‘77-'3- AK 3-}: .. i‘.' v sgan-A .- >$ \N “ L V. k ‘g' :0 ‘1‘. ‘1 ’ 'gt‘ifihicfi r .1 zg‘cgmwrfifha‘F’r maria-1! 4"!“53'3" “ a?" “- THEQS WWWW|\\H\\H\\|\\|iMIHHHIHHW 3 1293 01018 This is to certify that the thesis entitled DO THE CULTURAL, ECONOMIC, LEGAL, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES CREATE THE NEED FOR LOCALIzED ADVERTISING MESSAGES? A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND GREECE presented by ELENI ANDREA ZAMPELA has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for MA degree in ADVERTISING #7 " i””° / / flog/”2527 Z/% Zflzaég Major professor DR. GORDON E. MIRACLE 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE ll RETURN BOX to roman this chockout from your rooord. TO AVOID FINES Mum on or bdoro duo duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE $th é; W96 “ f Emma“ fl_—|__ i062901i' MSU is An Milan-two Action/Equal Opportunity Intuition Wm: DO THE CULTURAL, ECONOMIC, LEGAL, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES CREATE THE NEED FOR LOCALIZED ADVERTISING MESSAGES? A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND GREECE. BY Eleni Andrea Zampela A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Advertising 1994 ABSTRACT DO THE CULTURAL, ECONOMIC, LEGAL, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO COUNTRIES CREATE THE NEED FOR LOCALIZED ADVERTISING MESSAGES? A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND GREECE BY Eleni Andrea Zampela Marketers disagree whether advertising messages should be standardized or adapted across countries. This study gives input to the debate by answering the following question: Do the cultural, economic, legal, political and social differences between England and Greece create the need for localized advertising messages for cosmetics in women’s English and Greek magazines? A content analysis of a sample consisting of English and Greek advertisements was conducted. The major findings failed.to.answer the:research.question clearly, due to mixed and sometimes inconclusive results. However, seVeral findings indicated that in some instances adaptation was utilized, while in others standardized elements were acceptable. Therefore, the "in-between" approach is preferred in this study. Justification for total standardization or total adaptation was not sufficient. Copyright by ELENI ANDREA ZAMPELA 1994 To my parents, Andrea and Maria Zampelas, for all the support throughout the years. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am deeply grateful to Dr. Gordon E. Miracle, who taught me much during the past years of my study. His comments and guidance were invaluable. My gratitude is also extended to: Drs. Nora Rifon and Bonnie Reece for taking the time to comment on my work. My very good friend, Perry Cubia, for helping me with the coding. My fiance, Andy Ierides, for being patient and supportive, and especially my parents, Andrea and Maria Zampelas, for supporting me emotionally and financially. Without them my studies at Michigan State University would have never been possible. I would also like to thank the faculty and staff of the Department of Advertising for sharing their knowledge and experience with me the last six years. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1. Global Advertising? 2 The case of Europe 2 2. Purpose and Scope 3 3. Outline of the Research Study 4 2: LITERATURE REVIEW I: STANDARDIZATION VS ADAPTATION 7 1. Introduction 7 2. Standardization vs Adaptation of the Marketing Strategy 10 3. Standardization vs Adaptation of International Advertising 18 4. The Advertising Message 34 Appeals 34 Symbols 35 Illustrations and Layout 36 Copy 38 2: LITERATURE REVIEW II: ENGLAND AND GREECE 41 1. Introduction 41 2. Physical Environment 41 3. Political Environment 43 4. Economic Environment 47 5. Social Environment 52 6. Legal Environment 54 7. What the International Advertiser Should Know 56 8. Advertising Industry 58 9. Culture 74 Definition 74 10. Comparison Between the English and the Greek Culture 79 National Identity 80 The Language 85 Religion 94 Social Institution 103 Women In Society 107 Classification of Culture 110 vi 2: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 3: Context of Culture FORMATION OF HYPOTHESES Colors of Face Cosmetics Colors of the Advertisements Models "Made-in" Concept in Perfume Advertising Language Characteristics The Role of Context METHODOLOGY 1.Method Used 4: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 5: 1. 2. 3. 4. Definition of Content Analysis Limitations of Content Analysis Definition of the Universe The Sample Quantification Instrument PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION Presentation of Results-~H 1-H 4 Discussion of Findings-—H 1-H 4 Presentation of Results--H 5(a)-H 8(b) Discussion of Findings-~H 5(a)-H 8(b) Presentation of Results--H 8(c)-H 8(g) Discussion of Findings--H 8(c)-H 8(q) General Discussion CONCLUSIONS Major Findings Managerial Significance Limitations Further Research Appendix A -Data Coding Instrument Appendix B -Code Book List of References vii 111 113 115 116 117 118 119 123 129 129 129 129 130 130 132 134 134 140 143 158 160 172 175 178 178 179 181 182 184 191 195 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. LIST OF TABLES Colors, by Country of Origin Colors Used in the Advertisements, by Country of Origin Color of Skin, by Country of Origin Color of Eyes of the Models, by Country of Origin ‘ Color of Hair of the Models, by Country of Origin Frequencies of Variable "Country of Manufacturing" Country of Manufacturing, by Country of Origin Language Used in Headline, by Country of Origin Greek Headlines in Greek Advertisements English Headlines in English Advertisements T-test-- Headline Greek Subheadlines in Greek Advertisements English Subheadlines in English Advertisements T-test-- Subheadlines Greek Slogan in Greek Advertisements English Slogan in English Advertisements Language in Body Copy, by Country of Origin Greek Body Copy in Greek Advertisements English Body Copy in English Advertisements viii 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 145 146 146 147 148 149 150 151 151 152 153 153 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. English Brand Name in Greek Advertisements English Logo in Greek Advertisements French Brand Name in English & Greek Advertisements French Logo in English & Greek Advertisements T-Test—-Body Copy Quality, by Country of Origin Sensory Information, by Country of Origin Aesthetic Information, by Country of Origin Size, by Country of Origin Location, by Country of Origin "Imported in Package", by Country of Origin Company Information, by Country of Origin Ingredients, by Country of Origin Product Performance, by Country of Origin Psychological, or Subjective Benefits, by Country of Origin Sexual Appeals, by Country of Origin Beauty of Characters, by Country of Origin Picture of Product Shown, by Country of Origin Image of Users, by Country of Origin Use Occasion, by Country of Origin ix 154 155 156 157 158 160 161 162 163 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 171 172 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Marketing Strategy Inputs 2. Foreign, Domestic, and Firm Environment 3. Environmental Variables 15 26 Introduction The 1990's are considered by many experts to be a new era of global business as economic integration of countries in the same geographical region, such as Europe and North America, continue to increase. According to De Mooij and Keegan (1990), there are certain driving forces that lead to an expansion of world industry in the 1990’s. These are: 1. The exponential increase in innovation and.the shorter economic life of new technology, together with further differentiation in products and distribution methods. Faster transport and communication, such as freight, telefax and satellite television. The impact.of rising income onmcountry infrastructure- countries become more similar in terms of infrastructure, distribution channels and market needs. The growing similarity in marketing approaches and the tendency towards standardization for economies of scale. Globalization - manufacturers either drop specific local products and introduce the same products in different markets, or develop products intended for 2 global buying public.... 6. The high cost of development and the enormous investments needed to produce innovative products and introduce them into the world make it necessary nowadays to think in‘termsiof global approach with the resulting economies of scale. 7. Economic integration: companies join forces [to manage massive investments in R&D and advertising needed to create long-term brand images]. 8. Falling tariff barriers and regional economic pacts such as those of the European Community facilitate trade between countries.... 9. A changing industry structure leads increasingly to, for example, the production of world goods composed of parts from several countries (p.21). However, De Mooij and Keegan (1990) continue to say that there are also restraining forces in the global economic integration. These include: 1. National controls: new types of protectionism include antidumping procedures, a blockade on all mergers and acquisitions over a certain size which have trans-frontier trade implications.... 2. Management myopia: the company history may be a restraining force.... 3. Cultural values: the insensitivity to cultural differences, both in management and in marketing and in marketing strategy, can be a serious constraint on developing a successful global strategy (p.22). GLOBAL ADVERTISING? Advertising is following the trends of the 90’s, as an increasing number of international corporations are turning to standardized advertising campaigns, utilizing the benefits derived from the global economy. However, the question remains whether world consumers are ready for advertising that is standardized that does not vary in accordance with ethnic and cultural barriers. THE CASE OF EUROPE The 1992 European Community unification to a single market, contributed to some corporations’ turn to standardized, ‘pan- European’ advertising campaigns. The driving forces behind the standardization decision were economies of scale and the belief that ’Euroconsumers' will gradually show similarities in their desire for products and buying behavior, influenced mainly by the standardized electronic media and information technology. Large international companies such as Johnson and Johnson, Colgate-Palmolive and Kbdak have already launched standardized campaigns in Europe. However, many experts on the subject disagree with the standardization approach saying that corporations should take into consideration the national characteristics of each country including the culture, language, history, geography and economy, insisting that the term ’Euroconsumer' is still elusive. PURPOSE AND SCOPE In an attempt to give input in the standardization vs adaptation debate, this study primarily examines the most important cultural variables of two EEC member-nations: England and Greece. The cultural variables examined are: national identity, language, religion and social patterns including family structure, education and women's place in 4 society. A brief comparison of the physical, political, legal, economic, and social environments of the two countries as well as an analysis of the advertising institution in both countries is performed, as these variables are considered important in understanding cultural differences or similarities between England and Greece. In this research study, the effort is made to answer the following general research questions: Do the cultural, economic, legal, political, and social differences between England and Greece create the need for localized advertising messages for women's cosmetics in women's English and Greek fashion magazines? Conversely, do the cultural, economic, legal, political, and social differences seem to require no differences, that is, do they permit standardized advertising messages for such products in women’s fashion magazines? In order for the research question to be answered, 32 hypotheses were formulated from the comparative analysis of England and Greece. The method used is content analysis and the unit of analysis is magazine advertisements for women's cosmetics jpublished. in :recent English. and. Greek. women's fashion magazines. The women's cosmetics category was divided in two specific categories: a) Face Cosmetics including make-up, lipsticks, eye-shadows, and facial skin care. 5 b) Body Cosmetics including perfumes, body lotions and moisturizers, and fingernail polish. OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY Many of the presentations of the study are necessarily detailed and technical, with a large proportion of the study devoted, to literature review, necessary for an in-depth analysis of the subject and for formation of hypotheses. Technical details of the content analysis are provided to guide the reader through the study. To aid the reader in understanding the organization of the study, a brief outline is offered. Chapter 2 is divided into two sections. Both of the sections review a substantial amount of literature written on the subject examined. The first section provides an in-depth discussion of previous works on the standardization]adaptation issue. The second section provides a comparative analysis of England and Greece in terms of the physical, legal, political, economic, and social environment, advertising institution, and cultural variables. Hypotheses are based on the literature review. Chapter 3 describes the method used to test the hypotheses. Definition and limitations of content analysis are given, as well as the procedure to select the sample, to develop the data coding instrument and to specify the 6 statistical analysis and tests used to accept or reject the hypotheses. Chapter 4 is concerned with the presentation and discussion of the findings. Chapter 5 restates the major findings, assesses their managerial significance, discusses the limitations of the study and makes suggestions for future research. 2 Literature Review I: Standardization vs Adaptation INTRODUCTION When corporations decide to enter a foreign market they are faced with the dilemma of whether to standardize or adapt (localize) their marketing strategy. Marieke R. De Mooij and Warren Keegan (1990) write: "Marketing strategy is that part of the business which identifies target markets and addresses the needs and wants of customers to formulate an integrated marketing mix of product, price, place (channels of distribution) and promotion or communication" (p.41). All the elements of the marketing mix need careful evaluation before a marketing plan is launched successfully in a foreign country. There are many factors that have to be examined before a decision is made such as target market, market conditions, nature of the product and environment. The two opposing views are nothing new to the international business circles since they have been debated since the mid- 8 1960's. However there is no definite answer to the problem. Many scholars are advocating an in-between approach suggesting that each situation is unique and the circumstances in each case have to be examined first before deciding whether to standardize or adapt a marketing plan in a foreign market. All views will be examined in detail later in the chapter as well as the several factors that contribute to the final decision. This study will emphasize the standardization or adaptation of the marketing communication, particularly the possibility of standardizing magazine advertising messages in the English and the Greek markets. According to Edward Cundiff and Marye Tharp Hilger (1988) there are five alternative strategies for worldwide marketing. Figure 1 summarizes the alternatives. Ideally, the marketer would seek situation I, where product, promotion, marketing channel and price all remain the same. This strategy has been described as globalized marketing, the direction of the future. Supporters of this strategy suggest that the marketer should try to find a number of foreign markets that would fit into situation I because the firm will incur the lowest marketing costs (Cundiff and Hilger, 1988, p.299). Cundiff and Hilger continue to say that most companies must have a different price (situation II) because of the different costs involved in serving different markets. In situation III the marketer finds it necessary to have 9 different channels of distribution possibly due to differences in infrastructure and types of intermediaries in each country. In situation IV, only the product remains unchanged, recognizing the differences in culture that result in changing the communication marketing as well as price and distribution. In situation V the entire marketing mix needs to be changed to meet the local tastes and local conditions. IpMarketing_ -*StratégY' , ' _' ' ' jurnputs’ I ’ II - III: IV” ' V vfi.produ¢t jxsame~ i Same“i9same. Isame"*diff.-‘ =;2;Pr9m9tiona same» «,samev .vsame.~tdiffi #diff#+ ,3.Channelf _ same 3 * same rdiff. diff. 2diff. W4.Pricefi‘ ’vsamef 'wdiff. "diff. diff. 9diff. w Figure 1 Marketing Strategy Inputs Source: Edward Cundiff and Marye Tharp Hilger,Marketing in the International Business(New Jersey:Prentice Hall, 1988) p.300. However, international marketers are mostly using the alternative strategies II, III, and IV, forms of the "in- between" approach rather than total standardization or total adaptation. 10 STANDARDIZATION VS ADAPTATION OF THE MARKETING STRATEGY When it comes to the famous standardization - adaptation dichotomy it is true that most international marketers prefer to standardize their marketing strategy as much as possible mostly because of the perceived economies of scale and the simplicity involved. "Each change in the marketing strategy to meet the needs of a foreign market moves the marketer farther from the familiar and reduces the gains from large-scale standardized operations" (Cundiff and Hilger, 1988, p.299). Advocates of standardization argue that it is possible to use a common product, price, distribution and promotion program on a worldwide basis. De Mooij and Keegan (1988) define standardization as "...offering identical products worldwide at identical prices via identical distribution channels, supported by identical sales and promotion programmes" (p.57). Theodore Levitt (1983), one of the major advocates of standardization, in the article "The Globalization of Markets" mentions examples of successful products that are sold on a worldwide basis unchanged; such products include McDonald's, Coca-Cola, Revlon cosmetics, Sony television and Levi's jeans. Levitt suggests that the usage of the ultimate standardization strategy or globalization of marketing will incur lower marketing costs which will enable the corporations to cut prices and win more buyers throughout 11 the world than if they sell products tailored specifically to regional or cultural taste. Levitt also argues that tastes, preferences and motivations of people in different cultures are becoming more homogeneous due to cheap air travel and new telecommunications technology. Levitt asserts that: When the global producer offers his lower costs internationally, his patronage expands exponentially. He not only reaches into distant markets, but also attracts customers who previously held to local preferences and now capitulate to the attraction of lesser prices. The strategy of standardization not only responds to worldwide homogenized markets but also expands those markets with aggressive low pricing. The new technological juggernaut taps an ancient motivation-~to make one’s money go as far as possible. This is universa1--not simply a motivation but actually a need (p.96). He insists that "the multinational corporation’s accommodating mode to visible national differences is medieval" (p.96). Levitt is often criticized as being too absolute in his opinion on standardization (Douglas and Wind, 1987) and his article is criticized as lacking hard evidences to support the hypothesis (Boddewyn, Soehl and Picard, 1986). More specifically Douglas and Wind (1987) write that although "global segments with similar interests and response pattern may be identified in some markets, it is by no means clear that this is a universal trend" (p.21). While there is a number of product categories such as perfumes-- Dior, Patou and Yves St. Laurent—-and watches--Rolex and Omega-~that have successfully identified global customer 12 segments and developed global products and brands targeted to these segments, numerous other companies adapt their lines to country preferences and develop local brands (Douglas and Wind, 1987). Douglas and Wind also suggest that there is substantial evidence to suggest an increasing diversity of behavior within countries. Studies conducted on the subject (Garreau 1981; Saegert, Moore and Hilger 1985; Kahle 1986) have identified major differences between subculture segments and regions. Evidence is also lacking that customers worldwide are willing to trade-off product features for lower prices. If the global markets are in fact consisting of upscale affluent customers then lower prices will not be the motivation for buying; rather premium quality and prestige will be (Douglas and Wind, 1987). Studies conducted suggest that product quality is the driving force behind successful marketing strategies in the US and other developed countries (Douglas and Craig 1983). In response to Levitt’s article Boddewyn, Soehl and Picard (1986) found tfiat in 1983 there was less change in product standardization than was anticipated in 1973. The industry of industrial products actually moved toward greater product adaptation to national markets. Similarly, branding and advertising were not moving toward greater standardization. Like Boddewyn et al., Leontiades (1986) reports that 13 the pressures of international competition, more discriminating customers and improved design and production technology are moving some firms towards more localization. On the contrary, Sorenson and Weichmann (1975) who evaluated marketing standardization in European subsidiaries of 27 MNC’s found high level of standardization in brand names, physical characteristics of the products, packaging, basic advertising message, role of the middlemen and role of the sales force. In other studies higher standardization was reported for product policies (Bakker 1977; Aydin and Terpstra 1981) rather than any other aspect of the marketing mix. Although it is widely believed that the major benefit of standardization across countries is the great economies of scale achieved, Sorenson and Weichmann (1975) concluded in their study that in only one out of the 27 companies were executives able to give evidences of specific savings resulted from standardization. The economies of scale for product uniformity for consumer packaged goods are not perceived to be very great (Walters 1985). Other than some evidence that adapted products increase the cost (Rutenberg 1982) there is lack of hard data regarding cost savings. Defenders of the localization strategy (Fisher 1984; Kotler 1985) on the other hand, believe that there are great differences between countries that make it almost impossible for a single marketing strategy to work effectively in all 14 markets. Arndt and Helgesen (1981) argue that marketing institutions and marketing practices should be tailored to the ecological, economic and societal characteristics of the societies served and that no such thing as universally appropriate marketing orientation or systems practice exists. Similarly, Hofsted (1983) found that cultural differences have a great impact on management and organizations. Friedmann (1986) assumes that "the psychological meaning that consumers derive from and ascribe onto products" is significant in deciding whether to adapt or standardize; but he concludes that "psychological meaning is culturally bound and, therefore, representative of the most relevant variable (i.e., culture) influencing such strategic choices" (p.102). David Ricks (1983) writes: "The task of international marketing has been far more difficult and risky than many firms expected. This is primarily due to the involvement of a great many variables-~most of them uncontrollable, but recognizable"(p.5) (see figure 2). As Ricks writes: No group of variables has been blunder-free. In fact, blunders have resulted from a lack of concern for every single variable. It is not enough just to worry about most of the variables. Overlooking any of them can and has caused serious problems. The foreign environment has been especially difficult for some to analyze. Many mistakes, for example, have been made because managers have failed to recall that buyers differ from country to country. Buyers, influenced by local economic constraints and by 15 local values, attitudes and taste, differ in what they buy, why they buy, where they buy, and who makes the purchasing decisions. Managers who have failed to recognize these differences have committed a number of blunders (p.5) Foreign environment Domestic environment Firm I (uncontrollablcs) A , (uncontrollables) (controllable) Political Forces Political Forcec “Product , Economic Forces Economic Climate Price Competitive Forces Competitive structure - Promotion Level of Technology Distribution Structure of Distribution 5°08“th Cultural Forces 4 ._ g . . ((77 _,g. f , Figure 2 Foreign, Domestic, and Firm Environment Source: Adapted from P R.Cateora & J M.Hess, Vern Terpstra (1982) suggests in fact that "it is the international differences in buyer behavior, rather than the similarities, which pose stumbling blocks to successful international marketing. Thus the differences must receive disproportionate attention from the marketer" (p.44). Gordon E. Miracle (1968) when presenting the adaptation view writes: ... it can be argued that a communicator should rightly take cognizance of the differences between consumers in his own country and those in other countries. They not only speak another tongue, but they adhere to other religions, philosophies, and traditions; they differ with regard to family patterns, childhood training, and the role of members in the family. The occupational hierarchy varies among nations; climate and geography and other aspects of consumers' physical environment 16 are diverse; consumers engage in a wide variety of sports, hobbies, and other forms of amusement and entertainment. These environmental differences play an important part in shaping the demand for specific types of goods and services and in determining what promotional appeals are best. Thus while human nature and the motives of men are more or less universal, the ways in which men satisfy their needs are not. The nature of need satisfaction is determined by cultural and socio-economic conditions (p.30). De Mooij and Keegan (1990) suggest three categories of differences: 1. Cultural differences which influence consumer behavior. 2. Differences in infrastructure. 3. Economic and technological differences (p.55). According to De Mooij and Keegan there are many cultural variables which influence marketing such as "... attitudes towards consumption of goods ; the use of color, brand names, design and music; education and literacy; religion and beliefs; sex roles in society; and the political situation" (p.55). In addition, differences in infrastructure might cause a problem in standardization. "Differences in transport systems, distribution, available media, legal conditions, the physical environment and communications systems can force multinationals to use an approach which differs from country to country" (De Mooij and Keegan, p.57). Also, the economic differences from country to country can be a detrimental factor to a company that uses standardization of the marketing strategy. De 17 Mooig and Keegan argue that the different economic situations bring about different consumer needs and attitudes. "Advanced technological economies produce skills and working environments which are not found in agricultural societies" (p.56). Another approach discussed by Wind and Douglas (1972) is international market segmentation. They write: Given the heterogeneity of most markets, segmentation in both domestic and international markets entails breaking down the market for a particular product or service into segments of customers which differ in terms of their response to marketing strategies. By doing so, the firm can tailor its marketing policies to the needs of each specific segment, hoping to obtain more favorable response and thus greater profits than by following a uniform strategy aimed at the entire market. In international markets the advantages of segmentation appear potentially at least as great if not greater than in domestic markets. Because of the differences in the cultural, economic and political environment between various countries, international markets tend to be more heterogeneous than domestic markets. The range of income levels, the diversity of life-styles and the social behavior is likely to be significantly greater when considering the world as opposed to a national market. The existence of such heterogeneity provides substantial possibilities for identifying different segments (p.17). Onkvisit and Shaw (1987) also support the market segmentation strategy, arguing that it is the consumer homogeneity/heterogeneity which actually provides the major distinction between standardization and segmentation because for standardization to be achieved, consumer homogeneity is a necessary condition. But market segmentation (as well as the marketing discipline itself) is based on the 18 heterogeneity assumption. "One of the major reasons cited for market segmentation involves a marketing effort concerned with satisfying selected consumer segments differently but more precisely" (p.52). STANDARDIZATION OR ADAPTATION OF INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING? According to De Mooij and Keegan (1990) there are four fundamental strategies for multinational or global marketing communications.' 