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I, ’51 it?“ “3‘19: 3 llNlWillHHIIHIIHWINIWIIIIIUIWIUIHIUIIHHM 1293 01018 9409 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP STYLE BETWEEN ENGLISH-SPEAKING AND JAPANESE TRANSNATIONAL ADVERTISING AGENCIES OPERATING IN THAILAND presented by Vittratorn Chirapravati has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY degree in MASS KNEDIA flqu gj/{WQ of v Major professor Date OCTOBER 4, 1993 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES rotum on or before date duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE :16 3 {at i i 19??? 49' W ‘ 3,}; 7T . $11.8“ AUGIOZOUZ 073102 LR MSU EM?” A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP STYLE BETWEEN ENGLISH-SPEAKING AND JAPANESE TRANSNATIONAL ADVERTISING AGENCIES OPERATING IN THAILAND By Vittratorn Chirapravati A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Communication Arts and Sciences - Mass Media 1993 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP STYLE BETWEEN ENGLISH-SPEAKING AND JAPANESE TRANSNATIONAL ADVERTISING AGENCIES OPERATING IN THAILAND BY Vittratorn Chirapravati The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between cultural variables and managerial practices in English- speaking and Japanese transnational advertising agencies (TNAAs) operating in Thailand. Since English-speaking and Japanese cultures differ substantially, it is expected that their managerial practices and policies in Thailand will differ also. Top expatriates from both English-speaking and Japanese TNAAs operating in Thailand, were interviewed to learn about their leadership styles. In addition, Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese agencies were studied to learn how they perceived their bosses' leadership styles and to examine their satisfaction with their bosses' leadership styles. It appears from the findings that (1) there are considerable similarities rather than differences between English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates; (2) both English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates are perceived to be more similar than different on their leadership styles—-a tendency to practice a democratic-participative leadership style; and (3) Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs seem. much more satisfied ‘with their English-speaking expatriates than do those working with Japanese executives. ACKMMMJKEHENTS This dissertation could not have been written without the help of many people. I would especially like to thank Professor Gordon B. Miracle for instructing and advising me from the start. I would like to thank Professors Mary Bresnahan, S. Tamer Cavusgil and Joseph Straubhaar for their very helpful service on my committee. I must also thank Kartik Pashupati and Regan Kania for editing my dissertation, Hairong Li, for helping me with my computer analysis, and Kazumi Hasegawa, who did translations from English into Japanese. I would especially like to thank Pattaravadee Paothatat, who helped me contact all advertising agencies in Thailand. I also owe many thanks to the English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates that provided information, and their advertising agencies in Thailand, including: Leo Burnett, Lintas, McCann- Erickson, J. Walter Thompson, Ogilvy & Mather, Prakit FCB, Dai- Ichi Kikaku, Thai Hakuhodo, Chuo Senko, Meitsu, Dentsu, and Cove-Ito. I also extend thanks to the Thai employees of the above listed agencies who also provided me with useful information. In particular I would like to thank my sponsor, Chulalongkorn University, for providing me with a scholarship to further my study. I am also grateful to the Center for International Business Education and Research, directed by iv Professor Cavusgil, for travel expenses to Thailand to conduct the interviews. Most of all I would like to thank my parents, M.R. Vadhanatorn and Rojana Chirapravati, for their love and support. Finally, I want to thank my friends, Yupawadee Pattapanichchote, Orla Nithivasin and Nopporn Charnnarong, for their sincere companionship and encouragement during the course of this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION I. II. III. IV. BACKGROUND WHY THAILAND? WHY THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN? OUTLINE OF THE REMAINDER OF PROPOSAL CHAPTER 2 - Literature Review I. II. III. IV. UNIVERSALITY VERSUS CULTURAL PARTICULARITY a) Universality Advocates b) Particularity Advocates LEADERSHIP LITERATURE a) Trait Approaches to Leadership b) Behavioral Approaches to Leadership c) Contingency Theory of Leadership CRITIQUE OF LEADERSHIP THEORIES PRIOR RESEARCH RELATED TO LEADERSHIP STYLES THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR HYPOTHESES a) Power Distance b) Uncertainty Avoidance c) Individualism d) Masculinity e) Leadership Style: American Perspective vi 10 11 11 14 16 18 18 20 21 22 24 28 29 3O 31 32 34 CHAPTER 2 (cont'd) VI. f) Leadership: Japanese Perspective 9) Leadership: Thai Perspective HYPOTHESES a) Hypotheses b) How Cultural Factors Led to Hypotheses CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY I. II. III. SAMPLE a) Top Expatriates b) Thai Employees QUESTIONNAIRES a) The First Set of Questionnaires: Top Expatriates b) The Second Questionnaire: Thai Employees METHODS OF ANALYSIS CHAPTER 4 - ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION I. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION a) Top Expatriates b) Thai Employees' Perceptions on Their Bosses' Leadership Styles c) Thai Employees' Satisfaction CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSIONS I. II. CONCLUSIONS CONTRIBUTIONS vii 35 37 39 39 43 48 48 49 51 51 52 53 55 56 56 65 71 80 80 83 III. LIMITATIONS W I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Summary of Consequences of Hypotheses for Statements in Questionnaire Set One Summary of Consequences of Hypotheses for Statements in Questionnaire Set Two Cover Letters for Japanese and English- Speaking Top Expatriates Questionnaire Set One Cover Letters to Thai Employees Questionnaire Set Two REFERENCES viii 86 89 9O 92 95 101 104 112 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Total Advertising Expenditures in Thailand 6 (1986-1990) 2. Hofstede's Four Dimensions of Culture for 7 United States, Japan, and Thailand 3. Thai Trading Partners (Imports in 1989) 8 4. Thai Trading Partners (Exports in 1989) 9 5. Differentiating the Universal from the Particular 13 6. .Attribute Found Most Frequently to be 19 Characteristics of Successful Leaders 7. Items Used to Measure Leadership Styles in 25 Haire et. al's Study 8. Scores and Ranks for United States, Japan, 28 and Thailand on Hofstede's Four Cultural Dimensions 9. Selected Consequences of Power Distance for 29 Organizations 10. Selected Consequences of Uncertainty Avoidance 30 for Organizations 11. Selected Consequences of Individualism for 32 Organizations 12. Selected Consequences of Masculinity for 33 Organizations 13. Summary of Consequences of Cultural Factors 45 for Hypotheses 14. English-speaking and Japanese Transnational 50 Advertising Agencies Included in this Study 15. English-speaking Respondents, their Agencies, and 50 Nationalities 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Comparison of the Degree of Similarity between Leadership Styles for English-speaking and Japanese Top Expatriates WOrking in Thailand Comparison of the Degree of Similarity between Perceptions of Bosses' Leadership Styles for Thai Employees WOrking in English-speaking and Japanese Advertising Agencies Operating in Thailand Comparison of the Degree of Similarity between Satisfaction towards Bosses' Leadership Styles for Thai Employees WOrking in English-speaking and Japanese Advertising Agencies Operating in Thailand Age of Thai Respondents by Number and Percentage Education Level of Thai Respondents by Number and Percentage Countries of Universities from Which Thai Respondents Graduated 60 7O 72 76 76 CHAPTERI INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND In recent decades there has been an increasing number of multinational corporations and many improvements in worldwide transportation and communication. Academics and practitioners continue to recognize the importance of cross-cultural studies of organizational management. The larger number of multinational companies has resulted in an increase in the multicultural interactions between organizations, which, in turn, has led to increased cooperation between employees and employers from different cultures as well as different countries. This phenomenon has created a demand for more sophisticated strategies in international management. Not surprisingly, there are numerous cross-cultural studies on organizational management. For example: 1. studies of attitudes and values (e.g., Lauterbach, 1961; Cortis, 1962; Granick, 1962; Knox, 1964; Whitehill, 1964; Haire, 1966; and McMillan, 1965). 2. studies of motivation (e.g., McClelland, 1961; Herzberg, 1965a. and 1965b; Heller, 1966; Reitz, 1975; Steers, 1975; Negandhi, 1975; Howell, 1975; and Hofstede, 1980). 3. studies of leadership (e.g.,McGregor, 1960; Likert, 1963; Whyte, 1963; Blake, 1965; Negandhi, 1975; Hofstede, 1980; Laurent, 1983; and Ohmae, 1987). 4. studies of decision making (e.g., Campbell, 1963; Bauer, 1963; Gyllenhammer, 1977; and Hofstede, 1980). While there are many interesting issues related to organizational management to be researched, the issue of leadership was chosen in this study. It was planned to interview top expatriates from both American and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand to learn about their leadership styles. In addition, it was planned to interview Thai employees working in American and Japanese advertising agencies to learn how they perceived their bosses' leadership styles and to examine their satisfaction with their bosses' leadership styles. When actual interviews were done, however, the researcher found that not all top expatriates working for American advertising agencies operating in Thailand were American. Expatriates were also found to be of Canadian, Australian, and British decent. Additionally, two of the advertising agencies included were originally British but have evolved into TNAAs similar to other English-speaking TNAAs, that is, they operate in major English language countries, especially in the United States. It can be argued that the organizational culture of English speaking multinationals (regardless of their country of origin) was in large part developed and influenced by agency executives dominated by Americans. Moreover: "the United States, Britain, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand are all heavily influenced by the English culture, so much so that almost every cross-cultural survey places all these countries into a single "Anglo cluster" (Herbig and McCarty, 1993: 74). Thus this study groups English-speaking TNAAs into one category, and compares them with Japanese advertising TNAAs operating in Thailand. Also, the literature review on leadership style for this dissertation depends heavily on U.S. contributions. The purpose of this study is threefold. The first purpose is to investigate whether there will be significant differences between top expatriates working in English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies in Thailand in terms of leadership styles. The second purpose is to investigate whether there will be significant differences between Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies in terms of their perceptions of their bosses' leadership styles. The third purpose is to examine whether there will be significant differences between Thai employees' satisfaction with their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles. With these purposes in mind, the research questions are formulated as follows: 1) To what extent do top expatriates working in English- speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand reflect English-speaking and Japanese leadership styles, respectively? 2) To what extent do Thai employees working in English- speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand differ in their perceptions of their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles? 3) To what extent do Thai employees working in English- speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand differ in their satisfaction with their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles? WHY THAILAND? The country chosen for the purpose of this study is Thailand. Examining English-speaking and Japanese managerial styles in Thailand is particularly timely for a number of reasons. First, the country is producing a remarkable economic performance. On the average, one new factory begins operating in Thailand every day. Some 50 companies were new listings on the Securities Exchange of Thailand (SET) in 1991 (Rock, 1992). Per capita income in Thailand in 1990 rose 50% in three years (Lehner, 1991). Thailand has been described in The Wall Street Journal in September 3, 1991 as being "among the world's fastest-growing economies" and also in June 12, 1991 as being "one of the world's newest "newly industrializing" countries and creating a new and booming opportunity for foreign investors." Because of its continuous economic growth, more efforts should be put to understand how to lead and manage effectively in Thailand. Second, Thailand has experienced a steady growth in advertising expenditures. Despite world recession which was directly caused by the Gulf War or Thai domestic riots, total advertising expenditure in Thailand has risen 17.22% from 1986 to 1987; +28.09% from 1987 to 1988; +32.85% from 1988 to 1989; and +31.44% from 1989 to 1990 (Media Focus, 1991), and it continues to rise. Table 1 indicates total advertising expenditure in four major media from 1986 to 1990. According to Goldstein—(1989): ...Total ad expenditures in 1988 were up 26% on the previous year, to US $318 million. This sum puts Thailand well down on the list of the region's advertising industries in terms of size...the country's 57 million strong population and rigidly rising living standards provide all the incentive international advertising agencies need to put Thailand high on their list of priorities. Most of TNAAs in Thailand are headquartered in the united States and Japan. These agencies are direct competitors in the Thai advertising industry. Hill (1991) also says that: Some world markets are seeing advertising growth even though spending in major countries is being hit by tough economic times, according to Advertising Age's survey of advertising agencies, advertisers, and industry associations internationally. While the UK, Australia, Canada, and South Africa are hoping for 1991 spending to be flat at best, such markets as Spain and Thailand continue to grow. Because of Thailand's rapid advertising growth, there is a need for greater understanding international agencies operating in Thailand. Table 1: Total Advertising Expenditure in Thailand (1986-1990) (in million Baht) Year Ad Expenditure Growth Rate 1986 4,327.6 - 1987 5,073.0 17.22% 1988 6,497.9 28.09% 1989 8,632.6 32.85% 1990 11,346.8 31.44% Third, Thailand possesses its own unique culture which is dissimilar to both American and Japanese cultures (Runglertkrengkrai, 1987). Unlike other Southeast Asian countries, Thailand has no colonial heritage. Rock (1992) states that "Thailand is the only country in the region not to have been a colony. Recognizable signposts, a degree of shared history and culture, are just not there." Clear difference of the Thai culture from that of American and Japanese is also supported by Hofstede's four dimensions of culture (Hofstede, 1984a). Table 2 indicates American, Japanese and Thai scores on power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity dimensions. From this table, it indicates that Thailand is closer to American culture on uncertainty avoidance and masculinity and closer to Japanese culture on power distance and individualism. The fact that Thailand possesses a culture which is clearly different from United States and Japan is also supported by Hofstede's eleven country clusters (Hofstede, 1984a). Countries included in the same cluster are more similar than countries in other clusters. While Japan forms a cluster of its own, a "More Developed Asian," and the United States is in the "Anglo Cluster," Thailand is part of another cluster, "Less Developed Asian." Since Thailand is dissimilar to both the United States and Japan, it is advantageous from a research standpoint that the 'third' cultural setting should represent as closely as possible an 'independent' cultural environment (Stening, 1992). Table 2: Hofstede's Four Dimensions of Culture for the United States, Japan and Thailand Dimensions USA Japan Thailand Power Distance 40 54 64 Individualism 91 46 20 Masculinity 62 95 34 Unc.Avoidance 