpretation of disruptive situations. The next point in question.
social situations and conditions. refers to the open classroom environ-
ment and the interactions within that environment. The matter of
analytic constructs and premises refers to the ability to replicate the
study. Since each incident is dealt with singularly and a comparison
of co-occurrences made. the replication issue of the study is mini-

mized. ‘The final concerns for external reliability are the methods of

66

data collection and analysis. The issue of data collection is con-

trolled by using both field notes in situ and video-tape recordings.
Further. control for agreement of observations by using an impartial
judge and determining interrater reliability by applying the Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient provides a measure of relia-

bility.

The degree to which a measure accurately assesses the charac-
teristic or phenomenon it claims to measure is labeled validity (Borg 8
Gall. 1979). In this type of study. validity may be its major strength
(Le Compte 8 Goetz. 1982) The claim that ethnographic work has high
internal validity is derived from the data-collection techniques used
(Erickson. 1979; Le Compte 8 Goetz. 1982). The inclusiveness of the
descriptive richness and the demonstration of interrater reliability of
the ethnographic work contributes to the validity of the study
(Erickson. 1979). ‘The source of data collection--participant observa-
tion. over an extended period of time. in the natural setting--
"reflects the reality of the life experiences of participants more
accurately than do contrived settings" (Le Compte 8. Goetz. 1982.

p. 43). Finally. the use of SIR allows for the repeated review of each
taped aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger incident. The analysis
of this ethological study is therefore subject to continual reevalua-

tion.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The observations reported in Chapter IV are the culmination of
video-tape and field-note data collected from May 21. 1983. through
July 15. 1983. During this period. the students were observed for 150
hours. The denouement of the analysis of the video tapes and field
notes is a total of 23 case studies. Each case study varies in com-
plexity and intensity as perceived by the victim and demonstrated by a
change in the victinfls behavior.

The social learning theorists claim that aggression may in fact
be the only interaction that does not require willing responsiveness
on the part of the victim (Bandura. 1973). Additionally. aggression
has been defined as "behavior that results in personal injury and in
destruction of property. The injury may be psychological (in the form
of devaluation or degradation) as well as physical" (Bandura. 1973.

p. 5). Upon reviewing the data. there were literally more than a
hundred incidents in which the students were physically involved with
one another. The decision to label one interaction as aggressive-
assault. one as aggressive-anger. and another as quasiagonistic took
much deliberation. The final determining factors included (a) the

victinfls nonwilling participation in the interaction; (b) physical

67

68

contact. 14%. hit. kick. choke. wrestle; and (c) the intensity of the
incident as perceived by the victim. which was demonstrated by a change
in the victinfls behavior that could be observed by the field worker.
The term "victim" is used purposefully since the student is adversely
affected by the interaction.

The case studies presented are categorized into four distinct
groups. These are aggressive-assault. aggressive-anger. sniper hit.
and quasiagonistic incidents.

There are 14 case studies of aggressive-assault behaviors.

Each study demonstrates behaviors that are clearly threatening to
another individual and result in physical injury to either the
perpetrator or the victim and/or in property damage. These individual
case studies were classified as a demonstration of aggressive-assault
behaviors largely due to the reaction of the victim. the intensity of
the hitting. fighting or damage created. the reaction of the teachers
who were responsible for breaking up the fight. and the judgment of the
field worker. One must carry this point a step further. It is true
that the above-stated definition for aggression includes psychological
injury; the only means this writer had to evaluate the effects of
injury was via the victinfls observable behavior. Thus. if the victim
had previously been quiet and then began to act-out after willing or
nonwilling participation in an aggressive-assault incident--or vice-
versa. if the victim had been active within a group and then withdrew--
the change in behavior would be noted as a possible result of the

conflict interaction. The consistency or deviation of behavior as

69

demonstrated by the victim then determined the status of the interac-
tion. i.e.. aggressive-assault. aggressive-anger. or quasiagonistic.

Four individual case studies of aggressive-anger behaviors were
clearly demonstrated during the seven weeks in which data were col-
lected. These have been defined as aggressive-anger behaviors since
there was a demonstration of emotional reactions of extreme displeas-
ure. The behaviors displayed may have included yelling and the exhibi-
tion of temper tantrums but did not result in physical injury to either
the self or to others. In each incident a teacher was required to
intervene to some extent.

Many students were hit in physical encounters. but not all
students perceived the hits as aggressive actions as demonstrated by
their subsequent behavior after the physical contact was made. ‘These
interactions that involved physical contact between two or more
persons. sometimes including common motor patterns of behavior such as
wrestling and light hitting. were labeled as quasiagonistic behaviors.
Quasiagonistic or "horseplay" behaviors resemble aggressive-assault
behaviors in many ways. yet the purpose of the interactions is opposite
(McGrew. 1972). The students involved in quasiagonistic behaviors
separated laughing or light-heartedly teasing one another. These
quasiagonistic behaviors present a challenge for the teacher and staff
working with the student. but by no means were the behaviors threaten-
ing. It was the intensity as perceived by the individuals involved in
the interaction. as displayed in the victims' changed behaviors and as

observed by the field worker. that demarcated quasiagonistic from

7O

aggressive-assault. There were incidents that initially appeared as if
they would be quasiagonistic on the part of one of the participants.
yet quickly changed from fun to fury because there was an unexpected
hit. or an expected hit was too forceful. In order that one might
discern between aggressive-assault and quasiagonistic behaviors. the
first case study presented is an example of quasiagonistic behavior.

The writer labeled the final pattern of behavior "sniper hit"
incidents. These incidents followed the same sequence of pattern:

(a) an assailant approaches a victim; (b) the assailant hits or pushes
the victim with force. as demonstrated by the reaction of the victim
(i.e.. the victim flinches. pulls backwards. loses his balance. etc.);
and (c) the assailant departs the immediate area quickly. The reason
this is termed sniper hit is that it is a surprise attack. The
reaction of the victims varied to some degree. The victims were always
startled. but their subsequent behavior ranged from continuing with
their initial task to chasing after the assailant. Another variable
was the proximity of the teacher and the teacher's intervention with
the assault. Typically. however. since these are surprise attacks. the
teacher never sees the hit. There are four case studies of sniper hits
presented in this chapter.

The case studies are formatted in the following mannen. First.
the studies appear in chronological order. The dates of the incidents
have been omitted. yet one must not assume that each of the events
occurred on separate days since. as in Case Study 16. there are

actually eight different incidents that took place within a 45-minute

71

period. Each case study begins with a brief description of the
setting. This is followed by the field-note and tape-analysis data.
These two pieces of data are interspersed and appropriately labeled.
Next. each case study is summarized. noting significant behaviors that
have been demonstrated.

To maintain anonymity. each student's name was changed. Every
use of the name Andy. Steve. and Phil means that the student in that
particular setting was unknown to the observer. ‘Teachers are referred
to as T1. T2. T3. etc.. and counseling staff from the institution are
referred to as CS. The initials C1. C2. 03. and C4 indicate class-
room 1. classroom 2. etc.. whereas 1c and lct represent learning center
and learning center table. respectively. The numbers scripted next to
the text of tape analysis are reference numbers from the video-tape
data. Each of these numbers represents 2.5 seconds of ti me. Also
scripted next to the text of field notes within brackets is the time
the event was occurring.

There is a drawing (Appendix B) of the learning center that may
be referred to while interpreting the student's passage through the
learning center. Additionally. the definition of terms used for
analyzing the facial and body movements may be found in Appendix A.

The following case studies are the descriptions of
quasiagonistic behaviors. aggressive-assault behaviors. aggressive-
anger behaviors. and sniper hit interactions that occurred at a school
setting among adolescent males aged 13 to 18 years who were incarcer-

ated for various reasons.

72

Walk

The first case study is a demonstration of quasiagonistic
behavior. Within a two-hour period. Dan had physical contact with five
different students. The important issue here is that while the
students may have flinched or moved away. there was not an immediate
change in their behavior. Dan did not appear to be angry. but he had a
difficult time maintaining behavior that was acceptable by the teacher.
These are the types of behaviors that present a challenge for skillful
teachers. School is just beginning. The students have been in their
homerooms and are in transition to period 1. There is much activity

going on in the center.

W

00 Dan is entering CZ. Five students are in the classroom; one
is by the pencil sharpener. one is sitting at the desk near the sharp-
ener. and one is seated next to the teacher's desk. Jim is standing on
a chair which is placed next to a portable cabinet.

07 Dan is standing while he takes off his coat. .Jim is standing
on the chair reaching for some pbpers that are on top of the tall
portable shelf.

15 As Dan approaches. Jim jumps down from the chair. Dan walks
over to Jim and makes a counter-clockwise forearm sweep with his left
arm and hits Jim on the head. Jim backs up. flinches. and moves to the
right side of Dan but does not depart. Jim stands beside the chair

with his back against or close to the wall.

73

18 Dan standing on the chair pulls posterboard material off the

top of the cupboard.

22 T approaches Dan and Jim and begins to talk.
27 T leaves area.
28 Jim begins to leave the area. and Dan while holding poster-

board in his hand reaches out and taps Jim on the shoulder with the
board. Jim hunches over and departs from area with his back to Dan.
35-36 Dan steps down from the chair.

44 Dan walks out of OZ with the posterboard in his hand. Dan is
off camera.

67 Dan walks to the camera. pointing to the posterboard in his
hand. He begins a commentary as if he were a news broadcaster.

83 Off camera. Dan then walked back to the desk in C2.

89 Dan sat down. Leaning back in the chair. both of his feet

are off the ground.

91-92 Dan put his feet down and then lifted them off the ground
again.
97 Dan picks up papers from the corner of the desk top and

begins to shuffle through them. His legs are bent and his body is
turned left. away from camera.

111 Dan bounces his legs and shifts them to the right. They are
still bent at the knees.

112 Andy gets out of his seat.

114 Dan looked in direction of camera. He is still shuffling

papers.

74

115 Dan's legs are straight as he sits at the desk.

117 Andy walks over to Dan.

119 Camera is moved off Dan and over to C3.

145 Luke is sitting in a chair at the learning center table.
147 Dan walks over to the learning center table and passes

between the chair in which Luke is sitting and the table. He proceeds
over to Tom. who is sitting at the let next to the wall. Off

camera 0

EieJLNotes
Dan throws paper to the top of the bookshelf and misses. Dan
walks over and picks up paper. Dan walks over to Tom sitting at lot

and starts slapping Tom lightly on head. across face. and walks back to

room.
IaDLAnalsts
153 Dan passes by the camera with a side-stepping motion and goes

back to CZ. Dan takes five steps swinging arms out and around from
body rather than straight forward and back. He then changes to a
bouncy gait with elbows bent. upper arm parallel to the ground. and
forearm perpendicular to the ground. Using his right arm. Dan grabs
Peter by the arm and with his left arm in a circular motion. lifts his
hand to Peter's head. Dan starts rubbing the student's head with his
hand. "This here is a clown fool." Total physical contact 3.6
seconds. Dan releases Peter and moves to an individual desk.

159 Dan is off camera; moved to southeast wall in the room.

75

306 Dan is standing by the filing cabinet in C2. He is pulling
papers out of files. feet about eight inches apart.

323 Dan is sitting in a chair. The chair is tilted back on two
legs. His feet are moving. he stops and puts them flat on the ground.
He then moves his knees inward and outward. He is thumbing through a
book.

342 He shifts his feet to the ground and leans forward such that
the chair rests flat on the-floor. Dan puts the posterboard in front
of him. making it impossible to see his face.

348 Dan's feet are on the ground. Tilting back in the chair.
only the toes of his feet touch the ground. He lifts both feet
completely off the ground. moves feet toward each other two times. and
then places them down. the outside edges of his feet making contact

with the floor.

360 Dan got out of his seat and left CZ.
361 Dan is off camera.
Edefld_flotes

T2 starts to speak. ". . . Dan. I'm going to ask you. . . ." Dan
replies. "I ain't doing nothing to you. . . ." Dan states. "I can do
what I want. Shut up." Dan left the room. walked to the door of the
TC. then to C1 and back to his desk. Dan said to T1. "Hey. what are we
doing today?" Dan walks to his chair in CZ but does not sit down. He
then walks over to the portable.

T2 walks to 03 and talks to Dan. T2 and T3 are talking to Dan. Dan

states. "I don't care what you want . . . just sitting." Dan is

76

sitting in a chair. One teacher says to Dan. "Well get your life

together. . . . Have you done any work at all?" Dan. "Aaaaaaahhh.

noo."
IaneJnalxsis
372 Dan walked back to his desk. picked up his jacket which he

dropped on the floor and put it on the back of his chair.

376 Dan walked out of C2.

387-88 Dan entered CZ with T2 and T3 following. As Dan walks to his
seat. he makes an exaggerated step. lifting his leg up such that from
the thigh to the knee the upper leg is parallel to the ground; the heel
of the foot comes within five to eight inches of his buttocks. As he
moves around the east end of the table. he glances at T3. There is a
smile on his face. Dan then glances downward while he sits down in
his chair.

390 T2 is talking to Dan. Dan is sitting in the chair and has
the chair tilted backwards. Dan gestures with his left arm and then

hands 13 a piece of paper.

406 Both Ts walk away. Dan makes an audible whine/cry.

407 T3 returns to Dan.

408 Dan puts a piece of paper in a book.

410 Dan stands up. He then does the following: picks up books

with both hands and transfers them to his left hand; using his right
hand. he puts the pencil he is already holding behind his right ear. he

then places the books down on the desk top. and picks up his jacket.

77

While putting his jacket on. he removes the jacket from the back of the
chair with his left hand. swings the jacket in front of his face and
upward. with his arms upward and straight in a "V" formation he slides
his arms in the jacket sleeves. He then adjusts his jacket and shirt.
Dan then picks up his books and posterboard.

417 Dan left C2 with T2 and T3. They went to the broom closet to

have an adjustment conference.

mum
[TAPE 423] Moved to broom closet. "We're going to be 'short and

sweet. Now stop playing with the water. Come'on over here. I want to
talk to you." Dan states. "Don't put your hands on me. Don't put your
hands on me. Do you see. you put your hands on me?" Dan at sink
playing with water. Dan. "Don't put your hands on me." Pacing. he
picked up a broom. putting the pole end in the sink. Dan started
putting objects in the sink. then turned the water on. T3. "Turn the
water off and listen to me. you just want the attention Dan)‘ Dan
calls out. "Hey Mr. MJ' 13 turned off the water. Dan walks toward the
door. 13 is in the way. Dan grabbed a mop. moved it up and down. Dan
says. "Does that thing come down?" T3. "Now don't be messing with
thatfl Dan starts tapping glass. moved to sink and turned water off
and then on. Dan continues. "Why you . . . I'll slap you both. . . .
Don't put your hands on me. Hey I'll slap." T3 said. "Then put the
plunger down." Dan replies. "I don't have to." Dan picked up a bottle
off the shelf. turned the light off. and continued to walk around the

room. T asked if Dan had a problem. Dan shut the door. walked back to

78

sink. T3. "Would you rather. . . ." Dan puts his hand out. "Why you
touching me?" T3 and CS. "00 you understand the purpose . . . you need
to know the situation." Dan. "You know what she's taking notes on; on
me."

[10:12] Dan in CI back to camera. Dan walks back into 1c from hall.
Bob came over to camera and looked in. T3 directed Bob to task.
[10:15] Dan is lying on two chairs in C1.

[10:18] Dan got up and left class.

[10:20] Dan returned to class.

(397) Dan hitting/playing with Kent in Cl.
Mahala
372 Camera moves from CZ to C1. Seated are T1. Andy. Steve.

Rich. and Kent. Kent is sitting on a chair at the circular table.
Both feet were resting horizontally on another chair. He placed his
feet on the ground and was looking toward the direction of the camera.
375 Dan enters the 1c and approaches Kent. Dan stands facing
Kent but is looking in the direction of C3. With his left hand. Kent
reaches and holds onto Dan's left coat jacket sleeve at the wrist.
Kent looks up at Dan and smiles. Using his right arm. Dan makes a
sweeping motion and encircles Kent's neck. Kent's chin is in the crook
of Dan's elbow. Dan's lips are pursed. and the lips separate showing
teeth. Kent simultaneously leans forward and to the left. Dan follows

with the movement. Both come to an upright position. Kent is sitting

79

and Dan is standing and leaning against the wall. Pause. Kent is
holding onto Dan's right hand and lets go of his left sleeve.

379 Dan then moves his right arm and again encircles Kent's neck.
Kent begins to hunch slightly forward and Dan's body follows with the
movement. Dan then encircles Kent's neck with left arm and with his
right hand in a fist. he hits Kent on the back playfully five times.
The elbow is raised and the arm is bent at a 90-degree angle. the
forearm moves back 45 degrees and then follows through to make contact
with Kentfls back. Dan releases and stands up. takes one step backwards
with his right foot and with his left foot takes a side step and moves
away from Kent. Dan then walks around the circular table and to the
left side of Kent; he picks up a piece of paper with his right hand and
then walks to the T's desk.

387 Dan sits at T's desk for 23 seconds.

396 Dan walks over to the bookshelf and takes some paper from the
top shelf. He then walks to south wall in CI. three steps and a turn
and walks toward an individual desk on the north wall of the class.

399 Dan is off camera; he can be heard in background saying. "Ihn
going to read a short story)‘ Interchange between T1 and Dan. Dan
begins to read orally. He can be heard at least 20 feet away.

415 On camera; Dan is sitting in a chair facing the middle of the
learning center at the individual desk. His chair is tilted backwards.
balanced on two legs. Dan's feet are flat on the floor. knees are bent

and legs are spread. His left hand. wrist. and forearm are resting on

80

his inner thigh. fingers are on the chair. He lifts the heels of his
feet off the floor. balancing on the balls of his feet.
426 A student from C3 tells Dan to "Shut up." Dan gets out of

his seat.

E191n_flnias

[10:25] Dan stepped out in the hall talking to Mel from 03. Dan
calls. "Hey Mel. come here."

(435) Both walked to LC door. easy swing. hit. leg up. horseplay-
ing. Dan returns to his chair and Mel comes over to him. Dan cries

out as Mel leaves. "I owe you now. wait till you come back to the

cabin."
W
430 Dan returns to his chair and is thumbing through a book. The

chair is tilted back on two legs. His heels are off the ground.

437 Dan puts his heels flat on the ground as Mel approaches. The
chair is level on the ground. Mel enters Cl and walks over to Dan and
begins to talk to him. Mel's right arm is bent at a 90-degree angle as
he approaches Dan. Mel's right arm comes up in front of his body and
makes a counterclockwise forearm sweep. shoulder height. palm open and
contacts Dan one time on Dan's left shoulder. Mel quickly turns and
walks away with his back to Dan. Dan remains seated and calls out.
"Wait till you get back to the cabinfl Dan shifts in chair and leans

back on two legs once again.

81

488 Dan gets out of his chair. He is holding the book in his
hand as he walks out of view of the camera.

495 Dan returned to Cl and walked over to T. then to bookshelf
and then to individual desk. He sat down and began to shuffle papers.

498 Dan is sitting at a desk.

.Eield_Notes
[10:27] Dan picks up books and leaves room. In C3. Dick has papers

in his hand and pops them off the top of Phil's head.

[10:30] Dan has returned to class and is sitting in the corner. His
left leg is bounding up and down. There is a book in lap. Gradually
he scoots the chair he is sitting on up to the desk.

[10:33] Transition to next class. Dan is out of view of the camera.
[11:25] Dan is presently in CB. He is standing in front of the
filing cabinet. and walks over to Steve and starts playing. Dan picks
up a chair and swings it around Steve's head two times. Two teachers
come in. and Dan picks up books and leaves. T3 walks over to Steve.
Steve puts his head on the table. T3 says something to Steve. Steve
replies. "NoJ' 13 repeats comment to Steve. Steve repeats. "NoJ'
Steve lifts his head up off the desk and stands up. He walks to the

filing cabinet and pulls out work materials.

.Snmmatx_o£_9ase_51udx_l

1. Before the first adjustment. Dan was seated for a period of
00:04:35 and was out of his seat walking around for a period of

00:12:47.

82

2. After the first adjustment. Dan immediately walked over to his
friend and continued with his quasiagonistic behavion. From this point
until the class transition at 10:30. Dan demonstrated in-seat behavior
for 00:07:20. and out-of-seat behavior for 00:14:00.

3. Dan's out-of-seat behaviors were exaggerated body motions. His
verbal comments to others might be labeled as irritating. His in-seat
behaviors included constant body shifts. foot movement. and automanipu-
lation of materials.

4. This is a demonstration of quasi agonistic behavior. Dan's physical
interactions with students were light hits and pretend kicks. The
threatening comment he made to Mel was said with a teasing tone. Dan's
interaction with Mel was not a sniper hit. since both students had been
"horseplaying" seconds before. None of the students acted as if they
had been injured. hurt. or were upset. The final horseplay incident
with Steve in which Steve placed his head on the desk was due to the
teacher's reprimand. Steve then returned to task.

5. One crucial aspect of this case study is Dan's comments while he is
in the broom closet during the adjustment. He repeatedly demanded not
to be touched. This is only the first of many similar requests from
students.

6. This event occurred during the first week of data collection. It

was evident that Dan was cognizant of the field worker.

83

W
This case study is clearly a demonstration of aggression-
assault not only due to the physical interaction but additionally due
to Nash's reaction. The students are in the process of transition from

period 2 to period 3.

W
00 Nash is standing near the south wall in C1. He is asking T1

a question regarding an adjustment. Dylan approaches Nash. As Dylan
approaches. Nash steps back against the south wall.

04 Dylan puts his hands around Nash's neck. The thumbs of
Dylan's hands are in the front middle of Nash's neck (choke hold).
Nash turns to the right; simultaneously using his right hand. he
succeeds in breaking the hold. They separate and Nash punches at
Dylan. Nash's hands are in a fist. he strikes first with his left
hand. followed with a right. a left. and another right punch. Dylan
uses his right arm to block any hits from Nash. Dylan encircles Nashhs
neck; his left forearm is placed under Nash's chin. Nash goes into a
crouch and Dylan bends with Nash's body motion. Dylan puts his right
hand on the midsection of Nash's back and pushes Nash forward; he
releases the neck hold and uses his left hand on the back of Nash's
pants. Dylan pushes Nash down to a prone position over two chairs. As
Dylan is pushing Nash. Rick. who is sitting in one of the chairs.

quickly gets out of his seat.

84

04 Nash is prone over two chairs; his fingertips are touching
the floor. Dylan is bending over him holding onto Nash's shirt and
pants.

05 T1 verbally and physically intervenes by lightly touching
Dylan on the arm.

08 T1 is still standing next to the students trying to verbally
get control of the situation. 13 appears and verbally intervenes.
Dylan releases Nash.

09 Dylan begins to walk around the circular table. As he starts
to pass 13. 13 puts his arm out and Dylan saunters into it. T3 turns.
and both 13 and Dylan walk into CZ. Nash is getting up from the prone
position and sits on one of the chairs.

12 Nash cries out. "Ahhh. Ahhh." He is sitting on a chair that
is at the circular table.

13 Nash stands up.

17 Dylan is in CZ with T3. Dylan is standing and constantly

moving/pacing while T3 talks to him. Dylan picks up some books.

19 Nash sits down by the circular table.
22 Nash combs his hair.
33 Nash begins automanipulation with his fingers and a ring on

his left hand. His eyes are focused on his hands.

35 Dylan leaves the learning center carrying his book.
46 Nash glances up to look at Andy.
50 Nash continues to fumble with the ring on his finger.

57 Nash glances upward. (29)

85

58 Nash glances down. (28)
59 While sitting on the chair. Nash bends over and begins to

adjust his shoe.

67 He makes a comment to another student sitting at the table.
72 Nash shakes his head "yes" in response to a comment.
85 He stops the automanipulation of his hands. Nash pushes his

chair away from the table and is talking with another student about the
incident. Nash leans back in chair and then sits upright.
lDO Nash begins to manipulate the ring on his finger and the book

lying on the table in front of him.

llS The automanipulation ceases.

ll7 Nash yawns and stretches.

l20 Nash takes off his jacket.

l28 Nash begins to manipulate an object with both hands. He then

puts his left hand to his face. He continues to hold the object in his
right hand.

l37 Nash has his hand on the desk, picks up a pencil with his
right hand and is holding an object in his left hand.

l38-l42 Nash takes a pencil from someone who is off camera and begins
to write.

l43 He is holding a pencil in writing position while he manipu-
lates an object in his left hand. Pat comes over and talks with Nash.
l76 Nash gets out of his seat. walks around the circular table so
that he is in front of the camera. and starts belly dancing.

lBl Nash returns to his seat.

86

l82 Nash manipulates an object; he then places in his mouth.
Nash is holding a pencil in his right hand; however. he is not writing.

Rick is sitting next to Nash and occasionally blocks the camera view.

202 His hand is moved away from his mouth.

206 Nash is sitting up straight in chair.

2lD Nash's upper body leans forward. and he begins to write.
2l2 Nash stops writing and glances in the direction of the lc

doorway (to left).

2l5 Nash removes the object from his mouth.

2l6 Nash shifts his body such that he is sitting up straight.
22l Nash stretches both arms upward.

223 Nash shifts and sits up straight.

229 Nash begins to write.

230 Nash has stopped writing.

23l Nash tilts his head backwards and then brings it upright.
233 He starts to write; he is looking down toward his paper.
239 Nash looks up.

243 Nash begins to talk with Rick. During the conversation. he

constantly manipulates his book and pencil.

252 Nash lets out a loud laugh. He continues to manipulate the
book and pencil.

264 Again Nash laughs. leaning back in chair. Nashhs behavior
continues in this fashion; his hands are constantly moving or gesturing
as he talks with other students. He frequently raises his head and

glances around the area. He will stretch and yawn. or adjusts his

87

clothing. He rarely sits still for longer than four seconds. Over an
eight-minute period. Nash appeared to be on task for two minutes.

411 Nash stands up and walks over to the front of the camera and
begins to dance.

429 Nash returns to his seat. leans back in the chair. then bends
over to adjust his shoe or to look under the table. He continues to
manipulate objects on the desk in front of him. or on his body. He
fixes his hair and repeatedly brings his hand up to rest upon or touch
his face. Again he is unable to sit still. In this next eight-minute
segment. Nash was on task for one minute.

617-622 Nash is involved in a conversation with Rick.

624 Nash stands up. his left hand is in his front left pocket.
He proceeds to adjust his shirt and pants as he converses with Rick.
647 Nash starts making a basket shot with an imaginary basket-

ball. He sits back down and continues to talk with Rick.

W
l. Nash had been having a difficult morning and was requesting to have

an adjustment with 11. Later he leaves the room and seeks out 15 to
make the same request.

2. The antecedent behaviors of Dylan were not observed.

3. The event occurred during an unstructured setting.

4. Immediately preceding the event. Dylan was standing and moving.
5. The total time of physical contact between the students was
00:00:l0.

6. There were flour closed-palm hits and one choke hold.

88

7. After the physical contact. Dylan demonstrated standing. walking/
pacing behaviors.

8. After the physical contact. Nash remained seated 00:25:00 out of a
00:26:00 period. He demonstrated a constant automanipulation of his
hands. not stopping for more than a five-second period. He appeared to
be on task for a 00:03:00 period. Nash engaged in conversation for
00:03:52.

9. The ending was "other" with a teacher intervening. Teacher proxim-
ity was within five feet.
10. The total time from the assault (since the prebehaviors are not
available) to the point where Nash begins to make basket shots (more

typical for his behavior) was a 00:26:00 period.

Wank
This case study is an example of an assailant's behavior

immediately after the assault. While Dylan and Nash were fighting in
classroom 1. Dick was fighting in C3. I heard the hit but was too late
to observe that segment of the assault. However. Dick was standing
'Hnmediately after he hit Andy. The students were in the process of
changing classes from period 2 to period 3 when this fight occurred.
Dick has been removed from the classroom. and an adjustment is being

held in the shop.