1. Standardized brand/product and standardized promotional mix. This strategy can be applied when products are culture-free such as perfumes or tires. 2. Standardized brand/product and locally adapted promotional mix. Although certain products are the same in all countries they are used for different purposes. In such situations the positioning of the product is different as well as the target audience; therefore adapted promotional mix is needed. 3. Locally adapted product/brand and standardized promotional mix. There are circumstances in which the product should be adapted due perhaps to climatic or legal differences but the promotional mix can remain the same mainly because the product is used by the same target audience and for the same purpose. 4. Locally adapted product/brand and locally adapted 19 promotional mix. In situations such as these both the product itself and the promotional mix should change due to insuperable differences between the countries. The strategy to be used should ensure the accurate communication to the target audience. As Ricks (1983) writes: "good communication linkages must be established between a company and its customers, its employees, and the governments of the countries where it performs business activities. Poor communication networks between any of these areas can, and have, caused difficulties" (p.11). The communication process in the international environment has been described by Terpstra (1981). As Terpstra suggests, there are numerous barriers in the international environment that can prevent the communication process from being effective. Serious consideration of all of them is a must for the international advertiser. Miracle (1968) writes that "communication with buyers in foreign markets may not be effective for a number of reasons" (p.30). The message may not get through to the intended recipient. Either the medium may not reach the recipient, or the message may not be perceived for some reason.... Such difficulties may be due to the advertiser's lack of knowledge about which media are appropriate to reach foreign target audiences, and lack of knowledge about when to reach them. The message may not be understood in the way intended by the sender. Because of the advertiser's lack of knowledge of the factors which influence how persons from different cultures will interpret messages, it is possible for him to prepare messages which will not be interpreted correctly. The message may not induce the recipient to take 20 the action desired by the sender. Although a message may be perceived correctly, lack of knowledge about foreign cultural factors which influence attitude formation, purchasing behavior, and so forth may cause communication to fail in producing the desired effect (Miracle, 1968, p.30). Similarly, Onkvisit and Shaw (1987) write that the purpose of advertising is to communicate and to persuade, and it is the receiver, not the sender, who is the most important link in the communication process. "Since the receiver’s particular response is desired, the receiver is the only justification for the source to exist and the communication to occur" (p.51). One group of authors (Lenormand, McCarthy and Perreault; and Reed, among others) emphasizes the differences between the countries insisting that the development of specific advertising programs is necessary to achieve impact in the local markets (Onkvisit and Shaw 1987). Ricks argues that "cultural differences are the most significant and troublesome variables..."(p.7). Edward Hall (1960) discusses the way in which people in several cultures view time, space, friendships, and agreements. In 1969, John Ryans argued that at that time the magnitude of international differences prevented the vast majority of international advertisers from employing a standardized approach. In 1986, 17 years after Ryans' article was published, Jadgish Sheth agrees, saying that standardization may be a difficult strategy to pursue because the markets 21 are becoming more divergent within each country so they tend to produce "overlapping segments across countries, giving the illusion that markets are becoming global" (p.11). In addition, Michael Porter (1986) made the point that Levitt did not take into consideration the fact that increased homogenization of needs across international borders went together with more segmentation of needs within countries, making standardization an untenable strategy." It is true that all people are motivated by the same basic instincts, sense, affections, passions and aspirations, but the different manner of expressing these motivations and aspirations can wreck marketing plans and advertising campaigns, as can customs and many other differences" (Reed 1967). On the other side of the debate are those such as Roostal who believe that even when people are different their basic physiological and psychological needs are the same. Erik Elinder, one of the most passionate advocates of standardization, suggests that in 1965 the Euroconsumer really exists. He writes: Yes! Right now there are millions and millions of Europeans living under largely similar conditions, although they read and speak different languages. They have about the same incomes after taxes. They may live in private houses or in modern apartments, with bathroom TV, radio and refrigerator. By and large they tend to have the same drinks, and their food becomes more and more all-European every year. They see the same films and plays. They read the same magazines or syndicated articles. Their vacations are spent on the same European roads or at the same European summer resorts. Wherever they work, their factories have much 22 the same kinds of machinery; and office equipment is so standardized that you can almost find your way through a modern office in the dark, no matter in what country (p.9). Elinder continues to say that consumption in Europe is very "all-European", very international, and that "soon it may be only advertising which stubbornly ’refuses’ to adjust itself to the new situation" (p.9). And that "in Europe people read about largely the same products. But the picture material is not the same, nor the copy, nor the persuasive appeals--even in the thousands of cases where there is no necessity whatever for them to differ" (p.9). His suggestion to the international advertisers is "... take into account trends in European consumption habits [other] than the ’national traits’ and ’traditional characteristics’" (p.9). However, Fournis (1962) is more skeptical: "One does not readily give up customs, traditions, language and literature. To create the European [consumer] will undoubtedly take many generations" (p.83). Does that mean that in the 1990's the European consumer actually exists? In an article published in the Wall Street Journal, Browning (1992) writes: "But as they charge off on this quest, Europe’s new Euromanagers are discovering an unpleasant truth: The Europroduct is a lot easier to imagine than it is to create and sell and the Euroconsumer is maddening elusive" (p. B1). In his article "The Danger of ’Local’ International 23 Advertising" Arthur Fatt (1967) writes that if localization of international advertising continues "... the growth of global marketing can be seriously inhibited" (p.60). This is because, Fatt says, there is a tendency "...to be negative about what cannot be accomplished, rather than positive about what can"(p.60). Fatt talks about "universal appeals" in advertising campaigns and gives examples such as "the desire to be beautiful", "mother and child", "freedom from pain" and "glow of health" to be universal. Many scholars try to contribute to the solution of the controversy by offering an "in-between approach" (Miracle 1968; Dunn 1976; and Colvin, Heeler and Thorpe 1980, among others). They support centralization of the "whats" and localization of the "hows" when possible, depending always on the social, economic, political and environmental differences as well as on the type of the product, the size of the market and media availability (Roth 1982). Industrial products advertising, for example, is more easy to standardize than consumer product advertising. As Cundiff and Hilger (1988) write: " ...when a product satisfies the same needs, is used in similar ways, has the same buyer motivation, and has a simple and translatable message, one message can be used effectively in all markets. However," they continue, "for advertising to be effective, in the majority of cases, it must be designed or adapted to meet the unique needs of each market" (p.413). Dean Peebles, 24 John Ryans and Ivan Vernon (1977) agree, saying that the successful middle ground is not standardized campaigns where the only difference between markets is one of language translations or idiomatic change. It is, instead, a redefinition of the standardized advertising concept, i.e., "... to recognize that the concept is not simplistic and should be considered in terms of degree of uniformity and not as an absolute" (p.570). Miracle (1968), a pioneer defender of the "in-between approach" writes: The real issue has to do with uniformity of procedures and criteria: when can advertising materials and ideas developed in one country be useful-or adapted for use- in another country, and when not? ...the advertising task is essentially the same at home or abroad--namely, to communicate information and persuasive appeals effectively. The requirements of effective communication are fixed, and cannot vary with time, place, or form of communication; therefore, the same approach to communication, that is the same approach to the preparation of messages and selection of media, can be used in every country. It is only specific advertising messages and media strategy that sometimes must be changed from country to country (p.29). Walters (1985) however, warns about process standardization, or standardization of method, mentioning studies which revealed problems with process standardization. Cavusgil and Yavas (1984) for example identified significant barriers to transfer of marketing know-how from the United States to Turkey due to the production orientation of Turkish managers. Ryans (1969) divides consumers into three broad 25 categories depending on their receptivity to the standardized technique. The three categories are: international sophisticate, semi-sophisticate and provincial. Cateora (1983) believes that the question of standardization or modification depends more on motivational patterns than geography. Britt (1974) gives three factors that influence the degree of standardization in advertising: consumption including income group and motive in purchase among others; psychosocial including psychological, social and economic trends and culture including society restrictions, stigma and traditions. Dunn (1976) mentions 31 environmental variables that are important to determine the degree of standardization (see figure 3). Killough (1978) in his article "Improved payoffs from transnational advertising" focuses on the subject of transferability of advertising resources (content and form of advertising message) from one country into another. He distinguishes between the "buying proposal" (advertising strategy) and the "creative presentation" (advertising execution). After surveying a number of executives Killough found that strong buying propositions can be transferred without significant change more than 50% of the time, citing the similarity of customer motivations as the most important reason for such decision. Therefore, only if the group of potential customers in 26 a country has a set of needs and interests similar to the buyers of the product in established markets the buying proposal will successfully transfer. An example, used in Killough’s article is the buying proposal for toothpaste; the proposal is "benefits" and if this is not the primary motivation of target consumers in all the markets under ~Environmenta1 variables affecting the extend of standardization: Dunn 1976 ’Rate of economic growth, per capita income 8 distribution of , income, average household size, literacy level, education level, C*vocational training, social class structure, attitudes toward 9 authority, attitudes toward the U-S., degree of nationalism, ,fattitudes toward achievement and work, attitudes toward risk bjtaking, attitudes toward wealth and monetary gain, similarity qéof ethical. and moral standards, .availability of time iOn » ' commercial broadcast media, availability of satisfactory, outdoor- 'rmedia, independence of media from government control, political erorganization 8 stability, import/export rate of country, lega1 i~restrains on advertising, availability of prototype campa1gns,, 5 relative importance of visual vs verbal in ad .message, ;qexperience 8 competence of personnel in foreign subsidiary 8 ;gdistributor, eXperience 8 competence of personnel in foreign gyagency, eating patterns 8 customs, importance of self-serv1ce’ gvretailing,-import duties 8 quotas, development 8 acceptance of<‘ ,finternational trademark, applicability of products’ themejor, slogan, adequate coverage of market by broadcast media, and "3aVailability of satisfactory print media. " IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-Il Figure 3. Source: Adopted by Sak Onkivisit and John J. Shaw (1987) "Standardized International Advertising", Columbia Journal of World Business, Fall 1987: 43-54. study, then the buying proposal has to be changed. "Sales of cavity-reducing fluoride toothpastes flourish in countries where having healthy teeth is of major importance. But in 27 the north of England and in the French areas of Canada, the predominant reason for buying toothpaste is breath control" (p.106). Killough also mentions a set of qualitative factors that he calls the "target audience’s ’frame of mind’" and that he believes might affect either negatively or positively successful transferability of the "buying proposal;" these are: traditional beliefs, contemporary behavior and product familiarity. There are also proposition barriers to the "buying proposal." These are: 1) values that are highly personalized and 2) products and services that have truly independent appeals (Killough 1978). When asked about the "creative presentations" (advertising execution) the executives felt "that creative presentations do not travel across geographical boundaries nearly as well as buying propositions (advertising strategy). Less than 30% of all advertising campaigns are used outside of the market for which they were first produced" (Killough 1978, p.107). The reason why message appeals usually differ from country to country is given by Hornik (1980). He writes that attitudes and perceptions differ because they are more influenced by culture (Coles and Branner 1971), tradition (Bond, Makazato and Shiraishi 1975), political systems (Porter 1972), life style (Linton and Broadbent 1974), 28 economic system (Kaplan 1972), and media system (Farace 1966). In his study Hornik (1980) is emphasizing the variable of culture. He writes that "the international advertiser must constantly be on the alert to cultural variations" (p.36) because although "in some ways, everyone in the world is the same, at the same time, no two persons in the world are the same. Thus each of us is a cultural communicator and a cultural preceptOr" (p.37). A great level of difficulty in intercultural communication comes from understanding nonverbal signals that are generally coded so automatically within a single culture that we are quite unconscious of them (Cole and Bruner 1971; Harott 1970). However, along with the "vertical" analysis of cultures a "horizontal" analysis of similar market segments across countries should be performed to determine common attitudes among these segments (Dunn 1976). Hornik (1980) conducted an empirical study to find out if there are any differences in attitudes and perceptions among groups receiving the same product advertisement presented in a standardized form, a localized form, and an unidentified form. He used product categories such as cosmetics (Helena Rubinstein Skin Life Cleanser and Faberge fragrance), home appliances (Westinghouse refrigerators), soft drinks (Coca- Cola), fashion (Levi’s jeans) and office equipment (IBM 29 typewriters). Only the results derived from the advertisements for cosmetics will be presented here since the product category is of particular importance in this study. Results indicated that there are differences between the ads. Significant differences from the others in terms of attitude-—more preferred advertisement were found in two cosmetics ads; The Helena Rubinstein Skin Life Cleanser that was locally made and the standardized Faberge fragrance. The Helena Rubinstein ad preferred, was featuring a beautiful female model--Israeli type (the research was conducted in Israel). It was preferred over the same ad that was featuring an American-type model. The brief copy was the same as well as the overall approach. Hornik writes: "...it seems that it was easier for the Israeli women audiences to identify with the Israeli character in the ad than the more sophisticated culturally different pose of the American model in the American ad. Subjects made statements like ’she (American model) looks different ...’; ’The girls overseas have a different skin...’(p.43). On the contrary, the standardized advertisement for Faberge fragrance was preferred over the local one. The advertisement featured the celebrity Margaux Hemingway and the copy read: "The fabulous Margaux Hemingway introduces the fabulous fragrances from the Home of Faberge". The local ad for Faberge showed Rina Mur, 1976 Israel and International beauty queen, and the 30 copy read: "Rina Mur is proud to announce she enjoys using the fragrance from the Home of Faberge". Hornik in his discussion writes: Women, it has been observed, are especially susceptible to the personality lure, especially if the personality is associated with the world of entertainment. Results have indicated the superiority of the American celebrity ad over the Israeli celebrity. The big-name international ad for an international product was used to full advantage in the Margaux Hemingway ad. The advertiser established her as a well- known international star and a beautiful, likable character (p.43). In his concluding remarks Hornik writes that although there might be some universal appeals it is difficult to find them. So he suggests that "the creative efforts [need] ... to be adapted to the cultural and marketing characteristics of each foreign market, preferably on the basis of field research and experiments conducted in the target market" (p.43). However, not all international advertisers think that cultural variables are important. An article written by Donnelly (1970) finishes asking if, indeed, cultural variables are important. Many authors (Van Raaij 1978; Cole and Bruner 1971; Dichter 1962; Munson and McIntyre 1979; Triandis 1979; and Brislin, Lonner and Thorndike 1973 among others) seem to believe that cultural variables are important. Brislin et al. (1973) writes that culture is primarily a phenomenon of region or nationality so national identity predicts culture. 31 Van Raaij (1978) writes that a fundamental bias in cross- cultural research arises from "ethnocentrism"--from the blindness to the unique and different characteristics of another culture. However when it comes to marketing abroad, ethnocentrism has to be controlled because cultural differences usually act as barriers to effective communication (Cole and Brunner 1971). Hall writes " No matter how hard man tries, it is impossible for him to divest himself of his own culture, for it has penetrated to the roots of his nervous system and determines how he perceives the world.... People cannot act or interact at all in any meaningful way except through the medium of culture" (p.188). Similarly, the Greek philosopher Herodotous said: "If one were to offer men to choose out of all the customs in the world such as seemed to them the best, they would examine the whole number, and end by preferring their own; so convinced are they that their own usage surpass those of all others" (Rawlinson 1939, 52). However, there is limited empirical research conducted to properly answer Donnelly’s question about the importance of cultural variables in the international advertising arena. A group of studies concentrating on consumer characteristics is presented in the Onkvisit and Shaw (1987) article. One study conducted by Green, Cunningham and Cunningham (1975) between American, French, Indian and Brazilian students asked about meaningful attributes of soft 32 drinks and toothpastes resulted in disparities in attribute importance. Evidently, a standardized advertisement employing the same attributes internationally would have not been effective (Onkvisit and Shaw 1987). Another group of consumer studies presented in Onkvisit and Shaw (1987) dealt with the standardization issue directly by asking consumers to respond to a wide range of advertisements. The studies are important because all of them are dealing to some extent with personal care product advertising. The study conducted by Schleifer and Dunn (1968) investigated how attitudes toward a given country might affect the potential persuasiveness of the advertising message. The results suggested that national identity of a model or product could influence advertising receptivity (Schleifer 8 Dunn 1968). The study conducted by Onkvisit and Shaw (1983) revealed that group differences existed and that the connotative responses to such advertisements were far from uniform among the respondent groups (Onkvisit and Shaw 1983). In general, the "studies revealed that the practice while appearing to be rather widespread, is usually tempered by environmental factors and the extent of market homogeneity".... "The findings also indicate that demographic, psychographic and behavioral differences are 33 quite relevant" (Onkvisit and Shaw 1987, p.50). Onkvisit and Shaw conclude: It is virtually impossible to prove the superiority or inferiority of advertising standardization. There are examples of effective standardized advertisements as well as some ineffective ones. Likewise, localized advertisements can be either superior or inferior, depending on the basis for a direct comparison of the two approaches, and the focus must be on the merits of the homogeneity assumption as a prerequisite for standardization (p.51). Standardized advertising, in a proper perspective, is prescriptive or normative because it explains how things should be regardless of whether they are a reflection or a reality. But until the world is ready to adopt a single language, a single currency, and a single political ideology, it is premature to accept the standardized approach and its sweeping generalization....Without the much needed refinements, global standardization is nothing more than a quixotic effort in search of an ’impossible dream’(p.54). Instead, Onkvisit and Shaw endorse the geocentric approach which requires that "the advertisement be designed for the worldwide audience from the outset to appeal to a shared intercountry denominator while allowing for some modificatiOn to suit each market" (p.54) rather than using the regiocentric approach in which companies seek for uniformity within specific groups of markets, as delineated using regional, development or other criteria, which are believed to exhibit significant similarity (Wind, Douglas and Perlmutter 1973). Walters (1985) concluded that "...the possibility for, and attractiveness of standardization strategies is very situation-specific" (p.67) and the key variables include the nature of the product, and the nature of the operating 34 environment. THE ADVERTISING MESSAGE If decided by the marketer that a standardized advertising campaign will be used across different countries, several aspects of the advertising message should be examined very carefully, such as appeals, symbols, copy, illustrations and layouts. In general, the message should be simple, visual and with limited copy. APPEALS In order for appeals such as fear-appeal, sex-appeal, health-appeal or status-appeal to be used effectively in a global advertising campaign, careful consumer research is required. Appeals should be compatible with consumer tastes, wants, and attitudes, "...in harmony with the prevailing mentality of the market" (Miracle, 1968, p.31). Many examples are available in the marketing literature of campaigns which failed mainly because they did not consider the social norms of the country. The advertisement of BiNoca Talc was disturbing to Asian Indians because of the use of sex-appeal. Apparently, the ad featured a seminude woman wearing a body stocking splashing herself with talcum powder. "The public, however, was not prepared for the ad’s use of 35 the female form and found the ads extremely indecent" (Ricks, 1983, p.63). Pepsodent tried to sell its toothpaste in regions of Southeast Asia by advertising the fact that their toothpaste helped enhance white teeth. However, that was a major blunder since in that area people chew betel nut to achieve "the social prestige of darkly stained teeth" (Ricks, 1983, p.65). Companies are trying to find universal appeals to use in the globalized campaigns. Examples of worldwide successful campaigns include Revlon, Coca-Cola, and Esso. SYMBOLS American philosopher C.S. Pierce in his study of signs and semiotics writes: "The relationship between a word and the object it stands for is arbitrary or conventional". Pierce suggested that we make sense of this world and we communicate by interpreting signs since the universe is full of them, if not made up entirely of them, meaning that everything can be seen as a sign and it is up to each individual to analyze and interpret it. Despite the fact that as individuals we might analyze signs differently from one another, there is a tendency for people who live in the same society under a dominant culture to understand signs and symbols similarly. Therefore the advertiser must carefully choose the symbols used in advertisements for several markets. According to Miracle 36 (1968) symbols may be either verbal or visual. Color,for example, is a very difficult variable to standardize in advertisements because of the different meanings one color conveys in different countries. Ricks (1983) gives some examples: Green, a popular color in many Moslem countries, is often associated with disease in countries with dense, green jungles. It is associated with cosmetics by the French Dutch, and the Swedes.... Black signifies death to Americans and many Europeans, but in Japan and many other Asian countries, white represents death.... To most of the world, blue is thought to be a masculine color, but it is not as manly as red in the United Kingdom or France. In Iran, blue represents a bad color. Although pink is, believed to be the most foremost feminine color by Americans, most of the rest of the world considers yellow to be the most feminine color. Red is felt to be blasphemous in some African countries but is generally considered to be a color reflecting wealth or luxury elsewhere (p.33). The use of religious symbols in a globalized campaign is usually inappropriate as it might offend people. ILLUSTRATIONS AND LAYOUT As Miracle (1968) suggests, illustrations and layout are more likely to be universal than other features of advertisements perhaps because some forms of art work are understood universally so the illustrations might be appropriate in different markets. For example, Revlon used the same production in several countries; the production featured Parisian models and settings, as Paris or France is highly associated with cosmetics and beauty in the minds of 37 people all around the world. Advertisers who capitalize on the "made in" concept can also use the same illustrations and layouts in several countries as the country of origin of the product plays a significant role in the formation of its image. An Italian shoe manufacturer can easily use Italian settings in the advertisement as well as the German automaker. Head (1988) writes: A hundred years on the ’made-in’ concept has established itself as one of the clearly identifiable strategies employed by companies of many nationalities in their domestic and international advertising, yet opinion is becoming divided as to the importance of the designation of origin as a selling point. Since the 1960s, market research has made frequent attempts to ascertain whether an indication of the country of origin improves the sales prospects of a commodity. Generally, the view has been that it certainly can (p.7). Research done by Waldron (1982), Whalen (1984), and Yavas and Alpey (1986) suggests that advertising exploits the connection with the country of origin in order to enhance the product’s appeal. Wolke (1985) examines in particular the "Made-in Germany" concept, concluding that Germany cannot afford to ignore in its marketing the favorable image that communicates the "Made-in Germany" abroad as it conveys the notions of reliability, precision and punctuality (Head 1988). There are, however, circumstances in which the illustration should change to meet the cultural differences 38 of the countries. The well known Malboro campaign, one of the most standardized campaigns used, had to change the illustration of the cowboy on a horse in a country setting to a younger, better dressed cowboy who owns a truck, to identify with the completely urban people of Hong-Kong. COPY The debate of standardization or adaptation extends even to the copy used in advertising. On the one side are those, like Emment P. Langen (1959), who believe that translation to a different language can be done accurately if a person has: 1) good literary knowledge and command of the technical terminology of both languages, 2) a good understanding of the technical aspects of the products, and 3) copywriting ability which can recreate the persuasive tone of English copy. On the other side are those like Ricks (1983), who believe that: "Translation errors are the cause of a great number and variety of international business blunders. In fact, the largest subset of promotional blunders is the category of mistakes that have arisen through faulty translations. There are three basic categories of translation errors: simple carelessness, multiple-meaning words, and idioms" (p.75). 