46 92 64 Fourth, both American and Japanese multinational companies have been major investors in and trading partners with Thailand. As a result, American and Japanese advertising agencies are encouraged to enter into this country in order to serve their accounts, often on a worldwide basis. For example, Hakuhodo, Japan's second biggest agency set up a subsidiary to service electronics makers NBC and Matsushita in 1988 (Goldstein, 1989). Thus, it is worthwhile for international researchers and marketers to pursue the understanding of the international advertising agencies operating in Thailand. Table 3 and Table 4 indicate that both Japan and the United States are major trading partners in Thailand. Table 3: Thai Trading Partners (Imports in 1989) Country Percent (%) Japan 30.72% US 11.06% Singapore 7.16% west Germany 5.22% Taiwan 4.90% Source: World Economic Data (1991) Table 4: Thai Trading Partners (Exports in 1989) Country Percent (%) US 21.23% Japan 16.55% Singapore 7.16% Netherlands 4.86% west Germany 4.08% Source: World Economic Data (1991) WHY THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN? The United States and Japan are selected in this study primarily based on Hofstede's four cultural dimensions: (1) power distance; (2) individualism; (3) masculinity; and (4) uncertainty avoidance. Table 2 indicates that Japanese and American managerial practices represent two extremes of management style. While the scores obtained by Hofstede for the United States are: 40 on power distance, 91 on individualism, 62 on masculinity, and 46 on uncertainty avoidance, those for Japan are: 54 on power distance, 46 on individualism, 95 on masculinity, and 92 on uncertainty avoidance. The clear differences between these two countries are advantageous from a research standpoint for examining the influence of culture on managerial practices. Additionally, both the United States and Japan have a voluminous body of organizational research which can be 10 considered as guidelines for the present study. Finally, both the United States and Japan are of particular interest because they have been successful in industrial and economic development. OUTLINE OF THE REMAINDER OF THE DISSERTATION The outline of the body of this study is as follows. First, conflicting views regarding the relative importance of cultural factors on managerial practices are presented. These controversial views are presented as universal versus country specific managerial or organizational cultural practices. Next, prior literature and research findings on leadership styles in organizations will be reviewed. Then, research questions and hypotheses will be presented, followed by a section on the research methodology; and a section on the analysis, results, and discussion. Finally, conclusions, contributions, and limitations will be advanced. CHAPTER 2 Literature Review There are three primary bodies of literature presented in this chapter. First, a review of prior literature and research findings on the issue of cultural universality will be provided. Second, prior literature on the issue of cultural specificity will follow. Third, prior literature and research findings on leadership styles will be reviewed. Finally, critique of the leadership theories will be presented. UNIVERSALITY VERSUS CULTURAL PARTICULARITY There has long been controversy over whether or not managerial practices are culturally specific or whether they are culturally universal. To be more specific, conflicting views surround questions like: "Are organizations becoming more similar throughout the world or are they preserving their cultural dissimilarities?", and "Can management practices and policies created in one country or culture be transferred to another countries' culture?". The literature surrounding the debate has been summarized elsewhere, (e.g., Ajiferuke, 1970; and Roberts, 1970; and Child, 1981). Academics and practitioners who favor cultural particularity emphasize dissimilarities and believe that cultural difference is one of the major barriers and constraints to effective management worldwide. They argue that national culture has influential consequences on managerial and 11 12 organizational practices. Therefore, it is not possible to have a universal managerial or organizational culture because the world's organizations are maintaining their differences. In contrast, academics and practitioners who favor cultural universality emphasize similarities and indicate a relative low influence of culture on managerial and organizational practices. They base their arguments on the reason that the world is becoming more similar. Thus managerial and organizational practice is becoming universal as well. Davis (1970) differentiates these two views in the following way: The structuralist [universalist] position holds that the modern industrial system is highly standardized, coherent, and relatively impervious to traditional or local cultural patterns. The culturalist position, in contrast, argues that the distinctive local value system within each country results in substantial if not extreme differences in evaluating particular jobs in the standardized modern occupational system. Managerial behavior is basically the same, whatever the locale, according to the former perspective; while according to the latter orientation, it is more diverse than similar, owing to the unique circumstances in different settings. Adler (1983) distinguishes the differences between the universal and particular views clearly as shown in Table 5 below. Each stream of these positions is now discussed individually. 13 Table 5: Differentiating the Universal from the Particular Terms Denoting Uniqueness Terms Denoting Universality Culturally Specific Emic: Sounds which are specific to a particular language Particular Idiographic: Descriptive of the uniqueness of the individual Polycentric: Cultures must be understood in their own terms Within culture: Studies behavior from within the culture to discover whatever structure it might have. Both the antecedents and the consequences of the behavior are found within the culture Culturally contingent: The studied behavior is dependent on the particular culture in which it is embedded Difference emphasized universality denied unique Culturally General Etic: Sounds which are similar in all languages universal Nomothetic: Laws describing behavior of groups of individuals Geocentric: Search for universal, pancultural laws of human behavior Across cultures: Emphasizes the most general description of social phenomena with concepts that are culture free. Structure of observation is created by the scientists Culturally independent: The studied behavior is not related to or influenced by the particular culture in which it is embedded Similarity emphasized universality central and accepted Pancultural Source 8 Nancy J. Adler (1983),'A Typology of Management Studies Involving Culture,” Journal of International Business Studies (Fall), p. 36. 14 Universality Advocates As was mentioned earlier, advocates for this perspective tend to emphasize cross-cultural similarities. They have argued that culture has little or no relevance for managerial and organizational practices. Child (1981) concludes that proponents in this group base their arguments on three basic reasons: First, there is the argument that technology molds, or sets the conditions for certain features of job and organizational design. Second,...the relation-ship between variables of organizational context, especially size, technology and dependence (n1 other organizations, on the one hand, and the structural characteristics of work organizations on the other, will be stable across nations. Third,...business organizations..will pass through similar stages of structural development as they grow, and that strategic commitments to market and technological diversification will necessarily shape the structures of organizations that are to remain equally effective. Harbison and Myers (1959) are credited with being among the first to bring up the issue of universality. Their book, Management in the Industrial World, marked the formal beginning of the comparative management field as it provided the first cross-cultural comparison of management on diverse dimensions (Boddewyn, 1970). They studied the management development process in twelve countries and asserted that "Organization building has its logic...which rests upon the development which has applicability both to advanced and industrializing countries in the modern world." 15 Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter (1966) are other proponents of cultural universality. They studied the attitudes of managers in order to see their similarities and differences. Their research was based on two major questions: "When managers think about managing, are all their ideas pretty much the same, or does managerial thinking differ from country to country?" To answer these questions, they surveyed 3,641 managers from 14 countries. The study shows more similarities than differences among managers in all the countries studied. Koontz and O'Donnell (1968) defended the universal perspective. They claimed that the fundamentals of management are universal and can be applied to every kind of organization in all situations. They said that: The principles related to the task of managing apply to any kind of enterprise in any kind of culture. The purpose of different enterprises may vary, but all which are organized do rely on effective group operation for efficient attainment of whatever goals they have...The fundamental truths (principles) are applicable elsewhere. Sirota and Greenwood (1971) studied similarities and differences in the work goals of thousands of industrial workers from 25 countries. They indicated that there is a considerable similarity in the work goals of employees around the world and "that national differences regarding job-related objectives are not nearly so great as some might think." Negandhi (1975) also advocated the universal view, primarily due to the transferability of American managerial practices to developing countries. He conducted a field study in six developing countries (Argentina, Brazil, India, the 16 Philippines, Taiwan, and Uruguay) and the United States. The results show that advanced techniques and practices are 'transferable and, indeed, they’ do lead to higher organizational effectiveness. The results also show that "decentralization is run: necessarily dysfunctional in developing countries." Peters and Waterman (1982) are among the more recent proponents who favor universality. They conducted interviews with 43 excellent companies in the United States, based on six measures of long-term superiority. They argued in their book, In Search of Excellence (a number one national bestseller), that in order to be effective, technology and a good corporate environment require similar managerial practices. It can be seen from the above arguments that the proponents for universalist school of thought tend to emphasize similarities in management practices across cultures or countries. Next, the arguments for the opposite viewpoint, known as the particularist school of thought, will be presented. Particularity Advocates On the opposite side of the debate are those who recognize the impact of culture on managerial principles and practices. Therefore, the argument goes, there can be no universal management methods. A response to the universal proponents of the early 1960's was provided by Oberg (1963). He claimed that cross- 17 cultural researchers tend to overlook the influence of national culture on managerial practices. He stated that "cultural differences from one country to another are more significant than many writers now appear to recognize...The [universalist claim] is hardly warranted by either evidence or institution at this stage in the development of management theory." In a study comparing North American and European management philosophy, Nowothy (1964) found that socio-cultural and environmental factors are responsible for the difference in management philosophy between the two regions. Hofstede (1980) explored employees who worked for an American multinational corporation from 40 different countries and found that there are significant differences in their behaviors and attitudes which did not change over time. Additionally, he found that national culture explained more of the differences in work-related values and attitudes than did position within the organization, profession, age or gender. Most importantly, he identified four main dimensions on which cultures differ. They were: (1) power distance; (2) uncertainty avoidance; (3) individualism; and (4) masculinity. Laurent' (1986) studied the cultural diversity of management conceptions across countries. He found that managers from different cultures hold different assumptions, which, in turn, cause differences in the managerial and organizational practices. He pointed out that "In order to build, maintain, and develop their corporate identity, multinational organizations need to strive for consistency in their ways of 18 managing people on a worldwide basis. Yet, and in order to be effective locally, they also need to adopt those ways to the specific cultural requirements of different societies." Adler (1991) was another proponent of particularity. She argued against universalists by writing up in the preface of her book, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, that "Today we no longer have the luxury of reducing international complexity tx> the simplicity' of assumed universality; we no longer have the luxury of assuming that there is one best way to manage...variations across cultures and their impact on organizations follow systematic, predictable patterns." It can be seen from the above arguments that the proponents for the particularlist school of thought tend to emphasize dissimilarities in management practices across cultures or countries. LEADERSHIP LITERATURE Management scholars and practitioners have devoted considerable attention to leadership concepts and styles. There are three types of leadership theories generally recognized in the literature: (1) trait perspective; (2) behavioral perspective; and (3) contingency perspective. Trait Approaches to Leadership The trait theorists sought to understand leadership by comparing leaders with followers and effective leaders with ineffective leaders. Following this approach, researchers tried 19 to identify leadership traits, develop techniques for measuring them and use the techniques for selecting leaders (Bass, 1990). Table 6 lists the traits and skills that have been frequently linked 1x) effective leaders. However; most researchers now believe that the trait approach is inadequate for successfully predicting leadership performance (Kiechel, 1986). Table 6: Attribute Found Most Frequently to be Characteristics of Successful Leaders Traits Physical Factors Skills Adaptable to situations Activity level Intelligent Alert to social Appearance Conceptually skilled environment Ambitious and achievement Height Creative Assertive Weight Diplomatic and tactful Cooperative Fluent in speaking Decisive Knowledgeable about group task Dependable Organized (administrative ability) Dominant (desire to Persuasive influence others) Persistent Socially skilled Self-confident Tolerant of stress Willing to assume responsibility Source: G. Yukl (1981), Leadership in Organizations, Prentice-Hall Publishing Co., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, p. 70. 20 Behavioral Approaches to Leadership Because of the failure of the trait approach to predict successful leadership behavior, researchers shifted from trying to identify leaders' traits to studying leaders' behavior. Behavioral theorists tried to identify behavior that differentiated effective leaders from less effective leaders and attempted to discover whether leader behavior was associated with employee attitudes and performance. The Michigan studies (Likert, 1961), the Ohio State studies (Stogdill, 1974) and Managerial Grid ((Blake, 1965) are among the most popular leadership theories in this group. The Michigan studies were conducted to determine the leadership behavior that results in effective group performance. Two dimensions are identified: job-centered and employee-centered. While a job-centered leader's main concern is effective completion of the task, an employee-centered leader focuses on subordinates' well being. The Ohio State leadership studies were aimed at identifying the leader behaviors that are important for attaining group and organizational goals. These efforts resulted in the identification of two independent dimensions of leader behavior: consideration and initiating structure. While leaders with consideration style are characterized by mutual trust, two-way communication, respect for subordinates' ideas, and consideration for their feelings; leaders with initiating style concern themselves with accomplishing tasks by giving directions and expecting them to be followed. 