89

Elfild_NQI§s

[l0:47] An adjustment is being held in the shop area due to an
incident in C3. Andy and Steve are horseplaying in the background.
Dick is sitting on a tractor. 13 is talking and summarizing the
situation. Dick gets off the tractor and moves to chair/stool. Dick
starts rubbing his eyebrows. tapping his fingers on the chair. and then
puts his hand on face. Dick moves his thumb across his index finger.
He puts his bent elbow near his knee. free by approximately four
inches. his hand is placed on his face. He shifts his elbow to rest on
his knee. his eyes are directed downward. He looks at me. eyes focused
down. and looks at me again. 13 asks. "What is it you want from this
program? Do you know?" 13 repeated question. Dick responds. "Yeah. I
know. . . ." For l5 seconds his eyes are focused down. 43 seconds eyes
up. face in up position. 15 asks. "Are you going to go back and finish
up algebra. yes or no. Yes or no." Dick responds. "No." Dick gets
off of the stool and walks to the left about five feet. turns left.
walks three to four feet. turns left and walks another six feet. 15 is
walking beside him. Dick walks back to the stool. He beings to
lightly tap the locker with his foot. 'Two CS walk in the shop. As
they approach. Dick gives the locker one strong kick. He picks up and
starts manipulating a piece of rubber that was on top of the workbench.
Next he picked up a chair and turned it upside down. legs pointing
upward on top of the table/bench. Dick started playing with the clamp
on the workbench with his right hand. his left hand was in his

pocket. He shifts and places both hands in his front pants pocket.

90

His feet are situated one on top of the other. He changes positions
with his feet. his head is down. Dick continues to switch the position
of his feet. 15 dismissed Dick. Dick stands and walks back to the
class. During the adjustment with Dick. Nash from the other incident
came into the shop to ask 15 for a positive adjustment. 15 sent him
back to class. 13 led Dick to C4.

[ll:04] Dick sat down. his back is to the camera. He appears to be
working. Dick is the only student in C4.

[ll:09 to ll:20] Dick is quiet. sitting at.14's desk and appears to

be on task.

W
l. Dick was standing immediately after he hit another student.

2. The ending to this episode was an "other" since there was teacher
intervention. The teacher proximity is unknown; however. the teacher
observed the incident.

3. The event occurred during an unstructured period.

4. During the adjustment. Dick demonstrated pacing behaviors.

5. During the adjustment. Dick demonstrated automanipulation behav-
iors.

GM During the l7-minute adjustment period. Dick was perpetually moving.
7. During the adjustment. Dick kicked an object one time.

8. The total ti me for the entire segment viewed (i.e.. from the sound
of the hit until Dick appeared to be working on task) was a 00:23:00

period.

91

W
This case study is an example of aggression-anger. 'Tim
directs his anger toward objects rather than people. At one point Tim
pushes 13. Since 13 did not react as if he had been assaulted. he had

not been assaulted.

IanLAnalsts

2ll Enter Tim. He is not on camera. yet his conversation is
audible.

233 Tim walks over to 13's desk and lays a piece of paper on top
of the desk.

240 13 says. "Hey. if you want to talk. . . ." 13 comments about

Tim being angry.

248 Tim is partially sitting. leaning against the small filing
cabinet. His buttocks are resting on the edge of the cabinet. His
hands are in front of his body. His right hand is holding onto his
left wrist. He is staring straight ahead.

260 Tim is sitting on the small filing cabinet and has put both
feet up on the seat of an individual desk chair. He slaps his leg with
his left hand. and a cloud of dust appears and fades.

264 Tim stands up. walks over by the bookshelf. picks up and
begins to put on his jacket. 13 approached Tim. Tim is facing the
wall. his body is turned slightly to the left away from 13. Tim is

shuffling papers and shifts his body weight from one foot to the other.

92

Elald_NQIޤ

[11:27] (289) 13 is talking with another student. "Nash. I want that
chair down in the appropriate mannenfl Count 5 seconds. Nash puts the
chair back. 13 is talking with Tim. who is upset about an incident
with his parents. Nash immediately put chair back on two legs. In the
middle of conference. Andy from C1 started talking. 13 stops talking

to Tim and again asks Nash to put the chair down.

W
296 Tim is talking with 13; during the discussion 13 interrupts

and reprimands another student. As Tim speaks. his elbow is bent. his
hand is approximately at shoulder height. and he is shaking his hand in
a right/left direction. Tim is discussing a call from his parents.

His face is turned away from 13's.

318 Tim glances at the camera.

319 Tjnfls head is in a downward position. not giving 13 eye
contact.

328 Tim lifts his head. glances toward the camera and then turns

left. He took two left side steps and backed up over to the small
filing cabinet.

329 He sat on the small filing cabinet. .

330 Tim picked up a book and started looking at it. He still has
not given eye contact with 13. 13 has followed Tim and continues
speaking.

335 T3 continues talking to Tim. Tim is looking down at a book.

343 13 walks away from Tim.

347 Tim put the book down. His foot is on the individual student
desk and he is adjusting his shoe. Both feet are resting on the chair.
his back is curved over. and his hand is on his knee.

364 Tim puts his feet on the ground. his hands are holding onto
the edge of the small filing cabinet. he is leaning against. not
sitting on. the edge of the filing cabinet.

375 Tim stands and is walking toward the middle of C3. 13 said.
"Tim come here." Tim responds. "No. I'm walking out." Tim leaves the

room. Camera is focused on C4.

Emulate:
Nash is talking in a loud voice. Tim replies in a loud
voice. "Yeah. Ihn going to kick this chair)‘ 'th kicks the chair and

walks over to C4. 11 follows and then Tim comes back to class.

W
387 Tim walked over to C4 back into C3 and over to the far west

wall by the small filing cabinet. He is standing erect. He starts to
manipulate the book lying on the shelf.

401 Tim takes four steps toward the divider. makes a half turn
and takes three steps toward an individual chair. He sits for a second
and then gets out of his seat.

408 Tim walks over to the divider and leans against it with his

back toward the camera.

94

407 Tim is manipulating an object in his hand. One hand is on
the edge of the divider. With his right hand he hits his left upper
arm to brush something off his sleeve.

422 Tim takes at least six steps toward 1's desk. As he walks he
checks his back pockets. First his right hand felt his right back
pocket; then his right hand touched his left back pocket.

424 Tim approaches the far west end of the divider next to the
tall filing cabinet. 'Tim is manipulating a ball of string in his hand
while he leans against the divider. 13 approaches and requests Tim to

perform a task.

We:

13 asks Tim to do something for him (44th Nash sticks his tongue out
at Tim. Nash then threw a pencil at Tim. 13 moves Nash's chair. Nash
comments. "All right 13. all right 13." 13 talks to Nash. Nash is

looking at papers. Tim is throwing objects in the trash can.

W
443 Tim glances in direction of camera.
446 Tim still is automanipulating the ball of string. Tim

engages in verbal banter about "pink" with Nash.

472 Tim started the task which 13 assigned. alphabetizing some
folders.
500 13 switched his approach to Tim from serious discussion to

humor. Tim still is on task. with occasional comments to Nash.

95

519 Tim completed the task. returned the folder to the tall
filing cabinet. and closed the drawer. Standing. he walked a couple of
steps to the bookshelf next to 13's area and spoke with 13. He then
turned and walked toward the teacher's desk. He sat on the edge of the
teacher's desk. his head is down and his back is to the camera. He
turned his head to the left to look at Nash. 13 has moved over to his
desk and is standing in between Nash who is sitting in a chair and Tim
who is sitting on the edge of the teacher's desk. As 13 spoke. Tim
moved his right hand to his side and behind back; he tossed a pencil at
Nash. Tim then repeated the same process with a second pencil.

563 Tim got up and walked to the opposite end of the room. He is

off camera.

Me:
[11:43] (550) Tim moved over to a chair. sat. and then tipped a

desk on the floor.

W
588 Tim sat in an individual desk that is stationed along the

south wall of the room. He comments. "I wanta fight man. . . ."

599 13 has walked over to Tim. sits next to him and tries to talk
with him. Tim turns his back on him and then gets up from the desk.
600-07 Tim is walking around the room.

607 Tim is sitting on the edge of the divider. He is talking
with 13. who has followed Tim to that area.

627 Tim gets off the divider and walks out of the room.

96

632 Tim walks in from the portable and leaves the learning center
heading for the gym. He enters the gym.

645 Tim walks out of the gym door.

Elfild_NQI§s

Tim walked to the shop area. Tim pushed 13. Tim said. "Get off my
face." while standing by the shop door. Tim walked through door
leading to the second door and outside» He stopped between the two
doors. Tim is against the wall. He moves to the door. 13 responds.
"I'm not grabbing you." Tim. "Yes you are . . . move." 13 says.

". . . You're already pissed off." Tim claims. "You're damn right I
am. . . . I don't care. . . ." Tim is facing outdoors; his back is to
13.

[11:54] Tim walked back with T3 to class. Tim sat next to the filing
cabinet on the divider. Tim held some papers and then placed them on
the divider. He started to play with a pic/comb. and then proceeded to
crease and tear the papers. Tim then began wrapping paper around the
comb and tossing paper scraps on the floor. Next Tim combed his hair.
He has his leg on the divider. and is leaning back against the filing
cabinet. He finished preening and again started tearing and folding
small pieces of paper. The issue is a problem with 17. 13 asks. "Do
you want to talk about 17?" Tim responds. "Later." Tim continues to
sit on the divider. his feet are still.

[12:05] Tim remains seated on the divider. his feet are still. All
of the students have returned to their cabins and are preparing for

lunch.

97

[12:07] CS calls to Tim. Tim. "I ain"t goinh" He remains sitting
quietly. not moving. eyes down looking at pic. he taps the pic on his
fingers. 17 walks over to Tim and says. "Let's go." Tim gets off
divider and walks out of the building with 17.

[12:09] Tim left with 17.

W
1. Tim walks into C3 angry.

2. Tim demonstrates walking/pacing behaviors.

3. Tim demonstrates automanipulation and/or constant body movements.
4. Tim kicked a chair and dropped a desk on the floor. This is a
demonstration of injury to an object.

5. Tim would not give eye contact.

6. ‘Tim physically turned away from 13 when 13 tried to assist.

7. 13 remained in close proximity to Tim.

8. Tim pushed 13 back away from him. He made statements that he did
not want to be grabbed.

9. This anger incident occurred during a structured period.

10. After Tim pushed 13 (small physical encounter). he returned to
class. sat down and continued with automanipulation for approximately

00:09:00. He then became very quiet with little or no movement.

98

.Case_§tunx_5:_§nina£_fllt
The following case study is an example of a sniper push. The

students are just entering the learning center from their homerooms.

.Inne_Analxsis
00 Camera is on Cl. Kent is staring in the direction of the

camera while he manipulates a deck of cards with his hands.

57 Rich walks over in front of the camera. Students are
instructing him to pull off his cap. Smiling. he hops backwards. Kent
puts the ace of spaces in front of the camera. Students move on to
class. Chairs are still on top of the desks.

68 The camera is moved from Cl to C3. 13 is sitting at his desk
in CB. Andy is standing near. within three feet of 13. and to the
right side of the desk. Luke is next to Andy and Kent is standing
about one foot behind Andy and Luke. Kent continues to hold and manip-
ulate the deck of cards. Luke is holding a brush in his hand. elbow is
bent. forearm is at a 45-degree angle to the elbow. The forearm comes
down. the brush comes close to or lightly taps Kent on the back. From
the camera angle it is difficult to discern whether there was actual
contact. Luke turns and leaves the area. Andy is facing Kent; he also
begins to leave the area. Andy uses his left hand to make an inward
forearm sweep toward Kent and grabs Kent's right upper arm. Andy then
using his right hand makes contact with Kent on the chest and pushes
Kent backwards. Andy. keeping Kent to his left side at approximately a
90-degree angle. leaves the room. Kent originally had his back to the

camera. When he was pushed. his body turned to the left. facing the

99

direction Andy took as he departed. Kent moved backwards two steps
upon the impact of the push. His hands. originally at waist level.
moved upward to a ready position to protect himself (i.e.. out in front
of his body). The left hand is raised to shoulder level. fingers are
separated. right hand is raised to mid-chest line. both hands return to
waist level as Andy departs.

74-75 Kent walks four steps forward. following Andy. Kent's lips
are closed and pressed tightly together. 13 beckons Kent over to his
desk. After listening and talking briefly with 13. Kent turns. His

mouth is moved in toward the center (small). He leaves the area.

WW

1. The assailant was standing and moving.

2. The attack was a surprise.

3. The assailant immediately fled the area.

4. The victinfls reactions were demonstrations of aggressive facial and
body characteristics.

5. The victim started to pursue the assailant.

6. The ending was "other" due to teacher intervention. The teacher
was within five feet of the incident.

7. The incident occurred during an unstructured period.

8. The total time of physical contact was 00:00:02.

9. The total time for the entire incident from the assailant's

approach to Kent's departure was approximately 00:00:10.

100

.9ase.§tudx_§:_bssault

The following case study is an example of aggression-assault.
This study is unusual due to the duration of the incidents. The same
student was involved in two major assaults which required that the
student be physically contained for lengthy periods of time. This
case study begins at 9:00 a.m. and the student is still in an aroused
state as demonstrated by his pacing/walking behaviors at 3:45 p.m. The
majority of the analysis is based on field notes. However. immediately
after the morning incident. Dan returned to the learning center and was
video-taped for a 30-minute period. Ihn not sure that any description
can adequately portray the anguish expressed on this student's face.

The setting is the learning center. Dan had wanted to make a
call to his mother and needed his 08's assistance. The CS refused to
oblige Dan's request since he had neglected to comply with some of the
05's requests. This is probably only one of the issues that led up to

this assault.

W

130 Dan's laugh and voice are audible in the background (not on
film).

281 12 and Dan are in CZ standing near the blackboard. 12 is

talking to Dan. Using his right hand. Dan tries to grab a piece of
paper out of 12's hands. Dan is holding a small stack of books in his
left hand. His legs are apart as he stands facing 12. 12 does not
relinquish the paper; Dan lifts and lets go of the paper when his hand

reaches shoulder level. He twists his body right and with his right

101

hand points toward the learning center tables and says. "Right over
there. . . ."

284 Dan turns and walks toward the learning center tables. still
carrying his books.

285 Dan is off camera. Dan's discussion with CS is on the audio
part of the tape. He wanted his CS to call his mother. but the CS
decided against calling since Dan did not follow through with a task
the CS had requested. Dan had a continual conversation with various
people. yelling into the other rooms or across the learning center to
get information such as. "Where's the trash can?" He is off camera.
402 Dan. "I don't know. nope. nope. . . ."

418 Dan is out of seat. walked in front of the camera and went
over to C2.

428 Walked back from C2 with a magazine in his hand.

432 Dan is out of seat again and returned to 12's desk. Dan is
standing about one foot away from 12. His feet are approximately 6-8
inches apart. He shifts his weight to the right foot. his left foot is
perpendicular to the right with an 8-10 inch distance in between. He
turns his left foot and shifts his weight. rocking side to side seven
times. Pause. Dan then rocks forward with his knees slightly bent one
time. Legs and body are straight and he leans forward two times.
Constantly turning pages in the magazine. an average of one page per
half second. Dan does not give eye contact to the teacher.

441-442 Dan's face is turned toward 12. Dan states. "I'm not doing my

work. so give me a poor for today."

102

442-445 Dan is looking down in direction of the magazine.

445-446 Dan is turned toward 12. but 12 is looking down at an object
on the desk.

450-458 No eye contact with teacher.

454 Dan leaves the magazine on 12's desk and walks around to the
front of the desk. touching the top of a globe which sits on the desk
as he passes. Dan walks to the chalkboard. stops. his hands are in his
pockets. he removes his right hand and points to the chalkboard. Dan
turns approximately 45 degrees when T2 directs a comment to him. Dan
walks toward 12's desk. 12 is standing behind the desk. Dan has his
left hand in his pocket and his right hand is at chest level and
gesturing as he speaks.

458-466 Dan is talking to and looking at 12.

466 Dan turns away from T2.
468 Dan walks toward the learning center doorway. Off camera.
504 Dan returns to the learning center and walks over to the

learning center tables. turns left and proceeds over to the south end
of 12's desk. From the end of the learning center table to 12's desk.
Dan took five steps in 3.7 seconds.

505 Dan stops. turns. and is standing sideways to 12's desk. T2
is looking at Dan and talking with him.

508 Dan turns toward 12. who is sitting at the desk. 12 looks
down at papers on desk. Dan removes objects from his coat pocket.
looking at his hand he searches for one object and begins to clean his

fingernails.

103

512 12 gets out of seat and stepping backwards waits for Dan to
proceed. Dan is still fumbling with an object in his hand as he walks
toward 12. stops. turns. and sets the object on 12's desk.

516 Dan then proceeds out the door.

526 12 returns to CZ without Dan and begins to interact with
other students. Time: 9:37.

.Eifild_NQI§5

Dan left the 1c and went into the hall. While I did not see this. it
was reported that Dan tried to hit a CS and Dan was contained on the
floor in a prone position. I walked out to the hallway; four staff
persons are containing Dan on the floor. I am standing approximately
ten feet away from Dan. His breathing is deep. rapid and noisy. One-
half second counts; huh. huh. huh. huh. huh. huh. huh. huh. huh. huh.
huh. huh. huh. huh. huh. huh; struggling; breathing slower. one-second
counts; /-/-/-/-/-/-/--/--/--/--/--/--/--/--/; struggling again; rapid
shallow breathing. half-second counts. /./././././././././ "Can we
talk?" "Can we talk?" Dan cries. "Get the hell off of me." He
continues to struggle. Rapid shallow breathing. Sw is still moving
/./././././././

[9:44] /././././././. struggling. biting. got left arm loose.
Breathing still fast and shallow /./././././././. Struggle again.
left arm free. hits at 15's foot and hits floor.

[9:50] He continues to struggle. Stopped for 30 seconds. 13 talk-

ing. struggling started again. Transition. students are switching

104

classes and coming into the hallway. Dan got hit in the nose while
struggling.

[10:02] Struggling. CS started talking. 1 starts talking. "We need
to relax. We need to go where there is more privach'

[10:04] Dan is quiet for 20 seconds. struggle. Dan. "IHn going to
class and talk to somebody else. Ihn not going to talk to any of youJ'
Dan is still in a prone position.

[10:11] He is calm for 30 seconds.

[10:12] Toes are moving. eight seconds of foot movement.

[10:13] He is calnu Dan repeats. "I want to talk to someone in my
second hour class."

[10:14] His foot starts moving again.

[10:15] Dan. "I don't want to talk to ya." 1 is talking in a calm
voice. ". . . get up and go to another area."

[10:17] Dan wants to go to second hour class. Gimme'issue.
Struggling. Dan. "I. I want to talk to Kent. I'll sit in the gym. but
don't grab me when I get up." CS says. "Wait." Dan demands. "You'll
don't grab me." CS. "No conditions. all is that you do what you're
asked. that's the condition." Dan replies. "I told ya what I was goin'
to do. I was goin' in the gym." CS. "That's not what I asked." Dan.
"Told you I was going in the gym!" Dan continues talking. ". . .
you'll . . . Kent . . . shit . . . I'm not going to no fuckin' cabin."
Dan covered up his ears. 13. "Don't be covering up your ears." Dan

replies. "I'm still listening."

105

[10:21] Dan sits up and puts on his shoes. Dan shouts. "Man don't
grab me! I'm just getting my shoes."

[10:22] Dan walked into the gym. He sat on the bench. picked up
lotion and put it on his hands. rubbed his hands together and repeated
procedure. 1 said. "Dan. are you ready to talk to Kent?" Dan. "I
don't want to talk to him right now."

[10:24] Dan continues rubbing hands. he puts his hands in his pocket.
He pulls out something white and begins fixing his finger cuticles. Pk:
then puts on more lotion.

[10:25] Dan is still rubbing his hands. fitting fingers together.
fingers locked. rubbing thumb. hands closed. extended. rubbing the top
of his hands. Kent entered gym. Dan said. "Sit down. have a seatJ'
Dan got up and both boys walked across the gym.

[10:27] Dan sat down. talking to Kent. Dan is playing with his
fingers. One leg is bent. one leg is extended. Dan is standing up.

He is showing his hand to Kent. His hands are clasped together. Dan's
back is to staff for 40 seconds. Moved and put one knee on the bench.
one arm on the wall. standing. Started combing his hair. Dan is
talking to Kent.'h .. then as .. . she .. . she .. . school.. . "
Kent changed the subject. Dan lifted Kent's hat. said something about
his hair. Kent talking. Dan. "I know."

[10:34] Dan still standing. pulled something out of his pocket. Some
movement. rocking back and forth. One foot in front of the other.

rocking for five seconds.

106

[10:37] Dan sat on the bench. his back is to the gym door and he is
talking to Kent.

[10:39] Dan gave a high-pitched laugh. His feet are still. moved
left foot to tilt on wall. Shifted and put right foot at a tilt.
[10:41] Laughing. Dan's hand is on Kent's shoulder. He is whisper-
ing in Kent's ear when CS opens gym door.

[10:42] Sitting shoulder to shoulder. voices are low. CS staff
walked over to Dan. put hand on both of Dan's shoulders. Dan got up
and leaned against the wall. Cw talked and walked away. Dan sat down.
Dan put his hand on Kent's shoulder. Dan is playing with his hand.
Both got up and are walking west toward the end of the gym. They
turned and walked south to the other end of the gym. He leaned against
the wall and then stood up straight. Elbows are bent. hand in front.
hands to pockets. Pulled something out of his pocket. They started
walking again.

[10:47] Walking to weights. Kent picked up a weight and proceeded to
do arm swings 7 to 10 times. Dan picked up a weight. did a curl three
times. and then put them down. Walked forward and back to weights.
fixing one large weight. Everyone walked out to the grassy slope and
sat down.

[11:03] Adjustment outside on the grassy slope. ". . '. something in
school. . . ." 15. "Everyone knows the reason why." Kent. "Go ahead
and tell him." 1. ". . . define problem." Dan. "I don't care." Dan

is standing. takes steps back to staff. "I'm not. . . ." Standing

107

sideways to staff. eyes focus away from staff. Dan. "IVTI figure
things out for myself."

[11:01] Dan is facing staff and has a pencil in his hand. He turned
his back to staff. paced eight steps. looking at his hand. Dan. "I
don't care what . . . does. I don't care what . . . does. I don't
care what . . . does." Dan took seven steps back. two steps to the
side. made a half turn and stepped back two steps. Dan walked off with
Kent following at [11:07].

Returned to 1c and rewound Tape 1 change to Tape 2.

[11:20] Tape 2. Dan and Nash are both just in from adjustments.
[11:34] C1; 11 and two students. CZ has 15 and two students. C3 has
13 and two students; one of the students is Nash. who just returned
from an adjustment. At the lct are three students; one is Dan in from
adjustment.

[11:39] Nine students total in 1c with one teacher.

W:
11:20

9:37 to 10:20 for approximately 43 minutes Dan was contained by staff.
For one hour he was in either the gym or outside. He returned to the
learning center upon his request.

00 Dan is sitting at lct. Camera is moved over to his area. He
laughed and moved out of camera range.

09 Dan is sitting with chair tilted back. rHs arms are
perpendicular and away from his body. resting on the divider that is

directly behind his chair. As the camera focuses on him. he laughs.

108

turns his face to the left and starts to move his chair out of camera
range. His mouth first lifts on the left side (sneer) showing his
teeth and then moves to an open mouth as he emits a laugh.

ll 13 approaches Dan and gives him a folder. Dan says "no" two
times to 13 as he tries to hand Dan the folder. T3 responds. "No what.
I thought Mr. M said you were going to come to class." Dan responded.
"I' was coming to class. but I ain't say I was working." Dan's hand is
resting with the palm cupped on the lct.

l8-l9 Dan took the papers from 13. Dan dropped the folder on the
top of the lct.

23 Dan opened the folder and turned one page. Bob came over and
put his hand in Dan's pocket. Dan commented: "Get out of my pocket.
what you trying to steal? Golly. . . ." As he speaks his lips are
'curled at the corners upward.

28-29 Left hand in pocket. Dan removed an object from pocket and
transferred it to his right hand.

34 Again moved chair out of camera range. Can see Dan twist in
the chair two times. then moved completely out of view. Dan's chair is
facing C2. Verbal conversation with other student continues. 13 walks
over to Dan.

50 Standing on his right side. places his left hand in the
middle of Dan's back and with an open pal m. pats Dan's back two times.
53 Dan is out of seat and walks over to 1'5 desk in C2. He
takes five steps in 2.3 seconds. from lct to CZ-T's desk. He takes at

least one other step that is not on camera. As he walks over. he leads

109

with the right side of his body a bit more forward than the left side.
The left arm swings while he walks but his right arm is held in front
of him. He stops standing next to TS and extends his right hand.

56 Dan shakes hands with 15. who is sitting at desk. There are
19 up and down movements of the hand.

62 Dan releases hand. He touches something on 1's desk with his
left hand. turns and as he begins to walk back to 03 rather than
walking around the wastepaper basket. swings his left leg over it. 13
is standing next to Dan as he returns to class.

63 Dan returns to C3. walks to the filing cabinet. picks up a
hand calculator and then walks back to lct. His left arm is bent as he

holds the calculator. the right arm is swinging freely.

73 Dan sat in seat at lct and began to push the calculator
buttons.
76 Intention speak. Eyes directed toward calculator and

continues to push buttons.

78 Upper smile and audible laugh.
79 Talking. focus on paper.
84 Rubs left eyebrow with his left index finger and looks

around. Stops talking.

85 Rubs left ear with his left index finger.
86 Glances around.
87 Glances down at work. Head tilted down over paper. Mouth

open. lower lip protrudes beyond upper lip.

90 Glances up. mouth in same position.

110

92 Lips closed and tight. upper lip protrudes over lower lip.
chin tucked back. eyes on calculator. fingers continue to push buttons

with his right hand.

96 Glances around.
97 Glances down.
101 Glances up at T3 to left and back to paper. "What . . ." to

13. Left elbow is resting on the table top. Basically there is no

movement. The wrist does not make contact with the table.

102 Glance down to paper. No verbals.
105 Right shoulder lifts up and down.
106 Dan is glancing down at paper. continues to push buttons.

straightens fingers. constant finger movement. but he is not writing.
112 Glance up to left.
113 Twitch upward of sneer. on right side of mouth. look down.

Continues to move fingers and focus down at his paper.

121 Right finger*rubs in a downward motion from middle of chin to
end.
125 13 comes over to Dan's side and Dan makes an audible random

noise. He turns his head slightly away from 13 and continues to glance
down. His chin protrudes slightly and then returns to a down position.
He makes random lip motions. lips are separated. but there is no
vocalization.

126 Automanipulation continues.

lZ9 Talks to another student.

131 Mouth open. bottom lip protrudes outwards. talks to Bob.

111

133 Looks up at camera and says. "Uhun. trying to get slick

Ms. Ruder. . . hello" and waves to camera. Eyebrows were raised and he
lowered them as he looked up. His mouth was open while he was talking.
went to a full upper smile.lips close. smile. and talking. Dan waves
four times and then continues to manipulate the calculator. Some
talking. .

140 Picks up books and sets them down. Starts talking with Bob.
Drops object on the table. shuffling papers.

149 Tosses a piece of paper on the divider. misses the top.

150 Picks paper off floor and tosses it on top of the divider.
Talking. laugh with a full open mouth. Looks to the right. mouth
closes with the corners and lips tight. eyes are narrowed. Lips
separate. lightly close. separate. corners pulled back and lifted

slightly upward. Mouth parted. then closed. corners of lip are

downward.

