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CROSS-CULTURAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS:
A CONTRASTIVE STUDY OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS OF
AMERICAN AND GERMAN TEXTS FOR BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
TAKEN FROM WIRYIS'CI-MFTSWOCHE AND BUSINESS WEEK

By

Karin U. Heinze

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Linguistics and Germanic, Slavic,
Asian and African Languages

1994

ABSTRACT

CROSS-CULTURAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS:
A CONT RASTIVE STUDY OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS OF
AMERICAN AND GERMAN TEXTS FOR BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
TAKEN FROM WIRTSCHAFTSWOCHE AND BUSINESS WEEK

By

Karin U. Heinze

This dissertation deals with a contrastive analysis of a subset
of written news discourse, i. e., business and economics texts taken
from the German business news magazine WirtschaftsWoche and its
American counterpart Business Week.

The overall objective of this study is to examine how authors
of articles published in these general business magazines typically
organize their discourse. The goal of examining the organizational
patterns of these texts is to find out whether they display specific
differences which can be ascribed to their cultural backgrounds.

Its methodological approach consists of contrastively
analyzing the organizational patterns of a total corpus of 30 written
journalistic texts. 15 articles were selected per language, and one
German text was matched with one English text by their specific
content. In order to prevent subjective analyses of the texts, two

outside analysts were asked to perform independent analyses of the

German and English articles according to specific criteria which are
determined to indicate topic boundaries. After identifying these
topic-shifts within all 30 texts, the contents of each subtopic was
summarized in the form of short captions, and they were the basis
for determining the underlying outline of each text. They provided
an overview of the texts' dependency relationships. The outlines of
each text were then transposed into tree-diagrams, which revealed
whether a text showed discourse subordination or discourse
coordination.

Thus the organizational structure of written journalistic
discourse was studied. In addition, a detailed examination of the
linguistic markers which supported the topic-shifts was conducted.
Two discourse markers in English (also and but) and in German
(doch and auch) were selected for closer analysis of their functions
in each language. The overall result of the analyses of the 15 texts
samples taken from each language and the statistical tests applied to
the data show no conclusive evidence that the German texts display
a more subordinated and, therefore, less coordinated organizational

structure than the English texts, and vice versa.

C0pyright by
KARIN URSULA HEINZE
1 9 9 4

TO MY PARENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to thank Prof. Patricia R.
Paulsell, chairperson of my advisory committee, for her continuous
support during my years as a graduate student at Michigan State
University. I would also like to express my gratitude to Prof. Nancy
Ainsworth-Vaughn, Prof. Thomas A. Lovik, and Prof. Dennis R.
Preston who served as committee members for their helpful advice
during all stages of this dissertation. Thanks also to the College of
Arts and Letters at Michigan State University for supplying the
funding for the two outside readers of the magazine texts analyzed
in this dissertation. Both analysts, too, are greatly appreciated.
Above all however, I would like to thank my husband Michael whose
loving support and valuable insights helped me succeed in this and
previous projects in innumerable ways. I also owe many thanks to
Sandy and Elsa, our Siamese kitties, who shared my desk with me
day and night, and supported me by always being around. Thank

you all.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LISTOFTABLES ............................................................................... ix
LISTOF FIGURES .............................................................................. xii
CHAPTER]:
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2:
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH ............................................... 4
2.1. Determination of the Theoretical Framework ................ 4
2.1.1. Aspects of Contrastive Analysis ........................... 4
2.1.2. Approaches to Textual Contrastive
Analysis ............................................................... 8
2.1.3. Definitions .......................................................... l 1
2.2. Selection of the Magazines ............................................ 15
2.3. Selection of the Text Corpus .......................................... 18
2.4. Criteria for the Analysis of Organizational
Patterns ......................................................................... 23
2.5. Application of the Criteria to Two Sample Texts ............ 30
CHAPTER 3:
DISCOURSE ANALYSES OF GERMAN AND ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEXTS ................................................................... 50
3.1. Analyses of the Organizational Structure ...................... 50
3.1.1. Evaluation of the Tree-Diagrams ......................... 50
3.1.2. Application of the Statistical Tests ...................... 56
3.2. Analyses of the Topic Shift Indicators ........................... 62
3.2.1. The English Text Corpus ...................................... 63
3.2.2. The German Text Corpus ..................................... 71
3.3. Comparison of the English and German Sets of Data ..... 77

vii

CHAPTER 4:

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS AND OUTLOOK ........................ 8 9
APPENDIX A:

OUTLINES OF ALL ENGLISH AND GERMAN TEXTS ..................... 9 5
APPENDIX B:

TREE-DIAGRAMS OF ALL ENGLISH AND GERMAN TEXTS .......... 1 2 5
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................... 1 4 0

viii

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

Table
Table

Table 13:
Table 14:
Table 15:
Table 16:
Table 17:

Table 18:

\IQUI-D-UJN

8:
9:
Table 10:
Table 11:
Table 12:

LIST OF TABLES

Texts Selected for Analysis ........................................... 20
Outline of Text 10E and Topic-Shift Indicators ............. 38
Outline of Text 10G and Topic-Shift Indicators ............ 47
Compilation of the Results of the Analyses ................... 55

The Application of the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Test....59

Topic-Shifts in the English Text Corpus ........................ 64
Breakdown of all Topic-Shifts in the

English Text Corpus ...................................................... 65
Complements of Time as Linguistic Markers ................ 67
Discourse Markers as Linguistic Markers ..................... 68

Sentence Element Variation as Organizational Device..70

Topic-Shifts in the German Text Corpus ....................... 72
Breakdown of all Topic-Shifts in the

German Text Corpus ..................................................... 73
Complements of Time as Linguistic Markers ................ 74
Discourse Markers as Linguistic Markers ..................... 75

Sentence Element Variation as Organizational Device..76

German and English Texts in Comparison ..................... 78
Compilation of the Use of Discourse Markers .............. 8O
Outline of Text 1E ......................................................... 95

ix

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
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Table
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Table
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Table
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19:
20:
21:
22:
23:
24:
25:
26:
27:
28:
29:
30:
31:
32:
33:
34:
35:
36:
37:
38:
39:
40:
41:
42:

Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline

Outline

of Text 1G ........................................................ 96
of Text 2E ......................................................... 97
of Text 2G ........................................................ 98
of Text 3E ......................................................... 99
of Text 3G ...................................................... 100
of Text 4E ....................................................... 101
of Text 4G ...................................................... 102
of Text 5E ....................................................... 103
of Text 5G ...................................................... 104
of Text 6E ....................................................... 105
of Text 6G ...................................................... 106
of Text 7E ....................................................... 107
of Text 7G ...................................................... 108
of Text 8E ....................................................... 109
of Text 8G ...................................................... 110
of Text 9E ....................................................... 111
of Text 9G ...................................................... 112
of Text 10E ..................................................... 113
of Text 10G .................................................... 114
of Text 11E ..................................................... 115
of Text 11G .................................................... 116
of Text 12E ..................................................... 117
of Text 12G .................................................... 118
of Text 13E ..................................................... 119

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

43:
44:
45:
46:
47:

Outline
Outline
Outline
Outline

Outline

of Text 13G .................................................... 120

of Text 14E ..................................................... 121
of Text 14G .................................................... 122
of Text 15E ..................................................... 123
of Text 15G .................................................... 124

xi

Figure
Figure
Figure
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LIST OF FIGURES

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xii

10E as Tree-Diagram ................ 39
10G as Tree-Diagram ............... 48
2E as Tree-Diagram .................. 52
1E as Tree-Diagram ................ 125
10 as Tree-Diagram ............... 125
2B as Tree-Diagram ................ 126
2G as Tree-Diagram ............... 126
3B as Tree-Diagram ................ 127
3G as Tree-Diagram ............... 127
4B as Tree-Diagram ................ 128
4G as Tree-Diagram ............... 128
5B as Tree-Diagram ................ 129
5G as Tree-Diagram ............... 129
6E as Tree-Diagram ................ 130
66 as Tree-Diagram ............... 130
7E as Tree-Diagram ................ 131
7G as Tree-Diagram ............... 131
SE as Tree-Diagram ................ 132
8G as Tree-Diagram ............... 132
9E as Tree-Diagram ................ 133

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
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Figure
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Figure
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Figure

21:
22:
23:
24:
25:
26:
27:
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33:

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xiii

9G as Tree-Diagram ............... 133

10E as Tree-Diagram .............. 134
10G as Tree-Diagram ............. 134
11E as Tree-Diagram .............. 135
11G as Tree-Diagram ............. 135
12E as Tree-Diagram .............. 136
12G as Tree-Diagram ............. 136
13E as Tree-Diagram .............. 137
13G as Tree-Diagram ............. 137
14E as Tree-Diagram .............. 138
14G as Tree-Diagram ............. 138
15E as Tree-Diagram .............. 139
15G as Tree-Diagram ............. 139

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The analysis of discourse has broadly been defined as the
analysis of both written and spoken language in use (Brown/Yule
1983: 1). As such, discourse analysis examines the functions or
purposes of a language in conjunction with its formal properties; it
studies what language is used for and how its forms are used in
communication. The history of discourse analysis can be traced
back to ancient treatises of rhetoric and poetics of more than 2,000
years ago. The modern development of discourse studies however
dates from the mid-1960's, and the cross-cultural aspect did not
emerge until the 1980's. Also relatively new is the application of
discourse analysis in mass communication research.

Generally, the research area of news analysis has not received
much attention in the past. The Dutch linguist Teun van Dijk (1980,
1981, 1984, 1985, 1988) has been at the forefront of the linguistic
analysis of news. Recently, Roger Fowler (1991) contributed to this
field with an interesting account on language in the news, and Allan
Bell (1991) published a sophisticated sociolinguistic analysis of the
language of news media. On the other hand, there are many
publications concentrating on various how-to-approaches for

students of journalism (e.g. Click et al., 1990; Grunwald, 1988;

2
Gussow, 1984; Hartley, 1982; Hubbard, 1982; Kirsch, 1978; Rivers

et al., 1988). They contain interesting details regarding the writing,
editing and publication process of magazine articles in general, yet
they provide little, if any, information on the composition process

and the organizational patterns of articles.

Detailed discourse analyses on language in the business press
have recently been performed by Lindell/Piirainen (1980),
Piirainen/Airismaki (1987), and Prachner/Schmatzer (1993). While
Prachner/Schmatzer (1993) concentrate on aspects of translation,
Lindell/Piirainen (1980) deal with the language of the German
business magazine Capital on a sentence and word-level.
Piirainen/Airismaki (1987) carried out a similar analysis of the
language of the German Handelsblatt.

Among the major contributors to the field of discourse
analysis across cultural boundaries are Robert B. Kaplan (1972,
1980), and Robert de Beaugrande (1980).

The approach of this research project is to combine some of
the different facets of discourse analysis mentioned above: it will
deal with a contrastive analysis of a subset of written news
discourse, i. e., business and economics texts taken from the
German business news magazine Wirtschaftswoche and its American
counterpart Business Week. The overall objective of this study is to
examine how authors of articles published in these general business
magazines typically organize their discourse. The goal of examining
the organizational patterns of these texts is to find out whether they
display specific differences which can be ascribed to their linguistic

environment, i. e., cultural backgrounds. Its methodological

3
approach consists of contrastively analyzing the organizational

patterns of a total corpus of 30 written journalistic texts. 15
articles were selected per language, and one German text was
matched with one English text by their specific content, i. e., their
topics. The discourse analyses of the selected German and English
language texts are performed and presented in detail in chapter 3
after a discussion of their theoretical framework in chapter 2.
Concluding remarks and suggestions for further research will close

the dissertation.

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

2.1. Determination of the Theoretical Framework

2.1.1. Aspects of Contrastive Analysis

Contrastive analysis is concerned with the comparison of two
or more languages in order to determine both the differences and
similarities between them (Fisiak 1981: 1). It is founded on the
assumption that languages can be compared and contrasted (James
1980: 3)1

The approach of contrastive analysis has been a popular
pedagogical device providing valuable insights into areas such as
error analysis, translation theory and bilingualism. In the 1960's, it
was claimed that "a comprehensive description of the similarities of
any pair of languages was the best basis for teaching the learner of
either [language]" (Hartmann 1980: 26). This hypothesis spurred a
vast number of contrastive analyses published for pedagogic
purposes.2 Though it seemed to be a perfectly sensible conjecture,
this pedagogic interest in contrastive analysis declined only a decade

later. Generally, two main reasons are given for this development:

 

11Hartmann (1980: 24) supports this notion and states: "Comparative linguists
must assume by definition that languages can be contrasted as completely
independent systems."

2For contrastive phonology see: William Moulton. h u 1i 11
German. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Also: R. P. Stockwell and J.
D. Bowen. W. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1965. For contrastive syntax see: Herbert Kufner.I_hg_Qx_ammmj_ca1
Wan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1962.
Also. R. P. Stockwell, J. D. Bowen and J. W. Martin. 1W
W. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. F. B. Agard

and R J DiPictro W Chicago
University of Chicago Press, 1966.

5
In his preface to James' Contrastive Analysis, Candlin (1980)

classifies one reason as descriptive linguistic and the other as
psycholinguistic-pedagogic. Linguistically, he claims, models of
analysis and theoretical approaches which are constantly altered or
emended are too unstable as foundations of contrastive description.
Psycholinguistically and pedagogically, Candlin argues, contrastive
descriptions were sometimes only able to predict part of the
learning problems encountered by language learners. In addition,
those points of potential difficulty which were identified seemed to
cause various and variable problems among different learners.
Hartmann (1980) concurs that language learners had difficulties
with structures which were not predicted by contrastive analysis, yet
easily mastered some that were supposed to lead to error.
Strategies applied to learning a language are not primarily guided by
the degree of difference between the linguistic systems of the
mother tongue and the target language: "Learners do not simply
transfer isolated elements of linguistic structure to replace one code
by another, but use the phonological, grammatical and lexical
repertoires of the respective language in ways that are pragmatically
appropriate, and not structurally programmed" (Hartmann 1980:
26). While contrastive analysis lost some of its pedagogic impact,
its value goes far beyond practical language teaching terms.

In his comprehensive study of contrastive analysis, James
(1980) discusses contrastive analysis against the background of
microlinguistics and macrolinguistics. Microlinguistics concentrates

on the narrower perspective of linguistics, which sees as its goal the

6
description of the linguistic code,3 without making reference to the

uses to which the code is put, or how messages carried by this code
are modified by the contexts in which they occur. Since modern
20th century linguistics has taken this approach, consequently,
contrastive analysis has followed suit. Recently however, an
increased amount of attention has been given to the broader
perspective, macrolinguistics, which examines the contextual
determination of messages and their interpretation (James 1980:
27).4

Fillmore (1984) provides several explanations for this relative
rarity of pragmatic studies in contrastive linguistics in the past. The
most prevalent reason he mentions is that the knowledge
concerning language use "has looked like knowledge that could
freely cross linguistic boundaries and that could vary arbitrarily
among speakers of the same language" (Fillmore 1984: 126). This
knowledge was therefore regarded as depending more on the nature
of people and cultures than on that of language. Generally, he
describes pragmatics as a vast field incorporating topics such as, for
example, genre type, topic marking, markers of cohesive links, word
order variation, activity-bound speech acts, indirectness, devices for

emphasis or downplaying, etc. (Fillmore 1984: 126). In arguing for

 

3Microlinguistics concentrates on the following levels of language: phonology,
lexis, morphology, and syntax (James 1980: 28).

4Pragmatic contrastive analysis is a fairly new field of macrolinguistics.
Interesting examples thereof are: Thomas A. Lovik. "Pragmatic Pitfalls of

Learning/Teaching German", MW, Spring 1987, pp. 36- 44.
Also: Charles J. Fillmore. "Remarks on Contrastive Pragmatics", W

W ed Jacek Fisiak Berlin/New
York/Amsterdam: Mouton, 1984, pp. 119 - 141. See also: Gabriele Kasper, and

Shoshana Blum-Kulka. MW. Oxford: CUP, 1993. And:
Wieslaw Oleksy, ed. WW. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1989.

7
a contrastive pragmatics, he adds that "from the reality that all of

the items in this list do indeed vary across languages, they obviously
make up an important part of what needs to be considered in
contrastive linguistics" (Fillmore 1984: 126). In order to organize
his approach to pragmatics, he makes the distinction between
general pragmatic patterns (or large facts) and special pragmatic
practices (or small facts). Under the category of large issues, he
subsumes topics like politeness systems, patterns of indirectness,
repertoires of registral differences, patterns in the rhetorical
organization of discourse, the special devices languages use for
constructing narrative texts, and so on. The special issues, or small
pragmatic facts, are things that "are best learned one piece at a
time" (Fillmore 1984: 128). To exemplify his notion of small
pragmatic facts, he quotes the use of negative why-questions, which
English speakers would find perfectly natural for formulating
suggestions, as in 'Why don't we go to the opera tonight?', while a
structurally identical question in German would sound offensive.
Small differences therefore cover item—to-item issues, while large
differences deal with systematic features of the pragmatic practices
of different linguistic communities.

Like Fillmore, Hartmann (1980) also provides an explanation
for this contemporary interest in the broader aspects of language.
He interprets it as a result of a "restlessness in many linguistic
quarters which can be interpreted as an urge to get to grips with the
realities of language as interaction, as social, communicative
discourse between real speakers in real situations" (Hartmann 1980:

9). He traces the historical development of structural linguistics in

8
the 20th century from the study of sounds through words and

sentences to texts. The development within contrastive analysis,
then, can be regarded as an expansion from contrastive phonology
through contrastive lexicology and contrastive grammar to
contrastive textology. Yet, while the first three areas within
contrastive analysis possess a fairly well accepted set of terms,5
methods, and techniques, there are no standard procedures in the
study of textual discourse (Hartmann 1980: 34/5). The following
section will explore some possible approaches to textual discourse

analysis.

2.1.2. Approaches to Textual Contrastive Analysis

Since all interlinguistic contrasts are manifest in texts,
Hartmann (1980) suggests selecting parallel texts for interlingual
comparisons at all levels and with any method. Parallel texts
"document contrasts between discourse types within and across
languages" (Hartmann 1980: 39).

Krzeszowski (1989) argues similarly and concludes his
discussion of the approach to textual contrastive studies as follows:
"[...] in order to prevent comparisons of incomparables one has to
establish a TC [tertium comparationis]. The TC will at the same time

restrict the class of texts that can undergo comparisons. Therefore,

 

5Hartmann (1980: 34/5) refers in this context to "agreed ways of segmenting the
flow of speech into hierarchically ranked units" such as phonems and syllables
within phonology; lexemes and lexical fields within lexicology; morphemes, words,
phrases and sentences within grammar.