39 Miracle (1988) writes that "the key question is whether two languages share the necessary basic concepts so that speakers of the two languages can express, send, receive and process the intended meaning. The answer to this question in any particular case depends on functional and conceptual equivalence of the two cultures and languages" (p. RC-51). Miracle, Bang and Chang (1992) define functional differences and similarities of cultures as the behavioral phenomena related to the culture such as habits and customs with respect to purchasing behavior or product usage. Conceptual differences or similarities refer to the similar or different ideas or ways of thinking that exist between two cultures (Miracle, Bang and Chang 1992). Miracle (1988) proposes the back-translation technique as a way to provide assistance in solving translation and conceptual problems and to make managerial decisions of whether to translate or not. "The back translation technique is to have material of one language translated into another language by one (or more) translators, and then to have this material translated back into the original language by another translator" (Miracle 1988, RC-51). General linguistic lessons presented in Miracle’s study include: loss of meaning, which occurs because "dialects often cause difficulty because variations within a single language often lead to several expressing ideas" ..."idiomatic expressions and metaphors often are difficult 40 or impossible to translate accurately"..."some languages are ’richer’ than others" and "more or fewer words are needed in some languages causing layout problems" (pp RC-52 8 RC-53). The Greek language, for example, uses much more complex words, usually combining two words in one--such as ’polygamia’ (many marriages at once), ’thallasotarahi’ (storm in the sea), ’agorapolisia’ (transaction, buy-sell) etc--making the words significantly longer. Several Greek names will be used as an example: Papadopoulos, Stephanopoulos, Antigoni, Melpomeni in contrast to the English: Smith, Brown, John, Paul etc. Miracle (1988) in his conclusions argues that although the transferability/uniformity of print advertising messages is only a small part of the global advertising, it is significant. "If print advertising messages can be translated accurately for potentially effective advertising in other languages/markets it becomes possible to consider global advertising in a larger sense" (RC-53). Literature review 11 : England and Greece INTRODUCTION In this part of the study an identification of the similarities and differences between England and Greece will be attempted by comparing the two countries in terms of the physical environment, political environment, legal environment, economic environment, social environment, advertising institution, advertiser, advertising agencies, advertising media and self-regulation. Although cultural variables will be mentioned briefly in this section, a more in-depth analysis of the cultural variables will be performed later in the chapter. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT England. England lies in north-western Europe. The population of England in 1991 was 48,068,400 compared to 56,054,800 of the whole Great Britain. It is separated from 41 42 the coast of Western Europe by the English Channel to the south and by the North Sea to the east. The northern and western shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean. The climate is generally temperate but variable; it is called marine climate and its essential characteristics are moderate temperatures and abundant moisture. The average temperature is about 15 C (59 F) in summer and about 5 C (41 F) in winter. Average annual rainfall is 900 mm to 1000 mm (35 inches to 40 inches)(Europa World Yearbook, 1988). Fisher (1989) writes about the characteristic reaction of the ancient Roman, Tacitus, when he left his Mediterranean homeland to conquer the West. "It is easy to sympathize with Tacitus , who wrote in about 100 AD: ’The climate in Britain is disgusting from the frequency of rain and fog’...’but the cold is never severe’" (p.201). Greece. Greece is a small peninsular country (covering an area of 131,957 km.) in south-eastern Europe with a rugged and mountainous terrain (Kourvetaris and Dobratz 1987 p.1). The population of Greece as of 1991 was 10,269,074. The Hellenic peninsula is between the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, bounded to the north by Albania, former- Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, and to the east by Turkey. To the south, east and west of the mainland lie numerous (approximately 5,000) Greek islands, of which the largest is Crete (Europa World Yearbook). Greece can be considered a 43 European, Balkan and a Mediterranean country at once because of its position. The climate is Mediterranean or as Fisher (1989) calls it dry summer subtropical, with mild winters and hot summers. For the Greeks their landscape is an important part of their overall identity. "The emphasis on light, the sun, the sea are ever present" (Kourvetaris and Dobratz 1987) in the Greek literature, art and everyday life customs. "The Blue of Greece" (Lawrence Durrell) is an idea deep rooted in every Greek’s soul. Jarde (1926) says that the Greeks would have not been Greeks without the climate which Greece enjoys. And he continues by telling a story: When the vanguard of the Ten Thousand climbed Mount Theches, the first-comers, catching sight of the sea far off, began to shout. Xenophon, thinking they were attacked hurried up with the cavalry, while the cries were redoubled: ’Presently we heard the soldiers shouting ’The sea! The sea!’ and cheering one another up. Then everyone ran up, rear-guard, baggage-train, cavalry. When they reached the top of the mountain all, generals, officers, and men, embraced each other and wept.’ For these Greeks, lost in the continent of Asia, a sight of the sea was a sight of home. For what makes Greece is the close union of sea and mainland....No point of the Aegean Sea is more than forty miles from the mainland, and no point in Greece is more than sixty miles from the sea (p.30). POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT England. England is a constitutional monarchy. The Sovereign is the Head of State and the monarchy is hereditary. The Sovereign acts on the advice of her Ministers which she cannot, constitutionally ignore. Parliament consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The 651 members of 44 the Commons are elected for a maximum of five years by direct suffrage by all citizens of 18 years and over, using single-member constituencies. The House of Lords is composed of hereditary Peers of the Realm and Life Peers and Peeresses created by the Sovereign for outstanding public service. Legislation may be initiated in either House but it usually originates in the Commons. Each bill has three readings in the Commons and it is then passed to the House of Lords who may return it to the Commons with amendments or suggestions. The House of Lords may delay, but cannot prevent, any bill from becoming law once it has been passed by the Commons. Executive power is held by the Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is responsible to the House Of Commons (Europa World Yearbook). England is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and maintains a regular army. Since 1951 the Conservative party has been in power with the exception of the small periods (1966-1970 and 1974- 1978) in which the Labor party formed governments. In 1945 the country still ruled a vast overseas empire, and successive British Governments, in response both to nationalistic expectations and world pressure gradually granted independence to the colonies. By 1985 more than 30 former British dependencies had achieved independence, nearly all of them becoming members of the Commonwealth. 45 Greece. Under the Constitution of June 1975, the President is Head of State and is elected by Parliament for a five- year term. The President appoints the Prime-Minister and, upon his recommendation, the other members of the Cabinet. In March 1986 Parliament approved a series of constitutional amendments, divesting the President of his executive powers and transferring them to the legislature. The unicameral Parliament has 300 members, directly elected by universal adult suffrage for four years. Greece returned to the military structure of NATO in October 1980, after an absence of six years. Greece has a very turbulant political history. It gained independence from the Ottoman Turks in 1827, reforging its national identity whose roots date back to the 13th century BC. Its pride in these Hellenic roots is reflected in its official name, Hellas or the Hellenic Republic; ("Greece" derives from the Latin) (US department of State Dispatch, 1991). After the liberation of Greece from the German occupation a civil war followed which lasted until 1949. The Communist forces were defeated, and the constitutional monarchy reestablished. Since 1967, in almost 26 years, Greece has been through a constitutional monarchy, a military regime, a junta, and a number of conservative, socialist and interim governments. Strikes are very popular in Greece, to the point that 46 the Greek press regularly publishes a column devoted to the "daily strikes". The situation results in a serious disruption of public services and industry. As a result of this chaotic political history and the many crises their ethnos has been through, all the Greek people share a passion for political discourse. The relationship between England and Greece goes far back to the Bronze Age, almost as far as 2000 BC. Writes Casson (1945) "...a close study of Greek records shows without any shadow of doubt that the first to bring the British Isles to the notice of the ancient world of the Mediterranean were Greek sailors and explorers..." (p.12). The relationship between the two countries still continues today, as both England and Greece are members of the NATO and the EEC. Naturally then, certain similarities are expected to be found resulting from the mutual influences the two countries have on each other. However, the differences in the political system might contribute to the differences in the structure of society and the lifestyle of people. Lambiri-Dimaki (1983) wrote that one factor that makes Greece different than most Western European countries, including England, is the fact that Greece has limited numbers of statuses partly because it is an ethnically and religiously homogeneous society and because Greek society has no indigenous aristocracy which makes the social class structure less rigid. 47 ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT England. Currency and Exchange Rates: Monetary units: 100 pence (pennies) = 1 pound sterling. Average Exchange Rate (US $ per pound sterling) 1990 1.7847 1991 1.7694 1992 1.7655 The basis for the British economic system has been the classical liberal philosophy. According to this philosophy the consumer is egoist, intellectual, quiet and atomist meaning that he/she is always looking for his/her own interest, is calculating, deliberate, thoughtful, sovereign and apathetic unless his/her own self-interest is involved (Miracle and Nevett, 1987). In 1991, according to estimates by the World Bank, the United Kingdoms’ gross national product (GNP) was US $963,696 million., equivalent to $16,750 per head. Agriculture (including forestry and fishing) contributed 1.7% of GDP in 1991, and engaged 2.1% of the employed labor force, in 1992. The principal crops include wheat, barley, potatoes and sugar beets. Industry including mining, manufacturing, construction and power, contributed 31.7% of the GDP. Manufacturing’s principal branches in 1988 were machinery and transport equipment. Following the trend of all the developed nations, the 48 services in England accounted for the 66.6% of the GDP, employing 71.3% of the labor force. England is an important international center for businesses and financial services. Fisher (1989) writes: "The most notable feature of Britain’s economy is the importance of industry, services and trade. It ranks fourth in world trade behind the United States, West Germany and Japan. In its share of invisible world trade (such as financial services, civil aviation, travel and overseas investment), it ranks second after the United States" (p.249). During the 1979-1991 period, the Government transferred 46 major businesses from the public to the private sector, reducing the state-owned sector of industry by about 65%. As a matter of fact, the United Kingdom government was the first in Europe to announce privatizations of state-owned firms (Griffiths and McCarthy, 1992, p.IT 10-020-801). England is a member of the European Community and as such it should be preparing itself towards greater homogenization of policies and laws necessary for the achievement of the Community’s purpose. Nonetheless, Britain is the country widely perceived in Europe as being the most resistant to European integration. The history of Britain’s relationship with the EC (late application, rejection, accession, renegotiation, budget rebate squabbles) has produced a Europhobia in which Britain’s natural reaction to EC proposals tends to be "no" rather that "yes but". This is reinforced by the fact that, as an island race, the British do not feel culturally European; by ties with the United States and the Commonwealth; by a continuing defense policy; and by the role of sterling as world currency (Owen and Dynes, 49 1989, 206). Greece. Currency and Exchange Rate: Monetary Units: 100 leptae 1 drachma. 1 sterling = 324.2 drachmae (as of 1991) Average Exchange Rates: (drachmae per US 5) 1988 141.86 1989 162.42 1990 158.51 The Greek economy has been labelled as an "underdeveloped/dependent type of industrial capitalism" in which simple commodity production and small family businesses and crafts exist side by side with the dominant capitalist mode of production (Mouzelis, 1978). Greece, throughout its history, has had considerable state ownership and involvement in its capitalistic economy. Institutions that are under state control include banks, public utility companies, transport, communication, energy, and education (Kourvetaris and Dobratz, 1987). The public sector includes public enterprises and social institutions, as well as the central, state and local governments. Greece’s very large public sector has been growing at the expense of the private sector. Kourvetaris and Dobratz (1987) write that Greece’s position within the global economy helps shed light on many of the difficulties. In the world system theory (Wallerstein 1974, Chirot 1982) Greece is considered to be a 50 semi-peripheral country because of its "...relatively large although declining primary sector (e.g. agriculture), its client-patron relations, limited industrial development, and external dependence on trade in primary commodities" (Kourvetaris and Dobratz, 1987, p.120). They continue: Greece does not have a very developed capital goods industry; part of its limited manufacturing is foreign owned, and many enterprises are small, family- oriented businesses. The economy has been bolstered by receipts from tourism and remittances from emigrants abroad but has been adversely affected by its need to import many of its technological and energy resources (p.120). In addition to Greece being in the semi periphery of the world system, a second form of core-periphery relation exists within Greece based on the differences between its urban (core) and rural (periphery) areas. The rural areas suffer from declining employment, depopulation, inadequate roads and health services, and poor education facilities (p.121). In 1989, according to estimates by the World Bank, Greece’s gross national product (GNP) was US $53,626 m., equivalent to $5,340 per head. Agriculture (including hunting, fishing and forestry) contributed an estimated 15.7% of the GDP in 1988, and about 24% (compared to England’s 2.1%) of the working population were employed in this sector in 1990. The principal crops of Greece are maize, tomatoes, sugar beets, grapes, wheat and olives. The principal exports in 1989 were clothing, fruit and vegetables, and textiles. The principal imports were machinery and transport equipment, food and live animals, 51 and petroleum and petroleum products. An important source of foreign exchange in Greece is tourism. Around 8.5 million tourists visit Greece each year. The country that traditionally supplies the most tourists every year has been England (1,329,259 in ’85) followed by Germany (1,050,078 in ’85). Greece is a member of the EEC and the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD). In 1979, responding to the request of Greece, Spain and Portugal for admission, it was stated by the European Commission that their admission in the EEC would be more for political concerns rather than economic factors. However, when Greece entered the Community, its merchant fleet comprised almost 10 percent of the world’s total, giving the Community control of approximately 15,000 of the world’s 70,000 large merchant ships (Fisher, 1980). It is obvious by the economic analysis that England and Greece share more differences in this area than similarities. Although both are members of the European Community, England is part of the North division of the Community (economically, not just geographically) in which the member states are richer and more technologically advanced, whereas Greece belongs to the South, in which the countries are poorer, less advanced technologically and more agrarian. By just looking at the per capita income (England $16,750 in 1990 vs Greece $5,475 in 1990) one realizes that 52 the implications are great. English people earn almost three times as much as Greek people on the average. SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT England. The National Insurance Scheme insures against loss of income due to unemployment, maternity and, in some cases to sickness, and provides retirement pensions and widows’ benefits, maternity benefits, child and guardian allowances, and benefits for death and industrial injuries. The National Health Service is a comprehensive health service, not based on an insurance scheme, which may be used by everyone who is ordinary resident in England. Education. Education is compulsory for all children, following a pupil’s fifth birthday until an appropriate school-leaving date related to the pupil’s 16th birthday. Secondary education begins at the age of 11. In most areas the state maintained system of comprehensive school prevails. Alongside the state system there are private schools which do not receive grants from public funds but are financed by fees and endowments. The General Certificate of Education (GCE) Advanced Level is usually taken in certain specific subjects at the age of 18, and serves as a qualification for entrance to higher education. Usually, the minimum requirement for university entrance, includes passes in five GCE subjects including two at Advanced Levels. The first degree course 53 normally lasts three or four years and leads to Bachelor of Arts or Sciences degree. There are 39 universities in England and Wales and 32 Polytechnics. The literacy rate is 99% and the public expenditure on education in 1991 totalled 29,522 million sterling pounds. Religion. The Church of England is the established church in England. Other large Christian denominations are Roman Catholism, Methodism, the United Reformed Church and the Baptists. Greece. There is a state social insurance scheme for wage- earners, while voluntary or staff insurances provide for salaried staff. Every citizen is entitled to an old-age pension and sickness benefit. Education. Education is available free of charge at all levels, and is officially compulsory for all children between the ages of six and 15 years. Primary education begins at six and lasts for six years. Secondary education, beginning at the age of 12, is generally for six years, divided into two equal cycles. In 1987, the total enrollment at primary and secondary schools was 99% of the school-age population. In 1986/87 there were 83 higher education institutions in Greece, of those 16 universities. Between 1951 and 1981 the average rate of adult illiteracy declined from 72% to 10%. In 1990, the rate was only 5%. Literacy rate in Greece in 1990 was 95%. The Greek language has two 54 forms-~the formal language (katharevousa) and the language commonly spoken and taught in schools (demotiki). Religion. Almost all of the inhabitants profess Christianity, and the Greek Orthodox Church, to which about 98% of the population adhere, is the established religion. However there are some adherents of the Moslem faith, Protestantism, Judaism and Roman Catholism. LEGAL ENVIRONMENT England. There are, historically, three sources of the law as administered in the law courts today: Statute Law, which is written law, Common Law which originated in ancient usage and has not been formally enacted, and Equity, which was the system evolved by the Lord Chancellor’s court to mitigate the strictness of some of the common law rules. The law of the European Community has now been added to these. Three factors help to ensure a fair trial; 1) the independence of judges, 2) the participation of private citizens in all important criminal and some civil cases in the form of a jury of 12 persons, who judge, if necessary, by the majority and the system of appeals to a higher court, including the Criminal and Civil Divisions of the Court of Appeals, and 3) the House of Lords. The criminal courts of lowest jurisdiction are presided over by Justices of the Peace. They have power to try all non-indictable offenses and some less serious indictable 55 offenses. A high proportion of civil actions are tried in county courts, which are presided over by a circuit judge. The Crown Court for the City of London is the Central Criminal Court. The House of Lords is the final court of appeals for civil and criminal cases, after the Court of Appeals. Greece. Justice is to be administered by courts of regular judges, who enjoy personal and functional independence. The President, after consultations with a judicial council, shall appoint the judges for life. The judges are subject only to the Constitution and the laws. Courts are divided into administrative, civil and penal and shall be organized by virtue of special laws. They must not apply laws which are contrary to the Constitution. All citizens are equal under the Constitution and before the law, having the same rights and obligations. No titles of nobility or distinction are to be conferred or recognized. All persons are to enjoy full protection of life, honor and freedom, irrespective of nationality, race, creed or political allegiance. Retrospective legislation is prohibited and no citizen may be punished without due process of law. Freedom of speech, of the Press, of association and of religion are guaranteed under the Constitution. All persons have the right for free education, 56 which the state has the duty to provide. Work is a right and all workers, irrespective of sex or other distinction, are entitled to equal remuneration for rendering services of- equal value. The right of peaceful assembly, the right of a person to property and freedom to form political parties are guaranteed under the Constitution. The exercise of the right to vote by all citizens over 18 years of age is obligatory. No person may exercise his/her rights and liberties contrary to the Constitution. There are around 14 different political parties in Greece. There are also terrorist organizations, including the left-wing 17 November Revolutionary Organization, and the May 1 Revolutionary Organization. . WHAT THE INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISER SHOULD KNOW Given the differences and similarities between England and Greece in regards to the environmental variables discussed above, the international advertiser of cosmetics should take note of the following: Due to the differences in the weather, advertisers should be very careful with the packaging used in cosmetics to be marketed in both England and Greece. Since the climates are so different, a different package might be necessary to protect the product in the two countries; in England the package should protect from humidity whereas in Greece the package should make sure to protect the product 57 from heat or direct exposure to the sun. That’s why information assuring the Greek consumer that the product was imported sealed in its original package is important. In addition, if the international advertiser wishes to use political symbols in an advertisement it is necessary to take into consideration the structure of the political systems in the two countries. If, for example, a crown is used in an ad, it may convey positive reactions to an English consumer but not to a Greek who preferred to abolish monarchy. Also, wording such as "majesty", "sir", "lord" will have no meaning to a Greek while these terms might be important to an English consumer. Symbols such as the half moon as well as excessive use of the color red will convey an image of Turkey in the mind of Greek consumers and consequently negative attitudes will be associated with the product. Since, in both countries people are involved and are interested in politics a good medium to reach a substantial number of consumers will be newspapers and newsmagazines. The differences in economic levels are also extremely important. Factors associated with the income level are sophistication of the market, product life cycle, and spending power of the target audiences. In cases such as this where the two countries under study have significant economic differences a market segmentation approach might be more appropriate to more effectively communicate the message 58 to the more sophisticated section of the population. Although the economic differences might not constitute a problem in the most essential categories of cosmetics such deodorant, they might be a problem to the more luxurious and expensive products such as designers’ perfumes and cosmetics; in such cases the market segmentation approach will be more effective than either total standardization or total adaptation. ADVERTISING INDUSTRY In this section an examination and a comparison of the advertising industry in England and Greece will be attempted. Specifically the advertising media, advertising agencies, self-regulation and government regulation will be analyzed. ENGLAND Advertising in England is dated many years back. The earliest surviving example in England is a print announcement, produced by Caxton about 1477, advertising "The Pyes of Salisbury", a set of rules for the clergy for dealing with the concurrence of offices during the Eastern festival (Nevett 1982). However, it was not until after the Industrial Revolution that advertising "gained acceptance as a commercial weapon... to be employed as a means of regulating 59 demand" (Nevett 1982, p.15), the reason for the change being the fact that England was moving into an era of mass- production resulting from mass-consumption. The population doubled in the period of 81 years up to 12 million in 1821 compared to 6 million in 1740 (Nevett 1982). Today, England has one of the most advanced advertising industries in the world, resulting from the fact that it is also one of the most developed countries in the world. The total media advertising expenditure alone in 1988 was $12,076,000,000. However, De Mooij and Keegan (1990) write that criticisms of advertising practices that started in the 1960’s in developed countries (including England) are widely adopted. Nevett (1982) writes: Since World War II, advertising has probably been subjected to a greater volume of criticism than at any time in its history. This is not to say that it has become less truthful--standards in that respect are higher now than they have ever been. What has happened is that a change has taken place in the climate of public and political opinion which has brought advertisements under much closer scrutiny. Increased emphasis has been placed in general terms upon consumer protection. Consumers themselves have probably become more aware of advertising now that it is brought directly into their homes by the peculiar intrusive medium of television. And a wide variety of writers have examined the ethics of ’persuasion’, the possibilities of mass manipulation, and the economics of the advertising-inspired acquisitive society (p.197). Nevett (1982) argues that primarily, it is the Labor Party that tends to be critical of the activities of 6O advertisers. Advertising Regulation. As Miracle and Nevett (1987) write, the first organized consumer reaction arose at the end of the nineteenth century. It was known as SCAPA (Society for Controlling the Abuses of Public Advertising). SCAPA achieved enormous publicity and it secured the passage of the Advertising Act of 1907. As a result of the more critical attitudes toward advertising there has been an increase in the amount of legislation affecting the content of advertisements. Nevett (1982) outlines 72 statutes and statutory instruments with special relevance to advertising and related trading practices. Among others, is the Copyright Act of 1959 which governs copyrights in all materials, including advertising material in all