159 Sits back in chair. leaning chair back on two legs.

160 Sits forward in chair. shuffling papers. Face and eyes look
glazed.

162 Audible sigh. shifts chair forward.

163 Puts hands in pockets and leans back in chair. Pulls object

out of right pocket and fumbles with it. 'Talking to a student on his
right. "I know so get out of hereJ' Glance right. mouth corners are

down.

112

166 Fumble with object held in right hand. lays left wrist and
hand on left inner thigh. Laughs. full open mouth as he tilts
backwards.

167 Turns head to far right and responds to another conversation
that is going on in C1. Smile on face that momentarily switches to a
sneer with the left upper lip up. then lips close.

168 Dan turns his head forward. then to the right. His mouth is
open. purses lips forward and then opens mouth such that the lip
corners are back and upper teeth are visible. Body turned forward in
chair.

170 Dan turns his upper body and head to the right and is talking
to someone.

171 Dan turns his body forward. Smile is with an open mouth. he
closes it. upper lip curls up then down. He starts talking to himself
while he manipulates the calculator holding it in his left hand and
pushing buttons with his right index finger.

184 Dan's left shoulder is raised. his right shoulder is down.
He shifts his shoulders and moves his right shoulder back while he
turns his head to the right. He straightens his head.

185 Dan turns head back-right then straight again. He then calls
to a student and lifts his right hand to approximately shoulder level
and with his index finger. bending it at the second joint. fingertip
up. motions twice for the student to come over to him.

190 Lips are in down position.

191 Talking to a student at the lct.

113

202 Body shift. continuously turning pages. Constant movement of
head from right to forward and back again. Constantly talking to self
or others.

213 Looks left in direction of teacher and asks a student in 03.
"What's happnin' . . ." Repeats question to student. Paper shuffle
continues along with glancing from right to his work and back right.
241 Says to Hal. "I'll get Nash for ya." Nash hears comment and
says. "You ain't gonna get Nash nothinh" Dan turns left and glances
at Nash and replies. "Oh. keep thinking'."

241 Head looking down at work. talking and pushing the buttons on
the calculator. Talking about hurting someone and turns his head in
the direction of Nash. Picks up papers and continues to talk to
students at lct. Discusses how he got another student in the shower
room.

265 Mouth movements of raising and lowering upper lip. like a
sneer. Lips close and then repeats motion. He still is fumbling with
papers in his hand. looking at them and then all around.

268 Bob talks to him. right eyebrow lifts and Dan laughs. lips
are pulled way back such that the laugh sounds and looks strained.
Talking to student at lct. he continues to shuffle papers. Discussing
the ribs served for dinner.

287 Stands up. right hand remains stationary on desk top. Dan
takes two steps. body is leaning forward over the table.

290 Dan sits back down. instantly picks up paper. puts it down.

adjusts chair and then picks up papers again. He continues to talk.

114

smiling and laughing during the discussions. Arms and hands constantly
moving. Continuous upper-body shifts from left. straight. right.
straight. etc. Hands continuously fumbling with papers. Picks them

up. straightens them. taps them on the table top.

366 Bob comes over to talk with Dan.
368 Dan leans his back against the chair.
371 Dan turns body to right and tilts his chair back and contin-

ues to talk with Bob.

380 Rubs his nose with his left hand. lips are closed and pulled
backwards. then sniffs.

383 Talking and emphasizing a point. with right-hand index finger
pointing downward. other fingers closed in a fist. he raises and lowers
hand five times. He puts his left hand in his pocket.

385 Left hand out of pocket. pushes buttons on calculator which
is on the table. rubs under his left eye. manipulates calculator. With
the chair tilted back. he rocks back and forth. When not talking. his
mouth resting position is with lips separated.

391 Body shifts forward. sitting forward in chair. upper body
leaning over the table. He continues to talk with student at lct.

Lips closed. mouth corners flash back and then forward. As he talks
the right upper lip lifts. almost like a twitch. Constantly looks
around. nervous laughing. Leans down close to table and then lifts
upper body back up. shoulders rounded. Repeats same and then turns

upper body and head to the left.

115

427 Manipulating papers in front of him. Continues to look

around and talk to people throughout the lc.

438 Dan gets out of seat. Off camera.

444 T3 follows after Dan.

471 Can hear Dan laughing in the background.

473 Dan returns to seat. 13 is walking near him. Mouth open.

lips parted. closed. corners of mouth pulled back. bottom lip protrudes
slightly. he then has his mouth resting for a moment. closes eyes.
opens his mouth as if to»1et out a cry. at the same time starts to turn
face down toward table top and covers face with left hand. Left hand
makes contact with his face above his eyebrows. left thumb on left brow
and fingertips on right brow. Two times he moves fingers and thumb
slightly inwards. rubbing. then brings hand down across his face and
off the tip of his chin. Dan shakes his head from right to left

simultaneously. He turns his face right in direction of lc door and

camera.
474 Dan turns a piece of paper over.
475 Tim comes over the sits next to Dan. Puts papers down. body

shifts. leans back in chair and starts smiling at Tim. With his right
hand reaches to touch Tjnfls hair. and sweeps his hand from the center
of Tim's head out to the right.

480 Shuffling papers again. Tim asks what the papers are. Dan
replies. "Oh some personal papers for my court. . . ." Dan sits back
in chair. left hand to ear. His facial expression is still. eyes are

focused downward. chin tucked down. head then turns to the right as

116

both young men look at rip on Tjnfls pants. Dan asks how the pants
ripped. Dan is looking at Tim. his eyebrows flash upward. eyes open
wide and then go back to looking like slits. his mouth is opened and
starts a broad smile. Tim responds.

488 Laughing at TTm's response. Dan tilts his head back so that
the neck is completely stretched out. tilts back in his chair. Drops
chin down. smiles and pulls lips backward with the corners down. Left
hand is in pocket and he starts searching for its contents. right hand
grabs the left front panel of the jacket. His eyes shift to the left
side of his jacket. Chair comes down. he begins to laugh again. he
leans forward. puts both forearms on table top from elbows to wrist.
the left arm crosses over the top of the right. bends head down and
touches forehead on arms. lifts head up. shifts body back in chair.
490 Body and chair tilted back. left hand is holding onto the
edge of the table. he watches Tim as he stands up and moves off to the
right. Mouth is open. broad smile. his eyes close and then open with
eyebrows raised. left hand is removed from table edge and in lap. moves
back to table edge. Laugh. pause. laugh. head is tilted back. eyes

closed. motioning with right hand he says. "Come back here. . . ."

492 Dan looks downward. mouth closed. no smile. he looks blank
and sad.
493 13 sits down and begins to talk with Dan. Face is covered by

13. Dan rocks back and forth in his chair. left hand on table edge.

13 wants Dan's work.

117

498 Dan out of seat and over to filing cabinet. 1 asks Dan a
question and Dan responds..21§§.2 Off camera.

509 Dan passes in front of the camera on way to office to run off
paper for 13.

574 Dan reenters 1c and returns to the table. He is holding a
pencil and writing on the paper that is in front of him.

588 Turns to the right and makes a statement to someone behind
him. then looks back down at his paper.

591 Lifts his head and tilts it to the left. glances to the
right. straight and then right again. with his left-hand fingers
separated. he rubs his chin. touching near his lips he moves his
fingers downward. repeats three times. His eyes are dropped and his
mouth is partially open in a neutral position. He then focuses on the
camera. eyes become animated. widen and his mouth moves to an open
grin. close and then open grin.

594 Laughs. points with his right hand and turns forward in
chair. talks with a student and then looks at his work.

598 With his left hand he rubs his hand across his nose while he
turns his head up and to the right. then leaning over paper. chin
approximately five inches from table top. he looks back down at paper.
601 Lifts head up and looks right and then back down to paper.
603 Shifts body upright in chair. still looking at paper. tilts
head to the right and back. Face close to paper. left hand resting on

table top.

118

611 Looks up at student at end of table. turns right and makes a
comment to another student. continues to write on paper.

Tim is leaning with the upper part of his body on the divider. forearms
and hands are resting on the divider. chin is resting on his hands. Tim
knows he is on camera. Tim makes a comment to Dan. Dan in play gets
out of seat. his right arm goes over past Tim's head and grabs Tim's
side. Dan leans over the top of Tim; with his left hand in a fist Dan
hits Tim in the back three times. As Dan hits. his whole body bounces
up and down double time with each hit. Dan then moves to the side of
the divider. still holding onto Tim. Tim is starting to stand up. and
Dan moves his right arm around to Tinfls front chest and up around his
neck. Dan's left arm is on Tim's back. Dan is using enough pressure
to make Tim lean backward. his knees bend and he starts going to the
floor. Dan comments. "We gotta make it look good for the camera." 13
is right there and breaks up the physical contact just as tape ends.

Total physical contact on video: 10.1 seconds.

Elfild_N91§§

[12:00] End of Tape 2. Dan went to Ss in C3 and physically picked
him up. Dan walked out of the 1c and while in the hallway leading to
the outdoors. he grabbed Nash two times. Reason for this is partially
due to Nash getting Frank in trouble. He grabbed Nash. let go and
walked back to the cabin. While at lunch it was reported that Dan put
his hands around Nash's neck.

[12:45] Physical restraint of Dan on the front lawn of the learning

center. There are three staff restraining him. Reason for restraint

119

per 15: Dan was walking to class and 15 told Dan that they would get
his work and he could work in the cabin. Dan started walking away.
still proceeding toward 1c. CS walked over to Dan and told him to
stop. CS touched Dan on the shoulder. Dan hit CS on the chin. Dan
was restrained. Dan is struggling. Someone stated. "No biting."
[12:59] Dan is prone. his back is on the grass. Struggling. left arm
is moving.

[1:00] Movement of left arm. whole body is struggling.

[1:02] Six staff are restraining Dan. two people on each leg. Dan
is kicking. They released Dan's legs and he started kicking.

[:05] Legs are still. Breathing is rapid and noisy. Ihn about ten
feet away from Dan.

[1:08] Resting. Struggling with arms. kicking. Dan is making major
body movements with his legs. Staff are sitting on his legs. Resting
9 seconds. struggle 2. rest 27. struggle 10. rest 15. struggle 2.
resting 32. struggle 1. rest 5. struggle 13. resting 32. struggle l.
resting 2. struggle l. resting ll. struggle 6. resting lZ. struggle 28
seconds.

[1:14] Dan is trying to bite and kick. Middle person got off. now
there are five staff on Dan. Struggling 14 seconds. resting 2.
struggling 2. One staff person got off his left leg. Another staff
person has a light hold on the right leg. Dan struggled and there was
a new hold put on him.

[1:18] Struggling 10. resting 3. struggling 13. Dan's hands are

clenched.

120

[1:22] There are five staff restraining Dan. one on each leg. one on
each arm. and one at the head. The staff person on the left arm moved
to straddle the middle. Dan struggled so one more staff person moved
to the left arm. Now there are six staff on Dan. Dan is making
whining sounds. His face is flushed and red. Dan started to cry. Bit
staff person on the arm. Staff remained calm. Staff person to Dan.
"Did that help you Dan?" Repeated same statement three times. Then
staff said. "I was willing to trust you."

[1:24] Struggling. resting 55 seconds. struggling l. resting 27.
struggling 13. resting 15. struggling l3. resting 73. struggling 1
second. Dan's face is flushed.

[1:32] Resting for 60 seconds. His head is turned right. then to
left. Resting 7. struggling 4. resting 14 seconds. Turned head from
left to right. He lifted his head up off the ground and looked at me.
Resting 4. turned head left. resting 1 minute and 45 seconds.

[1:35] Staff person in the middle tried to get up. Dan struggled
1-2 seconds. staff stayed on the middle. Resting 7. Legs are being
lightly held. There are two staff on the arms. The middle staff got
off. movements made by Dan. His hands are clenched. One leg person
got off Dan's left leg and started talking to Dan. "If we let you go.
do you promise not to take no swings or . . . ." Dan got up and
started walking. Dan pushing. ". . . want to walk." Staff hold onto
arms. Dan. "Ihn not going to hurt someone. I just want to be by
myself. I just want to be by myself. I dontt want to be with nobody.

I just want to be by myselfJ' Eight staff are around. Now four staff

121

are holding Dan. who is sitting. Two are on the arms and two on the
legs. CS. "Let's stand up." Dan. "Let go of me. J_e_t go of me." CS.
"What ya gonna do?" Dan. "11m ggnna stand up." Dan standing. leaning
with his back against the west outside wall of the lc. Seven staff are
standing around him. Dan is playing with his fingers. Dan. "You wanta
fight?" CS. "1 don't want to fight ya. never did. but I'm not gonna
allow you to hurt me." Dan. "You wanta fight now?" Dan. pushing back
and forth. Dan's hands. fingers clasped in each other. One hand on
wrist. CS took hold of Dan's arms and Dan started to struggle. Dan.
"I'm not going to hit nobody." He pulled out a comb and started combing
his hair. Dan. "I want my pen." Repeated two times. Dan. "That's all
I want. I want my pen. Where's my metal thing?" Dan is surrounded by
CS and teaching staff. He is leaning against the lc wall on the
outside fiddling with the metal piece (gimme issue).

[1:58] Dan walking toward the lc door. CS blocking the way. Dan
turned and started walking south. Dan. "I'm going somewhere. I'm
going somewhere and be by myself. Leave me alone. Leave me alone.
Leave me alone. Leave me alone. Leave me alone." Staff is blocking
Dan from walking off. CS holds his arms. Dan started to struggle to
get staff's arms off of him.

[2:00] Dan was taken down to the ground by staff. Dan. "I was
walking away to be by myself." T5 talked about me going. Dan. "I
didn't want to. I walked away and you grabbed me." CS. "When I place
my hand here what did you do?" Dan. "I socked you in the jaw." Dan

sat up. Discovered he had a bump on his head. Dan. "Do you think that

122

will bother me? It ain't hurtin' me." repeated three times. Hands are
loose. Dan stood up. Dan. "Don't grab me." repeated two times. "Don't
touch me." repeated nine times. "and you won't get hit."

[2:15] Both hands are in his pants pockets. He is standing next to
the wall. Moved hand to his head and back to his pockets. now he is
playing with his fingers. Dan is standing still. "I want to walk up on
that hill and be alone." Dan started to move through staff. "Please
don't push." Dan. "There you go grabbing me." Dan standing and lean-
ing against the wall.

[2:25 approx.] New staff came on duty and came over to the 1c. Dan
pulled the pen out of his pocket and is drawing on his finger. He
walked off with new staff person. Dan walked over to dorm and stood
with three people. Moved from dorm door and started walking down the
road with one staff. Dan put his hand on his eyes. They are walking
side by side.

[3:45] Dan and staff walked back to the dorm and entered.

W

1. Dan demonstrated out-of-seat and pacing behaviors before the
aggressive-assault. In a 00:22:00 segment. Dan was out of seat for
00:16:00.

2. Dan did not give eye contact to the teacher before the aggressive-
assault.

3. Dan initially hit the CS one time. which resulted in his being

physically restrained. The restraint lasted 40 minutes. After the

123

containment. Dan again demonstrated pacing and moving behaviors for at
least one hour.

4. When Dan returned to the learning center. he appeared to be in a
daze. While seated. his hands and body were in perpetual motion. His
facial and body characteristics were ones typically defined as aggres-
sive (Grant. 1969).

5. Dan proceeded to physically attack Nash two times.

6. Upon returning from lunch. he hit a CS in the jaw.

7. Dan perpetrated four separate aggressive-assaults during a three-
and-a-half—hour period.

8. For a second time. Dan was physically contained for 50 minutes.

9. When Dan was released. the first thing he wanted was to walk and be
alone.

10. Dan walked/paced for 01:15:00 after the second containment.

ll. Staff's first intervention strategy was to touch or grab Dan.
When having verbal interactions with him. many staff persons spoke.
sometimes simultaneously.

12. Dan continually requested that staff not "grab him" during and
after the containments.

13. It is difficult to conclusively state that the first initial signs
of this incident began at 9:00 a.m. The quasiagonistic behaviors that
Dan demonstrated two days before may have been precursors for this
blow-up. The incident did not end at 3:45 p.m. when Dan returned to

the dorms. Indeed there were periods of time in which he rested.

124

These short spurts are described in the field notes. The following day
(weekend). Dan again had a major aggressive-assault incident which
resulted in his removal from the camp setting. What can be noted is
that Dan started precursor behaviors to the aggressive-assault at least
by 9:00 a.m. and that at 3:45 p.m. he rested for a period. Thus that
part of the case study. with its ups and downs. lasted 06:45:00.

14. Muscle relaxation is incompatible with assaultive behaviors. and
as the field notes and tape analysis described. Dan was not relaxed
when he returned from the first incident.

15. In many respects Dan was the person controlling the event. On
various occasions he demanded peOple. objects. and freedom to walk. and

the staff complied with his requests.

W811
This is an example of a sniper hit. The tape analysis is the
preamble of Luke's behavior before his sniper attack. The attack

occurred during the transition from fifth period to sixth period.

mm
328 Luke standing in C3 and brushing hair. Horseplay with Rich.

Rich is waving his hands in front of Luke's face. Lukeis smiling.
Luke is walking around room. brushing his hair. throwing the brush up
in the air. then more brushing.

350 Transition: 13 says. "Good bye Luke. I'm trying to get you
outa here without you. . . ." Luke turns and walks away. He is off

camera.

125

363 13 is near bookshelf on west wall. Reenter Luke. Luke walks
over near 13.

366 Luke moves off camera.

372 Luke has returned to C3. He is tossing the brush in the air.
Luke walks over to divider. picks up a knitted cap and is twirling it
on his left hand. He is holding the brush in his right hand.

378 Luke puts the hat on the divider and begins to stuff a wad of
paper in it. I

380 Luke has moved completely off camera.

Woks
[1:25] Rich took Luke's brush again (340)--Transition.
[1:35] During the transition. Luke walked up to a student. hit him

in the chest. and departed immediately for the gym.

WM

1. The assailant had been walking around for at least one minute
before the "hit."

2. The assailant had been involved with quasiagonistic play before the
assault.

3. The assailant was standing and moving before the attack.

4. The assailant hit the victim one time.

5. The assailant departed quickly.

126

6. The ending was "separate." both students were at least two or more
feet away from each other. Proximity of a teacher was unknown.
7. The time of attack was during an unstructured movement through the

learning center.

WWII.
This case study demonstrates an aggression-assault incident.
The aggressor enters from the portable so there is no baseline
available for the antecedent behaviors. The fight occurs during a

transitional period.

.E1211_N91§s

390-410 John was walking to the portable. He was looking back over
his shoulder in the direction of the C1. He was not paying attention
to where he was going. Tom entered the 1c from the portable. As Tom
walked through C4. he bumped into John with his left shoulder. John

turned and kicked with his right leg. Tom kicked with his right leg.

19 broke up the interaction.

Manual:
404 Transition still in progress. Tom comes quickly walking

through the door between C4 and the hallway connected to the portable.
John is moving from C2 to the portable. As he walks to C4 entrance he
turns his head back to the right. looking at something. takes one step
looking forward. then three steps looking back over his left shoulder.

He then takes one step forward and collides with Tom. Tom has been in

127

the room 244 seconds and is facing John. while John. still preoccupied.
is not looking in Tom's direction. Tom has a jacket hanging over his
left arm as he enters the 1c. As Tom passes John. his right shoulder
hits John's left shoulder. John's shoulder is knocked back. and his
left hand sweeps forward toward Tom. At the same time. John shifts
weight to his right side. makes a half turn. and kicks Tom using his
left leg. The kick is high and lands on Tom's side near his waist.

Tom is loud and verbal. but it can"t be discerned. It sounds something
like "Get out fool. get. . . ."

405 Tom. who was facing west at contact with John. makes a half
turn to his left after they connect shoulders and as the kick lands. he
is now facing east. Tom takes two steps forward while he simultane-
ously transfers the sweater from his left arm to his right arm. Tom
kicks at John with his left foot. Just as he approaches John to kick.
19 walks through the door and has moved between Tom and John. 19. with
open-palmed hands. makes contact with Tom's chest and pushes him back—

wards. Tom takes two steps backwards. turns right. and walks out of

C4.

407 Tom leaves the lc. John goes into portable.
408 T9 follows after Tom.
W

1. Tom was standing and moving before being assaultive.
2. Tom had been in the room 2.4 seconds before making physical contact
with John.

3. The event occurred during an unstructured period.

128

4. John responded to the physical contact (being hit on the shoulder)
with physical contact. There was one hit. shoulder to shoulder. one
kick. and another attempted kick in this interaction.

5. The ending was "other." with a teacher intervening to halt the
fight. The teacher was within five feet of the incident.

6. The total time of physical contact between the students was
00:00:04.

7. The total time for the incident beginning with Tom's entrance into

C4 and Tom's departure from C4 and the lc was 00:00:07.

W
The students and teachers have just completed their daily
homeroom meetings and are entering the learning center. It is
approximately 9:00 in the morning. This case study is an example of a

sniper hit.

Milli-Li

0-14 Transition from homeroom to class. Kent. Luke. and Nick are
walking into the learning center from the trailer. All three students
stopped in C4 to talk. All three students were out of view of the
camera. As they proceeded to their respective classrooms. one student
commented. "You didn't get that on film did you?" Then Don enters the
learning center from C4 and calls Lee: "Hey. Lee." Lee replies.
"Whach you want man?" Lee. who is standing in front of CZ. begins to

walk toward C4. Meanwhile. Luke has walked over toward C1. Luke turns

129

around and is walking next to Lee. on Lee's left side. Luke suddenly
hits Lee in the stomach. Luke used his right hand. forearm was
perpendicular to his body. his hand moved in a parallel swing from
Luke's center body outward. Lee chased after Luke and barely grabbed
Luke's jacket. Luke stumbled. recovered. and then moved quickly into
the trailer. Lee followed Luke for a few more steps and stopped the
pursuit as he reached the entrance to C4. Lee turned around and walked

back toward C1.

W

l. The sniper is standing and moving.

2. The sniper made a surprise attack.

3. There was only one hit.

4. The sniper departed quickly.

5. The victim pursued the sniper.

6. There was a separate ending to the incident. The proximity of a
teacher is unknown.

7. The incident occurred during an unstructured period.

8. The total time for the entire interaction between Lee and Luke was

00:00:04.

Will]:
The students are in class period 2. The class has been in
progress for almost a half houn. 1his case study is a demonstration of
aggression-assault. The prime actors are Tom. Rich. Steve. and Kent.

Kent has been demonstrating quasiagonistic behaviors most of the

130

morning. He has been behind a filing cabinet for seven minutes and has

just stepped out from his hiding place.

.Eiald_NQI§§
[998] Physical encounter. Tom shouts at Steve. "Stupid. shut up

man." Rich stands up and goes over to Tom. Check tape. Tom leaves the
room. Lee followed.

[10:14] Steve left the room to find Tom. checked the restroom. gym.
and then the janitor's closet. Rich walked out and opened the door to
the janitor's closet. Both walked back to the circular table. CS

physically brought Tom back into class.

W

982 Camera moved to Cl. Kent is by the pencil sharpener; Steve
is sitting. yawning and stretching at the circular table. 11 is
sitting to Steve's right. Rich was standing near Tom. who is seated at
the desk by the north wall. Rich walks away from Tom. Standing by the
circular table. Rich glances right in the direction of C3 for a couple
of seconds and then sits dOWFL Kent walks over to the circular table
from the pencil sharpener.

986 Close-up of Kent. Can see Rich's leg movements. As Rich
sits at table. knees are bent; he moves his legs from an outward to
inward position six times. body shift. pause. three times quickly and
pause for 11 seconds.

995 Kent looks up from his work in direction of Tom. Rich makes

five in/out leg motions. He is still on task.

131

997 Can hear Tom in the background saying. "Stupid. stupidJ'

Rich shifts his shoulders upwards on the first stupid and then drops
them back down on the second stupid. 11 is standing behind the 115
desk. looking down at papers.

998 Tom is sitting in a chair near the north wall of Cl. Steve
is sitting at the circular table. his body is facing west. As the
camera shifts to view Tom and Steve. one can see a glimpse of Steve”;
right arm retreating toihis center-front body. His arm rests momen-
tarily on the desk top. Steve then reaches his right hand out. he
appears to be holding a pen. and points it at Tom's face. Steve is
smiling. His legs are bent at the knees. After the first full visible
arm reach. Tom says. "Aaaath' Steve. who still is smiling. looks down
at table. up at Rich. and then back to Tom. Simultaneously. Steve
inoves his legs to center and out again 11 times. Tom says. "Aahh." one
more time and Steve then reaches out teasingly to grab Tom two more
times. With each reach from Steve. Tom repeats "Aaahth' As Steve
reaches. Tom pulls his head back. As Steve's arm returns to the center
of his body. Tom says. "Aaahhh" and sticks his chin out. stretching his
neck. Steve's legs move from right to left four more times. The
arm/hand motion is the same'all three times. The arm is stretched
outwards at shoulder level and bending at the elbow; the hand swings up
at about a 70-degree angle and toward Steve's chest. almost like an
exaggerated comerhere motion. Tom is sitting about four feet away from
Steve; his head is turned to the right. Tom looks at Steve. looks

forward. looks at Rich. looks forward. and then looks at Steve.

132

INnmediately after Tom says the first "Aaaahhhh" sound. Rich pauses for
3 seconds and then moves legs inward and outward 9 times in 7 seconds.
Body shift of Rich as he turns to the left and gets out of his seat as
Tom says the fourth "Aaahth'

1002 Rich is standing behind Tom. Rich's right hand is holding
onto the top of a chair. and the left hand is holding onto the edge of
the carrel. Rich pauses in this position. Tom is still seated and is
facing east. Kent then gets out of his seat and moves over in front
and to the right of Tom. With the repeat of the fifth "Aaahh." Rich
grabs Tom around the chin and neck from the back with his right hand
and on Tom's head with his left hand. 'Tom jumps out of seat and turns
to face‘Rich. Kent is standing on ltmfls right side. Steve is seated.
still smiling. Kent is smiling.

Tom is standing with his right foot approximately two feet in
front of the left foot. His right hand is to his side. palm open. his
left arm is extended downward front center with a slight bend at the
elbow; the palm is open. Rich is facing Tom. his left foot is approxi-
mately eight inches in front of the right. his body is turned to a side
angle. Rich's left hand sweeps inwardly up; he then pulls it toward
him and with a straight extended arm. index finger pointing. he puts
his finger within two to three inches of Tom's nose. Tom. using an
outward to inward motion. open palm. slaps Rich's forearm. Rich's
forearm moves in a circular motion and returns to pointing his finger
once more in Tom's face. Tom slaps the arm one more time. using an

outward to inward open-palmed motion. After Tom hit Rich the first

133

time. 1']. moved from the desk three to five feet. and is stadning next
to Tom. 11 puts a hand on Tom's left forearm. 0n the second hit/slap.
Kent moves in between the two students and. holding onto Rich's right
upper arm with his left hand and placing his right hand on Rich's back.

right side. moves Rich backwards and to the right. toward the circular

table.
1003 Tom quickly leaves the room.
1004 Kent directs Rich to the circular table and Rich sits down.

Kent is standing behind him. Kent pats Rich on the back one time and
then rubs Rich's shoulders. five times. Rich's left upper arm raises to
shoulder level and his forearm swings backward. Rich says. ". . . man.
cut this shit out." Kent stops the shoulder rub but then with his
right index finger in pointing position. he pokes Rich on the neck.
Rich's left shoulder flinches up and he moves slightly to the left. As
Steve watches there are four in-and-out leg movements.