9
it may be necessary to require of the constituent texts that they be

written in the same register or deal with the same topic or represent
the same literary genre. Whatever requirements on the 'sameness'
of the constituent texts are imposed, they will determine the TC
relevant for these texts" (61).

In order to ensure a "common platform of reference"
(Krzeszowski 1989: 60), Hartmann (1980) developed a system of
three main groups of parallel texts: in class A, parallel texts are
typically the result of a professional translation arrived at by
conscious approximation processes in which the original message of
the source-language text becomes a situationally appropriate target-
language text. Examples are bible translation, literary and technical
translation, and conference interpreting.

Class B parallel texts are typically the result of a deliberate
adaptation of a message in the respective conventions of two
languages for the purpose of conveying an identical message to
receivers of sometimes very different cultural backgrounds.
Correspondences between the texts are primarily conditioned by the
need to produce similar reactions in the reader, as in the case of
the production of advertisements for different countries, for
example.

Texts within class C are independently created and typically
unrelated except by the analyst's recognition that the original
circumstances that led to the creation of the two texts have
produced accidental similarities. Therefore, they achieve their
equivalence through similar contexts, and achieve their mediation

by comparison. Examples are samples of texts from corresponding

10
registers of different languages, such as the texts selected for the

present study; i. e., English and German articles taken from
comparable business magazines, which were paired by topic.

While Hartmann distinguishes between three classes of texts
for a contrastive textology, James identifies three comparable,
possible approaches to textual contrastive analysis: translated texts,
textual characterization, and text type (James 1980: 113/14).

Translated texts are the most obvious basis for textual
contrastive analyses: their main limitation is their potential for
translation-distortion, i. e., the target-language text can show signs
of interference from the source-language (James 1980: 117).

The approach of textual characterization concentrates on the
examination of large stretches of text in each of a pair of languages
according to the type(s) of cohesive devices used to achieve textual
cohesion, their frequencies, and their contexts. Presenting research
results from Wonderly (1968) and Newsham (1977) as well as his
own after contrasting cohesive devices in English and French (1980:
114/5), James concludes that while every language has at its
disposal a set of devices for maintaining textual cohesion, different
languages have preferences for certain devices and neglect others.

James' third approach to textual contrastive analysis is text
typology. Despite the differences which may exist between the
respective cultures and languages, and though some cultures may
lack text-types cultivated in others,6 it is claimed that there are

types of texts in each language which perform approximately the

 

6An example of this is "Ehewiinsche", a very popular section in German
newspapers, yet hardly ever published in British newspapers. (James 1980: 117)

l 1
same function. Examples of similar text-types can be found in

newspapers and magazines, such as letter-to-the-editor,
commentaries, reports, advertisements, etc. These text-types
perform certain conventional functions and can be labelled as more
or less institutionalized. Within James' approach, then, the texts
selected for this study belong to the third category described.

Before continuing with a closer description of the criteria for
the selection of the magazines and the texts for this study, it is
necessary to discuss and define critical theoretical terms such as
genre and text-type. Their understanding will determine the

terminological framework for the texts selected.

2.1.3. Definitions

In an attempt to tackle the issue of defining the concept of
genre, John M. Swales (1990) examines what other scholars have
contributed to the definition of the term genre in the four
disciplines linguistics, literary studies, rhetoric, and folklore. Swales
(1990) summarizes their individual contributions, and comes to the
following definition of genre: "A genre defines a class of
communicative events, the members of which share some set of
communicative purposes.7 [...] Communicative purpose is both a

privileged criterion and one that operates to keep the scope of a

 

7Following Miller (1984) and Martin (1985), Swales (1990) discusses the
placement of genre-membership on shared purpose rather than on similarities of
form or some other criterion. The decision is based on the assumption that in
most cases genres are communicative vehicles for the achievement of goals (Swales

1990: 46).

12
genre as here conceived narrowly focused on comparable rhetorical

action. In addition to purpose, exemplars of a genre exhibit various
patterns of similarity in terms of structure, style, content and
intended audience" (Swales 1990: 58).8 A communicative event is
regarded as one in which language plays a significant as well as
indispensable role; the term neglects therefore non-verbal activities
(e. g. while engaging in physical exercise, or driving) as well as
activities in which talk is incidental (e. g. at a football-game). In
addition, a communicative event is conceived of as comprising not
only the discourse itself and its participants, but also the role of that
discourse and the environment of its production and reception,
including its historical and cultural association (Swales 1990: 46).

The importance of context is also addressed by Brown/Yule
who state that "in order to construct a notion of 'genre', it is
necessary to generalise across experience and determine what is
common to fairy stories, chats, news broadcasts, epic poems,
debates or salesmen's routines which enable us to recognise one as
being a token of the generalised type" (61/2).

Within news discourse, Fowler (1991) is one of the few
researchers addressing the issue of genre. In his mind, it is
intuitively obvious to the reader that there are distinct genres within
newspapers, such as editorials, reviews, financial reports, sports,

etc. Fowler concludes his attempts at a definition of genre with this

 

8Engel (1991) argues similarly and defines "Textsorte" as "Klasse von Texten,
deren sprachliche Merkmale mit Kommunikationsziel uud Textkonstellation
korrelieren" (884).

l 3
general statement: "Genre is one kind of intertextuality: a text is of

a genre because it relates to others of the type" (227).9

Within literary theory, the term genre has traditionally defined
various kinds of literary forms such as drama, poetry, short story,
or novel.10 In our context however, texts will not be grouped by
their formal characteristics, but primarily by their communicative
goal, or purpose. Engel (1991) classifies texts according to specific
criteria: a "Textsorte" comprises groups of texts which share the
same goal or communicative purpose ("Textziel"), such as e. g. to
inform, to persuade, or to convince. The primary goal, or primary
purpose, of the texts in our study is to inform their readers; they
therefore belong to the overall category of informational texts.
It is important to mention, however, that while articles in
Wirtschaftswoche and Business Week are explicitly informational,
they at the same time contain implicit elements of persuasion and
convincing. It is therefore problematic to categorize these texts as
purely informational when the implicit message is often for the
purpose of persuading or convincing to the reporters' (or editors')
opinions.11

Other types of texts with primarily informational character are
interviews, letters, instruction manuals, etc. which also mainly have
informational character. In order to discriminate between them, we

need to consider additional distinguishing characteristics such as

 

9Fowler apparently does not clearly distinguish between the two terms genre and
text-type, but uses them interchangeably.

lOln a literary context, the term genre is usually translated into German as
"Gattung". The appropriate term in the present context however is considered to
be "Textsorte".

11Liiger (1983) deals with this issue in detail and his arguments will be presented
below.

14
the so-called textual configuration ("Textkonstellation"), or more

specifically the degree of involvement, and the degree of availability
("Offentlichkeitsgrad"): news reports are usually written by one or
several journalists; their authors are classified as active in that they
write the articles, while the readers are regarded as the passive
recipients of the texts. In addition, news reports are not private but
public documents, and they are generally available to every
interested reader. However, the same characteristics could be
assigned to texts like recipes, or phone books. Therefore, news
reports, recipes, and phonebooks all belong to the same overall
"Textsorte" or category of informational texts, yet they are each
individual types of texts.

A fairly recent German publication on the language of the
news by Heinz-Helmut Liiger (1983) gives a very detailed account of
a classification of journalistic texts.12 Luger (1983: 64-6) also
discusses the problem of clearly assigning texts to a single category,
and assigns journalistic texts according to their primary goals,
purposes, or intentions. He therefore discriminates between
primarily informational texts (e. g. hard and soft news,
announcements, reports, eyewitness account, weather report);
opinion-centered, persuasive texts (e. g. commentary, review);
instructional-directive texts (e. g. instructions, tips); and two-

centered texts (e. g. interview).13 For the purposes of this study,

 

12In Litger's terminology, our definition of "Textsorten" corresponds with his term
"Textklassen", while our "Texttypen" are his "Textsorten". This is just another
example of the overall confusion among researchers within the field who apply a
multitude of terms and definitions to the same phenomena.

13The original German terms used by Liiger are: informationsbetonte Texte,
meinuugsbetout-persuasive Texte, instruierend-anweisende Texte, und
bizentrierte Texte (Luger 1983).

1 5
closer attention will be paid to the text-type "report" which is part

of the overall category of informational texts.14

Liiger defines reports, or "Berichttexte", as "auf Ganzlektiire
konstituiert, [...] das zugrundeliegende Hauptgeschehen wird als
chronologisch geordnete Folge von Handlungssequenzen dargestellt.
[...] der chronologische Aufbau [kann] mehrfach von Zitaten,
kommentierenden Stellungnahmen oder eingefiigten
Hintergrundinformationen unterbrochen sein [...]. Der Berichttext
wird normalerweise durch Zwischeniiberschriften, die graphischer
Auflockerung und rascher inhaltlicher Orientierung dienen,
unterteilt." (1983: 74/5). In the following sections, it will become
evident how the theoretical issues raised above were applied to the

selection of the magazines and texts for this study.

2.2. Selection of the Magazines

Today's magazine industry in both the United States and
Germany is as varied as its readers, and the broad selection of
magazines reflects the interests of the readers. Business magazines,
in addition, reflect the entire spectrum of American and German
industry, and their market changes as new industries or businesses
emerge. Within their overall classification as special interest

magazines, business magazines are commonly divided into

 

14in his introduction, Liiger argues that there is a discussion as to whether the
title "Pressesprache" only pertains to the language of newspapers, or to magazines
alike. He concludes that although there are differences between the two, there
are just as many similarities, which therefore justify his overall approach.

l6
specialized and general business publications. While the specialized

publications are prepared for limited groups with a narrowly
defined area of interest (examples are magazines such as MacWorld,
Medical Economics, or Chemical Week), general business magazines
are designed for the general consumer audience with commercial
interests. Among this group, we find magazines such as Forbes,
Fortune, Business Week, Money,Nation's Business, etc.

For the purpose of the present study, one American and one
German business publication was chosen. The choice was based on
the comparability of their overall informational intent, their content
and readership, so that a valid contrastive study of their articles
could be performed. A reference guide entitled Business
Publications Rates and Data15 was a very useful resource for
editorial information on business publications, and it was used to
help determine their comparability. This guide is published on a
monthly basis for businesses and companies interested in data such
as readership, rates and specifications related to advertising,
circulation, and distribution. For the reasons discussed below, the
American magazine Business Week and the German
Wirtschaftswoche were chosen for this study.16

In Business Publications Rates and Data, McGraw-Hill gives the

following editorial profile for its magazine Business Week: "[lt] is

 

15There are several other useful sources such as Standard Periodical Directory,
Gale Directory, Simmons Market Research Bureau New York, and Ulrich's
Directory, which contain a wealth of statistical information on national and foreign
magazines.

16As the German business publication WirtschaftsWoche is the magazine often
used as a textual source for the business German foreign language classroom, it
was a matter of finding an appropriate American counterpart to it. Business Week
was found to be comparable.

1 7
published for management. Each week it reports the news, the ideas

and the trends that have an impact on the economy or on an
industry - or that can provide new insights for the business
executive in the operation of their [sic] own business." (199)
Business Week was established in 1929, and has reached a
circulation of ca. 884,000 issues (June 1994).

The three leading German general business magazines are
Manager Magazin, Capital, and Wirtschaftswoche. As the editorial
profile will show, Wirtschaftswoche can be considered as the
German counterpart to Business Week. Its publisher, Handelsblatt
Verlagsgruppe GmbH, provides the following information:
"Wirtschaftswoche reports on domestic and international business
and finance and provides comprehensive background information
on the economy, industry, trade, banks and corporations, capital
and commodity markets. It combines topical with analytical
coverage for executives and decision-makers in Germany and
German speaking Europe." (1661) Wirtschaftswoche was established
in 1926, and has reached a circulation of ca. 173,000 issues (June
1994).

Business Week and Wirtschaftswoche, therefore, can be
considered comparable: both magazines have a known and similar
audience, i. e., business executives, managers, and decision-
makers.17 They pursue similar overall purposes, and together they

provide the overall "common platform of reference" Krzeszowski

 

17The noticeable difference in their circulation can be explained by their
difference in distribution area, which is specifically pointed out by
Wirtschaftswoche, and the fact that there are fewer German speakers.

1 8
(1989: 60) was referring to. The next section will explain the

selection of the texts from these two business magazines.

2.3. Selection of the Text Corpus

Due to the nature of this project, the characteristics of the
texts are predetermined, i.e. their type (written journalistic texts),
their primary purpose (informational texts), and their intended
audience (readerships of the selected business magazines). The
entire corpus consists of 30 articles, i. e., 15 articles are taken from
each magazine. In order to minimize the variables, three major
criteria were applied in the selection of these texts:

Topic: The texts were selected in pairs. For each German text
a corresponding English text covering the same topic was selected.

Author: Each text selected was written by a different author in
order to minimize the influence of personal style on the results of
the analyses.

Length: Each pair of texts was of similar length in order to
create a comparable amount of data for their analyses.

During the selection process, it was no problem to find articles
published in both magazines dealing with the same topic or
describing the same events. However, after having selected the first
five pairs of texts, it became apparent that it would be very difficult
to apply the second criterion - variation of authors - to the selection
of the rest of the text corpus. The reason for this problem lies in

the fact that both magazines only employ one or two journalists

1 9
reporting from a foreign country. In order to fulfill the first

criterion — paired texts which are matched by topic - mostly
international themes come into question, which, in turn, are
submitted by a limited number of foreign correspondents.
Therefore, the selection of appropriate articles was narrowed
considerably, and a repetition of authors could not be avoided
completely. In one incident, John Templeman, senior journalist
reporting from Germany for Business Week, appears twice in the
table of articles selected. However, this should not influence the
results of the analyses in any significant manner, since he is listed as
a co-author of one of the articles (Text 2E), while being the main
author of the other (Text 6E).

An overview of the texts selected and analyzed is presented in
Table 1. It shows the titles of the article, the overall topic of the

articles, their author/s and the date of publication.

 

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2.4. Criteria for the Analysis of Organizational Patterns

The purpose of this section is to propose a framework for the
analysis of organizational patterns of magazine articles written on
topics within business and economics. Within that broad
framework, the analysis will concentrate most heavily on different
aspects of the sentence- and text-level of discourse analysis.
However, the word-level will also be taken into account at a later
stage.

As mentioned above, the overall goal of this study is to
examine how authors of articles published in general business
magazines typically organize their discourse. When discussing the
organization of discourse, we mean its thematic structure, i. e., the
overall organization of the topic of the article.

The dominant approach to the analysis of news discourse has
been proposed by van Dijk (1980, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1988). He
assigns topics to the global, macrolevel of discourse description,
and suggests a thematic or topical analysis against the background
of a theory of semantic macrostructures. Macrostructures are
organized sets of propositions, with propositions being defined as
"the smallest, independent meaning constructs of language and
thought" which "are typically expressed by single sentences or
clauses" (van Dijk 1988b: 31). Yet unlike propositions,
macrostructures formally represent the global content of a text, and
they are only expressed indirectly by larger stretches of talk or text.
Furthermore, van Dijk determines that propositions which are part

of macrostructures are called macropropositions, and it is assumed

23

24
that each topic of a text can be represented as such a

macroproposition. Longer texts contain several subtopics, and
therefore have a macrostructure consisting of several
macropropositions. Some of these topics are more general than
others, so the entire macrostructure has a hierarchical organization,
in which each sequence of macropropositions can be subsumed
under a higher level macroproposition.

This hierarchical organization of the macropropositions of a
text and their dependency relationships can be represented by
means of a tree-diagram. These tree-diagrams will reveal whether a
text shows discourse subordination or discourse coordination. In
order to determine the degrees of sub- and/or coordination of the
articles, an appropriate statistical method will be chosen and
applied. Generally however, it can be determined that if a text
progresses fairly linearly from one starting point, and the
subsequent macrostructures follow the others directly and
chronologically, the organizational structure is subordinated.
Discourse coordination occurs if the text shows several
macrostructures which each have their own branching
macropropositions.18

The first step of the analysis, then, involves the determination
of their propositional structure. However, the crucial questions

when deciding upon the propositional structure of a text are:

 

18In his contrastive study on the organizational patterns of German and English
academic texts, Michael Clyne (1987) applied these definitions to his research.
However, for the present study, his definitions are considered to be too vague and
subjective. They therefore serve only as a means to gain an initial impression of
the data collected.

25
0 What criteria are applied when doing so?

0 How do readers assign t0pics?
0 What is a topic?
0 How are topic boundaries determined?

Teun van Dijk argues that "the topic of a text is a strategically
derived subjective macroproposition, which is assigned to sequences
of propositions by macroprocesses (rules, strategies) on the basis of
general world knowledge and personal beliefs and interests" (1988b:
34). De Beaugrande (1980: 30) adds: "The question of how people
know what is going on in a text is a special case of the question of
how people know what is going on in the world at all." In other
words, different people may read a text, or parts of a text,
differently, and they may derive slightly varying macropropositions
and macrostructures. Determination of topic, therefore, may be
subjective.

Van Dijk, however, is not the only researcher within the field
of discourse analysis stressing the subjectivity involved in assigning
topics to parts of texts. Schiffrin has dealt extensively with
questions such as those posed above within the realm of spoken
discourse. She defines topic and subtopics as "what is being talked
about" (1987: 26). However, she is not sure how to identify topics
and subtopics, "although it often seems intuitively very clear,
especially when topics shift" (1987: 26). Schiffrin favors a
definition of topic proposed by Brown and Yule (1983) by stating
that "topic is a summary of the important parts of discourse content

- like a title" (Schiffrin 1987: 26).

26

In their review of topic, Brown and Yule (1983) state that
" 'topic‘ could be described as the most frequently used,
unexplained, term in the analysis of discourse" (70). Neglecting the
influence of 'form', their discussion of topic concentrates mainly on
aspects of 'content'. However, the interpretation of what a speaker
is saying, or a writer is writing, is based on how s/he structures what
s/he is saying or writing. Brown and Yule suggest that instead of
"undertaking the difficult task of attempting to define 'what a topic
is', we should concentrate on describing what we recognize as topic—
shift" (94). It is claimed that if a reader or speaker intuitively
notices a topic-shift between two consecutive pieces of discourse,
then there should be a formal marker indicating this shift from one
topic to the next. If we can identify this marking of topic-shift, we
will obtain a structural basis for separating stretches of discourse
into a series of smaller units, each on a separate topic (Brown/Yule
1983: 94/95).