21 Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid explains leadership styles in the context of grid. In their theory, the various combinations of a concern for people and a concern for production define five leadership styles: (1) authority/ obedience management; (2) country-club management; (3) laissez- faire or impoverished management; (4) organization man management; and (5) team management. This approach suggested that the most effective leaders are those who have a high concern for both people and production simultaneously. Contingency Theopy of Leadership Contingency leadership theorists direct their research toward discovering the variables that permit certain leadership characteristics and behaviors to be effective in a given situation. Four contingency variables frequently suggested as influencers on leaders' behavior are: (1) a leader's personal characteristics; (2) subordinates' personal characteristics; (3) the group's characteristics; and (4) the structure of the group, department, or organization (Bass, 1985). Fiedler's contingency model (Fiedler, 1967); House's path-goal model (House, 1971); and the Vroom-Jago model (Vroom, 1988) are among the most popular leadership theories in this group. Fiedler's contingency model focuses on the effective identification of the situation in which the leader will operate. According to this model, three contingency variables need to be analyzed: (1) leader-member relations; (2) task structure; and (3) leader's position power (Fiedler, 1967). Fiedler suggested that leadership effectiveness depends upon a 22 match between the leader's style and the favorableness of the situation, determined by those three contingency variables. House's path-goal model suggests that leaders can affect the satisfaction, motivation, and performance of group members. House identified four distinct types of leader behaviors: (1) directive leadership; (2) supportive leadership; (3) participative leadership; and (4) achievement-oriented leadership. House suggested that in order to be effective, the leader must select a style most appropriate for the particular situation determined by personal characteristics of subordinates, perceived ability and locus of control, and characteristics of the environment, task structure, formal authority system, and the primary work group (House, 1971). The Vroom-Jago leadership model was designed to prescribe how much subordinates should be allowed to participate in the decision making process. The goal of this model is to compromise between the quality of the decision and the acceptance of the decision by subordinates. Vroom and Jago assume that the leader can choose a leadership style along a continuum ranging from high autocratic to high participative. CRITIQUE OF LEADERSHIP THEORIES While trait, behavioral and contingency theories of leadership may be useful in determining leadership effectiveness, they are culturally limited. This is because most leadership theories were created and tested in the United States, and therefore influenced by the economic, political, 23 and cultural settings of the United States. Hence, these American-based theories may be relevant to the United States but may not be applicable internationally. Additionally, attempts to transfer them directly to other cultures without considering the values of subordinates gives them little chance for success. As Triandis (1983) points out, a culture's: influence for organizational behavior is that it operates at such a deep level that people are not aware of its influences. It results in unexamined patterns of thought that seem so natural that most theorists of social behavior fail to take them into account. As a result, many aspects of organizational theories produced in one culture may be inadequate in other cultures. Far too few studies focusing on the leadership across cultures have been performed. Among a handful of cross-cultural researchers, Hofstede has been one of the most notable scholars. Hofstede (1980) found that differences in work- related attitudes exist across cultures and questioned the transferability of leadership style. He pointed out that American theorists like Douglas McGregor (Theory x and Theory Y), Rensis Likert (System 4 management), and Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton (the Managerial Grid) all advocate participative leadership and concluded that: Neither McGregor, nor Likert, nor Blake and Mouton...tend to be prescriptive with regard to a leadership style that, at best, will work with US. subordinates and with those in cultures-such as Canada or Australia-that have not too different Power Distance levels. This study is intended to extend leadership theories to the international context. Cultures not only influence our ways 24 of thinking, feeling and behaving but also profoundly influence and carry over to organizational behavior. Thus, there is a need for international managers, professionals and scholars to understand more about cultural differences and their influence on work-related values before adopting or transferring managerial ideas from one culture to another. PRIOR RESEARCH RELATED TO LEADERSHIP STYLES The pioneering work on leadership in international frame was Haire, Ghiselli, and Porter (1966). They studied 3,641 managers from 14 countries in order to understand their leadership styles. Two types of leadership theory were classified in this study: (1) classical or traditional organization theory and (2) modern organization theory. The former approach involves "rigid chains of command, extreme specialization of functions, limited spans of control." The latter approach emphasizes ”wide participation in decision- making, the development of subordinate self—control, and the use of a variety of methods of influence." To examine similarities and differences among managers from different countries in terms of their leadership styles, the authors developed a series of eight statements to which the manager responded by checking on a five-point scale ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." The items covered managers' beliefs in the capacity of subordinates, and their view of the efficacy of participation, of sharing information, and of providing opportunities for internal self—control on the 25 job. Table 7 shows eight statements used to measure managers' leadership styles. The results indicate that there was considerable similarity among the managers from these various countries, including: (1) the tendency to disagree with the belief that the average individual has a capacity for initiative and leadership, and (2) a tendency that the best methods of leadership are the democratic-participative methods. Table 7: Items Used to Measure Leadership Styles in Haire et al's Study 1. capacity for leadership and initiative - The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and has relatively little ambition. - Leadership skills can be acquired by most people regardless of their particular inborn traits and abilities. 2. Sharing information and Objectives - ‘A good leader should give detailed and complete instructions to his subordinates, rather than giving them. merely general directions and depending upon their initiative to work out the details. - A superior should give his subordinates only that information which is necessary for them to do their immediate task. .3. Participation - In a work situation, if the subordinates cannot influence me then I lose some of my influence on them. - Group goal-setting offers advantages that cannot be obtained by individual goal-setting. 26 Table 7 (cont'd) 4 . Internal control - The use of rewards (pay, promotion, etc.) and punishment (failure to promote, etc.) is not the best way to get subordinates to do their work. - The superior's authority over his subordinates in an organization is primarily economic. Source: Mason Haire, Edwin Ghiselli, and Lyman Porter (1966), Managerial Thinking: An International Study, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, p. 19-20. Maier and Hoffman (1962) compared American and British managers and found that British managers adopted authoritative leadership style more than American managers. Another study in support of these findings was done by Clark and McCabe (1970) who studied and compared leadership styles of American, British and Australian managers. They found that American managers tend to have a more positive attitude toward the average person's capacity for leadership and initiative than do British and Australian managers. Sirota (1968), surveyed 23,000 IBM employees in 45 countries in order to understand the preferred and perceived leadership styles of their managers. Sirota adopted Tannenbaum and Schmidt's four leadership styles of managers. The four hypothetical managers are: (1) Manager A ("tells"); (2) Manager B ("sells"); (3) Manager C ("consults"); and (4) Manager D ("joins"). Results indicate that the majority of IBM employees prefer consultative style managers. However, there are some differences among countries. For example, employees in Japan prefer the manager who possesses a more authoritarian style or 27 "sells" type. Results also show that the employees' perceptions of authoritarian leadership styles occur more often than the more preferred participative styles. Barrett and Bass (1970) conducted a comparative survey of managerial attitudes and behavior. They indicated that leadership style is a function of the culture, and the autocratic form of leadership seems to be appropriate for underdeveloped countries. They questioned the universality of leadership style in the following way: There are differences among countries in preferred styles of leadership. These differences in leadership styles appear to be largely culturally based and at this point in time it would be naive to advocate one model of leadership style as being optimum for all cultural groups. The widely advocated American model of participative management may not be optimum for all cultures and in fact may be dysfunctional in some. Negandhi (1971) compared leadership styles in five underdeveloped countries. In his study, Negandhi classified leadership style into three categories: (1) authoritarian; (2) democratic; and (3) bureaucratic. The findings indicate that a large number of American subsidiaries practiced a democratic form of leadership more often than the local companies did. Negandhi (1975) studied leadership styles used in the American subsidiaries and local companies in the six developing countries. He divided leadership styles into four groups: (1) authoritarian style; (2) democratic style; (3) bureaucratic style; and (4) paternalistic style. The results indicated that while the leadership style in the local enterprises in the 28 developing countries is autocratic and paternalistic, that of American subsidiaries are participative or democratic in style. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR HYPOTHESES Hofstede's Four Cultural Dimensions Hofstede (1984a) studied employees of American-based multinational corporation in 40 countries, which was expanded later to over 60 countries around the world, and found four main dimensions which vary across cultures. The four cultural dimensions are labeled as: (1) power distance, (2) uncertainty avoidance, (3) individualism and (4) masculinity. Results reveal that differences in work-related values and attitudes can be explained more by cultures than by position within the organization, age, gender, and profession. Table 8 indicates American, Japanese and Thai scores and ranks on these four cultural dimensions. Table 8: Scores and Ranks for United States, Japan and Thailand on Hofstede's Four Cultural Dimensions Dimensions USA Japan Thailand Power Distance 40 (25) 54 (21) 64 (13) Individualism 91 (1) 46 (22) 20 (34) Masculinity 62 (13) 95 (1) 34 (32) Unc.Avoidance 46 (31) 92 (4) 64 (21L N.B.: Figures in parentheses indicate rank for each country out of 40. 29 nger pistance The first dimension, power distance, is the extent to which the less powerful members of a society or organization accept the unequal distribution of power. While people in high power distance cultures are likely to accept hierarchical order and follow that instruction without questions, people in low power distance cultures tend to demand equalization in power. In other words, power distance is related to the degree of centralization of authority and the degree of autocratic leadership. Table 9 summarizes Hofstede's consequences of power distance for organization. Table 9: Selected Consequences of Power Distance for Organizations Low Power Distance High Power Distance - Less centralization - Greater centralization - Flatter organization pyramids - Tall organization pyramids - Smaller proportion of - Large proportion of supervisory personnel supervisory personnel - Manual work same status as - White-collar job valued more clerical work than blue-collar jobs Source: Hofstede (1984a), p. 107. Since the United States ranks relatively low' (rank 25 of 40) on this dimension, it is expected that English-speaking leadership is more inclined toward participative style with less control on subordinates, whereas Japan and Thailand, which 30 rank relatively higher on this dimension, are expected to adopt a more authoritarian leadership style with centralized authority in the decision making process. Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance, the second dimension, is the extent to which people accept or avoid feelings of uncertainty and ambiguity. In high uncertainty avoidance cultures, people tend to avoid changes and risk situations but seek stability, whereas in low uncertainty avoidance cultures, people tend to seek new opportunities and challenges. Table 10 summarizes Hofstede's consequences of uncertainty avoidance for organizations. Table 10: Selected Consequences of Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) for Organizations Low UA High UA - Less structuring of activities More structuring of activities - Fewer written rules - More written rules - Organization can be pluriform Organizations should be as uniform as possible - Managers more involved in - Managers more involved in strategy details - Managers more interpersonal - Managers more task-oriented oriented and flexible in and consistent in their their style style Source: Hofstede (1984a), p. 143. 31 Since Japan ranks extremely high on this dimension (rank 4 of 40), it is expected that Japanese leaders will be more inclined to give detailed and complete instructions to subordinates, rather than giving them general directions. The United States, on the other hand, ranks relatively low on this dimension (rank 31 of 40), therefore, it is expected that English-speaking leaders are likely to adopt a more participative leadership style with fewer rules and less work details. However, Thailand is in the middle range (rank 21 of 40) on this dimension, hence, it is expected that Thai leaders may tend to use the middle path, not too strict but not too loose in terms of rules and work details. Individualism Individualism, the third dimension, implies a loosely knit social framework in which people define themselves as individuals. They tend to place an importance on their immediate families rather than on their society. Collectivism, on the other hand, reflects a preference for a tight social framework in which people place importance on both their group and society as a whole. Table 11 summarizes the consequences of individualism for organizations. 32 Table 11: Selected Consequences of Individualism for Organizations Low Individualism High Individualism - Employees expect organizations Employees are expected to defend their interests to defend their interests - Policies and practices based Policies and practices on loyalty and sense of duty should allow for individual initiative - Less concern with fashion in Managers try to be up-to- management ideas date and endorse modern management ideas Source: Hofstede (1984a), p. 173-4. Since the United States ranks extremely high on this dimension (rank 1 of 40), it is expected that English-speaking leaders tend to give high autonomy to subordinates and encourage them to initiate ideas and opinions. In contrast, Thailand ranks relatively low on this individualism dimension (rank 34 of 40) so it is expected that Thai leaders are likely to give direct orders and their employees are willing to obey those orders. Japan is in the middle range (rank 22 of 40), however, it tends to be more like the collectivist group. Thus, Japanese leaders are expected to give more directions than accept their employees' ideas and initiatives. Masculinity Masculinity, the last dimension, implies a preference for achievement, assertiveness, and the acquisition of materials, 33 with little concern for people. Femininity, on the other hand, emphasizes concern for relationships among people, caring for others, and the quality of life. Table 12 summarizes the consequences of masculinity for organizations. Table 12:Selected Consequences of Masculinity for Organizations Low Masculinity High Masculinity - Some young men and women want Young men expect to make a careers, others do not career; those who don't see themselves as failures - Organizational should not - Organizational interests interfere with people's are a legitimate reason for private lives interfering with people's private lives - More women in more qualified Fewer women in more and better-paid jobs qualified and better-paid jobs - Lower job stress - Higher job stress Source: Hofstede (1984a), p. 207-8. While Japan ranks extremely high on the masculinity dimension (the highest rank), Thailand ranks relatively low (rank 32) and the United States ranks relatively high (rank 13). This reflects that gender discrimination tends to occur more often in Japan than in the United States and Thailand. 