1005 Rich leans his body over as if to continue his work at the
table. Rich's head is almost level with his shoulders; his back is to
the camera. As Kent moves around the circular table. he places his
right pointed index finger on Steve's eye. Steve sits. not moving. As
Kent walks behind Steve. his pointed index finger slides back along
Steve's temple. all five fingers over Steve's forehead and then the
index finger crosses over Steve's closed left eye and down his cheek.
There are no leg movements by Steve while Kent is sliding his finger

over his face.

134

1006.5 11 follows after Tom. One can hear pounding in the
background. Kent has picked up a large piece of posterboard and is
playing around with it.

1007 Rich shifts his body upward. head comes up and he turns his
head over his left shoulder to see what is happening. Rich makes five
body shifts in seven seconds. Steve is also looking in direction of
the lc door. Kent is unfolding some paper. Rich and Steve are not
attending to Kent.

1009 Rich turns his head back around and looks down at his work.
His legs move twice. still for 6.4 seconds. and then move in and out 13
times in 6.8 seconds.

1011 Kent throws the paper on the circular table. Both students
flinch their shoulders. lifting their heads and upper bodies verti-
cally. Instantaneously. Steve gets out of his seat.

1012 Kent sits down at circular table and Steve leaves area. Rich
slides his left hand over his head.

1013 Rich turns left in his seat and is facing the direction of
the lc door. Kent gets out of his seat.

1014 Kent has gone over to 1'5 desk and is starting to hide under
the desk. Rich continues to look in the direction of the 1c door.
1015 Kent is crawling under the T's desk. Rich's right foot
movement; two times. pause. two times. pause. two more times.
Conversation in 03 from one of the students: "Why don't ya go out
there and help . . . go get that kid man (Rich looks in direction of

C3). he's beating on somethin' man. why don't ya go get him man."

135

1017 Rich out of seat and walks toward lc hallway. Pounding stops
in the background.

1021 Rich returns to the 1c. walks back to circular table and sits
down. 11 follows. 11 walks over to desk and instructs Kent to move.
Kent is rolling on the floor. Rich's leg movements: 35 leg movements
in 32 seconds. His upper body appears to be in position to write. His
back is to the camera. so it is impossible to distinguish if he is on
task. Pause. no leg movements for 14.5 seconds. then seven leg move-
ments and body shift as 15 comes over to circular table.

1023 Steve returns to class. I

1025 Steve sits down at the circular table. He rubs his face with
his left hand.

1030 Kent is out from under 115 desk and has a fly-swatter. Tom
enters the 1c and makes a comment. Rich has taken the fly-swatter and
says. "I'll swat your head with this fly-swatter."

1035 Tom is on camera. A CS has encircled Tom's arms and chest
with his arms. He is escorting Tom to a desk near the south wall in
C2.

Tape 2

60 Tom is sitting in the corner near the filing cabinet with

the CS. Rich. rather than sitting directly up to the table. has
shifted and is sitting sideways. Essentially. his back is turned away
from Tom. If he were sitting forward he would be facing Tom. Rich

appears to be on task. Kent is on task while he occasionally plays

136

with the fly-swatter. Steve is on task. 11 is sitting between Steve
and Rich.

114 Rich shifts in chair. his legs are still. He is still
slightly turned to the left. away from Tom. He appears to be on task.
153 Tom is seated. He constantly makes noises and faces and
occasionally he works with CS's help.

195 Rich is off task. tilting the chair to the right on two legs.

He is making faces in front of the camera.

197 Rich got out of his seat and walked over to C3.

206 11 calls Rich back. then walks over the directs him back to
class.

224 Rich seated at the circular table. facing forward. He is on
task.

265 Rich gets out of his seat again.

270 Rich walks over to C3. 11 followed and brought him back to

class. Rich is looking in the direction of C3.

290 Rich gets out of his seat once more and returns to C3. He is
standing by the divider with a group of students.

312 Rich returns to class. Rich continues to be distracted and
demonstrates in- and out-of-seat behavior until transition for the next

class.

W

1. There was a possible annoying stimulus. i.e.. Tom's noises.
Z. The assailant. Rich. demonstrated a high frequency of body

movements just before the assault (30—40 within one minute).

137

3. Rich was standing and his arms were away from his body.

4. Rich initiated the assault by grabbing Tom's neck and head.

5. Tom. who had been seated. responded by jumping up and taking a
defensive stance to protect himself.

6. Tom hit Rich twice. Tom immediately departed from the area and
began to pace around the school building for at least 00:01:30. Tom
was physically escorted back to the room and continued with a high
frequency of body movements.

7. Rich had a high frequency of body/leg movements subsequent to the
physical encounter (83 within 00:01:00). Rich's hand movements were
not visible. He sat for a total of 00:06:00.

8. Rich started walking around. demonstrating in- and out-of-seat
behavior for five minutes.

9. There was an "other" ending to the interaction since there was
intervention by a student and a teacher. The proximity of the teacher
was within five feet.

10. The incident occurred during a structured period.

11. Total time of physical interaction. 00:00:04.

12. Total time of cycle approximately 00:20:00.

W
This case study is a demonstration of aggression-assault. The
incident occurs during the transition from period 2 to period 3. This
is not a sniper hit because there was an interchange going on between

the two students before the attempted assault.

138

.EifilQJNQtes

[10:30] (392) 13. "Andy. sit down." Andy walked to C3. to the
divider. to C2 and back to the divider in C3. He sat down and is
writing. (406) 13 is having an adjustment in C2 with Bud.

[10:35] Bud sat for a few seconds. Rich put his head around the
corner and said. "Whatfid he say?" Bud shrugged and walked into class

(440). Bud hit Chris; 13 is talking to Bud in the hallway.

lanLAnalsts

315 Bud is sitting on the divider. 13 calls to Bud. Bud stands
up and starts dancing.

323 Camera on Cl. Rich has one foot on a chair and is tilting
the chair backwards. 11 is standing next to him. Can hear 13 tell Bud
that they need to have an adjustment.

368 Rich gets out of his seat to investigate the adjustment that
is being held between Bud and 13 in C2.

371 13 is talking with Bud. No 1 in CB.

372 Students in 03 are off task. They are talking and throwing
wads of paper.

397 Close-up of counseling session between 13 and Bud. Bud
automanipulating with hands while 13 is talking to him. He is looking
down at his hands. his feet are still.

406 13 returns to class. Bud remains seated.

411 Bud returns to class.

419 Transition begins.

139

427 T3 in class. trying to get students to sit down before leav-

ing for transition. Transition is in progress.

429 13 calls outs. "Hey. Bud." and walks toward the middle of
the lc.
430 Chris is facing 13 saying. "I want an adjustment man. I ain"t

touching him." Chris's arms are hanging next to his side. He is
holding a work-out bag in his right hand. Bud comes up behind Chris.
Budhs elbows are about three inches away from the side of his body.

His hands are hanging downward. open pal med. Bud makes a comment.
Chris turns as Bud is approaching him. and with his forearm perpendicu-
lar to his upper arm. elbow next to his side. Chris touches Budu;
stomach. Chris says. "YoU're a liar man." Bud makes an out-to-center
forearm sweep with his right open-palmed hand. trying to hit Chris in
the head. Chris flinches his body to the right while he raises his
left forearm and blocks the hand from hitting him. 13 is now standing
within three feet.

432 Bud turns left and quickly leaves the 1c (4.1 secondsL

Chris and 13 follow directly after Bud. Chris's lips are pulled back;
his upper teeth are visible. As Bud passes one student. he turns
sideways with his back to the camera; one can only see the knee of Andy
come up as if ready to kick Bud. Bud has his left arm bend at the
elbow. and it appears as if he is ready to protect himself. The kicker
stops and Bud continues out of the 1c and comes face to face with 15.
440 Bud. Chris. 13 and 15 are talking in the lc hallway.

Transition is still in progress.

140

454 Tom goes over to lc door to watch the adjustment. CS is also

there. Tom turns and calls CS as if to remind him to follow.

W

l. Bud had been demonstrating some inappropriate behaviors. as
indicated by 13's initiation of a counseling adjustment.

2. An issue of conflict had developed between Chris and Bud. as
reflected in Chris calling for 13's assistance and claiming that Bud
was a liar.

3. The event occurred during an unstructured period.

4. Bud was standing and moving around the learning center just before
the assault. His arms were down by his sides. palms open.

5. Chris made physical contact with Bud.

6. Bud hit Chris immediately after Chris touched Bud's stomach. Bud
hit one time. making contact with Chris's forearm.

7. Chris flinched to the side to protect himself.

8. Bud fled from the incident.

9. While Bud separated from the incident. the teacher promptly inter-
vened; thus the incident had an "other" ending. The teacher was stand-
ing within five feet of the incident.

10. The students did not return to the learning center; thus the
aftermath behaviors were not recorded.

11. Total physical contact between two students was 00:00:02.

12. Tetal time of the incident from the first to the second adjustment
with Bud was 00:03:47.

141

Sammy]:
This case study is an example of aggression-assault. The

students are in second period. Tom has just come over to 83.

IaneJnalxsis
949 Camera switched to 03. Nathan sitting in chair in front of

13's desk. Left foot is on the desk and right foot is on the floor.
He leans over to talk to Bud.

957 Nathan starts to adjust his shoe. He puts left foot down on
the ground. is leaning over and is fixing it.

967 Nathan sits up and puts his right foot on the desk top and
left foot is flat on the ground. He is holding a brush in his right
hand. transfers it to his left hand. Scratches or adjusts the sweat
band on his left wrist. using his right hand. He then scratches his
face with his right hand. Nathan then scratches his belly. transfers
the brush back to his right hand. and then using his left hand adjusts

his sweat band on his left wrist.

971 Camera is shifted off Nathan. Can hear Tom in background.
Audio:
972 Andy: "Which way you goin' man?"

Tom: "Right here."

Steve: "You was actin' stupid . . . ain't going to bed at
night again."
973 Tom: "No I didn't. I wasn"t acting stupid out there)‘

Camera is shifted to direction of conversation.

142

974 Nathan: ". . . Bitch. I'll bust your face." Nathan is
walking rapidly in direction of Tom. his lips are curled in and pressed
tightly together. He turns the corner of the divider and has his left
hand on the counter as he walks by. He swings his right arm in a
clockwise motion. hand is in a closed fist. comes up to shoulder level.
and extends arm forward with force. He hits Tom on the upper arm.
Instantly after hit. his lips are pulled tightly over his teeth; his
mouth is open. It took 1.7 seconds for Nathan to move from the end of
divider into position to hit Tom. It took 4.6 seconds for him to
return to that same position after the hit.

1: "Hey. are you on building?"

Tom: "That's a drop."
975.5 Nathan pauses at the end of the counter and holds his right
hand up in a fist to eye level. He shakes his fist toward Tom;
Nathan's eyes are wide open and he says: "No that's a rock." 1 starts
to make a comment about his building level.

Tom: "No. that's a drop."
976 Nathan walks back to 13's desk. picks up his brush which he
set on the desk top and sits down. knees are bent open about 50
degrees. hands holding brush are extended between his legs. he turns his
body slightly to the left and stares directly at Tom. making more
verbal comments.

Andy: "You're always trying to get someone dropped."

977 Unintelligible due to various people talking at once.

143

978 Nathan turns away from Tom and starts brushing his hair using
his right hand. He puts his right foot up on the top of the desk. Tom
starts walking away. Nathan is looking at Tom as he walks toward end
of divider counter. He staps brushing his hair.

Nathan: "You'd better stop saying my mama. I'll bust your

face."
979 Nathan shifts brush to left hand.
980 Tom is talking. Nathan shifts brush back to his right hand

and is wiping his left hand on the side of his pants. He tilts his
chair backwards at the same time. Verbals still going on.
981 Tom walking back to computer. his face is turned toward
Nathan and away from the camera. .A CS is directly behind hinh The CS
is suggesting that Tom sit down and do work. 1 comes over and starts
giving Tom an assignment.

Tom: "Watch someone hit you. you don't like it."

Nathan: Comments are unintelligible.

Tem: "He just trying to be a dog. I ain't no dog."

Nathan: "He was saying about my mama again Ihn gonna bust
you."

Tom: "Shut up."

Nathan: "Say somethin to me then)‘ Nathan is staring at
Tom. his left hand that is holding the brush slightly jerks upward when
he makes this comment. Tom makes a comment about having to go get
something out of his locker. Nathan turns his head forward. away from

Tom. and starts brushing his hair again.

144

984 He then looks right over to Bud. who is looking at a maga-
zine. Nathan points to something on the page.
985 Nathan puts his right foot on the floor and leans his upper

body over to the right to look at the magazine with Bud.

987 Nathan shifts back to the left and leans against the back of
the chair.
988 Nathan gets out of his seat and is walking out of 1c. He

makes a comment about Tom behaving himself. Tom replies. "No. I
ainFL" Andy tells Nathan not to worry at least two times. Nathan
leaves 1c and goes to gym. Off camera. Tom is sitting in a position
where he cannot be video-taped.

990 Tom is talking and making strange noises.

1009 Tom is quiet for 13 seconds. He then starts talking in a
loud voice to people across the room.

1029 Tom: "I feel sick . . . . Can I go to the restroom. I gotta
spit. I'll swallow. . . ."

1031 Tom gets out of his seat. CS tells Tom to "hurry up."

1040 CS gets out of his seat to find Tom. Can hear Tom's voice in

the far background.

We:

[10:06] 990's Nathan stood up and came over to Tom. With his right
hand he delivered one hit to Tom's arm. Nathan walked back to his
chair. CS came over and started to intervene. T3 removed his class to

the gym. Nathan was playing basketball.

145

W

1. Nathan demonstrated some automanipulation with his hands before the
assault. Nathan was seated but not working on task.

2. As the conversation with Tom continued. Nathan quickly stood up and
walked over to Tom.

3. Nathan hit Tom one time.

4. Nathan immediately turned and began to leave the area.

5. Tom makes verbal comments to Nathan. and Nathan responds aggres-
sively.

6. Nathan demonstrates automanipulation with his hand.

7. The ending was "separation." with each student at least five feet
apart. While 1'1 made a comment; to Nathan. Nathan had separated before
any verbal intervention. The teacher was within five feet of the
incident.

8. The total physical interaction lasted less than one second.

9. The total incident lasted 00:00:35.

W
This is a demonstration of aggression-assault. This incident
has three phases. Stan first gets angry and hits Pat. He then begins
to exhibit what might appear to be quasiagonistic behaviors. However.
careful observation of Stan's movements indicates that he is still
likely to be aggressive. This. in fact. proves to be true. as he
assaults Pat a second time. This incident occurred moments before the

transition from last period to homeroom.

146

Elfllfl_Nntfi§
[11:58] End of tape. Students are going to their homerooms. Rick

and Pat were fighting with each other at the end of the period. Pat
kicked Rick. Rick got angry. but 12 broke it up immediately. Pat went

to his homeroom and started in with Stan.

W
331 Camera is switched over to C3. 13 is walking over to Pat and

Stan. A conversation is going on between Pat and Stan. As 13
approaches. Stan says.'h .. tell this guy that.. .." As he talks.
he steps backwards four steps and gestures with his right hand. point-
ing toward Pat.

332 Stan is standing in C3 about three feet away to the left of
Pat. Pat is seated in an individual desk located on the south wall by
the blackboard. Pat is facing north. T3 is standing to Patfls right
within two feet and is talking with Pat and Stan. Pat is sitting erect
in his chair.

334 Pat looks at Stan. and Stan returns the glance. Stan raises
his left arm such that upper arm and forearm are perpendicular; gestur-
ing. index finger is pointed. He then lowers his arm and takes one
step backwards. averting eye contact with Pat.

335 Stan is holding an object in his left hand; with his elbow
bent he is putting the object up against his lips. Transition to
homeroom is just about to begin. Stan is looking away from 13 and Pat.

13 continues to talk to Pat.

147

335-40 Stan is moving an object in his left hand back and forth
either between his teeth or on his lips. chin tucked in. head at a
slight angle downward. eyes staring forward. Stan's right arm is
hanging loosely to his side. his right hand is slightly cupped. his
right foot is 12 inches in front of his left foot. He stands in this
position for 10 seconds.

336-41 Pat tilts his head to the left and then puts his left forearm
on the desk top next to his chair and lays his head down on his arm.
He rocks forward and back twice. then sits up erect. He then puts his
right elbow on the desk top and with an open palm rests his cheek on
his hand. switches hand position to fist. face still in contact with
hand. Left forearm on desk. hand hanging limply over the edge of the
desk. He shifts upright in the chair. Pat is still talking to 13.

13 and Pat are fooling around. Pat is holding onto 13's hands.

340 Stan brings his left hand down. his left hand cups around his
right hand. which is in a fist. Both hands are at waist level. Stan
holds this position for 3.5 seconds.

341 He drops both arms to his side. both hands are in fists.
turns; with his right foot he takes one step toward Pat. His right
hand is in a fist. forearm at waist level. elbow near his side. he
extends his arm forward and punches Pat on the upper arm one time.
Immediately after he hits Pat. weight shifts back to left foot. elbows
bent. both of his arms come up in fists to shoulder height and shake.

He drops his arms down to his side and then middle front.

148

341 Pat leans to the right away from Stan upon being hit. Pat.
who was smiling. now has a facial change and verbally responds. 'l-ley.
man. whatcha do that for?" He leans to the left. tries to stand up but
stumbles getting out of chair; T3 is still holding onto one of Pat's
hands. This inhibits Pat's ability to get out of the confinement of
the chair.

342 Stan is in the position to fight. His right foot is in front
of his left. both hands are in fists held at chest level. right hand is
a little higher than the left. From his waist up. the body is leaning
slightly forward.

343 He sits back down. shifts his body to the left and tries to
kick Stan with his right foot. missing. Stan is now standing erect.

13 has moved over two steps. is pointing at and talking to Stan. 13
talks to Stan for 843 seconds. He does not talk to Pat. Stan points
with his index finger. looking at 13. He then holds his hands in
front. center body. As he listens to 13 he starts to make an upper
smile; his lips draw back. showing his upper teeth. He is manipulating
his watch band. ‘The atmosphere of the incident has the appearance that
it changes here from assault on Stan's part to horseplay.

346 Stan turns right. looking down. he walks north toward the
divider counter. turns slightly and goes over to the bookshelf on the
west wall. Stops at bookshelf and makes a left turn and is now facing

Pat.

149

349 Stan standing near bookshelf. right hand scratching his left
chest near his underarm. Glances right. He is smiling/laughing. Stan
then says. "Ah. Pat‘day. pick on Pat day."

350 13 has talked to Pat. turned and is walking away.

351 Stan picks up a desk. legs of the desk are extended forward.
desk is in front of his body at head level. He makes an "arrrgg" sound
and moves toward Pat. As he holds the desk over Pat's head he stomps
his left foot on the floor. .13 has turned back toward students. Stan
moves back three steps.

353 Stan puts the desk back down on the floor. The desk is on
his right side.

354 He backs up three steps and is leaning/sitting against the
edge of the bookshelf.

355-58 Stan's chin is extended outward. an example of aggressive
elements (Grant. 1969). and his right hand. open palm. is slapping his
right thigh five times. hard enough that the contact made is audible.
13 is walking around and is now in the southwest corner of the room.
actually in the middle and to the side of both students. Pat was not
in view due to another student standing in the path of the camera.
Pat's hand is up level with his mouth. about six inches away. He
curves his hand down on an angle. gesturing. Talking to Stan. he tilts
his head to the left. brings his head upright and tilts it to the left
again. His facial expression is serious; he is not smiling. The
distance of the camera makes it impossible to evaluate eyebrow and eye

behavior. Atmosphere changes back to possible assault.

150

360 Stan's body jerks as he moves from the edge of the bookshelf
and walks over to Pat.

361 Stan is standing in a threatening position in front of Pat.
Stan's left shoulder is dropped about four inches from the right
shoulder. His body is at approximately a lO-degree angle; his head is
down (can‘t see his chin). his hands are at his side and slightly
curved. 13. who is talking to two other students. immediately grabs
and holds Stanhs right arm at the elbow and moves to his left such that
he is standing directly on Stan's right side. Pat is still sitting in
the desk. leans as far away to his right as he can. his right hand
touches the ground. He exhibits an upper smile. lip corners pulled
backwards. upper teeth exposed. Pat shifts his body. turning his legs
and the desk to the right. his right hand and forearm gesture upward.
Simultaneously. T3 guides Stan's arm and Stan takes two steps back-
wards; 13 moves directly in front of Stan. Stan extends his arm and
points at Pat with his left index finger and 13. who faces Stan for 3
seconds. now turns his head to the right. looking at Pat. As 13 stands
in front of Stan. Pat shifts his body and desk back about six inches to
the left. such that he is facing straight; he gestures with his left
hand. Pat starts talking. his voice is raised. Pat's left elbow is on
the desk top. his forearm and hand are straight and perpendicular to
the top. his palm is open and his wrist bends. flipping his hand

downward. Pat then moves his hand to his mouth.

151

365 13 has released Stan's arm. he is pointing his finger at
Pat. the right side of 13's body is facing Pat. 13's head is turned
toward Pat.

366 Stan is still pointing at Pat. Stan moves to his right.
Stan is now standing in front of Pat. He continues to point his left
finger. arm extended. It now is near Pat's face. Stan's body is at a
left angle. left foot in front of right. His upper body is leaning
forward toward Pat.

368 Using his left hand. Stan punches Pat on the left upper arm.
Stanhs left fist jerks upward and back; he takes one step backwards.
Stan pauses for approximately one-half second. his left side facing
Pat. he walks off to his right.

369 T3 is still standing sideways to Pat and continues to talk to
him. Pat looks away. turning his head to the left.

370 T3 talks for five seconds and then turns to the remainder of
the students who have moved into the class for homeroom. Pat is
sitting with his forearms on the table top. both hands are hanging

over the edge of the desk. index fingers and thumbs are touching.

372 Pat is looking in Stan's direction and talking.
373 Both Pat and Stan are off camera.
380 Pat has his right hand over his mouth; the other hand is

hanging over the edge of the desk.
387 Pat's right hand moves to side of face; he occasionally
talks.

393 Pat's hand is over his mouth.

152

395 Pat tilts his desk to his right; it is balanced on two legs.
He is leaning over. his left arm is on the desk top next to him and his
head is lying on his arm. He is looking downward.

397 Students have made comments about Pat's behavior. and now 13
directs a comment toward Pat.

405 T3 touching the right edge of Pat's desk. pushes it down.
placing the desk in a flat. upright position. Pat shifts his body over
the desk he is sitting in. both arms are folded on the desk top. his
body bends forward. he puts his face down toward the desk top. leaving
only the top of his head visible. l'is discussing how to deal with
Pat's behavior with the entire group.

418 Pat's head is still on the desk top. He starts to move his
right leg. His foot is not visible. but the movement looks as if the
foot is resting on its outer edge and he is moving his foot right and
left. thus slightly moving the lower leg and knee.

4Z9 Pat's foot movement stops. head is still on desk top.

432 Pat is partially blocked by CS from camera view. He half
sits up. shoulders are bent forward. head is down. 13 makes comment to
Pat. "1 know you don't want to hear this . . . ." His legs are now
crossed at the ankles. arms still folded on desk top.

439 Pat's face is buried in the right crook of his elbow.

458 Pat lifts his head up. Students start exiting from the lc to
their cabin.

460 Pat lifts his upper body. right arm remains on desk top. left

hand rubs over his left eyebrow and down the side of his face.

153

462 Pat's left hand is stationary on his cheek; his head is
tilted slightly left.

464 Body shift and Pat gets out of the desk. He walks forward.
head down. no eye contact given to anyone. His right hand slides along
13's desk top. He leaves lc.

474 Stan on film. 13 talking with him and Andy. Stan is
sitting. his right hand to his mouth. his left elbow is bent and his
forearm is on the desk top. He glances left (1 is on his left) and
then forward.

484 Stan brings both hands to his head and runs his fingers
through his hair. His head is tilted backwards.

486 Stan shifts his upper body upright and forward. Ffis elbows
are on the desk top and bent; his left hand is cupped around his right
hand. thumbs and index fingers of both hands are touching his lip and
chin area on his face. Stan continues to look forward. 1 is having an
adjustment with both students due to a quarrel between them.

501 13 looks at Stan. Stan turns his head right. his left hand
touches his right sleeve and then he folds his arms in front of him on
the desk top. Stan looks in the direction of the camera and then looks
away.

506 Stan is looking down at his arms; shoulders are curved
forward. head is down.

510 Stan's forearms are straight in front of him; he brings his
right hand up to his forehead and then starts adjusting his hair. He

looks at 13 as he adjusts his hair.

154

512 Stan's left hand is on the side of his head. His head is

angled down. and he is staring straight ahead.

520 Stan starts to scratch his face with his left hand.
525 Stan puts his hand down on the desk top; he looks forward.
538 Stan looks right.

. 541 Stan lifts his hand. looks at his finger. finger to mouth and

bites his nail. He folds his right arm over his left.

550 Stan gets out of seat and leaves 1c.

WW
1. Pat was involved with a fight immediately preceding this incident.

2. Stan demonstrated some walking/movement before the assault.

3. Stan demonstrated automanipulation with his hands.

4. Stan is standing but pauses three seconds before he hits Pat.

5. Stan hits Pat on the arm.

6. This segment of the incident is an "other" ending due to teacher
intervention. The teacher was within five feet of the incident.

7. Stan continues to demonstrate aggressive behaviors. iua. his chin
and head are extended forward. He hits his leg. He picks up an object
to use as a weapon couched in playful terms.

8. Verbal interaction continues between Stan and Pat.

9. Stan approaches Pat in a threatening manner.

10. Stan is standing and moving before the assault.

11. The teacher's proximity is within five feet of the incident. The
teacher physically touches Stan preceding the second physical

encounter.

155

12. Stan continues to gesture and move his body.

13. Stan hits Pat for the second time.

14. Stan quickly turns and retreats to another area.

15. Patfls behavior visibly changes. He puts his head on top of the
desk and covers his face.

16. The incident occurred during an unstructured period.

17. After the incident. Stan makes one hand or body shift approxi-
mately every four seconds.

18. The total time of physical contact for both incidents is 00:00:03.
19. The'total time of the incident from the first verbal confrontation
to when Stan left the area was a 00:08:30 period. Both students

departed for the dormitory.

£552.51Md¥_lfii_bfiiiuli
The following case study is an aggression-assault example. Dan
is demonstrating pacing and quasiagonistic behaviors. The pacing in
particular may be an indicator of a future assault. The physical
incident is a single slap. The reason this is so clearly an assaultive
episode is due to the victinfls reaction. The students are in their
respective classrooms. The transition from period 1 to period 2 will

begin soon.

.Eifild.NQIfis
[9:46] Transition. Dan is throwing paper wads in Cl's wastepaper

basket from the edge of the divider. Dan is pacing around the lc.

156

Check Dan's interaction with Jim.

[9:56] Dan pacing to circular table. to blackboard. to Lee at edge
of C1. to blackboard in C3. to blackboard in C1. He is standing at
11's desk and writing on the blackboard; he moves around the desk and

over to the filing cabinet.

IapLAnastJs
623 Rick and other students are on task; Jim is in the back-

ground. He is working on task.

650 Jim sits up from work. His hand is at his mouth.

655 Jim begins to straighten his papers. From the south edge of
C1 a wad of paper comes flying through the air toward the wastepaper
basket by the teacher's desk. which is in the northeast corner of the
room. Jim is sitting in the individual desk placed on the east wall
next to the teacher's desk. Can hear 15 in the background calling Dan.
656 Dan on camera for the first time. Shooting baskets with
paper wads. He makes a full body stretch; both arms are up and bent at
the elbows. He throws with his right hand. taking a step forward with
his right food.

661 Dan walks over to the wastepaper basket; his arms are about
six inches away from his sides. elbows slightly bent. Dan's head is
tilted down toward the floor as he walks. He bends over at the waist.
knees bent. and begins to pick up many wads of paper.