For the purpose of the present study, paragraphs are suggested
as surface manifestations of a macroproposition, and as indicators
for topic-shifts. However, Brown and Yule point to a problematic
aspect when applying this approach: "Those who use the term
'paragraph' to describe a unit in the structural analysis of written
discourse go through some trouble to point out that they are not
describing the orthographic paragraph" (95). They argue that an
orthographic paragraph can result from a writer's stylistic concerns,
or from printing conventions. Thus, the beginning of an
orthographic paragraph may, but need not necessarily be an

indication for a point in topic-shift (Brown/Yule 1983: 95).

27
However, it can be argued that indenting of the first line of a

paragraph is more than just a cosmetic device: it is an indication by
the author of what s/he intends the reader to treat as the beginning
of a new part of the text. In order to minimize this ambiguity, it is
imperative to look at formal linguistic markers of the beginning and
end of paragraphs. These markings can be in the form of discourse
markers19 or advanced organizers.20 They can also be adverbial
expressions initially in the first sentences of new parts of the text.
Therefore, if this indentation of paragraphs is to serve as an
indication of topic-shift given by the author, and it is supported by
linguistic markers, there is evidence that the author is marking a
'topic-shift'.

In his study on discourse patterns of German and American
academic texts, Michael Clyne examines the types of sentences
which are used to indicate the beginning of a paragraph. According
to his definition, topic sentences as introductory sentences set the
topic for the following paragraph, while bridge sentences refer back
to the previous paragraph or to another paragraph (1987: 232).
The evidence as to which type of sentence was used to begin a
paragraph, however, is mostly embedded in the content.21
Therefore, if we used the type of sentences employed by the author
of a text as the sole indicator for the beginning of a new topical

paragraph, or macroproposition, we would again be confronted with

 

19Schiffrin (1987) operationally defines discourse markers as elements which
bracket units of talk. Units of talk are sometimes sentences, and sometimes they
are propositions, speech acts, or tone units. (p. 31 - 35)

20The term advanced organizer refers to functional elements such as discourse
markers.

21For examples of topic and bridge sentences, please refer to the detailed text
analyses provided in section 2.5.

28
the problem of the subjectivity of the person performing the

analysis.

Van Dijk (1981) deals with this issue in an earlier publication
on episodes as units of discourse analysis. Defining an episode as a
semantic unit of discourse, and a paragraph as the surface
manifestation of such an episode (1981: 177f), he suggests that
certain markers such as paragraph indentations, time change
markers, place change markers, and 'cast' change markers may be
expected for the beginning of episodes and therefore also at the end
of a previous one (1981: 181).

Since none of the criteria for determining topic boundaries
appears to be entirely reliable, this study will therefore be based on
the application of a combination of the following three criteria, i.e.
(1) indentation of texts, (2) topic and bridge sentences, supported
by (3) formal linguistic markers such as discourse markers (e. g.
particles such as but, also, yet, auch, doch, dennoch, etc.),
complements of time (c. g. jetzt, nun, damals,for decades,
meanwhile, last spring, etc.), complements of place or scene (e. g. in
Berlin, nebenan in South Carolina, etc.), or the introduction of
individuals or reintroduction of individuals mentioned previously.

Though the analysis is primarily based on these formal
criteria, it still cannot claim objectivity; if the analyst claims to be
able to produce the propositional set-up of a text, that proposition-
set necessarily represents only one single interpretation. It cannot
really be tested, it can only be challenged by another analyst who
will either obtain the same or similar, or different results. Van Dijk

also acknowledges this and states in regard to news discourse that

29
its structure "is ultimately the one assigned to the text by the

reader" (1983: 29).

Because of the ambiguity and the subjectivity involved in this
study, two outside analysts22 were asked to perform independent
analyses of the German and English articles according to the criteria
as described above. One external analyst was a native speaker of
German with near native fluency in English, the other a native
speaker of English, with near native fluency in German. Both
analysts were asked to analyze all articles selected, and not just the
ones written in their native language. It was intended that this
procedure provide insights into the possible influence of cultural
differences in assigning structures to the (native and foreign
language) texts.

In summary, it was the task of the analysts to apply the
following criteria to the analyses of the texts. Indications for the
beginning of a new macroproposition, i. e., a topic-shift, are:

- paragraph indentations as given in the text;

0 types of sentences: topic- or bridge sentences (TS, or BS);

0 complements of time (CoTi);

0 complements of place (CoPl);

0 change of tense (ChTe);

° discourse markers (DM);

0 introduction of a new individual or reintroduction of individuals

already mentioned (Ini).

 

22Both outside analysts were generously funded by the College of Arts and Letters
at Michigan State University.

2.5. Application of the Criteria to Two Sample Texts

The analysis of the texts consisted of several phases: the goal
of the first phase was to determine the propositional structure of
the texts. This was achieved by marking each anticipated topic-shift
while reading through the texts. It was determined that whenever
the analysts thought they noticed a topic-shift between two
consecutive pieces of discourse, it could not be considered a topic-
shift for the purposes of this study unless a topic or bridge
sentence, ideally supported by a formal marker, was also present.
These formal indicators, or linguistic markers, were then underlined
in the texts. After identifying these topic-shifts, the analysts were
asked to summarize the contents of each subtopic addressed in
between the topic-shifts in the form of short captions. As per
definition, each topic, or in this case subtopic, since the main topic
of each article is narrowly defined already, is represented by a
macroproposition. Therefore, the brief summaries of each subtopic
represent macropropositions, which in turn serve as a basis for
determining their dependency relationships in the text. Finally, the
underlying outline of each text could be determined. These
outlines, then, provide an overview of the texts’ dependency
relationships.

The next part of the analysis involved the representation of
these dependency relationships by tree-diagrams. They revealed
whether a text showed discourse subordination or discourse

coordination. These tree-diagrams were used to determine the

30

31
amount of coordination and/or subordination displayed by the

English and German texts.

Thus overall organization of written discourse on the text-level
was studied in the first two steps. It is the objective of the third step
to examine lower-level discourse phenomena, which might also
exhibit cross-cultural differences, or similarities. This part of the
analyses of the texts involves a detailed examination of the linguistic
markers which supported the topic-shifts.23 The following English
text (Text 10E) was randomly chosen from the text corpus to
demonstrate the application of the underlying methodology. Its
German equivalent (Text 10G) will also be analyzed in detail.24 Both
texts represent a set and, therefore, deal with the same topic. The
English text is entitled "The Cleanup of Italy Inc." by John Rassant,
published in Business Week on March 1, 1993.

23They are provided in the column next to the outlines given for each text.
24Due to copyright restrictions, only the English text will be presented in the text
body. For all other texts of the corpus, please refer to their original place of
publication as specified in detail in Table 1.

'I'HE CLEANUP
OF ITALY INC.

32

 

The business-political alliance is over. What will replace it?

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ruption charges. will probably go down as
one of the bigger misjudgments of the
\'.ear That first tarrest 12 months ago. in
“hat me know n'Clean

IA.

 

 

 

 

Ital mww I1 mo “lulu/(WIIASIOIW
mum I ll WIOGIAIM Iv IAMAIIA/mllA/IKIIJI aw uuu

IO sows: WEEK/MC” I, 1993

of Parliament and three Cabinet ministers.
.3.lt's not only politicians who are under
fire Also implicated are more than 200
busmessmen. from officials of state—con
trolled E\'l Europes X02 energy grou
to dozens of top managers at blue-chi
companies that form the \en heart of Ital-
ian capitalism—auto giant Fiat chemical
group \Iontedison. the Ferruzzi agricultur
al empire and others. Judges are warning
th this ybe only the beginning The
companies mdeclined to commenL
turnout no. The outlines of a new Italy
are uncertain at best. But beyon the dra-
ma of the nightly television news. now
watched by millions of Italians with the
same fascination and anger with which
Americans once followed Watergate a pro-
foundtra
tight collusion between
ties that has set Italy apart from its Euro-

 

 

  
 

pean neighbors
for almost four decades looks as if it has
been shattered permanently. "An entire
system a Mafia- stile sv.stem is ending.
and it is ending rapidly.’ 'says Lu uiac no Ben
n.the managing director of SI 6 billion
Benetton fashion group "Its a system in
which you had to pay the political parties
to get work.‘
[4. The symbolic end of that system came on
Feb. 11. when former Prime Minister Bet-
' ‘ So-

at the epiceentei- of Italian epolitical life for

ome 3:5. He den anype nal
wrongdoing. Gianni Di Michelis former
Foreign Minister and Socialist tParty offi-
cial. is also suspected of kickback schem-

 

ing. He also denies any wrongdoing. Now,

 

n entire class of 1%
leaders is being
drawn into the scandal.

their tompunies are

33

 

dozens of businessmen are testifying how
party aides negotiated multimilliondollar
kickbacks on contracts fl'om street clean-
ing to nuclear power plant construction.
Craxi personified the immense power
wielded by Italian politicians over almost
every aspect of the postwar Italian econo-
my. The Italian government. after all. con-
: trols a greater chunk of the economy—
niore than 50% of output—than any other
big Western industrial pow.er In Romes
iieb are most of commercial banking, steel.
telecommunications. and energy —e\ en ice

 

cream plants. groceries. and \‘iney ards.
1.For Italian political parties. such activi
ties were giant spoils machines. Much of
pni ate sector—from iat. the coun-
try '5 largest industrial group. to small con
struction outfits—had no choice but to
come to terms with what Italians call In
parti'locrazi'a. or rule by the political par-
:ies. Even though business groups would
regularly criticize government policy.
many were in collusion with politicians to
cut deals.‘ It' s all been pure theater when
ltalia ian companies attack the goy emment."
says Paolo Bernasconi. a leading Swiss
criminal lawyer who is an expert on Italian
4 money-laundering in Switzerland
Scam system that kept the
national machinery oiled also cost it dearly.
n irec y. o . taly‘s weakened
moral climate has helped to cultivate orga-
nized crime. But the direct tab for a cou n-
- in already burdened with huge public defi-
tits is enormous. too. trunni g"Italy s
, parties costs about $1 billion a year Actual
corruption adds vastly more. Turin
based ink estimates that kickbacks
since 1980ha ded as much as $73 bil-
‘ n to Italy'sve enortnous public debt.
(,Nothing better mum-ates how business
talian style has worked than recent reve

 

l largest utility in Europe. Home based
rXELis also est single purchaser
-:' natural gas in thew o.rld It employs

i 000 people and wields a juicy $6 billion
-\ ear annual capital investment budget.

3 It is also. as 0 ratio can is
no“ alleging. a deep pit of corruption. Tec-

l timony of Valet-to Bitctto. ii anese So
cialist Party organizer who was s leadin g
fimas in aENELm from 1930 to 1992. alleges

backs were often paid by foreign subsidiar
ies of the companies con cof
the money trail. and proceeds allegedly
went into numbered bank accounts held
abroad by party officials (chart). The testi-
mony of Bitettio and other ENEL officials
has now led to multiple arrests.
fifflrlt's a similar story with dozens of big}
publicworks projects Roman and Milanese
ma Les now believe that almost all the
contracts comprising the $11 billion in Ital-
nroad nsctru tion between 1989 and
1992 included kickbacks of 7% to 8‘;
.Why has Italy lnc.’ 5 dirty secret
emerged now'.’ There have been myriad
scandals in Italy before Operation Clean
Han .Tliis time. things are different

The Columbia L'iiii'ersity‘-tmint-d Prime
1 Iuiister is a member. after all. of the dis»
credited Socialist Patty and has been a key
Craxi aide for a decade. Most agree Rome
will now try to modernize Italy's outmoded
electoral Inns and then face \oters in new
elections in the iie\t fen months
Ida-m uuous. Meanwhile. the mela-
tions about the extent of corruption w ill no
doubt harm the country 5 image. Fiat. for
example is already fighting to resist in-
creasingly tough competition from riial
auto makers. Its future now depends on a
high-stakes. $27 billion investment on new
m stodue roll off assembly lines by
yearend. Non. says one senior Fiat execu-
the in Turin "I in really worried by the

 

 

 

CORRUPTION
ITALIAN-ST“!

A company wins a
contract lot 0 SI billion
highway project. It
agrees to kick boclt

5 l0 million equally to
two rival political parties

m

I
The c

 

L; . gig.
CA Y M AN
lSkANDS

bank

onlroctor pays one party through

c subsidiary in Greece, which transfers
$5 in.

illion to a Swiss bank account

The other party gets $5 million
deposited in 0 Cayman Islands

account

 

 

During the four decades of the cold war.
Italy. with its homegrown Communist Pan
tythelargestinthe Westwason theideo

era supported a coalition .of parties led by
eanti-Communis tian Democn

. that member. he aned Socialists. Now with no communist
I marked out alleged kickback schemes with threat. voters are deserting the traditional
some of the biggest engineering groups in iorruptioneridden parties invesdro
Euro rope on billions of dollars' worth of pow-i ilParadoximlly. the decapitation of Italy' 5
sir-station construct» .taS rte-owned Ari-@- tional has allowed the

aldo. Fiat. Belleli—an prominent Mantua-
edc ontractor—and Franco Tosi now a
unit ofo Swiss -Sw edish group BAsea
Bro rown Boveri (Holding) Ltd. are 8all al-
I laged to hvea paid out millions of dollars
‘ to Blitetto and officials from other parties.

Other companies declined to comment

k According to police records. the kick-

ging gdirector con-
fessed to making kickback payments. Thoq

postwar leaders

eight-month-old government of law profes-
sor Giuliano Amato to me of the
mos ost {wrenching legislationso in decades
Without interference fro parties.
Amato is privatizing huge industrial and fi-
nancial properties. His deficit-slashing bud-
get is one of the toughleste (er-.passed

The next stepwr Ibe vthe touchiest
Amato is a kind of Goi-bachev figure an in-
novator still attached to the old system.

4

 

fact that countries and products are usual-
ly identified. If your country is corrupt.
then somehow your productsare .too. "

Iogiml front line. A majority of Italian vot-‘i‘li 'But cleaning up the mess will ultimately

make Italy a more open. and probably
tougher. international competitor. That's
why many in the Italian industrial world
applaud the spreading investigation. True,
it' s a difficult time. Because of the political
paralysis musedb n.Hands govern-
ment spending has all but. dried up. just as
recession in 20 years batters the
country. Industrial unemployment has
slumpedb y more rethan 6‘7r' inthepast vear
while consumption is falling drastically.
And the political transition barely un nder
way promises esto be bruising "Butwhatei
er the cost." says Stefano Micossi. a lead-
ing economist. "these investigations must

go on. " Italy can only benefit
By John Roman! in Milan

 

 

 

Reprinted from the March I. 1993 issue of Why permission. (c) 1993 by Mchw-Hill, Inc.

IAMI DAL"!

34
The overall topic of Text 10B is corruption in Italy, and the

clean-up efforts by the new government to end underground
alliances between politicians and the business-world. The entire text
is divided into three major parts with the first part devoted to an
introduction. In this text, the introduction (part I) familiarizes the
reader with some background information regarding the politicians
and businessmen under investigation. The second part (11) goes
further into the background of the Mafia-style system itself, and
operation 'clean hands'. The third part (111) then describes the long-
term benefits of the investigative activities.

The text starts out with a lead-in story, which is designed to
catch the reader's attention; it has informal character.25 The
introductory sentence is labeled as a topic sentence and
complemented by an indication of time: "On a cold, foggy day in
Milan last winter [...]" (line 1). The next topic shift is indicated by
the beginning of a new paragraph (line 12), and is supported by a
bridge sentence ("Those words [...]") which stands in reference to
the quote which ended the previous paragraph. This bridge
sentence is a commentary by the author and it relates to the lead-in
story of the first paragraph (1.1.). In line 23, the topic shifts to
background explanations regarding the corruption and the
politicians under investigation (1.2.), followed by a paragraph which
describes the businessmen under fire. This topic shift is indicated

by an orthographic indentation and is supported by a bridge

 

25It would be intriguing to perform a separate narrative analysis of the
beginnings of the articles selected for this study. It has been observed that many
authors use this narrational technique at the beginning of their articles.

35
sentence, which refers back to the topic of the previous paragraph:

"It's not only politicians who are under fire." (line 23).

Regarding the next topic shift, the analysts agreed that it
occurs at line 34, however, a discussion among the analysts ensued
when the conversation turned to where the division to the second
section would take place. Two possibilities were argued: either with
the paragraph starting on line 34, or with the one beginning on line
51. Although the bold-faced caption "Symbolic End" at line 34 could
be taken as a very strong indication for a section division at this
point, it cannot be assumed that this visual device was employed as
an organizational device by the author. Quite to the contrary, it is
more than likely that these bold-faced captions are chosen and
implemented by the editor in order to capture the attention of the
reader. It can also be seen as a pre-organizational device, i. e., as a
means to prepare the reader for what is coming up in the text,
however, not necessarily in the following paragraph.

There are more convincing arguments for a section division at
line 51: Not only is it at this point where the caption is repeated at
the beginning of the first sentence in the paragraph, but it is also
obvious that the attention then turns to details about the cleanup of
the corrupt system, personified by the election defeat of former
Prime Minister Craxi.

The second topic shift in this part (11.2.) is marked at line 77,
when the focus is moved from the involvement of Craxi and his
government to the benefits for the political parties as a whole. This
shift was supported by a bridge sentence: "For Italian political

parties, such activities were giant spoils machines. [...]" (line 77).

36
The next paragraph, again, is preceded by a bold-faced caption. At

this point, the emphasis shifts towards the financial aspects of the
corrupt system. The shift is formally marked by a topic sentence
and supported by the discourse marker "also" (line 93, section
11.3.). It is at line 104 that the reader is provided with examples to
illustrate the corruption mechanisms (11.4.). Since the author
employs two different examples, this section is divided into two
subsections, 11.4.1. and 11.4.2.: the first (starting at line 104) deals
with ENEL, the state-owned electricity authority, the second section
(starting at line 140) deals with other public-works projects.

It was a unanimous decision between the analysts to set the
break for part III of the text at line 146. It starts out with the
question: "Why has Italy Inc.'s dirty secret emerged now?" (line
146/7). Overall, this part is divided into four subsections, each with
a different emphasis. Section 111.1., beginning with line 150 and,
after a short preceding introductory paragraph, deals with the
influence of the decline of communism on the election results in
Italy, and the voting patterns. The topic shift to section 111.2. is
marked by a bridge sentence, which moves the emphasis from the
historical aspects mentioned in 111.1. to Italy's new Prime Minister.
Section 111.2. is itself subdivided into two subsections: first, Amato's
opportunities, the passing of new legislation and the privatization of
parts of the industry (111.2.1.) are addressed, and second, the
modernization of the electoral laws (111.22.). The last two sections
of part 111 describe the consequences of this disclosure for Italy's
image as illustrated by Fiat (111.3.), and the long-term benefits for
Italy (111.4.).