media and the Indecent Advertisements Act of 1889 which provides penalties for indecent advertisements. Advertising Self-regulation. The creation of the first Advertising Association in 1925 was the beginning of the self-regulatory system in the United Kingdom in regard to advertising. At that time, as mentioned before, the public image towards advertising was very negative. Some groups questioned advertising in ethical terms, teachers complained that advertising was destroying the English language and consumer groups started questioning advertising’s honesty 61 (Miracle and Nevett 1987). The industry responded to criticisms in 1961 by publishing the British Code of Advertising Practice (BCAP) and by setting up the Code of Advertising Practice Committee (CAP) to supervise the operation of the Code. Critics expressed doubts that the Code would operate in the interest of the public so the industry created the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) which set as its objective to promote and enforce the highest standards of advertising in all media (Miracle and Nevett, 1987). The first edition of the BCAP was based on the International Code of Advertising Practice (ICAP). It is clearly stated in the Code that its main concern is with "content of advertisement". BCAP only handles matters that have to do with honesty, fairness and decency of the ad itself and its rules only apply to nonbroadcast media. The bodies enforcing the Code are the ASA and the CAP Committee. If an advertisement is found to be contradictory to the Code’s rules, the advertiser is either asked to withdraw or amend the advertisement. The media are kept informed of the situation so if the advertiser insists on publishing the ad contradictory to the Code they will not accept it for publication. In addition, ASA publishes all cases investigated so the advertiser faces negative publicity since the ASA case reports and BCAP are widely available to consumers as well as to the industry (Miracle 62 and Nevett, 1987). Of particular importance in this research study is Part C of the Code which sets rules to be followed when preparing specific classes of personal care product advertisements such as cosmetics. Advertisements for cosmetics (Section C.V) which are intended to prevent or delay particular skin changes caused by environmental factors, should reasonably draw attention to the appearance of premature age which such environmental factors can produce if not effectively combated. In addition, claims that a cosmetic product has a particular physiological or biological effect should be backed by scientific evidence. In general, the self-regulatory system of Britain addresses its purpose. It is considered to be the most efficient and effective self—regulatory system in the world mainly because of the long and detailed description of the restrictions and rules, the wide availability of the Code to the public, and the way the system works in enforcing its rules. Advertising media. "In the decade after World War II, the position of the press as the leading medium was unchallenged" (Nevett 1982, p.184). Today, print media are still the leading media in England. In 1988, 62.6% or $7,559,576,000 of the total of $12,076,000,000 spent in 63 media advertising was spent in print whereas only 31.4% of the total expenditure was spent on TV. This phenomenon is common in the developed countries where the literacy rate tends to be high. In England, the literacy rate in 1988 was 99%. Language is another factor that helps the print media. Because English is an international language spoken around the world, English magazines and newspapers (such as Time, or Financial Times) are exported without changes in several countries allowing the international advertiser to reach people in other countries. According to Benn’s Media Directory in 1990, there were 95 daily newspapers, 112 consumer magazines and 74 executive media in the United Kingdom. In 1990 there were an estimated 65.6 million radio receivers and 24.9 million television receivers in the United Kingdom (Europa World Yearbook, 1992). The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) operates two services BBC 1 and BBC 2 and provides a coverage of 99% of the population. Channel 4 is a public corporation responsible for selling its own advertising. In 1990 the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) was renamed to Independent Television Commission (ITC) (Europa World Yearbook, 1992). ITC is a public body responsible for licensing and regulating non-BBC television services. ITC has the duty to ensure the variety and quality of programs and advertisements and effective competition in the provision of the services. In 1990, there 64 were about 20 national and local channels in the United Kingdom and five satellite services although additional satellite stations were expected to commence operations in the 1990’s. BBC radio provides a service of five national networks throughout the United Kingdom and 33 local radio stations. In 1992, there were about 90 licensed independent radio stations, providing 120 services. Radio Authority was formed in 1991 to replace the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA); it is the body responsible for awarding franchises (Europa World Yearbook, 1992). Other media available in England are: cinema, outdoors and direct mail. GREECE "The first evidence of the use of advertising is to be found far beyond the shores of Britain" (Nevett 1982, 3). We shall begin instead with the ancient Greeks, who provide the first clear evidence of the use of advertising for commercial purposes. The crier, whose main occupation appears to have been the proclaiming of new laws, was also available for hire by traders wishing to publicize their wares. One who availed himself of this service was Aesclyptoe, an Athenian vendor of cosmetics, whose sales message shows how little basic appeals have changed over the centuries ( Nevett 1982, 3). The message is given in Wood (1958): ’For eyes that are shining, for cheeks like the dawn, For beauty that lasts after girlhood has gone, For prices in reason the woman who knows Will buy her cosmetics of Aesclyptoe’ (p.18). 65 However, for a pioneer in advertising, Greece today is lagging behind in sophistication of marketing techniques. This is natural if the economic stage of the country is taken into consideration. Advertising in Greece is at a lower level compared to the rest of Europe. Only 0.44% of Greece’s Gross National Product was spent in advertising in 1983 compared with 1.36% in the United Kingdom (Teweles 1985, 58). By 1988, the percentage of GNP from advertising expenditures was increased to 0.53%. Advertising is considered today to be one of the fastest growing industries in the country since a number of multinationals have entered the country in the recent years bringing into the market new products and intense competition. However, since 1980 when a socialist government was elected in Greece there is an anti-advertising climate making it hard for professionals to operate effectively. According to one adman in Greece: "The government believes that advertising promotes capitalism, increases consumption and causes inflation" (Teweles 1985, 58). Teweles writes that the socialist administration asserted that advertising is a key reason for Greece’s hefty 18% inflation rate. The ad industry countered that it promotes competition that can lead to mass production and ultimately reduce prices. Teweles continues saying that the ad agencies and consumers are struggling especially after the 1985 66 imposition of price-control margins on imported goods, restriction of the sale of consumer products such as cigarettes and liquor, and limitation of imports of 10 categories of foreign items, including Japanese watches and electronic products by the Greek Ministry of Commerce. Advertising Regulation. In 1983, a law passed in Greece which states that Greece is accepting and will practice “every single law of the EEC that concerns advertising. Another rather tough bill was proposed in 1983 to impose government restrictions on "unethical" and "misleading" advertisements. The bill suggested prohibition of the advertising of cigarettes and alcoholic beverages on TV; and restriction of children’s toy commercials to the hours after 9:30 p.m. It also said that women cannot be portrayed in ads if they are perceived as sex-symbols. The penalty for violating the proposed bill is, in some cases, imprisonment of the agency’s or client’s executives. The Greek Association of Advertising Agencies, and the Greek Advertisers Association have persuaded the Ministry of Commerce to reduce some penalties in the bill from imprisonment to fines. It has to be noted here that cigarette and liquor marketers are Greece’s biggest advertisers. 67 Advertising Self-Regulation. The Greek Code of Advertising, first published in 1977, is a series of agreements pertaining to the practice of advertising in Greece. It is a document that consists of 19 articles which set rules in 19 areas: 1. Decency 2. Honesty 3. Fears of the Public 4. Truthful presentations 5. Comparisons 6. Testimonials 7. Denigration 8. Protection of privacy 9. Exploitation of goodwill 10. Imitation 11. Identification of ads 12. Safety 13. Children and youth 14. Responsibility 15. Responsibility for following the rules 16. Presentation of proof 17. Punishment 18. Committee of control 19. Following the rules The Code sets rules for all professional practices and moral behavior that have to be kept by all interested members involved in advertising including advertisers, advertising agencies, and the advertising media. Thus, the code is signed by the Greek Organization of Advertisers, the Greek Industrialists Organization, the Organization of Merchants of Athens, the Institute of Consumer Protection, the Publishers of the Daily Newspapers, the magazines with high circulation and municipal and private radio stations. The two government controlled TV channels did not sign the Code, but according to people in 68 the industry, they fully cooperate in its application (Moutsopoulos 1990, 14). The Code is an adaptation of the International Code of Advertising Practice published by the International Chamber of Commerce and it sets the same basic rules. It applies to the entire content of an advertisement including all words and numbers (spoken and written), visual presentations, music and sound effects (International Code of Advertising Practice 1987, Interpretation, 5). The basic principles to be followed are: -All advertising should be legal, decent, honest and truthful. -Every advertisement should be prepared with a due sense of social responsibility and should conform to the principles of fair competition, as generally accepted in business. -No advertisement should be such as to impair public confidence in advertising (ICAP 1987, Basic principles, 6). The literature on the subject is extremely limited probably because self-regulation in Greece exists only on paper. According to Moutsopoulos (1990) it never took off, since there is no self-regulatory body to enforce the Code, unlike England in which the self-regulatory system is strong and efficient. In the history of the advertising industry in Greece there has been no punishment for any of the players mostly because there is lack of any active support by the 69 agencies, the media or the advertisers. According to Stridsberg (1974) self-regulation in advertising has as a primary objective to effectively protect the consumer against misleading and offensive advertising. The question, thus, remains whether the consumers are well protected from misleading or offensive advertising in Greece. There is a tendency in Greece towards more government regulation and control mainly due to pressures coming from consumer groups and the EEC. Obviously the consumers feel unprotected, a very dangerous situation for the image of the advertising industry in a country in which the government uses propaganda against the whole institution. Advertising Media. Papathanassopoulos (1990) writes: In Greece, people had been accustomed to a broadcast environment consisting of two nation-wide television channels and four radio stations. They now need to adjust both their TV and radio sets to a new landscape which includes new private radio stations, satellite channels re-transmitted throughout UHF frequencies and new private channels against a background of complex political manoeuvre (p.387). Papathanassopoulos argues that because both radio and television were born and established under dictatorships in Greece they have been regarded since as ’arms of the state’. Even when deregulation of both radio and television and less state control was demanded by the Greek people, party politics were directly involved. 7O Mouzelis (1980) points out that the state has an over- extended character because of the weak civil society where the state has to take an additional politico-ideological» function. And as Ziemann and Lanzendorfer (1977) write, the underdevelopment of capitalism in Greece makes the system less self-regulatory than developed capitalism such as exists in Britain, therefore the state has to intervene to fill the gaps in various sectors of the society and economy. Papathanassopoulos (1990) writes that even for the press, which enjoys a liberal regime, the state defines press autonomy directly by having press laws and indirectly by using a wide range of intervention which it has at its disposal such as courts, censorship, suspension of publication, or by providing sizeable financial aid to the press, on which individual enterprises become dependent since they cannot cover their costs. As a matter of fact, most newspapers are dependent on either considerable yearly subsidies or soft state—bank loans or the wealth of their owners. Teweles (1985) mentions that in 1985 all newspapers in Greece were running a loss except "Ethnos", the leftist afternoon daily. This can be explained by the fact that in 1990 according to Benn’s Media Directory, 117 daily newspapers were available in Greece, the second highest number in Europe after West Germany with 174. Considering the population difference (Greece 10 million vs. West Germany 60.1 million) it is typical that Greece’s press is 71 faced with financial problems. (In 1990 there were 95 daily newspapers in the United Kingdom). According to Europa World Yearbook (1992) there were, in addition to the dailies, 959 non-daily newspapers in 1989/1990. Interestingly enough, afternoon papers are more popular in Greece than morning ones; in 1990 about 73,644 were sold each morning and up to 784,474 each afternoon. In broadcasting, the state is an active member. According to the 1975 Constitution "television and radio will be under the direct control of the state". As a result, government has control over the output of the programs. In 1988, however, after extreme pressures from domestic forces and influences from the EEC, which since the publication of "Television without Frontiers" had adopted a liberal policy toward broadcasting, forced the Greek government to deregulate the media. Today in Greece, there are three government channels, four private ones, about ten satellite stations rebroadcasted by the government, and a considerable number of private radio stations. Certainly, such a big change in the media availability will have a positive impact on the future of advertising in Greece since more sophisticated marketing and media techniques will be needed to survive the new environment. In 1989, according to World Advertising Expenditure, Greece spent $299,200,000 millions in media advertising. Of those 44.4% or $132,844,000 was spent in television and 72 41.2% or $123,270,000 was spent in print. In 1985, TV was enjoying 50% of all media expenditures but it seems like print is gaining ground against television during the recent years, as Greece is heading towards more development and sophistication. Other reasons for the movement to print is the high TV rates, the new magazines that are coming into the market and the advertising executives who realize that print is more effective in reaching specific audiences. By comparing the English and the Greek advertising industries one main conclusion can be drawn. The English industry is very developed. It is using sophisticated marketing and media techniques to reach the target audiences including market research and market segmentation and it is operating in a favorable environment since the political and economic climates support its purpose. Moreover, consumers feel protected from misleading or unethical advertisement due to the strong and sufficient self-regulatory system. On the contrary, the advertising industry in Greece is underdeveloped reflecting the political and economic stage of the country as a whole. Consumers do not feel protected since there is basically no active self—regulatory system and as a result they are asking for more governmental regulation of advertising which is happily supplied by a government which is constantly using propaganda to blame advertising for the miserable economic situation of the 73 state. The good news comes from the increasing number of professionals entering the advertising field in Greece, and the natural imagination and creativity of the Greek people. In addition, it is believed that with European integration, exposure to the other countries’ marketing systems will help the Greek advertising industry to rapidly develop in the coming years, becoming more similar to the developed markets of Europe. Furthermore, the fact that the consumers themselves are receptive to western culture, especially when it comes to life style and emotions (Teweles 1985), will help the Greek advertising industry to move towards greater sophistication, and perhaps homogenization with other European countries. Although many local advertising agencies exist in both countries, the affiliates of the multinational advertising agencies are the biggest and strongest in both countries. This is a positive first step towards greater development and homogenization since the task of handling big international accounts becomes simpler when the same agency is involved in all countries. 7 4 CULTURE DEFINITION ’Culture’ has been defined in various forms throughout the years but no matter what the definition ended up to be or how big the disagreements were among the scholars on what the precise substance of culture is, they all resulted in the main canon that without culture no human communication would have been possible. Harris (1971) writes: Without the capacity for culture, a weak-jawed, clawless man probably could not have long survived in a terrestrial habitat. But cultural substitutes for canine teeth, powerful jaws, and other mammalian apparatus for defense and predation are known to have been used by the earliest manlike creatures. These substitutes undoubtedly included not only tools and weapons made of stone, bone, and wood but also learned systems of behavior and communication that advanced social cooperation among hominids far beyond the well-developed level of the other primates. Culture has made man the dominant life form of the earth (p.38). With the evolution of the human from an ancestral human to a highly sophisticated being and with the advancement of societies from simple agrarian to complex industrialized ones, the concept of culture developed to be more complex as well. Today, the term ’culture’, although still a "learned system of behavior and communication", usually refers to the particularities of each society separately rather than the human race as a whole. The first to define the concept of culture in print is, according to Hall (1959), Tylor who in 1871 defined it as 75 "...that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." However, it is known that the concept of culture was a subject of discussion among people centuries ago. Herodotus, for example, wrote that two cultures are different when their being are: of a different stock, different speech, different shrines of the gods and rituals and different customs. Hofstede (1984) defined culture as "... the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or society from those of another" as "[it] is reflected in the meanings that people attach to the various aspects of their life: their way of looking at the world and their role in it; in their values, that is, in what they consider as "good" and as "evil"; in their collective beliefs, what they consider as "true" and as "false"; in their artistic expressions, what they consider as "beautiful" and as "ugly". A more explicit definition is given by Brown (1963): It is our culture that enables us to get through the day because both we and the other people we encounter attach somewhat the same meaning to the same things. Our culture is our routine of sleeping, bathing, dressing, eating, and getting to work. It is our household chores and the actions we perform on the job; the way we buy goods and services, write and mail a letter, take a taxi or board on bus, make a telephone call, go to a movie, or attend church. It is the way we greet friends or address a stranger, the admonitions we give our children and the way they respond, what we consider good and bad manners, and 76 even to a large extent what we consider right and _wrong. All these and thousands of other ways of thinking, feeling, and acting seem so natural and right that we may even wonder how else one could do it. But to millions of other people in the world every one of these acts would seem strange, awkward, incomprehensible, unnatural, or wrong. These people would perform many, if not all, of the same acts, but they would be done in different ways that to them would seem logical, natural, and right (p.4). This is not to say that there are absolutely no similarities between societies. On the contrary, there are fundamental similarities in all cultures due to the fact that people have the same basic needs. "Everywhere, man is dependent on land, water, minerals, plants, and animals. Everywhere he deals with climate and weather. Everywhere he has before him the forms, colors, and textures offered by nature....No people uses them all and no two groups use them in exactly the same way. And so our cultures are alike in many ways, different in others" (Brown 1963, 6). Culture is a very complex concept. Murdock (1965) provides a multidimensional categorizing of many aspects of human culture under 710 headings, divided in terms of the concepts and language of pragmatic ethnographic practice. It would have been impossible to analyze all of the cultural variables in a cross-cultural research, therefore this paper will only analyze the variables considered by the author to be the most important in influencing consumer behavior. In regards to advertising, culture is an important, if not the most important variable, to be examined. Experts in the field believe that advertising reflects culture as the 77 latter greatly influences consumer behavior. Schiffman and Kanuk (1987) define culture as "the sum of learned beliefs, values and customs which serve to regulate the consumer behavior of the members of a particular society." Sherry Jr.(1987) interprets advertising as a "cultural system or pattern of significant symbol clusters that contributes to organizing our experience. These clusters are material vehicles of thought, emotion, perception, and understanding....A cultural system acts as both a model of and a model for reality" (p.446-447). Geertz (1973) agrees that cultural patterns give meaning to psychosocial reality both by shaping themselves to it and by shaping it to themselves . Thus, advertising can be seen to shape and reflect reality. So, how does culture influence consumer behavior? As matter of fact, culture is the most important aspect of consumer behavior. Although the cognition and affect models are based on human behavior in general, consumption patterns, thinking patterns and decision-making patterns tend to be culture specific. According to Schiffman and Kanuk (1987) culture satisfies the needs of the people in a society, by offering order, direction, and guidance in all phases of human problem solving by providing methods to satisfy physiological, personal and social needs. This direction and guidance continues as long as they yield satisfaction; when 78 they do not anymore, they are replaced with ones that meet the new societal needs. Thus, culture is dynamic as it continually evolves to meet the new needs of the society. Peter and Olson (1990) write that culture is the first variable included in the macro-social influences, important in understanding consumer behavior, along with subculture and social class. Macro-social factors are directly related to designing effective marketing strategies because differences in the overt behaviors and the cognitive responses of consumers in different cultures may require different international marketing strategies although some meanings might be similar across countries. Hofstede (1990) states that there are four expressions of culture: symbols, heroes, rituals and values. De Mooij and Keegan (1990) define those as follows. "Symbols are words, gestures, pictures or objects which carry a particular meaning only recognized by those who share the culture." Language, dress code and flags are forms of symbols. "Heroes are persons, alive or dead, real or imaginary, who possess characteristics that are highly prized in a culture, and thus serve as models of behaviour." "Rituals are collective activities considered socially essential within the culture...." Examples include social and religious ceremonies and ways of greeting. "Values are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of 79 affairs over others." Or as Schiffman and Kanuk (1987) suggest values are beliefs that serve as a guide to culturally appropriate behavior; they are enduring and they are accepted widely by the members of society. Although each culture has its own value system, it is suggested by Condon and Yousef (1975) that value orientations (what is thought to be good) derived from observations of social structure and social interaction, in general, can be categorized as self, family and society; whereas beliefs (what is thought to be true) can be categorized as human nature, nature and supernatural (religion). Brown (1963) defines values as the "things that matter" "a set of interrelated ideas, concepts, and practices to which strong sentiments are attached.... Prestige, status, pride, family loyalty, love of country, religious beliefs, and what we may call honor, can be and often are values great enough to cause individuals to sacrifice comfort, well-being, and even life itself" (p.95). COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND THE GREEK CULTURE This section will analyze the English and Greek culture in terms of national identity, language, religion and social patterns. Because of the very nature of the concept ’culture’, greater differences are expected to arise from the analysis between the two countries rather than similarities. 