662 Jim gets out of chair.

663 Dan turns from picking up paper wads and with his head tilted

down toward the floor. he walks back to his original shooting position.

157

His arms are out from his body approximately 6-10 inches. His elbows
are slightly bent. He brings his hands to waist level. center middle.
then back to his sides. still out from the body. the left arm swings in
front of his body at least 12 inches. Jim walks to edge of 1's desk
and with his right hand tosses a piece of paper in the trash can. He
remains standing at the edge of the T's desk. watching Dan throw the
wads of paper.

664 Dan is now standing at the edge of C1 by the south divider.
665 Dan starts throwing papers again. Five paper wads come
flying through the air.

668 ‘ 15 while approaching Dan says. "Mr.|%" Dan responds. "Man.
shut upJ' 15 repeats. "Mr. RJ' Steve makes a comment. there is a
nervous laugh; Dan replies. "Fuck it. I don't care. . . ." Three more
paper wads come through the air. 15 is side by side with Dan. Both
are facing north. Jim is still standing at the edge of 1's desk. He
is holding papers in his left hand. The arm is straight down and to
his side. Jinfls right hand is on his right hip. He is smiling and his
head and eyes move. following the throw and direction of each wad of
paper.

669 15 immediately puts his right hand across Dan's back; not
touching the back. he rests his hand on Dan's right top shoulder close
to the neck. 15 says. "You come over here. you're disturbing this
class. you come back in my areaJ' Dan takes two steps forward.
simultaneously turning counterclockwise to the left. lifting his left

arm. palm open. elbow bent. forearm straight up. Dan makes a sweeping

158

motion backwards. making contact with 15's arm on the underside
forearm. Dan's head is down. chin is tucked against his chest and his
lips are pressed tightly together. 15's right hand slides along Danhs
neck and off his back. Dan walks toward the trash can and is off
camera for a couple of seconds. 15 follows.

670 Jim starts to move to his right after Dan hits/pushes 15%;
hand off his shoulder and walks away. Jim emits an audible giggle
sound. glances down. and looks back to his right while he continues to
walk over to the filing cabinet and files papers.

671 Jim turns from the filing cabinet. shakes his head. moving
the hair out of his eyes and walks over to the circular table. He
looks down and sees a paper wad on the floor by one of the chairs at
the table. .Jim grabs the top of the chair with his left hand and
pushes the chair up to the table. He switches and holds the top of the
chair with his right hand while he bends over at the waist and picks up
one of the wads of paper.

672.5 Dan has wads of paper in both hands; as he approaches Jim he
transfers the paper in his right hand over to his left hand. As Jim
stands up he has his head lifted and is looking up toward Dan. Jinfls
elbow is bent. forearm perpendicular to the upper arm; he is preparing
to give Dan the paper. Dan is facing Jim. They are within one foot of
each other. Dan says. "Man. I didn't ask you to pick it up." Using
his right open-palmed hand. elbow is bent. forearm raises such that it
is almost parallel to the body. Dan swiftly lowers his forearm.

slapping Jim on his right hand. which is holding the piece of paper.

159

Jinfls right hand and head jerk down and back up. and his mouth drops
open with the physical contact. His face looks surprised.

673 Dan takes paper from Jinfls hand. turns left and leaves the
area. .Jim takes two backward steps and one step to his left side. His
hands drop to his sides. He shakes his right hand four times. as if
to shake the sting out of it. He looks down and then back up at Dan.
Jinfls lips are drawn back. his lower teeth are showing only. As he
moves backwards his face is out of view for a moment. He then looks
down and over to Steve. who has made a comment about Jim being spanked
like a baby. Jim shakes his head slightly. "No." lips pursed. and
steps sideways heading for his desk which is about five feet away. He
makes minimal comments back to students who are responding to the
incident.

675 Jim turns left. back to camera and steps between the cupboard
and his desk. He makes a quarter turn left and looks left out to the
center of the lc. He pauses and lifts his right foot on the seat of
the chair. He lifts his pant leg and is manipulating something on his
sock or cuff.

678 16 comes over and puts papers on the shelf of the cupboard
next to Jim. Jim is looking down. still manipulating his cuff.

680 Jim sits down. his upper body is bent over. head is lowered.
he adjusts his pant leg. He folds his arms in front of him and puts
them on the desk top; subsequently he puts his head on his arms. face
down for 3 seconds. Steve comes over and makes a comment.

681 He lifts his head and makes a comment back to Steve.

160

683 Jim buries his head. face down. into the crook of his left
elbow.

688 Stan walks near Jim. turns and leaves area.

698 Jinfls head has been down for 58 seconds. He raises his head

for a brief second and buries it again for another 68 seconds. He
shifts his head up. to the side. and finally upright. Total time his
head was down 00:01:55. 16 is sitting in the view of Jim.

713 Dan reentered the learning center and is in C3. He has a can
of spray paint in his right hand and is over by lls desk talking to a
student. He turns and leaves C3. He is chewing gum. his mouth is
open. His arms are down. elbows are bent. he is holding objects in

both hands. His arms and hands are about six inches away from his

body.
714 Dan walks over the C5 and is off camera.
720 Dan is talking to 15 in C4. shaking the spray can of paint;

his arms hang down by his side. elbows are close. it looks like he will
spray the paint. He makes 11 body shifts while standing there. He
moves and his elbows are approximately six inches away from his body.
724 He throws the can of paint from his right hand in the air to
his left hand. He walks off. elbows slightly bent and out at least six
inches from his body.

729 Dan reenters C4 and is walking around the room picking somer
thing up off the floor.

738 Jim is still in seat and looking at a book. He puts the book

down.

161

739 Transition is beginning.

740 Jim puts his book on the shelf. gets out of his chair and
walks toward the center of the 1c. Just as he reaches the edge of C1.
Dan approaches and says. "Where's sucker at?" His left arm is
straight. elbow within four inches of his body. with his hand curved;
his right arm is up. upper arm horizontal to shoulder. wrist just above
shoulder level. He is carrying books in his left hand. He puts the
books on the top of the circular table. He is off camera for two
seconds and then resumes his throwing position from earlier and begins
to throw paper wads into the trash can in CI again. The paper wads are
in his left hand. Transferring individually each wad. he makes an
overhanded throw seven times. pauses and then one last throw.

748 . He walks forward a couple of steps. turns around. leaving his

books on the table. he walks toward C4.

750 He is off camera.

755 Dan passes by camera. walking toward lc door. He is off
camera.

791 Dan reenters the 1c and walks over to Cl. He is pointing/

gesturing with both of his hands. constantly walking/pacing as he talks
to a student. His elbows are away from his body. ranging from
approximately three to six inches; he lifts both hands and adjusts his
sunglasses. turns. walks by a chair and moves it and walks some more.
824 Dan in CZ walking around. goes over to the filing cabinet

and is leaning against the cabinet looking for folders. 16 walks over

by Dan.

162

842 Dan walks to circular table holding an oblong box and sits
down. He manipulates the box and is constantly talking.

849 He is cursing and slams the box on the table top.

850 Dan is out of seat. over to the cupboard. T6 is standing
next to him.

862 I Dan is walking around Cl.

866 Dan puts one foot on the seat of a chair. He removes his
foot and starts pacing again. He is never still for longer than two

seconds.

E1910_N2tfi$

[10:06] Dan is sitting at 115 desk in CI for the first time. He
paced for at least 35 minutes.

[10:23] Dan has been sitting in 1's desk now for 17 minutes.

[10:27] Dan gets out of his seat. goes to C2 and begins to play with

the overhead projector.

WM

1. Dan's antecedent behaviors were pacing with his arms away from his
body.

2. Dan paced for a 00:11:00 period before the assault.

3. Dan continued to pace for a 00:24:00 period after the assault.

4. Before Dan had a physical encounter with Jim. he in fact had a
physical incident with 1'5. Dan's response to being touched was to
instantaneously knock the hand off his body.

5. Dan proceeded to hit Jim within a 00:00:10 period.

163

6. The incident with Jim was clearly assaultive as demonstrated by
Jinfls reactions. Jim was smiling and enjoying the entertainment until
he became part of the show. His withdrawal behavior back to his chair
(i.e.. putting his head down on his desk) lasted for almost two
minutes.

7. Dan continued to pace with his arms away from his body. Addition-
ally. he began automanipulations with his hand.

8. The ending was a "separation" since the students moved apart with-
out teacher intervention. The proximity of the teacher was within five
feet.

9. The total time for the physical incidents. starting with 15's touch
and ending with Dan's slap. lasted 00:00:10.

10. The total ti me for the entire episode. beginning with Dan's first-
noted pacing behaviors and concluding with Dan maintaining a seated

position for longer than one to four minutes. was 00:40:00.

W
This is an example of a sniper hit. The incident occurred

during a transitional period.

W515
290 Lee is talking with 13. 15. David. Pat. and Sherry.
302 Pat walked off with 13. hitting his right hand into the palm

of his left hand. Pat is smiling.

305 Camera is panning Cl and C2.

164

320 Camera is on C3.

321 Dan walks past camera; he is between the divider and the
learning center tables. Pat is sitting at the west end of the lcts.
322 Dan blurs past the camera. He is facing the camera
direction. but moving to his right. His right arm is away from his
body. the elbow bent. His left arm is extended out. Pat is on Dan's
left.

.E1910_NQI§§

[10:33] (320's) Dan walked into the 1c and over to Pat by the east
wall of the lct. Dan hit Pat on the back and said. "I owed you." Dan
left the lc quickly. Pat got out of his seat and went to the lc door.

He turn returned to his chair.

lanLAnalxsis

Pat stands up from chair and watches Dan leave the learning center. A
look of surprise is on his face. His mouth is a circle shape. upper
teeth exposed. He is staring. blinks. and then sits down. Nearest
teacher: 15 to 20 feet away.

323 Pat gets out of his seat and walks from the lct to the door
of the learning center. He holds onto the door jamb on either side and
looks down the hallway to the left. trying to visually locate Dan. He
did not see Dan. so he walked back to the learning center table.

325 Dan and Pat are both out of view of the camera.

369 Pat is sitting with one foot on the divider top. Smiling. he

starts talking to someone across the room.

165

373 Pat staring in direction of C1. his mouth is partially open.
upper teeth are visible. He blinks and realizes he might be on camera.
He turns his head right. away from the camera and then back left at
camera.

375 He bits his lower lip. shifts positions. putting his feet on

the ground. He then starts calling to 13. Camera is moved to pan C3.

W

l. The assailant was standing and moving quickly.

2. The assailant made a surprise attack.

3. The assailant hit the victim one time.

4. The assailant fled the area quickly.

5. The victim was startled by the hit.

6. This victim tried to pursue the assailant.

7. There was a separation ending. The closest teacher proximity is
unknown.

8. The victim recovered quickly as demonstrated by his smiling behav-
ior 00:01 :30 later.

9. The total time for the sniper hit was 00:00:05.

W
The case study has a total of eight different incidents that

occurred in a 45-minute period. The writer decided to present this as
one case study since each incident interplays with the next. 'The major
issue is territorial. The fighters are Detroit versus Flint students.

There are three demonstrations of aggression-anger and five

166

demonstrations of aggression-assault. The majority of the students
knew beforehand that a big fight was "comin' down." The noise level in

the learning center was unusually low.

Case Study 16A: Aggression Anger
W
22 Camera is on CZ. Many students are walking around. still
coming in from their homerooms. Even with the activity. the learning
center is quiet. It is unusual that there is absolutely no horseplay
or loud verbal remarks from either Kent. Lee. Nash. or Tom.
87 There are six students in CZ. five of whom appear to be on
task. 17 is walking around assisting with getting students started.
120 There are six students in C1. Three students are on task.
121 Ron entered 1c and has walked over to C1. He first walks
over to the north side of the circular table. He is holding his
sunglasses and a tissue and is in the process of cleaning the glasses.
Ron then turns and moves south toward Dick. He is about five feet away
from Dick when he begins to talk. EHck is sitting at the end of the
south wall divider. His chair is tilted backwards on two legs. and he
is rocking back and forth. Dick is facing north. As Ron begins to
talk. Dick stops rocking; his head is tilted to the right. he is not
looking directly at.Ron. Ron stops walking and is standing within two
feet of Dick's left side. Ron is looking at his glasses while he says.
"It seems like you always have somethin' negative (looks at Dick and

glances back down at glasses) to say about me." Someone says. "You

167

do." Ron proceeds. "Every time you say somethin'. na na. I'm not gonna
say everytime but it seems like it. Ya know. you say you no never try
to put nobody down. but you know you be doin' it in your own way."
Dick shakes his head up and down in an affirmation of what Ron said.
At this point much of the conversation becomes inaudible due to the

entrance of more students and their talking around the mike.

139 As the conversation is continuing. Rich enters 1c and walks
toward CZ.
141 Tim is sitting at the circular table and is within two feet

of Ron and Dick. Tim is starting to turn and attend to the conversa-
tion. Dick's head is still tilted to the right. but he is now looking
at Ron. Ron looks at Dick. looks down at his glasses and continues the
conversation. "Everyti me I say somethin' to you. . . ." Ron takes

one step to the right. his right hand is holding the tissue. his arm is
bent at the elbow and his forearm makes clockwise circular gesture
motions. eight times. The diameter ranges from approximately 3 to 10
inches. He then goes back to cleaning his glasses. he is looking
downward. As Ron talks he continually takes small steps backwards. to
the side and forward. Ron continues to speak. "I. I always say. say
somethin. somthin. somethin. that you needed. that you wanta hear (Dick
shakes his head affirmatively two times). or somthin that you know.
that somethin between me or that we gonna do. But it seems everytime
you say somethin about me. you always got somethin ya know. I'm Lanny
(Ron emphasizes word and simultaneously takes a step backward while

dipping his right shoulder forward) ya know (pause. Dick moves his left

168

arm and looks more toward Ron. He makes two small affirmative head
shakes) or (pause). you always got somethin to laugh (Ron takes a step
to his side) about somethin I got on. or somethin." Dick. still sit-
ting. turns his head forward. his head is tilted slightly downward and
he is holding his hands together between his legs. The conversation
took 49 seconds. As Ron started talking he took three steps toward
Dick. While the conversation continued. Ron took seven small steps
within a two-foot area.

151 Tim is sitting facing Dick. his hand moves from his face. to
his leg. to the table top. to his lap. He begins to talk first. most
of which is inaudible. He states. "Ya know what. ya know what . . .
Ron. . . . playin with him." Tim is accusing Ron of "playin" with
Dick. (Ron's response is one of defense and perhaps agitation as
demonstrated by his pacing behavior)

153 Ron still cleaning his glasses blows on them and says. "We
not playin with each other. we not playin with each other. . . . we
cool. like. like. we got some confusion now. . . . when it's time to go
home. we cool." When Ron begins to talk again. Dick tilts his head
right and looks up at Ron the entire time he speaks. Ron continues to
state that he feels Dick is saying bad things about him. but that they
are being "cool." In this portion of conversation Ron's movements
become more exaggerated. Dick. looking forward. makes a statement
about not caring what people say behind his back. Ron is near Dick
again and says while pointing to himself with the stems of his

glasses. "1 care about what people say about me." This time Dick

169

responds stating that if he has anything to say he'll say it to the
personhs face. This conversation took 48 seconds. Ron took 32 steps
within a lO-foot area. shrugged four times. blew on his glasses twice.
and gestured with his right arm 11 times. 'The conversation is closing
when Rich walks over to the threesome from CZ.

171 Rich is standing at the end of the divider between Cl and C2.
He leans to his right side toward Dick. He straightens up when 17
comes over to talk to him.

172 Ron puts on his glasses and is no longer talking. He is
standing facing Dick. rubbing his left hand with the tissue held in his

right hand. Hands are moving constantly.

174 Rich walks off with T7.

175 Tim starts to talk. gesturing with his right hand.

180 Ron turns to his left. takes two steps to his right. and
faces Tim.

184 Ron throws his tissue in the trash can that is placed by the

divider's edge of CZ. He turns his head back and looks at Tim. In 34
seconds. Ron has made seven body shifts or steps.

188 Ron begins to move again. His hands are constantly in
motion. either gesturing or rubbing them together. He starts walking
around again; the topic of the conversation continues to be "putting
people down." In 00:01:56 Ron made 72 body shifts/steps within a 10-
foot area. Then 13 calls Ron.

235 Ron walks off with 13 in the direction of C3. Dick remains

seated with very little body or head motion.

170

249 Tim turns around in his seat such that he is facing the

circular desk.

263 Dick. Tim. and Rick are quietly talking.

273 16 is directing the students to get on task.

293 Dick is sitting up to the table and all three students are
on task.

322 Luke walks by the camera. heading toward the 1c door.

335 Dick asks 16 a question regarding his work.

Case Study 168: Aggression-Assault
Wis
350 The noise level in the 1c is very low. Usually there are
loud verbal conversations being conducted between the students at this
time of the day.
356 Camera is shifted to CZ. Rich is sitting in the far back
northeast corner of C2. His body is tilted to the right with his right
elbow resting on his thigh. his hand is up at his mouth. Rich's left
hand is resting on his upper thigh. His right hand moves away from his
mouth; he appears to be looking at his nail. then Rich moves his hand
back to his mouth.
362 Rich turns his body to the left and reaches across his desk.
He picks up a piece of string and manipulates it. finally laying it
across his lap.
366 Rich opens the folder that is on the desk in front of him.

He shuffles some papers and then shifts back to his original sitting

171

position. with his right elbow on his thigh and his right hand up to
his mouth.

373 Rich starts talking with Allan. who is sitting to his left.
shaking his head "No" a couple of times.

376 Rich is smiling and glances in the direction of T7 and the
camera. He is still sitting in the same position. His legs are
relatively still.

377 T7 asks Rich to please work on his task.

378 Rich's upper body starts rocking forward and back eight times
in 15 seconds. At the same time. Rich picks up paper and is constantly
moving his hands.

385 Rich is sitting back in his chair. His right hand is tapping
on his thigh.

389 Rich is talking with Hugh. who is sitting in the southeast
corner near the bookshelf. He starts rocking forward and back another
eight times. manipulating the pen or papers in front of him. One time
he glances over toward the area of the camera. Ron is sitting at the
table next to the camera.

401 17 has walked over by Hugh and given him a piece of paper; he
then proceeds over to Rich. Rich extends his right hand and takes a
piece of paper from T7. 17 then returns back over to Hugh and is
speaking with hlflh Rich then shifts his upper body forward. leaning
his left elbow on the desk top. his right hand is holding a pen. the
palm of the hand is touching the edge of the chair seat. Rich is

looking down at the paper on the desk top.

172

406 Rich starts making little rocking motions forward and back
11 times.
411 Comment: The film being used was spliced together. As a

result. the glue from the splicing clogged the picture drums of the
video machine and the picture is black. One of the drums starts
clearing up around 700. so via hand manipulation. portions of the video
have been retrieved.

501 (Audio only) There is very little conversation. 17 says to
someone. "Come on. don't fight." The noise level remains low.

The background to this sequence is as follows: It is July
and there is a direct correlation between the heat outside and the
temperature inside. Already it is quite warm in the learning center.
Rich has been sitting in C2. Ron is seated at the learning center
table located next to the west wall. Over the weekend. both students
rode for a portion of the time on the same bus as they traveled home.
During this bus ride. both students_were talking with the same girl.
One student is from the Flint area and the other from the Detroit area.
It just so happened that the student from the Detroit area was success-
ful in attaining a date from his young woman. This may be only one of
many events that have led to this fight. It is Rich's daily pattern to
walk over to the sink and get a glass of water. This means that he is
standing directly next to Ron for a few moments. which happens to
coincide with Ron's and 15's discussion. Another confounding factor is
that the observer left the learning center briefly. and the first fight

occurred at that time.

173

715 Rich gets out of his seat and walks over to talk to Hugh and
another student who are sitting next to the bookcase in C2. His elbows
are bent and out four to six inches from his body. His forearms and
hands move in various positions. up to his face. touching his other
hand in front of his body. to his shoulder. bent back up to his
shoulder blade. tHs hands and arms are constantly moving. while he
walks around. He stands nuxnentarily near the bookcase and then walks
out of C2 toward the direction of the learning center tables.

720 Rich is off camera.

724 Rich has walked back to the center of C2. turns and starts to
walk back toward the lct.

726 17 calls Rich. and Rich turns back toward T7 and walks over
to his desk. Rich's fingers are touching the palm of his hands. and he
sets the outside of his hands on the desk top. He pauses at the
teacher's desk briefly and then walks around to the front of the desk;
his arms are down to his sides. with his elbows slightly bent. ‘The
elbows are within two to three inches of his body. His right hand
comes up to his mouth; he turns and walks toward the learning center
tables and then turns back again toward 17. who has asked him a ques-
tion. He takes two steps back toward T7. tUrns again. his left hand
moves up toward his mouth as he walks away.

731 Rich walks over to the sink for a drink.

736 Ron is talking to 15 about his work. Ron: "So the grade in
that class don't even count then. right. Well. can I see about a

signature in that class then?"

174

15: "No. no. no. no. . . . ."

Ron: "You fucked me up then."

15: "Hey. Ron. don't/

Ron: "You fucked me up then."

15: start now."

Rick makes a loud "Heeeeeeeee" noise in the background.
738 17 has called Rick back to class and there is more talking in
the background.
739 17 looks to his left and gets out of his chair. heading for
Ron and Rich. As he approaches. his mouth is open. his elbows are at
least six inches away from his sides. .As he walks. his mouth closes.
his lip corners are turned slightly downward. His right arm is bent at
the elbow and the forearm is extended in front to him. not swinging back
and forth.
740 Rich says. "Let me go 1'5." Ron says "Bitch." Rich replies.
"Whacha wanta do then. bitch?"
741 Ron starts angrily yelling. "Throw one. throw one. throw one.
throw one. throw one." Someone yells. "Let go of him." One can hear
chairs falling over and crashing of objects.
742 16 comes running over from C1.
743 T6 and 15 are holding onto Ron's shoulders and upper arms.
and they are pulling Ron away from Rich. .As Ron is pulled backwards.
he is glaring at Rich. his lips are tight. His chin is extended out
and his neck as a result is stretched. his nostrils are flared. Ron

continues to say "Throw one." and the fingers on his right hand are

175

rigid. and spread widely apart. As Ron talks his eyebrows are pulled
down and inward toward the center of the nose ridge. his neck is tense.
While speaking his face is tense. cheeks are concave. and his lips move
in exaggerated motions protruding forward in a pursed movement. 'The
teachers are pulling him backwards. gritting their teeth. lower teeth
are exposed. lip corners pulled back. As 15 and T6 pull Ron toward C1.
Rick is walking by and he lets out an "aaaahhh" sound as he moves out
of the way. Over in the corner. Hugh remains seated in his chair. His
hands are in front. wrists are at the edge of the desk. hands are held
together hanging downward. rHs knees are bent and his feet are flat on
the floor. legs are separated. he is sitting forward. the desk is
tilted on its front two legs. Hugh's attention. in addition to all of
the other students in the learning center. is focused on the incident.
Before Ron being pulled back. Allan raised his right arm up. elbow is
bent as if to cheer one student on to victory. Once Ron is pulled away
from Rich. Rick then starts clapping and jumping around. Ron is
relentless and says. "Com'on then." One of the staff calls out Ron's
name. The first round between Rich and Ron beginning with the verbal
confrontation and ending with Ron being pulled away took 17 seconds.
There is a 3.5-second pause between the end of the first set of verbal
and physical interactions and the beginning of the second round. Rich
says. "Throw one."
746 (Audio only) Ron calls out. "Com'on then. throw one."

Rich replies. "I'll bust you up."

Ron continues. "Com'on. com'on. com'on. com'on. . . ."

176

The students are separated again.

Rich angrily replies. "You a bitch. you on the floor. you on
the floor. You a bitch. you on the floor."

Ron responds. "Com'on."
748 Rich is still struggling and is removed from the learning
center with the assistance of T3 and 17. Ron is physically contained
on the floor. As Rich is being escorted out. he proceeds with the
abuse. "You on the floor. bitch. You on the floor. You on the floor.
you a bitch. you on the floor." Teachers repeatedly say. "Com'on. it's
not worth it.. . ." Round two. beginning with the verbal exchange and
culminating with Rich being escorted from the learning center. lasted
23 seconds.
752 Andy says. "Ron. just lay there and rel ax . . . they'll let
you go man."

Ron. "Let me go. man."

Rick starts talking with a Japanese accent. "Watch out for
the Sony." Pause.

Ron repeats. "Let me go. man."

Rick then says again. "Watch out for the Sony. restitution.
he's restitution." The students laugh.
756 Ron says. "Let me get up man."

758 15 calls out to Luke twice to get him to settle down.

177

759 Ron repeats. "Let me go. let me get up man)" 'q'm cool manJ'
15 responds. "Will you stay here?" Ron responds. "Yea."
760 Ron is released. Ron had to be physically contained for

approximately 25 seconds.

Case Study 16C: Aggression-Anger
W:
761 Ron immediately turns and starts quickly walking toward CZ.
His point of destination is the southeast corner of C2. and he is ready
to fight Hugh. who is still seated near the bookshelf. 15 following
after Ron says. "No. no!‘ He catches Ron by the edge of the south
divider for C2. He grabs his arm. but Ron flings his arms backward.
shaking 15's grasp loose. and proceeds toward Hugh. Ron's left arm is
out away from his body. his elbow is at least six inches from his side.
his forearm is extended downward with his hand in a fist. Ron's right
arm is closer to his body. the elbow is within two to four inches. with
his forearm extended downward and his hand fisted. Andy cries out.
"Let him go. let him 903' 15 continues. "What is going on? Stop it.
You told meJ' 15 following after. reaches and encircles Ron around the
chest to hold him back. right before Ron gets to Hugh. Ron tries to
break away again. there is a separation of at least 24 inches between
his feet as he struggles to release 15's hold. Both of Ron's elbows
are extended outward as he proceeds forward. dragging TS behind him.
Hugh has remained seated and has watched Ron comerin his direction. He

is sitting back in his chair. and his right hand is up touching his

178

face. Ron is in front of Hugh. his upper body is leaning forward and
his chin is extended outward. 15 turns Ron's body slightly to the
right. but Ron continues to stare at Hugh. Ron's chin is still
extended forward as 15 gets Ron to turn further away from Hugh. Ron
holds eye contact with Hugh. T6 is approaching to give assistance. 15
has moved Ron about four feet away from Hugh. Momentarily. Andy and 16
hold onto Ron's arm. They release the grasp and Ron. facing 15 and 16.
tries to break through to get back to Hugh. 15 blocks Ron's path.
touching him on the chest with his right hand and Ron's back with his
left hand. Ron tilts his head right over 15's shoulder and says.
"Bitch. you talk your shit.. .."

766 15 holding onto Ron's left upper arm escorts Ron through C4
and out to the portable. As Ron walks. his head starts dropping further
and further downward. his right arm is generally away from his body.

In the middle of C4. Ron shifts his head up and breaks the hold on his
arm. He turns and faces 15. There are two students following behind.
and they are standing next to Ron. The discussion being carried on is
inaudible. 16 is following approximately five steps behind the

others. 15 gets Ron to proceed toward the door. As 16 follows. his
arms are away from his body. his head is down. Ron stops at the door
and starts to struggle once again. 16 changes his pace. head becomes
erect and his arms swing out further from his body as he approaches 15.
Ron. and the other two students. Ron is there for only a couple of
seconds. Finally. Ron leaves the learning center; his two friends

follow along.

179

771 16 returns to the learning center. The students are milling
around. 16 comments. "Okay. let's quietly go to the second hour. all
right."