37
Following is the outline of Text 10E, and the linguistic markers

supporting each topic-shift.26

 

26The outlines of all English and German texts are located in Appendix A.

Table 2:

38

Outline of Text ICE and Topic-Shift Indicators

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 10E: The Cleanup of Italy Inc. Linguistic
b John Rossant in Milan, Business Week, March 1, 1993, pp. 50-51. Marker
(1.)27 Introduction
1.1. Lead-in story TS + CoTi
1.2. Background explanations regarding corruptions; BS
politicians under investigation
1.3. Businessmen under investigation BS
1.4. Outlook on cleanup and new Italy TS
(11; Background
11.1. End of the system; example Craxi BS +CoTi
11.2. Benefits for politicaljarties BS
11.3. Financial consequences of the system TS+DM
(11.4.) Examples: How did corruption work?
11.4.1. ENEL TS+Ini
11.4.2. Other public-works projects BS +1ni
111. Why cleanup now? TS +CoTi
111.1. Decline of communism - support of anti- TS +CoTi
communists
(111.2.) Opportunities for Amato
[11.2.]. New legislation, privatization of industry BS +1ni
111.2.2. Modernization of electoral laws BS+CoTi
111.3. Consequences for Italy's image; example Fiat BS +CoTi
111.4. Benefits of cleanup TS+DM

 

 

 

27These number designations mark topical units within the text which consist of
the subsections which follow them immediately. Some are set in parentheses,
because they are only expressed indirectly. Therefore, no linguistic marker is
supplied in the column on the right; however, since they comprise a thematic unit,
they are taken into consideration when levels of subordination are concerned.
This will become important for the statistical analysis in section 3.1.2.

39
The outline of Text 10B and its dependency relationships are then

represented by the following tree-diagram:28

(1.)

I 1.
/\
1.2. L3.

V
1.4

I
(III)
11.1.
A
11.2. 11.3.

(II|.4.)
11.4.1.

11.4.2.

111.
A

IH.1. 111.3.
(IIII.2.) III|.4.
1112:. l.
IH.2.2.

Figure 1: Representation of Text 10E as Tree-Diagram

 

28The tree-diagrams of all English and German texts are located in Appendix B.

40
The diagram for Text 10E shows a powerful subordination of

parts 1, 11, and III, which in themselves only display two coordinated
elements each. Sections 1.2. and 1.3. are considered parallel to each
other since both deal with the same aspect of the topic, i. e., the
people under investigation: politicians on the one hand, and
businessmen on the other. The text continues in a subordinated
manner. The subordinating intention of the author is often

indicated by the use of cohesive markers such as "Those words [...]

(line 12; 1.2.), "The symbolic end of that system [...]" (line 51; 11.1.),

 

or "For Italian political parties, 51m activities [...]" (line 77; 11.2.).

Sections 11.2. and 11.3. are arranged in a coordinated manner,
however, rather than displaying the same kind of coordination as in
sections 1.2. and 1.3. where both branches lead into 1.4., branch 11.2.
provides additional information linked to section 11.1., but is not
followed up or continued in section 11.3. Instead, section 11.3. deals
with a new subtopic.

The last coordinated pair in the text is 111.1. and 111.3. This is
indicated at the beginning of section 111.3.: "Meanwhile, the
revelations [...]" (line 178), which is seen in figuratively temporal
relation to 111.1. which reviewed the reasons for the disclosures of
the corruption for the reader.

All tree-diagrams are drawn in this manner: A close look at
the dependency relationships in the text shows whether one
macroproposition is subordinated or coordinated to the previous
one. The dependency relationships are determined by the context
as well as the cohesive devices between the identified

macropropositions. Each macroproposition is then represented by a

41
branch in the tree. If one macroproposition shows signs of

subordination in its context, the branch is drawn under the previous
one, and if a macroproposition shows signs of coordination, the
branch is drawn parallel to the previous one. Triangles in the
tree-diagrams indicate that the following section summarizes the
previous ones.

Some number designations in the outlines as well as in the
tree-diagrams are set in parentheses, because they are only
expressed indirectly. These parts or sections comprise a thematic
unit, or a higher level macroproposition, which are not explicitly but
implicitly obvious to the reader. They are very important when
levels of subordination are concerned, and thus play a significant
role for the statistical analysis performed in section 3.1.2.

The corresponding German text (Text 10G) is entitled
"Traumjob Richter" by Friedhelm Groteke and Lorenz Wolf-
Doettinchem published in Wirtschaftswoche on March 5, 1993. This
text, too, deals with a discussion of the corruption in Italy, and
Italy's chances for political renewal. It is divided into three main
sections: Section I is the introduction, section 11 discusses the
details and effects of the corruption scandal, and section 111 provides
an outlook to the future.

The introduction consists of three sections. The text-opening
sentence arouses curiosity in the reader in that it refers to the
consequences for Italy due to the lowering of the ratings for foreign
currency investments by Moody’s Investors Service: "Fiir Moody’s
Investors Service ist es Routine, fiir den italienischen

Staatsprasidenten Oscar Luigi Scalfaro AnlaB zu scharfer Kritik:

42
[...]." (line 14). After this opening statement, the author provides

the background information necessary to put this remark into its
proper context. The context is given in a very efficient and factual
manner: "Das politische System ist durch Korruption verrottet, die
Lage der Staatsfinanzen desolat, die Wirtschaft steckt in einer
Rezession, und die Lira erreicht an den Devisenmarkten immer neue
Tiefstande. Kein Zweifel: Die Zukunft des Landes steht auf dem
Spiel." (line 12-18). At the same time, this functions as a summary
of what is going to be discussed in the article, and, therefore, it
leads to the next subtopic (1.2.). The summary character of these
previous sentences serves as an indication to the reader that a topic-
shift is taking place. The transition into the next subtopic (1.2.) is
provided by a bridge-sentence and supported by the introduction of
a new individual, Prime Minister Amato: "Die Korruption reicht bis
in die unmittelbare Umgebung des Ministerprasidenten Guiliano
Amato." (line 19-21) Section 1.2. deals with the consequences of the
corruption for members of the government, while 1.3. talks about
the extent of the corruption within the opposition. Section 1.3. is
introduced by sogar, a conjunction acting as an intensifier: "Sogar
die Opposition is betroffen: In der vergangenen Woche muBte
Giorgio La Malfa, Chef der republikanischen Partei zuriicktreten."
(line 29-32) Sogar gives special emphasis to that particular
sentence unit, and its use depends primarily on the subjective
attitude of the writer towards his statement (Lederer 621/2). These
three sections (1.1., 1.2., and 1.3.) comprise the introduction, and the
reader is now ready to learn more about the details and effects of

the corruption scandal.

43
The second part, section 11.1., begins with a topic-sentence

supported by a complement of time: "Was vor einem Jahr in
Mailand mit der Aufdeckung einer Schmiergeldzahlung von sieben
Millionen Lire (damals rund 9000 Mark) begann, [...]" (line 38-40).
11.1 serves as an introduction to this analytical part of the article.
From thereon, the reader is provided with details of the corruption.
Section 11.1 informs us what the group "mani pulite" exposed, and
how the term "echter Wettbewerb" (real competition) was to be
understood.

Section 11.2. begins at line 60 and addresses the effects of free
competition ("freier Wettbewerb") on the industry as a whole, and
the construction industry in particular. Its topic-shift is determined
to be a bridge-sentence referring back to the previous paragraph. In
addition, its beginning: "Freier Wettbewerb (line 60) is
contrasted with the beginning of the immediately preceding
paragraph : "Echten Wettbewerb ..." (line 49).

Subsection 11.2.1. starting at line 78 provides an example as to
how the lack of newly-elected local politicians affects the bidding on
construction projects, and is therefore considered as a subsection to
11.2. The lack of construction contracts, in turn, adds to the
unemployment rate, which has already been affected by crises in
other sectors of Italian industry. This is the topic of 11.3. The topic-
shift from 11.2.]. to 11.3. is introduced by a bridge-sentence, which
establishes cohesion to the previous paragraph by using a metaphor
of the red traffic light meaning cessation: "Rotes Licht fiir die
Auftrage an die Bauwirtschaft [...]" The metaphor is referring to the

lack of renewals of service for traffic lights at the end of the

44
previous paragraph (11.2.1.): "1n Neapel, ebenfalls auf der Suche

nach dem verlorenen Biirgermeister, wird nicht einmal mehr die
Ausschreibung fiir den Service an den Verkehrsampeln erneuert."
(line 81-85).

Section 11.4. addresses the rise of the unemployment rate, and
the weak prognosis for an increase of Italy's gross domestic
product. The transition to 11.4. is achieved by a bridge—sentence
which is supported by a complement of time ("Bereits im
vergangenen Jahr [...]") (line 94).

Sections 11.5. and 11.6. each deal with recent positive and
negative developments: increased international competitiveness on
the one hand (11.5.) and increased national debt on the other (11.6.).
Section 11.5. starts out with a topic-sentence: "Einziger Lichtblick:
Die Exporte sollen um 6,6 Prozent steigen." (line 105/6). The
bridge-sentence at the beginning of 11.6. relates to 11.5.: "Weniger
erfolgreich war der Ministerprasident beim Kurieren der anderen
italienischen Krankheit: der Staatsverschuldung." (line 117-120).
The national debt is discussed further in the following paragraph
(11.6.1.). Because it exemplifies the consequences of the national
debt, it is considered as a subsection to 11.6. The transition is
indicated by a bridge-sentence and supported by a complement of
time: "In diesem Jahr werden die Staatsschulden [...]" (line 125).

The break between the second and third part of the text
occurs in line 134. The discourse marker doch plays an important
role in this final segment: it is strategically positioned at the
beginning of each of the three paragraphs in section 111. The topic-

sentence introducing the first section of this part (111.1.) reads:

45
"Doch Italiens Wirtschaft will die Reform trotzdem." (line 134/5).

Here, doch and trotzdem support and strengthen each other's
meaning and function. At the same time, they frame the sentence.
Both are used in contexts of a contrastive, yet assertive nature
(Lederer 415). According to Engel, clock signals a contrastive idea
and connects ideas in an adversary manner (742).29 He also points
out that when stressed on the first syllable, trotzdem functions as an
intensifier of opposite matters (729). It can be stated, then, that
trotzdem at the end of the sentence supports dock at the beginning
of the sentence. The paragaph which is introduced in this manner
(111.1.) deals with the actions required in order to change Italy's
public image. Interestingly enough, these conditions are all packed
into one long sentence and each condition is prefaced by the
conditional conjunction wenn. The double conjunction nur wenn at
the beginning of the sentence increases the conditional nature of the
dependent clause and indicates its limiting meaning (Lederer 464).

As mentioned above, section 111.2. also starts with doch:
"Doch so weit ist es noch nicht: [...]. (line 150). Again, we have a
situation in which additional information is introduced to the reader
in an adversary manner. The positive outlook conveyed in the
previous paragraph is being restricted by the facts which are
presented in this paragraph.

At the beginning of section 111.3., doch introduces the text's
final paragraph: "Doch der Neuanfang ist schwer." (line 176) It

should be noted here that its function in this context does not

 

29The discourse markers dock and auch will be examined more closely in section
3.3.

46
appear to be as strong as in the previous two instances. The reasons

for this are, first, that its repetitive use has a tiring effect on the
reader and seems stylistically inappropriate, and second, it
functions not so much in contrast to the statement made in the
previous sentence, but rather provides additional information to the
two previous paragraphs.

Following is the outline of Text 10G, and the linguistic markers

supporting each topic-shift.

47

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

dreambs

 

Table 3: Outline of Text 10G and Topic-Shift Indicators
TEXt 10G: Traumjob RiChtCl‘ Linguistic
by F. Grdteke and L. Wolf-Doettinchem. Wirtschaftswoche, March 5, Marker
1993, pp. 36-37.
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Italy's image TS
1.2. Corruption within Government BS +Ini
1.3. Corruption within Opposition BS+DM
(11.) Details and effects of corruption scandal
11.1. Results of "mani pulite" TS +CoTi
11.2. Effects on economy without mics of corruption; BS
example construction industry
11.2.1. Lack of local politicians - no contracts for BS + Ini
construction industry
11.3. Lack of contracts - rising unemployment BS
11.4. Unemployment and economic predictions BS+CoTi
11.5. Positive development: increased competitiveness TS
11.6. Negative development: increased national debt BS
11.6.1. Consequences of national debt - inability BS+CoTi
of $overnment to reform
(111.) Outlook
111.1. Actions required in order to change public image TS+DM
111.2. Obstacles to reach this M BS+DM
111.3. Conclusion: How to deal with corruption; TS+DM

 

 

48
The outline of the dependency relationships in Text 10G is then

represented by the following tree-diagram:

11.1.

11.2.
/\
11.2.1. 11.3.

11.6.1. (IIII.)
IIII.l.
111.2.

111.3.

Figure 2: Representation of Text 10G as Tree-Diagram

The tree-diagram for text 10G contains 12 levels of
subordination, and 8 coordinated elements. Part 1 consists of three
sections. Sections 1.2. and 1.3. are both preceded by 1.1., and they
are arranged in a coordinated manner: both deal with the same
aspect of the topic, i. e., the extent of the corruption within the
government (1.2.) and within the opposition (1.3.). They lead into
the second part of the text. It contains 6 sections, which are mostly
subordinated to each other. Sections 11.2.1. and 11.3. are drawn
parallel to each other, yet the topic of the article is continued

through 11.3. into 11.4., whereas subsection 11.2.1. consists of

49
additional information provided in form of an example which

complements section 11.2., but is not followed up. Sections 11.5. and
11.6. are also coordinated: they describe positive (11.5.) and negative
(11.6.) developments for Italy since the corruption scandal was
revealed. Section 11.6. is followed by 11.6.1., which continues to
address the consequences of the national debt; a topic which was
brought up in section 11.6. Part 111., then, is entirely subordinated in

itself.

CHAPTER 3: DISCOURSE ANALYSES OF
GERMAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXTS

3.]. Analyses of the Organizational Structure

3.1.1. Evaluation of the Tree-Diagrams

Based on the framework for analysis demonstrated in the
previous chapter, this study sets out to analyze 15 texts in German
and 15 texts in English to determine the organizational patterns
displayed by the two languages.

Generally, a text can be determined to display a subordinated
organizational pattern, if it showed a fairly linear development from
one starting point, with the subsequent macrostructures following
the others directly and in a chronological order. Discourse
coordination, on the other hand, can occur if the text shows several
macrostructures which each have their own branching
macropropositions.30

These definitions however are considered to be too vague and
subjective when applied to the text corpus. A numerical system is
needed in order to apply appropriate statistical tests which will help
determine whether a text shows a subordinated or a coordinated
structure, or a combination of both. Therefore, three rules have

been set up which will be applied to each tree-diagram.31

 

30This definition was applied by Michael Clyne for the interpretation of his
research data on cross-cultural differences of German and English texts for
academic purposes.

31Again, please refer to Appendix B for the tree-diagrams.

50

51

Rule # 1: Number of coordinated elements - levels of
subordination

Rule # 2: Amount of subordination

Rule # 3: Dominance of coordination
The application of these rules to all tree-diagrams will quantify the
amount of coordination and the levels of subordination displayed by
each text. According to rule #1, each branch of coordination is
assigned a +1, and each level of subordination is assigned a -1. This
technique is equal to adding up the total amount of coordinated
elements and subtracting the levels of subordination. Rule #2 and
rule #3 are only applied in cases where the application of rule #1
created ties between two or more tree-diagrams, i. e., if the
calculation resulted in the same number designation for two or
more tree-diagrams.

It is the objective of this technique to assign each text to a
specific rank on a numbered scale, where the higher the number,
the greater the amount of coordination displayed in the text. At the
other end of the spectrum, the lower the number, the more
subordinated the structure of the text. This method will provide the
basis for statistical tests, which will determine whether the
organizational structures displayed by the German texts are
significantly different from the ones exhibited by the English texts.

The following example will illustrate the application of these
rules: The first rule requires that the levels of subordination be
subtracted from the number of coordinated elements within each
text. Text 2E, for example, shows 12 levels of subordination, and 8

coordinated elements, resulting in the number -4. Our example text

52
10E shows 6 coordinated elements and 14 levels of subordination.

Thus, the number assigned will be 6 - 14 = -8.

I I I
I Levels of | Number of co- I
I

.) . .
A I Subordination:l ordinated elements:

 

I I I
1,1,) 1.2. 1.3. I 1 I 3 I
l I I I
111 112 113 11 I 2 I I
. . . . . . . . . - | 3 l
I /\ I I I
an.) ILII. II.3. | 3 I 2 I
I l I
111.1. 11. . I 4 I I
I I
IIII.2. 11.2.1. .22.: 5 I 2 I
111.3. 11.2.3. I 6 I I
l I I I
[Ii I 7 I I
I I
11.4.1. 11.4.2. I s l 2 I
I I I
8 levels 12 elements

Figure 3: Representation of Text 2E as Tree-Diagram

All tree-diagrams are analyzed in this manner, and the results of this
operation are recorded in the left column of Table 4 below.
However, as can be seen by the results in the table, several texts end

up with the same number designation, for example texts 5G, 7G, 12E

and 15B receive the number -7.

In order to discriminate between those texts showing the same

number, rule #2 is applied: this rule considers the amount of

53
subordination, i. e., the higher the number of subordination-levels

displayed in a tree-diagram, the more subordinated the overall
organizational structure of the text. As mentioned above: Texts 5G,
7G, 12B, and 15E all received the number -7 after applying rule #1.
However, they differ in their levels of subordination: Text 5G shows
12 levels, text 7G shows 9 levels, text 12E shows 10 levels, and text
15E shows 13 levels of subordination. Therefore, text 7G has the
lowest number of subordination levels among these four texts, and
is thus assigned the highest rank within the order of this set of texts.
The ranking order, which is reflected in Table 4, is: 7G is more
coordinated (and less subordinated) than 12 E, which in turn is
more coordinated than 5G, which is more coordinated than 15E.
These two rules will isolate most of the cases encountered in the
analyses.

Finally, the third rule will help resolve the remaining
ambiguities between the texts. It focuses on the dominance of
coordination, i. e., it addresses the following question: At what level
of subordination does the first coordination of two or more
macrostructures in the text occur?

