IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII. y mm Ililllllililllllllllllllllllllllllllll 3 1293 01021 8968 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled _'I;o_ Munde _U_s_ Sylfum: A Semantic Study of the Old English Legal Terms For Protection presented by Philip Randall McKinney has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for __BhT1L__ degree in ——Eag—l—ish— Major professor Date 29 April 1994 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 012771 LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE ll RETURN BOXto manthh chockoutfrom your record. TO AVOID FINES Mum on or Mmddoduo. = DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE $3 M_____ i i— ——n TILE—E —l:ll———l MSU loAnNfinnm ActioNEqud Oppomnllylmtmnlon T0 MUNDE US SYLFUM: A SEMANTIC STUDY OF THE OLD ENGLISH LEGAL TERMS FOR PROTECTION By Philip Randall McKinney A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of English 1994 ABSTRACT T0 MUNDE US SYLFUM: A SEMANTIC STUDY OF THE OLD ENGLISH LEGAL TERMS FOR PROTECTION By Philip Randall McKinney Legal words in Old English sometimes have different meanings from what might be expected when used in contexts other than the laws. Only a study based on all occurrences of a word or words can give as complete an understanding of each occurrence as possible. Specifically, we might ask how the words for the concept ‘legal protection’ (mund, frib, grid, borg) are used in extra-legal texts and what their meaning and significance there are. We can discover answers to these questions by reviewing all occurrences of these words, their compounds, and derivatives, and we can look for patterns in the words’ use and interpret them. This study selected a group of words small enough to be examined in detail throughout the corpus of Old English, and it analyzed them for etymology, use as Latin glosses, and survival into Middle English; it then described their usage in Old English contexts with regard to syntactic function, relative frequency of various senses, and frequency of use in various kinds of texts. The research revealed that use of the four word-groups in Old English is genre sensitive: their senses are not used at random in different kinds of writing. Also, writers of Old English carefully distinguish among these four words themselves, and between them and what appear to be synonyms. Both of these findings have important implications for interpreting particular homiletic and literary texts. Copyright by Philip R. McKinney 1994 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this project depended on the support and encouragement of many friends and colleagues. I wish to thank the Department of English for its continued willingness to create an environment where the ideas of its members and the potential of its students can grow to fruition, and I thank them for allowing me to proceed at my own pace in my graduate studies. In addition, I wish to thank the members of my guidance committee for many things, but especially: John Alford for helping me get started in the careful activity of research in the first place; Philip McGuire for his support over the years; William Whallon for the inspiration of a true philologist and for his encouragement to pursue my best work; and Tess Tavormina, my director, for her careful patience and encouragement in our many conversations and editing sessions, and for the example of her high academic standards, all of which helped to bring this project to its present form. I also wish to thank certain members of my family, and my fiancee Lori Bartel] and her family, for their patience and encouragement as I pursue my dreams. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables Abbreviations Chapter One: Introduction Part 1: A Brief Historical Survey of Mund, Kingship and the Church in Anglo-Saxon England Part 2: Purpose and Method Background of Semantic-field Studies Choosing Terms and Collecting Data Organizing Data Describing and Analyzing Data-Overview Describing and Analyzing Data-Particulars Chapter Two: The Mund- words Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts Section 2: Description of the Field Section 3: Location of items in type of text-Law, Charter, Gloss, Glossary, Other viii 1-26 13 14 18 20 22 23 27- 54 28 33 4O TABLE OF CONTENTS, continued Chapter Three: The F rib- words 55 - 81 Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts 57 Section 2: Description of the Field 61 Section 3: Location of items in type of text—Law, Charter, History, Gloss, Glossary, Other 72 Chapter Four: The Grid-words 82 - 105 Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts 82 Section 2: Description of the Field 86 Section 3: Location of items in type of text—Law, Charter, Chronicle, Gloss, Other 92 Chapter Five: The Borg-words 106 - 125 Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts 107 Section 2: Description of the Field 113 Section 3: Location of items in type of text-Law, Charter, Gloss, Glossary, Other 117 Chapter Six: The Conceptual Field—Words for ‘Legal Protection’ in Old English 126 - 145 Section 1: Summary of Chapters Two through Five 126 Section 2: Combined Field, the Conceptual Field for Mund 133 Section 3: Other category in the combined field 137 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS, continued Chapter Seven: Literary Applications for Future Research 146 - 180 Part I: Wulfstan and [Elfric 147 Ailfric’s Use of Two Synonyms for the Concept ‘Protection’ 150 Part 11: Old English Poetry 157 Legal Diction in the Old English m 159 The Lorica of Love: God’s Protection in the ,loumey _C_h_a_rr_;1_, 53413214, and Guthlac A 164 Maud-words and Their Synonyms in BM: 169 Appendix A: Dates for the Anglo-Saxon Laws 181 - 182 Appendix M: The Mund- words 183 - 197 Appendix F: The Frib- words 198 - 223 Appendix G: The Grid-words 224 - 233 Appendix B: The Borg- words 234 - 244 Appendix S2: Locations of Words in the Titles of the Other Category 245 - 251 Bibliography of Works Consulted 252 - 268 Short Titles for Old English Texts Cited 269 - 280 vii LIST OF TABLES Table M1: Latin mund-word equivalents in Glosses Table M23: Senses of the mund-field Table M2b: Senses of the mund-field, detail with Latin Table M2c: Senses of the mund—field created with noun-verb collocations Table M3: Location of mund-words by type of text Table M3a: Proportion of mund-words in Other category by type of text Table M3b: Location of mund—words in Poetic Texts Table M3c: Location of mund—words in Religious Prose Table F1: Latin frib-word equivalents in Glosses and Glossary Table F2a: Senses of the frib-field Table F2b: Location of frib- words in the field (headword and compounds) Table F2c: Senses of the frib-field created with noun-verb collocations Table F3: Location offrib-words by type of text Table F33: Latin words translated or paraphrased in Prose Psalter Table 61: Latin grid-word equivalents in Glosses viii 32 34 36 38 42 47 51 52 62 64 66-67 68 74-75 78 86 LIST OF TABLES, continued Table G23: Senses of the grib-field 88 Table G2b: Senses of the grib-field created with noun-verb collocations 91 Table G3a: Location of grib-words by type of text 93 Table G3b: Location of grid-words in Wulfstan and non-Wulfstan Texts 95 Table B1: Latin borg-word equivalents in Glosses 111-112 Table B23: Senses of the borg—field 114 Table B2b: Senses of the borg-field created with noun-verb collocations 116 Table B3: Location of borg-words by type of text 118 Table 6.13: Location of mund- frib- grib- and borg-words in Latin/Old English Glossaries 128 Table 6.1b: Location Of mund— frib- grib- and borg-words in Interlinear Glosses of Latin Texts 129 Table 6.23: Locations of texts in the 4 word-fields of the Combined Field 134 Table 6.2b: Locations and proportions of the 2 senses in the Combined Field 135 Table 6.33: Location of items in Poetic Subgroup of Other category 139 Table 6.3b: Location of items in Religious Prose Subgroup of Other category 141 Table 6.3c: Location of items in Bible Translation Subgroup of Other category 142 Table 6.3d: Location of items in Miscellaneous Subgroup of Other category 143 Table 7.1: Locations of Scyld- and Mund- words in Ailfric 150 ix A-S ASPR CH EHD GdA OED ABBREVIATIONS American Heritage Dictionag of the English Language. 1973 ed. Campbell, James, gen. ed. The Anglo-Saxons. Oxford: Phaidon, 1982. ASPR (Anglo-Saxon Poetic Record, vol. 1-6), see Dobbie, Elliot Van K.; Krapp, George P.; and Krapp, G. P. and E. V. K. Dobbie. Clark Hall, John R. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 1894. 4th ed. with 3 Supplement. Herbert D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1970. Dictionary of Old English Project, Totonto Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. English Historical Documents Vol. 1: c. 500-1042. 2nd ed. London: Methuen, 1979. Liebermann, Felix. Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. Halle, 1903-16. Repr. Aalen: Scientia, 1960. Oxford English Dictionary. 1979 ed. CHAPTER ONE: Introduction When Archbishop Wulfstan writes in the laws of Cnut (M 40) about the king’s protection of clerics and strangers who have left their kindreds, he uses the legal term mundbora, ‘protector’: Gyf man gehadodne obbe celpeodigne purh (enig binge forrcede art feo obbe cet feore, ponne sceal him cingc beon for mceg & for mundboran, butan he elles oberne haebbe (“If an attempt is made to deprive in any wise a man in orders or a stranger of either his goods or his life, the king shall act as his kinsman and protector, unless he has some other”).1 In another example of this legal usage, when Alfred translates the Dialogues of Gregory, he employs the word mundbora for someone who is “an ecclesiastical official who acted as spokesman for the church when its rights were in question.”2 Neither of these uses is surprising. However, when one of the glossators of Aldhelm’s prose De laude virginitatis employs this legal term to gloss patronus (legal protector) in a passage where St. Victoria banishes a savage dragon with the aid of an angel (mundbora), we might wonder why the glossator uses a legal term.3 When lElfric employs the same legal term to refer to the poor (in Catholic Homilies 1.23), he uses it with some irony. Soblice we sceoldon- beodan [Jam [)eary‘hm [Met hi us biddab . for ban be hi bead ure mundboran . pa be nu wwdligende cet us bigleofan wilniab. (“Verily we 1A.J.Fiobertson,ed.andtrans., w i 1 l fr it t H l(1925; New York: AMS Press, 1974) 196-97. 2 John meennan. trans. Wm vol. 39 01W W (New York: Fathers of the Church lnc.,1959) 20. 3 Louis Goosens, l ' I t Li (Brussels: Paleis der Academim, 1974) 453, and M. Lapidge and M. Herren. WM (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1979) 120. 