The aggression-anger behaviors initiated by Ron toward Hugh and

culminating with Ron being escorted from the learning center took

00:00:25.
Case Study 160: Aggression-Anger
WI:
775 Rich returns to C2. He walks over to his chair. his right

arm swings forward with his hand coming up to shoulder level. it swings
downward behind. his back and then out to his side. Rich is holding a
piece of paper in his right hand. The second swing arcs outward at
least 12-18 inches away from the side of his body with the follow-
through motion of his hand returning behind his back. His left arm is
bent at the elbow. and as he continues to walk. drops to his side and
is within two to four inches of his side. He stops at his chair and
starts adjusting his clothing. Rich pulls out a shoelace and stretches
it out. manipulating it for a moment.

779 Rich lifts his right foot up on the seat of the chair and
begins to lace his shoe. Transition is in progress. and the learning
center is still unusually quiet. Rich glances up three times as he
adjusts his shoe. Dylan enters CZ. walks directly over to the desk
near Rich. and stands there. seemingly looking at something on the desk

top. Bud entered CZ along with Dylan. but he stopped and is standing

180

in the middle of the room. approximately six to eight feet away from
Rich. For the fourth time. Rich glances upward; as he does. he focuses
in Bud's direction. Phil has just entered C2 and is looking over his
left shoulder; he looks angry. his hands are akimbo. on his hip. he
pauses near Bud. glances at Rich and continues to walk toward a chair
near the pencil sharpener and sit down. Richhs upper body starts to
become erect; his head is tilted slightly backwards. which results in
his neck being elongated and his chin protruding outward. His hands
are in fists. He continues to look at Bud.

790 Bud starts to walk toward Rich's direction. but instead
stands next to Dylan and talks with him. Rich turns his head back over
his left shoulder to see what Dylan is doing. Rich leans back over at
the waist and continues to fix his shoelace.

799 Camera is moved to C3. 13 is talking with Tim. Upon comple-
tion. Tim starts brushing his hair and walks off out of C3. Vic is
sitting at the teacher's desk and is working.

801 Allan enters 03 and walks over near filing cabinet 2. which
is on the west wall of the room. 13 is in that area. Allan walks back
over to 1'5 desk. turns his head and body right as ,if to head again
toward the west side of the room; he then shifts again and turns facing
Vic. who is sitting at 1'5 desk.

803 The camera is moved. focusing on Tim. who is standing near
the opening to C4 still brushing his hair and then on C2 as Bud is
beginning to exit the room. 17 is talking with a student who is out of

view from the camera. Andy says. ". . . they got this little thing

181

about how they gonna work. . . . I don't mind . . . jump me. I'm gonna
fight both of 'em. . . ." T7 tries to reassure him. "Ain't'none of
them gonna jump on ya." Just then. Tim. who is still brushing his
hair. walks over and starts pointing with his right index finger and
says. "That's the bitch . . . fight from yesterday." 17 has moved over
to Tim and is standing in front of him. 17 says. "Com'on. com'on."
trying to direct Tim out of the area. Tim replies. "I ain't gotta go
nowhere. man." 17 repeats. "Just com'on with me." He is walking next
to Tim. and Tim walks along with the teacher. All of the students stop
and are watching. their faces are still. wondering what will come next.
Tim continues. "He know he's a whore." 17 replies. "So what. he's a

whore." The students laugh. and Tim and 17 have left the area.

Case Study 16E: Aggression-Assault
IanLAnastJs
806 Rich leaves CZ and walks toward the portable. The students
continue to move to their respective classrooms. During this discus-
sion. Allan has walked over to the middle of the learning center.
watched the interaction. and then turned back toward C3.
811 13 walked through C4 and toward the portable.
812 In 03. Allan has attacked Vic. Allan's left arm is around
Vic's neck. with his forearm directly under Vic's chin. Allan's right
arm is across Vic's chest and he is starting to hold the wrist of his
left arm. Vic's right arm is up. the elbow is bent. and he is trying

to grab at Allan's head. Allan is over Vic. Vic's knees are bent and

182

he is falling to the floor. Allan does not release Vic. Vicfls left
hand is pulling on Allan's left arm. he then makes contact with Allan's
right wrist and pulls it downward. Simultaneously. Vic leaning
backwards. starts to stand up. Allan leaning back. lifts Vic off the
ground. Allan's right arm slides down from Vic's chest near the waist
and then back up to his chest area. Allan turns to the left as he is
holding Vic. Then Vic starts falling forward. Allan does not release
Vic but maintains his hold around Vicfls neck and leans forward over the
top of Vic. Vic is on his knees and Allan is standing with both of his
legs straddling either side of Vic. Vic is moving to his left. and
Allan stays directly over him. his right hand on Vicfls chest area. A
student runs over in front of the camera and starts.jumping up and down
to keep the camera off the students fighting. Vic turns toward the
direction of the camera. and Allan continues to hold both arms around
Vic's neck. Vic starts standing up; Allan gets his arms around the
outside of Vicfls arms and chest and again lifts Vic backwards up off
the ground. When Vic touches ground. he leans forward. Allan's arms
are still wrapped around Vic"s chest and his body is contoured forward
to Vic. 16 has called Allan's name twice and is now facing Allan as
Allan leans over Vic. 1645 right elbow is bent and is four to six
inches away from the side of his body; his forearm is angled down. with
his palm out. wrist bent up. his hand and fingers are straight.
separated. and pointing upward. He is talking to Allan. Allan

releases his hold with his left hand. Vic turns right and twists.

183

Allan gives Vic a push forward as Vic moves away. 16 is standing next
to Allan and to this point has not touched either student.

816 Vic has turned and is standing. facing Allan and the camera.
817 T6 is holding Allan's left upper arm. After Vic is released
and has stepped back. 16 releases Allan's arm. Vic backs off one step.
his upper body is leaning slightly forward. his chin is extended out.
Vic's upper arms are angled back and downward. his elbows are bent and
his hands in fists move out about a foot away from his sides and then
swing back to rest with his fists in front of the groin area. elbows
slightly bent. his left foot is in front of his right by approximately
8 to 10 inches. Allan makes an outward forearm sweep with his right
arm. his hand is in a fist. Vic jerks back. both of his arms bend at
the elbow and his hands in fists come up near his face. Allan hit Vic
on Vic's left forearm. T6 is standing directly on Allan's left side.
his shoulder and upper arm are in front of Allan. acting as a block for
further fighting. 16 says something to Allan. who turns head left away
from the teacher. steps sideways and walks off. out of view of the
camera. The students were in physical contact. wrestling and one hit.
for 00:00:20.5. Two seconds later Allan walked off.

818 16 standing next to Vic asks what happened. Vic responds.

". . . come and grab me." As 16 talks with Vic. 16 touches him lightly
or brushes his hand on Vicfls belly twice. trying to get Vic to calm
down. A student in the background makes a comment about the "muther
fuckin camera" and the possibility of it getting broken. 13 returns to

his class. Allan starts pacing. He walks past Vic and over to the

184

west wall in C3. walks quickly back toward the east wall. turns. goes
back to the west wall. turns. walks back toward the east wall. and goes
into the learning center. turns. walks over to the teacher's desk and
then walks back to the lcts and sits down. The entire period of pacing
was 52 seconds. Allan was visible on camera for 15 seconds; in that
period he took 28 steps.

8Z6 Vic goes to C2 and sits down at a desk next to 17's desk.

830 Allan sits at the lct. 13 is standing next to him and
speaking with him about his task.' Allan is looking down at the paper/
desk. not at 13.

839 13 kneels down and continues to talk with Allan. Allan turns
his head and appears to occasionally look at 13. Allan makes 10 body
shifts/movements. taps his finger on the table top. and three more body

movements while he was sitting listening to 13.

Case Study 16F: Aggression-Assault
IaizLAnastJs
853 A student runs in and says. "They're fighting in the halls
manJ' Eyeryone including the camera person ran to the door. Rich and
Howard were fighting as professionals. The intensity was such that it
could not be broken up until one student hit the floor. There is a
tremendous amount of noise. screaming and then 17 can be heard clearly.
861 One student yells. "Stay out of it Ron." Ron had been leav-
ing his area from the portable and was on his way back to the dorms

when Rich and Howard started to fight.

185

862 T7 is yelling. "Come on Rich. I'm. I'm your friend. damn it.
stop it man. You know. you know. no. no. no. come on man. it's not
the way. It's not the way Rich." 17 has just pulled Rich out from
the hallway and into the learning center over near the lots. 17
repeats. "It's not the way!"

864 17 has his arms around the outside of Rich's left arm and
chest. Rich is struggling to get back at Howard. He lifts his left
arm out of the hold and both of Rich's hands come up to 17's arms.
where 17's hands are locked onto either wrist. and Rich tries to break
the hold. The intensity of anger on his face is difficult to describe.
His eyebrows are drawn together in the center. creating folds of skin.
his eyes glare with a magnitude which made all the students around them
move quickly back and out of the way. His mouth was open with both
upper and lower teeth exposed. his bottom lip protruding. 17 turns to
Rich and directs him forward. going toward the portable. Rich tries to
get lose again. tips a bit to the right. pushes his hand off the
divider counter and then off the wall divider between C3 and C4. 17
says. "Please. I don't want to fight. . . ." Rich walks with little
resistance through C4 and out to the portable.

867 There are nervous laughs from the students.

869 One student walked over to Jim and physically "picked him up
such that Jim was parallel to the ground. flipped him around and put

him down again with assistance. Rick is shouting. "Com'on now. let's

186

get in class. man. let's get in class. com'on get in class." In the
hallway three teachers are physically containing Howard. Howard has

slugged one teacher in the face and is still fighting.

Case Study 16G: Aggression-Assault
111mm
871 Luke starts in. "Everyone.rush me now. huh. everyone rush me
now. . . . rush me. com'on here. OK. come ov'r here. rush me right
now. Lush me. now. rush me right now. Rush me man. com'on rush me.
rush me. go get the boy. rush me. OK. OK. rush me. rush me. (pause).
rush me." Dylan was standing near Luke and has backed away cautiously.
There are no teachers in the learning center and the conversation has
just changed to Detroit versus Flint. Since I was the only adult. I
broke role momentarily and calmly told the students to move on to their
classrooms. Allan responds. "She ain't no teacher)‘ 21 walked over to
a student leader and asked him to help get the students back in class.
The students are pacing around. Luke has walked away from the lc door
and is heading toward C4.
892 The conversation about Detroit and Flint continues. and Rob
tells Luke to get out of his face. Luke turns immediately around and
heads directly for Rob and says. "Come' here. let me tell ya some-
thinh" Both of these students along with five other students are at
the lc door. A CS walks in to the learning center closing the door to
the hallways. Howard is still struggling and fighting in the hallway

with the teachers. The CS asks where Rich is and then proceeds through

187

the learning center and out to the portable; again there is no super-
vision in the center.

901 Vic has gone over to the pencil sharpener in CZ and is
sharpening his pencil. Luke is walking around. pulling the front of
his shirt in and out and flipping the tail up and down to cool off.

The secretary. Sherry. walks through and then walks back out. Allan is
sitting alone in C1.

910 Luke is sitting on the edge of the teacher's desk in C2.

Andy is saying. "Number 1 and number 2 and number 32. and number

383' Luke cuts in. "They number 1. you see. you see. they number 1.
cause they from Detroit and the burcrap. they got none comin."

912 Vic has walked back over from the pencil sharpener and is
standing behind Luke. Vic says. "Hey wait a minute. don't think. don't
think everybody's from Detroit man cause I. I ain't in it man. I can
say all I want to man." With that. Luke quickly stands up. his body is
rigid and leaning forward. his head is leading as he walks. his hands
come up in fists. he yells. "Then say it." and with his left hand Luke
swings and punches Vic in the jaw. Vic falls to the floor. Luke
continues after Vic and as Vic starts to stand up Luke gets Vic around
the neck and shoulder with his left arm. Vicfls head and left shoulder
are under Luke's left arm. sticking out toward Luke's back. Vic is
trying to grab ahold of Luke from the back. The remainder of Vic's

body is in front of Luke. Luke turns a full circle walking Vic around
and then picks Vic up by his seat. walks over to a desk and drops him

on top of a student desk. Vic and the desk tumble to the ground.

188

Frank has entered and is trying to end the fight; he is touching Lukefis
back just as he drops Vic. Frank pulls Luke backwards away from Vic.
Total amount of physical contact between Luke and Vic was 00:00:10.9.
Luke steps backward and Steve along with Frank is moving away. yet
between the two students. their arms are out and they are trying to
calm things down. Vic gets up and says. "I ain't got nothin' to say.

. . ." Vic turns and starts rushing for a chair. Frank and Steve grab
at him as Vic passes. Steve loses his grip. and Vic grabs the chair.
Vic is holding a chair up in the air. Frank holding on to Vic turns him
in a full circle twice. During the second turn Sam grabs the chair.
Luke is standing right next to the students who are being physical with
Vic. Frank then pulls Vic and while all three are struggling. they
fall to the floor. Frank had physical contact with Vic for eight
seconds. The total incident lasted 29 seconds.

919 The students are still on the floor. and TS enters the lc
with 17 close behind. Luke starts walking around; he unbuttons his
shirt and rolls up his sleeves.

923 Vic is walking around gesturing with his right hand. while
his left is akimbo. on his hip. He is talking about how Luke hit him
for no reason. Both hands are akimbo as he paces. stops. and watches
as Luke is ready to get into another fight with another student. Andy
is starting to get angry at Luke and starts saying. "Yea. I'm ready.
I'm ready. I'm gonna bust him up. . . ." 15 talking to the other
student says. "Not here".and walks the student out toward the portable.

17 has picked up the table and chairs. walks over to Luke and. holding

189

on to Luke's right upper arms. transfers his hand around Luke's back;
T7's hand touching Luke's left side. they walk out of the learning
center together.

929 Vic starts walking around the room again. his hands are on
his hips and he starts to cry. Vic repeats. "He comes up and hits me
for no Gaud damn reason."

934 Vic walks over to the chair near 17's desk. sits down. puts
his elbow on his knee. his hand to his face and cries. His chest

visibly moves in and out as he breathes; tears drop off his chin.

Case Study 16H: Aggression-Assault
W
935 Rob starts yelling. ". . . swing on me. na. na. . . . jump up
and swing. no. no. no. yea. all ya all. punk. bitch. muther fuckers.
Why don't yo'll jump up and swing at me? Na. bitch!" 15 calls out
Rob's name and walks off in the other direction. 16 walks with Rob
into C4. 16 is talking with Rob. Rob continues to yell. Only 1645
back is visible; his arms are down. but his hands are at least 12
inches from his sides. His wrists are bent. palms facing the ground.
fingers are extended. twilightly touches Rob as he walks toward the
portable. first on the chest while Rob faces the center. then on the
arm as Rob turns right toward the exit. and then a pat on the back as
Rob proceeds forward. Rob turns back around and starts walking toward
the center. 16 walking next to him uses his right hand to direct Rob

over toward the corner of C4. 16 is talking the entire time.

190

945 Camera shot of Vic. who is still seated. tears glisten off
his chin. (No one has had time to talk with him.)
946 T6 is talking with Rob; one cannot see if 16 is touching Rob

at all. Rob starts fighting. and both move struggling toward the exit

door of C4.
950 13 comes in. and T6 and 13 contain Rob on the floor.
965 16 and 13 let Rob up off the ground. and they leave through

the portable. All the students are talking.

976 Tim is telling a CS how Frank slammed Vic on the ground for
no reason. Frank says. "He swing a chair. I defend myself. I ain"t
gonna let somebody slam me."

994 16 returns to the learning center. Tim is standing near the
divider. folding a piece of paper. hands in pockets. then out. he then
walks over toward C1.

1007 Frank enters C2 and is standing with one hand on his hip.
Vic has since been allowed to leave the centen. Frank is walking

around. The other students in C2 are sitting with very little

movement.
1022 T7 sits on the edge of the desk and talks briefly with the
students.
1027 Howard walks through the learning center. grabs a clipboard

off the top of 17's desk. and walks on. A CS is walking beside him.
1029 17 starts passing out work to the students. No one is

talking in CZ.

191

1040 15 asks a OS to cover 13's class while he works with a
student. Tim comments about not having to do work.

1050 17 starts to ask the students questions about geography. In
the background. Nash is starting to talk.

1063 Allan is sitting in 13's chair. End of tape.

W
16A Aggression-Anger:

1. Ron is confronting Dick about what Ron perceives as a problem. As
the day progresses. one might deduct that Ron was trying to find
allies.

2. During the conversation Ron demonstrated automanipulation and
pacing behaviors. These behaviors increased in frequency and size as
the conversation progressed. particularly after Nathan accused Ron of
"playin" with them.

3. While Ron may or may not have been angry with Dick. his physical
pacing behaviors are precursors for the following episodes.

4. While Ron spoke with Dick he did not give him eye contact. Usually
his head was tilted downward.

5. Ron was standing and moving.

6. The ending was "separateJ' There was no need for teacher interven-
tion. However. 13. who was aware of Ron's presence. did go over and
escort Ron back to class after the conversation ended.

7. This conversation occurred during the first morning transition;

thus the setting was unstructured.

192

168 Aggression-Assault:
1. Before the assault. both Ron and Rich demonstrated out-of-seat
behaviors. Until the time that the tape blacked out. Rich had not
completed any work in class. Both students demonstrated automanipula-
tion with their hands.
2. While Rich was out of his seat. he walked around the room. out of
C2 twice and returned; on the third departure he encountered Ron.
3. Rich was standing and in motion immediately before the assault.
4. Close-up pictures of Ron as he is being removed from the fight
verify that his expressions are those commonly associated with
aggressive characteristics (Brannigan & Humphries. 1973; Grant. 1969L
Ron's eyebrows were pulled down and inward toward the center of the
nose. His nostrils were flared. his chin was extended outward. His
mouth was right as he continued the verbal confrontation with Rich.
5. Both students were physically contained by two staff members.
6. The ending was "other" with teachers intervening. The proximity of
the teacher was within five feet.
7. The setting,was structured.
8. When Rich returned to the learning center. he did not pace. He
remained in one area. manipulating his shoestring.
9. There were basically two rounds to this fight. There was a time
period of 00:00:30 from the first verbal encounter until Rich was
removed. Ron was contained for a 00:00:25 period. While the students

were separated. the incident was not completed.

193

16C Aggression-Anger:
1. Ron immediately stood up once the physical restraints were
released. and he quickly moved toward Hugh.
2. While Ron wanted to fight. this is an anger incident due to Hugh's
behavior. Hugh did not move or react to Ron's threatening approach or
words.
3. The ending was "other." requiring the teachers to physically
intervene.
4. The teachers were in close proximity. within five feet. ‘The
setting would be considered structured since there was close super-
vision of Ron.
5. There was a 00:00:30 time period between the time Ron was released
and the time the teachers were able to remove him from the learning

center.

160 Aggression-Anger:
l. The incident of Tim yelling and pointing aggressively at another
student is a small demonstration of aggression-anger.
2. Tim is only one example of the contagion that was occurring in the
learning center at that time.
3. Tim had just begun to pace around the center.
4. Tim was removed from the learning center before his anger esca-
lated.
5. The ending was "other." requiring the teacher to physically and
verbally intervene.

6. After the final fight. Tim was still pacing.

194

16E Aggression-Assault:
l. The antecedent behaviors of both students in this incident were not
observed.
2. The physical contact between Allan and Vic lasted for a 00:00:20J5
time period.
3. Allan began to pace immediately after the incident.
4. Vic went to CZ and sat down.
5. When the fight began. there was no teacher supervision in the
vicinity. The incident occurred during the transition period; thus the
setting was unstructured. The ending was "other" due to a teacherks

verbal and physical intervention.

16F Aggression-Assault:
1. Rich had just left CZ during the transition period. The setting is
unstructured. Rich was in the hallway; he had just come out of the
restroom. Rich had just had the physical incident with Ron. He was
standing and moving before this incident.
2. Howard's antecedent behaviors were not observed.
3. There were numerous hits exchanged between Rich and Howard.
4. Rich was physically restrained and continued to struggle with the
teacher. His facial features resembled expressions of aggressive
characteristics.
5. Rich was physically escorted out of the learning center. From the
beginning of the fight to his departure from the learning center was a

00:00:35 period.

195

6. Howard was physically contained by three staff members. From the
beginning of the incident to when the learning center door closed was a
period of 00:02:00.

7. Howard walked through the learning center 00:05:00 later.

8. The ending was "other"; both students were physically contained or

escorted to another area. Initial teacher proximity is unknown.

16G Aggression-Assault:
1. Luke demonstrated pacing behaviors before he attacked Vic.
2. Luke verbally challenged Rob or anyone else to fight with him
(871).
3. When Vic disagreed with Luke. Luke jumped up and immediately
punched him on the chin. The physical aggression continued from
there.
4. Luke began to pace immediately after the episode was controlled by
students.
5. The setting was unstructured; all teachers were involved with other
students who had been in fights. There was no supervision in the area.
6. Teachers entered the learning center after the students stopped
fighting. Luke was removed from the learning center at that time.
7. Vic stood up and paced briefly.
8. Vic then sat down and cried. He was removed soon afterwards.
9. The physical contact between Luke and Vic lasted for 00:005HL9.
The total time of the incident from the first confrontation to
separation was 00:00:29. Frank was physically engaged with Vic for
00:00:08.

196

16H Aggression-Assault:
1. Rob started yelling verbal challenges to any takers.
Z. A teacher was in close proximity and promptly intervened.
3. Rob paced back and forth in C4.
4. T4 touched Rob while Rob was in an aroused state.
5. Rob started fighting with 13 and was contained by 13 and T6 for
00:00:48.

6. Rob was removed from the learning center.

These eight descriptions of assaultive and anger episodes only
suggest a hint of the tension within the building on that particular
day. There was a contagion among the students. and everyone was picking
sides. Upon reevaluating the incidents. it was like the calm before
the storm. The morning transition was too quiet for a room of young
adolescent men. Students who were not normally in the learning center
pulled up chairs as if to sit and view the movie. The students who
were involved in any of the physical incidents were removed to their
dormitories. Adjustments were held with the students preceding school
and the following morning. One student was removed from the camp
setting. and assault charges were filed.

The analyses of the video tapes resulted in the description of
observable behaviors. The time sequence denoted the length of the

verbal and physical interactions. Since Case Study 16 had numerous

197

overlapping incidents. the precise times for when students began to
calm down in many cases could not be attained since students were

promptly removed from the learning center.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY. IMPLICATIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary
This study has focused on the acting-out behaviors that

function as a major cause for conflict within the classroom.
Primarily. the writer has dealt with two problems. First. was to
determine whether aggressive-assault behaviors and aggressive-anger
behaviors progress in a sequential pattern. with specific actions
occurring before. during. and after the event. Next. if there was a
paradigm of behaviors. could these behaviors be discernible through
observations such that a teacher could use this pattern as a basis for
intervention in a positive preventative manner?

An ethological study was conducted. Ethology is the compara-
tive study of behavior patterns. This study focused on observing
students in a naturalistic setting. ixa. the classroom. The observer
recorded field notes and made video-tape recordings of the happenings
in the classrooms. The written field notes allowed the observer free-
dom to view happenings in various sections of the schooL. The video
tapes were used for interobserver reliability. along with providing
density and permanence of the record (Grimshaw. 1982) of the activities
in the learning center. From May 21. 1983. to July 15. 1983. 150 hours

of video tapes were recorded. The subjects in this study were 13- to

198

199

lB-year-old males who were incarcerated for a variety of reasons. The
students lived in a camp setting. and the school facilities were on the
same grounds.

Sixteen case studies were presented. The sixteenth study con-
tained eight separate yet intermingled cases. All eight cases occurred
within a 40-minute period. Because of the intensity of these fights.
rather than breaking up the continuity of patterns that occurred. the
study was submitted as one. Thus there are a total of 23 case studies.
Among these 23 case studies. there are 14 different aggressive-assault
case studies. four aggressive-anger case studies. four sniper hit case
studies. and one quasiagonistic case study. The quasiagonistic behav-
ior case study was included to be used as a comparison when evaluating

the other studies.

Results

The data analyses focused on two main questions. First. to
determine whether there were specific behaviors which were observable
and measurable. which were characteristic of students in conflict with
the teacher and/or the other students. Second. to determine if there
were specific behavior groups or behavior types which were demonstrated
in a developmental sequence as the conflict interaction continued. The

following is a summary of the data analyses.

200

Aggressive-Assault Behaviors
Widens

l. The students demonstrated off-task behavior: 14 out of 14
observed cases.

2. The students demonstrated out-of—seat behavior: 14 out of
14 observed cases.

3. The students were in an unstructured setting (i.e..
classroom without supervision or during the transition period): 10 out
of 14 observed cases.

4. The students demonstrated automanipulation with their
hands: seven out of eight observed cases.

5. The students demonstrated pacing behaviors before an
attack: 10 out of 12 observed cases.

6. The students'1arms were down by their sides: seven out of
nine observed cases.

7. The students were standing and moving immediately before an
assault: 14 out of 14 observed cases.

8. The students projected their upper bodies forward. extended
their chins forward. and stared at the victim: four out of four

observed cases.

1mm

1. The physical incidents involved one to four hits. kicks. or
choke holds: 11 out of 14 observed cases.

2. The physical incidents involved four or more hits. kicks.

choke holds. or wrestling: 3 out of 14 observed cases.

201

3. The physical aggression-assault incident between students
lasted 00:00:11 or less: 10 out of 14 observed cases.

4. The physical aggression-assault incident between students
lasted 00:00:12 to 00:00:25: 2 out of 14 observed cases.

5. Excluding Case Studies 6 and 16H. the average length of
physical contact between students was 00:00:07.

6. The proximity of the teacher was within five feet of the

incident: 13 out of 14 observed cases.

Won:

1. The students paced for a period ranging from two minutes to
one hour and 15 minutes after the physical encounter: eight out of
nine observed cases.

2. The students held their arms down by theie sides: seven
out of eight observed cases.

3. The students demonstrated automanipulation with their
hands: eight out of eight observed cases.

4. The students eventually demonstrated in-seat and quiet
behaviors: five out of five observed cases.

5. The students continued to demonstrate off-task behaviors:
five out of five observed cases.

6. There were four observed cases where pre. during. and post
assaultive behaviors were observed to the point where students resumed

on-task behavior. Of those four observed cases. the entire pre.

202

during. and post aggressive-assault behaviors ranged in length from 20

minutes to 40 minutes. The average length of time was 00:27:25.

Aggressive-Anger Behaviors

WES

1. The students demonstrated off-task behaviors: four out of
four observed cases.

2. The students demonstrated out-of—seat behaviors: four out
of four observed cases.

3. The students were in an unstructured classroom setting:
three out of four observed cases.

4. The students demonstrated automanipulation behaviors: four

out of four observed cases.

Impact

1. The students demonstrated pacing behavior while they were
angry: four out of four observed cases.

2. The students' arms were down or away from their bodies:
four out of four observed cases.

3. The students verbalized concerns. frustrations. annoyances.

or dislikes: four out of four observed cases.

W:
l. The students were removed from the learning center: two
out of four observed cases.

2. The students demonstrated off-task behaviors: two out of

two observed cases.

203

3. The students remained seated for approximately ten minutes

or longer: two out of two observed cases.

Sniper Hit Behaviors

W

1. The assailant was standing and moving before the assault:
four out of four observed cases.

2. The assailant made a surprise attack: four out of four
observed cases.

3. The assailant hit the victim one time: four out of four
observed cases.

4. The assailant fled the area quickly: four out of four
observed cases.

5. The incidents occurred during an unstructured period: four
out of four observed cases.

6. ‘The victim was startled and pursued the assailant: four
out of four observed cases.

7. The proximity of the teacher was unknown: three out of

four observed cases.

Victim Behaviors

Waylon:
Main

1. The students/victims were hit. kicked. choked. or wrestled:

18 out of 18 observed aggressive-assault and sniper hit cases.