A look at the tree-diagrams of texts 6E, 10G, and 14B will
illustrate how the second and third rules are applied to distinguish
between representations with the same number. Applying rule #1,
text 6E shows 4 coordinated elements and 8 levels of subordination;
therefore we obtain a result of 4 - 8 = -4. Text 10G shows 8
coordinated elements, and 12 levels of subordination. Again,
applying rule # 1, i. e., subtracting the levels of coordination from

the number of coordinated elements results in: 8 - 12 = -4. Like

54
text 6E, text 14E also shows 4 coordinated elements, and 8 levels of

subordination, therefore resulting in the same number designation,
i. e., -4, just like texts 6E and 10G. As this point, rule # 2 has to be
applied in order to discriminate between results with the same
number after the application of rule # 1. Rule # 2 considers the
amount of subordination. While texts 6E and 14B both display 8
levels of subordination, text 10G shows 12 levels. On the linear
scale in order of increasing coordination, Text 10G, therefore, will
be ranked below texts 6E and 14E.

Rule #3, dominance of coordination, has to be employed for
texts 6E and 14E, because rule #2 is not sufficient in distinguishing
between the two: both texts show 4 coordinated elements and 8
levels of subordination. In text 6B, the first coordinated element
starts at the fourth level of subordination, while the first
coordinated element in text 14E starts at the third level of
subordination. As coordination occurs at a higher level in text 14E,
it will be considered slightly more coordinated than 6E, and will
therefore be ranked above text 6B. These three examples are
marked in bold-face in Table 4 below. It shows the results of the
application of these rules as stated above to all the texts in the

study:

Table 4:

Increasing
coordination

p—Lp—au—Ap—d

Ov-INbJ-bIJIO'INOOWDo—INU)

-8
-9
-10
-ll

increasing
subordination

55

Compilation of the Results of the Analyses

 

 

 

 

 

Texts Ranking order Rank
analyzed (Lf the texts assigned

4E (19-6) 4E 3 0
1E (16-4) 1E 29
2B 2 8
3E 2 7
4G 2 6
7E 2 5
12G 24
SE 2 3
11E 2 2
2E (12-8) 10 2 1
3E (9-6) 4G (IO-7) 15G 20
7E (8-6) 3G 1 9
2G 1 8
12G (3-10) 8E 17
5E (6-7) 11E (7-8) 14E 1 6
1G (5-7) BG (7-9) 15G (6-8) 6E 15
2G (5-8) 8E (9-12) 10 G 14
6E (4-8) 10G (8-12) 14E (4-8) 9E 13
9E (2-7) 11G (7-12) 14G 12
136 (6-11) 14G (2-7) 13G 11
6G (5-11) 13E (9-15) 11G 10
5G (5-12) 7G (2-9) 6G 9
12E (3-10) 15E (6-13) 13E 8
10E (6-14) 7G 7
12E 6
9G (6-16) 5G 5
8G (0-11) 15E 4
10B 3
9G 2
8G 1

56
The ranking numbers in the right column in Table 4 will be

important for the application of two statistical tests which will
determine the significance of the differences between the
organizational patterns displayed by both sets of texts. These tests

will be explained in detail in the next section.

3.1.2. Application of the Statistical Tests

The Wilcoxon test for matched-pairs lends itself to two-sample
situations where the data are in the form of so-called 'matched-
pairs' (Neave et al. 1988: 160). Since the criterion of 'topic' was
used in order to select and match the English and German texts, we
have a situation where there is some kind of pairing between the
two samples. According to Neave et a1. (1988: 161), the only valid
way to deal with data that are in the form of matched pairs is to
regard each matched pair as a single sampling unit, and to represent
it by an appropriate summary of its original pair of values. It is then
that the data will indeed consist of just one sample. In our case,
there is a total of 15 English and 15 German texts, which are
matched by their content, or topic. Therefore, for the purposes of
the statistical test, the sample does not consist of two sampling
units, i. e., the German set and the English set, but due to their
matching in pairs they are considered as one sampling unit,
consisting of a total of 15 pairs.

A cursory analysis of sample texts taken from

WirtschaftsWoche and Business Week showed an apparently higher

57
degree of coordination displayed by the English texts as compared to

the German texts. Therefore, the hypotheses of the test are
determined as follows: Evidence is being sought to show that the
English texts in the sample display a higher degree of coordination
than the German counterparts. This will therefore define H1, with
Ho representing no significant difference between the organizational
structure of the German and English texts:

H0: There is no difference in the organizational patterns of

the English and the German texts selected for this study.

H1: The English texts are more coordinated than the German

texts.

As mentioned above, each text was assigned a rank according
to its degree of discourse coordination and/or discourse
subordination. These ranks are shown in the right column in Table
4, and they are listed in Table 5 directly under the set number. The
Wilcoxon test requires these rankings to be compared for each
English and German pair. This will be achieved by calculating the
differences between each pair: the rank assigned for the German
text is subtracted from the one assigned to its English counterpart.

As can be seen in Table 5, this operation resulted in several
differences which are equal to each other, e.g. sets #5 and #7 both
resulted in number 18. In addition, due to the nature of the
Wilcoxon test, the negative and positive signs of the differences
obtained by subtracting the rank assigned for the German text from
the one assigned to its matched English text will be ignored in
determining their final ranks. This procedure increases the number

of equal differences, e. g. number 18 will now be taken by sets #5,

58
#7, and #12, therefore creating a three-way tie. In addition, there

are 4 instances of a two-way tie: sets # 1 and 3 both show a
difference of 8: sets #4 and #14 show a difference of 4; sets #8 and
#15 show a difference of 16; and sets #9 and #10 show a difference
of 11. The problem then, of course, is that the ranks will not be
uniquely defined. The solution is to average the ranks that would
have been taken by these tied observations if we had been able to
discriminate between them, and then allocate this average to each of
the tied values. For example: the smallest difference exists between
the English and German texts of set # 13: -3; set # 13 therefore
receives the assigned rank of 1. The next highest difference
between the English and German text is 4 and it is shown in sets #4
and #14. They would normally have been assigned ranks 2 and 3,
but now will receive the average of both ranks, 2.5. Similarly, sets
#9 and #10 share the difference 11, remembering that signs are
ignored. They would have taken ranks 8 and 9, and due to their tie
receive the average of both ranks, 8.5. The same procedure is
applied to sets #4 and #14, #8 and #15, and sets #5, #7, and #12.
Once all these ambiguities are resolved, we may test H0 against
H1 using the Wilcoxon signed-rank statistic. The statistic T is
defined as either the sum of ranks of positive differences, or the
sum of ranks of negative differences, according to which choice
would be expected to be the smaller if H1 were true. The
appropriate choice in our problem is the rank sum of the negative
differences, because the minus-figures indicate all cases in which a

German text was more coordinated than its corresponding English

59
text. Therefore, adding up the minus-figures will show the

significance of the evidence disprooving H1.

Negative differences were found in only four sets of texts, i. e.,
set number 10, 12, 13, and 15. The rank sum of the negative
differences (ignoring signs) is therefore

T=8.5+14+1+11.5=35.

Table 5: The Application of the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Test

Setjl 1 2 3 4 5 6 Z 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15
Engl. 29 28 27 30 23 15 25 l7 l3 3 22 6 8 l6 4
Ger. 21 18 19 26 5 9 7 1 2 14 10 24 11 2 20
Diff. 8 10 8 4 18 6 18 16 11 -ll 12 -18 -3 4 -16
Banks. 2 14 4 14 1 4

 

Critical values are obtained from a table for the Wilcoxon
signed-rank test with (1] significance levels.32 For our set of texts
with n=15, the critical region33 for T S 30 is on = 5%. The value T =

35 obtained in the present study, therefore, is far beyond the 5%

 

32This table is provided in Neave et al. Distribution-free Tests. London: Unwin,
1988. 373.

33A critical region is defined as a collection of values of T. It indicates what kind
of values of T will most strongly point to H1 being true rather than H0 being true.
(Neave et a1. (1988), p. 50.

60
significance level, and so it is found that there is no significant

evidence for H1 to be true. Therefore, it cannot be concluded that
the English texts are significantly more coordinated than the German
texts in this sample, or that the German texts show significantly
higher levels of subordination than their English counterparts.

At this point, it could be argued that this test is far too
powerful and restrictive, in that it requires the German and English
texts to be matched according to the principle of topicality. But
why should topic play such an overwhelming role in determining the
organizational pattern of a text in a particular language? In order to
alleviate this concern, a second test was applied. The Mann-Whitney
test lends itself for situations with two independent samples (Neave
et al.: 109ff). The English and German texts are therefore not
considered as matched-pairs any more, but as data independent
from each other. The hypotheses and data are the same as applied
in the Wilcoxon matched-pairs test. For the purposes of the Mann-
Whitney test, we will denote the data on the English texts as sample E
and the data on the German texts as sample G. The sizes of the
samples will be denoted ng and no, so that m; = 15 and n0 = 15. The
Mann-Whitney test compares every item in sample E in turn with
every item in sample G. In all, there are then nEnG comparisons to
be made. The method applied to carry out this computation is fairly
efficient. The first task is to arrange all the data into ascending
order, though with the samples still retaining their separate
identities. The ascending order is determined from most
subordinated texts at the left end of the scale to most coordinated

texts at the right end of the scale.

61
s 2 E 1 14 9E ----- >

..... > 4 a 11312 43213 4E

The next step is to write down a list of B's and G's
corresponding to the origins of the texts in the ordered sequence,

thus obtaining the following letter sequence:

GGEEGEGEGGGGEGEEEGGGGEEGEGEEEE

This indicates that the two lowest readings, i. e., the two most
subordinated and hence least coordinated texts come from sample
G, the next two readings come from sample E, and so on. Next, we
write under each G the number of E's that precede it in the

sequence:

E EE E EEEE

00 2 3 4444 5 8888 1011

The numbers recorded show how many of the E values are exceeded
by the G value, i. e., the number of cases in which the English texts
were more subordinated than the German texts. In order to
determine how many of the G values exceed the E values, we add
together the figures obtained, giving a value which is denoted by the
statistic U:

U=2+3+4+4+4+4+5+8+8+8+8+10+11=79

62
The critical values for U are given in the table for the Mann-Whitney

test.34 For our sample size, the critical region for significance level
(11 = 5% is U S 72. The U-value obtained in our test (U=79) is
therefore well beyond the critical region, thereby rejecting H1 to be
true.

In summary, it can be stated that the results of the Mann-
Whitney test confirm the results obtained in the Wilcoxon matched-
pairs test. Both tests determine that there is no conclusive evidence
that the German texts display a more subordinated and, therefore,
less coordinated organizational structure than the English texts, and
vice versa. It also became evident that the results of the statistical
tests are not affected by the treatment of the samples as matched or

single items.

3.2. Analyses of the Topic Shift Indicators

While it has been found that there is no significant evidence of
linguistically and therefore culturally determined discourse patterns
on the overall text level, it remains to be examined whether this also
applies to lower-level discourse phenomena on the sentence- and
word-level. 1n the following two sections, the data obtained for the
English and the German texts will be compiled and interpreted with

emphasis on their mechanisms of topic-shift.

 

34This table is provided in Neave et al. Distribution-free Tests. London: Unwin,
1988. 375/6.

 

shi
seI
dis
101
lb:
Fe
00
sh:

elc‘

3.2.1. The English Text Corpus

As could be seen in the sample analysis of Text 10E, each topic
shift was justified by sentence types such as topic or bridge
sentences. They were often supported by linguistic markers such as
discourse markers (DM), a sudden change of tense (ChTe),
complements of time (CoTi), complements of place (CoPl), and/or
the introduction or reintroduction of a new individual (Ini).
Following is a frequency compilation of the number of topic shifts
occurring in all English texts. Also shown are the number of topic
shifts which were introduced by a sentence involving sentence-

element variation (SEV).35

 

”In addition, Table 4 shows the number of topic-shifts which were preceded by a
direct quotation. These figures will not be followed up by a separate analysis.
However, they could provide an interesting basis for further research which is
suggested in chapter 4.

63

64

Table 6: Topic-Shifts in the English Text Corpus

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T e x t# #of topic- #of t0pic- # of quotes]
shifts shifts with preceding
SEV topic-shift
l 13 8 5
2 18 1 1 2
3 13 5 3
4 l8 5 3
5 10 4 -
6 10 6 3
7 9 4 3
8 1 4 7 6
9 9 4 2
1 0 1 5 6 4
1 l 12 5 4
12 13 6 2
l 3 18 1 2 7
l 4 10 5 1
15 1 5 8 4
Total 197 (100%)‘ 96 (49%) 49 (25%)

 

 

65
There were a total of 197 topic-shifts in all 15 English texts. In

96 cases, or 49% of all cases, a topic-shift was supported by the
technique of sentence-element-variation (SEV) as its indicator, and
in 49 cases, or 25% of all cases, a topic-shift was preceded by direct
quotations. Table 7 shows the categories and their combinations

with linguistic markers:

Table 7: Breakdown of all Topic—Shifts in the English Text Corpus

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TS BS Total——
TS 3 8 - 38 (19%)
BS - 3 9 39 (20%
DM 6 2 4 30 (15%)
Ini 1 6 3 1 47 (24%)
CoTi 1 8 l 7 35 (18%)
ChTe 2 4 613%)
CoPl - 2 2 (1%)
Total 80 (40%) 117(60%) 197(100%)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Out of the total amount of 197 topic-shifts in all English texts, 80, or

ca. 40%, were indicated by topic sentences (TS), while 117, or ca.

 

ma.
C38

all

1111

3111

shc

66
60%, were marked by bridge sentences (BS). A total of 77 (or 39%)

topic-shifts initiated by topic or bridge sentences were not
supported by any linguistic markers. A combination with discourse
markers as indicators for a topic-shift was recorded in 15% of all
cases, while 18% were supported by complements of time. 24% of
all topic-shifts were combined with the introduction or
reintroduction of an individual, or a group of people. The
combinations of topic and bridge sentences with discourse markers
and/or complements of time as indicators for a topic-shift are

shown in Tables 8 and 9.

67

Table 8: Complements of Time as Linguistic Markers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TS BS Total % as SEV
Precise Calendar Dates 4 1 l4 1
Days/Months/Years 3 3 17 5
Seasons 3 - 9 1
Prepositional Phrases 4 2 1 7 6
Adverbs: 4 l 1 4 3 -
[now 3 3] 5
[meanwhile 1 31 4
[already - 2] 2
[next - 1] -
[since - 1] -
Total 1 8 1 7 1 0 0 2 4

 

 

 

68
It is striking here that 43% of all topic-shifts were complemented

with adverbs of time such as now, meanwhile, already, next, and
since. 31% of these were positioned in initial position when a topic-
shift occurred, i. e., in situations of sentence element variation.
Examples of precise calender dates are on May 25 (Text 5B), or Oct.
25 (Text 8E). The category "Days/Months/Years" includes in
October (Text 15E), in late June (Text IE), or by 1991 (Text 2E), etc.
Seasons mentioned include last winter (Text 10E), this fall (Text 5E),
and last spring (Text 15E). Examples for prepositional phrases are in

the end and for decades (Text 2E), or for years (Text 13E).

Table 9: Discourse Markers as Linguistic Markers

 

 

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T S B S Total %
b u t 3 l 2 :3}??? 95,33,
also 2 .7
indeed 1 2 10
to o _ 1 3
_aS_well - 2 7
Total 6 2 4 1 0 0

 

 

69
Table 7 showed that 15% of all t0pic-shifts in the English text corpus

are supported by discourse markers. In Table 9, it is noticeable that
50% of all topic-shifts indicated by a topic— or bridge sentence were
accompanied by the discourse marker but. It is followed by also
which occurs in 30% of all cases that show a combination of a topic
or bridge sentence with a discourse marker.36

The variation of sentence elements can be employed as an
effective stylistic and organizational device to alter and improve the
flow of a text, and to retain the interest of the reader. It also places
additional emphasis on the element which is located in sentence-
and paragraph-initial position. According to Ulrich Engel, the
variation of sentence elements is used by a speaker/writer in order
to indicate his/her communicative intent, i. e., it has the purpose of
causing a specific effect in the listener/reader (329). He states that
the arrangement of certain elements in sentence-initial position calls
special attention to this specific element. However, Engel also
points out that it is very important not to overuse the variation of
sentence elements as it would otherwise lose its special effect (331).
As seen in Table 6, this technique was used by the English authors in
49% of all topic-shifts. Table 10 shows that 31% of sentence-
element variation was achieved by conjunctions, with but being the

conjunction employed most.

 

36Because of their significance. but and also will be analyzed in more detail later
in section 3.3.

70
Table 10: Sentence Element Variation as Organizational Device

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Partieiple Phrases 8
Prepositional Phrases l 7
Infinitive Phrases 6
Complements of Place 2
Adverbs 9
Conjunctions: 30
[but 13]
[if 4]
[when 31
[while 3]
[other 7]
Comglements of Time 2 4
Total 9 6

 

3.2.2. The German Text Corpus

In the following, the same data analysis is applied to the
German text corpus. Table 11 shows the number of topic-shifts
occurring in each text, and their significance in combination with

the variation of sentence elements and preceding quotes.

71

72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 11: Topic-Shifts in the German Text Corpus
Text# #of topic- #of topic- # of quotes]
shifts shifts with preceding
SEV topic-shift
1 1 1 7 1
2 l 1 5 -
3 l 1 5 -
4 1 4 7 2
5 1 5 6 2
6 1 8 1 1 2
7 8 S 2
8 9 3 4
9 1 6 1 2 4
1 0 1 4 8 -
l 1 1 4 7 -
1 2 l 2 4 1
1 3 l 4 7 -
1 4 9 5 2
l 5 1 1 6 -
Total 187 98 (52% 20 (11%

 

 

 

 

 

 

73
There were a total of 187 topic-shifts in all 15 German texts.

In 98 instances, or 52% of all cases, the readers' attention for a
topic-shift was gained by sentence element variation. In 20
instances, or 11% of all cases, a t0pic-shift was preceded by a quote.
Table 12 shows the combinations of topic and bridge sentences with

linguistic markers:

Table 12: Breakdown of all Topic-Shifts in the German Text Corpus

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TS B§ Total
TS 2 9 - 29 (15.5%
BS - 3 0 30 (16%
DM 1 0 3 8 48 (26%
Ini 9 4 0 49 (26%
CoTi 6 2 2 28 (15%)
ChTe 1 - 1(.5%)
CoPI - 2 2(1%)
MI 55 (29%) 132 (71%) 187 (100%)

 

71% of the total number of all topic-shifts occurring in the

German texts were indicated by bridge, and 29% by topic sentences.

74
While 31.5% of all topic-shifts were not supported by any linguistic

markers, it is noticeable that 26% of all topic-shifts were supported
by discourse markers. A combination with the introduction or
reintroduction of an individual, or a group of people in support of a
topic-shift was also noticed in 26% of all cases, while 15% were
supported by complements of time. The figures also show that the
role of change of tense as well as complements of place in support
of a topic-shift can be disregarded. Tables 13 and 14 display the
combinations of topic and bridge sentences with complements of

time and discourse markers.