80 NATIONAL IDENTITY There is a particularity in the Greek culture that is important to be mentioned. As Kourvetaris and Dobratz (1987) write, before and after Greek independence there was a debate over whether Greece should take its sense of identity from the West or from the East. The people advocating a Western identity are called Hellenizers because they try to recapture classical models of Greece. The Hellenizers embrace a worldly approach to life, similar to that of the secular humanists of the West. "The Westernizers had a cosmopolitan viewpoint and considered Greece the cradle of Western civilization. They were eager to accept Western institutions such as the bureaucratic state and monarchy; they believed in the rational ability of the human individual, and they were optimistic about man’s human nature and perfectibility" (Kourvetaris and Dobratz 1987, 3). Devotees of the Byzantine Eastern tradition were skeptical in applying notions such as individualism and secular humanism to Greek identity especially since the Byzantine tradition emphasized communal life, koinovion, which valued family and primary group relations as being more important than the individual. Adherents of the Eastern tradition are more local in their orientation. This debate over Greek identity still goes on unresolved today, resulting in a state in which there is an 81 interplay between the major forces of Hellenism, as appear in classical ideals of ancient Greece, and Byzantine Orthodoxy, the eastern Christian faith. Tsaousis (1983) writes about a horizontal or sychronic/modern identity and a vertical or diachronic identity which gives a sense of continuity in time and unity in space. There are also two dimensions of the Greek identity; one dynamic and aggressive in which Greeks themselves define their identity, and one passive or defensive in which others define it. As a Western state, England carries the Western identity. Therefore, institutions such as bureaucracy and monarchy, notions such as individualism and secular humanism, beliefs such as rational ability of the human individual and optimism about human nature and perfectibility are aspects of the culture as a whole. Rational ability of the human individual is the basis of the classical liberal school of thought which England adopted as its economic philosophy. And as De Mooij and Keegan (1990) suggest "economic philosophy is an important element in national ideology" since it influences the principle values of the culture. Maslow’s motivation theory, for example, which has been described as universal, has been criticized by Hofstede, who asserts that such a theory in reality only reflects the American culture since self- actualization is a highly individualistic motivation. In the 82 case of Greece, people are motivated by personal, individual security (Morello and Boerama 1989) while in England success and belonging are the main motivations. One antithesis in the national identity that can be found in both countries are the notions of tradition versus modernity, Greekness or Englishness versus Europeanness. England is known for striving to keep its traditions and heritages alive. As Daniels (1989) writes: " ...heritage has become [comprehensive], extending from buildings to landscapes, from architecture to nature, from artifacts to ways of life. Indeed, definitions of heritage have become central to definitions of national identity, specifically English national identity" (p.40). So, what is the reason for rising nationalism in England? Hood (1988) explains that we are living in societies marked by increasing loss of identity among individuals and one of the defenses against isolation is membership of a group which may be as small as a gathering of friends or as large as a nation. What is to be gained from sharing a common background is a sense of security and belonging, very important values to the English people." The question of cultural and national identity is one that confronts many people in Britain today. They find themselves part of a multiethnic society with large groups which have their own cultures and their own languages. The arrival and establishment of these new ethnic groups produces paradoxes and anomalies, which are rarely 83 addressed" (p. 31). So, the problem becomes the fact that old English cultural certainties have crashed. And he explains with pieces of English literature and history: Unfortunately, the jingoism is deeply rooted [in the English culture]. It goes far back to the Tudor triumphalism Shakespeare expressed in John of Gaunt’s speech extolling "This England" or the narrow nationalism with strong anti-Welsh elements of Henry V. Milton’s statement that when God wants a piece of work well done he gives it to his Englishmen belongs to the same tradition as do the popular songs celebrating victory over the French in the colonial wars of the 18th century. It is found in that suppressed verse of the National Anthem which calls on God to "crush the rebellious Scott". The sense of racial superiority it engendered found expressions in the description by English travellers of Highlanders as shiftless, thieving and dirty, to be despised like the Irish and other lesser breeds within Europe (p.31). And, although, as Hood (1988) writes it is inevitable that nationalism will flourish when internationalism is being furthered by irresistibly economic, social and technological forces, Gilroy (1993) warns that the "...unsavoury patriotism and desires to keep Britain white and to retain England for the English can be stretched to include a positive affiliation to the Nazi culture that was once the force against which [were] intensely nationalistic feelings" (p. 25). Greece, on the other hand, is not faced with racial or ethnic issues due to the homogeneity of the society. However, problems arise which are of a different nature. McNall (1974) believes that Greece needs more universalistic rather than particularistic values to be modernized since this particularistic world view has a 84 bearing on Greek identity, for a Greek thinks primarily in localistic terms which prevent the development of a more comprehensive national identity. This phenomenon is due mainly to geographical, socio-historical, political, and cultural factors. As Campbell (1976) argues regionalism is a general feature of Mediterranean societies caused by traditionalism, individualism, extremism, and static conformism. However, the problem of comprehensive identity is becoming more complicated because of the contradictions of modern Greek identity. The Greeks, on the one hand, have a great distrust of outsiders as for them, patrida or the fatherland is sacred and a cause worth sacrificing for, and on the other, Greece is a country famous for its hospitality, as philoxenia means "your guest is your friend"; philos meaning friend and xenos meaning guest. Koty (1958) very successfully describes the contradictory Greek national character as "the spirit of democracy along with stubborn conservatism"; "extreme individualism" along with "cooperativeness and touching hospitality", "skepticism and criticism" along with "religious credulity and superstition"; "patience and stoic endurance along with excitability, grumbling and discontent". He continues: Inquisitiveness and the passion for learning are often marred by intolerance and distrust of free inquiry; haughtiness is often coupled with servile subordination. One observes on the one hand warm 85 patriotism which makes any sacrifice seem easy, and on the other, flagrant disobedience of the laws of the country. Trickiness and thirst for profit are often relieved by boundless generosity; cordiality, kindness, and expressions of sympathy for others may go together with total disregard of human rights- especially of social inferiors- verging at times on unpardonable indifference. Outbursts of enthusiasm, which may lead to daring exploits, are followed by spells of gloom, dejection, and despair; great sensitiveness to abstract justice on the one hand, and an incurable dependence on favoritism, on the other; meticulous cleanness, and complete indifference to the most elementary principles of hygiene (p.331). And as Kourvetaris and Dobratz (1987) write, Greeks have the ability to change with circumstances, but at the same time they remain skeptical of change and faithful to their main cultural traditions. This observation is true for most cultures; it is certainly true for the Greek and the English. Both the English and the Greek people are proud of who they are and of their national identity, for they are primarily English or Greek and not European. And why not? After all, what elements does the "European identity" incorporate other than the shallow few which are common in all European countries? THE LANGUAGE Every language involves a particular system of sounds to which meanings are attached, and speakers of the language learn to produce these sounds and to recognize them when they are used by other people. It is difficult for an adult to learn to speak or even to hear the significant differences in another speech system (Brown 1963, 10). The Greek language is nearly four thousand years old 86 and is consider to be the oldest spoken language in Europe (Zotos 1969). It has evolved from Classical Greek and preserves many of its morphological, syntactic, and lexical elements. Politis (1973) detects three major developments of modern Greek: 1. the Hellenistic Koine (AD 300-500) 2. the medieval period (550-1453) 3. the modern (1453 to present) Until 1974 there was a situation of diglossia in Greece, that is "two varieties of the same language were used for different purposes" (Mackridge 1990, 25) or as Alexiou (1982) defines it "the two forms interpenetrate continuously and yet are thought of as mutually exclusive" (p.178). The diglossia led to two basic forms of modern Greek--the Katharevousa and the Demotiki. Demotiki was developed as the everyday spoken language of the large urban centers and was cultivated by literary writers during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Macbridge 1969). "Ever since Hellenistic times, however, most writers had avoided using the spoken language in their works, and there developed a tradition of writing in a language that represented a compromise between the spoken language and the Greek of the Classical period.... it was this written language that came to be known as katharevousa (literally ’purifying language’, since it represented an attempt to purge the modern language of words which it had taken from 87 foreign languages and to reinstate much of the lexical and grammatical wealth of the ancient language which had been lost or altered during the previous two millennia" (Mackridge 1990, 26). Katharevousa, unlike demotiki which is a more vernacular form of spoken Greek with easier grammar, syntax and diction, is very complex in all three areas. Greece’s development into a nation-state in the nineteenth century was directly connected with the controversy over what form the modern language would take (Kourvetaris and Dobratz, 1987), giving "...the Greeks yet another reason to quarrel among themselves" (Zotos 1969, 241) . Today, demotiki is the accepted language of modern Greece and is used universally by newspapers, magazines, and modern writers of poetry and fiction. As Kourvetaris and Dobratz (1987) report, Greek is a highly phonetic language, and the sounds of its letters do not change. To facilitate pronunciation, an accent appears on the words of more than one syllable. The Greek language has twenty-four letters divided into seven vowels and seventeen consonants. Greek grammar has ten parts of speech. Verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, particles, and articles are the parts that are inflected whereas adverbs, prepositions, exclamations, and conjunctions remain the same. Different letters have the same sound which makes both 88 spelling and grammar complexh Macbridge (1990) writes that demotic Greek preserves all three ancient genders (masculine, feminine and neutral), but has also kept the ancient case system almost intact, losing only one of the cases of Ancient Greek (the dative). As far as the vocabulary and morphology are concerned, the gap between Ancient and Modern Greek is very small; it has remained practically unchanged over two thousand years. According to Zotos (1969) the earliest masterpieces of Greek are Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and the first contemporary monument is the "Ode to Liberty", actually the Greek national anthem, composed by Dionysios Solomos who lived between 1798-1857. As Zotos writes: Languages do not perpetuate themselves; it is people who preserve them from oblivion or disappearance, and the vigor and the wealth of a language reflect the vitality of the people to whom it belongs and who use it to express their thought and their feelings. [The Greek language] was developed and enriched during an epoch that was shaped more by myth than by reality. Its flexibility, which assured its survival, has without any doubt been influenced by the atmosphere that prevailed at the time of its growth. People whose minds were captured more by attraction to the existence of the unseen than the physical presence of the visible, contributed to this flexibility: the possibility to achieve all sorts of expressions (p.239). ‘ For the sound [I] there are three letter in the alphabet (I,H,Y) plus two diphthongs OI and EI. For the word KOINOPOLITEIA (Commonwealth), pronounced KINOPOLITIA, each of the three [I] sounds is spelled differently. 89 The English language developed in Britain over the centuries as a blend of Teutonic and Latinate elements, simple in grammar, complex in idiom, and preserve phonology and orthography; it has now become, not altogether suitably, the world’s first global language, universally studied and spoken in one form or another. It is the first language of a dozen or so countries, the second language of many more; the medium used by international congress and airline pilots, by Japanese tourists travelling in Italy and Polish engineers working in Sweden. The situation, dangerously convenient for the British, arises from the growth of American power and not from any intrinsic qualities of the language (Bergonzi 1990, 27). As in the case of Greece, England has also many purists who believe that the only "pure" English language is the one spoken in England, where the rules originated. Modern purism is based on the notion "that language is of divine origin and hence was perfect in its beginnings but is constantly in danger of corruption and decay unless it is diligently kept in line by wise men who ... write dictionaries and grammars" (Pyles 1964, 213). Critics of the purists on the other hand believe that what the idealistic purists think of as "good" English has grown out of the usage of generations of well-born and well-bred persons many of whom could neither read or write. Pyles writes that in the late fifteenth century, a highly literate man, William Caxton, used to submit his work to the Duchess of Burgundy, who "oversaw and corrected" it despite the fact that she was highly likely to be significantly less educated than Caxton. Obviously his standards of excellence was the usage of persons in good positions rather than the degree of education or brilliance. "This is not, of course, 90 to deny", Pyles continues "that there are standards of usage, but to suggest that even in the reputably democratic society in which we live any set of standards which are to have validity must be based on the usage of speakers and writers of generally acknowledged excellence. These would nowadays almost inevitably be persons of education..." (p.15). Critics of the purists believe that "...language is a living thing, the possession and the servant of man rather than an ideal towards which we should all fecklessly and hopelessly aspire" ( Pyles 1964,216). The first script used in the Old English manuscripts is based upon the Irish modification of the Roman alphabet called the Insular. It is generally accepted that the Irish, whose conversion to Christianity preceded that of the English, taught the English how to write. English is considered to belong to the Germanic group of languages as it has their earlier consonantal characteristics, which among the West Germanic languages it shares with Low German, Dutch, Flemish, and Frisian. The Germanic form was brought by pagan warrior-adventurers from the Continent to the then relatively obscure island which the Romans called Britannia. After almost five centuries of the Germanic form, English started to develop as an independent language, quite distinct from any Germanic language spoken in the Continent, rich in its word stock, thanks largely to the motivation for learning given with the 91 introduction to Christianity. The English language is described to have gone through four periods: 1. The Old English Period (449—1100). 2. The Middle English Period (1100-1500). 3. The Modern English Period (1500-1800). 4. The Recent British and American English Period (1800- ). In going through all these phases the English language found itself borrowing foreign elements from many other languages, including Greek, Latin, Celtic, Scandinavian, French, Spanish, Italian, German (both High and Low), Arabic, African languages, Slavic, Hungarian, Turkish and American Indian (Pyles 1964). Pyles writes: "The richest foreign sources of our present English stock are Latin, French and Greek (including those words of Greek origin which have come to us by way of Latin and French). Many of the Latin and Greek words which have been cited were in the beginning confined to the language of erudition, and some of them still are; others have passed into the stock of more or less everyday speech"(p.330). But no matter how cosmopolitan the present English vocabulary is, Pyles insists that "...English will remain English in every respect...." And he concludes: And as such it has given to the world, among many other things, some of the best books the world has ever known. It is not unlikely, in the light of writings by Englishmen in earlier times, that this would have been 92 so even if we had never taken any words from outside the word hoard which has given greater wealth to our word stock no man can gainsay, but the true Englishness of our mother tongue has in no way been lessened by such loans, as those who speak and write it lovingly can never forget (p.352). When it comes to advertising, English is undoubtedly the international language of the institution. The reason derives from the fact that, as mentioned earlier, English is the international language of the businesspeople around the ~world. As such, English copy or headlines when simple sometimes remain unchanged even when the advertisement is launched in other countries. Advertising in England has undergone many criticisms from, primarily, teachers who were complaining that it destroys the language by breaking many rules of the English language. Such violations include orthographic violations which is a popular practice in trade names where the purpose is to provide the product with a distinctive written symbolization, grammatical, lexical, semantic and contextual (Leech 1966). Language is expected to be a barrier in standardizing the advertisement of personal care products in English and Greek magazines, the reason being that language communicates more than words; it communicates values. There are also technical considerations as in the Greek language the sentences and words tend to be significantly longer than in English. In addition, spelling of the words is in different 93 alphabetical characters. In the past, there was a trend of international corporations to use their advertisements unchanged in the Greek market, even keeping their English or sometimes French headline, to communicate simple messages to the middle-upper class of the Greek society, utilizing in this way the prestige factor associated with European and American products. However, the circumstances are changing nowadays, as increased nationalism is developing and the Greek people are influenced by the "Omilite ellinika" (Speak in Greek) movement. "Omilite ellinika" used to be a television program where contestants were asked to answer questions regarding the Greek language and sometimes to create a word in Greek for a foreign word used in the everyday life of a Greek person; words such as "computer", "marketing", and "fast food". However, "Omilite ellinika" extended, in the author’s opinion, from a TV program to a movement since intellectuals around Greece, such as poets and composers, stressed in their work how Greece is losing its own language to English by using English in the store signs, street signs and various forms of advertising to satisfy tourism. The use or abuse of the English language is widespread even in the Greek countryside where signs for "fresh frout"2ican be seen 2 Mispelled.word for fruit. An indication of the abuse of the English language in a tourist country like Greece. 94 everywhere. RELIGION But if oxen (and horses) and lions had hands, or could draw with hands and create works of art like those made by men, horses would draw pictures of gods like horses, and oxen of gods like oxen, and they would make the bodies of their gods) in accordance with the form that each species itself possesses. Aethiolians have gods with snub—noses and black hair. Thracians have gods with grey eyes and red hair (Xenophanes of Colophon c.530 B.C). Thus, religious beliefs and practices are among the most important and least understood aspects of the cultures of other people. Langumuir (1990) finds the roots of religion in the mental processes that give individuals the sense of identity and conception of the realities surrounding them, an awareness they then try to share with others and may also try to enforce on others in order to protect their own identity. No culture knows that better than the Greek. Religion, Greek Orthodoxy, has been a dominant and conservative force in all facets of modern Greek history, an integral part of the Greek nation; usually inseparable from concepts of Greekness. Unlike Catholism or Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy derives its cultural traditions from Christian Byzantium rather than the West. Moreover, each Eastern Orthodoxy denomination is a distinct ethnic denomination and is self-governing and only symbolically, dogmatically, and 95 historically identifies itself as a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Greek Orthodox Church is deeply involved in state politics to the point that state and church is inseparable in Greece. One consequence of such a situation is the social impact on the Greek people who are not adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church; those are treated with distrust and often perceived as outsiders. There are two reasons for which Greeks feel indebted to their church. Zotos (1969) explains that Greeks hold their church and their language responsible for the continuation of their race throughout the years and they are grateful to both for being a definite source of inspiration and stimulation. The second reason is a historical one. The clergy in Greece has played an important role in the recovery of their freedom from the Turks and continues to take a firm stand whenever its followers demand the fulfillment of their national aspirations. It is interesting to be noted here that the Greek flag carries the cross, symbol of Greek Christianity as well as nine horizontal stripes, each one symbolizing one syllable of "Eleftheria i thanatos" (Freedom or Death), a signal widely used in 1821 when Greeks were fighting for their freedom from the Ottoman Turks. As Kourvetaris and Dobratz write, many Orthodox scholars agree that one of the most distinctive characteristics of Orthodox faith is its changelessness--its 96 sense of living continuity with the past--which is functioning as a protective conservative force and a principle for growth and regeneration. However, because Greek Orthodoxy stubbornly resists modernization and secularization, its influence is declining in Greece. This is evident from the problems of recruiting clergy and church attendance which is declining quickly, particularly in the cities. Church plays a tremendous role in the life cycle of the Greeks since the ritual ceremonies of marriage, baptism and funeral take place almost always in the church. The priests in Greece can marry and they can have children but not if want to move higher on the clergy ladder. The priests still have long hair which they bring back to their napes in the form of some sort of chignon, have long beards and they wear at all times long black robes. They are still honored by the masses and the traditional kissing of their hand, a sign of deep respect, is considered natural among the faithful. However, the Church institution is highly criticized in Greece, especially in the cities, because it usually contradicts with its behavior exactly what it teaches. The fact that the Church teaches simplicity in life and urges its adherents not to devote themselves to temporal goods but be set on eternal ones (Armstrong and Marcus 1960) on the one hand, and owns immense land property and provides luxury 97 cars for its clergy on the other, drives the Greek people often to distinguish between religion and church. Writes Zotos (1969): God may have died in contemporary history and in the existence of some of us--but not the God of Greece. He is the only immortal God, just as the Gods of ancient Greece were eternal because of their close identification with humans.... The Greeks believe that no permanent harm can be done to their country. There are only temporary setbacks and misfortunes until the God of Greece decided that it is about enough with the tragedy... (p.111). And he continues: The Greeks as a whole are profoundly religious people but piety is more evident in the village than in the cities. A small island like Mykonos... has as many churches as there are days in a year. This does not mean that the presence of so many churches is an indication of collective piety or that every churchgoer in Greece is necessarily deeply pious. It meant rather that the Greek is honoring a God who plays such a tremendous role in dictating the course the country should take and in fighting with such tenacity and regularity the destiny of Greece, whenever it becomes indispensable (p.113). The Greek Church is characterized as "a segregated isle of obsolescence" (Zotos 1969) since it has never attempted to recognize the face of reality, remaining isolated, rigid and indifferent to the new needs of its faithful which were created with the modernization of the country, always eager to punish and criticize and almost never eager to forgive. A peculiarity of Greek Orthodoxy is the icons which will be found in any Greek church and which Zotos believe is a continuation of the legacy of the marble statues of ancient Greece. To worship the icons, the Greeks kiss them 98 and make the sign of the cross in front of them. The icon of God is always found in the center of the dome of the church so He can be closer to heaven. Virgin Mary, Panayia, is portrayed as a beautiful young woman and it is her who the Greeks usually call when they find themselves in a difficult situation or danger. Jesus Christ is represented as a young man with candid, penetrating eyes. Then there is also an entire army of saints. Every Greek has a different saint to be his protector against sin or misfortune. Usually, the protector saint is also the one who bears the person’s name or one that the person calls in danger and he/she responds by helping the person out of the difficult situation. For the Greeks, religion is very important. Despite the increased criticism of the Church and the decline in church attendance among the younger generation and the people who live in the cities, very few Greeks are atheists or adherents of other religions. Greeks are also very much influenced by their ancient Greek heritage and sometimes they seem to be confused as to where reality begins and myth ends. In a category such as cosmetics, where the advertiser is inclined to use sex-appeal or explicit nudity to appeal to its target audience and also to demonstrate the functions of the product, the role of religion in the society is 99 extremely important. However, in the case of Greece clear- cut answers are hard to find. Generally, most Greeks, in particular younger people and people living in the cities are more open-minded and an advertisements using sex-appeal will not raise an eyebrow among them. As Friar (1982) suggests: "The sense of sin or religious guilt in the Greek temperament is rare. For most Greeks, the soul--or the spirit--has no distinct reality apart from the body but is rather a more refined aspect of the flesh" (p.27). And he continues: "... in this merciless exposure one is led not to self-exploitation but to self-exploration under the glare of Necessity, that to "know Thyself" is for all Greeks, from ancient into modern times the only preoccupation worthy of an individual. Beneath the blazing sun of Greece there is a, sensuous acceptance of the body without remorse or guilt" (p.30). On the other hand there are the religious people, who follow an extremely simple life, who are content with the basic things in life and who are critical of the rest of the society. These people tend to be older, usually grandparents, or great-grandparents; the women do not use any kind of makeup or cosmetic, and they usually wear black or very dark and conservatively colored clothes from head to toe. However, older people are not the only ones wearing dark, usually color clothes. As a matter of fact, younger jpeople like to wear darker clothes since they symbolize 100 liberalism and intellectualism. The Church of England is the established church in England but there are other major denominations as well such as Methodism, The United Reformed Church, Roman Catholicism, and Baptism. Such a diversity in the religion makes the analysis difficult, since adherents of these different religions have different levels of involvement with their church and different practices. For example when trying to discuss membership of each church, one will be faced with difficulties since the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches employ different criteria which assume entry by birthright signalized by Baptism; whereas Baptists acquire members only by adult conviction as signalized in ceremonial immersion (Martin 1967). There are many different levels at which contemporary religious activity in Britain can be discussed: identification, membership, participation, and personal devotion. Martin (1967) gives interesting statistics about the religious practices of Britain. He writes that those who identify themselves as Church of England make up two-thirds of the English population. The Free Church constituency for the whole country is about one person in ten and Roman Catholism reaches roughly the same magnitude. The Church of England measures ’membership’ in terms of baptism, confirmation, burials and weddings, electoral lOl rolls, and Christmas and Easter communicants. According to Martin (1967) the membership of all churches (no matter how membership is defined) seems to have declined except in the Roman Catholic church in which marriages have risen. The rise was attributed to factors such as migration, mixed marriages, higher fertility and conversion. It also seems that religion is an indicator of social class in Britain. Martin (1967) writes that Catholics appear to be concentrated in the working classes, the Free Churches in the lower-middle status group (especially teachers, clerks, and shopkeepers), while the Church of England reflects the social structure as a whole, except that practicing Anglicans are strongly skewed to the more prestigious strata. In addition, Anglicans are more inclined to be educated at the seven elite public schools than any other religious denomination in Britain and are the most likely to have puritan traditions such as conservative moral standards and high work ethic in order to progress toward success. If one were to place differing beliefs along a scale from the highest degree of assent to the lowest among the British, the highest would begin with belief in God, down to beliefs in hell and the devil. The British believe in God, although only fifty percent Of the population define God in personal terms or believe in life after death. "Indeed, the extent of agnosticism about 102 the life of the world to come even among churchgoers is a considerable problem, since in this respect Britain is less believing than almost any other nominally Christian nation" (Martin 1967, 54). On Christian morality Martin (1967) writes: ...Do-as-you-would-be-done-by