1 2 ought to enjoin the poor to pray for us, because they will be our protectors, who, now begging, desire sustenance of us”)4: these “poor” will be saints around the throne of God and would act as our patrons before God if we asked. The legal historian Jolliffe5 notices the use of mundbora in the passage in Beowulf where the hero requests that Hrothgar wes [m mundbora minum magapegnum, hondgesellum, gif mec hild nime (“be guardian of my young retainers, my companions, if battle should take me,”6 lines 1480-81), but Jolliffe does not mention that the same term is used of the dragon who ends Beowulf's life: the dragon is mwbma mundbora, the guardian of the treasure. Here the legal term for protector is used ironically, and when we are aware that the same word is employed to indicate a ravaging monster and a good king, we begin to notice the Beowulf-poet’s theme of tension between appropriate and inappropriate kinds of companionship and leadership. I am unaware of any study prior to this one that has noticed the presence in Beowulf of over a hundred uses of the various synonyms for protection that would strongly emphasize such a theme. When we notice the various words for protection, and the tension created by indicating contrasting kinds of “protection” with the same words, we begin to understand the epic in a new way and we also gain insight into how the Anglo-Saxons used these words and concepts. As a number of recent critics have noted, there is a serious need in Old English literary and linguistic scholarship for detailed word studies, preferably based on all occurrences of particular words so that a more complete understanding of their use can be gained. Eric Stanley explains: Anyone now embarking on the study of any aspect of the Old English vocabulary must be aware of what is required. The whole corpus of Old English writings has to be gone through, for though Grein-Kohler and BT are fairly comprehensive for verse, the lexicography of prose is insufficient for 4 B. Thorpe. ed., Ing figmilifi 91 the An nlg 9- Saxon Qhurm, 2 vols. (London, 1844-46) 1 .-35334 5 J E A Jolliffe Wm 4thed (London: A&CB|ack. 1961) 16. 5 F. Klaeber, W 3rd ed. (Lexington. Mass: D. C. Heath. 1950) 56. and E. Talbot Donaldson, W (New York: Norton, 1966) 26. 3 detailed suveys. Some recent work, for example that by Hans Schabram on words meaning ‘pride’, has set before us the methodology, and the same author’s contribution to F estschrift fur Edgar Mertner, 1968, 89-102, warns and rebukes those who undertake less than the complete reading of the surviving texts, and, by implication, those who attempt a survey of a larger part of the vocabulary than allows them to read the whole corpus through for each lexical item considered; and that is what I am attempting here.7 Even in the few examples given above, we see that there is a range of meaning for the legal term mundbora. It has 3 strictly legal meaning in some contexts, but it is used by a homilist with a degree of irony and it is used with still more freedom in epic poetry. As with terms for other important Anglo-Saxon concepts, mundbora and the other legal terms for ‘mund’ need to be placed in their fullest semantic context.8 The general concept of ‘mund,’ of which mundbora is a part, has been commented on by historians of law and of early Germanic politics and culture, but they have not had much to say about its use in texts other than law codes and chronicles. However, with the aid of the Old English Concordance compiled by the Dictionary of Old English Project in Toronto, it is now possible to review all the occurrences of words indicating a given concept—such as legal protection—in every text in which those words occur. We can analyze this data for patterns of semantic and syntactic usage, for the frequency of these patterns, and for the words’ appearances in various kinds of texts; more important, we can then seek to interpret those patterns. 7 E. G. Stanley. “Studies in the Prosaic Vocabulary of Old English Verse.” MW MMflugggn 72 (1971): 385. 3 Examples of such studies in both Old and Middle English: Hans Schabram, W anggglisghgn Wgrtsghgtz. Tgil ll Dig giglgktglg gng zgitiighg Vgrflgitgng gs Wgrtgujs (Mi‘Inchen: W. FInk, 1965); Wolfgang Ki‘Ihlwein, Mgdgll gingr gmrgtigngllgn ngikgiggisghgn Anglfie: Altgnglism him; in Anglistische Forschungen 95 (Heidelberg: Winter, 1968); Andreas Fischer, Engagemgnt, Wedding gng Mgrriggg in ng English (Heidelberg: Winter, 1986); Ingegerd Lohmander, M ' I En Ii h W r l r 'Di r ' n ‘Di h n r ‘ in Gothenburg Studies in English 49 (Stockholm: Almqvist & WIksell, 1981); GOran Kiellmer, Migglg English mm for 'ngplg," In Gothenburg Studies in English 27 (Stockholm: Almqvist 81 WIkseli, 1973); Hendrik Aertsen,P lay in Mi Igglg English: A W (Amsterdam: Free University Press), 1987. 4 Such analysis and interpretation is the main goal of this study, which reveals how the legal terms for ‘mund’ (the mund- frib- grib- and berg-words) are used in all their occurrences; it then pays particular attention to non-legal uses of these terms, in contexts where writers may have exploited the words’ legal connotations didactically or artistically. The dissertation discovers that these four words and their senses are not fully interchangeable: the senses and subsenses of the four word-fields do not occur proportionately in various kinds of texts but instead are sensitive to the mode of discourse. F rid, for example, is more likely to mean ‘peace’ and not ‘protection’ in chronicle writing, but it is more likely to mean ‘protection’ instead of ‘peace’ in poetry. Also, the dissertation shows that Old English writers carefully distinguish between the words in this study and other words that appear to be synonyms. These and other results produced in this dissertation may not always be surprising (though they are occasionally so), but they have now been demonstrated in a study based, not on intuition or on a few examples or on examples from one genre only, but on a thorough examination of all occurrences of the four principal word-groups for this legal concept in Old English. When we see that this method gives us a more complete understanding of one set of words, helps us see their meanings more clearly in a particular text, and helps us see the connections with other texts, we are encouraged to pursue the method employed here with other word groups and other texts, and may expect meaningful results there as well. To introduce this study in a little more detail, the first part of Chapter One briefly explains the concept of ‘mund’ and places it in its historical context, especially as it relates to the development of Anglo-Saxon kingship; the second part explains the purpose, method, and organization of the dissertation. 5 Part 1: A Brief Historian Survey of Maud, Kingship, and the Church in Anglo-Saxon England Generally speaking, the Old English legal concept ‘mund’ refers to the protection conferred by someone in power or by a “power-full” place on a person claiming or deserving that protection. It can refer to the condition, the protector, or the fine for violating the condition. The power to grant protection creates conditions of peace, a closely related concept; the legal protection of Anglo-Saxon times develops into the King’s Peace, still an important part of the English legal system. As I will suggest later in this chapter, four word groups in Old English (indicated by the headwords mund, frid, grid, borg) denote this legal protection. This concept was an important feature of the Anglo-Saxon legal system before kingship was a particularly well-developed issue; as time went on, however, it became closely associated with the growing powers of the king. The protection and peace that this concept denotes were important elements of the Christian vision of society, and therefore the Church promoted them as part of the developing institution of kingship. What follows is an overview of the concept of ‘mund’ set in a brief survey of the parallel development of the institutions of kingship and the Church in Anglo-Saxon England.9 ‘Mund’ was a basic element of tribal Germanic legal practices from ancient times. As Jolliffe describes the early background of the Anglo-Saxon legal system, this society called itself the “folk” and gave its members the basic necessities of life—enough land to be able to live like others of similar rank and a legal status like that of one’s ancestors (5). All free-bom people have “the personal peace or mund which is the common mark of Germanic freedom" (11). This peace on the land and the homestead was part of every free person’s legal inheritance, both a right and an obligation. In this earlier phase of Anglo-Saxon history, “there is no general peace of the community, but only the thousands of islands of peace which surround the roof-tree of every householder” (8). In the early period of Anglo-Saxon history, 9 In composing this section I have relied chiefly on the outline of Anglo-Saxon history presented in James Campbell, ed., M (Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1982), hereafter A-§. 6 writes J olliffe, the common man’s mund was so basic that if the king came into a commoner’s house, he was protected by that man’s mund and not his own.10 The basic unit of this society was the kindred and not the individual. “A man’s whole citizenship depends upon his being backed by an adequate kindred. The law will not deal with individuals . . . or accord them any sort of protection, unless they are vouched for by guarantors” (3), or borhs (sureties), who originally would have been members of their kindred. The protection and peace in Jolliffe’s description provide the basis, the ground, upon which this culture is built, and in which it can survive and grow. At the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period in England, kingship was not a particularly well developed concept. Kings and sub-kings ruled at least fourteen identifiable kingdoms,11 and at times a bretwalda (‘wide ruler’) held sway over several of them. This was not systematic wide-ranging government, but rather an array of local centers of power each of which sought to increase its holdings and area of influence at the expense of its neighbors. A king (acting as the mundbora mentioned above in reference to Beowulf and Hrothgar) needed the land, slaves, and wealth that local conquests brought in to engage the services of and then reward the warriors who enabled him to exercise power. Succession to the local thrones was highly competitive, murder and exile were common, and law and order were regulated by blood feud and a system of compensation for personal injury based on the relative status of individuals. Kingship was a relatively unstable affair. Partly under the influence of the Irish Church, England was largely converted to Christianity between the advent of the Augustinian mission in 597 and the arrival of Theodore in the 6605. As the Church grafted itself onto existing institutions, it also brought great changes. Literate Christians collected what amounted to lessons in proper living in such forms as saints’ lives and Bede’s history; they also wrote penitentials for their own use and laws and charters for ‘0 Jolliffe 46. The basis for Jolliffe's claim is unclear to me; he asserts the point and then refers to M: “II the king is feasting at anyone's house, and any sort of offence is committed there, twofold compensation shall be paid” (Attenborough's translation). 1‘ David Hill, W (Toronto: U of Toronto P. 1981) 28-29. 