Table 13: Complements of Time as Linguistic Markers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TS: BS Total % as SEV
Precise Calendar Dates - - - -
Ms/Months/Years 3 7 3 6 6
Prepositional Phrases l 9 3 6 6
Adverbs: 2 6 2 8 4
[nun 1 2] 5
[jetzt - 2] 4
jdamals - 1] 2
[derzeit 1 -] .
[zunfichst - 1] -
m1 6 2 2 10 0 1 6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

75
As mentioned in Table 12, 15% of all topic-shifts were

supported by complements of time. The breakdown in the
individual categories is as follows: Complements of time embedded
in a prepositional phrase were employed in 36% of topic-shift and
complement of time combinations. Examples in this category are
innerhalb weniger Monate (Text 1G), bereits im vergangenen Jahr
(Text 10G), or in jiingster Zeit (Text 6G). Adverbs like nun, jetzt,
damals, derzeit, and zuna'chst were used in almost 28% of all cases.
Interestingly enough, 57% of topic-shifts which were supported by
complements of time occurred in paragraph-initial position, i. e., in

situations of sentence element variation.

Table 14: Discourse Markers as Linguistic Markers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DM TS BS Total %
auch - 6 12.5
doch 5 4 19
jedoch - 3 6.5
zwar - 4 3
,sogar - 2 4
damit - 2 4
so 1 l 4
other 4 16 42
Total 10 38 100

 

76

In the German set of data, it is striking that discourse markers

occurred far more often in combination with bridge sentences

(almost 80% of all cases) than with topic-sentences. The discourse

marker doch was employed most (almost 19%), followed by auch

(12.5%). The category other comprises discourse markers such as

dann, dennoch, zudem, dagegen, ebenfalls, etc. which were each

used only once, and either in combination with a topic or a bridge

SCHICI‘ICC.

Table 15: Sentence Element Variation as

Organizational Device

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Subjunktoren (DM) 8
Konjunktoren (DM) 1 1
Partikeln (DM) 1 0
Adverbs (DM) 5
Adjectives 6
Verbs 6
Prepositional Phrases 2 2
Direct Object 9
Indirect Object l
Complements of Time 1 6
Complements of Place 4
m1 9 8

 

 

 

77
German authors used the variation of sentence elements as a

stylistic device in over 50% of all topic-shifts. Subordinating and
coordinating conjunctions were used in almost 20% of all topic-
shifts in initial position of a paragraph. 22% started the new topic
with prepositional phrases such as "In den chinesischen Medien
(Text 1G), "Auf der Liste der privatisierbaren Unternehmen..." (Text
5G), or "In ihrer Not versuchen die Hersteller (Text 6G). As
mentioned above, complements of time were also important

additions to bridge and topic sentences; ca. 16% of all variations of

sentence elements were achieved with complements of time.

3.3. Comparison of the English and German Sets of Data

It is the purpose of Table 16 to provide an overview of the

topic-shift occurrences and their supporting linguistic markers in

both the English and the German text corpus.

78
Table 16: German and English Texts in Comparison

German Text Corpus English Text Corpus

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TS BS Total % TS BS Total %
T8 2 9 - 2 9 15.5 3 s - 3 8 1 9
66 - 3 0 3 6 16 - 3 9 3 9 _____________ 26 ...........
6 M to 3 s 4 s 2‘55 6 2 4 3 o 15
Ini 9 4 0 4 9 2 6 16 31 4 7 2 4
CoTi 6 2 2 2 s 15 1 s 1 7 3 5 1 8
ChTe 1 - 1 .5 2 4 6 3
CoPl - 2 2 1 - 2 2 1
Total 55 132 187 10037 80 117 197 100

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Table 16, it is noticeable that the English sets of texts show
a slightly higher amount of topic shifts which are indicated solely by
topic or bridge sentence without support from any linguistic
markers as compared to the German set (English set: TS 19%, BS
20%, resulting in a total of 39%; German set: TS 15.5%, BS 16%,
resulting in a total of 31.5%). Categories like the introduction of a
new individual or the reintroduction of an individual, or a group of
people (Ini) are comparable in both sets; the English set shows 24%

of all cases of topic-shift, the German text set shows 26%. This also

 

37Due to a rounding error, these figures do not add up to 100% but 99.5%.

79
applies to the Complements of Time (CoTi) as topic-shift supports

(18% in the English set, 15% in the German set). The change of
tense (ChTe), and complements of place (CoPl) in support of a
topic-shift do not even play a significant role. A closer look at the
combinations of topic and bridge sentences with the linguistic
markers reveals, however, that the biggest difference between the
two sets of data occurs in their use of discourse markers (DM):
Whereas in the English set, 15% of all shifts are supported by
discourse markers, the German shows their support in 25.5% of all
cases of topic-shifts.

In order to claim the significance of the difference between
the figures obtained for the German text corpus in comparison to
the English text corpus, a chi-squared test was applied to the data.
The original hyptheses are adapted to this test and read as follows:

110: There is no difference in the use of topic-shift indicators
between the English and the German texts selected for
this study.

H1: There is a difference in the use of topic-shift indicators
between the English and the German texts selected for
this study.

The chi-squared test revealed that the value of xzfor the category
discourse markers is 4.14. This value lies in the 1% - 5%
significance level, which means that there is considerable evidence
to support the hypothesis that German uses more discourse markers
to initiate a topic-shift than English. Thus, H1 has proven to be true
in the category discourse markers. The values of X2 for all other

categories of topic-shift indicators are beyond the 5% critical

80
region, and therefore do not provide significant evidence for H1 to

be true.38
A combination of Tables 9 and 14 will reveal which discourse
markers are preferred in each of the languages and within the

present framework.

Table 17: Comparison of the Use of Discourse Markers

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

English Text Corpus German Text Corpus

DM TS BS .. DM TS BS

8 I s o 2 7 d o c h 5 4

indeed I 2 10 jedoch - 3 6.5

too - 1 3 zwar - 4 8

as well - 2 7 sogar - 2 4
damit - 2 4
s o 1 1 4
other 4 1 6 4 2

Total 6 24 100 Total 10 3 8 100

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_

38The X 2 values obtained for the other categories are: TS: X 2 = 1.2; BS: X 2 =
1.16; Ini: X 2 =0.04; CoTi: X 2 = 0.76. Since the expected frequencies for the
categories ChTe and CoPl are very small, they were combined into one category.

The value obtained for X 2 = 2.27, which also lies well beyond the critical region of
5%.

 

Ian;
dis-
Ge
OI'I

dis

31 I?

8 l
A comparison of the discourse markers employed in each

language shows the following: English authors clearly favor the
discourse markers but and also in support of topic-shifts, while
German authors employ the discourse markers doch and auch
overwhelmingly. In addition, the Germans use a wider variety of
discourse markers, subsumed under the category other. As
mentioned above, this category includes discourse markers such as
dann, dennoch, zudem, dagegen, ebenfalls, etc. which are each only
used once.

In order to understand this preference of some discourse
markers over others, but and also will be examined more closely in
their respective contexts in the English texts, and auch and doch
were selected for a closer analysis within their respective German

COHICXIS.

The Discourse Markers but and also

In Table 9, the significance of but as a formal marker
supporting a topic shift became quantitatively evident. It is the
purpose of the following discussion to examine the qualitative
contribution of but to the organization of the English texts. In her

publication on discourse markers, Schiffrin (1987)39 assigns but

¥

39Though Schiffrin's work on discourse markers primarily focuses on spoken
discourse, her findings regarding but, and, because, and other discourse markers
are considered to be equally relevant when extended to written discourse.
Naturally, this extension is not relevant to discourse markers such as y'know ,l
mean,oh, and well, which are predominately used as conversational devices and
do not have the same significance in written discourse.

82
along with and and or to the category of discourse coordinators;

however, it has the effect of marking an upcoming unit as a
contrasting action (152). Several examples will illustrate the
functions of but as an organizational and cohesive device.

In general, it is striking that but is the discourse marker used
in 50% of all topic-shifts which were supported by discourse
markers. In addition, in 43% of these cases but was positioned in
paragraph- and sentence-initial position. It was therefore also used
as an important element for sentence variation. In our sample text
10E, but is used only once at the beginning of the last paragraph of
the text. In this part of the text, it is also used as an indicator for
the last topic-shift of the text, leading into its concluding section. In
the context of Text 10E, but is employed as a point-making device,
suggesting that what follows is an idea which contrasts with the
prior discourse. In this case, the author is making the point that the
revelations about the extent of the corruption in Italy will certainly
affect the country's image, and the image of its products. However,
he also wants to point out the opposite side of the coin, i. e., that
the cleanup will undoubtedly have its positive effects in the long
run. This counter-argument is prefaced by but. In addition to that,
the contrasting meaning and point-making function of but in this
context is increased by the fact that it is directly preceded by a
quote. In this quote, a senior Fiat executive expresses his fears for
the reputation of his company's product due to the corruption
disclosures. Thus, but fulfills not only the function of a discourse
connector, but positions the upcoming discourse to the previous

discourse in a contrastive and counter argumentative manner.

si

113

4'0.
3,,

83
Text 3E shows but in two interesting situations: in one case,

but is used in sentence-initial position and as a device in support of
a topic-shift. However, it is not placed in paragraph-initial position,
where its function would have been supported by orthographic
indentation. In this particular instance, but is so powerful as to
signal to the reader without the visual support of paragraph

indentation that a contrasting aspect is being addressed next:

1. Just back from a 10-day vacation in
New England. Koitsu Tsuchiya figures he
couldn't have timed his trip much
better. With the yen surging relentlessly
against the dollar, the board member at
Nikkei Business Publications Inc. in
Tokyo spent a lot less in the US. that he
would have earlier in the year. [...]

II. Globe-trotting and import-buying
Japanese may love endaka, or the rising
yen, which has finally hit 100 yen to the
dollar, down from 125.8 yen in January.

11.1. But the gravity-defying currency is
giving Japanese executives and
government officials vertigo. In the
midst of its worst economic slump in two
decades, the last thing the country needs
is a dearer currency that dampens
exports, which account for 14% of gross
national product. Economists are already
lowering their growth estimates, some to
1% for this year.

11.2. The unexpectedly rapid endaka is
also hammering exporters' profits, which

were set for a healthy gain this year.
[...]40

The overall topic of the text is the currency crisis in Japan, and its
various effects. Part 11 deals in general with the consequences of the

rising yen. In the excerpt above, it can be seen that the first four

 

40This excerpt is taken from "How badly will yen shock hurt?" by Robert Neff et al.,
Business Week, August 30, 1993. pp. 52-53.

d1

4]]

he

84
lines are devoted to an overall introduction to part II, which is

subsequently divided into four sections.41 The first section of part
II. is marked by the sentence-initial but. In doing so, the authors
indicate that the upcoming discourse is presenting a contrasting
point of view. This upcoming argument stands in contrast to the
content of the lead-in anecdote at the beginning of the text (Part 1.),
followed by the bridge-sentence which takes the reader into the
second part.

In the same text, but is also used later in mid-sentence as a
conjunction between two main clauses. 1t initiates the topic-shift
from section 11.3. to 11.4. While sections 1 through 3 discuss the
negative aspects connected to the rising yen, starting with section
11.4., the authors discuss some of its positive effects: "[...] Endaka
may look like all pain, but there are some benefits that could
outweigh exporters' cries. [...]" Again, but is used to indicate an
upcoming contrasting point of view. It can therefore be concluded
that whether positioned at the beginning of a paragraph, in mid-
paragraph at the beginning of a sentence, or in mid-sentence, the
discourse marker but is employed as a connecting device prefacing
ideas of contrasting content. Since it is the goal of a well-balanced
article to provide the reader with all aspects of a topic, but lends
itself as a device to introduce opposing viewpoints.

The discourse marker also is used in 30% of all topic-shifts
which were supported by discourse markers. Quite contrary to the

discourse marker but, however, also can mostly be found in mid-

 

41Please refer to the outline of entire text in Appendix A which will give a
broader overview of the topical and organizational structure of the text.

85
sentence position. It is therefore not used as a device for sentence

element variation. In her book on discourse markers, Schiffrin does
not include also in her discussions. This can be attributed to the
notion that also is a device which may be more common in written
than spoken discourse. This does not imply that also is not or
hardly ever employed in conversational discourse, however the
findings in this study lead us to believe that it is a fairly powerful
organizational device for written discourse.

In Text 10E, also is embedded in a topic sentence initiating the
topic-shift from section 11.2. to 11.3. Like but, also can be
categorized as discourse connector, though it does not indicate an
upcoming contrastive idea, but rather points the reader to an
upcoming, additional point of view. In our example, the topic shifts
from the benefits of corruption for Italy's political parties to the
financial consequences of the system: "[...]The system that kept the
national machinery oiled afig cost it dearly.[...]" (lines 92/93).

In Text 4E, we encounter the only case, in which also is used in
sentence- and paragraph-initial position: "[...] Am hovering in the
wings is Arkady Volsky, the former Communist Central Committee
member who is leader of Civic Union, an influential centrist group
of Russian industrial managers.[...]"42

Whether in sentence- or paragraph-initial position, or in mid-
sentence position, also is employed as a device to connect additional

viewpoints to the arguments which have already been made.

 

4ZThis excerpt is taken from Text 4E entitled "Sudden, stealthy - and crazy"
written by Peter Galuszka et al., Business Week, August 9, 1993, pp. 38/39.

86
The Discourse Markers doch and auch

While it is noticeable that in 42% of all cases a different
discourse marker was used each time in support of a topic shift in
the German texts, the significance of doch (used in almost 19% of
all cases) and auch (used in 12.5% of all cases) should not be
ignored. Ulrich Engel assigns different classifications to doch
depending on its structural position and its intended meaning. Since
in all our cases doch is positioned in initial position, we can
eliminate his classification which regards doch as an unstressed
particle with the specific purpose of moderation, or down-toning
("Abtonungspartikel") of the statement in which it was embedded
(Engel: 233)."63 In all 9 instances in the sample, doch is located in
paragraph and sentence-initial position. Therefore, we can adopt
Engel's classification of doch as a textual organizer which is defined
to connect ideas in an adversary manner. In addition, doch is said
to signal a contrasting idea between two arguments (742).
Therefore, it seems to have a similar function to but in the English
texts.

The following examples illustrate this situation: Text 1G deals
with the financial crisis in China. Doch is used in sentence- and
paragraph-initial position for the last topic-shift in the text: "Doch
die wirklichen Hintergriinde des Skandals diirften von den

gleichgeschalteten Medien nicht berichtet werden.[...]"44 This

 

43An example of the use of doch for down-toning, i. e. as an "Abténungspartikel"
is: "Das ist doch Unsinn!"

44This quote is taken from Text 1G entitled "Sanfte Landung" written by Henrik
Bork, WirtschaftsWoche, July 16, 1993, p. 27.

87
paragraph is in response to the previous paragraph, in which the

author deals with the subjectivity of the Chinese media, and its
biased way of reporting the news. It is in this last paragraph of the
text, where the author comments on this in a contrasting manner,
and he then concludes the article with speculations regarding the
future of the Chinese financial market. In Text 4G, doch is used also
as a marker of an upcoming adverse viewpoint: "Doch die
wirklichen Probleme umschreibt das Programm nur: zum Beispiel
das Stocken der 'Massenprivatisierung'. [...]"45

After careful examination of all cases in which doch was
employed in the German texts, and those cases where but was used
in the English texts, it can be concluded that both are positioned in
the same kind of textual context with comparable meanings.

Auch is the other discourse marker which is used often in the
German texts as an indicator for a topic-shift. Whenever auch was
used in our text corpus, it was in support of a bridge sentence.
Engel classifies auch as a particle, which is used to intensify the
upcoming idea (765). In addition to that, Lederer writes that auch
also functions as an attribute of intensification giving special
emphasis to that particular sentence unit (621-22). Text 4G shall
again serve as an example: "Auch fiir die Produktion kiindigt die
Regierung GroBes an. [...]"46 The usage of auch implies here that
this idea was added to other ideas, some of which had already been

mentioned. Similar to also, then, auch is used as a device which

 

45This quote is taken from Text 4G entitled "Wer ist wer?" written by Jacob
Sasportas et al., WirtschaftsWoche, August 13, 1993. pp. 22 + 25.
46 see previous footnote.

88
lends itself to be used in cases where additional information is being

provided.

In conclusion, it can be stated that both the English and the
German texts use discourse markers in support of their topic-shifts
indicated by topic-sentences or bridge-sentences. In addition, the
discourse markers which were employed overwhelmingly in both
sets of texts are comparable not only regarding their function, but
also concerning their individual meanings. Within the wider scope
of the study it is very interesting to find that the devices used by
German and English authors to initiate and support topic-shifts are
fairly similar. However, the fact that there is no statistically
significant evidence for the truth of H1 ("The English texts are more
coordinated than the German texts.") does not allow us to
automatically conclude that H0 ("There is no difference in the
organizational patterns of the English and German texts selected for
this study.") is true. Accordingly, the finding of this study, i. e., that
there is no statistically significant evidence of specific
organizational discourse patterns which can be attributed to a
difference in cultural background, does not necessarily lead to the
general conclusion that both Germans and Americans employ the

same techniques.

CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS AND OUTLOOK

This research project set out to examine the organizational
patterns of texts taken from two leading German and American
general business publications Wirtschaftswoche and Business Week.
The goal of the study was to find out whether there are differences
between the discourse patterns primarily on the text level which can
be ascribed to their cultural backgrounds. The results of the
analyses of the 15 text samples taken from each language and the
statistical tests applied to the data do not allow us to draw this
conclusion. No statistically significant difference was found
regarding the organizational patterns displayed by German and
American texts taken from Wirtschaftswoche and Business Week.

Possible explanations for the research results obtained could
be sought in the following areas:

First, there is the influence of the editor and multiple
authorship. Editors take a very active role in shaping an article for
their magazines. J. T. W. Hubbard writes that the editor "must be
able to take the finished manuscript and edit it so that it meets the
readers' interest without, if humanly possible, crushing the writer's
style" (33). This statement implies that the editor plays a very
significant role in the revision and correction of a magazine article.
For articles published in Wirtschaftswoche, for example, each article
is revised and corrected by at least two editors.47 Furthermore,

many articles list several people as their authors. It is unclear to the

‘

47This information was obtained through a personal letter from the editor-in-
chief of the WirtschaftsWoche, Volker Wolff, dated December 14, 1993.

89

90
reader who is responsible for the main composition of the article,

how much each listed author contributes to the article, and how the
article has been affected by editorial policies.