34 LEADERSHIP STYLE: AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE Egpal Society and Participative style Compared to many other cultures, American culture emphasizes equality in social relationships. According to Samovar, Porter and Jain (1981), Americans like to treat others as equals and prefer to be treated as equals. They said: Americans believe that each person is a unique individual worthy of respect and capable of making autonomous choices. Consistent with this high value on individualism and human dignityy our (interpersonal. relations are usually egalitarian and horizontal, conducted between presumed equals. Because of their deep—rooted sense of egalitarianism, individuals usually make their own decisions. As Driver (1979) says, "It could be argued that the essence of living is free choice-the process of making decisions. To be deprived of choices is to lose all meaning." Not surprisingly, this is reflected in most American leadership theories that advocate subordinates' participation in the decision making process. Hofstede (1980) supported this point in the following way: In the United States a current of leadership theories has developed. Some of the best known were put forth by the late Douglas McGregor (Theory x versus Y), Rensis Likert (System 4 management), and Robert R. Blake with Jane S. Mouton (the Managerial Grid). What these theories have in common is that they all advocate participation in the manager's decisions tnr his/her subordinates (participative management)... Therefore, it might be anticipated that American managers would favor a participative or democratic leadership style over an autocratic or bureaucratic leadership style. 35 LEADERSHIP: THE JAPANESE PERSPECTIVE Vertical Society and Authoritarian style Contrary to American culture, the Japanese culture emphasizes rank differences and hierarchical relationships. Barnlund (1989) pointed out that the difference between Japanese and American cultures is that "A hierarchical society is as deeply rooted in Japan as is the egalitarian view held in the United States." Japanese society is also described as a vertical society by Murayama (1977): Briefly summarized: the central value system of the Confucianism Management School, lies in the inner efforts of preserving and practicing vertical line thought such as seniority concepts, superiority of personal relationships within the company, and father type president leadership. When applying the Japanese's vertical concept into the managerial realm, it clearly reflects a hierarchy of people, some of whom are ranked above others (seniors or sempai) and some of whom are ranked below others (juniors or kohai). Sullivan (1992) describes Japanese management in the following way: Japanese management is the continual exercise of power and the maintenance of control to establish an order in which work can be done efficiently’ without. endless negotiations between superiors and subordinates. Society benefits from this control focus and responds by providing Japanese managers with a freedom of action unavailable in other countries. Therefore, it might be anticipated that Japanese managers would favor autocratic or bureaucratic leadership style over a participative or democratic leadership style. 36 Japan, which scores high on power distance, reflects a centralization of decisions. At the same time, the Japanese are categorized in a collectivist group which implies group phenomenon. Thus, it can be seen at this point that there is a discrepancy in these concepts. Hofstede (1983) explains that there may be some collectivist cultures which rank high on the power distance dimension. Hofstede (1983) states: In countries with higher Power Distance-such as Third World countries, but also France and Belgium-individual subordinates as a rule do not want to participate...If the society is at the same time Collectivist, however, there will be ways by which subordinates in a group can still influence the leader. This applies to all Asian countries. Additionally, Japanese management is well known for its consensus-based decision making. It is commonly characterized as participatory and consensus seeking or as a ringi system, which implies a participative or democratic leadership style. The ringi system starts when a middle level manager drafts a written proposal, then circulates it up through the managers, who have the opportunity to register their agreements by affixing their personal stamps to it (De Mente, 1991). Therefore, the Japanese authoritarian or bureaucratic leadership style may be moderated by their high rank on the collectivism dimension and their ringi system. 37 LEADERSHIP: THAI PERSPECTIVE Vertical Society and Authoritarian style Like Japan, Thailand has been characterized by a tight hierarchical social system with accepted existential inequality (e.g., Komin, 1990; Cooper, 1982). Ketudat (1990) identified the main causes that shape hierarchy in Thai society in the following way: The roots of our traditional sense of hierarchy are deep. The Thai monarchy was heavily influenced by the Khmer culture several centuries ago, following the Thai subjugation of the Kingdom of Angkor. The Khmer political culture emphasized the notion of the god-king (theewa-raacaa), and since that time the Thai political culture and social organization have become characterized by steep hierarchical social arrangements. When this hierarchical concept is applied to the managerial realm, it reflects that Thais accept the authority of those in positions of power. In other words, the authoritarian management style is the norm in Thailand (Taira, 1980 and Redding, 1977). This is true because Thais believe that superiors must have acquired the merit to deserve such power (Engholm, 1991) and inferiors are supposed to obey (Cooper, 1992). Mabry and Srisermbhok (1985) explain the superior and subordinate relationship in Thai organizations as: The worker-manager relationship is of the nature of a client-patron relationship. In the Thai firm, docility is more valued than ability: obedience and loyalty are more important than productivity. It is almost taboo for a subordinate to challenge a superior. Because of this, communication tends to be in one direction-downward. Embarrassing confrontations are to be avoided by the client, 38 for he is aware of his powerlessness and his dependence on the goodwill of the patron. Therefore, it might be anticipated that Thai employees would favor an autocratic or bureaucratic leadership style over a participative or democratic leadership style. Hence, Thais are more like the Japanese than the Americans. It is expected that Japanese top expatriates will be more inclined to use an authoritarian style than the English- speaking top expatriates. Also, Thai employees working in Japanese TNAAs will tend to perceive their Japanese bosses as being more authoritative leaders than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs. Additionally, it is expected that Thai employees working in Japanese TNAAs will be more satisfied with their Japanese's bosses than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs, because Thai employees are more willing to be directed than initiate their opinions. See Figure 8 for summary of consequences of cultural factors for hypotheses. 39 HYPOTHESES Hofstede's four cultural dimensions discussed above suggest that: (1) English-speaking top expatriates will be more inclined to use participative leadership style than Japanese top expatriates. (2) Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs operating in Thailand will be more likely to perceive their English-speaking bosses as using a participative style than will Thai employees working for Japanese. (3) Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand will be more satisfied with their bosses' leadership style than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs. In this section, statistical hypotheses are developed in order to answer the three research questions. The statistical hypotheses are stated in the directional form. First, the research questions are repeated, and then the corresponding directional hypotheses are presented. Research Question one: 1) To what degree do top expatriates working in English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand reflect their English-speaking and Japanese leadership styles, respectively, in terms of the following areas: 1.1. the beliefs in the capacity of subordinates' leadership and initiative? The above 40 1.2. the view of the efficacy of sharing information and objectives? 1.3. the view of the efficacy of participation? 1.4. the view' of providing opportunities internal self control on the job? following hypotheses, as explained below and in Table 13: H1: Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English-speaking top expatriates to expect leadership and initiative from their subordinates. H2: Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English-speaking top expatriates to value the efficacy of sharing information and objectives. H3: Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English—speaking top expatriates to value the efficacy of participation from their subordinates. H4: Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English-speaking top expatriates to provide opportunities for subordinates to exercise internal self control on their jobs. Research Question Two: 2) To what extent do Thai employees working in English- speaking and Japanese transnational advertising agencies operating in Thailand differ in their perceptions of their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles in the following areas: 2.1 the perception of their bosses' beliefs in the capacity' of subordinates' leadership and initiative? research question and its components led to the 41 2.2 the perception of their bosses' views of the efficacy of sharing information and objectives? 2.3 the perception of their bosses' views of the efficacy of participation? 2.4 the perception of their bosses' views of providing opportunities for internal self control on the job? The above research question and its components led to the following hypotheses, as explained below and in Table 13: H5: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies to perceive that their bosses value leadership and initiative among subordinates. H6: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of sharing information and objectives among subordinates. H7: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of participation by subordinates. H8: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies to perceive that their bosses value the need to provide opportunities for internal self control on the job. Research Question Three 3) To what extent do Thai employees working in English- speaking and Japanese transnational advertising 42 agencies operating in Thailand differ in their satisfaction with their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles in the following areas: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 satisfaction with their bosses' beliefs in the capacity of subordinates leadership and initiative? satisfaction with their bosses' views of the value of sharing information? satisfaction with their bosses' views of the value of sharing in the setting of objectives? satisfaction with their bosses' views of the value of subordinate participation? satisfaction with their bosses' views of the need to provide opportunities for subordinates to exercise internal self-control on the job? The above research question and its components led to the following hypotheses, as explained below and in Table 13: H9: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies with their opportunities to exercise leadership and initiative. H10: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies with their opportunities to share in information. H11: Thai employees working' in Japanese advertising agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies with their opportunities to share in the setting of objectives. 43 H12: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking transnational advertising agencies with their opportunities to engage in participation. H13: Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies will be more satisfied than. Thai employees working in IEnglish- speaking transnational advertising agencies with their opportunities to exercise internal self-control on the job. How Cultural Factors Led to Hypotheses Hofstede's research on cultural variables (as discussed earlier) led to the above-listed hypotheses, according to the reasoning summarized in Table 13. Hofstede identified three cultural factors relevant to this research: Individualism (IND), Uncertainty Avoidance (UA), and Power Distance (PD). According to Hofstede's individualism dimension, leaders in high individualism and egalitarian societies tend to give high autonomy to their subordinates and encourage them to initiate ideas and opinions. Leaders in low individualism and vertical societies, on the other hand, tend to give direct orders and to discourage their subordinates from initiating ideas and expressing their opinions. Since the United States ranks high and Japan and Thailand rank low on this dimension, hypotheses l, 5 and 9 are suggested (See Table 13). According to Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance dimension, leaders in high uncertainty avoidance cultures tend to give complete instructions to their subordinates and to allow them 44 less chance to share information and objectives. In contrast, leaders in low uncertainty avoidance and equal cultures tend to give their subordinates general directions and share information and objectives with them to let them do their own work. Since Japan and Thailand rank high and the United States ranks relatively low on this dimension, hypotheses 2, 6, 10 and 11 are suggested (See Table 13). According to Hofstede's power distance dimension, leaders in high power distance and vertical cultures tend to use centralized authority in the decision-making process, which allows less subordinates' internal self control. In contrast, leaders in low power distance and egalitarian societies tend to use participative style with less control on subordinates, and to allow more subordinates' internal self control. The United States ranks relatively low on this dimension, suggesting a participative style with less control over subordinates; Japan and Thailand rank relatively higher on this dimension, suggesting a more authoritarian leadership style with centralized authority in the decision making process. Thus hypotheses 3, 4, 7, 8, 12 and 13 are suggested (See Table 13). 45 Table 13: Hypotheses Summary of Consequences of Cultural Factors for Cultural Dimension Hypothesis Individualism (I'D) 1"Leaders in high IND and equal society tend to give high autonomy to their subordinates and encourage them to initiate ideas and opinions. *Leaders in Low IND and vertical society (Japan and Thailand) tend to direct orders and discourage their subordinates to initiate ideas and opinions. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) *Leaders in high UA (Japan and Thailand) tend to give complete instructions to their subordinates and allow them less chance to share information and objs. *Leaders in low HA and equal society tend to give their subordinates general directions and share information and objectives with them to let them do their own work. leJapanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English-speaking top expatriates to expect leadership and initiative from their subordinates. BS:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value leadership and initiative among subordinates. H9: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to exercise leadership and initiative. BZ:Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English-speaking top expats to value the efficacy of sharing infommation and objs. B6:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of sharing info and objs among subordinates. 