7 illiterate kings. According to Jolliffe, because the main body of law was mostly customary and unwritten, what was codified dealt “with what [was] new or exceptional. Consequently, the earlier Kentish codes were largely concerned with the incorporation of the foreign Christian clergy into the folk by means of analogy and legal fiction, extending the king’s mundbyrd [power of protection] to cover the peace of the Church, and that of the folkmoot to protect the places of worship” (13). The basic principles of law were extended to take in the new institution. Jolliffe notes, for instance, that the monastic system “drew its law from that of the kindred, borrowing the various peaces, bots, and protections which surrounded the freemen’s hearth and bound together his kin” (22). The Church’s organization of the countryside followed the existing shape of the minor kingdoms, the holdings of ealdormen, and the administration of freemen associated with royal vills; to this was added the order associated with the creation Of dioceses and monasteries (A_-S 61). The Church was from the start a potentially powerful force: for example, in these times of limited kingship and numerous small kingdoms, the archbishop of Canterbury could exercise power in wider areas than any one king, aside from some of the bretwaldas (AS 68). In this early period, even though kings and churchmen might at times perceive each other as threats, they discovered that much could be gained if they supported each other. The Church needed the security that royal power could provide, and the law codes issued by kings integrated the churchmen’s hierarchy of rank into the existing structure of fines and compensations of Anglo-Saxon customary law. Conversion and baptism could be sanctioned by kings. On the other hand, literate churchmen could produce impressive written law codes for kings that enhanced their royal status (even though the codes were not strictly for legal proceedings)12; in a culture that still operated primarily in the oral mode, churchmen could also draw up charters for kings that gave owners of land permanent rights and that could counter fraudulent claims later. In the same way that the Church was being integrated into the pre-existing ‘2 This assertion is a recurring theme in Afi: “early medieval kings regarded written law as a status symbol . . . Alfred's law code reeks of status" (173; see also 98, 157). 8 legal system, a new kind of relationship between a man and his secular superior was gradually developing and eventually needed to be codified in law as well (for a late instance of this kind of law, see the example in m at the beginning of this chapter). Young men sometimes left their kindred to serve nobles or kings, and the bond that resulted was expressed in terms similar to those used of kindred relationships. A person who had cut himself off from his kindred regained his appropriate legal status when he attached himself to 3 lord, who served the client as his kindred would have: “with his lord as mundbora he may sue or be sued in the courts and offer oath and ordeal” (Jolliffe 15). The lord now had the power and responsibility of ‘mund’ over the man and replaced his kin as surety. One more comment from Jolliffe on lordship: “the folk community finds itself faced with an alien relation, emotionally like but a rival to the blood-tie, and it treats it on that analogy, absorbing it without any deep change in its theory or practice. The structure of society is altering, but the community interprets those changes according to its ancient law” (23). The arrangements just described allowed for the movements of the small but powerful Anglo-Saxon warrior class, a group whose members provided the preponderance of force to whatever house they served. In a letter from Charlemagne to Offa of Mercia, we can see several ideas pertinent to this study expressed in a way that shows the interaction of secular and spiritual dimensions of royal protection: . . . recognizing you to be not only a most strong protector of your earthly country, but also a most devout defender of the holy faith . . . . Concerning pilgrims who desire to reach the thresholds of the blessed Apostles, they may go in peace . . . . You have also written about merchants, and we allow that they shall have protection in our kingdom . . . . We have sent [the priest Odberht] to Rome with the other exiles who in fear of death have taken refuge under our protection . . . . May Almighty God preserve the excellence of your dignity for the protection of his Holy Church. 13 ‘3 D. Whitelock, ed., WWW vol. 1, 2nd ed. (London: Methuen, 1979) 848-49. 9 This letter was written in 796, three years after the sack of Lindisfame by the Vikings. That Charlemagne is addressing Offa as an equal indicates that by this time royal power in England had increased to a level not evident before. This greater power was partly based on royal regulation of commerce. For example, England’s natural resources had been developed and were in demand on the continent, and the merchants who dealt in this trade and others had to be specially protected because they had no kindred in the places they travelled to, and thus had no place in the legal system. They probably paid dearly for the protection that guaranteed them a place in the king’s commerce (A_-S_ 106). In the century after Lindisfame, a person’s loyalty was still to his kindred and lord, not to a kingdom: “in the ninth century, 3 man’s first loyalty was not to his country (which was not in any case England, but Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, or Wessex), but to his family’s rights and traditions, and beyond that, to his lor ” (A_-S 134). A king could not necessarily count on the uniform loyalty of his subjects. The Viking threat of the mid-ninth century was directed at a wealthy country with a rich and powerful aristocracy, in which unruly patterns of royal succession were common. The West Saxon King Alfred’s response to the Viking invasions of the 8608 used ancient institutions and out of necessity produced arrangements which would be developed by his successors into the kingdom of England. He used the ancient administrative and legal institutions as he needed to in the crisis and in a way that would eventually lead to power concentrated around the throne, a shift that carried with it developments in the dynamics of mund, lordship and political dependency and support. Alfred’s military response included a new fleet, an army the halves of which alternated between service at home and in the field, and a system of burhs which would become administrative and commercial centers as well as defensive fortifications. Alfred’s law codes include references to the earlier “laws of Offa” and are written up with those of the West Saxon king Ine, all of which served to enhance Alfred’s status. They include anangements with Guthrum in the Danelaw whereby 10 the wergelds of Danes and Anglo-Saxons were regularized (thereby helping to coopt the Danes into the Anglo-Saxon system), arrangements that frequently refer to relationships of peace, protection, and surety stated in terms of mund and its legal cognates. In the first half of the tenth century, Alfred’s successors (his son Edmund and three grandsons) extended West Saxon power over England south of the Humber; even in Northumbria, they had power to appoint the archbishop of York (sometimes held with Worcester) and the earl (or earls) of Northumbria, the office parallel with the southern and midland ealdorman. The ancient Anglo-Saxon institutions, in which even royal power was dispersed, were under pressure to change, as Athelstan worked to consolidate the changes begun under Alfred and Edmund: the powers which had been dispersed were becoming more centralized. Previously, as we have seen, legal protection and obligation resided in one’s kindred; and this was later “reinforced by the institutions of lordship and vassalage . . . : society was held together by the bonds and privileges of lordship” (A—S 168). While a tribal society based solely in kindred relationships was primarily organized around those close personal relationships, the society in which lordship operated could incorporate more complex arrangements where control was more wide-ranging. Jolliffe explains the shift of power in the age of Alfred’s successors this way. In that era, a new principle is at work: while during its first four centuries English history is mainly determined from below, . . . in the century and a half between Alfred and the Norman Conquest this is reversed. . . . In this period are created a territorial community, the unified realm, a crown pre-eminent as the most important section of the law, a national peace, and the administrative frame of shires and hundreds as we know them in the Middle Ages. The radical change which took place in the community is in the main 3 reorientation imposed from above. (100) ASthelstan’s policies (consolidating changes begun under Alfred and Edmund) caused the old arrangements to change and develop at every level, always c 11 toward more control from the top (A—S 181). The king met with his most powerful allies and important churchmen several times a year in various locations to work out particular local problems, thus carrying the power of the crown into areas where local control had been dominant. The king upgraded the status and power of ealdormen and earls. The system of shires, with the hundred courts and burghal courts, and the organization of local men into tithings, dates from this period. The written laws of [Ethelstan were a status symbol, like those of all Anglo-Saxon kings, but they were also used to try to enforce change: along with a new image of the English as a people of God, the laws try to change the old system of blood feud and wergeld values. The burhs begun for military defense were developed as administrative, commercial, and judicial centers, increasingly under royal control. Laws authorized formation of posses in the local districts to pursue cattle thieves and even escaped slaves. The kings were consolidating power for the crown as they modified the old Anglo-Saxon institutions. At the same time that the royal power was tending toward more centralization, the Church experienced a great reform in the tenth century. Prior to this, the kindred system and local lords had a great deal of control in operation of church lands, since secular monasteries were widespread, and even those lands under ecclesiastical control had to be administered with an eye on local politics. The reformers wanted church properties to be under the control of people who would be loyal to the Church (and especially to the churchmen in the reforming movement) and not to local families. With the backing of the crown, those who would not reform were forced from their monastic holdings. The movement toward reform replaced the old local power with local churchmen who would be loyal to the king, since they were dependent on him to enforce the reforms that they were undertaking. “Reformed monasteries involved loss of status for tenants. This joins the movement of royal extension of power into neighborhoods and kindred groups” (fl 185) that has been mentioned above. The idea of reform was based on 3 new theology being developed on the continent, most notably by Hincmar of Rheims (Afi 181, 189) and Abbo of Fieury 12 M 202, 203); their theologically-grounded political theory included new ideas about the nature of kingship. Even though the monastic reformers had allied themselves with the king, they needed kings who would act in particular ways, so they associated the king’s functions with Christ’s: in the reformers’ view, the king was seen as being in charge of the secular realm as the representative of Christ who governs 311. Like ecclesiastical help in succession disputes, this ideal gave churchmen a tool to resist bad kings, and the developing institution of kingship also helped insulate reformers from local politics, both religious and secular. In the view of Christian kingship being described here, the king’s office was the focal point for the goal-oriented civilizing activity of the Church. In his microcosm, the king had been granted power by God to rule, and the most general expression of that power was protection of the Church and the king’s subjects. “Protection may very well appear the prime function of the . . . king,” Ullrnan writes. 