204

Z. The students demonstrated in-seat behaviors after being
assaulted: five out of five observed cases.

3. The students demonstrated quiet. nonverbal behaviors: five
out of five observed cases.

4. The students demonstrated off-task behaviors: five out of
five observed cases.

5. The students put their heads down on the desk or cried:

three out of five observed Cases.

Teacher Behaviors

WW
WW:

1. Upon approaching the assailant. the teacher touched the
assailant: 10 out of 13 observed cases.

2. The teacher verbally counseled or held an "adjustment" with
the assailant for one minute or less: seven out of nine observed
cases.

3. The students were standing during the counseling session:
seven out of nine cases.

4. The teacher physically restrained the students: 7 out of
14 observed cases.

5. The physical restraint lasted for one minute or less: five
out of seven observed cases. The range of time for physical restraint
was approximately 30 seconds to 50 minutes.

6. In the aggressive-assault cases. the teacher was within

five feet of the assault: 13 out of 14 cases.

205

7. In the aggression-anger cases. the teacher verbally and
physically intervened within a two-minute period of when the students
began to demonstrate off-task and pacing behaviors: four out of four

observed cases.

Patterns of Aggressive-Assault Behaviors

The findings of this study indicate that there were some
patterns of behavior that co-occurred over time and events (Table l).
The conclusions presented represent a reasoned judgment based on the
findings presented in Chapter IV.

The observations of the students over an extended period of
time showed that the students had some consistency to their daily
behavior. This behavior includes how one greets a friend. sitting
positions in classrooms where seating was not designated. combing oneus
hair. and general interactions with others. Someestudents were very
talkative and boisterous. trying to gain attention from peers and
supervisors; some students were commonly quiet and withdrawn. Other
students never entered the learning center except on special occasions
when something big was going to»"go downJ' Essentially. there was some
consistency to each individual's mood. Naturally. there were days when
the students were out of sorts. perhaps depressed or anxious. and
conversely when one was extremely happy. This mood consistency of an
individual's general behavior will be termed the baseline behavior
region.

When one's internal controls are functioning. individuals will

monitor external input from people and the environment and function

206

Table 1: Summary of Aggressive-Assault Behaviors

 

 

Observed x of Total z of Total
Behaviors Frequency Assaults Within Category
W:
off-task 14/14 100 100
out-of-seat 14/14 100 100
automanipulation 7/8 50 88
with hands
unstructured environ. 10/14 71 71
W:
pacing 10/12 71 83
arms by sides 7/9 50 78
standing/moving 14/14 100 100
upper body & chin 4/4 29 100
extended forward
.Assault_9£1§15: -
1-4 hits. kicks. ll/l4 79 79
chokes. etc.
4 or more hits. kicks. 3/14 21 21
chokes. etc.
physical contact 10/14 71 71
11 seconds or less
physical contact 2/14 l4 14
30 seconds or less
physical contact 2/14 14 14
31 seconds or more
39:19.13:
pacing 8/9 57 89
arms by sides 7/8 50 88
automanipulation 8/8 57 100
Needs:
off-task 5/5 36 100
in-seat 5/5 36 100
removed from area 10/14 71 71

unable to observe
entire event

 

Nate: Total number of aggressive-assaults = 14.

207

within their baseline behavior region. However. there may be times
when one expresses his feelings with aggressive-assault and aggressive-
anger actions. ‘These behaviors of conflict and crisis may be ones from
which we can learn. The term "conflict" has two definitions. The
first is one of danger. the second one of potential. How one deals
with an individual in crisis may help to determine whether the crisis
becomes one of danger or potentiaL. Thus the stages in which one
travels when demonstrating aggressive-assault behaviors will be termed
"the LEARN Crisis CycleJ' There are five stages in the LEARN Crisis
Cycle. which this writer has delineated from the research:
.Laungning_exents: The first stage of the LEARN Crisis Cycle
consists of launching events. The individual is in the first stages of
arousal. and the individual has the potential to calm down and go back
to his baseline behavior region or to become further upset. Events
that may launch an individual beyond his baseline behavior region may
include being nagged or teased. being required to perform an undesir-
able task. being late. and excess stress from the home~or school envi-
ronment. The observable behaviors that result from the student's
inability to cope with added stress include students demonstrating off-
task and out-of-seat behaviors and the students exhibiting automanipu-
lation of objects and/or self with their hands. The other factor that
continually occurred was that for some reason. whether the students
were in a classroom setting (teachers within five feet. but no direct
supervision) or whether it was a transitional period in the schedule

(moving from one class to another). the setting leading up to an

208

aggressive-assault episode was usually unstructured. and the time of
day was between 9:30 a.m. and 12:00 noon.

£3nnnd1ng_§x§nts: Once the launching behaviors have occurred.
again the individual has the potential to expand these behaviors or
return to the baseline behavior region. The expanding events include
such behaviors as pacing with one's arms down by his sides. 'The
individual is always standing and moving. and his upper body and chin
may be extended forward. There is also the possibility that orienting
responses occur during this phase. This study. due to technical
equipment. was unable to record such events. However. Darwin (1872)
described such orienting responses in his description of anger:
nostrils dilate. nostrils quiver. eyes glare. body held erect for
instant action. etc. Additionally. consistent descriptions of facial
expressions and gestures exhibited while in an agonistic and quasiagon-
istic state have been documented by Brannigan and Humphries (1976).
Blurton-Jones (1972). Grant (1969). and McGrew (1972L

.Assan1t_cn1515_gn_angen_gnlsis: The individual progresses
quickly into aggressive-assault or aggressive-anger behaviors. When the
individual demonstrates aggressive-assault behaviors. there are
typically four or fewer hits. kicks. chokes. or wrestles. The majority
of fights last less than 25 seconds. with the average length being
seven seconds. Commonly a teacher is within five feet of the individ-
uals before an aggressive-assault incident. The assault is the most
physically harmful stage in the cycle for both the aggressor and those

assaulted. It is possible for this stage to last far beyond 25

209

seconds. particularly if the intervention strategy used during the
assault is physical containment.

The anger crisis crescendo is the verbalization of distraught
feelings. The significant difference in the anger crisis cycle is the
omission of any physical altercation. ‘The teachers were present and
intervening with the individual before any possible physical encounter.

.Begygle: Once the actual physical altercation has been halted.
the individual moves into the fourth stage of recycle. The recycle
stage looks much the same as the expanding stage. ‘The individual
paces. the arms are by the sides of the individual's body. and the
individual will automanipulate objects or self with his hands. The
reason this stage is termed recycle is due to the fact that the indi-
vidual has two alternatives. The first is the potential to return to
the assault stage. This may occur if the punishment for the transgres-
sion is unjust. Zillmann (1979) has stated that "if aversive stimula-
tion is perceived as unjustified and arbitrary by the respondent. it is
likely to promote rather than suppress hostility and aggression" UL
221). The second alternative is for the individual to progress to a
calmed. quieter state of behavior.

Needs: In the needs stage the individual becomes quiet and has
no or minimal verbal interactions with others. The individual remains
seated and continues to demonstrate off-task behaviors. Essentially
the individual is in the depths of his baseline behavior region. The
individual's move from the recycle stage to the needs stage is evi-

denced by an increase of muscle relaxation which is incompatible with

210

aggressive-assault behaviors. Interventions and instructions aimed
toward changing the individual's behavior patterns are most effective
in the needs stage.

It will normally take an individual anywhere from 5 to«50
minutes to progress through the LEARN Crisis Cycle. However. the
average length of time for the pre. during. and post aggressive-assault
behaviors to be demonstrated in this study was 00:27:25. However. it
must be noted that under unUsual circumstances. considering the mental
severity of the assaultive individual and the intervention strategies
employed by the supervisors. the crisis cycle potentially could
continue for a few hours.

Finally. an unexpected pattern of behavior emerged as observa-
tions were made for aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors.
This pattern of aggressive-assault has been labeled sniper hits by this
writer. There were co-occurring behaviors that included (a) the
assailant was standing and moving before the assault. (b) the assailant
made a surprise attack. (c) the assailant hit the victim one time. (d)
the assailant fled the area quickly. (e) the incident occurred during
unstructured periods. (f) the victim was startled and pursued the
assailant. and finally. (9) the proximity of the teacher was unknown.

The goal of this study was to determine if specific behaviors
which are observable and characteristic of individuals in conflict
exist and to determine the existence of specific behavior groups or
types which are demonstrated in a developmental sequence. It may be

concluded. based on the findings. that there are some patterns of

211

behavior that co-occur over time and event for aggressive-assault
behaviors. aggressive-anger behaviors. and sniper hits. The conclu-
sions drawn by the investigator have implications for teachers and

administrators.

Discussion

There are two major issues that warrant comment. The first is
the ratio of aggressive-assault to aggressive-anger behaviors. and the
second is the issue of supervisors touching individuals while the
individual is demonstrating aggressive-assault or aggressive-anger
behaviors. -

Logically. one might assume that the rate of occurrence would
be greater for the demonstration of aggressive-anger behaviors than of
aggressive-assault behaviors. The fact that there was a 45:1 ratio of
aggressive-assault and sniper hits to aggressive-anger case studies may
be a consequence of the population observed. a deficit in language
skills. inappropriate role models. and/or peer pressure. Critically.
the students' interaction skills and ability to cope with crisis
situations eventuated with physical rather than verbal confrontation
solutions. The necessity to teach students how to appropriately
express their feelings and concerns appears to be as essential to onens
survival as reading and math. The results of the deficiency are at
times life threatening.

Repeatedly the students requested teachers and staff to "not
touch them)‘ There are two obvious reasons for this request. The

first is that the student is trying to control the situation. and this

212

is one manner in which to accomplish this task. The other truly is
that the student does not want to be touched. The indicators used to
determine if the behavior was assaultive or quasiagonistic included the
victflnfls nonwilling participation. some physical altercations between
two individuals. and the intensity of the incident as perceived by the
victim. which was demonstrated by a change in the victinfls behaviors
that could be observed by others. ‘This criterion was determined based
on the numerous cases in which the students physically interacted with
each other in a playful manner.

Bandura's (1973) definition of assault states that the injury
to another individual may be psychological as well as physical. If. in
fact. part of the definition for aggression-assault should include the
recipient's perception of the incident. then there are major implica-
tions for teachers. For instance. in 10 out of 14 cases. teachers were
physically involved with the students. The physical contact ranged
from just a touch on an individual's shoulder or back to physical
restraint. If assault is dependent on how one perceives the touch. a
teacher who approaches a potentially dangerous situation and whose
first response in trying to control that situation is to touch the
angry student. the touch may in fact be perceived by the student as
assaultive. One example of this may be Case Study 14. 15 approached
Dan from behind and at Dan's left side. While speaking to Dan. 15 put
his right hand on Dan's right shoulder. Dan knocked 15's hand off his
shoulder and walked away. Dan may have perceived that touch/grasp on

the back of his shoulder as assaultive. Within five seconds. Dan

213

assaulted another student. The question is whether Dan actually had
been assaulted first. Before the touch. Dan had been demonstrating
behaviors that are common in the expanding stage. The alternatives
available to Dan at the time were to calm down or expand his behaviors
further. The touch from the teacher may have been the reason for Banks

subsequent assaultive behavior.

ImpJJcations

Based on the review of the literature and the analyses of the
observations. the findings of this study have major implications for
two areas in education. The first involves the area of teacher
training programs. The second. a branch of the first. involves the
implications for teacher-intervention techniques used when students are

demonstrating aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors.

Teacher Training Programs

The information regarding aggressive-assault and aggressive-
anger behaviors may be used to augment teacher training and inservice
programs. There are five ways listed in which the information from
this study may be of value to the field of education.

1. The identification of particular behaviors exhibited by the
student before. during. and after an aggressive-assault incident will
enable teachers. administrators. and parents to develop effective
behavior management plans that will provide options of intervention

techniques for each aspect of the LEARN Crisis Cycle.

214

Z. The identification of particular precursor behaviors will
enable a teacher to maximize her/his resources and deal with disruptive
situations from a proactive position rather than a reactionary one.

3. The ability to redirect behaviors may reduce the possibil-
ity of injury for both the teacher and the student.

4. Many of the students in this study severely lacked socially
appropriate modes to deal effectively with their feelings. The knowl-
edge about aggressive—assault and aggressive-anger behaviors can be
used for informationallinstructional purposes with the students as a
means to brainstorm about alternative behaviors and choices the student
has in his repertoire for dealing with conflict.

5. In 13 out of 14 aggressive-assault case studies. the
students fought within five feet of the teacher. One might consider
the possibility that students fight near teachers. trusting that the

fight will be halted.

Intervention Techniques

There are four ways in which the information from this study
will affect how a teacher intervenes with a student who is demonstrat-
ing aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors.

1. One point of thought is that the responses we make in
interactions with others depend on learned behavior. If this is the
case. the touching and physical containment of students while they are
demonstrating aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger behaviors may be

modeling to the students the very behavior we are trying to modify.

215

2. Muscle relaxation is incompatible with physical assault.
Additionally. if the aversive is viewed as oppressive by the assailant.
it is likely to aggravate the aggressive-assault behaviors (Zillmann.
1979L In this study when a student was physically contained. the
containment was terminated before the student demonstrating muscle
relaxation. In five out of seven physical containments. the student
fought again within a period of 5 to 30 minutes.

3. Most teacher/student verbal interventions or counseling
sessions after an aggressive-assault occurred lasted less than one
minute. Six out of 14 victims were counseled after the assault. The
counseling session usually lasted less than one minute. It seems that
if the students are most vulnerable at this time (demonstrating with-
drawn behaviors such as head on desk. crying. quiet. off task. eth.
more time needs to be allotted for the critical task of teaching new
coping behaviors.

4. The students demonstrated standing and moving behaviors in
the expanding and recycle stage. During teacher/student "adjustments"
or counseling intervention sessions. the student was standing and
moving in 13 out of 14 cases. The implication is that perhaps the

students were not ready to listen to any suggestions from the teacher.

Winn:
There are two major areas of recommendations made by this
writer. The first includes the advocacy of certain intervention
techniques that will aid in effectively and efficiently dealing with

conflict in the classroom. The second includes recommendations for

216

further studies in the area of aggressive-assault and aggressive-anger

along with curriculum needs for schools.

Intervention Techniques

The interventions recommended resulted from the observations
made in this study. It is the writer's position that with the imple-
mentation of these suggestions. the probability of students and teach-
ers being injured in the classroom will be decreased. and the potential
for teacher/student interactions to be more successful in terms of
eventually providing socially appropriate alternatives to dealing with
angry feelings will be increased.

1. Upon the first demonstration of off task. out of seat. and
automanipulation with the hands. the teacher needs to take at least one
minute to talk with the student. This will allow the teacher to assess
the degree to which the student is upset and help the student to
verbally express his feelings while potentially avoiding any physical
altercations.

Z. The teacher needs to get the student to sit down both at
the onset or launching and the expanding stages of the LEARN Crisis
Cycle and during the recycle stage of the cycle. Muscle relaxation is
incompatible with assault. Once the student is seated. the teacher
will have a better chance of discussing alternatives to dealing with

angry feelings.

217

3. When approaching a student who is demonstrating aggressive-
assault and/or aggressive-anger behaviors. the teacher should not touch
the student unless it is absolutely necessary.

4. If it is deemed necessary to physically contain a student
until the student is able to maintain his own behavior. the individuals
who are containing that student should not release the student until
they can feel the student's muscles relax.

5. While physically containing a student. the person who has
the best rapport with the student at that moment should be the only
person talking to the student. When two or more supervisors start
speaking to the student at once. it can be confusing for the student.

6. A student should not be released because he requests same;
the supervisor is the person who should be setting the limits and
conditions as to when the student will be ready. In other words. when
the student is quiet and relaxed. the supervisors will release him.

7. The physical-containment techniques should allow the
student some freedom of movement as the student starts relaxing.

8. The "adjustment" or counseling session held after the
student is relaxed should be geared toward what options are available
to a person who is having angry feelings. This session should have the
student seated and should last for longer than one minute.

9. The majority of the aggressive-assault incidents occurred
during unstructured transitional periods. To provide added safety for

the students. alternatives should be developed for class movement.

218

Further Studies

1. Further study in this area with greater financial support.
sophisticated equipment. and added human resources may aid in deter—
mining more detailed patterns of behavior for aggressive-assault.
aggressive-anger. and sniper hit incidents.

Z. A comparison may be made of intervention strategies ranging
from verbal interventions to the most restrictive physical contain-
ments. Evaluations need to be made to determine if nonphysical inter-
ventions will modify aggressive-assault behaviors versus the use of
physical interventions. This study needs to include the amount of time
a teacher spends interacting with a student before. during. and after
the aggressive-assault. A follow-up may include interviewing the stu-
dent to compare the student's perception with the teacher's perception
of the incident.

3. A study could be conducted comparing the amount of time one
is physically involved with another individual and the time it takes
for the assailant to get back to baseline behavior region. This study
might seek to determine a continuum for physical restraints; i.e.. is a
light touch as threatening to an individual as a full body containment?

4. A study needs to be conducted to systematically address the
issue of social-emotional development as it relates to the responsibil-
ity of the school. Teachers need training. resources. and curricula to
aid in their dealing with the various emotional conflicts that arise

daily in a classroom.

219

5. A field study needs to be conducted observing victims. The
students who are consistently the targets for aggressors may. in fact.
set themselves up for that role. The study may provide some suggested

interventions for teachers to break the victim's pattern of behavior.

 

APPENDICES

220

m . “‘.‘a—I.

APPENDIX A

DEFINITION OF TERMS FOR BODY AND

FACIAL MOVEMENTS

221

222

A CONTRIBUTION TO A LIST OF THE UNITS OF
NON-VEIBAL BEHAVIOUR WITH DEFINITIONS

e following terms and definitions form part of the list used by the authors.
: have included those units which are most probably concerned in inter-
stitial communication. and have generally omitted units which are vocalisa-
as, or primarily ioeomotory. or which describe the various kinds of resting
finingposmregorsiahinzandswaibwingahhoushaccordinstothesociai
tationtheseiatterunitsalsoottenhavesignalvalue. Wehaveeommentedon
unitsanddefinitionspuhlishedhyothetauthorsonlywherenemssaryto
iidtheeonfusionofdifietenttei'minoloxyortociarifydefinitions.

ITS IN nia uouru seoiost
Simpie smile- Lips together but not compressed, drawn up and out at the
fimmmbthdmflemfleandwideMkdefinedhmet
'Jpper smile- The mouth corners are drawn up and out, remaining pointed,
Iipspartingtorevealsomeotthenppersetofteetnhutnotthelower.
Wmile-Similartouppermile,butthelowe'rlipispuiieddownto
ealsomeof thelower teeth. Thevoealisationsof laughter are often associated
hthksmile.buteanoccurinmostotherformsofsmilinz.
‘ngpressedauile-Asdmpleuuile.hutlipscompressedandtendinztohe

slightlyintothemouth.

smile- AnasymmetriealuniieinwhichtheiipsreinsinclosedOne
:gfthefaoeadoptsthetormseeninmourhcomdownwhiletheothet
.QdOptstheformseeninsgriuorindmplemile.
Wanmde- Loweriswnushedoutsothsttheineisorteetharedirectly
Wandmuanymconmhothupperandhwerauhdnxespmfiand
spouthoornersaiedrawnupanduittendingtoheroundednotpointed.
Iip-inanile- Similartoupperanile.withthelowerlipdnwninhetween
teethhutnothitten.
’kylace- Tumouthiswidelyopenedssinopeumuthnndthemouth
ienmdmmmeoutandunpiuducingthepointedsppearanoeehano-
aicofttttih'fheteethatemainlyorentirdyhiddenhythelips.
aria-Assimplesmile.hutinvolvingonesideofthemouthonly.
Opened.” Generalsppeannceratherasinuppermile. hutinsteadof
iIImmelyliftedtiomthemoudieorneisthetopiipisaetivelyraisedssin
Vladisdiphdyout-turnsdmteacnonesideonly.hutmayhssymmetiiesl

Cl

223

Intermediates (false smile) between symmetrical open grin and upper smile are
seen in attempts to mimic an upper smile.

I]. Mouth corners tremble - The corners of the mouth tremble laterally. Often
associated with sad crying, just prior to tears.

12. Mouth corners back - The corners of the mouth are drawn well back but
not lifted, the lips remaining together.

13. Squared mouth - Lips opened widely and drawn back to give the mouth a
rather squared appearance.

)4. Mouth corners out - As in mouth corners back. but the lips are parted.
Teeth visible but not displayed so obviously as in oblong mouth. Oblong mouth
of Grant (1969) includes both this unit and the next.

15. Oblong mouth — As in mouth corners out but the lower jaw is pushed
forwards so that the upper and lower incisors are displayed meeting in opposi-
tion. The mouth corners tend to be roundly squared. not pointed.

16. Intention bite - As oblong mouth but the lower jaw is jutted pushing the
lower set of teeth as far forward as possible and they are broadly displayed
by lowering the lip. The upper incisors are hidden by the upper lip.

17. Lip up - As sneer but a fleeting movement not held even briefly at the
extreme position.

18. Sneer - The upper lip on one or both sides is lifted, more to the side of
thecenUcthannearthemouthcornergandtheraisedpositionisheldforone
or more seconds.

)9. Bite lip - The upper or lower lip is gripped between the teeth. When the
mouth is closed this cannot be directly seen, but can be inferred from slight
jaw movements and an inward movement of part of a lip. Equivalent to chew
lips (McGrew, Ch. 5).

20. Tight lips - The lips are pressed tightly together but are not appreciably
turned into the mouth and the distance between the mouth corners is not
appreciably shortened. This definition is more specific than that used by Grant
(1969) which does not difi'erentiate lips in.

21. Lip: in - The lips are pressed together and turned into the mouth.

22. Lower lip out - The lower lip is pushed up over the upper then curled
forward and out.

23. Point — Both lips are protruded and though held together are full. not
compressed. There is less movement of the mouth corners towards the centre
than in purse.

24. Purse- The mouth corners are pulled in towards the centre, and the lips
tightly compressed and pushed forwards.

25. Small mouth- The mouth corners move in towards the centre but without
noticeable compression or protrusion of the lips.

26. 1' wirt mouth - An asymmetrical unit in which the lips are pressed together
and slightly protruded centrally, one corner of the mouth being brought in
towards the mid-line, the other comer being drawn back.

27. Lips forward - The lips are patted. mainly in the centre, and protruded.
Thecornersofthemouth tendtobepointedandarenotsquaredandsome-
times move a little towards the mid-line.

28. Open mouth - The mouth is opened widely. but the teeth are not shown.
except occasionally the tips. The mouth corners are not drawn back and up
asinasmile,butremainintheneutralposition.

.29. Spit - Action of spitting.

30. Kiss-Thelipsaremoved forwardsandtouchmartofthesameoranother
person (specify).

221+

31. [mention speak - The mouth suddenly opens in a context where speech
might be expected. but no words issue.

32. Chew - Variable chewing movements of the jaws. Not always associated
with material in the mouth.

33. Tongue between lips - Just the tip of the tongue protrudes between, and
is ripped bit. the lips.

34. Tongue out - The tongue is well protruded beyond the lips. This includes
sticking out the tongue at another person. and the protrusion of the tongue
sometimes seen during ‘eacited play ' or during ‘delighted surprise ‘. .

33. Lick - The tongue moves forward and its tip briefly touches the parted lips.
36. Mouth corners down - The corners of the mouth are drawn down, the lips
donotpout forwardandareusuallyclosedbutoccasionally maybeslightly

apart.
37. Seowl. - A unit combining mouth corners down and lower lip out. the chin
usually acquiring a crumpled appearance.

38. Lower lip tremble - Up and down trembling movement of the lower lip,
which may occur during lower lip out. xowl or mouth corners out.

39. Yawn - The mouth opens widely, roundly and fairly slowly, closing more
swiftly. A swelling of the throat is usually visible. accompanied by a deep
breath and often closing of the eyes and lowering of the brows.

40. Basic mouth - Lips in a resting position. This varies from individual to
individualsndthelipsmayormaynotbeparted.

uut'rs invasvmo rite nvsaaows
4i. Raise - One or both eyebrows are raised and are held. at least briefly, in the
raised position. They are not drawn in towards the mid-line and are not tilted.
42. Flash - A swift raising of the eyebrows which is not held, the brows return-
ing immediately to the neutral position.

43. Angry frown - The eyebrows are lowered mainly in the midline towards
the nose, tending to draw together. Puzzled frown, distinguished by Grant
(l969)isa lessintensefoapofangryfrowninwhichtheloweringofthebrows
is minimal.

44. Sad frown - The inner ends of the eyebrows have kinked and slightly lifted
and the outer ends are lowered.

45. Sad raise - The eyebrows are raised sloping as in sad frown.

46. Lowlrown-‘l‘heeyebrowsaredrawnlowagainsttheuppereyelidsand
showneleartiltingoutwardsorinwards.

The individual's eyebrows in their usual resting position are termed neutral.
This position may vary somewhat from person to person.

units ittvoumto rite nvsttns sun are sunouuoiatos
47.8hut-Theeyclidscloseandremainshutforaboutasecondor-longer,
before openingagamananormalblinkthereisno noticeablepauseinthe
closed position.) Equivalent to eyes closed (Grant, 1969).
48.8an-Abmuofmpidblinking.(8ingle,isohtedbhnksuenotincluded.)
49. Narrow eye: - Both upper and lower eyelids draw partly together, narrow-
mtheamofeyebanvisihkmeyeregionappeantensc.1'histmitmayor
maynotbeheldinthenarrowedpositionforseveralseeonds.’
50.Dump-Theuppereydidfalhsothattheeyebaflisslmoshbutnotquite.
coveredThehwerliddounotmoveandtheeyeregionappeaisrelaxed.

51. Wink-Asahutbutforoneeyemily.theothereye usuallylookingst
anotherpsrson.

225

52. Stare - The eyelids are held wide open. exposing a great“ "a of eyeball
than in the usual open position. This unit is equivalent to that termed eye:
open (Grant. 1969) and is not the same as his unit store.

53. Widen - As store. but the widening of the eyes is momenmy, fight“ to
stare rather as flash relates to raise.

54. Pouch - A small area of skin immediately beneath each eye swells. The
swelling is not coincident with ‘ tiredness pouches '. being above the“, and
cannot be properly produced by merely screwing up the face.

55. Tears - Excess moisture in the eyes.

56. Open-Theusualpositionofthelidswhentheeyesareopen.

usu'rs or oaze Diaecrioat

Thesedcfinitions depend primarilyontheeye movementsofgaudirectionand
on the subject of gaze. not onhead movement.

57. Look at - Gaze directed at another person. Specify the part. e.g. look at
the face. the body, the legs.

58. Look away - Gaze directed away from the other person.

59. Look down - Gaze directed at own person. This definition is difierent from
that given by Grant (1969).

60. Look up - The gaze is suddenly directed upwards, then usually more slowly
returns to a level or downward direction. The suddenness of the unit makes it
quite distinct from look away in an upward direction.

61. Look around - The gas continually wanders. but otherwise as look away.

anni'riomu. FACIAL umrs

6.2. Grimttce - The eyes are partially or completely closed. with the skin on the
bridge of the nose and around the eyes wrinkled. The corners of the mouth are
drawn out and slightly down. the lips parting to reveal the upper set of teeth.
May be more exaggerated on one side of the face.

63. Screwface - The skin on the bridge of the nose is wrinkled by an upward
movementoftheskinimmediatelytothesidesofthenoseandbyaslight
downward movement of the brows. The eyes are partially closed. with wrink-
ling beneath them. The upper lip lifts and may partly expose the upper teeth
but this movement is achieved in a difierent way to that of sneer. Probably
equivalent to wrinkle (Grant. 1968) and packer lace (McGrew. Oi. 5).