46 Table 13 (cont'd) Power Distance (PD) *Leaders in high PD and vertical society (Japan and Thailand) tend to use centralized authority in decision making process which allows less subordinates' internal self control. *Leader in low PD and equal society tend to use participative style with less control on subordinates and allow more subordinates' internal self control. HlO:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English speaking TNAAs with their Opportunities to share in information. Bll:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to share in the setting of objectives. H3:Japanese top expats will be less inclined than English- speaking top expats to value the efficacy of participation from their subordinates. H4:Japanese top expats will be less inclined than English- speaking top expats to provide opportunities for subordinates to exercise internal self-control on their jobs. H7:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking ad agencies to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of participation by employees. H8:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value the need to provide opportunities for subordinates to exercise internal self control on their jobs. Table 13 (cont'd) 47 HlZ:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to engage in participation. 813:Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English- speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to exercise internal self-control on the job. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY SAMPLE In order to answer the three research questions involved in this study, two groups of respondents are required. The first is the group of foreign top expatriates and the second is the group of Thai local employees. The main purposes of having two groups of respondents are: (1) When asked to assess their own leadership styles, it may be that interviewed respondents tend to be biased in the direction of being more participative. (2) It may also be that interviewed respondents tend to describe others more accurately than they describe themselves. Therefore, both groups are included in order to enhance the validity of the study. Within the first group, there are two subgroups of respondents as follows: 1. English-speaking top expatriates working in English- speaking TNAAs operating in Thailand. 2. Japanese top expatriates working in Japanese TNAAs operating in Thailand. Within the two groups, there are also two groups of Thai respondents as follows: 1. Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs operating in Thailand. 48 49 2. Thai employees working in Japanese TNAAs operating in Thailand. Top Expatriates Lists of English-speaking and Japanese TNAAs operating in Thailand were drawn from the Advertising Book 1992. Since there are limited numbers of both agencies, six English-speaking and six Japanese TNAAs were included in this study (See Table 14). Interviews with top expatriates from both agencies were conducted by the researcher alone. Lists of English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates working in Thailand were obtained directly from the included advertising agencies. Cover letters were mailed to them to request their participation in an interview in the middle of May, 1993. Every expatriate was contacted to schedule an appointment for the interview. Each 30-45 minute personal interview included open-ended questions, structured questions and rating scales (See Appendix 4). Pretests with three top expatriates were conducted to ensure that the questionnaire was appropriate. A total of 28 personal interviews were completed, with 12 top expatriates from English-speaking and 16 from Japanese TNAAs. The twelve top expatriates working in English- speaking TNAAs included two Americans, two Canadians, four Australians, and four British (See Table 15). All 16 top expatriates in Japanese advertising agencies were Japanese. 50 Table 14: English-Speaking and Japanese Transnational Advertising Agencies Included in the Study English-speaking Agency Japanese Agency Leo Burnett Lintas McCann—Erikson J. Walter Thompson Meitsu Ogilvy & Mather (Thailand) Ltd.Dentsu Prakit & FCB Chuo Senko Cove-Ito Dai-Ichi Kikaku Thai Hakuhodo Table 15: English-Speaking Respondents, their Agencies and Nationalities Respondents Agency Nationality Managing Director Leo Burnett Canadian Creative Director' ILeo Burnett British Managing Director Lintas British Account Director' Lintas British Managing Director McCann-Erickson Canadian Creative Director' J. Walter Thompson. .Australian Copy Writer J. Walter Thompson British General Manager Ogilvy & Mather American Creative Director Ogilvy & Mather Australian Copy writer Ogilvy & Mather Australian Acct. Mgt. Director Ogilvy & Mather American Creative Director FCB Australian 51 Thai Epployees Lists of account executives were derived by calling the advertising agencies. A total of 128 cover letters and questionnaires were sent in the middle of May, 1993. Only 73 completed questionnaires were returned by the beginning of June. A second mailing of 55 cover letters and questionnaires were sent to non-respondents and 33 of these were returned. Thus a total of 106 completed questionnaires were returned from Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese TNAAs. Additionally, two focus groups, were conducted in order to gain in-depth opinions and attitudes of employees toward their bosses. Each group consisted of five Thai employees who had had experiences working not only in Japanese, but also in English- speaking TNAAs. QUESTIONNAIRES Since there are two groups of respondents, two sets of questionnaires were prepared. The first set was for English- speaking and Japanese top expatriates. The top expatriates were asked to describe themselves in terms of their leadership styles. The second set was for Thai employees which consisted of three parts. The first part asked them to describe their perceptions of their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles. The second part asked them to indicate their satisfaction with their bosses' leadership styles. The last part was a classification section. See Appendices 1 and 2 for 52 the linkages between hypotheses and statements in the questionnaires. The First Set onguestionnaires: Top Expatriates The first set of questionnaires (English version) is adopted from Haire et. al's study (see Appendix 4 for a complete English version of the questionnaire). A rationale for the adoption of their instruments is based on their quality, supported by a number of replications and extensions (e.g. Clark and McCabe, 1970; Cummings and Schmidt, 1972; and Redding, 1977). For the Japanese version, Haire et. al initially prepared questions in English, then translated them into Japanese and finally translated them back into English (Haire, 1966). However, the Japanese version had to be adapted rather than purely adopted because of its use of somewhat outdated Japanese language. The adaptation was done by a Japanese doctoral student at Michigan State University (see Appendix 4 for a complete Japanese version of the questionnaire). Accompanying the questionnaires were a cover letter (in English) prepared by the researcher explaining the purpose of the study, and two open letters to introduce the researcher to all top expatriates and thank them for their cooperation. These letters were written by professor Gordon E. Miracle and associate professor Darunee Hirunrak (a dean of Communication Arts, Chulalongkorn University) (see Appendix 3). Respondents (English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates) were asked to use five-point rating scales to 53 indicate their degree of agreement with statements related to their leadership styles (1=strongly agree; 2=agree; 3=undecided; 4=disagree; and 5=strongly disagree). Statements 1, 5, 7 and 8 were phrased from a "classical organization theory" point of view; whereas statements 2, 3, 4 and 6 were stated from a "modern organization theory" point of view; Means were calculated, and two-tailed t-tests were used to test the null hypothesis of whether or not differences in means were significant. Low scores (i.e., toward 1) indicate a classical attitude and high scores (toward 5) indicate a modern attitude. In other words, the higher the mean value, the more the top expatriates favor a democratic-participative approach of leadership. Respondents were also asked open-ended questions to learn about the reasons for their ratings. The open-ended questions were: (1) are the English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies practicing management in Thailand as they would do in their home countries? If not, what are the impeding factors? and (2) How do English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates view the transferability of management practices from their home countries to Thailand? The Second Questionnaire: Thai Employees The second questionnaire, adapted from Haire et. al (1966) (see Appendix 6) and cover letters, were prepared initially in English, translated into Thai, and then back- translated into English so as to identify and resolve problems 54 of functional, conceptional and linguistic equivalence as suggested by Brislin (1970), Douglas and Craig (1983) and Miracle (1988). Accompanying the questionnaires was a cover letter explaining the purpose of the study and an open letter introducing the researcher to all Thai respondents and thanking them for their cooperation. This was written by Professor Gordon E. Miracle (see Appendix 5). Respondents (Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese TNAAs) were asked to use five-point rating scales to indicate the degree of agreement with statements related to their perceptions of their bosses' leadership styles (1=strongly agree; 2=agree; 3=undecided; 4=disagree; and 5=strongly disagree). Means were calculated, and two-tailed t- tests were used to test the null hypothesis of whether or not differences in means were significant. Low scores (i.e., toward 1) indicate a classical attitude and high scores (toward 5) indicate a modern attitude. In other words, the higher the mean value, the more the top expatriates were perceived to use a democratic-participative approach of leadership. Respondents were asked to use five-point rating scales to indicate the degree of satisfaction with their bosses' leadership styles (1=strongly agree; 2=agree; 3=undecided; 4=disagree; and 5=strongly disagree). Means were calculated, and two-tailed t-tests were used to test the null hypothesis of whether or not differences in means were significant. Low scores (i.e., toward 1) indicate high satisfaction with their bosses; whereas high scores (toward 5) indicate low 55 satisfaction. In other words, the higher the mean value, the less satisfaction the employee had with his or her boss. Methods of Analysis Since the questionnaires yielded equal interval data and since the study required comparison of only two means at a time, it was appropriate to use two-tailed t-tests. The spss—x statistics package was used to determined whether or not there were significant differences between: (1) English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates' leadership styles; (2) Thai employees' perceptions of their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles; and (3) Thai employees' satisfaction with their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles. CHAPTER4 ANALYSIS. RESULTSI AND DISCUSSION Top Expatriates Table 16 shows the results of English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates' attitudes toward leadership practices. It appears from the findings that there are considerably more similarities than differences between them. English-speaking expatriates' mean values were between 2.917 and 4.583, which indicates their slightly stronger beliefs in a democratic leadership practice than Japanese counterparts, whose mean values were between 2.688 and 4.188 (The higher the mean value, the more the top expatriates favor a democratic- participative approach of leadership). However, these mean values indicate that both English-speaking and Japanese expatriates had positive views concerning the use of participative methods of leadership. For H1, the mean values of scale questions one and two, individually as well as collectively, are higher for English- speaking than Japanese expatriates, as predicted: English- speaking leaders (who rank high on the individualism dimension) are more likely than Japanese leaders (who rank low on the same dimension) to give high autonomy to their subordinates and encourage them to initiate ideas and opinions. However, the differences are small and they are not significant at the .05 level. Though the differences in mean values are not 56 57 significant, the direction of the findings is in the hypothesized direction. Nevertheless, the researcher rejects hypothesis one and concludes that Japanese top expatriates were not less inclined than English-speaking top expatriates to expect leadership and initiative from their subordinates. One possible explanation for the rejection of this hypothesis may be due to the Japanese ringi system. In the ringi system a middle level manager drafts a document proposing a course of action (ringisho). It then circulates up through the hierarchy, acquiring the personal stamps of other managers symbolizing their participation in the decision and willingness to commit to it (De Mente, 1991). Perhaps this system may negate the hypothesized effect of individualism. For H2 the mean value for scale question five and the collective mean value of Japanese expatriates are higher than those of English-speaking executives. These findings run contrary to expectations based on Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance dimension, which indicates that Japanese mean values should be lower than those of English-speaking counterparts, because Japanese allow their subordinates less chance to share information and objectives. However the results are mixed, since the mean value for scale question seven was lower for Japanese expatriates. But in both cases the differences are small and they are not significant. Therefore, the researcher rejects hypothesis two and concludes that Japanese top expatriates were not less inclined than English-speaking top expatriates to value the efficacy of sharing information and 58 objectives among subordinates. Again, one possible explanation for the opposition of the findings may be that the results can be better explained in terms of the Japanese ringi system than Hofstede's uncertainty avoidance dimension. A striking difference between the mean value of English- speaking and Japanese expatriates' beliefs in the efficacy of participation from their employees (H3) on scale question six was found. The mean value for Japanese top expatriates on scale question six is significantly higher than that of English- speaking executives at the .01 level. The collective mean value of Japanese expatriates is also higher than that of English- speaking counterparts. But the difference is small and it is not significant. From the theoretical framework discussed in the previous sections, one would expect Japanese expatriates to score lower or use centralized authority rather than a participative style in the decision making process. However, the results are mixed, since the mean value for scale question four was lower in Japanese expatriates. But the difference is not significant. Therefore, the researcher rejects hypothesis three and concludes that Japanese top expatriates were not less inclined than English-speaking top expatriates to value the efficacy of participation from their subordinates. Again, a possible explanation for this opposing result may be based on the Japanese ringi system. The differences between the mean value of English- speaking and Japanese expatriates with regard to their beliefs in providing opportunities for subordinates to exercise 59 internal self-control on their jobs were striking. As predicted in H4, Japanese top expatriates were less inclined than English-speaking top executives to provide opportunities for subordinates to exercise internal self-control on their jobs. The mean value for scale questions three and eight, individually as well as collectively, were significantly higher for English-speaking expatriates at the .05 level or better. A higher mean value indicates a greater preference for allowing individual self-control on the job. According to Hofstede (1984a), while leaders in a high power distance society (like Japan) tend to use centralized authority in the decision making process, which allows subordinates less internal self control, leaders in low power distance culture (like English-speaking cultures) tend to use a participative style with less control over subordinates. Therefore, the finding is not surprising that English-speaking top expatriates are far more democratic in their viewpoints on subordinates' internal self-control than are expatriates from Japan. Thus, H4 is accepted. The collective means for all four leadership styles did not differ significantly (3.740 for English-speaking and 3.617 for Japanese expatriates). Thus, it may be concluded that there are considerably more similarities than differences between them. Comparison of the Degree 60 Table 16 of Similarity between Leadership Styles for English-speaking and Japanese Top Expatriates Working in Thailand ea i M * ish- Mean* fog Spylg S ea E ats Japanese Egpats Significance Bl The beliefs on the capacity of subordi- nates' leadership and initiative. Scale question one 3.417 3.125 .537 Scale question two 3.000 2.688 .397 Collective results for 3.208 2.906 .348 scale questions 1 a 2 H2 The view of the efficacy of sharing information and objs. Scale question five 2.917 3.813 .068 Scale question seven 4.500 4.188 .186 Collective results for 3.708 4.000 .320 scale questions 5 a 7 H3 The view of the efficacy of participation. Scale question four 4.500 3.938 .071 Scale question six 2.917 4.000 .008 Collective results for 3.708 3.969 .292 scale questions 4 a 6 H4 The view of providing opportunities for internal self-control on the job. Scale question three 4.083 3.313 .039 Scale question eight 4.583 3.875 .029 Collective results for 4.333 3.594 .002 scale questions 3 a 8 Collective means of all 3.740 3.617 .392 four leadership styles * The higher the mean value, the more the top expatriates favor a democratic- participative approach of leadership. 