14 Elsewhere, Ullman notes that “the king’s duty to care for his subjects . . . was always made a strong point in all doctrinal expositions on kingship, including the numerous Specula regum,”15 and he continues that “in this specific instance one notices a confluence of old Germanic and Pauline views” (24). We will see below that Archbishop Wulfstan of York contributed a great deal to this kind of thought, collected most thoroughly in his Institutes of Polity. The Germanic notion of ‘mund’ was combined with the old idea expressed in the Pauline epistles of the corporate nature of the Church (extended here to all of society, the entire people) as the body politic, with each member having its particular function and governed by the head (in this case, the king). The concept of ‘mund’ which was basic to pre-Christian Germanic society was absorbed in the reformers’ Christian notion of kingship as the special form of God’s protecting power granted to the king. Exercising the power to protect creates conditions of peace, frid in Old English: “The preservation of peace, through protection, was one of the most pronounced duties of the theocratic ruler. . . . the responsibility for 14 Walter Ulman, Prim'mgs gt Qgfimmmt gm Pglit'm in the My db Ages (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1 961 )126. 15 Walter Ullman. Wm (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 1966) 23-24. 13 peace within the kingdom was the king’s alone: by preserving peace, security was to be achieved” (Ullman, Principles of Government 127). In practice, ‘mund’ was an important element of Germanic society, as we have seen, but not necessarily as an element of kingship; in theory, ‘mund’ was a very important element of Christian theocratic kingship. As the office of kingship increased in importance in Anglo- Saxon society and as ‘mund’ was more and more closely associated with kingship, ‘mund’ also became more and more important as a legal concept and developed into the legal notion of the King’s Peace that survives the Anglo-Saxon period. The major change we have seen outlined here is the shift from a society in which both royal and ecclesiastical power is dispersed, to one in which both are becoming centralized; we have arrived at a new idea of who the king is and what the country is about, with the ‘mund’ that previously had been the operant expression of protection and peace dispersed among the kindred now issuing from the throne, where the king is mundbora of the realm. Part 2: Purpose and Method This part of Chapter One provides a brief outline of the kind of semantic analysis employed in this dissertation. It gives some historical background for the kind of method employed; it continues by describing and justifying the particular method and procedures I followed; and it concludes by explaining the form in which the detailed results of my semantic analysis are presented in Chapters Two through Six. Although the evolution of the legal concept mund can be described historically within the parallel development of the institutions of kingship and the church, it remains to understand the terms for this concept as words, as legal terms, and as words with legal connotations (with more than a single literal level of meaning) that appear in non-legal texts. To do this, I employ a method 14 of semantic study that begins by selecting a small group of words to be examined and continues by analyzing these words in terms of their etymology, their use as Latin glosses, and as possible survivors into Middle English; the study then moves on to the words’ usage in Old English texts, looking at their syntactic functions, the relative frequency of their various senses, and the relative frequency of their use in various kinds of texts by authors both known and unknown. This approach can be included with the kinds of semantic studies that have come to be known generally as semantic field studies (although that phrase could be more precisely applied to particular field studies first done by German linguists). By way of introduction to my own use and adaptation of this method in Chapters Two through Five, we can briefly survey the development of semantic studies that use the notion of “fields.” For the next section I am indebted to Victor Strife for synthesizing a great deal of theoretical information.l6 Background of Semantic-field Studies Because there is not a one-to-one relationship between the semantics, syntax, and grammatical elements of different languages, the understanding of texts must depend on more than the use of dictionaries aided by grammars. Semantic field studies collect all the terms for 3 particular concept and analyze them in various ways to see how the terms are alike or different and to see how they are used. These studies can often give an insight into meaning that goes beyond definitions found in dictionaries, and because a study like this is based on an analysis of every occurrence in the corpus of each word being considered rather than on the intuition of a translator (as accurate and insightful as that may be in many cases), the results can be quantified and compared with other similar studies. Also, because of its completeness, it can be regarded with a 13 Victor Strite, Wigs (New York: Peter Lang, 1989—see especially his outline of the background and development of semantic-field studies in his Part I (1 -2, 16-29). 15 kind of confidence that it is giving a fuller picture than one based primarily on studies of Old English poetry alone, for example, which might not have included historical, legal, or homiletic texts. The works of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century German scholars such as Hoops (1911-19), Holthausen (1934), and Trier (1931) were responsible for much of the early impetus that developed into semantic-field studies. Hoops’s and Holthausen’s works were primarily etymological; these and other early German semantic studies followed a rigid pattern: an introductory background discussion was followed by an analysis that identified each term available to the researcher and its variant forms (sometimes including compounds), meaning, location in texts, and etymology of those terms and variants. These were mainly historical studies, but Strite emphasizes that these authors did not examine words thoroughly in contexts. . . . [They] stopped at locating terms, providing variants, and giving etymologies. . . . They did not take the next step, which was 1) to examine each instance in every context for meaning, 2) to comparatively examine all instances of one term, and 3) to eventually examine all instances of all terms within a semantic field for nuances of meaning and overlap. (18) These comparative historical studies mainly look at other languages for ideas about meaning rather than examining a language itself to see how the words are actually used. After the German scholar Ipsen began to use the term Bedeutungsfeld (semantic field) “to describe a group of terms with a related meaning,”17 Jost Trier gave “the notion of semantic fields . . . its scholarly impetus” in the early 19305. Strite continues: “Trier saw language as an organism, with each part conceptually related. In this he followed the ideas of von Humboldt, de Saussure, and Weisgerber” (19). The idea of a mosaic is often used in describing fields. Ohman writes that Trier’s theory ‘7 Strite 18-19; here he paraphrases Suzanne Ohman. “Theories of the Linguistic l-‘reld.’ MEI! 9 (1953): 125. 16 distinguishes conceptual and lexical fields. The conceptual field exists independently of, or at least beside, the lexical field. The lexical field is formed by a word and its conceptual cognates and corresponds to the entirety of the conceptual field. The latter is divided into parts by the word mosaic (Wortdecke) of the lexical field. A word alone has no meaning but acquires one only through the opposition between it and neighboring words in the pattern. (Ohman 126-27)18 Trier’s was not the only vision of semantic fields. His paradigmatic theory groups similar substitutable linguistic elements: e.g., substitutable adjectives or nouns in a noun phrase. Trier’s theory is often contrasted with that of his contemporary Porzig, whose theory was syntagmatic: i.e., it groups different kinds of linguistic elements such as the article, adjective, and noun of a noun phrase. Trier’s field was actually conceived as interconnected with all of its language, but for the purpose of study, Trier considered his field a closed unit, isolated from the remainder of the lexicon; his field consisted only of substitutable nouns, for instance, or adjectives, avoiding even the simplest phrases of actual speech. On the other hand, Porzig insisted that a basic semantic unit would be a noun and 3 verb, or a noun and an adjective, and that “these relationships form the basic articulations of the meaning system” (Ohman 129). To Porzig, the closed units of Trier’s model had little to do with real language; the basic semantic units of Porzig (based more on actual language use) made his theory attractive to those employing the operational method discussed below. When interest in field theories of language increased in the 19503, applications of Trier’s theory were sometimes praised, but many times they were heavily criticized because they did not pay enough attention to context and were narrowly based on etymology. As field theories developed in the 19503 and 1960s, the nature of the linguistic context (especially syntax) gained increased attention. Perhaps the best-known of these more recent field- ‘3 A useful formulation of the distinction between lexical field and conceptual field is in Aertsen's Play Wit (above, note 8), pp. 6-7. ea .c-..< .4 L s ....3. 17 study approaches (and certainly the most praised) is Hans Schabram’s 1965 monograph Superbia, on the Old English words for pride.19 Unlike the etymological and comparative semantics of earlier studies, Schabram’s “method of contextual semantic analysis . . . placed a premium on looking at [all] textual occurrences of the term being examined”; this involved “a complete reading of the surviving texts . . . for each lexical item considered.”20 The key notion here is completeness-one must include all the occurrences of the terms throughout the corpus (of Old English, in this case). In a 1967 study of a large field (words for enmity) and a 1968 study of a small field (words for blood), Wolfgang KuhlweinZl attempted to combine Trier’s field theory with the more inclusive approach of Porzig, insisting on the inclusion of “verbal expressions” and emphasizing syntax (Strite 23). Von Lindheim22 had also recommended a combination of two methods: that which completely studies one word or word family (in all its senses), with that which completely studies a given sense (with all the words indicating it). Others integrated the use of “distinctive semantic features” as a way to consider the context of words under study, paralleling the linguistic vogue of distinctive phonetic feature analysis. Kuhlwein, along with his professor Gerhard Nicke123 and Kuhlwein’s student Jurgen Strauss,24 began to recommend the use of what can be called an operational method, “which emphasizes features available and 19HansSchebram. i ' mltnli nWrt .TiIIDi ilkt Wiwnmm: W Fink. 1965) 20 E. G. Stanley, ”Studies In the Prosaic Vocabulary of Old English Verse," N_M_ 72 (1971): 385. 