is the most frequently quoted summary of morals. It is as a basis for morality or ’civilization’ that Christianity is so widely applauded, and especially as a means for inculcating distinctions between right and wrong amongst children. The sanctions of morals usually lies in such popular phrases as ’honesty is the best policy’, or ’it’s the way to get the best out of life’... (p.55). On other matters of morality, Martin writes, there are large majorities opposing pre-marital and extra-marital affairs as well as homosexuality and prostitution. It has to be noted though that Martin was writing in 1967, and on subjects such as the ones mentioned, attitudes and tolerances are changing fast as the societies become modernized and complex. It is fair to assume that although extra-marital affairs will never be tolerated, pre-marital affairs and homosexuality are subjects which all modern societies are facing today to a great extent, and some accept. However, the Church as an institution is unlikely to tolerate or accept any of the above situations since they are against its doctrine. The question remains as to what extent the Church can influence its adherents on these very important social issues. Martin (1967) answers that "on social matters the 103 'Church is believed to be losing influence and this is widely deplored; its sphere of special competence is defined as illness, death, loneliness, rather than drinking, sexual problems and unemployment" (p.57). Like the Greeks, British people differentiate between religion or faith and the ecclesiastical institution, believing that church—going is not essential to decent Christian living. But, unlike the Greeks, the British have a good image of the representatives of the church. The advertisers of cosmetics in England should be aware of the conservative climate of the religion and the expectations of the people for honesty and truthfulness. Obviously, the Church in England is not so anachronistic as it is in Greece, so the use of cosmetics and make-up in general can be targeted to all women, depending on the products’ market positioning. And although the Church is an important institution in England, it doesn’t seem to interfere with secularization, modernity and prosperity as in the case of the Greek Orthodox Church. SOCIAL INSTITUTION In the Modern World, the interdependence of human beings is obscured by our emphasis on individualism and by the impersonal nature of many of the relationships characteristic of an urban, industrial, money economy. Only in times of personal or community disaster do many people become aware of the extent of their dependence on others and that there are necessities which money cannot buy. Yet there is a real association with other 104 people, and persons who attempt to live in complete isolation are usually those who already are to some degree detached from reality (Brown 1963, 31). Greece is a country in which the national identity is contradictory and sometimes unpredictable. One characteristic that all Greeks have in common is the strong bond with the family. The parents and grandparents are deeply respected, and in return the children find unconditional love and support for all their lives. The age of 16 or 18 is insignificant for the Greek parent since he/she will never ask the children to move out of the house unless requested by the children and even then the parents often resist as they realize the loss of control over their children. In terms of the collateral or individualistic orientation, Greece has the characteristics of a collateral culture since the concept of family often extends beyond the immediate family to include uncles, aunts, cousins and grandparents. These members of the families share such a deep sense of relationship that the separation from each other is felt as keenly as that of husband and wife or of child and parents. One explanation might be found in the proximity of the houses of such families. The houses of two sisters found next to each other often sharing the yard, is a usual phenomenon in Greece. This phenomenon derives from the fact that until recently, and sometimes today, the house was given to the groom as a form of dowry from the bride’s 105 parents. Today, it is still common for parents to help their children financially in the first steps of their marriage, often by building the house. The duty of the children then is to take care of their parents in their old age. The duty is more of an emotional one and it comes with the acknowledgment of the parents’ sacrifices over the years. Because of the collateral nature of the culture, group decisions are important. Even in the case of an individual decision, its approval from a significant group such as parents or aunts is most of the time essential. Such behavior is very obvious in the marketplace. In the Greek society when a purchase is considered that is important to the buyer, a second or third opinion from a close person is welcome and sometimes required. The family pattern is considered authoritarian since the father makes the important decisions and the others are expected to obey. The authoritarian pattern was established mainly because of the role of the father as the provider, the one who was away from home most of the time. The mother acts as a mediator between the children and the father primarily because in the past years she was the one to spend most time with the children thus establishing a warmer relationship with them. Condon and Yousef (1975) give a simile appropriate for the Greek culture. They write: "The male deity, like the father, was treated as remote and 106 unpredictable; the statue of the Virgin Mary, in contrast, received much more affective, persuasive communication, much as the mother at home would receive from her children in her role as intermediary between the children and the remote father" (p.77). Such as the case of Greek people; they will always call the "Panayia" in a difficult moment, in despair or danger as they will call their mother when sick or unhappy. However, as the society modernizes and more women focus on their careers and out-of—the-home jobs the authority on making important decisions is shared between the husband and wife. Similarly, the English family shares the same authoritarian pattern. Condon and Yousef (1975) write that in England the father is the head of the household, and that no one questions his authority. Since it is unnecessary to establish his authority through arguing, the father may understate his opinions; the children, seen but not heard, listen attentively and when they grow up they imitate the authority style of the father. In terms of the collateral or individualistic orientation, in contrast to Greece, England is more inclined towards the individualistic orientation. A person in a culture characterized by an individualistic orientation is generally spared from the obligations of taking care of the parents in the old age as impersonal institutions such as insurance and retirement plans are entrusted with the care 107 of the elderly. Other characteristics include relatively high mobility and independence within social reciprocity. WOMEN IN SOCIETY Honour and Fleming (1986) write: "Few civilized societies have been so completely dominated as that of ancient Greece. Laws make this abundantly clear: adultery, for example, was defined one—sidedly as intercourse between a married woman and a man who was not her husband, rape as an offence against a woman’s husband, father or guardian, not herself. Regarded and guarded as possessions, upper-middle class wives were kept at home and confined to child-rearing and household maintenance, while their husbands sought emotional, physical and intellectual stimulus elsewhere..."(p.117). Nevertheless, woman has also been powerful in the history of Greece. Sarafis and Eve (1990) summarize the history of the women in Greece: From antiquity woman has been a powerful - if for many centuries a dormant - presence in the Greek world. One need only recall Homer’s delicate one-line psychological portraits of women and, especially in the Odyssey, the traces of a half-recollected matriarchy which led at one time to the theory that this epic might have been the work of a woman.... In classical Athens women’s position was by no means a good one but even the oligarchic Plato gave women an equal position amongst the rulers of his ideal state. ‘ Later, religions of the Near east, Christianity, but more especially the nearly four centuries of Moslem Ottoman rule reduced Greek woman to the status of a chattel, but she still bore the brunt of the mainly agricultural work and, when occasion demanded, she could show her worth like the heroines of the 1821-32 108 Greek Independence struggle, Bubulina and Mado Mavroyenous. Nevertheless, in the early years of this century, her position was such that a provincial judge could acquit a rapist because his unmarried victim was illegitimate and therefore ’no man’s property’(p.95). After the Second World War the position of women changed rapidly. As Hart (1990) writes the process for change was not initiated by a suffrage movement like in the most developed countries but rather by a resistance movement. The number of women mobilized into the Greek resistance movement in 1941 was very significant and what started as resistance to Nazi occupation, turned simultaneously to a social movement. Today, Greece has somehow caught up. Greek women today are members of the parliament (deputy-speaker) MEP’s, EEC Commissioners, provincial prefects, majors and ministers. Zotos writes in 1969 that at that time many marriages were based on the size of the dowry and that the poor women were always ready to increase the size of their families to satisfy the desire of their mates. He also notes that women in Greece very seldom raise their voices in anger, but probably in order to justify their obedient silence they often make reference to a proverb which says: ’Beware of silent rivers". Unfortunately, all these are true to some extent in Greece of 1993, specifically in remote rural areas among uneducated people. England has a long history of women leaders, intellectuals, rulers and artists. From the 10th century 109 Anglo-Saxon Queen Aethelfaed of Mercia to today’s Queen and former prime-minister, all have been educated and highly respected in England. The women’s suffrage movement started in the 19th century. From 1893-1918 they disrupted Parliament sessions to present their demands, suffering repeated arrests and imprisonment. Morgan (1984) writes: "Women defaced property, bombed men’s clubs, and sent snuff and red-pepper letters to politicians; over 1000 suffragists were imprisoned in the long struggle" (p.94). The contemporary wave of the women’s movement began in the 1960’s. Since then it has been active, persistent, and diverse, from demonstrating against the Miss World Beauty Pageant to forming a 9-mile human chain around the Greenham Common military base to protest the planned deployment of Cruise and Pershing missiles (Morgan 1984). However, England with its puritan laws and traditions is still a patriarchical society as revealed by the analysis of the family structure earlier. The feminist movement has indeed been successful and active, but stereotypes and perceptions are still alive and well among average persons. A 1982 survey revealed that more than 1 out of 10 women polled experienced sexual harassment at their jobs (Morgan 1984). The assumption logically drawn from the analysis on the women’s role in the two societies is that the more women 110 are working, the greater the need for cosmetics due to greater possibilities of interaction with other people when out of the house. As the case of both countries there is an increasing number of women in the workforce and as such iti is reasonable to assume that more cosmetics are needed from women in both countries. CLASSIFICATION OF CULTURE Hofstede (1990) describes the differences between countries in regard to masculinity; defined as the "...degree to which ‘masculine’ values such as assertiveness, performance, success and competition prevail over the ‘feminine’ values such as quality of life, warm personal relationships, service, care for the weak and solidarity" (p.101). England is definitely a masculine country whereas GreeCe is inclined more towards the feminine side. In terms of ‘power distance’ (the degree of inequality among people which is considered normal) and ‘uncertainty avoidance’ (degree to which people prefer structured to unstructured situations) England is rated as a country where small power distance is acceptable and there is a weak uncertainty avoidance whereas Greece is considered to be a country with large power distance and strong uncertainty avoidance. 111 CONTEXT OF CULTURE De Mooij and Keegan (1990) describe the differences between a high and a low context culture. They write that in high- context communication, most of the information is either part of the physical context or internalized in the person so that very little is made explicit as part of the message. 0n the contrary, in a low-context culture the information should be very clear and all the details of the conversation should be presented to avoid misunderstandings. The low- context cultures have clear communication codes and they attach value to individual orientation whereas the high context cultures attach value to group identity, have implicit communication codes and maintain a homogeneous standard pattern with high requirements. The Greek culture is undoubtedly a high context culture. A popular saying states: "Whatever information is easily inferred should be omitted". It is a very expressive culture, one that uses hand movements and facial expressions to communicate nonverbally. The English culture appears to be low-context, with clear communication codes being essential for the effectiveness of the communication process. The English are known for their calm, unexpressive faces; therefore the need to spell out all the information in the communication is crucial. An implication of the high or low context culture in 112 advertising is: The Greeks prefer entertainment rather than informational advertising. They prefer emotional, image- oriented advertising rather than informational. The opposite is true for the English though, as they are perceived as more logical, informational-benefit-oriented rather than emotional. They demand all the available information to be presented to them in a clear fashion. The analysis of the cultures of Greece and England discussed above is far from being complete. Rather, basic cultural aspects were outlined in an attempt to generalize major differences and similarities of the two cultures. From the analysis, the conclusion can be drawn that the differences between England and Greece are greater than the similarities. However, it is also obvious that certain segments of the population are moving towards greater homogenization which is driven by the same needs of the modern society. The question remains whether the cosmetic category is one of those needs. Formation of Hypotheses The analyses of the cultural, economic, legal, political, and social environment in England and Greece, and in particular the analyses of national identity, religion, language and social institutions, revealed numerous differences. The assumption is that these environments influence consumer behavior in each country. Because of the differences it seems reasonable to assume that standardized advertising messages will not be equally effective in both countries. However, past studies dealing with personal care products, such as the one conducted by Hornik (1980), showed that there are instances in which a standardized advertising message may be effective in two culturally different countries. For example, Hornik found that a fragrance advertisement was more effective in Israel when using U.S. celebrity Margaux Hemingway than when using an Israeli celebrity. But he also found that for a Helena Rubinstein 113 114 face cleanser cream the advertisement using the Israeli model was more effective in Israel than the one using the American. He concluded that although there might be some universal executions it is difficult to find them; therefore the creative efforts should be adapted to the cultural and market characteristics of each market. The general research questions addressed in this study are: Do the cultural, economic, legal, political and social differences between England and Greece create the need for localized advertising messages for cosmetics in women’s English and Greek fashion magazines? Conversely, do the cultural, economic, legal, political and social differences seem to require no differences, that is, do they permit standardized advertising messages for such products in women’s fashion magazines? The general research questions will be answered by conducting a content analysis of a sample of English and Greek advertisements. Although the characteristics of advertisements in the two countries cannot provide a conclusive answer to the general research question, it is assumed that most advertising is prepared by reasonably competent professionals. It is expected that competently prepared advertisements will have characteristics that 115 reflect each nations’ culture, economy, laws, political conditions and society. Therefore a number of specific hypotheses based on each society’s characteristics were formulated, and a data coding instrument was prepared to collect information on the needed content of advertisements in each country. It is considered essential in this research study to examine the advertisements’ message elements such as headline, subheadline, body copy, slogan, logo, brand name and colors, as well as the verbal and visual informational cues included in the advertisements. The rationale for each hypothesis is derived from the literature review and is presented next. A data coding instrument and a code book of definitions are presented in appendices A and B. Colors of face cosmetics The literature review indicated that aesthetics, skin, hair color and climate are different in the two countries. Greek people tend to have and to prefer relatively darker colors in facial characteristics such as eyes and hair and an olive skin which is tan all year round due to the warm weather, whereas English people tend to have and to prefer relatively fair skin and lighter color eyes and hair. The differences in the facial characteristics are expected to influence what colors of face cosmetics are shown in the advertisements. For example, shades of brown eyeshadow and shades of red 116 lipstick might be more appropriate when used in Greek advertisements to match the facial characteristics of the people, whereas tones of blue eyeshadow and shades of pink lipstick might be more appropriate if used in English advertisements. Therefore: H 1 The colors of the face cosmetics shown in the Greek magazine advertisements will be darker than the colors of the face cosmetics shown in the English advertisements. Colors of the advertisements In addition, the colors used in the advertisement are expected to be different. The Greek culture is influenced by the Eastern Orthodox religion, in which darker colors are considered more appropriate and modest rather than lighter colors. As mentioned in the literature review the priests as well as the older, very conservative and religious people, are always dressed in black from head to toe. Darker colors are very popular among the younger Greeks as well, as they signify intellectualism and liberalism. On the other hand, English people tend to like lighter tones of colors such as light pink or blue or cream, still being tremendously influenced by the Victorian romanticism. Therefore: 117 H 2 The colors used in the Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines will be darker than the colors used in the English advertisements. Models The literature review reveals that the physical characteriStics (facial and hair) of the Greek people are different from those of the English people. It is also revealed in the literature that consumers tend to prefer models with the same physical characteristics as themselves, people with whom they can identify. Having this in mind, it seems reasonable that in Greece redheaded models with fair skin, blue eyes and very fine facial characteristics will not be seen as frequently as dark-haired, dark complexioned, brown-eyed models with Greek facial characteristics, in advertising lipsticks or eye-shadows. Therefore: H 3(a) The models shown in the Greek cosmetic product advertisements are expected to have olive skin instead of milky white as the models appear in the English advertisements. 118 H 3(b) The models shown in the Greek cosmetic product advertisements are expected to have darker color eyes than the models shown in the English advertisements. H 3(c) The models shown in the Greek cosmetic product advertisements are expected to have darker color hair than the models shown in the English advertisements. "Made-in" Concept in perfume advertising As mentioned in the literature review, manufacturers of products such as perfumes have been able to successfully identify global customer segments and to develop global brands. The manufacturers of perfumes, who are mostly French, usually capitalize on the prestige associated with their name and the name of their country. Paris or France is often associated with cosmetics and beauty in the minds of people all around the world. Therefore: H 4 Advertising messages capitalizing on the "made-in" concept are expected to be found with equal frequency in both Greek and English perfume advertisements. 119 Language characteristics The literature review revealed a number of differences between the English and the Greek language. There are technical considerations; for example, in the Greek language the sentences and words tend to be significantly longer than in English. In addition, spelling of the words is in different alphabetical characters. Beyond these technical considerations lie the fact that language communicates more than words; it communicates values. These and other language differences suggest a number of related hypotheses regarding the advertising of cosmetics in women’s fashion magazines: H 5(a.1) The Greeks use their own language in the headlines of Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. H 5(a.2) The English use their own language in the headlines of English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. H 5(5) The number of words in the headline of Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines is expected to be greater than the number of words in the headline of English advertisements. 120 H 5(c.1) The Greeks use their own language in the subheadlines of Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. H 5(c.2) The English use their own language in the subheadlines of English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. H 5(a) The number of words in the subheadline of Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines is expected to be greater than the number of words in the subheadline of English advertisements. H 5(c.1) The Greeks use their own language in the slogan of Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. H 5(e.2) The English use their own language in the slogan of English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. 121 H 5(f.1) The Greeks use their own language in the body copy of Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. H 503.2) The English use their own language in the body copy of English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines more than they use other languages. The Role of English for World Brands and Advertising The literature review indicated that the English language is considered to be the international language of business and therefore for advertising. Over a long period of time, English has replaced the French language as the language spoken by diplomats, due perhaps in part to the widespread use of English language during the colonial periods, and more recently due to the fact that the United States is a major economic superpower. The influence of US multinationals has been a particularly important factor. As the literature review revealed, many international corporations, mostly American, prefer for a variety of reasons to have as much standardization as possible in their advertising campaigns. Therefore, some elements of the advertising message remain in English even when the advertisement is in a foreign country. 122 Therefore: H 6(a) The English language is expected to be used more frequently than the Greek in the brand name of cosmetic products in the Greek advertisements in magazines. H 6(b) The English language is expected to be used more frequently than the Greek in the company logo for cosmetic advertisements in Greek magazines. The Role of French Language in Cosmetics Advertising In addition, in the literature review it is mentioned that many manufacturers capitalize on the "made-in" concept or the designer’s name, as in the case of cosmetics, for both face and body. The literature review also reveals that prestige and status are important consumer motivations for purchasing cosmetics. Therefore it seems reasonable to expect that the designers of cosmetics, many of whom are French, use the French language to communicate prestige and status to consumers. The French language is expected to be used in some elements of the advertising message of advertisements appear in both English and Greek magazines. Therefore: 123 H 7(a) The French language is expected to be used more frequently than English or Greek in the brand name of French cosmetics advertised in English and Greek magazines. H 7(b) The French language is expected to be used more frequently than English or Greek in the logo of French cosmetic product companies when they advertise in English or Greek magazines. The Role of Context As the literature review revealed the Greek culture is a relatively high context culture, in contrast to the English culture which is a low context culture. The Greek culture is very expressive, one that uses hand movements and facial expressions to communicate nonverbally. A popular Greek saying states: "Whatever information is easily inferred, should be omitted". ' On the other hand, the English culture is relatively low context, as the English are known for their unemotional responses and calm faces; therefore the need to spell out all the useful information in the communication process is essential. In addition, the strong self-regulatory system of Britain requires that all information regarding personal care products advertising, should not only be clear but also 124 very well substantiated in the advertisement. An implication of the high or low context culture is: The Greeks prefer emotional and image-oriented advertising rather than informational advertising. The opposite is true for the English as they are perceived as more informational- benefit oriented rather than emotional. Consequently it is expected that "hard" information such as quality, size, ingredients and product performance will appear more frequently in English advertising for cosmetics whereas information on psychological or subjective benefits of product ownership or use is expected to be stressed more in the Greek advertisements. "Imported in package" information is expected to be found more frequently in the Greek advertisements as a way to ensure the Greek consumers that they buy the original product and not an imitation. Information cues such as location and company information are expected to be found as frequently in both Greek and English advertisements because they are considered important in informing the consumer on where to find the product. Other cues such as sensory and aesthetic information, sexual cues, imagery, and beauty of the models are expected to be stressed as frequently in both countries because of the type of the products this study is analyzing; that is beauty aids or cosmetics. Therefore: 125 H 8(a) A high context culture (Greek) leads to fewer words in cosmetic advertisements in magazines and a low context culture (English) leads to more words in the advertisements. However, the literature review does not give any guidance on which information cues are likely used in either England or Greece. Nevertheless it will be necessary and useful to determine what kind of information cues are in the advertisements. Therefore prior literature on information cues was used to select information cues. (Miracle [undated], Stewart and Furse [1986], Resnik and Stern [1977]). H 8(b) Quality is expected to be used more frequently in English than in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(c) Sensory information is expected to be found as frequently in English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines as in the Greek. H 8(d) Aesthetic claims are expected to be found as frequently in 126 the English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines as in the Greek. H 8(e) Size is expected to be used more frequently in English rather than in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(f) Location is expected to be used as frequently in English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines as in Greek. H 8(9) "Imported in packages" information is expected to be used more frequently in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines rather than in English. H 8(b) Company information is expected to be used as frequently in English as in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(i) Ingredients of the products are expected to be used more frequently in English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines than in the Greek. 