61 Overall, the conceptual point of inquiry for this part of the research has been the extent to which English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates working in English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand differ in their leadership styles. The preponderance of the findings clearly indicates wide areas of commonality between English- speaking and Japanese top expatriates. The results for the leadership variables, except hypothesis four, indicated that Japanese top expatriates were not very different from English- speaking expatriates. Thus the findings run contrary to the long-standing view and theoretical framework; that Japanese :managers more extensively utilize an authoritarian leadership style. Several alternate explanations for the opposition of these Japanese top expatriates other than the Japanese ringi system mentioned above, might be advanced. First, a commonality between Japanese and English-speaking executives may be due to the possibility that Japanese and English-speaking expatriates adapt their styles to the Thai employees and culture. This comment is supported by the data gathered through interviews that most of the English-speaking and Japanese expatriates working in advertising agencies operating in Thailand said "no" to the question: "Are you practicing management in Thailand as you would in your home country?" Their "no" answers indicate that they adapt their managerial styles more or less to best suit their local employees. 62 Second, another possibility is ‘that some of the interviewed Japanese top expatriates had opportunities to be trained and educated in English-speaking countries, especially in the United States. Thus, they may have a tendency to advocate democratic-participative oriented ideas and practices. This may occur because people's values are not immutable, and their beliefs will change as they are exposed to new knowledge and experiences. Third, another possible explanation is that Japanese expatriates may not really advocate a democratic leadership style, but they may feel that it is old-fashioned these days not to endorse it. In other words, Japanese expatriates may prefer to be perceived by the researcher as democratic-type leaders rather than authoritarian ones. This comment is supported by the results gathered from two focus groups with Thai employees who have had experiences working with both English-speaking and Japanese expatriates. They indicated that Japanese managers tended to use an authoritarian managerial style rather than a participative one. Fourth and finally, Japanese expatriates may have experienced the benefits of a democratic-participative managerial style and thus gradually changed their beliefs and values. This comment is supported by voluminous research findings that indicate a degree of value change among Japanese people in general and Japanese managers in particular (Lane and Worthley, 1982; Reichel and Flynn, 1980; England, 1978; and Austin, 1976). The research indicates a change in Japanese management practices in the direction of being less 63 paternalistic and more democratic. For these reasons, Japanese expatriates' responses concerning their leadership styles seem not to correspond well to the hypotheses derived from the literature review. An analysis of the data gathered through interviews resulted in the following findings: 1. Most of English-speaking (8 of 12) and Japanese (10 of 16) expatriates working in TNAAs operating in Thailand said "no" to the question "Are you practicing management in Thailand as you would do in your home country?" This suggests at least one similarity between them. However, when comparing the "yes" answers of English-speaking and Japanese expatriates, it is interesting to note that they were supported by totally different reasons. When English-speaking expatriates said "yes", they gave the following reasons: First, Thai employees have westernized minds and thus understand western concepts and systems. Secondly, Thai employees are so flexible that they can easily adjust themselves to western managerial styles and their expatriates. Finally, most Thai employees hired in advertising agencies tended to have a high level of education. Therefore, they are responsible for what they have to do. In contrast, when Japanese expatriates said "yes" that they transferred their managerial style from Japan to Thailand, they gave these reasons: (1) they were able to make Thai employees understand and thus adjust to their system; (2) the Japanese managerial style is more effective than Thai style so 64 they adopted their home country style and used it in Thailand to maintain high quality; (3) they practiced their Japanese managerial style because they wanted uniformity in their organizations. It is clear that when English-speaking expatriates said "yes", they based their reasons solely on their Thai employees. However, when Japanese said "yes", they based their reasons entirely on their managerial style without considering their local employees. 2. To the question, "How do you view the transferability of management practices from your home country to Thailand?”, most English-speaking and Japanese expatriates working in TNAAs operating in Thailand tended to believe that the company's basic vision, philosophy, goals and structures are the easiest elements to be transferred. They recognized that any management practice which one brings from a home country would have to be modified and adapted somewhat to suit a different culture. 3. Another apparent difference between English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates is the issue of resolving problems they have encountered. While English-speaking top expatriates have experienced a lack of open debates and direct/ confrontational discussions from their Thai employees, the Japanese have had a different experience. Since English- speaking persons frequently use assertive, direct, and aggressive forms of communication (Madden, Caballero, and Matsukubo, 1986), not surprisingly, they should expect their employees to utilize direct and confrontational approach to 65 problem solving. In contrast, Japanese rarely use assertive, bold, and aggressive statements (Madden, Caballero, and Matsukubo, 1986). Instead, they tend to seek a harmonious consensus. Consequently, Japanese expatriates have had no difficulty with this issue. Another contrast in the problems encountered by English- speaking and Japanese expatriates is the issue of lack of feedback from their Thai employees. While English-speaking expatriates have been dissatisfied with the small amount of feedback from their employees, their Japanese counterparts have not. This difference is not surprising for three reasons: (1) because of the long-standing deep-rooted sense of egalitarianism in English-speaking societies, (2) Japanese's vertical society, and (3) Hofstede's power distance findings. Thus, English-speaking expatriates expect two-way communication with their employees while Japanese executives anticipate their employees to follow their orders. This belief is consistent with the results gathered from the two focus groups, which indicate-that Japanese managers rarely accept their employees' ideas and opinions. Thai Employees' Perceptions on Their Bosses' Leadership Styles Table 17 indicates the results of Thai employees' perceptions of their bosses' leadership styles. It appears from the findings that there are substantial similarities rather than differences between the perceptions of Thai employees working with English-speaking and Japanese expatriates. The 66 mean values of Thai employees working with English-speaking expatriates, between 3.000 and 4.310, indicate that their English-speaking bosses are "slightly" to "somewhat" democratic in their leadership practices. The mean values of Thai employees working with Japanese expatriates, were between 3.063 and 3.938, indicating that their Japanese bosses are "slightly" democratic. However, both English-speaking and Japanese expatriates in this study were perceived by their Thai employees as being more democratic than authoritarian. The differences between the mean values of the Thai employees' perception of the bosses' beliefs in the capacity of subordinates' leadership and initiative were significant. As predicted in H5, Thai employees working in Japanese advertising agencies were less inclined than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value leadership and initiative among subordinates. The mean value for scale questions one and two, individually as well as collectively, are significantly higher for Thai employees working with English-speaking expatriates at the .05, .10, and .01 levels, respectively. (The higher the mean value, the more the top expatriates believe in the capacity of their subordinates' leadership and initiative). Since English- speaking cultures rank high and Japanese culture ranks low on the individualism dimension, English-speaking expatriates are more likely to give high autonomy to their subordinates and encourage them to initiate ideas and opinions than their Japanese counterparts. Since English-speaking expatriates were 67 perceived to be more democratic in their vieWpoints on the capacity of subordinates' leadership and initiative than their Japanese counterparts, H5 is accepted. The differences between the mean values of the Thai employees' perception of the bosses' beliefs in the efficacy of sharing information and objectives among subordinates (H6) were not significantly different. Contrary to the prediction of H6, the mean value for scale question five and the collective mean value of Thai employees working with Japanese expatriates are both higher than the mean values for those working with English-speaking executives. However, the mean value for scale question seven is in the hypothesized direction. But all of these differences are small and they are not significant. Thus, the researcher rejects hypothesis six and concludes that Thai employees working in Japanese TNAAs were not less inclined than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of sharing information and objectives among subordinates. Again, one possible explanation for the opposition of the findings is based on the Japanese ringi system mentioned earlier. The difference between the mean values of the Thai employees' perception of their bosses' beliefs in the efficacy of participation by employees (H7) was not significantly different. Similar to H6, the mean value for scale question four and the collective mean value of Thai employees working with Japanese expatriates is higher than for those working with English-speaking executives, while the mean value for scale 68 question six was lower. But once again, the differences are small and they are not significant. Thus, hypothesis seven is rejected and it is concluded that Thai employees working in Japanese TNAAs were not less inclined than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of participation by employees. Like H6, the possible explanation for the opposition of the findings may also be based on the Japanese ringi system. For hypothesis eight, the mean values of scale questions three and eight, individually as well as collectively, are higher for Thai employees working with English-speaking expatriates. As predicted, English-speaking leaders ranking low on the power distance dimension are more likely than Japanese leaders ranking high on the same dimension to use a participative style, with less control of subordinates, and to allow more subordinates' internal self control. However, the differences are small and they are not significant. Although these differences of the findings are in the hypothesized direction, the researcher, nevertheless, rejects hypothesis eight. The collective means for all four perceptions did not differ significantly (3.545 for English-speaking and 3.422 for Japanese expatriates). Thus, it may be concluded that there are considerably more similarities than differences between them. Overall, the researcher accepts hypothesis five but rejects hypotheses six, seven and eight and concludes that Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese TNAAs 69 perceived their bosses as being more similar than different. The findings, thus, run contrary to the theoretical framework that English-speaking and Japanese managers would be perceived differently by their employees on their leadership styles. One possible explanation for the unexpected finding is the sensitivity of the topic being studied, namely that the Thai employees were asked about their superiors. This sensitivity may lead to a tendency to "agree" and "disagree" respectively to the statements indicating their bosses are democratic and authoritarian leaders. Another possibility is that Thai employees working with English-speaking and Japanese expatriates simply do not perceive their bosses differently. In sum, the conceptual point of investigation in this part has been the degree to which Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand differ in their perceptions of their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles. While there is one significant difference (the perception of their bosses' beliefs in the capacity of subordinates' leadership and initiative), the preponderance of the findings suggests wide areas of commonality between the perceptions of Thai employees working with English-speaking and Japanese expatriates. In each perception variable, the results were that both English- speaking and Japanese top expatriates are perceived to be relatively similar in their leadership styles. 70 Table 17 Comparison of the Degree of Similarity between Perceptions of Bosses' Leadership Styles for Thai Employees Working in English-speaking and Japanese Transnational Advertising Agencies Operating in Thailand Ppppgpiipp Meap* {pp Tppig Meap* for Thai; Signiiicance W ' w E 's prking with speakipg Expatp Japanege Ezpatg HS The perception of the bosses' beliefs in the capacity of subordinates' leadership & initiative. Scale question one 4.310 3.854 .020 Scale question two 3.724 3.417 .060 Collective results for 4.017 3.635 .009 scale questions 1 a 2 H6 The perception of the bosses' views of the efficacy of sharing information and objs. Scale question five 3.000 3.313 .200 Scale question seven 3.655 3.521 .550 Collective results for 3.328 3.417 .573 scale questions 5 a 7 H7 The perception of the bosses' views of the efficacy of participation. Scale question four 3.000 3.125 .453 Scale question six 4.000 3.938 .706 Collective results for 3.500 3.531 .804 scale questions 4 a 6 H8 The perception of the bosses' views of providing opportunities for internal self-control on the job. Scale question three 3.431 3.146 .147 Scale question eight 3.241 3.063 .446 Collective results for 3.336 3.104 .143 scale questions 3 a 8 Collective means of all 3.545 3.422 .161 four perceptions The higher the mean value, the more the top expatriates are perceived to use a democratic-participative approach of leadership. 