21 Wolfgang Kuhlwein, i V rw n n r F in Ii k if - z i nun n in r If II II W, Kieler Beitrége zur Anglistik und Amerikanistik 5 (Neumiinster: K. Wachholtz, 1967); II in r r Ii n II nl xik l i n An I :Ait n Ii ' l 'in Anglistisghg Fgfimgnggn 95 (Heidelberg: WInter, 1968). 22 Bogislav von Lindheim, ”Problems of Old English Semantics,” Wax 3rd series. ed. G. I. Duthie (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1964) 67-77 23 Gerhard Nickel, “Operational Procedures in Semantics, with Special Reference to Medieval English," ' n L n n Lit r t r ,Report of the 17th Roundtable Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies 19 (Washington: Georgetown UP. 1966), 35-43. 24 Jurgen Strauss, - I’H rr' n bi r in r It II II in AF103 (Heidelberg winter 1974); also, Lexicological Analysis of Older Stages of Languages.” in W m, ed. Jacek FIsiak, Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs 29 (Amsterdam: Mouton, 1985). 573-82. 18 analyzable from surviving texts, especially contextual meaning and syntax” (Strite 26). This includes “collocations, onomasiology [identifying the terms a language uses for one sense], etymology, phonology, Latin influences, morphology, and frequency” (26). Strauss adds to this the idea of designating “prototypical conditions of usage” (Strauss “Lexicological Analysis” 576), statements about what could be called type-scenes as contexts for language use (similar to the literary type-scenes employed by critics such as Alan Renoir). In my study, semantic field and conceptual field are synonyms, each referring to the general field for ‘mund,’ the Old English concept of legal protection, formed by particular overlapping areas of the four word-fields examined. The word-fields are formed by mund- frid- grid- and berg-words; the Wortdecke would contain the almost 100 mund- frid- grid- and berg-words studied. Lexical fields in my usage are subsets of the semantic or conceptual field, consist of one sense within the entire field (e.g., truce), and are formed by the word(s) that give(s) that sense—for example, parts of the frid and grid word- fields constitute the lexical field ‘truce.’ Choosing Terms and Collecting Data Before beginning this study of terms for the legal concept of protection, I needed to determine which Old English words should be included. I read Clark Hall’s A Concise Dictionag of Anglo-Saxon with Meritt’s supplement and discovered approximately 28 word-groups with ‘protection’ for one of their senses (by word group I mean all the words with a common stem, such as the seventeen words with the stem ‘mund’).25 To limit this group to a manageable 25 Twenty-four Old English word groups (other than mund, frid; grid, borg) whose members contain the sense 'protection' (taken from Clark Hall); «I = with particle 99- ; :1: = wl or wlo ge- ; T poetic; headwords in parentheses do not themselves have the sense 'protection': +Beorg, n.; bebeorgan. 2£algian (Fast, adj): :faastnung. Fadm, m. Heald, n; :healdan; shield, f; hyldo, f. :I:Hedan. :(Helan); forhelan; tholen. Helm, m. (Hierd, m); feorhyrde, m. Hleot; :hleow (plus cmpds.); hleowsian. :Nor, n; inerian; nergend; nerung. (Rot. adj); rotnes, f; rotsung. f. Sceod, n; sceadwian. Sciold, m; ascildan; forescieldnes, f; rihthamscyld. m; :scieldan; :scildend, m; scilden, f; ascildnes. f; scildnung, f. Scua, m. tTruwa, m. (Deccan); fordeccan. :Warian. War, I; wagengat, wm, Ward, fm (plus cmpds.); aweardian; beweardian; weardian. :Worian; weriend. m; awerian: bewerian; bewerigend. m; unwered, ad]. Winof, m. Wroon; bewreon. Ymbtrymian. 19 size, I first restricted the study to those words used for protection in the laws. I read through translations of most of the Anglo-Saxon laws26 and discovered that only four word groups were translated as ‘protection’ in the laws, namely those derived from mund, frid, grid, and borg. This finding was confirmed in Liebermann’s edition of the laws Gesetze der Angelsachsen (hereafter Gil/3r) under Schutz [protection], 2: “The dictionary [v.2, pt. 1] gives as names for protection . . . mund . . . mundbyrd . . . borg(bryce), frid, grid.”27 I looked in the DOE’s Old English Word Surges: A Prelimingrv Aim and Word Index to see if there were studies of the sort I was proposing and found none; in fact, Strite (90) noted that the preliminary work I had done was in an area that needed more research. However, A. Fischer’s Engagement, Wedding and Marriage in Old English (1981) provided a useful list of things to analyze for: - etymology of word or elements of compound; - words in Latin texts glossed by the OE words; - relationship to other words derived from same stem; - survival into Middle English; - for each lexical item, frequency and distribution (among various senses; across various kinds of discourse); - precise meaning determined from context or Latin word glossed; and - semantic-syntactic patterns. (based on Fischer 13) Examining these things follows Von Lindheirn’s recommendation (68-69) to proceed both by studying the senses for each given word (here the word groups derived from mund, frid, grid, and borg in all their senses), and by studying the various words indicating one particular sense (the four words are all used for 23 F. L Attenborough, WW (1922; New York: AMS Press. 1974) and A. J. Robertson. Wetland (1925; New York: AMS Press, 1974. 27 F. Liebermann, ed., W 2 vols. (Halle, 1903-16; repr. Aalen, 1960) 2/2: 641. "Als Namen fi'Ir Schutz zeigt Wb: mund la munte, mundbyrd I borg(bryce); frid; grid; paxl manus, manutenere, -tentor, maintenir, manupastus I advocatus 2, avurie. 20 legal protection, and they have some other shared senses as well). Organizing Data Having decided on the word groups to be analyzed, I collected the data and formed a data base for each word-group. The Microfiche Concordance to Old English28 enabled me to locate all words within a group (the head-word, other noun and adjective forms with the same root, verbs, compounds, and derivatives), in all their spellings, and in all their inflections. These words (in their full-sentence context) were transcribed onto 5 x 8 cards with a translation from an authoritative recent edition29 (identified in the Short Titles of Old English Texts and Bibliography below); where there was no translation available I made one myself. My idea here was to use an authoritative translation rather than my own for as many items as possible so that the part of the data coming from translations would not be biased by my own interests; where I translated a passage myself, I tried to be guided by the surrounding examples in the data base with the same grammatical and syntactic arrangement, if I could. The information on each index card included the short title and page and line number citation used in the Microfiche Concordance to Old English that follows the conventions used by the Dictionary of Old English project. On the back of each card I analyzed the syntactic function and noted any unusual grammatical or syntactical usage, or any other marker (like the purpose clause among the borg- words). Also, I transcribed relevant notes from the edition, where this was useful. From the information in the data base I then created a printed appendix for each word-group. Appendixes appear in the order mund, frid, grid, borg following Chapter Seven. (Reference to one or more of these appendixes will make the following description more concrete and easier to follow.) Each 28 A. D. Healey and R. L. Venezky. W (Toronto: Dictionary of Old English Project, 1980). 29 The Short Titles for Old English Texts below expands the standard (and sometimes cryptic) ”short titles” used by the Dictionary of Old English Project; the Short Titles for Old English Texts and the Bibliography of Works Consulted follow the Appendixes A, M, F. G. B, and D. 21 appendix lists instances of its head-word first; for frid, there are actually two forms of the head-word, frid and the u-declension fridu (used only in poetry). The head word is followed by instances of the main verb and any derivative verbs (mundian followed by mundbyrdan, for example), and the verbs are followed by instances of compound and derivative nouns and adjectives (words with larger numbers of items generally appear before words with smaller numbers); these are followed by the hapax legomena. Each index card in my data base represents a “token,” defined as one occurrence of one of the words in a text. Each one of these tokens was numbered according to the order in which it appeared in its respective appendix; the four main appendixes are each numbered separately, with numbers preceded by M, F, G, or B for mund, frid, grid, andborg, respectively. I refer to a line in the appendixes as an “item” because it seems to be more than just its token: an item here is the token along with information about its location and the analysis I have given it, described below. The numbered items are referred to in my text as, e.g., M17 or F18, the seventeenth item in the mund appendix or the eighteenth item in the frid appendix. Under each different word within each appendix, I have ordered the items as follows: for each inflection I begin with glosses of Latin words, if any. The interlinear glosses come first, followed by glossary items (since these two categories are distinguished by the DOE), with one-word translations of the Latin. Then I give Old English items with their translations (from the authoritative edition, as identified in the Short Titles of Old English Texts and the Bibliography below, unless otherwise noted). Each of these sections is distinguished in the appendix by a bold face heading. So under each inflection of each different word, there are Latin glosses and/or glossary items (if any) followed by the Old English items; within the section of Old English items, I let syntactic function and frequency dictate the order of items (since syntactic context and relative frequency are interests in this study); alphabetical order of sources would have imposed an artificial order and 22 actually had 3 scrambling effect on the data. Within any group of items formed by sorting for inflection, syntax, and frequency, the order is dictated by source: laws first, then other sources alphabetically. Legal sources are clustered together fust, at this lower level in the sorting, because a primary goal of this study is to compare legal usage with usage in other sources. At this level, laws and historical sources are listed chronologically from early to late.30 Each appendix also contains a set of footnotes, with an individual note indicated by a degree sign ( ° ) at the left margin for the item and appearing at the bottom of each page by item number. I include in these notes technical information