127 H 8(1) Product performance or benefits are expected to appear more frequently in English than in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(k) Psychological or subjective benefits of product ownership or use are expected to appear more frequently in Greek than in English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(1) Sexual appeals are expected to be used as frequently in Greek as in English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(n) Beauty of characters in the advertisement is expected to be used as frequently in English as in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(n) The product is expected to be shown as frequently in English as in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. 128 H 8(o) Image of users is expected to be used as frequently in English as in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(p) Use occasion is expected to be featured as frequently in English as in Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. 3 Methodology METHOD USED Content analysis was considered appropriate for this study because it provides an efficient way to investigate the nature of advertisements that are currently used. DEFINITION OF CONTENT ANALYSIS Walizer and Wienir (1978) define content analysis as any systematic procedure devised to examine the content of recorded information. Kerlinger (1986) define it as a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective, and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables. LIMITATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS Wimmer and Dominick (1991) give four limitations of content analysis. These are: 129 130 1) Content analysis does not measure the effectiveness of the content on the audience. 2) The findings of a particular content analysis are limited to the framework of the categories and definitions in that specific analysis. 3) A potential limitation of content analysis is the lack of messages relevant to the research, due to the fact that many topics are not covered extensively from the media. 4) Content analysis is frequently time-consuming and expensive. DEFINITION OF THE UNIVERSE This study considers the message content of magazine advertisements for women cosmetics, published in various issues of the British Vogue, Elle, Marie-Clare, New Woman, and Harpers’ and Queen, and the Greek Elle, Cosmopolitan and Yinaika (Woman), from January of 1993, to December of 1993. THE SAMPLE As in the case of most content analysis in mass media, this research involves a multistage sampling. In the first stage a sampling of content sources was selected. In this study, a convenience sample of issues of British and Greek women’s fashion magazines available in the East Lansing market was selected. Because the convenience sample is similar to a 131 sample that would have been obtained using randomization methods, the statistical tests used in this analysis will provide useful approximations of significance. The publication date of each issue selected had to be later than December 31, 1992, ensuring, in this way, that all the issues in the magazines from which the sample was selected were published after the official date of the European Community unification. After the sample of magazines was selected, a stratified random sample of 120 advertisements for women’s cosmetics was chosen. The sampling frame consisted of 348 advertisements including duplicated advertisements. The English and the Greek advertisements were numbered separately and a table with random numbers was used to draw a stratified random sample of 60 English and 60 Greek advertisements. A stratified random sample means that each subject or unit of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The stratified random sample used in this research study was without replacement, meaning that the unit drawn from the population was removed from subsequent selections. Characteristics of advertising for cosmetics is the fact that some advertisements appear in two or more magazines. The duplicated advertisements were removed from the universe before the random selection. 132 QUANTIFICATION INSTRUMENT A data coding instrument was prepared (see Appendix A). All of the variables to be tested in the hypotheses were included in the data coding instrument. Most of the questions in the data coding instrument were closed-ended, with the majority being dichotomous, yes or no, questions. Hypotheses 1, 2, 3(a), 3(b), 3(c), 5(a.1), 5(a.2) 5(b), 5(c.1), 5(c.2), 5(d), 5(e.1), 5(e.2), 5(f.1), 5(f.2), 6(a), 6(b). 7(a). 7(b), 8(a). 8(b). 8(9): 8(i), 8(3). and 8 (k) are all directional. All of them except 5(b), 5(d), 8(a) provided nominal level data. The remaining hypotheses ,4, 8(c), 8(d), 8(e), 8(f), 8(h), 8(1), 8(m), 8(n), 8(0), and 8(p) are nondirectional hypotheses and they also provided nominal level data. Frequencies and cross tabulations were used to observe data and chi-square and sample proportions were used to test the null of all the research hypotheses that provided nominal data. Hypotheses 5(b), 5(d), and 8(a) provided ratio level data and t-test was used to determine significance. These three hypotheses are directional, thus one tailed-test significance was used. The probability level was set to be at .05, which is the level used in social sciences. However, because the probability level is not strict the risk of commiting Type I and Type II errors in hypotheses testing increases. The definitions of Type I and II errors are: 133 Type I error: rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true. Type II error: not rejecting a null hypothesis when it is false. The operational definitions of all the variables examined were given in the code book (see appendix B). Two coders were used for all 120 advertisements. Both were trained in a similar way. One coder, whose native language is Greek, coded the Greek advertisements, and the other, whose native language is English, coded the English advertisements. However, some problems arose regarding the coders. These are: 1. An American coder was used to code British advertisements. 2. A male was used to code advertisements appealing primarily to females. 3. Because only two coders were used the study was not able to examine intercoder reliability. A detailed discussion of both the actual and potential problems is presented in the limitations section. 4 Presentation and Discussion PRESENTATION OF RESULTS--H l-H 4 Null hypothesis of H l: The Colors of lipsticks, eyeshadows, mascaras or blushes shown in the Greek magazine advertisements are no different than the colors of the same cosmetics shown in the English advertisements. The variables used to examine this null hypothesis are "country of origin of the advertisement" and "colors of cosmetics shown". The cross tabulations (table 1), show that 99 out of the 120 sample advertisements, or 82.5% of the sample, were advertisements for cosmetics other than the ones specified in H 1. The remaining 21 advertisements are considered to be a very small sample for statistical analysis. It was intended for statistical purposes to test the original hypothesis by using the null hypothesis. However, in this case the appropriate section of the sample was too 134 small, therefore by inspection it can been seen in Table 1 that both English and Greek advertisements used dark color face cosmetics and none of the Greek advertisements used light colors to advertise lipsticks, eyeshadows, blushes or mascaras . Table 1 Colors, by Country of Origin Light Dark None Total colors colors England 3 9 48 60 Greece 0 9 51 60 Total 3 18 99 120 Null hypothesis of H 2: The colors used in the Greek cosmetic advertisements are no different than the colors used in the English cosmetic advertisements. The variables used to examine the null hypothesis are "country of origin" and "colors of advertisements" (see table 2). Chi-square was performed to test the null hypothesis for statistical significance. Chi-square was chosen because of the nominal level data. The null hypothesis was not rejected (see table 2) thus H 2 cannot be 135 136 supported. By running cross tabulations between country of origin and each color individually, it is observed that the colors black, dark brown, dark blue and white are used more often in the Greek advertisements than in the English (17 vs 14, 7 vs 1, 11 vs 6, and 34 vs 14 respectively). The color beige is used as frequently in the Greek as in the English (16 vs 16) while the colors red, orange, pink and light grey are used more often in the English advertisements than the Greek (4 vs 2, 8 vs 1, 8 vs 1, and 15 vs 9 respectively). Table 2 Colors Used in the Advertisements, by Country of Origin E Dark Light Total Colors Colors (0) n England (0) 14 46 60 Greece (0) 18 42 60 Total (0) 32 88 120 O=OEserve3 Frequency x2= 0.68 DF=1 critical X2=3.84 at p< .05 Null hypothesis of H 3(a). The models shown in the Greek advertisements are not expected to have different color of skin than the models appear in the English advertisements. Chi-square was performed to test the null for significance. It appears (see table 3) that there are no 137 differences between the country of origin of the advertisement and the color of skin of the models used in the ads. The results from chi-square, showed that the null hypothesis was not rejected (see table 3). Table 3 Color of Skin, by Country of Origin Fair Olive Total skin skin (0) England (0) 20 22 42 Greece (0) 14 19 33 Total (0) 34 41 75 O=OEserveH Frequencies x2= 0.307 DF=1 critical X2=3.84 at p< .05 Null hypothesis of H 3(b): The models shown in the Greek advertisements are not expected to have different color eyes than the models shown in the English advertisements. As it is observed (table 4) both English and Greek advertisements use more models with light color eyes and less with dark. The chi-square test revealed no significant differences between the color of the eyes and the country of origin of the advertisement (see table 4). 138 Table 4 Color of Eyes of the Models, by Country of Origin Dark Light Total eyes eyes (0) England (0) 12 23 35 Greece (0) 12 21 33 Total (O) 24 44 68 O=05serve§ Frequencies x2=.O25 DF=1 critical X2=3.84 at p< .05 Null hypothesis of H 3(c): The models shown in the Greek advertisements are not expected to have different color hair than the models shown in the English advertisement. The two variables examined are "country of origin" and "hair color of models shown in the advertisements". Both countries used more models with dark hair than light (see table 5). Chi-square results revealed no real differences (see table 5). Thus the models shown in the Greek advertisements are not necessarily expected to have darker color hair than the ones that appear in the English advertisements. Table 5 Color of Hair of the Models, by Country of Origin 139 Dark Light Total hair hair (0) England (0) 37 10 47 Greece (0) 27 18 45 Total (0) 64 28 92 O=OEserve§ Frequencies x2= 3.79 DF=1 critical x2= 3.84 at p< .05 Null hypothesis of H 4. Advertising messages capitalizing on the "made-in" concept are expected to be found with equal frequency in both Greek and English perfume advertisements. Frequencies of the variable "country of manufacturing" indicate that most of the manufacturers who mostly identify clearly the country of origin of the perfume are French. Out of the 25 perfume advertisements that clearly identify the country of manufacturing of the product, 20 are French, a percentage of 80%. Of the 120 sampled advertisements only 52 were perfume advertisements, and of those only 25 clearly identify the country of manufacturing (see table 6). In order to perform a chi-square test a minimum of 40 cases is required. In this specific instance there are only 25 valid cases (see table 7), therefore chi-square testing was 140 Frequencies of variable "Country of Manufacturing". Country Value Percentage Greece 0 0.0 *England 1 0.8 ~France 20 16.7 Other 5 4.2 ‘None, 26 21-7 Other ad. '68 55.7 Table avoided as the results would have been meaningless. Thus, H 4 cannot be tested for significance. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS--H 1-H 4 As in the case of H 1, H 4 cannot be tested for statistical significance due to the sample size. As mentioned above, several assumptions have to be met in order for the results of chi-square to be meaningful. The assumptions are: a. The data must be drawn from a random sample. 141 b. The data can be nominal or higher level, but divided into categories. Table 7 Country of Manufacturing, by Country of Origin French Other Total (0) England (0) 16 4 20 Greece (0) 4 ' 2 6 Total (0) 20 6 26 O=OEserve§ Frequencies c. There must be at least 40 cases and preferably less than 400. d. The minimum expected frequencies for each cell should be at least five. H 1 and H 4 cannot be tested because the number of the valid cases was less than 40. This problem is created for two reasons. These are: a) the beginning sample of 120 advertisements is too small and b) the cosmetics category is divided into several subcategories, making the sub-samples smaller. In the case of H 1, lipstick, eyeshadow, mascara and blushes, constitute only the 15% of the whole sample. Regarding H 4, perfume advertisements only comprise the 43% of the sample while 50% of the 43% (or 26 out of 52 perfume 142 advertisements) do not clearly identify the country of manufacturing of the perfume. In addition, the distribution of the cosmetic advertisements between the two countries is not equal, creating problems with the test assumptions. For example, 39 of the 60 English advertisements (65%) are perfume advertisemetns while only 11 of the 60 Greek ads (18%) are perfume advertisements. It is interesting to note here, that 47% of the Greek ads are advertising facial skin care in contrast to 15% of the English ads. The reason for the differences in distribution of cosmetics can be explained by the different needs of the women in Greece and the women in England. It is possible, that the climate plays a major role in this distribution. In Greece, the sun is strong all year long causing the skin of the face of the Greek women to deteriorate easier. Therefore extra protection and care is required. Another factor may be a cultural one. Greek people use many facial expressions to communicate, and those lead to facial wrinkles. Many of the Greek facial care advertisements were devoted to anti- ageing, anti-wrinkle cremes. The reason-why English advertise more perfumes than the Greeks may derive from the economic situation of the country. English, with an average income substantially higher than the Greeks, may have a different consumption pattern in regards to perfumes, consisting of buying several different brands at once. 143 Although H1 could not be examined for significance due to small sample, it appears, by inspection, that both England and Greece use more dark colors of facial cosmetics in the advertiSements than light. This observation might be attributed to the fact that the cosmetic as well as the fashion industries appear to be highly standardized around the world, therefore the colors that were in fashion in the time frame of the study are those most probably to appear in the cosmetic advertisements of all countries including England and Greece. The results from examining the hypotheses of models appearance, conclude that the advertisers use all types of models and do not pay much attention to each country’s facial characteristics. Whether, such an approach results in the maximum effectiveness of the advertisement, cannot be answered in this study. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS--H 5(a.1)-H 8(a) Null hypothesis of H 5(a.1): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the Greek language in the headlines of Greek advertisements and the frequency of use of other languages. Null hypothesis of H 5(a.2): There is no difference in the frequency of use the English language in the headlines of English advertisements and the frequency of use of other languages. 144 The cross tabulations (table 8) show that 23 advertisements (15 English and 8 Greek) did not have a headline at all. By inspection, the English advertisements did not use the Greek language in their headlines whereas Greek used English headlines in three cases. The French language was used in the headlines of both the English and the Greek advertisements; in England 15 times more than in Greece. The appropriate sample statistic to test the null of hypotheses H 5(a.1) and H 5(a.2) is the sample proportion. In the judgment of the researcher, at least 51% of the English and Greek advertisements respectivelly should use their own language in the headlines of their advertisements, in order for H 5(a.1) and H 5(a.2) to be supported. Therefore: n> 0.51 The sample proportion is theoretically binomially distributed. The binomial distribution tends toward the normal distribution for a fixed a as sample size increases. The tendency is most rapid when n = .05. As H departs from .05 in either direction, the normal approximation becomes less adequate, although it is generally held that the normal approximation may be used safely if the smaller of nn or n(1-n) is 10 or more. Regarding H 5(a.1) and H 5(a.2), the conditions are satisfied thus the 2 test applies. The 2 statistic equals 145 z=(p-rt)/op where p is the sample proportion of English and Greek advertisements which carry headlines written in the official language of each country; apis the standard error of the proportion. And op equals, I n(l—n) H H 5(a.1) and H 5(a.2) are supported (see tables 9 and 10). Therefore, both England and Greece use their own language more in the headlines of their advertisements than they use other languages. Table 8 Language used in Headline, by Country of Origin E No Greek English French Other Headline Headline Headline Headline England 15 0 29 16 0 Greece 8 47 3 1 1 Total 23 47 32 17 Table 9 146 Greek Headlines in Greek Advertisements Greek Other Total Headline Headline Greece 47 5 52 (%) 90 10 100 In=.51 o%=.0693 z=5.628 probability of occurance=.000000287 at p< .05 Table 10 English Headlines in English Advertisements English Other Total Headline Headline England 29 16 45 (t) 64 36 100 ‘n=.51 08:.0745 z=l.80 probability of occurrance =.0359 p< .05 Null hypothesis of H 5(b): There is no difference in the the number of words in the headline of the Greek advertisements and the number of words in the headline of the English advertisements. The number of words in the headline ranged from 0 (no headline) to 25 words. The mean of the whole sample was 4.56 words. T-test was used to test H 5(b) for two reasons: a) 147 the data were ratio level and b) two sample means were compared for statistical differences. The t-test results (see table 11) indicate statistical significant difference between the number of Greek words used in the headline and the number of English words used in the English headlines. Therefore, H5(b) is supported as true.(Because H 5(b) is one-tailed, the significance number is divided by two). T-Test Number of words in the Headline Mean SD SE of mean England 2.9667 2.687 .347 Greece 6.1667 4.585 .592 Test For Equality: F = 7.502 P= .007 T-value DF 2-tail sign. Unequal ~4.66 95.25 .000 Table 11 148 Null hypothesis of H 5(c.1): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the Greek language and the frequency of use of other languages in the subheadlines of the Greek advertisements. Null hypothesis of H 5 (c.2): There is no difference in the frequency of the English language and the use of other languages in the subheadlines of the English advertisements. The sample proportion test reveals that the Greek language is used more often (at least 51% more) in the subheadlines of the Greek advertisements, therefore H 5(c.1) is supported (see table 12). The sample proportion test indicated that H 5(c.2) is significant (see table 13). However, because the sample of 12 is very small (nn=6.12 and n(1-n)=5.88 are less than 10), the normal approximation might be inadequate. Therefore, no generalizations should be made for this hypothesis. Table 12 Greek Subheadlines in Greek Advertisements Greek Other Total Subhead. Subhead. Greece 2 1 3 2 4 (t) 87 13 100 ===u= = . . — n=.51 o;=.1042 z=3.52 probablllty of occurrance=.000233 p< .05 Table 13 English Subheadlines in English Advertisements 149 English Other Total Subhead. Subhead. England 12 0 12 (%) 100 0 100 In=.51 o;=.1443 z=3.39 probability o§=bccurrance=.000233 p< .05 Null Hypothesis of 5(d): There is no difference in the number of words used in the Greek subheadlines and the number of words used in the English subheadline The numbers of words in the subheadlines in both countries ranged from 0 (no subheadline) to 42 words. The mean of the whole sample was 2.55. T-test was used once more to test H 5(d) for statistical significance (see table 14). Hypothesis H 5(d) is supported. Therefore, the number of Greek words in the subheadline are significantly more than the English. Null hypothesis of H 5(e.1): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the Greek language in the slogan of the Greek advertisements and the frequency of use of other languages. Null hypothesis of H 5(e.2): There is no difference in the frequency of use in the English language in the slogan of the English advertisements and the frequency of use of other 150 'T-Test. Number of words in the Subheadline Mean SD SE of mean England 1.1833 2.825 .365 Greece 3.9167 7.062 .912 Test for equality of Variances F=l9.350 P=.000 t-value DF l—tail sign Unequal -2.78 77.42 , .0035 f f f ,- Table 14 languages. Sixty one of the 120 (51%) sampled advertisements did not carry a slogan. Cross tabulations revealed that in both countries the slogans are written in the official language, although in eight cases ( four in England and four in Greece) the slogans were written in some other language. Table 15 151 Greek Slogan in Greek Advertisements Greek Other Total Slogan Slogan Greece 33 4 37 (%) 89 11 100 n=.51 o;=.0822 z=4.62 probability of_occurrence=.00000340 p< .05 Table 16 English Slogan in English Advertisements English Other Total Slogan Slogan England 18 4 22 (%) 82 18 100 Both H 5(e.1) and H 5(e.2) are significant (see tables 15 and 16). Null Hypothesis of H 5(f.l): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the Greek language in the body copy of the Greek advertisements and the frequency of use of other languages. Null Hypothesis of H 5(f.2):'There is no difference in the frequency of use of the English language in the body copy of 152 the English advertisements and the frequency of use of other languages. Cross tabulations (table 17) showed that 49 (41%) of the 120 sampled ads did not have a body copy. Of those, 34 were English and 15 were Greek. It is observed from the frequencies that, indeed, both countries used their official language to write the body copy, with the exception of two cases (1 English, and 1 Greek), that the body copy was written in French. The sample proportion results support both H 5(f.1) and H 5(f.2) (see tables 18 and 19). Table 17 Country of Origin, by Language in Body Copy No Greek English French Bodycopy Bodycopy Bodycopy Bodycopy England 34 0 25 1 li Greece 15 44 0 1 " Total 49 44 25 2 u m L === Table 18 Greek Body Copy in Greek Advertisements 153 occurrence= . 0000002 87 p< Table 19 English Body Copy in English Advertisements .05 Greek Other Total Bodycopy Bodycopy Greece 44 1 45 (%) 97 3 100 In=.51 o;=.0745 z=6.17 probability of English Other Total Bodycopy Bodycopy England 25 l 26 (%) 96 4 100 «$151 a;=.09§0 z=4.59 proEabi lty o occurrence=.00000340 p< .05 Null hypothesis of H 6(a): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the English and Greek languages in the brand name of the products in the Greek advertisements. By inspection, English is often used in the brand names of the products advertised in Greek magazines. Of the 60 Greek ads, only one brand is written in Greek, while 31 are written in English, 26 in French and 2 in another language. 154 The English ads used English brand name 24 times, French 28 and other language 7. The sample proportion test indicated that H 6 (a) is significant (see table 20). The English language is used significantly more often than the Greek in the brand names of the products in the Greek magazines. Table 20 English Language in Greek Advertisements English Greek Total Brand Brand Name Name Greece 31 1 32 (%) 97 3 100 fil Op=.0884 z=§.20 probability of occurrence=.000000287 p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 6(b): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the English language and the frequency of use of the Greek language in the logo of the companies in the Greek magazines. The Greek language was not used in the sampled advertisements for the logo of the company. English and French languages, on the other hand, were the most popular languages for companies’ logo. The sample proportion results showed significance of the H 6(b); therefore the English 155 language is used significanlty more often than the Greek in the logos of the companies. Table 21 English Logo in Greek Advertisements English Greek Total ,Logo Logo Greece 31 0 31 (%) 100 0 100 i =— fi— ' . == n=.51 a;=.090 z=5.4 probablllty of occurrence=.000000287 p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 7(a.1): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the French and the English languages in the brand names of cosmetics advertised in English magazines. Null Hypothesis of H 7(a.2): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the French, the English and the Greek languages in the brand name of cosmetics advertised in Greek magazines. As indicated in the sample proportion results (table 22) neither H 7(a.1) nor H 7(a.2) is supported. Therefore, French language in the brand name is not used significantly more often than English or Greek in the English and Greek advertisements. However, by inspection it seems that the French language is used very often in both English and Greek 156 advertisements. Table 22 French Brand Name in English 8 Greek Advertisements . French English Total Brand 8 Greek .Name Brand Name England1 28 24 52 (%) 54 46 100 Greece2 26 32 58 (%) 45 55 100 =;:-I51 o;=.0693 z=.4329 probability of occurrence=.3336 E;=.?§l o;=.066 z=.91 probability of occurrence=.1814 p<.05 Null Hypothesis of H 7(b.1): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the French and the English languages in the logo of cosmetic companies that advertise in English magazines. Null Hypothesis of H 7(b.2): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the French, the English and the Greek language in the logo of cosmetic companies that advertise in Greek magazines. H 7(b.1) is not supported since the calculated probability of occurrence is .0764, higher than the 157 specified significance level of a =.05 (see table 23). H 7(b.2) is not supported either as the calculated probability of occurrence is .1814, higher than the specified level of a=.05 (see table 23). Table 23 French Logo in English and Greek Advertisements #E French English Total Logo 8 Greek Logo England1 30 21 51 (%) 59 41 100 " Greece2 26 31 57 (%) 57 43 100 ln=.51 o;=.07 z=1.14 probability of occurrence=.127l < .05 §)n=.51 o;=.066 z=.91 probability of occurrence= .1814 p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(a). There is no difference in the number of words in the advertisements between a high context culture (Greece) and a low context culture (England). The variables examined are "country of origin" and"number of words in the body copy". The number of words in the body copy ranged from 0 (no body copy) to 300. T-test was used to test for significance and the results revealed 158 statistical significance on the opposite direction of the hypothesis (see table 24). Therefore, it seems that low context culture leads to lower number of words, while high context culture leads to higher number of words. In this specific case English advertisements have significantly fewer words than the Greek. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS--H 5(a)-H 8(b) The research findings show that in the Greek language the sentences tend to be significantly longer than in the ones English language. The findings also indicate that the headlines, subheadline, slogan, and body copy of the advertisements are written significantly more often in the official language of each country than in any other language. Significant results were also found when testing the use of the English language in the brand name and company logo of cosmetics advertised in Greek magazines. Therefore, it is evident that a significant majority of advertisers standardize the brand name and company logo across the-two European nations. However, when testing the frequency of use of the French language in the brand name and logo of the cosmetics advertised in England and Greece, the results indicated no significant differences though by inspection the findings appeared to be in the hypothesized direction. The results derived from the analysis of H 8(a) were 159 significant. However, the results were in the opposite direction of the original hypothesis, since the average number of words in the Greek advertisements was T-test Number of words in the Body Copy Mean SD SE of mean England, 30.5500 58.661 7.573 Greece 81.9333 75.897 9.798 Test for equality of variances: F=5.537 P=.020 T—value DF l-tail sign. Unequal —.4.15 110.95 .0000 Table 24 significantly higher than the average number of words in the English advertisements. There is great possibility that systematic bias occured due to sampling errors. In addition, the subcategories within the sample impose validity problems. Among the English sampled ads, 65% advertise perfume while only 18% of the Greek ads do. Instead 47% of the Greek ads advertise facial skin care. Traditionally, perfume ads capitalize on psychological or subjective benefits to communicate their message in contrast to the 160 facial skin care ads that are very informative in communicating usage patterns, benefits and ingredients. Therefore, the results of H 8(a) may be challenged by future research. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS--H 8(b)-H 8(p) Null Hypothesis of 8(b): There is no difference in the frequency of use of "quality" between the English and the Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. Chi—square results indicated that H 8(b) is supported (see table 25). H 8(b) is directional and by inspection, it appears that the hypothesized direction was correct. The English ads stress quality significantly more than the Greek ads. Table 25 Quality, by Country of Origin I: Egmi Quality Quality Total (YeS) (r10) (0) England (0) 52 8 60 Greece (0) 38 22 60 Total (0) 90 30 120 ‘O=OEserve§ Frequencies )?=8.71111 DF=1 significance= .00316 at p< .05 161 Null Hypothesis of H 8(c): There is no difference in the frequency of use of sensory information between the English and the Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. Chi-square analysis support the alternate hypothesis that there are significant differences in the frequency of use of sensory information in the two countries (see table 26). Sensory information is used significantly more often in the English adVertisements than in the Greek (54 vs 38). Table 26 Sensory Information, by Country of Origin Sensory Sensory Total (yeSI ' (n0) (0) England (0) 54 6 60 Greece (0) 38 22 60 Total (0) . 92 28 120 O=OBserved Frequencies x2=11.92547 DF=1 significance= .00055 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(d): There is no difference in the frequency of use of aesthetic claims between the English and the Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. Chi-square analysis supports the alternate hypothesis that there are significant differences in the frequency of use of aesthetic claims between the English and the Greek advertisements (see table 27). By inspection it appears that 162 the English ads use aesthetic claims more frequently than the Greek advertisements (50 vs 23). Table 27 Aesthetic Information, by Country of Origin Aesthetic Aesthetic Total (YeS) (n0) (0) England (0) 50 10 60 Greece (0) 23 37 60 Total (0) 73 47 120 O=OEserve§ Frequencies )8=25.49694 DF=1 significance= .0000 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(a): There is no difference in the frequency of use of size in the English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in advertisements. Hypothesis H 8(e) cannot be tested for significance because one of the chi-square assumptions is not met. The expected frequencies in two cells of the four is less than 5 (see table 28). However, by inspection it appears that size is used frequently in both countries. Null Hypothesis of H 8(f): There is no difference in the frequency of use of location in the English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. There was no evidence to support H 8(f) as chi-square results indicated no significance (see table 29). By 163 observation, availability is not frequently mentioned either in English nor in Greek advertisements. Table 28 Size, by Country of Origin Size Size Total (YeS) (n0) (0) England (0) 54 6 60 Greece (0) 59 1 60 Total (0) 113 7 120 O=Observed Frequenc1es Table 29 Location, by Country of Origin Location Location Total (1’88) (110) (0) England (0) 10 50 60 Greece (0) 13 47 60 Total (0) 23 97 120 O=OEserve§ Frequencies X2=.48409 DF=1 significance= .48658 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(g): There is no difference in the frequency of use of "imported in package" information in English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. 164 H 8(g) was supported (see table 30). Frequencies support the statistical significance of the hypothesis as the Greek ads mention "imported in package" in one fifth of the Greek advertisements and not in the English. Table 30 "Imported in Package", by Country of Origin 7 Imported Imported Total 7“ (YeS) (n0) (0) England (0) 0 60 60 Greece (0) 12 48 60 Total (0) 12 108 120 = =0Eserve§ Frequenc1es )H=13.333333 DF=1 significance= .00026 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(b): Company information is expected to be found with the same frequency in both English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. The alternate hypothesis is statistically significant (see table 31). That is, there are significant differences in the frequency with which the company information is presented in the two countries. The English gave company information in 80% of the advertisements while Greeks gave company information in 100% of the advertisements; therefore, the Greeks give company information significantly more often than the English. Table 31 165 Company Information, by Country of Origin Company Company Total (1768) (n0) (0) England (0) 48 12 60 Greece (0) 60 0 60 Total (0) 108 12 120 O=0Eserve§ Frequencies X2=13.33337 DF=1 significance= .00026 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(i): There is no difference in the frequency of use of ingredient information in the English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(i) is supported by the chi-square results. However, by observation it seems that H 8(i) is significant in the opposite direction that was hypothesized (see table 32). That is, ingredients of the products are stressed more frequently in the Greek advertisements than the English. Table 32 166 Ingredients, by Country of Origin a Ingredients x2=17.23217 Null Hypothesis of H 8(j): There is no difference in the frequency of use of product performance in English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8(j) is supported by the results of the chi-square. However, as in the case of H 8(i), H 8(j) is significant in the opposite direction that was hypothesized (see table 33). Ingredients Total (YES) (110) (0) England (0) 8 52 60 Greece (0) 29 31 60 Total (.0) 37 83 120 lO=OEserve§ Frequencies significance=.00003 at p< .05. Therefore, the results indicate that product performance or benefits are expected to appear more frequently in the Greek than in the English cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. 167 Table 33 Product Performance, by Country of Origin Performance Performance Total (YeS) (n0) (0) England (0) 30 30 60 Greece (0) 45 15 60 Total (0) 75 45 120 O=OEserve§ Frequencies X2=29.00834 DF=1 significance=.00000 at p<.05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(k): There is no difference in the frequencies of use of psychological or subjective benefits in English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. H 8 (k) is supported (see table 34). However, the frequencies suggest that significance is in the opposite direction of the hypothesis. Thus, psychological or subjective benefits or product ownership or use are found to appear more frequently in the English than in the Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. 168 Table 34 Psychological or Subjective Benefits, by Country of Origin Subjective Subjective Total (1788) (he) (0) England (0) 50 10 60 Greece (0) 21 39 60 Total (0) 71 49 120 O=OEserve§ Frequencies )8=29.00834 DF=1 significance=.0000 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(1): There is no difference in the frequency of use of sexual appeals in the English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. Chi-square results support the alternate hypothesis. That is, the findings indicate significant differences between the two countries. By inspection it appears that sexual appeals were used in 33 of the 60 English ads (55%) and only in 12 of the 60 Greek ads (20%) (see table 35). Therefore, English advertisements use sex-appeals significantly more often than the Greek. 169 Table 35 Sexual Appeals, by Country of Origin Sexual Sexual Total (YeS) (no) (0) England (0) 33 27 60 Greece (0) 12 48 60 Total (0) 45 75 120 O=OEserve§ Frequencies )€=15.68000 DF=1 significance=.00008 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(m): There is no difference in the frequency of use of beauty of characters in the English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. Chi-square results support the alternate hypothesis (see table 36). That is, the differences between the frequency of the use of beauty of characters are significant. It is observed that 50% of the English ads use beauty of characters while only 25% of the Greek ads do. Therefore, the English advertisements use beauty of character significantly more often than the Greek advertisements do. 170 Table 36 Beauty of Characters, by Country of Origin Beauty Beauty Total (yeS) (n0) (0) England (0) 30 30 60 Greece (0) 15 45 60 Total (0) 45 75 120 O=OEservea Frequencies x2= 8.0000 DF=1 significance=.00468 at p< .05 Null Hypothesis of H 8(1): There is no difference in the frequency of the use of the picture of the product between English and Greek cosmetic product advertisement. Chi-square testing cannot be performed because one of its assumptions is not met. Two cells have an expected frequency of less than 5 each (see table 37). It is observed that both countries use the picture of the product in their advertisements. However, this might be only true for the specific sample. 171 Table 37 Picture of Product Shown, by Country of Origin Picture Picture Total (yes) (00) (0) England (0) 56 4 60 Greece (0) 60 0 60 Total (0) 116 4 120 O=OEserve3 Frequencies Null Hypothesis of H 8(c): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the image of users between the English and Greek cosmetic product advertisements in magazines. There is no evidence to support H 8(o) (see table 38). It is observed that image of users is used considerably in both countries. However, the frequencies shown in this sample might only have occurred due to chance. Table 38 Image of Users, by Country of Origin m“ Image Image Total (YeS) (n0) England (0) 45 15 60 Greece (0) 35 25 60 Total (0) 80 40 120 =Observed Frequencies 172 )8=3.7500 DF=1 significance=.0528l at p< .05 Null Hypothesis H 8(p): There is no difference in the frequency of use of the use occasion between the English and the Greek cosmetic product advertisements. The alternate hypothesis is supported (see table 39). That is, there are significant differences in the frequency of the use occasion. By inspection, 65% of the English advertisements show or refer to use occasion while only 37% of the Greek ads show or refer to use occasion. Table 39 Use Occasion, by Country of Origin Use Use Total (yeS) (n0) (0) England (0) 39 21 60 Greece (0) 22 38 60 Total (0) 61 59 120 # O=OEserve§ Frequenc 1 es )8=9.63601 DF=1 significance= .00191 at p< .05 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS--H 8(b)-H 8(p) The results from the analysis of the informational cues contained in the English and Greek advertisements are very interesting. In the case of sensory information, aesthetic claims, use occassion, sexual appeals and beauty of the 173 characters the research hypotheses are nondirectional; that is, all of the mentioned informational cues are expected to be found with the same frequency in both countries. However, by inspection it appears that all the informational cues stated above are used significantly more often in the English than in the Greek advertisements. All of the research hypotheses are therefore rejected and the alternate hypotheses are supported in all the stated cases. In regards to ingredients, product performance and psychological or subjective benefits, it is found that the statistical significance of the hypotheses in all three cases is in the opposite direction. That is, product performance and ingredients are mentioned significantly more often in the Greek ads and not in the English, and psychological or subjective benefits are used significantly more often in the English and not the Greek advertisements. However, there are several reasons to be considered when interpreting all of the above results. These are: a) the sample size of 120 advertisements (60 English and 60 Greek) is very small. b) within the category of cosmetics there are many subcategories such as perfume, facial skin care and lipstick, all of which are advertised in different ways. For example, perfume advertisements usually use psychological or subjective benefits, sexual appeals and beauty of the characters to appeal to the affective system of the target 174 audience, while facial skin care advertisements use more information about ingredients and product performance to communicate the actual benefits of the product. This situation creates validity problems; 65% of the English sample is about perfume advertisements in contrast to only 18% of the Greek sample. Greek advertisements are mostly advertising facial skin care (47%). The implications from the sample discrepancies are clear. The English advertisements use psychological and subjective benefits and sexual appeals more often than the Greek because they mostly advertise perfume. On the other hand the Greek use product performance, and ingredients more often because they advertise mostly facial skin care. To extend these generalizations to a different product category or even across cosmetics category is both dangerous and undesirable. c) Another problem is the fact that sexual appeals and beauty of the character are very subjective terms, no matter how they are defined. They are subjective to individual taste, culture and sex. In this specific research study the two coders differ in all three categories as they are from different cultures and of opposite sex. The two categories will be treated as simple indicators rather than as significant research hypotheses. However, it is important that both categories are included in the study as they both are very popular approaches for advertising cosmetics. 175 GENERAL DISCUSSION The general research question cannot be answered in a conclusive way as the study revealed mixed results. Also, it has to be made clear that content analysis cannot answer the general research questions in terms of effectiveness. Instead, the question "What appears to exist in the two countries in terms of standardization or adaptation" is answered to set the stage for answering the general research question. The logical asumption was made that in the advertisements that appear to match all or some of the cultural, economic, legal, political and social characteristics of each country, some degree of adaptation was used to satisfy local needs. There are indications in the study leading to the belief that there are instances in which the environmental variables influence adaptation of cosmetic advertising in England and in Greece. An example would be the fact that the language of the advertisement is in the official language of the country especially when information on usage, product performance and ingredients is given. On the other hand, if the advertisements did not match all or some of the variables’ characteristics of the country, an assumption was made that the standardization technique was utilized. For example, the models and the colors of the face cosmetics used, appear to be standardized 176 in both countries. Therefore, the more commonalities in the industry the more standardization that exists. The study revealed significant differences in the information given in the advertisements. It seems that the English advertisements carry more informational cues than the Greek. However, due to sample discrepancies and major study limitations these results should not be generalized, rather they should serve as preliminary indications for further studying. On the other hand, the study indicated that no adaptation of the brand name and the company name is used when they are well known, and when the message is simple and the target audience is the same across borders. In regard to the standardization/adaptation debate,- this study suggests that total standardization is utilized in very few cases, while total adaptation seems unnecessary for the cosmetic category in the two European nations. Instead, degrees of standardization and adaptation are examined before entering either market. This study, indicates that each case is treated differently even for products within the same category such as cosmetics. That is because the approach used to advertise a perfume will be different from the approach used to advertise facial skin care cosmetic. Even with major limitations, this study showed that the Greek consumer is interested and seeks different information 177 than the English consumer. Therefore, it is concluded that in this study the in-between approach is preferred. Justification for either total standardization or total adaptation was not sufficient. 5 Conclusions MAJOR FINDINGS The outcomes of the study were mixed, resulting in the nonconclusive answering of the general research questions. Some of the major findings include the fact that the language of the advertisement is expected to be the official language of the country, especially when a lot of verbal information is given. In addition, it is found that the Greek language uses significantly longer sentences and words than the English which may have implications in the layout of the advertisement. Although the results of the high vs low context culture revealed that high context uses significantly higher number of words and low context uses lower number of words, it is preferred to treat such results as inconclusive since sampling error due to systematic bias occured in testing these hypotheses. Therefore, these results may be challenged by future research. 178 179 Another important finding is that English advertisements capitalize significantly more on psychological or subjective benefits, sexual appeals and beauty of the character, while Greek advertisements refer to product performance and ingredients more often. The interpretations of the results of the informational cue hypotheses, however are very conservative due to major limitations of the study. Nevertheless, they provide an indication of direction for future research and a contribution to theoretical assumptions. MANAGERIAL SIGNIFICANCE The study gives an extensive background of the cultural, economic, legal, political, and social environment of two countries, members of the European Community. Therefore it helps the international managers to develop an understanding for the two markets, England and Greece. The quantitative research contributes to the debate of standardization vs adaptation of the marketing mix, by showing that an in-between approach is used more often in reaching several countries than either total standardization or total adaptation. In addition the study suggests that complete standardization is used in only very few cases, and usually some adaptations are done to suit the particularities of each country, such as having the advertisement written to the official language of the 180 country. Specifically, the international manager who is interested in these two markets and who intends to standardize the advertisement as much as possible, will find several interesting indications as to what kind of adaptations are needed. For example, it seems that the models are not necessarily expected to have the facial characteristics of the country in order to be used in the advertisement. In addition, the study helps the manager to include in the advertisement certain informational cues that are important in the specific market, such as "imported in package" in the case of Greece. Another example would be the communication of quality that is expected in England. For the managers who are not interested in the two markets analyzed here, this study can serve as a guideline for designing an in-depth study of other foreign markets. In general, this study is added to those supporting that the term "Euroconsumer" is still elusive today in many respects. So the managers should keep in mind that although "Euroconsumers" one day will show similarities in their buying behavior, this day has not yet arrived. The real challenge is to correctly identify that day. 181 LIMITATIONS The results of the quantitative research indicated major shortcomings in the study. The most important are: a) the sample size was too small for answering important theoretical questions such as the high vs low context. The size of the sample contributed to Type I error in several cases and prohibited the scientific analysis of hypotheses. in others. The sample size was small due to time, cost, and availability limitations; English and Greek women’s fashion magazines were hard to find in the East Lansing area. b) the cosmetic category was divided into subcategories such as perfume, lipstick and facial skin care, causing problems with the size of the sample; in cases where only one subcategory was to be examined, for example perfumes, the size was too small for statistical analysis. c) sixty five percent of the English sample was perfume ads, in contrast to 18% of the Greek. In addition, 47% of the Greek sample were advertisements for facial skin care in contast to 15% in the English sample; such discrepancies in the sample caused big theoretical and interpretational problems. d) subjectivity associated with terms such as "sexual appeals" and "beauty of character" caused interpretational problems. The results were treated as indicators rather than conclusive statements, but were left in the research as they 182 were considered important approaches for advertising cosmetics. e) intracoder validity was questioned when coding items such as "sexual appeals" and "beauty of characters" as the coders were from different culture and of different sex. f) the coder of the English advertisements is American and not native English, therefore some cultural biases appear when coding the English advertisements. g) the study did not have intercoder reliability since only two coders were used. h) the research studied the content of the advertisements but did not examine effectiveness of the content. FURTHER RESEARCH It is important that further research is conducted on the same subject to challenge the results of this pilot study. As mentioned before, the results of this study are questionable due to major limitations. Therefore, a study with bigger and more carefully designed sample may be conducted to answer the important theoretical questions. The study should include only one cosmetic category to eliminate discrepancies in the sample, and it should check for validity and reliability of the testing. There must be more than two coders, very well trained to code the advertisements from their native country. Subjective terms should be avoided as much as possible to allow reliability 183 in the test. Furthermore, other studies may be conducted to measure effectiveness of the content of the advertisements. Such studies are important in contributing to theoretical assumptions but also to help marketers to compete more effectively in the global economy. APPENDIX A Data Coding Instrument APPENDIX A Print Advertisement Data Coding Instrument: 1. Classification Section: a. Advertisement Number - - b. Coder Number - c. Country: 1) England 2) Greece — 2. Type of cosmetic involved in ad: yes no 1 2 a. make-up - - b. lipstick - - c. eyeshadow - - d. facial skin care - - e. mascara - - f. perfume - - g. body lotion/moisturizer - - h. nail enamel - - i. suntan lotion - - j. other(specify) _____________________ 3. Colors of face cosmetics shown in the ad: yes no 1 2 a.Light Colors - - b.Dark Colors - - c.Not Applicable - - 184 185 4. Dominant colors used in the advertisment: . yes no 1 2 a.Black - - b.dark brown - - c.dark blue - - d.dark grey - - e.dark green - - f.dark red (maroon) - - g.light brown (beige) - - h.light blue - - i.light green _ _ l.light grey - - k.red - _ l.yellow _ _ m.orange - - n.pink - _ o.white - - p.0ther (specify) -------------------------- 5. How many models are in the advertisement? Check one a) 0 -- b) 1 -_ c) 2 -- d) 3 or more -_ 186 (IF THREE MODELS OR MORE, CHOOSE TWO THAT APPEAR TO BE THE MRHHRACTERS IN THE ADVERTISEMENT) A. Model A used in the ad has: Check one a.fair skin -- b.olive skin -- c.dark skin __ d.other (specify) -------------------------- e.not identifiable -- B. Model A used in the ad has: Check one a.dark color eyes -- h.light color eyes -- c.not identifiable -- C. Model A used in the ad has: 'Check one a.dark color hair -- b.fair color hair -- c.not identifiable -- D. Model B used in the ad has: Check one a.fair skin -- b.olive skin -- c.dark skin -- d.other (specify) -------------------------- e.not identifiable -- 187 E. Model B used in the ad has: Check one a.dark color eyes -- h.light color eyes -- c.not identifiable -- F. Model B used in the ad has: Check one a.dark color hair -- b.fair color hair -- c.not identifiable -- (IF A PERFUME AD, PLEASE ANSWER QUESTION #6; IF NOT, SKIP TO QUESTION #7) 6. What is the country of manufacturing of the perfume? Check one a.Greece -- b.England -_ c.France -- d.Other (specify) ---------------------------- e. not identifiable -- 7. Headline: a.Language used in headline 1.Greek -- 2.English -- 3.French -- 4.0ther (specify) ------------- _- 188 b.Number of words in headline - - 8. Subheadline: a.Language used in subheadline 1.Greek -— 2.English __ 3.French -- 4.0ther (specify) ------------- -— b.Number of words in subheadline - - 9. Slogan: a.Language used in slogan Check one 1.Greek -- 2.English -- 3.French -- 4.0ther (specify) ------------- -- 10. Body Copy: a.Language used in body copy 1.Greek -- 2.English -_ 3.French -- 4.0ther (specify) ------------- -- b.Number of words in the body copy — — - 11. 12. 13. 189 Brand Name: a.Language used in brand name 1.Greek 2.English 3.French 4.0ther (specify) ------------- 5.Not identifiable or none Logo: a.Language used in logo 1.Greek 2.English 3.French 4.0ther (specify) ------------- 5.Not identifiable or none Company name 3 a. Language used in company name: 1.Greek 2.English 3.French 4.0ther (specify) ————————————— 5.Not identifiable or none Check one Check one 190 15. Information Content: f. g. h. j. k. Visual Verbal Both None Quality Sensory information Aesthetic information Size Availability, Location "Imported in package" Company information Ingredients Product Performance Image of users Beauty of models in the ad Picture of the product or package shown Psychological or subjective benefits of product onwership/use Use occasion Sexual appeals Others (explain): APPENDIX B Code Book 2.a. 2.b. 5A.a. SB.a. APPENDIX B Code Book Face Cosmetics: Any type of cosmetic used on the face. Includes lipsticks, make-up, eye-shadow, mascara, eye- liner, blush, facial and skin-care. Body Cosmetics: Any type of cosmetic used on any other part of the body other than the face. Includes perfumes, body lotions/moisturizers, finger nail polish and deodorant. Light colors: Any light color of lipstick, eye-shadow, blush, or finger nail polish. Includes tones of pink, orange, light red (for lipsticks, blush and nail-polish and tones of blue, green and pink for eye-shadows. Dark Colors: Any darker color of lipstick, eye-shadow, nail-polish and blush. Includes tones of red, brown and maroon (for lipsticks, blush, and nail-polish) and tones of brown and golden (dark yellow) for eye- shadows. Dominant Colors of the advertisement: Any color that seems to occupy 25% or more of the space of the advertisement. Fair skin: Milky white skin color. Olive skin: Light brown skin color (looks like white skin with some tan). Dark skin: Dark brown or black skin color. Other: Includes Asian, Indian, Eskino. Dark Color Eyes: Includes black, dark brown (chestnut), dark green, dark grey, dark blue. 191 192 b. Light Color Eyes: Includes blue, light green and light grey color eyes. 5C.a. Dark color Hair: Includes black, dark brown, and dark red color hair. b. Light color hair: Includes blonde, light brown, red and orange. 6a. Country of manufacturing: Where was the product made; what country. 7. Headline: The "title" of the advertisement. 8. Subheadline: The "subtitle" of the advertisement. 9. Slogan: "A phrase used to advertise a product. Usually it is a theme of an advertising campaign..."1 10.Body Copy: The text of the advertisement. 11.Logo: "The identifying graphic treatment or graphic device for a product or service."2 For example--GM in a square. 12.Brand Name: The name of the product advertised. For example Oldsmobile. 13.Company name: The name of the company that makes the product, for example--General Motors. Information content: All the written and visual informational cues in the advertisement. Includes quality, size, ingredients of product, use, performance, company information, availability, beuty of models, sexual appeals. ‘ Bendinger B (1988), The Copy Workshop Workbook. Chicago,355. 2 Ibid. 193 14 a.Quality: Refers to how good a product is; may refer to ingredients , or length of time needed to produce the product. b.8ensory information: (fragrance, touch, color) Information concerning sensory experience, appearance, classic beauty. c.Aesthetic claims: (styling, color): Information concerning appearance, classic beauty, and so on of the product either when purchased or when prepared in final form. d.8ize: Refers to the physical size of the product. Is it mentioned or shown in the ad? e.Availability, Location: Any information concerning the place(s) the consumer can obtain the product. f."Imported in package": Information to the consumer that the product was imported sealed in its original package. g.Company information: Refers to any information about the image or the reputation of the company that manufacturers or distributes the product. h.lngredients: What went into making or manufacture of the product-for example "contains lanolin". i.Product performance or benefits: How the product performs, what the product does to the consumer-for example, "refreshes your skin". j.Image of uses: Any verbal or visual information concerning the type of individuals who might use the advertised product-~for example, " for the young at heart" or the picture of a busy carreer woman. k.Beauty of model(s): Does the ad present one or more strikingly beautiful people? 1.Picture of product or package shown: Is the actual product shown in the ad? m.Psychologica1 or subjective benefits of product ownership/use. 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