71 Thai Epployees' Satisfaction The results regarding Thai employees' satisfaction are shown in Table 18. Lower mean values indicate a greater satisfaction toward their bosses' leadership style. The mean values for satisfaction, individually as well as collectively, are lower for Thai employees working with English-speaking rather than with Japanese top expatriates. They are significantly lower collectively and for all five types of their bosses' leadership styles at the .10 level or better. The mean values between 1.586 and 1.793 indicate high satisfaction with their bosses' leadership styles by Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs. The mean values between 1.896 and 2.229 indicate that Thai employees working in Japanese TNAAs are somewhat satisfied with their bosses' leadership styles. Thus, the researcher rejects hypotheses nine, ten, eleven, twelve and thirteen and concludes generally that Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs are more satisfied than Thai employees working in Japanese TNAAs. While the collective means are significantly different, at the .05 level, and almost the .01 level, mean values of both Thai employees working with English-speaking and Japanese expatriates are quite low (between 1.586 and 2.229), indicating that both groups are satisfied with their bosses' leadership practices. H9 310 811 H12 813 72 Table 18 Comparison of the Degree of Similarity between Satisfaction towards Bosses' Leadership Styles for Thai Employees Working in English-speaking and Japanese Transnational Advertising Agencies Operating in Thailand Sapisfaction Mean* for Thais Mean* for Thais Sigpificance Wgrking wz English Working with Speaking Eipats Japanese Satisfaction with the 1.6207 1.8958 .089 opportunities to exercise leadership & initiative. Satisfaction with the 1.5862 1.9583 .012 opportunities to share information. Satisfaction with the 1.7069 2.2292 .002 opportunities to share in the setting of objs. Satisfaction with the 1.7931 2.1042 .065 opportunities to parti- cipate in decision making. Satisfaction with the 1.6897 1.9792 .034 opportunities to exercise internal self-control on the job. Col lective means of all 1.7471 2.0937 .011 five satisfaction. *The higher the mean value, the less satisfaction the employee had with his /her boss. 73 Surprisingly, the findings of H9, H10, H11, 312 and H13 are in contrast not only with the literature review on cultural similarities and differences but also with the reported findings on leadership perspectives among English-speakers, Japanese and Thais. From the theoretical framework discussed earlier, one would expect Thai employees working with Japanese expatriates to score lower or to be more satisfied than those working with English-speaking expatriates. Table 18 shows large significant differences in the satisfaction items. Thai employees working with Japanese expatriates scored higher than those working with English-speaking executives. This suggests that Thai employees working in English-speaking advertising agencies are more satisfied with their English-speaking expatriates than those working with Japanese executives. Various alternate (explanations for the unexpected findings regarding hypotheses nine to thirteen might be advanced. One possible reason is that differences in age, education level, and physical and social environment among Thai employees may affect how they achieve their satisfaction. Komin (1990) conducted a survey in 1981 on a national sample of 2469 Thais from different strata, stratified by geographical regions and by occupations. Findings indicate that the perception of society and the career world of university students, for those who are newly graduated and about to enter the career world (22-29 years of age), is "characteristically idealistic, full of energy to advocate and work for the ideals, with such liberal characteristics as being broadminded, 74 imaginative, creative, ambitious-hardworking, and courageous in speaking and standing up for what one believes" (Komin, 1990). Since the majority of Thai employees working in both English- speaking and Japanese advertising agencies (85.85%) are less than 30 years of age as seen in Table 19, they may have a high tendency to prefer a democratic-participative leadership style. Since Thai employees working with English-speaking expatriates are more satisfied with their bosses' leadership style than those working with Japanese counterparts, this may be a reflection of the fact that the Thai sample comprised a large number of young employees. Table 19: Age of Thai Respondents by Number and Percentage Thais Work with Thais Work with Total Age English-speakers Japanese Expats number percent number percent number percent below 30 52 89.66 39 81.25 91 85.85 31-35 4 6.9 7 14.58 11 10.38 36-40 1 1.72 2 4.17 3 2.83 40 up 1 1.72 - 0 1 .94 Total 58 100% 48 100% 106 100% In addition to the age factor, respondents' level of education may also affect how Thai employees perceived satisfaction with their bosses. Komin (1990) studied the cognitive world of both educated and less educated Thais, and 75 found a tremendous difference between them. The former group has the priorities of being self-centered, competent and self- actualizing with values such as independence, creativity, imagination, courageousness, and social recognition. The latter group places greater importance on obedience, respectfulness, and interdependence. As seen in Table 20, more than 98 percent of all Thai employees in this study have at least a bachelors degree, which may indicate the tendency of Thai employees to prefer a democratic-participative rather than an authoritarian style. Moreover, many of the managerial concepts used in Thailand have been adapted from Western countries. Runlertkrengkrai and Engkaninan (1987) stated that "business education uses and adapts Western textbooks, and most of the lecturers, one way or the other, have either studied in western countries or themselves learnt using western textbooks." Table 21 also shows that all of the Thai employees who gained their degrees from other countries rather than Thailand, graduated from Western countries (24 from the United States and 1 from United Kingdom). Not a single Thai employee gained his/her degree from.Asian countries other than Thailand. Therefore, it seems clear that Thai employees probably have more or less adopted or adapted western managerial ideas. For these reasons, Thai employees' responses concerning their satisfaction with their bosses' leadership styles seem not to correspond well to the theoretical perspectives discussed earlier. 76 Table 20: Education Level of Thai Respondents by Number and Percentage Level of Thais work w/ Thais work w/ Total Education English- Japanese Speakers Number’ Percent Number Percent Number' Percent high school - - - - ' ' associate degre - - 2 4.16 2 1.89 bachelor degree 34 58.62 41 85.42 75 70.75 master degree 24 41.38 5 10.42 29 27.36 Total 58 100% 48 100% 106 100% Table 21: Countries of Universities from Which Thai Respondents Graduated Respondent Associate Degree Bachelor Degree Master Degree Thailand Others Thailand Others Thailand Others Thais in English - - 31 3 (USA) 5 19 (USA) Speaking TNAAs Thais in Japanese 1 1 (UK) 40 1 (USA) - 5 (USA) TNAAs Total=106 1 1 71 4 5 24 77 Another possible explanation for the unexpected findings is that all of the Thai employees in this study are Bangkokians. Often times, people in fast-moving and competitive cities (e.g., New York, Tokyo, London, and Seoul) are inevitably different from those in slower-paced and less developed areas. Bangkok is no exception. While the former group is likely to be more self-oriented, egalitarian, and self—actualizing, (American characteristics), the latter group is entirely the opposite. That Thai employees working with English-speaking expatriates were more satisfied with their bosses' leadership style than those working with Japanese counterparts may reflect that the Thai sample was comprised of only Bangkokians. The unexpected findings may also be due in part to the sensitivity of the topic being studied. Since the Thai employees were asked to rate their satisfaction with their bosses, this sensitive topic may lead to a tendency to check "strongly agree" and "agree" with all the statements in the questionnaire which indicate they are highly or at least somewhat satisfied with their bosses' leadership styles. Another possible explanation for the unexpected findings is derived from the data gathered through interviews with top expatriates. Most English-speaking expatriates working in Thailand had experience working in other countries in Asia and Europe. But most of the Japanese expatriates, on the other hand, were young managers transferred directly from Tokyo-based parent firms. Since the English-speaking executives were more 78 experienced, they may be more capable of understanding their foreign subordinates, and thereby better than their Japanese counterparts at adapting themselves to the Thai culture. In addition to age, level of education, and physical and social environment factors, qualitative data gathered through focus groups also revealed possible explanations for the rejection of hypotheses nine to thirteen. Two focus groups were . conducted by the researcher in mid-July, 1993, in order to gain an in-depth understanding of Thai employees' feelings, attitudes, and perceptions toward their expatriates. Each two- hour focus group consisted of five Thai employees who had experience working not only with English-speaking but also with Japanese expatriates in Thailand. All of them said they preferred to work with English-speaking rather than Japanese expatriates. They gave the following reasons: 1. Japanese expatriates occupy all high positions and Thai employees have few prospects for promotions. This comment is consistent with research done by Taira (1980) on Japanese in Thailand, which found that "good jobs are held by Japanese workers and less skilled or less important jobs by Thai." 2. Japanese expatriates rarely accept their ideas and opinions. Thai employees usually are not allowed to make decisions or fully use their talents. Actual decision-making is done by Japanese. In contrast, English-speaking expatriates not only allow their employees to have a much higher degree of job autonomy but also encourage them to make decisions. 79 3. Japanese expatriates discriminate against female employees. Thus, female employees lack upward mobility. 4. Working ‘with. Japanese (expatriates creates more communication problems than working with English-speaking counterparts. This is because most of the Thai employees are more or less capable of speaking English but not Japanese. At the same time, Japanese executives tend not to be able to speak English. 5. English-speaking advertising agencies consistently provide various training courses for their Thai employees to enhance their performances while Japanese are unlikely to see its advantages. 6. The means used by English-speaking expatriates to decide on advertising strategies and executions are more flexible than those of Japanese executives. Japanese tend to have rigorous rules and expect no deviation from them. These rules make the pressure on Thai employees working for Japanese expatriates more intense than the pressure on those Thais working for English-speaking expatriates. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS Numerous conclusions can be drawn from the evidence in this study of English-speaking and Japanese leadership styles and the perceptions and satisfaction of Thai employees working with English-speaking and Japanese expatriates? The main conclusions are: (1) The general findings indicate that there may be more similarities than differences in leadership practices. It appears that both English-speaking and Japanese expatriates practice a more democratic-participative rather than authoritarian leadership style. The findings run contrary to the theoretical framework that expected differences rather than similarities. Thus, the results seem not to be consonant with what the cultural variables lead one to expect. It is possible that the fault is in the theory which exaggerates the contrast among different cultures. (2) For the first research question, "To what extent do English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates working in the English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand reflect English-speaking and Japanese leadership styles, respectively?", the results indicate that English- speaking top expatriates seem to reflect their English-speaking leadership style more accurately than Japanese executives reflect their Japanese leadership style. Additionally, the 80 81 results also indicate some contradictions between Japanese expatriates' attitudes toward their leadership practices and the qualitative findings from the two focus groups. The Japanese expatriates viewed themselves as democratic- participative leaders whereas Thai employees in the two focus groups viewed their Japanese bosses as authoritarian leaders. The focus group findings indicate that Japanese expatriates rarely accept subordinates' ideas and opinions. Therefore, it may be fruitful in future research to attempt to use qualitative methods with a larger sample to find out more about Thai employees' perceptions toward their Japanese bosses. (3) Research question two was: "To what extent do Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand differ in their perceptions of their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles?" The preponderance of the findings suggests wide areas of commonality between the perceptions of Thai employees working with English-speaking and Japanese expatriates. These expatriates were similarly perceived as being democratic- participative leaders rather than authoritarian ones. However, the findings from the rating scales are inconsistent with the qualitative findings from the two focus groups, namely that Japanese expatriates rarely accept subordinates' ideas and opinions. Therefore, it may also be beneficial for future research to attempt to explore a larger sample of focus groups to get qualitative data on this research question. 82 (4) Research question three asked: "To what extent do Thai employees working in English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand differ in their satisfaction with their English-speaking and Japanese bosses' leadership styles?" Interestingly, the results show large differences in the satisfaction items in the opposite direction expected, namely that Thai employees working with English- speaking bosses seem to be significantly more satisfied with their bosses than those working with Japanese expatriates. The findings from the rating scales are consistent with the qualitative findings from two focus groups, namely that Thai employees prefer to work with English-speaking expatriates. Therefore, it may also be fruitful in future research to attempt to explore with a larger sample using qualitative methods to find out more about Thai employees' satisfaction towards their English-speaking and Japanese bosses. (5) The findings show that English-speaking and Japanese expatriates' attitudes and beliefs towards leadership styles seem not to be greatly different from.each other, and also that the perceptions of Thai employees working with English-speaking and Japanese bosses appear to be similar. Yet the satisfaction towards English-speaking and Japanese executives is significantly different. Since it appears that Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs are significantly more satisfied with their bosses' leadership style, it may be concluded that English-speaking leadership practices seem.to be more popular in Thailand than those of the Japanese. 83 (6) While it is useful to acknowledge the cultural differences, many hypotheses characterizing the practices of English-speaking and Japanese expatriates appear to overstate the contrast between their English-speaking and Japanese leadership practices. Therefore, the researcher believes that an aim in studying managerial culture should not be just to test propositions that come from universalists or particularlists. Instead, the aim should be to examine the fit of values, applications and situations between the parent and recipient cultures involved. CONTRIBUTIONS The contributions of this dissertation are as follows: 1) Much controversy exists with regard to whether managerial practices or certain leadership styles can be standardized or transferred across cultures. Determining whether Thai employees are satisfied with English-speaking and Japanese top lexpatriates' leadership styles has clear implications for both English-speaking and Japanese executives considering transferring their managerial practices from their headquarters for use in Thailand. Results of this study indicate that it may be easier for an international advertising agency to implement a democratic-participative leadership style than an authoritarian style in Thailand. 