Secondly, comparability of magazines: In order to validate the
results of the analyses of the texts taken from these two specific
magazines, it would be necessary to analyze additional texts taken
from other leading German and American business publications
such as Capital, Manager Magazin, Fortune, and Forbes. This
method would eliminate possible peculiarities of text organization
ascribable to the editorial practices of Wirtschaftswoche and
Business Week.

Thirdly, there is the phenomenon of the convergence of
international business culture, and the possible close interrelation
of the field of journalistic business reporting as a whole and on an
international level. Therefore, this notion seeks its explanation in
the social and institutional contexts rather than only cultural
contexts per se. Topics such as the ones addressed in the articles of
our text corpus and which generally deal with international business
are often generated from one major news source, or from the same
information source, which might influence the overall organization
of an article. In order to substantiate this suggestion, it would be
necessary to examine the different news sources which supply
magazines such as Business Week and Wirtschaftswoche with
information.

Fourthly, there is the impact of culture-specific composition
theory. How are Germans and Americans taught to write? Are there

culture-specific composition norms? Information regarding these

91
questions is scarce and focuses predominantly on very specific "how

to" approaches rather than the wider concepts of writing specific to
each culture. Michael Clyne, in his contrastive study of German and
English organizational patterns of academic texts, mentions that
essay—writing norms are less rigid in Germany than in Britain and
Australia (1987: 212). However, in what ways can essay-writing
norms be applied to journalistic writing?

Though all these explanations for the research results seem
valid from a scientific point of view, from a pedagogic point of view,
however, the results seem to run counter to both intuition and
experience with students in German for Business and Economics
classes. The fact that there is no statistically significant evidence
regarding differences in the organizational patterns specific to
American and German business and economics texts written for
business magazines indicates that it is not necessarily the overall
t0pical organization of German versus English texts which is
primarily problematic for our students. Some additional findings
obtained in the present study point to interesting tendencies:

1) Composition of headlines: A brief comparison of the
headlines of the English and German articles in the corpus indicates
that the English headlines tend to be more descriptive than their
German counterparts. The headlines of the German texts contained
in the present study are fairly low in informational content. They
are characterized by snappy phrases or quotes, almost all of which
are quotes taken from the accompanying article. The English
headlines, on the other hand, seem to be more precise and

informative. They are also followed by subheads. The major intent

92
of any headline is, of course, to capture the readers' attention, and

to arouse the readers' interest. Once this has been achieved, a
second headline, or subhead,48 provides more detailed and factual
information regarding the topic and the tenor of the article.

Because of the importance of headlines, it is usually the
editor's task to write them. According to Hubbard (1982), this task
is complicated by the fact that effective heads and subheads
generally appeal to the reader on more than one level. He quotes an
in-house analysis made for McGraw-Hill Publishing Division's top
editors: "Most heads operate on two levels: the descriptive and the
evocative. The descriptive element informs the mind in hard factual
terms concerning the contents of an article. In contrast, the
evocative element appeals to the emotion, the curiosity and the
enthusiasm of the reader" (Hubbard 1982: 106) Some examples
illustrate the sequencing of head and subheads in English and
German, and point to some potential differences in the approach
taken in WirtschaftsWoche and Business Week.

Text 1G: Sanfte Landung
Ein neuer Notenbankchef soll den iiberhitzten Finanzsektor des
Landes abkiihlen.

Text 1E: Beijing starts pumping the brakes
Vice-Premier Zhu takes charge of a plan to slow the economy and
rein in the banking system.

Text 10G: Traumjob Richter

Die Welle der Korruptionsskandale verscharft die Wirtschaftskrise,
schafft aber auch die Chance fiir einen umfassenden Neubeginn.

Text 10E: The Cleanup of Italy Inc.

The business-political alliance is over. What will replace it?

 

“According to J.T.W. Hubbard, the heads or titles consist of the words in the
largest typeface. The subhead, or deck, or blurb, "is generally displayed in a type
size lying halfway between that of the head and that of the text." (105)

93
Text 13G: Nur eine Nische

US-Banken verlieren das einst gewinntrachtige Plastikgcldgeschaft
an neue Anbieter auBerhalb der Finanzbranche.

Text 13E: Pushing plastic is still one juicy game.
Competition may be heating up. but credit-card issuers aren't
exactly racing into a ruinous price war.

2) Bold-faced signposts: Directly connected to the
composition of headlines is the writing of bold-faced captions which
appear within the texts. Interestingly enough, these captions only
appear in the English texts. Depending on the length of the article,
the editor places either two, three, or four of them in one article.
Their location within the text seems sometimes odd, i. e., the
captions do not necessarily refer to the paragraph which follows
immediately. It can be assumed though that this is a tactical move
by the editor, whose primary interest is to retain the readers'
attention. This can be achieved by placing provocative captions in
unexpected sections of the text. Since they do not appear in the
articles published in WirtschaftsWoche, the question to be pursued
is whether the bold-faced captions within the English texts are
intended to function like the snappy headlines in the German texts.
Also, what is the reason for this editorial difference?

3) Correlation of topic-shifts and direct quotes: The
correlation of topic-shifts and the positioning of direct quotes at the
end of the paragraph preceding the topic-shift is another issue
proposed for further research. In our English text corpus, there
were a total of 197 topic shifts, 49 (25%) of which were preceded
by a direct quote. The German text corpus, on the other hand,

showed a different tendency: of 187 topic-shifts only 20 (11%)

94
were preceded by direct quotes. How can this difference be

explained? Do Germans use more indirect quotations, and if so
why?

These issues could be addressed in similarly innovative
research projects, and their examination could provide further
insights into characteristics within the area of cross-cultural
discourse analysis. Beyond that, it could even point us to
sociological and anthropological aspects addressing the differences

between the German and American business cultures as a whole.

APPENDIX A

OUTLINES OF ALL ENGLISH AND GERMAN TEXTS

Appendix A: Outlines of all English and German Texts

Table 18: Outline of Text 1E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TCXt 1E3 Linguistic
Beijing Starts Pumping The Brakes Marker
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Summary of problems and present financial crisis TS+CoTi
1.2. Introducing new vice-premier Zhu, his job and its TS + Ini
rewards
(11.) Zhu's plan
11.1. Measures up to the present TS +CoTi
11.2. Goals and justification of plan BS
11.3. Today's situation BS+DM
11.3.1. Problem of banks TS+DM
11.3.2. New moneg-lending business BS+DM
11.3.3. Ineffective Central Bank BS +1ni
11.3.4. Challenges in attracting new BS+DM
savings
(111.) Zhu's immediate task and opinions
111.1. Restore faith in banking system TS +1ni
111.2. Other measures BS
(IV.) Zhu's achievements
IV.l. So far; look back BS + CoTi
1V.2. Outlook; predictions BS +ChTe

 

95

 

96
Table 19: Outline of Text 1G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

widespread; real extent of scandal

 

Text 1G: Linguistic
Sanfte Landung Marker
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Example of consequences of inflationary money TS
market
1.2. Description of program/reaction of government BS+CoTi
1.3. Initial consegwences/failed plans in the past BS+DM
11. Current plan and economic consequences TS+DM
11.1. Reactions by Chinese people to "Wtihrungsverfall" BS+CoTi
11.1.1. Reactions by Government BS +1ni
11.2. Other reasons for implicating measures; BS+DM
example Shen Taifu
11.2.1. Shen: his strategy BS+CoTi
11.2.2. Shen: his profit BS+CoTi
11.2.3. Shen: media reaction/Shen as scamat BS+CoTi
11.2.4. Shen only one example; corruption is BS+DM

 

 

97

Table 20: Outline of Text 2E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 2E: Linguistic
Why Mercedes Is Alabama Bound Mark"
(1.) Introduction
(1.1.) Input by Alabama
1.1.1. Phone call - lobbying journey TS
1.1.2. First lobbyinLtrip BS+CoTi
1.1.3. Second lobbying trip BS
1.2. Output for Alabama BS+ChTe
1.3. Output for Mercedes-Benz BS+DM
11. Mercedes' problems and search for solutions BS
11.1. Mercedes' inefficiency & productivitLgap TS+CoTi
11.2. New Approach TS+CoTi
11.2.1. MPV (BS +) ChTe
11.2.2. Rentschler TS +1ni
11.2.3. Production site in North America TS
11.3. Factor: Costs TS
11.4. Decision: US TS+ CoTi
11.4.1. Reason: Transportation costs BS
11.4.2. Reason: Age distribution and skilled TS+DM
workers
(111.) Course of negotiation meetifis/Secrecy of Project
111.1. Project "Rosenholz" TS
111.2. Decision Alabama TS+CoTi
111.3. Reasons why TS+CoTi

 

 

9 8
Table 21: Outline of Text 2G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 2G: Linguistic
Detroit im Dixieland Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Where (new location Alabama) & Who (Mercedes) TS
1.2. What (build 4x43) BS +CoTi
(1.3.) Why
1.3.1. External reason: good market potential TS +1ni
1.3.2. Internal reason: declining market share BS
of C and E class
11. Search process/Advantages TS + ChTe
11.1. Reasons for selecting sunbelt (Standortfaktoren) TS
11.2. Other companies located in same area BS+CoPl
11.3. Specific reason for BMW and Mercedes: savings TS
11.3.1. Workforce: costs and education BS
11.4. Japanese car makers as models BS+DM

 

 

11.5. BMW and Mercedes as models for VW?

 

BS

 

 

99

Table 22: Outline of Text 3E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 3E: Linguistic
How Badly Will Yen Shock Hurt Mark"
1. Introduction: Example - Story TS
II. Consequences BS
11.1. inieneral (BS +) DM
11.2. for exporters BS+DM
11.3. for government BS +1ni
11.4. for banks and others BS+DM
111.) Problems in Government
111.1. Disagreement in Finance Ministry TS+Ini
111.2. Agreement of Banks BS +1ni
(1V.) More consequences/examples
1V.1. for manufacturers BS+DM
IV.2. for banks BS
IV.3. for importers BS+DM
IV.4. for small and medium-sized subcontractors and TS +ChTe
suppliers
V. Forecast TS

 

 

100

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 23: Outline of Text 3G
Text 3G: Linguistic
Bitte um Diskretion Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Profits down for Toyota TS
1.2. Reason BS
(11.) Consequences
11.1. for Japan AG (= in general) TS-I- DM
11.2. for Toyota BS + Ini
11.3. for other car makers (Honda, Mazda, Mitsubishi) BS+DM
11.4. for other key industries BS+DM
(111.) Actions by Japanese companies
111.1. Price increases TS +CoTi
111.2. Sharing suppliers BS+DM
111.3. Foreign suppliers BS+DM
(1V.) Commentary
IV.1. Yamanouchi: over capacities, less demand TS+DM
IV.2. Nagano: Unemployment and social unrest BS +1ni

 

 

101

Table 24: Outline of Text 4E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 4E: Linguistic
Sudden, Stealthy - and Crazy Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Yeltsin's achievements TS
1.2. His enemies' counterreaction BS +1ni
II. Reactions TS
11.1. by Russian people BS+CoPl
11.2. by Clinton/Western World TS +1ni
11.3. by members of Government BS +1ni
(111.) Results
111.1. Political: Who is to blame TS + Ini
111.2. Economic: Hyperinflation BS
1V. Various viewpoints TS
IV.1. Khasbulatov (TS +) Ini
IV.2. Volsky BS + DM
IV.3. Geraschenko TS + Ini
IV.4. Central Bank TS + Ini
IV.5. Economists BS + DM
V. Political Damage TS
V.l. to relations with former Sowjet Republics BS +1ni
Q12.) inside russia
V.2.l. to Russians BS +1ni
V.2.2. to Geraschenko BS+DM

 

 

102
Table 25: Outline of Text 4G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 4G: Linguistic
RuBland: Wer ist wer? Mark"
1. Introduction: Currency Zone (Russia, Kasachstan, TS
Usbekistan)
11. "Rubelreform" - Opinions and reactions BS+DM
11.1. Tschernomydrin (BS +) CoTi
11.2. Chasbulatow BS+Ini
11.3. Fjodorow BS+Ini
11.4. Chandrujew BS+Ini
11.5. Jelzin BS+Ini
111.) New economic program
111.1. Strategies BS
111.2. Problems/Changes TS+DM
111.2.1. Mass privatization (BS +) CoTi
111.2.2. Reforms within production BS+DM
111.3. Politicians generally unpppular BS
111.2.3. Inflation TS
[11.3.]. Most popular politician : Ruzkoj TS +1ni

 

 

103

Table 26: Outline of Text 5E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 5E: Linguistic
France Wants Out Of Business Marker
I. Introduction: Balladur (Quote) TS
II. Balladur's politics/actions TS+CoTi
11.1. Justification by conservatives TS+1ni
11.2. Justification by author BS
111. Companies to be privatized TS
111.1. Companies already managed like private-sector (TS +) CoTi
competition
111.2. Companies not privatized so far TS
IV; Investment analysis
IV.1. Possible difficulties TS+ChTe
IV.2. Public enthusiasm TS+DM
V. Conclusion BS

 

 

104

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 27: Outline of Text 5G
Text 5G: Linguistic
Tiidliche Falle Marker
I.) Introduction
1.1. Topic: Privatization of state-owned companies TS
1.2. Companies involved TS + Ini
1.3. Motivation for privatization (money) TS
1.3.1. Impact on Maastricht BS+DM
11. Economic Crisis/Unemployment BS
11.1. Economic plan in May BS
11.2. Economic plan in June BS+CoTi
111. Analysis of privatization TS+DM
111.1. Reactions by stock exchange (BS +) Ini
111.2. Reactions by domestic investors TS +1ni
111.3. Reactions by foreign investors BS +1ni
IV. Restrictions TS + DM
IV.1. by law (BS)
IV.2. by financial condition of company BS+DM
IV.3. Commentary TS (Quote)

 

 

 

 

105

Table 28: Outline of Text 6E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 6E: Linguistic
The Roaring Subminis Mal-kc.-
(I.) Introduction
1.1. Story about Volvo visiting Renault TS
1.2. Movement of autoindustry towards production of BS +CoTi
small cars; examples
(11.) Background information
11.1. Reasons for attraction to small cars BS
11.2. Impact on auto industry BS
11.3. Features of subminis; example Twingo BS
11.4. Financial hurdles for manufacturers BS+DM
11.5. Profits by lowefijgjroduction costs TS
(111.) Characteristics of subminis' market
111.1. Customer profiles BS
111.2. Example Mercedes BS +1ni
111.3. Commentary by author BS

 

 

106
Table 29: Outline of Text 6G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 6G: Linguistic
Locker am Stau vorbei Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Eureka-Project 742 TS + CoTi
1.2. Some manufacturers are going further; BS+Ini
example Volvo and Renault
1.3. Status report: the case against cars BS
11. Prospects of the auto industry TS
11.1. Example Goeudevert (VW) and Niefer (Mercedes) (TS+) Ini
11.2. Werner's "Vision A" BS +1ni
11.3. Mercedes' plans in California BS+DM
11.4. Wrong assumptions? BS
11.4.1. Clean Air Act mith be overturned (BS 4) CoTi
11.4.2. Clean Air in 1988: Data manipulation BS+CoTi
11.4.3. Status in 1992: LA still smog-capital BS+CoTi
11.5. Death of electric cars; opinion Schallabbck BS+DM
11.6. Low fuel consumption; example "Honda Today" BS +1ni
11.7. Limitations of car of the future TS+ DM
11.7.1. Traffic jams can't be avoided (BS) 7
11.7.2. Traffic management; Wissmann's idea BS+Ini
11.7.3. Implementation in Berlin BS+CoPl
11.8. Outlook/Concluding comment TS + Ini

 

 

107

Table 30: Outline of Text 7E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TeXt 7E: Linguistic

A Countercoup in Telecom Mark"
(1.) Introduction: Background, keyplayers and their

business relationships

1.1. BT and MCI TS

1.2. French and Germans BS

1.3. AT&T as third partner BS +1ni

1.4. EC laws BS +CoTi
(11.) Background to French-German deal

11.1. Details of plan TS

11.2. Inclusion of AT&T BS+DM
III.) Obstacles/Negative aspects

111.1. Demands of AT&T TS+DM

111.2. EC-laws TS + CoTi

111.3. Options and consequences BS+DM

 

 

108

Table 3]: Outline of Text 7G

 

Text 7G:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Linguistic
Telekom: Sturm laufen Marker
1. Introduction: Merger plans of German and French TS
telecom
(11.) Strategies and trends
11.1. General climate within industry TS+CoTi
11.2. Goals of merger BS +1ni
11.3. Privatization and stock exchange BS+DM
III.) Aftermath of BT/MCI-deal
111.1. BT&MCI TS+CoTi
111.2. Reaction of Germans and French = + AT&T BS +1ni
(111.3.) Opposition
111.3.1. German telecom industry BS+DM

 

 

111.3.2. EC-commission in Brussels

 

TS+DM

 

 

109

Table 32: Outline of Text 8E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 8E: Linguistic
Nafta: Let's Make a Deal Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Nafta-campaign/Deal approach/Costs of victory TS
(1.2.) Costs of defeat
1.2.1. Consequences for Clinton BS
1.2.2. Consequences on international scene BS
(11.) Lobbying efforts
11.1. Status report BS
11.2. Lobbyinflactics for Nafta TS
11.3. Scare tactics BS
11.3.1. by opponents (BS +) DM
11.3.2. by proponents BS+DM
11.4. Intensive dealmaking BS+CoTi
11.4.1. Financial incentives (BS +) Ini
11.4.2. Favorable trade rules for US products BS
11.4.3. with Republicans TS
(111.) Summary/Conclusion
111.1. Canadian opinion TS+CoTi
111.2. Bottom line for Clinton BS

 

 

Ta

 

110

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 33: Outline of Text 8G
Text 8G: Linguistic
Einfach aussteigen Marker
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Example Thomas Andrews TS
1.2. Explanation/Background BS
1.3. Clinton's desparation for support BS+Ini
(11.) Nafta from Clinton's perspective
11.1. Tactics in order to win votes TS
11.2. Consequences of defeat on international trade BS
scene
(111.) Debate around Nafta
111.1. Arguments of opponents BS
111.2. Confused argument of job loss and job gain TS
111.3. Commentary regarding arguments BS +1ni
IV. Author's conclusion/commentary TS

 

 

111

Table 34: Outline of Text 9E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 9E: Linguistic
Time To Leave The Cocoon? Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Description of conflict IG-Metall vs. Gesamtmetall TS
1.2. Commentary by author BS
11. Analysis/Description of conflict TS
11.1. Background information on labor market and labor (BS)
costs
11.2. Goals of employers BS +1ni
11.3. Goals of workers' council BS +1ni
11.4. IG-Metall reactions BS +1ni
11.5. Reactions by companies; example IBM BS+CoTi
11.6. Consequences of dispute; concluding commentary (BS)

by author

 