64. Flare - Widening of the nostrils. .

65. Twitch - A tic-like twitching in the upper cheek region.

66. Sweat - Beads of sweat appear on the skin.

67. Facial reddening - A reddening of the facial skin from its normal colour.
68. Blanch - A paling of the facial skin from its normal colour.

69. Smooth face - The checks flatten into harder-looking planes; no special
expression ofmouthoreyesbutthereisanimpressionoftensenessofthefacial
muscles.

70. Normal face - No special expression preent but face not slack as in sleep.

urtt'rs barman av HEAD stovnstsrt‘r

71. Threat - The head jerks sharply forward, remaining level. towards the

other person. Usually accompanied by look at.

72. Head forward - The head is held in a forward position like that at the end

of threat. Not necessarily preceded by threat as the forward movement of the

head is often gradual not sudden.

~31 Chinottt-Theheadistilted.pushingthechinforwardandstretchingthe
oat.

226

74. Head to side -— The head is tilted to the side. Equivalent to head tilt (Mc-
Grew, Ch. 5).

75. Head movement - A burst of varied movements of the head. not described
by the definitions of other units.

76. Jerk- The head abruptly jerks up and to one side and may move the hair.
77. Nod- Amrmative gesture. Repetitive. rhythmic. dorso-ventral tilting of the
head. ‘

78. Shake - Negative gesture. Oscillatory partial rotation of the head on the
neck.

79. Bob - The head quickly moves once up and down. like a short inverted nod.
80.0hinin-Thechinistuckedughdyagainstthethroantheheadtilting
forward without being thrust forward.
8l.Hang-Theheadistiltedforwardfullyuntilthegazeisdirectedalmost
vertically down.

82. Head rock - An antero-posterior rocking of the head and neck. distin-
guished from nodding by its orientation. the involvement of the neck and its
slower rhythm.

83. Evade - A sharp head. or head and shoulder. movement away from the
other person.

84. Level-Headinalevekneutralposiu'on.

UNITS roaster: av run HANDS AND arms
85. Shrug - A fairly sudden raising of both shoulders.

86. Sit on hands - Sitting on the fingers of one or both hands.

The following five units are each to be qualified by the object and person of their
activity. e.g. scratch arm self or pick jacket interviewer.

87. Scratch - The finger nails are used to scrape, usually repetitively. at skin.
hair or clothes.

88. Caress - Stroking movements made mainly by the finger pads - not the

eauemeupsandnaik-sgamsttheskimhsirordothesfihemteofrepeudon.

is slower than in scratch and rub.

89. Rub- Similartoxratchbutthenailaaienotused. Almostanypartof
thehandorfimersmayheused.

90.Pick- Thethumbandforefingerareusedasif(oractually)topicksome-
thingfromtheskin.hairorclothes.
9i.Adjust-Oneorbothhandsareusedmanipulativelytoaltertheposition
ofclothingorhair.

92. Fumble - A twisting and turning movement of the fingers of each hand
withthoseoftheother.$imilarfumblingoftenoccuiswitharing.tie.hairetc.
andtheobjectoftheactivityisthenspecified.e.g.fumblering.

93. Tap-Ampefifivemythmicmovanentofthefingerstappingorjerkingin

sequence. .
94. Handflutter-Handorhandswithfingeisoutstretched,palmsfacingthe
actor. normallyinfiontoftheeyenthefingersbeingshakenrapidlybyan
oscillatingpsrtialrotationofthewristandforesrm.

95. Digit suck- FMS) or thumb' in mouth.
“.Moum-Thefingusrestsgainstthelips.butdonottouchtheteeth.
97.Cup-Thehandisbroughtupsharplyandcuppedoverthemouth.
98.Teeth-'I‘hatipsoraidesofthefingenarepressedhardagainst.butnot
between.thetseth.
maven-mundheuppedmcommeeyathepalmtumedtowards

 

227

100. Face-Thefingeraandusuallythepalmtoo.restagainsttheface(exclud-
ing the mouth). The palm is not directed towards the other person.

101. Finger face - One or more fingers are extended with their tips touching
theface.thepalmnottouchingthefaceandtendingiobeturnedtowardsthe
other person.

102. Offensive beating posture - The arm is raised with the elbow out to the
side.andthehand someinchestoonesideofthehead'l‘hehandisusually
rather to the front of the ear. with the palm foremost. fingers extended or
loosely flexed.

103. Defensive beating posture - This difiers from the offensive beating posture
in that the raised hand is close to the ear or side of the head. the fingersoften
touchingthehairorskin.Thehandtendstobefurtherbackandisnotlifted
so high. This definition differs from that given by Grant (1969).

intermediate positions between this and the preceding posture often occur. and
are referred to as beating posture.

104. Bear - The hand is brought from the beating posture position sharply into
contact with another person.

105. Incomplete beat - As bear. but delivered out of range or with minimal
movement and force. This unit is often preceded by defensive beating posture.
106. Hand on neck - The' palm of the hand is placed on the neck.

107. Arm over face - One or both arms are raised and crooked over the head.
palms facing the head.

108. Clap - The palms of both hands are brought together sharply.

109. Pound-Asharp blowbyonehandagainsttheotherimmobilehandor
against an object such as a table.

110. Push gesture - A steady but fairly rapid movement of the hands outward
from the actor. palms facing directly away from the body.

111. Demonstrate - A movement of arm. hand or fingers used to describe the
direction. shape. size or other qualities of that which is being talked about.
112. Show-Thearm.withanobjectinthehand.isexiended towardsanother
person.

113. Gesture - Variable movements of arm. hand or fingers. usually during
conversation. not covered by other gestural unit definitions. It is possible to
break demonstrate and gesture into many subunits. defined by the speed.
orientation and extent of the movements.

114. Flat gesture -— The hand is opened fiat. palm facing the ground. then
movedsharplyashondistancediagonanyforwardandsidewaysparallelmthe
ground. The elbow points to the side.

"5. Palms up- The hands are held to the front of the body then the wrists are
.rotatedtobringthepalmsuppermosLSometimesaccompaniesshrug.

116. Akimbo- Hand on hip. the bent elbow pointing laterally away from the
body

117. Fold- Forearms incontactwitheschotheralong theirwholelength. held
horizontally across the chest.

[18. Fist - One hand grips itself. the fingers curled tightly into the palm.
H9. Llak-‘lhetwohandsclaspeachotherwithoutgrestforce.

120. Grasp- The two handsclaspeaehotherverytightly;whiteorredmarks
may be visible on the skin.

{ilk Haidrbehindbock- Thehandsareplacedbehindtheback. usuallywith
122. Hold - One or both hands grip some object (specified).

123. Punch-Hand ssinfist.armextcndedsharplytodelivera blow.

 

228

[.14 Touch- Hand lightly placed on object or person (specify).
-[25.Single- -Thehandsareseparate.immobileandnotcoveredbythedefini
noaofanyotherunit.

towns Lists ttiti'rs
Therearemanyunitsdefinedbymovenientsoftheiowerlimbs.siichasthe
various kinds of locomotion. sitting and standing. However the lower limbs
become particularly expressive when the individual is seated in a chair and they
are freed from locomotory requirements. The following are some of the com-
mon units to be seen in a seated

126. Cross legs- Legserossedat kneeieveiorsnklelevei.

127. Shufl'le- irregular movements of the foot against the floor.

Also seen when standing.

128. Tapfoor—Afairiyregulartappingofthesoieofthefootagainstthe
floor.

129. Leg tremor - A rapid trembling of the whole leg particularly noticeable
atmekneethefoottappingagainstthefloormuchfasterthanintapfoot.
130. Foot - Movement of the foot. when free of the floor. irregularly around
the ankle joint.

13!. Footrock-Areguiarupanddown movementofthefootwhenfreeof
the floor.

I32. Circle - A circling motion of the foot around the ankle joint, often involv-
ing the whole Met leg in movement

133. Swing-Atonndfroswingingofacrossedieg.0thertmitswhosenames
are self explanatory are feet back. feet forward. feet apart. feet together. knees
together. knees apart.

'rattitxurtr'rs
Mauyoftheunitswhichfaiiimderthisheadingareselfexplanatoryandwe
shall not define them here (see Grant, 1969); they include. lean forward. lean
back. the variable movements seen in getting comfortable (settle). the to—fro
rockandside rock movernentsseenparticularlyinpsychoties.andotherunits.
luthethreeunitsdeflnedbeiowtheu'unkisinvoivedasonecomponentofa
compieaposture.
'34.Slope; Acompositeunitofchinin. kanbacbandhandsbehindback.
linkinfr tofthewaist.
andthebodyishentforwardsothatthe
shouklersaredrawnforward.andthechin
armsmsycoverthehesd.

6. Hmh-Wbflmdininandmmwhiehtheshouiden
gredrswnforwardandthebackisrounded.

 

229

The checklist

The behaviour patterns described in the following pages comprise the majority
of the units at present being used in this department in an application ofethologieal
methods to the study of human behaviour. A number of situations are being, or
have been observed. These are: interviews between individual psychiatric patients
and doctors. group meetings of patients and doctors, free acting groups of patients,
groups of normal adults, and free playing normal nursery school children. This last
group provided the majority of illustrations for this article.

A preliminary sequence analysis (Grant 1968) indicated that the relationships
between the behaviour patterns were the same in both patient and normal groups.
and remarks relating to function and motivation are dependent on this analysis and
on a. knowledge of the situations in which the various patterns are shown.

The elements are grouped according to the part of the face or body involved.

a. Direction of gaze .
Except when the eyes are closed an individual is always looking at sombtliing.
However. for recording purposes in the social situation, the direction of gaze can
usefully be split up into the following categories. -
1. Look at. Looking at other person’s face.
a. Look away. Looking to one side of other person.
3. Look directly away. Gaze fixation on something impersonal which. during
observation, would be named, e.g. at window.
. Look down. Looking down at floor.
. Look up. Looking up at ceiling.
. Look around. The gaze wanders. there is no fixation.
. Stare. Looking at with the eyes wide open (see no. la).

‘10“.

f _~_k1... \

230

cc looking ss'an m continuous acttvsty all other expressions will be
.hmed with one or other of the gaze elements. raising the problem of the
odtfying effect of one element on another (see discussion).

b. Eyelid:

8. Eyes closed. The eyelids close and stop in closed position for an appreciable
time (see plate rib). This should be contrasted with ‘Blink’ where there is
no appreciable stop. ' '

9. Blink. A burst of blinking. The normal level of single blinks is not recorded.
Blink occurs in two distinct parts of the behaviour sequence; associated
with crying, where it may well be functional in clearing tears from eyes,
and associated with 'Look away’ as part of incipient flight. -

to. Narrow eyes. Eyelids partly closed. Usually associated with ‘Look at’.

it. Wink. As in normal usage. Like one or two other elements, e.g. nod and
shake, this has a deliberate, culturally determined meaning and is what
might be called a speech equivalent.

is. Eyes open: Eyelids wide open. When combined with “Look at’ (no. i) is
recorded as 'Stare' (no. 7).

t 3. Pouch. Swelling of loose skin under eye. This element in common with
one or two others, e.g. flush. sweat, is presumably under autonomic
control. -

14. Tears. Actual moisture in eyes.

c. Eyebrows and/orchard

t5. Flash. A quick raising and lowering of eyebrows.

i6. Eyebrot’vs raised. The eyebrows are raised and stop in the raised position
for an appreciable time (see plate ton).

These two elements are very similar in use. They seem to have an at-
tractive function, drawing the attention of the other person to the face.
They are concerned with regulation and timing of speech.

17. Aggressive frown. The eyebrows are drawn together and drawn down
in the centre. This is the commonest expression in the aggressive situation
(see plates 7a, 9b). -

ill. Puzzled frown. The eyebrows are drawn together, less strongly than in
'men’ (no. 17). and they remain flat. .

19. Sad frown. The brow is wrinkled horizontally by the scalp being drawn
forward. The eyebrow tilts down at the outside corner.

The frowns, especially sad and puzzled, can be associated with ' Eyebrows
raiscd’, drawing attention to the individual (see plate rob).

Mouth, lips and tongue
Of the two major areas of expression in the face, the upper and lower halves, the
lower, with the extreme mobility built into the lips and month. has the greatest

number of expressive positions. .
The following list of mouth movements is partly arranged in order to indicate .

the major groups of expressive movements.

23l

a. Smiles

so. Simple smile. The lips are drawn slightly back and up and are closed

late in).

at. (\glide smile. Similar to Simple smile’ but the lip corners drawn fully back.

’as. Grin. Similar to ’Widc smile’. but involving only half of the mouth.
’Siniple smile’ and ’Wide sinile’ may be two ends of a continuum.
’Simple smile’. however. is usually seen when the child is alone. whereas
’Wide smile’ is shown to another person.

33. Upper smile. A smile showing the top teeth (plate tb). This is the com-
monest social smile. It is used in greeting situations.

24. Lip in smile. A variation of‘ Upper smile’ occurs when the lower lip as
well as covering the lower teeth is drawn in between the teeth. This may
well be a combination of’ Upper sniile’ (no. 23) and ’Bite lip’ (no. 43).

35. Broad smile. The lips are drawn up and back and both upper and lower
teeth are shown (plate so). Seenduring excitement. fast chasing play. etc.

26. Open grin. Related to ’Broad smile’ as ’Grin’ is to ’Simple smile’. Half
of the month only is involved.

27. Oblong smile. Similar to ’Broad smilc’ except that lower jaw is pushed
forward slightly so that teeth are directly Opposed. The corners of the
mouth round slightly. This unit is shown when some agonisin is present
along with the pleasurable excitement.

W

The next group of elements is associated with fleeing from or being submissive
to another individual.

38. Month corners back. The corners of the month are drawn well back but
not lifted. The lips are together.

39. Oblong month. Similar to ’Mouth corners back except that the lips are
apart showing the upper and lower teeth (plate 30).

As well as differing in the opening of the mouth these elements differ in
the length of time during which they are displayed. ’Mouth corners back’
is a brief movement. 'Oblong mouth’ may be_ shown for some con-
siderable period of time. However. the situations in which they occur are
very similar.

30. Lick lips. The tip of the tongue is passed over the lips.

31. Swallow. Although nor actually an expression this can be easily recognised
and recorded. It is placed here because. together with ’Lick lips’. it associates
well with flight and submission.

Both elements may well be responses to autonomic stimulation and
drying of the mouth.

32. Mouth comers down. The lips are closed and the corners of the month
are drawn down (see plate 1 in). This element is frequently associated with
‘Sad frown’ (no. 19) as in the typical sad face of the cartoonist.

33. Lower lip out. The lower lip is pushed up over the upper then curlttl
forward and out.

34. Lower lip tremble. A variation of‘ Lower lip out’ in which the lip treinbles.

232

spa in. The lips pressed together and then drawn betwoen the teeth. This

element often indicates-that crying is very close and it can be seen as an
attempt to stop crying.

Aggressive elements
The next group of elements is associated with aggressive activity.

36.

37-

38.

i 39.

40.

Lips forward. The lips are apart and pushed forward. The mouth is open
to some extent (see plate 76). This unit is frequently associated with ‘ Look
at’ and ’Aggressive frown’ and forms part of the full aggressive display.
Small mouth. The corners of the mouth are drawn in towards the centre
so that the mouth appears small (plate do). There is little or no pushing
forward of the lips as there is in ‘Purse’ (no. 42). '

Tight lips. The lips are pressed tightly together.

The last two elements are very closely associated with actual hitting
in the children, as opposed to the ‘Aggressive frown’ (no. i7) and ‘Lips
forward’ (no. 36) which more commonly occur simply as displays.
Intention bite. The lower jaw is pushed forward and the lower lip dropped
to expose the lower teeth (plate ob). This element is associated with aggres-
sive activity and has been observed to lead directly to biting the other
child. There seems little doubt that it is an intention movement of this bite.
Sneer. T he centre of the upper lip is drawn tip to expose the teeth. Quite
often this unit is one-sided, only one half of the lip being drawn tip (see
plate so). This drawing tip of the lip results in the wrinkling on the bridge
of the nose. _cf. ‘Wrinkle’ (no. st).

We have distinguished a very abbreviated form of this element as ‘Lip
up’, where the lip is raised and dropped immediately. ’Sneer’ lasts an
appreciable time. say a second or longer. The situations. however, remain
the same and there is probably no real difference.

Other month elements

4'.

.15.
46.

47.

Twist mouth. The lips are pressed together. pushed out iii the centre. then
twisted to one side. Cf. ‘Purse‘ (below). In a preliminary analysis this

element was shown to indicate an ambivalent situation between approach
and avoidance.

. Purse. The lips are pressed together. then pushed out in the centre. This is

similar in appearance to ‘Twist mouth’ without the final twist. The in-
dications are that it is again an ambivalent response.

. Bite lip. One or other. usually the lower. lip is held between the teeth

(see plate ab).

. Open mouth. The lower jaw drops and the mouth hangs open. This

element is most commonly seen in the children when they are watching
something exciting or unusual.

Tongue. The tip of the tongue shows between the lips.

Tongue out. The well known pattern of sticking the tongue out at another
person.

Yawn. The month is stretched wide open and a deep breath taken.

233

Although a distinctive sound is made the facial expression is probably
the most noticeable aspect of this element.

The head and full face

aulggressive elements

48. Head forward. The head is brought forward towards the other person.
This is a distinctly slower movement than is seen iii the following element
Threat and the position is likely to be held for some considerable time.

49. Threat. A sharp movement of the head towards the other person.

:0. Chin out. The chin is pushed forward. tilting the head back and stretching
the neck (see plates 7a. 7b).

51. Wrinkle. The skin on the bridge of the nose is wrinkled by much the same
movement as ’ Sneer’. However. the teeth are not exposed. The lips usually
remain together and there is no rolling out of the top lip (see plate 9a).

b. Flight elements

52. Evade. A sharp head or head and shoulder movement away from the ether
person (plate 3b). Notice the similarity to the equivalent aggressive move-
ment ‘Threat’ (no. 49).

53. Chin in. The chin is tucked strongly into the chest (plates 55. 9b). This is
one of the commonest submissive elements in human behaviour. The most
typical situation for its occurrence is the child approaching a dominant
adult.

c. Speech equivalents

Two head movements are used in place of speech during ordinary conversation.
They are:
54. Nod. the ‘Yes’ movement.
55. Shake. the ‘No’ movement.

d. Control movements

Several head movements are used apparently to attract the attention of the other
person and are associated with the control of the flow of speech. ‘Flash’ (no. t5)
and ‘Eyebrows raised’ (no. to) act in the same way and are frequently associated
with the following elements.

36. Head to side. The head“ is tilted to one or other side (plate ion).

57. Bob. A quick upward movement of the head rather like an inverted nod.

58. Jerk. A quick upward and sideways movement of the head similar to the
movement when hair is jerked out of the eyes.

The previous three elements are specific motor patterns easily recognised and
used in the situation described. However. many small jerky movements of the

head appearto be used in this way and a blanket term is used to cover these. This n:

59. Head movement. Burst of variable head movement not Otherwise

described.

23¢.

e. Other Hail-us
60. Head rock. The to and &o body rocking movement (no. too) is occasionally
reduced to, this head movement.

6!. Twitch. Spasmodic, tie-like muscle movement in the face.
62. Smooth face. The face is expressionless but it is possible to see that there is
quite high muscle tone. This element is frequently associated with 'Still’

(no. sea) and acts in the same way in the behaviour. that is, it reduces the
flow of information.

"and and arm movements

Because of the range of mobility in the hand and arm this section could be much
further sub-divided than will be done here and it will be seen that several elements
cover a wide variety of movements. However. it is hoped that the main social
signals have been isolated.

a. Gestures . .

63. Gesture. Free hand and arm movements, other than the three elements
below associated with talking.

64. Demonstrate. A gesture with a definite meaning. e.g. ’The box was so
big’ demonstrated by hand movement.

65. Push gesture. A gesture in which the palm of the hand is turned away
from the person showing the gesture, and the elbow is then straightened as
though pushing something away. .

66. Flat gesture. A gesture in which the hand is fully open with the palm

facing the ground and then moved away from the body parallel to the
ground.

b. Aggressive andfli‘ght elements
67. Beat. A blow from the open or closed hand. The elbow is bent and the

movement is from the elbow. There are two variations:

a. Olfensive beat. The blow is downward with the elbow held out to the
side (plate 85).
b. Defensive beat: The elbow is forward, the fore-arm is dropped and the

movement of the hand is upwards.
Both variations are frequently seen as postures. That is:

68a. Offensive beating posture. The hand is raised with the elbow out to the
side (plate 8n). ,
68b. Defensive beating posture. The elbow is brought round towards the front
of the face and the fore-anus drops down from it. ‘
These may be shown at considerable distance from the other person.
69. Hand on neck. The palm of the hand is placed on the back of the neck.
Frequently a considerable pull is exerted. This is typically an adult pattern
which may be related to the ’Beating postures’. During observation of
psychotherapeutic groups it was frequently shown by individuals who
shortly afterwards expressed verbal aggression.
70. Arm over face. This may be seen as an extension of the ’Defensive beating

‘7].

235

posture ’and again is a defensive posture. The elbow is brought fully for-
ward and completely covers the face.

Arm over head. The arm goes right over the head, sometimes near to the
back of the neck. Again similar to ’Arm over face’ and again probably an
extension. This element' is often associated with Crouch’ (no. 93).

c. Hand omljnre elements

72.

73-

74-
75-
76.

Hand to face. This is a blanket term covering any occurrence of the hand
placed on the face other than the specific elements described below.
Pinch nose. The bridge of the nose is grasped between the thumb and fore-
finger.

Finger in mouth. A finger is put into the mouth (plate ttb).

Finger on teeth. One finger is pressed against the front of the teeth.
Lean on hand. The face ts cupped in the palm of the hand. Frequently lllt
elbow ts leaning on the desk top.

The hands are used in order to cover one or other of the various func-
tional organs located on the face and head. In the social situation that we
are describing the most common of these are:

. Cover eyes. The hand covers the eyes.
. Hand on mouth. The hand covers the mouth.

These elements occur in the behaviour at points where a break in informa-
tion How might be expected or desired. it is interesting that ’Cover eyes’ is
commonly used tit situations where it would appear that the individual
wishes to cut out verbal information, while the much less common act of
putting the hands over the ears seems to be reserved for actual noise.

d. Grooming elements

A number of hand movements concerned with self-grooming have been ob-
served in the social situation. These are recorded iii five main sub-divisions:

79.
8o.

81.
82.

in.

Carin. A gentle smoothing action using the fingers or the palm of the
ban .

Rub. A harder. tuore concentrated action than 'Caress’ itsing the tips of the
fingers or the knuckles.

Scratch. Even more concentrated and generally using the nails.

Pick. An action as though. or actually. picking something off the surfin-
using the thumb and forefinger. This frequently refers to clothes.

Adjust. Refers almost exclusively to clothes. An alteration to the lie or
position of the clothes.

During observation each of these elements ts generally ualiftedby the area
involved. e ..g ’Scratch leg’. ’Adjust tie’. “Rub nose’. etc. elements tn this
general class are common enough to be recorded specifically. They occur in the
behaviour pattern at times when ambivalence is strongly

84
Is
as.

Scratch head. Scratching the scalp (plate rte).
Groom head. Running the fingers backward through the hair.
Rub eyes. Rubbing the eyes with the knuckle of the hand.

236

e. Other hand or arm movements

87. Fumble. Twisting and turning something between the fingers, e.g. a
pencil, wedding ring, handkerchief, etc. This is another element closely
associated with ambivalent behaviour.

88. Fold arms. The arms are folded across the chest.

89. Hold chair. The arms of the chair or the sides of the seat of the chair are
gripped with both hands and held tightly. This h frequently associated
with flight elements.

Shoulders, body and legs

90. Shrug. Raising both shoulders. This element is frequently used as a speech
equivalent, like ’Nod’ and ‘ Shake’, and does not analyse out into a specific
part of the behaviour pattern.

9!. Shoulders forward. The shoulders are brought forward. Occasionally the
body is also turned slightly so that one of the rounded shoulders is presented
to the other person. '

92. l-lunch. The chin is tucked in, the shoulders brought forward and the back
is rounded.

93. Crouch. The body is bent right forward so that the forehead is near the

knees. The shoulders are drawn forward and occasionally the arms are over
the head.

The previous three elements are closely associated and are all parts of flight
behaviour. It may be that there is a complete continuttm here from ’Chin in’ (no.
5 3) to ’Crouch’, but in fact it is observationally easy to distinguish the four ele-
nicnts described.

"Ilse fact that the greater part of the observations recorded here is of adults
sitting in a chair leads to the need for distinguishing the next five elements.

94. Lean forward. Leaning forward from the hips towards the other person.

9 5. Lean back. Leaning back against the back of the chair.

96. Settle. Whole body movements, frequently including legs and arms, as
the person makes himself ’more comfortable’ in the chair.

97. Relax. The body musculature relaxes and there is slumping in the chair.

98. Up, down. The person raises himself partly of? the chair and then sits down
again. This is an intention movement of getting tip off the chair, and may be
associated with any behaviour necessitating this, e.g. ready to leave table
after lunch but waiting for others to finish. In the interview situation in
which the original analysis was done it associated largely with flight be-
haviour and on occasions led to actually getting up and running out of the
room.

99. Rock. A to-fro rocking movement of the body, cf. ’Head rock’ (no. 60).

too. Side’ rock. A rhythmic side to side rocking of the body.

The previous two elements were most frequently recorded in chronic
schizophrenics. However, they are reasonably common in children and
have occasionally been recorded in the nonschronie adult. They are shown
most frequently in ambivalent situations.

237

nor. Still. A cessation of all movement, a fieezing. Associated with‘ Smooth
face’ (no. 62).
102. Cross legs. One leg crossed over the other.
io3. Swing leg. In association with ‘cross legs’ the leg hanging free is swung
- rhythmically. This element is similar in some ways to ‘ Rock’ (no. 99) in its
position in the behaviour pattern. Like ‘Rock’ it is a common stereotype of
chronic schizophrenics and also like ‘ Rock’ it can be observed in ambivalent

situations.
Ambulatory movements

Ambulation, to a much larger degree than the rest of the elements described
here, is not easily described in patterns of muscle movement. Direction rather than
motor pattern is the most important aspect from the social behaviour poittt of
view, for example, a child may approach another by walking, by riding ltis
tricycle or by pushing a scooter. The following divisions have been found useful
but much more could be done.

104. Approach. Movement towards other person.

105. Leave. Undirected movement away from other person.

106. Retreat. Directed movement away from other

The distinction between ‘Leave’ and ‘Retreat’ is dificult to describe
although easy to pick up during observation. One could say that ‘Leave’
is an action while ‘Retreat’ is a reaction to the Other person.

107. Flee. Running away from Other person.

r08. Chase. Running after fleeing person.

:09. Follow. Following a leaving or retreating individual.

Vocalisations

Sophisticated techniques are available for describing and analysing non-verbal
vocalisation. These have not been applied in the studies described here. The
following list are of major categories easily distinguished by car.

no. Laugh. The sound of laughter. An explosive staccato expulsion of breath.

' This noise can be superimposed on any of the ‘smiles’ and also occasionally
with no smile present. Its behavioural meaning appears to be determined
by the facial expression associated with it.

in. Shout. This term is used to cover the short loud verbalisation, e. g, Hil,
Toml, Get out!

:13. Squeal. Short, high pitched, usually notverbalised. Essentially a juvenile
sound, common during exciting games.

113. Sob. Noisy breathing associated with crying.

114. Snifl'. A short sharp inhalation through the nose. Can be used as a verbal
equivalent, ‘that is beneath me’, but is again most commonly associated
with urine-

ns. Sigh. A deep inhalation and exhalation ofbreath.

Autonomic responsa

Three responses that are under autonomic control are distinctive enough
possiblytoactassocialsignals.Thefollowingarerecorded.

APPENDlX B

DIAGRAM OF THE LEARNING CENTER

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