2) The study contributes to theoretical development in the field of organizational behavior by examining the relationship between culture and its influences on work-related 84 behaviors. It is notable that numerous cross-cultural studies seem to have overemphasized the cultural influences on managerial and organizational practices. While it is advantageous to acknowledge cultural differences, it may be more fruitful to focus on when and how to be sensitive to such cultural differences. Results from this study on the similarities and differences between English-speaking and Japanese leadership styles should be of interest to both particularity and universality advocates. 3) The study contributes to research methodology by utilizing techniques designed to validate top expatriates' responses in their leadership styles. It is notable that in the studies in the literature review, the interviewers usually only asked expatriates to explain their beliefs concerning the way in which subordinates should be supervised. It seems possible that interviewed expatriates could be biased when they are asked to assess their own leadership styles in the direction of being more participative. This study, thus, adds the second group of respondents, the subordinates, to rate their bosses' leadership styles, since people tend to describe others more accurately than they describe themselves. 4) The study will contribute not only to English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates working in English-speaking and Japanese TNAAs and multinational companies, but also to other foreign executives in many multinational companies operating in Thailand. Both English-speaking and Japanese top expatriates will be able to understand local subordinates perception and 85 satisfaction with their leadership styles in comparison with those of other companies. These executives, thus, will be able to adapt their leadership styles so as to promote more satisfied and productive subordinates, which, in turn, may improve employer and employee relations. Since the findings of this study show that a democratic-participative leadership style seems to satisfy Thai employees to a greater extent than an authoritarian leadership style, foreign executives working in Thailand may want to adapt their styles to be more democratic-participative. 5) The study will also benefit administrators not only in parent TNAAs, but also in other parent companies in preparing their expatriates for work in Thailand. Since this study contributes new understanding of the impact of different styles of leadership on employee satisfaction, it can be applied by parent companies in the design of training programs that will help their expatriates to manage more effectively in an unfamiliar cultural environment. For example, the findings of this study are beneficial for Japanese parent companies in designing their training programs so as to encourage their expatriates to use a more democratic-participative leadership style. 6) This study is also beneficial for Thais who seek new jobs in either English-speaking or Japanese transnational advertising agencies. Since this study pinpoints not only the similarities and differences between English-speaking and Japanese leadership styles but also Thai employees' 86 satisfaction toward their English-speaking and Japanese expatriates, the results can be useful for many Thai job applicants. For example, those who prefer more opportunities to exercise leadership and initiative may want to work in English- speaking rather than in Japanese advertising agencies. Similarly, those who prefer more opportunities for internal self-control on the job may want to work in English-speaking TNAAs. LIMITATIONS One major limitation of research on this topic is the small number of English-speaking and Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand. Only six English-speaking and six Japanese advertising agencies were included in this study. The restricted number of transnational advertising agencies, thus, places a limit on the number of foreign top expatriates in both English-speaking and Japanese agencies. Due to this limitation, one may question whether the small group of top expatriates in this study is valid for making inferences about national cultures. An additional limitation of the study is based on the nationality of the top expatriates in American advertising agencies. From the total of 12 top expatriates, only two are Americans. The other ten top expatriates include two Canadians; four Australians; and four British. This study was originally intended to examine the relationships between cultural variables and leadership styles of Japanese and American 87 expatriates, but there were too few Americans available. Thus, the need to include other English-speaking foreign expatriates may reduce the importance of this finding. If the researcher had to do the study once again, the researcher would have not made any assumptions about the nationality of the top expatriates. Instead, the researcher would identify the respondents' nationalities before conducting the study. The use of English as a language to interview Japanese top expatriates creates another limitation of the study. Since only a few Japanese expatriates speak English fluently, less information, opinions and comments were derived from them. It was difficult for the researcher to explore in depth their attitudes and beliefs. Unlike top expatriates from English- speaking agencies, Japanese expatriates were somewhat reluctant to be interviewed, and seemed less willing to respond to questions. Therefore, one lesson learned from this limitation is that if the researcher had to interview non-English-speaking expatriates once again, the researcher would use an interpreter. Another limitation of the study is that it was virtually impossible to control for all of the possible variables that can have an impact on top expatriates' beliefs and attitudes. Among these uncontrollable factors are, for example, the length of time top expatriates have spent in foreign countries, their 'cross-cultural experiences and training, and their individual differences. 88 A final limitation relates to the fact that this study does not include any other country. Thus, the conclusions may not be applicable to other cultures or countries. APPENDICES 89 AETHNMDIX 1 Summary of Consequences of Hypotheses for Statements in Questionnaire Set One Hypotheses Statements Hl: Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English- speaking top expatriates to expect leadership and initiative from their subordinates. 1. The average manager or employee in my agency prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and has relatively little ambition. 2. Leadership skills can be acquired by most manager or employees in my agency regardless of their particular inborn traits and abilities. H2: Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English— speaking top expatriates to value the efficacy of sharing information and objectives. 5. A good leader should give detailed and complete instructions to his subordinates, rather than giving them merely general directions and depending upon their initiative to work out the details. 7. A superior should give his subordi- nates only that information which is necessary for them to do their immediate task. H3: Japanese top expatriates will be less inclined than English- speaking top expatriates to value the efficacy of participation from their subordinates. 4. In a work situation, if the subordi- nates cannot influence me then I lose some influence on them. 6. Group goal setting offers advantages that cannot be obtained by individual goal setting. H4: Japanese tOp expatriates will be less inclined than English- speaking top expatriates to provide opportunities for subordinates to exercise internal self-control on their jobs. 3. The use of rewards (pay, promotion, etc.) and punishment (failure or promote, etc.) is not the best way to get subordinates to do their work. 8. The superior's authority over his subordinates in an organization is primarily economic. 9O .APPTHHIIX 2 Summary of Consequences of Hypotheses for Statements in Questionnaire Set Two Hypotheses Statements HS: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value leadership and initiative among subordinates. 1. My boss believes that his subordi- nates prefer to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and has relatively little ambition. 2. My boss believes that leadership skills can be inborn traits and abilities. H6: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of sharing information and objectives among subordinates. 5. A good leader should give detailed and complete instructions to his subordinates, rather than giving them merely general directions and depending upon their initiative to work out the details. 7. My boss believes that he should give his subordinates only the information which is necessary for them to do their immediate task. H7: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value the efficacy of participation by employees. 4. My boss believes that if his subor- dinates cannot influence him then he would lose some influence over them. 6. My boss believes that group goal setting offers advantages that cannot be obtained by individual goal setting. H8: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be less inclined than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs to perceive that their bosses value the need to provide opportunities for subordinates to exercise internal self control on their jobs. 3. My boss believes that the use of rewards (pay, promotion, etc.) and punishment (failure or promote, etc.) is not the best way to get subordinates to do their work. 8. My boss believes that his authority over his subordinates is primarily economic. APPENDIX 2 (cont ' d) 91 Hypothesis Statements H9: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English—speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to exercise leadership and initiative. 1. I am satisfied with the opportunity I am given by my boss to exercise leadership and initiative in the workplace. 810: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to share information. 2. I am satisfied with the opportunity I am given by my boss to share information. 811: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to share in the setting of objectives. 3. I am satisfied with the opportunity I am given by my boss to share in the setting of objectives. 812: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to engage in participation. 4. I am satisfied with the opportunity I am given by my boss to participate in decision.making. H13: Thai employees working in Japanese ad agencies will be more satisfied than Thai employees working in English-speaking TNAAs with their opportunities to exercise internal self-control on the job. 5. I am satisfied with the amount of control that my boss gives me over the tasks for which I am responsible. 92 APPENDIX 3 Cover Letters for Japanese and English-speaking Top Expatriates To: My name is M.L. Vittratorn Chirapravati, a doctoral student in the Mass Media department at Michigan State University in the U.S.A. I am working on my dissertation on the topic of "A Comparative Study of Leadership Style in American and Japanese Advertising Agencies Operating in Thailand." The purpose of the research is to study cultural variables and leadership styles. There are only a few Japanese advertising agencies operating in Thailand, therefore, it is important to include your agency in this study. This letter is sent to you to request your participation in a thirty-minute interview conducted by myself. I expect that the published results of my work will be useful to transnational advertising agencies, scholars, professionals, faculty of Universities and others who might be interested in this topic. The most important thing is that I guarantee confidentiality of information from each agency. I will report only the generalized results of my analysis of the group of respondents, and not information from individual companies. I will contact you in a few days in order to arrange for an appointment for interviewing. I am looking forward to getting cooperation from your company. Sincerely /7/CZRE?%fl?h24§Z M.L. Vittratorn Chirapravati MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF ADVERTISING EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 48824-1212 TELEPHONE (517) 333-2314 FAX (517) 336-2589 May 12, 1993 An Open Letter to Advertising Executives in Thailand Dear Advertising Executive: This letter is to introduce to you Miss Vittratorn Chirapravati. She is a doctoral student at Michigan State University. I am her adviser and doctoral dissertation director. Recently Miss Chirapravati's Doctoral Dissertation Committee approved her dissertation research proposal. She needs to interview advertising executives in Thailand to collect data for her dissertation. The purpose of this letter is to ask for your cooperation. Miss Chirapravati's dissertation deals with leadership styles in Thai advertising agencies. She needs to interview executives such as you. This is an important topic and will ultimately lead to published results, available to all. However, your individual contribution will of course be guaranteed confidentiality. I do hope you will participate in this interesting and worth- while project. If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact me by telephone (517-353-3862), FAX (517-336—2589) or by letter. Gordon B. Miracle Professor Sin rely, GEM/n5 AlCH 7: an A fl'irmnnv' Artmn/Fnual nnnnnunuu Inclirunnn FACULTY OF COMMUNICATION ARTS CHULALONGKORN UNIVERSITY. PHYATAI ROAD, BANGKOK 10330. THAILAND Telex : UNICHULTH 20217 Tel ; (02)2l5-3591,(02)215-0870-85 ext2204-7,2168 FAX :(662)2I54804,2I53591 ‘ May 24. 1993 To Advertising Executive Fhls letter Is sent to vou to Introduce M.L.Vittratorn Chirapravati. She Is a doctoral student In the Mass Media department at Michigan State thItersIty. She 15 sponsored by Chulalongkorn University. Presently. she is workIng on her dissertation on the topic of 'A comparative study of leadership style ln.Mnerlcah and Japanese AdrertISIng Agencies operating In Thailand." It is important to Include you In her study. Therefore. this letter ls sent to you to ask your participation In a 30 minute Interview conducted by M L Vittratorn. I hope you will parLICIpate In her project. If you have unY questions. please contact me at 218~2200. Sincerely :p/IIL (Associate Professor Dr.Darunee Hirunrak) Dean of Communication \rts. 95 APPENDIX 4 Questionnaire Set One Research on Leadership Style by M.L. Vittratorn Chirapravati Michigan State University LEADERSHIP STYLE In this section below you will see a series of statements. Please indicate your agreement or disagreement. Use the scale below each statement. There are no right or wrong answers. A researcher is interested in your opinion about the statements which follow. 1. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and has relatively little ambition. 3 3 8 3 Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree Leadership skills can be acquired by most people regardless of their particular inborn traits and abilities. Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree The use of rewards (pay, promotion, etc.) and punishment (failure or promote, etc.) is not the best way to get subordinates to do their work. Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 96 In a work situation, if the subordinates cannot influence me then I lose some influence on them. Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree A good leader should give detailed and complete instructions to his subordinates, rather than giving them merely general directions and depending upon their initiative to work out the details. Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree Group goal setting offers advantages that cannot be obtained by individual goal setting. Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree A superior should give his subordinates only that information which is necessary for them to do their immediate task. Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree The superior's authority over his subordinates in an organization is primarily economic. : : : : : : Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 97 TRANSFERABILITY Please answer these questions as accurately as you can. I am interested only in your judgments and opinions. 1. Are you practicing management in Thailand as you would do in your home country? Yes NO If no, what are the impeding factors? 2. How do you view the transferability of management practices from.your home country to Thailand? 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