 

 

1 1 2
Table 35: Outline of Text 9G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

positive economic development in general

 

Text 9G2 Linguistic
1m selben Boot Marker
(1.) Introduction:
Reactions to cancellation of union contracts
1.1. by one union member TS+CoTi
1.2. by representatives of both sides BS +1ni
1.3. by politicians BS+DM
1.4. Bottom-line of dispute for German industry BS
(11.) Background
11.1. Status of German industry BS
11.2. Past wage increase: reactions then and now BS+CoTi
11.3. Consequences TS
11.3.1. Foreign competitors are cheaper (BS +) DM
11.3.2. No profits in many industries and reasons BS+DM
III.) Present situation
111.1. Projections for wage increases this year BS+CoTi
111.2. Opinions of both IG-Metall and Gesamtmetall BS+DM
111.3. Gesamtmetall arguments BS
111.4. IG-Metall arguments BS+DM
(1V.) Conclusion/CommentarL by author
IV.1. Urgency to find a deal; same as in 1984? TS
IV.2. Potential of a similar deal for both parties BS +CoTi
IV.3. Consequences of such a deal in combination with BS +CoTi

 

 

II

 

113

Table 36: Outline of Text 10E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 10E: Linguistic
The Cleanup of Italy Inc. Marks.-
(I.) Introduction
1.1. Lead-in story TS + CoTi
1.2. Background explanations regarding corruptions; BS
politicians under investifition
1.3. Businessmen under investigation BS
1.4. Outlook on cleanup and new Italy TS
(11.) Background
11.1. End of the system; example Craxi BS +CoTi
11.2. Benefits for political parties BS
11.3. Financial consequences of the system TS+DM
(11.4.) Examples: How did corruption work?
11.4.1. ENEL TS+Ini
11.4.2. Other public-works projects BS +1ni
111. Why cleanup now? TS +CoTi
111.1. Decline of communism - support of anti- TS +CoTi
communists
(111.2.) Opportunities for Amato
111.2.1. New legislation, privatization of industry BS +1ni
111.2.2. Modernization of electoral laws BS+CoTi
111.3. Consequences for Italy's image; example Fiat BS+CoTi
111.4. Benefits of cleanup TS+DM

 

 

l l 4
Table 37: Outline of Text 10G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

dreamiobs

 

Text 10G: Linguistic
Traumjob Richter Marks.-
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Italy's image TS
1.2. Corruption within Government BS +1ni
1.3. Corruption within Opposition BS+DM
(11.) Details and effects of corruption scandal
11.1. Results of "mani pulite" TS +CoTi
11.2. Effects on economy without rules of corruption; BS
example construction industry
11.2.1. Lack of local politicians - no contracts for BS +1ni
construction industry
11.3. Lack of contracts - rising unemployment BS
11.4. Unemployment and economic predictions BS+CoTi
11.5. Positive development: increased competitiveness TS
11.6. Npgative development: increased national debt BS
11.6.1. Consequences of national debt - inability BS+CoTi
of government to reform
(111.) Outlook
111.1. Actions required in order to change public image TS+DM
111.2. Obstacles to reach this goal BS+DM
111.3. Conclusion: How to deal with corruption; TS+DM

 

 

115

Table 38: Outline of Text 11E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 11E: Linguistic
This Splice Could Be Golden Mal-kc,-
1.) Introduction
1.1. Presentation of EDS and BT TS
1.2. Benefits/Advantages for EDS and BT BS+CoTi
1.3. The alleged negotiations TS
11. Background on industry BS +ChTe
11.1. Other players in Europe (BS+) CoPl
11.2. BT&EDS deal BS+DM
11.2.1. BT (BS +)1ni
11.2.2. EDS BS +CoTi
111. Possible problems resulting from merger BS
111.1. BT (BS+) Ini
111.2. EDS BS + Ini
111.3. Other problems BS+DM

 

 

1 l 6
Table 39: Outline of Text 11G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 11G: Linguistic
Langst zementiert Marks.-
(1.) Introduction
1.1. GM wants to sell EDS TS
1.2. EDS history BS + CoTi
1.3. BT interest in EDS BS +1ni
1.4. BT's competition: Mercury BS+ Ini
(11.) Telecomputing industry
11.1. Industry in general TS
11.2. Decline of national monopolies BS+CoTi
11.3. Pressures on BT BS +1ni
11.4. BT's motivation to acquire EDS BS+DM
11.5. Advantfiifor BT BS
11.6. AT&T's interest in EDS BS +DM
(111.) Consequences for Europeans
111.1. Deutsche Telekom BS + Ini
111.2. French Telecom BS + Ini
111.3. Debis (Daimler-Benz subsidiary) TS + Ini
111.4. Possible developments for Daimler-Benz BS+DM

 

 

117

Table 40: Outline of Text 12E

 

Text 12E:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Linguistic
Northern Disorder Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Canada - united in sportsydivided as a nation TS +CoTi
1.2. Present Situation: consequences of no-vote TS+CoTi
1.3. Background information to referendum TS
1.4. Public reaction to referendum BS +DM
(11.) Impact of rejection/Casualties
11.1. Consequences for Mulroney BS+Ini
11.1.1. Consequences for Progressive Conservative BS +1ni
Part1
11.2. Impact on Nafta-vote BS
11.2.1. Difficulties with Nafta-vote BS +1ni
(11.3.) Impact on Canadian economy
11.3.1. Economy/unemployment TS
11.3.2. Financial stability BS+DM
11.3.3. Overall BS
(111.) Political effort
111.1. Opposition party TS+CoTi
111.2. Commentary/Conclusion TS

 

 

118

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

currency

 

Table 41: Outline of Text 12G

Text 12G: Linguistic
Weiterer Zerfall Marker

I. Introduction T8

11. Canadian economy BS
11.1. Timber and paper industry (BS +) Ini
11.2. Mining industry BS + Ini
11.3. Aircraft industry BS + Ini
11.4. Real estate BS+DM
11.5. Bottom line: Moody's and S&P BS +1ni

III. Options: How to prevent further economic decline TS +1ni
111.1. New economic program (BS 4») DM
111.2. Miracles are necessary; prognoses of Royal Bank BS+DM

of Canada

111.3. Quebecian separatists also affected by economy BS+DM
111.4. Quebecians would not introduce their own BS +1ni

 

 

l 19
Table 42: Outline of Text 13E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 13E: Linguistic
Pushing Plastic Is Still One Juicy Game Marks.-
fl.) Introduction
1.]. Increasing competition among credit card issuers TS
1.2. Attraction for issuers - profits BS+DM
1.3. Critics against high rates BS +1ni
1.4. Reaction by issuers: lower rates TS
1.4.1. Survey low-rate programs BS
1.5. Reactions by government officials BS +1ni
(11.) Issuers Perspective
11.1. Arguments for higher rates TS+CoTi
11.2. Justification: bad loans BS+CoTi
11.3. Profit outlook TS
11.4. Prospects of new players; example AT&T TS +1ni
11.5. Variable-rate programs BS
11.6. Example Citi-Corp TS
11.6.1. Floating-rate program (TS +) Ini
11.6.2. Commentary: What it really means BS
11.6.3. Citi-Corp on profit BS
(111.) Future of credit card business
111.1. Price cutting will continue; Discover card TS
111.2. Influence of Cogess TS +1ni

 

111.3. Conclusion/Outlook

 

 

BS + CoTi

 

 

120
Table 43: Outline of Text 13G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 13G: Linguistic
Nur eine Nische Mark"
I. Introduction: Overview of text TS
1.1. Spread of credit cards and problems BS+ DM
1.2. Credit card chapges and debts TS +1ni
1.3. Impact on bank business BS +1ni
(11.) Increased competition in credit card market
11.1. Attraction of credit card business and risks TS
11.2. Congress on interest rates BS
11.3. Competition increasing: AT&T TS
11.4. Marketing strategies BS
11.5. Reactions by banks BS +1ni
11.6. Commentary by banking analysts BS +1ni
11.7. Option: Banks sell credit card business BS +1ni
11.8. Other options for use of credit card BS +1ni
11.9. Example Wells Fargo; overdraft protection BS+DM

 

11.10 Conclusion and outlook

 

 

BS+DM

 

 

121

Table 44: Outline of Text 14E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 14E: Linguistic
Even Lufthansa Is Carrying Too Much Baggage Marker
I. Introduction TS
1.1. Lufthansa's losses BS+DM
1.2. Lufthansa's internal and external problems BS
(11.) Strategies
11.1. Partnerships with other airlines TS
11.2. Weber's program to cut costs BS +1ni
11.3. Problems with staff reduction BS
11.3.1. OTV's position (BS +)1ni
11.3.2. DAG's position (BS +) Ini
11.4. Other union influences BS+DM
11.5. Consquences if plan fails/Conclusion BS+Ini

 

 

122
Table 45: Outline of Text 14G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 14G: Linguistic
Trumpf verspielt Marker
1. Introduction: Sparprogramm und Tarifvertrag TS
(11.) Explanations
11.1. Details regarding Tarifvertrag BS
11.2. Financial aspects of Tarifvertrag BS
11.3. Financial outlook for coming year BS+CoTi
11.4. Lufthansa Express as GmbH BS+DM
11.4.1. Commentary to decision BS
11.4.2. How did decision come about BS
11.5. Impact of AG-Decision BS

 

111. Conclusion and Outlook

 

 

TS

 

 

123

Table 46: Outline of Text 15E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 15E: Linguistic
Sweating Out The HDTV-Contest Mark"
(1.) Introduction
1.1. Description of testing; Zenith and AT&T TS +CoTi
1.2. Background info on contest and major players BS
1.3. Information on technical advances andjuidelines TS +1ni
(11.) Technical advances and the competition
11.1. Breakthrough G1 TS + Ini
11.2. Description of contest; digital system BS+CoTi
11.3. Reaction to selection of digital system; BS
contest set-up
11.4. Rules of contest TS
11.5. Contest BS + CoTi
11.5.1. G1 (BS+)1ni
11.5.2. Zenith and AT&T (BS+)1ni
11.5.3. Europeans BS +1ni
11.5.4. MIT BS+ CoTi
11.6. End of contest BS +CoTi
(111.) Competition and standards
111.1. Advantages of new system BS
111.2. Outlook BS + Ini

 

 

124
Table 47: Outline of Text 15G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Text 15G: Linguistic
Die digitale Wende Marker
(1.) Introduction
1.1. HDTV in Europe: Present situation TS
1.2. Philips and EC BS + Ini
1.3. Problems with British BS+DM
(11.) HDTV - international competition
11.1. HDTV in the US BS +1ni
11.2. HDTV in Europe BS+ DM
11.3. Contest; major players BS+DM
11.4. Results of contest BS+DM
11.5. Experiments in Wuppertal BS +1ni
(111.) Outlook
111.1. Influence of US-technology BS +1ni
111.2. Lost opportunities in Europe BS+CoTi

 

 

111.3. Impact on German consumer

 

(BS +) Ini

 

 

APPENDIX B

TREE-DIAGRAMS OF ALL ENGLISH AND GERMAN TEXTS

Appendix B: Tree-Diagrams of all English and German Texts

Figure 4: Representation of Text 1E as Tree-Diagram

 

I.

1.1. 1.2.

II 1 112 111.1. 111.2. 1V.1. IV.2.

II..31.11..32. II...33 11.3..4

 

 

 

Figure 5: Representation of Text 1G as Tree-Diagram

 

(1.)

1.1.

11.1. 11,2,
11.1.1. 11.2.1. 11.2.2. 11.2.3.

11.2.4.

 

 

 

125

126

Figure 6: Representation of Text 2E as Tree-Diagram

 

1.1.) 1.2. 13
1.1.1. 1.1.2. 1.1.3. 11.
| /\
(111.) II.|1. 11.3.
HIT X
111.2. [1.2.1. 1122,
111.3. 11.2.3.
11.4.
\
11.4.1. 11.4.2.

 

 

 

Figure 7: Representation of Text 2G as Tree-Diagram

 

/I”\

1.1. 1.2. (1.3.)

11. 1.3.1. 1.3.2..
11.1.

11.2.

11.3.

II.3|.1.
11.4.

11.5.

 

 

 

127

Figure 8: Representation of Text 3E as Tree-Diagram

 

/\

u. (N)

11.1. 11.2. 11.4. IV-l- IV.2.

 

 

 

Figure 9: Representation of Text 3G as Tree-Diagram

 

111.1. 111.2. 111.3.

(N)
1v.1.

IV.2.

 

 

 

128

Figure 10: Representation of Text 4E as Tree-Diagram

 

 

11.1.

/"’\

1.1. 1.2.

A

I.

11.2.

11.3.

(111.) V-
111.1.III.2. 1v.1. IV.2. IV.3. IV.4. 1v.5.
v1. (V2)

V21. V22.

 

Figure 11: Representation of Text 4G as Tree-Diagram

 

 

11.1.

11.2. 11.3. 11.4. 115.

1.
I

11.

111.1. 111.2.
111.2.1. IH.2.2. 111.2.3.
111.3.

11.3.1.

 

 

 

129

Figure 12: Representation of Text 5E as Tree-Diagram

 

 

 

 

 

II.
/II\
11.1. 11.2.
1H.
/\
116.2.
(lg
/
IV.1. IV.2.
V.
Figure 13: Representation of Text 5G as Tree-Diagram
1.1. 1.2. 1.|3.
I.3|. 1.
II.
|
11.1.
Ills.
III.
|
111.1.
111.2. III.\3.
IV.
I
IV|.1.
IV.2.
IV.3.

 

 

 

130

Figure 14: Representation of Text 6E as Tree-Diagram

 

(1.)
|
1.1.
|
1'2.
(11.)
\
)1.\
11.3. 11|.4. 111i 1 .
11.5. 111.2.
111.3.

 

 

 

Figure 15: Representation of Text 6G as Tree-Diagram

 

(1.)
|

1.1.

I
1.2.

I
1.3.

I
11.

/

11.1. 11.5. 117.
[1:2 III6. 11.7.1. 11.7I.2.
11.3. 11.7.3.
11'4. 11's.
112:1.1.

11.4.2.
11.4.3.

 

 

 

131

Figure 16: Representation of Text 7E as Tree-Diagram

 

11.1. 11.2. 111.1. 111.2.

IH.3.

 

 

 

Figure 17: Representation of Text 7G as Tree-Diagram

 

I.

(11.)

11.1.
11.2.
ll,
(111.)
III]. 1.
111.2.

(111.3.)

111.3.1. [11.3.2.

 

 

 

132

Figure 18: Representation of Text 8E as Tree-Diagram

 

 

 

 

 

(L)
I
III.
(1.2.)
1.2.1. 1.2l.2.
all.)
X
11.2. )3\
11.3.1. 11.3.2.
v
11.4.
11.4.1. 11.4.2. 11.4.3.
V.
(111.)
Ifill
111.2.
Figure 19: (1)
Representation of Text 8G I.
as Tree-Diagram Ill.
1.2.
|
I.|3.
(1'1)
II.|1.
11i2.
(I?)
111.1.
111.2.
IIII.3.
IV.

 

 

 

133

Figure 20: Representation of Text 9E as Tree-Diagram

 

 

 

 

 

(1.)
III
I .
1.2.
l
/"1'\
{If 11.|4.
11.3. IIIS.
11.6.
Figure 21: 1
Representation of Text 9G (l.)
as Tree-Diagram I l.
A
1.2. 1.3.
v
I 4.

 

 

 

134

Figure 22: Representation of Text 10E as Tree-Diagram

 

 

 

 

 

(1.)
l
1.1.
/\
1.2. 1.3.
V
1.4..
I
(III)
11.1.
112 11|.3
(III.4.)
11.4.1.
11.4.2.
v
2L
III|.1. I .3.
(III|.2.) 111.4.
1112.1. (1')
111.2.2. A
1.2. 1.3.
11
Figure 23: ( I.)
Representation of Text 10G 11.1.
as Tree-Diagram 112
A
11.2.1. II|.3.
11.4.
11.5. 11.6.
11.6.1. (IIII.)
11'1.l.
IIIJ.
111.3.

 

 

 

135

Figure 24: Representation of Text 11E as Tree-Diagram

 

at
1.1.
|

1.2.
1.3.
l

0

11.1. x

11.2.1. 11.2.2.
V
2K
111.1. 111.2. 111.3.

 

 

 

Figure 25: Representation of Text 11G as Tree-Diagram

 

 

 

 

136

Figure 26: Representation of Text 12E as Tree-Diagram

 

11.1.

11.1.1.
(111.)
1H. 1.
11i.2.

 

(f)
1.1.
|
1.2.
|
1'3.
1 4.
l
(11.)
11.2. (11‘s)
11.2.1. 11.3.1.
11.|3.2.
11.3.3.

 

Figure 27: Representation of Text 12G as Tree-Diagram

 

11.1.

HP.
111.2.

 

11.2.

11.3. 11.4.

11.5.

III|.3.
111.4.

 

 

 

137

 

 

Figure 28: Representation of Text 13E as Tree-Diagram

 

 

 

 

(II)
1.1.
I
1|.2.
1|.3.
1 4.
/\
1.4.1. 1'5.
(III)
11.1.
A
11.2. 11.3.
v
96
11.5. II.|6.
11.6.1.
11.6.2.
11.6.3.
(111.)
111.1. 111.2. IH.3. I.
l
. 1.1
Figure 29: |
Representation of Text 13G 1.2.
as Tree-Diagram I
I.|3.
(If)
11.1.
11.4. 11l.5.
)‘6\
11.7. II|.8.
II|.9.
1110.

 

 

138

Figure 30: Representation of Text 14E as Tree-Diagram

 

11.1. 11.2.

 

 

 

Figure 31: Representation of Text 14G as Tree-Diagram

 

(J

I
l
11
I
III 1.
IIIZ.
Hi3
11 4.
A
11.4.1. 11|.5.
11.4.2. 1H.

 

 

 

 

139

Figure 32: Representation of Text 15E as Tree-Diagram
(1.)

 

2%
III] 11.2.

113.

1 1

I
1.2.

I
1.3

I

11.4.
11.5.

11.5.1, 11.5.2. 11.53.11.454,

 

III.6.
(HIL)

III|.1.
111.2.

 

 

 

Figure 33: Representation of Text 15G as Tree-Diagram

 

 

 

1.1. ( .)
I )\
112. 11.1. 11.2.
V
1.3. 11|.3.
11.4.
/\
11.5. (HIL)
111.1.
111.2.
I [.3.

 

 

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