relevant to the item but too detailed for the comments in the relevant chapter; cross referencing information within the appendix or between appendixes; and in some cases, interesting anecdotal information not immediately pertinent to my general discussion. Describing and Analyzing Data-Overview From the information in the data base and appendixes, one can assemble an analysis of the four individual word-fields that leads ultimately to a description of the overlapped or combined field. Each of the next four chapters (2 through 5) analyzes one of the word-fields; each chapter is arranged in the same way. For each of these chapters, Section 1 gives etymology, definitions, and Old English glosses of Latin words. Section 2 describes in detail the semantic and syntactic dimensions of the field as a whole. Section 3 discusses the location and frequency of items in different kinds of texts (legal, historical, religious prose, poetry, etc.). Tables are numbered to correspond to the respective sections (e.g., M23 and M2b both occur in Section 2 of the mund chapter); the tables provide various kinds of supporting information. Chapter 6 summarizes the results of Chapters 2 through 5; describes in detail the combined fields where mund, frid, grid, and borg overlap; and offers further analysis of the religious and literary works in which words from the combined 30 See Appendix A for relative dates of laws. 23 field occur. The tables in Chapter Six are numbered to correspond as far as possible to those in earlier chapters. Reflecting the summary in Chapter Six, Appendix 9 follows the other appendixes and lists all the items in the Other category for the use of those who wish to study these items further, since the Other category includes the texts most likely to interest literary scholars. Describing and Analyzing Data—Particulars Section 1 The analysis begins with definitions. To introduce each chapter, I list the words in the field with brief definitions arranged as follows: head word followed by verb(s), compounds, and derivatives (with the last two sections in alphabetical order). The definitions here are simplified to one or two basic senses, paraphrased from Clark Hall (or where he does not have the word, from my data), for the purpose of familiarizing a reader with the overall field. The list of words is followed by an introductory paragraph discussing these general definitions. The information on etymology is taken from Holthausen,3l the Oxford English Dictionag, and the appendix to the American Heritage Dictionag,32 synthesized into a discussion that attempts to show how the senses developed into those of the Old English words. Etymology is followed by a survey of definitions in more detail, comparing those in Clark Hall, the Oxford English Dictionag, the relevant list Of senses from Liebermann’s Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen, and the appendix Of Indo-European roots in the American Heritage Dictionag, and sometimes Holthausen (hereafter CH, OED, M AHD, and Holt, respectively). My purpose here is to show the senses for the head word and verb, so that I can 31 F. Holthausen W 2nd ed (Heidelberg Winter 1963). 32 The appendix ”refers to but does not depend on Pokomy's work” (WW 1973 ed-. 1504) 24 begin to arrange the senses for the field as a whole.33 In giving the definitions, double quotation marks are reserved for direct quotations from sources, while single quotation marks serve to distinguish senses from each other. Quotations from SM. are always my translation. The f‘ust section concludes with a brief discussion of Old English glosses of Latin words accompanied by 3 Table 1 (M1, F1, etc.) showing the Latin words (and their definitions) glossed by the OE words under investigation. Giving information from Latin usage sheds at least some light on how Anglo-Saxons viewed the sense(s) of these words. Old English glosses of Latin words constitute a significant fraction of items in my data base (roughly 10%) and in the corpus of Old English (roughly 25%)“; typically, such glosses come from religious works such as Aldhelm’s De laude virginitatis and Anglo-Saxon Bibles and psalters. Related to these interlinear glosses are the glossaries in several manuscripts, which simply list Latin words and Old English equivalents. Section 2 The second section of each chapter describes the “shape” of the field under discussion by arranging the meanings for all the members of the word-group into senses and then commenting on their relations and proportions. The major sense areas are designated with capitalization, as PEACE-sense and PROTECTION-sense. Here I am treating the senses and subsenses of the word-field as a whole, and not attempting to create or modify definitions for any particular terms. These sections have two or three tables designated 23, 2b, and sometimes 2c prefixed with the initial of the headword (M23, M2b, FZa and so on). The first table shows the field with its major sense 33 Following suggestions made in GDntor Kotzor, "Wind and Weather: Semantic Analysis and the Classification of Old English Lexemes,” 183: ”my contention is that . . . we are well advised to accept all the support we can get from dictionaries, text editions, word studies“; and Sharon Butler and Bruce Mitchell, "Some Lexicographical Problems Posed by Old English Grammar Words,” 87-88, recommending a sorting plan ”initially based on and then adapted from BT(S) entries”; both articles in A. Bammesberger,ed., l l n li hL xi r h: t I in m fAn W Eichstétter Beitrage; Band 15: Abteilung Sprache und Literatur (Regensburg: Pustet, 1985). 34Jonathon Wilcox, “Famous LastWords,‘ F r t i ' h v n n I ‘ WM ed. Allen J. Frantzen (Chicago: Illinois Medieval Assoc, 1994) 2. 25 areas and the sub-senses, and it gives their relative proportions. The needs for discussion in each word-field dictated the kinds of tables created there: mund needed a more detailed view of some parts of the field which Table M2b satisfies; the 56 separate words under frid needed a table of their own (F2b) and so on. A table showing collocations is also included for each word-group: this develops further the first table of Section 2 (showing the sense areas and their proportions) by indicating not only the senses, but also the range of possible meanings for the subsenses that can be culled from the appendixes. I have tried to arrange these subsenses in a semantically coherent (albeit intuitive) order that demonstrates the range of possible meanings across the field. Creating a table with collocations always produced a quantum leap of order and understanding as I worked, which confirmed to me parts of the theoretical discussion (pages 14-18, above) where I mentioned the “operational method” of Nickel, Kuhlwein, and Strauss. The operational approach is an attempt to analyze the conditions of usage in Old English, a dead language without native speakers to guide us. In justifying this approach, Nickel proposes that we think of definitions as descriptions of how words are actually used in 3 language rather than as analyses of a word’s properties. He describes the operational approach as the close study of “occurrences of signifiers, investigating particularly their frequency, distribution, collocability, and context” (Nickel 37). I found that setting up the collocations allowed me to see how the Anglo-Saxons actually used these words, and it helped me understand and bring into focus the data I was assembling: it certainly confirmed the value of the operational approach to this study, with its purpose of eventually understanding how these legal words were used in non-legal contexts. Section 3 The third section of each chapter describes location patterns of the items in different kinds of texts. Tables M3, F3, G3, and B3, form the main presentation of data here. I distinguish law codes, charters, historical texts, interlinear glosses, and glossaries, and group the remaining 26 texts in an Other category. Law codes and charters are sometimes grouped together as legal writing, and glosses and glossaries I refer to generically as “glosses” in my text. Historical texts consist of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Orosius, 3nd Bede. In each Section 3 I discuss patterns among the locations of words in the various kinds of texts and discuss many of the items in detail. I have felt justified in keeping the remainder of texts in an Other category and not differentiating it further in the table, partly for lack of space but mostly because of the purposes of this study. I want to see how the legal terms are used in non-legal texts, especially poetry and homilies. So by distinguishing the categories I do, and by lumping all the Other material together, I can compare it as a whole to the legal, historical, and glossed texts. In creating each Table 3, I list each word in the word-field in the left column.35 Across the top I list the various categories (laws, charters, history, and so forth). In the columns of tabular data I distinguish major senses of the word-field and present the number of items for each word as a sum, as, in Table F3 (pp. 74-75 below), 33-1-12 (PEACE-sense plus PROTECTION-sense). At the bottom of columns I give totals for each category and present the totals as percentages of the field. Percentages are rounded to the nearest integer if possible; very occasionally, I round to tenths of a point to keep the total at 100%. In each Section 3, the discussion of “locations,” I go into some detail and break down the Other category into its components. The Other category is also discussed in more detail in Chapter Six (Summary and Combined Field). Chapter Seven discusses literary applications of the lexical and linguistic analysis that can be made in particular texts and presents some possible directions for future research. 35 In Table F3, where there are 56 different frid-words, I lump all the hapax Iegomena together. CHAPTER TWO: The Maud-words headword: verbs: compounds: derivative: mund f. hand; protection, guardianship, (fine for) breach of protection mundian to protect, act as guardian mundbyrdan to protect amundian to protect fedemund f. forepaw mundbeorg m. protecting hill mundbora m. protector, guardian mundbyrd f. protection mundbyrdnes f. protection mundbryce m. (fine for) breach of laws of protection mundcrcefl m. protecting power mundgripe m. hand-grasp mundheals f. protection mundrof adj. strong with the hands mundwist f. guardianship scarftmund f. handspan mundiend m. protector 27 28 Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts Dictionaries and glossaries generally list mund as either feminine or masculine. Mund as a feminine substantive means ‘hand; protection, guardianship; protector, guardian; and, the fine for violation of protection.’ The three legal senses of mund can each be designated by a compound: the abstract ‘protection’ by mundbyrd, the agent ‘protector’ by mundbora, and the breaking of mund by mundbryce. (The headword and these three compounds comprise 210 of 249 items in this field, or 85%). As a masculine substantive, mund means “bridegroom’s gift to the bride or father-in-law” (in both Clark Hall and Holthausen). This form is attested only twice in Old English, once in poetry (Christ A, B, C) translated as virginity (Gordon) or integrity (Bradley), and once in a will.1 Etymology One can easily see the connection between mund’s two main senses, hand and protection, and these two senses are illustrated in the word’s etymology and cognates. Mund comes from the Indo-European root listed in the American Heritage Dictionary’s etymological appendix as “man-2” (from “man-l” come all the ‘man’ words in the Germanic languages). Man-2 is the source of the hand-words: Latin manus (in many Mod. Eng. words such as manner, manual, manumit et 31.); Latin compound manceps and Latin compound mandare (manus + dare, to give into one’s hand). The two main senses are joined in the suffixed zero-grade form *mnto- in Germanic mund-, ‘guarding hand, protection,’ which becomes the Old English mund. The Oxford English Dictionary includes mund as an obsolete form and gives the three senses hand, protection, and protector, citing Layamon (1205 AD.) as one source. 1 Dorothy Whitelock, W (Cambridge: Cambridge UP,1930) 195: her note reminds readers that this is a Scandinavian term and that “the Old English mund does not occur with this meaning [price to be paid before marriage].” 29 According to the _(_)_l:‘._12, Old English mund, fem., is cognate with Old Frisian mund, masc., guardianship, guardian; with Old Saxon mund, hand; with Old High German munt, fem., hand, protection, and masc., protector. It is also cognate with Old Norse mund, fem., hand, and mund-r, masc., sum paid by bridegroom for his bride; Holthausen gives this ON masc. cognate (to which he adds a meaning, guardianship) for OE mund, masc., bridegift. Besides the obsolete OE form mentioned above, _O_I_31_)_ lists mund as a spelling variant of mound, sb.l, ‘world, an orb’; it also is listed as a variant spelling for mound, sb.2, ‘power, strength; value, importance, dignity’ where the entry comments: “Of obscure origin: perhaps due to misapprehension of some poetic use of mund, hand, guardianship. . . . Very common in Arthur and Merlin.” At mound, sb.3, QED notes that mound has been supposed to derive from OE mund; however, because the OE does not mean defense in the physical sense but rather defense (of persons, guardianship), mound must have “an obscure origin”; it eventually develops the present-day sense of tumulus, but not until the eighteenth century. The etymologies of the second elements of three important compounds help illustrate part of the senses of the mund-field as well. Beran, to bear, carry, and to bring forth, produce, is the source for both -byrd (in mundbyrd) and -bora (in mundbora). According to Holthausen, -byrd has the senses birth, and nature, disposition, quality: from the second more abstract sense comes mundbyrd’s primary sense, the abstract ‘protection.’ It is cognate with Old Saxon mund-bard and Old High German mundi-burd. In Holthausen, -bora has the senses son, and carrier, bearer (cognate with Greek fares), and from its second sense comes the second element of the weak masculine agent noun mundbora. This is cognate with Old Saxon mund-bore and Old High German mum-pom. Mundbyrd and mundbora correspond to specific senses of the head-word mund and form major parts of the word-field. Bryce, breach, comes from brecan to break; the compound mundbryce means breach of mund. I do not find cognates for this compound, but bryce and brecan have cognates in 3O Frankish, Old Saxon and Old High German. Definitions In the glossary of Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen, Liebermann gives the more technical legal senses of these words. Mund has three senses: protection, refuge; the king’s protection, the highest peace-condition, public security, and the fixed fine for its breach (synonym with mundbryce); enjoyment of the right of special protection, and the fine for its violation. Mundbora is protector or guardian, especially in a court of law. Mundbryce, generally the breach of protection, has three specific senses: violation of the king’s peace, the public security; the king’s mundbryce, a fixed fine; and, violation which derives from the power of protection of the archbishop, prince, bishop, earl, thegn, and lord. Finally, mundbyrd has two senses: the range of the power of protection; and, the fine, fixed according to rank, for violation of protection (here he adds that the possessor of the power of protection is compensated by the violator; my translations).2 Old English Glosses of Latin Texts The 48 glosses of Latin texts employing the Old Englishmund—words occur in a variety of contexts. Five texts are glossaries named for the manuscripts in which they occur: Antwerp, Cleopatra, Corpus, Epinal, and Erfurt. The contents of the last three reveal that they are related, a with OE glosses most numerous in the glosses’ Orosius and Hermeneutica sections. Many of the Antwerp and Cleopatra glossaries’ contents contain lists from Aldhelrn. These five glossaries have 13 of my 2 Mund: Schutz 1) Schutz, Zuflucht 2) cyninges mund a) hOchster Friedenszustand, Offentliche Sicherheit b) Strafgeld bestimmter HOhe, dern Staate verfalien; synonym mit mundbryce 3) Genuss einer Sonderbefriednung und einer Geldbusse ffIr deren Verletzung Mundbora: Beschfitzer, Vonnund. bes. vor Gericht Mundbryce: Schutzbruch 1) Verletzung des KOnigsfriedens, der Offentlichen Sicherheit 2) cyninges mundbryce, testes Strafgeid 3) Verletzung der von Erzbischof, Prinz, Bischof, Graf, Thegn, Herr ausgehenden Schutzgewalt Mundbyrd: Schutz 1) Bereich der Schutzgewalt 2) Bussgeld, bestimmt je nach Stand des [im gn erscheinenden] Besitzers der Schutzgewalt (Sicherheitsgewahrleistung), das er erhalt von ihrem Verletzer 3 N. Fl. Ker, 151. 477. ;_ I (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1957) 49. 31 items, with six in the Cleopatra Glossary alone. Aldhelm manuscripts themselves provide most of the mund-words occurring in interlinear glosses (19 of 35). The Arundel Prayer Gloss, “a continuous interlinear gloss to a series of prayers and forms of confession” (Ker 167), has five mund-words. Interlinear glosses to Bede’s metrical life of St. Cuthbert and his MOM, Boethius, ngglgfls Concordia a hymnal, and the Lgri_ca_i Gildas each contain one or two mund-words (11 items). Locations of mund- frid- grid- and borg-words in glosses of Latin texts are listed in Chapter Six, Tables 13 and lb. The Latin terms which are glossed by the Old English mund-words follow a regular pattern (Table M1, below). Three Latin words for ‘defense’-patr0cinium, presidium, munimen—are glossed by words for ‘protection’—mund, mundbyrd—in all but one of nineteen instances of glossing those three Latin words with mund-words. Three other Latin tenns-sufiiragium, pretextus, paternitas-are glossed a total of six times by mundbyrd, ‘protection.’ The three Latin agent nouns-advocatus, suflragator, patronus— are consistently glossed by mundbora (twenty times, total). 32 Table M1: Latin mund-word equivalents in Glosses M und M undbora patrocinium, -ii, 11. 4 1 (protection: [legal] defense) presidium, -ii, 11. 2 ([mil.] defense) munimen, -inis, n. 1 ([mil.] defense) sufliragium, -ii, 11. (favorable decision [vote]; support) pretextus, -us, m. (probably ‘covering’) paternitas, -tatis, f. (probably ‘guardianship’) advocarus, -i, m. 8 (advocate) sufi‘ragator, -oris, m. 3 ([pol-l snpportor) patronus, -i, m. 9 (protector) foveo, -ere gl. by mundian 1 (support, assist) tego, -ere gl. by gemundbyrdan (cover, protect) % of mund-field % of glosses 17% 44% M undbyrd 10 19 = 48/249 = 19% 39% 33 Section 2: Description of the Field The mund-field (illustrated in Table M23, below) has two main divisions, HAND and PROTECTION, the two main senses of the head word. The ‘hand’ part of the field (25 items of 249, or 10%) includes uses of the noun mund as well as three compounds, one (mundgripe) used only in Beowulf (five times), and two hapax legomena (fedemund, in a riddle, and sceaftmund, in legal use4). The ‘protection’ part of the field (224 items, 90%) has the following subdivisions: abstract protection, the condition (79 items, 32%); the agent, protector (82 items, 33%); mund-words used as legal technical terms (really 3 subdivision of ‘condition’, but these are reflexive, mund-words referring to some aspect of mund itself-39 items, 16%); two items relating to maniage (less than 1%); and the verbs for ‘to protect’ (19 items, 8%). These totals include the Latin glosses (48 items, 19% of total), 311 of which have a protection sense (see Chart M1), and six hapax legomena with a general sense of protection or protector. The subsenses mund-condition, mund-agent, and legal-technical terms comprise 202 items (81% of field): this is the heart of this field, i.e., the primary sense and vast majority of the items. Leaving out twenty-seven glossed Latin items for ‘protection’ and twenty-one for ‘protector,’ this large area has 154 Old English items (62%), almost two thirds of all items in the mund-field. By describing this part of the field, we can show what actually constitutes the legal concept mund and how it was used. 4 Dus fear sceal been pes cinges grid fram his burhgeare, pars he is sittende, on feower healfe his, daet is H! mila & III furlang & III ascera brarde & IX fora & IX scaeftamunda & IX berecoma ("Thus far shall the king's peace extend from his burg-gate, where he is situated, in the four directions, that is, three miles and three furlongs and three acre breadths and nine feet and nine handbreadths and nine barleycoms'): this fragment is all that remains of the Law 91 P35. 34 Table M23: Senses of the mund-field I. HAND-sense 10% 1. hand, hands, with hands Hapax legomena: ‘in its power’ strong with the hands hand-grip (hand)span II. PROTECTION -sense 32% 1. Condition: protection, guardianship, patronage 33% 2. Agent: protector, guardian 16% 3. Legal-technical terms: value of mund, right of protection, amt. of mund (rank), fine or compensation for breach of mund; fine for violation of mundbyrd; bryce of mund, amt. of or fine for mundbryce 1% 4. Marriage-related terms: marriage payment; (by metonymy) virginity 8% 5. Verbs: to protect, guard, defend; to be guardian Hapax legomena: protection, guardianship, protector, skill to protect, protecting hills 100% 35 The head-word and three major compounds in the field suggest the main legal senses. Generally, mund has the three legal senses ‘protection,’ ‘protector,’ and ‘fine for violation of protection’; and, generally, mundbyrd, mundbora, and mundbryce designate these three senses, respectively. Table M2b (below) shows the area of the field we are considering in detail, and one can see that while these words do tend to designate particular areas of the field, there is some overlap and interchangeability (especially between mund and mundbora). Mund (and the Latin terms it glosses) denotes ‘protection’ twenty-six times, ‘protector’ eleven times, and it is used in 3 legal technical sense fourteen times. Mundbora (and the Latin terms it glosses) means ‘protector’ sixty-two times, but it is also used for ‘protection’ in six instances. Mundbyrd and its Latin terms denote the condition fifty-two times, and only once is mundbyrd clearly used for ‘protector.’ Mundbryce, in all sixteen occurrences, is only used as a legal technical term. Mund seven times, and mundbyrd in all eight of its legal technical uses, also mean something like mundbryce. When we add the collocations of verbs with the nouns under consideration, we can begin to see how the terms were used, and their meanings and the concepts contained in this field become clearer. In the following pages we shall further explore the field by examining how the words are used with their collocations, listed in chart M2c (p. 38 below), first as legal ideas only and then in other contexts. Mundbora, the agent noun, occurs in three equivalent legal codes (all written by WulfstanS; items M152-54 in appendix M). In these, the king (along with the earl and bishop, in one) is designated to act as kinsman and 5 Wulfstan's texts: D. Whiteiock's introduction to W on pages 12, and 23-28, gives the following list (his numerous homilies and homiletic fragments are given on pages 17-23): EMA. fin (Liebermann figsgtgg v.l, pp.128-34),V Air (LL l.236-44), VI Atr (LL l.246-56), _V_ll_ Al(LL I.260,Ml_[l_ Ag (LL l.263-68, lX Atr (LL l.269, X Atr (LL l.269-70, 395,1 (LL 1.444-53), Qgrgfg (LL I.453-55, ngyncdo (LL I.456-58), Nordleoda laga (LL I.458-61), Mjrgggjggg (LL L.462-63), A_6 (LL L464). 11351991 (LL I.464-469), Episg, (LL I.477-79), Wag. Institmgs gt Pglity. 36 Table M2b: Senses of the mund-field, detail with Latin 11. PROTECTION-sense: mund mundbora mundbyrd other 1. Condition (hapax leg.) protection 1 4 5 3 0 3 [Latin for protection, defense: 7 I 11 +1 +3] guardianship 3 1 patronage, care, deliverance, 2 5 help, security, shelter 2. Agent protector 3 3 l 1 1 [Latin for protector: 20 2?] guardian 7 6 1 preserver, prefect, patron, 1 5 succorer, executor 3. legal-technical mund mundbyrd mundbryce ‘mund’ itself 5 m’brch itself 5 value of mund 1 church’s rt. of prot’n 1 fine for breach of mund, amt of m’brch, comp. for vio of mund 4 amt. for vio of m’b 5 fine for ” 1 1 ’9 9’ ’9 gl'dnShp 3 an ‘amount’ of mund (rank) 3 37 protector for a man in orders or a stranger, if the person has no protector. This illustrates to us that every person in Anglo-Saxon society had to have 3 lord and thereby be connected into the legal system; no one could be left unattached, or he would literally be an “out-law.” Generally this connection was either familial or territorial, but there was some choice in the matter6: several times in the Chronicle (items M141-46), some one is sought as a protector or chosen for protection. Also, it was possible for people’s allegiance to be transferred to a different lord7: for example, Beowulf asks Hrothgar to be a guardian (mundbora) to his men if he should die fighting Grendel’s dam (item M109). The head-word, mund, can substitute for mundbora: in charters, a person can be 3 mund, that is, a protector (items M7-17). Mund can be established by a kindred with an oath (that “the king’s mund shall stand”) taken “with their hands in common upon one weapon” (items M6 and 21, in Law of Wergild, and item M20 referred to in 2 Edmund). One can be worthy of, or deprived of, honor and mund, and one can have (habban) mund, i.e., 3 particular rank or status; also, one can have (agan, own) the value of mund (have the legal right to various fines). Mund can denote a particular amount of money or the concept ‘fine for breach of mund,’ and mund can be compensated by various amounts. Whereas mund occasionally denotes the breach of mund or the fine or compensation for its breach, mundbryce always denotes these legal financial concepts. The right to these fines can be granted to another by charter, so that one can be entitled to them. One can commit mundbryce, and mundbryce is compensated for by various amounts, 5 ”During the Anglo-Saxon period, every man had to be under the protection of 3 lord. There appears to have been a certain power of choice; Abba seems to be transferring his allegiance“: from Harmer's note to Charter 1482, “Will of the Reeve Abba,” in F. E. Harmer, ed, film; English Histgrigg Qggrmgnts gf thg Ninth mg Tgnth @ntgr'gs (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1914) 79. See item M111. 7 The Annal for 1052 in A-S Chron D gives another example: And man borhfaste pam kyninge ealle pa pagnas pe waron Haroldes eorles his suna (And all the thegns of Harold his son were transferred to the king's allegiance), item B144. 38 Table M2c: Senses of the mund-field created with noun-verb collocations [collocations] II. PROTECTION-sense to choose mund 1. Condition to ask for mund protection to find or receive mund guardianship to give mund patronage, care, deliverance, to hold under, or keep in, mund help, security, shelter to dwell under mund to have (agan) the mund (value) to have (habban) the mund (rank) to be worthy of mund to establish mund to be deprived of mund to compensate mund 2. Agent to seek protection (mundbora) protector to seek a mundbora guardian to choose as mundbora preserver, prefect, patron, to be a mundbora succorer, executor to act as 3 mundbora 3. legal-tech’l to be value of mundbyrd ‘mund’ itself to pay mundbyrd value of mund to be entitled to mundbryce (church’s) rt. of prot’n to grant mundbryce violation of mund to have (agan) mundbryce fine for breach of mund; to compensate mundbryce comp. for vio. of mund to commit mundbryce an ‘amount’ of mund (rank) 39 depending on the status of the person who is entitled to the fine and the status of the person offended. Mundbryce is used only to designate the legal technical areas of the field (i.e., mundbryce is a legal technical term only). Like mund, mundbyrd can be used as a synonym for mundbryce: Mundbyrd has this meaning wherever it occurs in legal contexts (laws, and once in a charter). Also like mund, mundbyrd can designate a particular amount, or it can refer to the fine as a concept. Similarly, when mundbyrdnysse is used in charters (five times), Harmer translates it as “protection of rights”—it refers to owning the financial rights (for fines) associated with what is being granted. In addition to these legal uses, mundbyrd and mund are used in non- legal contexts where they extend the use of the concepts just discussed. People ask for, seek, choose, find, and receive protection, and they dwell under protection. Someone may give protection, or hold someone under protection, or keep someone in peace and safety. Mundbora occurs in non-legal contexts as well: someone is or will be or becomes a protector, and people have a protector. None of the non-legal uses of these nouns with their verbal collocations is particularly surprising; in fact, they seem to refer to the categories set up by the legal ideas in a fairly general way, broadly, rather than in any sort of technical or figurative way. None of the three mund-verbs occurs in the laws, but two are found in three passages in charters. There, amundian twice means ‘to protect,’ and the inflected infinitive of mundian means ‘to act as guardian.’ Also, mundian is used in the Chronicle where King Cnut’s widow seeks Baldwin’s protection (grid) “south of the sea” where he protected (mundode) her and gave her a residence (item M77). In a homily of lElfric, townspeople “sue for peace, that he would protect [them]” (amundige, item M87). These latter two examples show the verbs being used in legal contexts, even though they aren’t legal texts. Mundbyrdan is not used in laws, charters, or chronicle, and seems indistinguishable from mundian (in the same way that mundbyrd and mund 4O seem to be interchangable). Both these verbs simply mean ‘to protect’ wherever they are found. The areas of the field that I have been describing are denoted by legal terms; most of the mund-words (all but mundgripe, and six of the eight hapax legomena) are used in legal writing of some kind. However, all of the mund- words except mundbryce and two hapax are used in non-legal writing as well. So wherever they occur, they bring with them the legal connotations of the mund-field, to some degree. One of the points that I hope to make with this dissertation is that the legal senses are embedded in any other sense; every context in which these words are used is a ‘legal’ context to the extent that the situation, the “type-scene,” contains legal elements or is analogous to a legal situation. Therefore, understanding the mund-field (and the frid- grid- and borg-fields as well) all as legal fields which have other more general and less legal layers (inseparable from the legal ones) helps us understand more fully any of the contexts in which we find any of these words. Now, the distribution of items in the field among various kinds of texts can be described to give 3 fuller picture than that given so far of how these words are used in Old English. Section 3: Location of items in type of text-Law, Charter, Gloss, Glossary, Other Having distinguished the various senses of the mund-field and their arrangement, we can now chart their use in various types of texts and give their frequency there. Law codes form one category, charters another; these two can be grouped together as ‘legal texts.’ Interlinear glosses and glossaries form two more categories, which can be grouped as ‘OE glosses.’ All other texts (historical writing, poetry, religious prose, Bible translations, and miscellaneous texts) can be placed in an ‘Other’ category. The seventeen Old 41 English words that make up this word-field are listed in Table M3, and individual items are listed with more information regarding their inflexions, contexts, and meanings in Appendix M. Mund-words occur with the Hand-sense twenty-five times (10% of the field), with the Protection-condition sense 145 times (58%), and with the Protection-agent sense eighty times (32%), approximately a 1 : 6 : 3 ratio. There are forty-eight Old English glosses, approximately one fifth of the field, and these are split roughly in half between the condition and agent senses. words with Hand-sense 10% Protection-condition 58% (including 27 OE glosses of Latin, 11%) Protection-agent 32% ( ” _2_1_ ” ” ” ” 8%) 100% 48 19% The unglossed mund-words which do not mean hand, those with some aspect of the protection sense, number 176, or 71% of the entire field (and 105 of these are in non-legal texts, 42% of 249). It becomes apparent from using Table M3 that gl_l the mund- words except mundbryce and two hapax legomena are used in non-legal writing with their protection senses. This shows the importance of this legal concept: of the 177 unglossed mund-words that carry the protection sense, 105 (60%) are used in non-legal texts; even in the total field of 249 words, including the glosses and words with the hand sense, these 105 non-legal mund-words for protection make up 42% of the whole. To further understand how these words are used, we can cluster the texts into the three categories Legal, Gloss, and Other. Whether the hand-words are included or excluded, the number of mund-words in these three categories stand in a ratio of 3 : 2 : 5 to each other. (1 separate the hand-words from the rest of the field in the chart to facilitate discussion of mund as a legal concept.) 42 Table M3: Location of mund-words by type of text (in each column, condition-sense + agent-sense) mund mundian mundbyrdan amundian mundbora mundbyrd mundbyrdnes mundbryce mundbeorg mundcraft mundheals mundiend mundwist total for field w/o hand-words % of 224 mund as ‘hand’ mundgripe fedemund mundrof sceaftmund total hand-words Total % of 249 Total Laws Charters Gloss Glossary Other 53 144-0 6+1 1 7+0 15+0 10 0+ 1 1+0 8+0 2+0 5+0 2+0 1+0 68 0+3 0+1 1+ 15 0+5 5+38 53 10+0 1+0 9+0 6+2 24+ 1 9 5+0 3+1 16 10+0 6+0 1 0+1 1 1+0 1 1+0 1 0+ 1 .1 _ _ _ _ L+Q 34+3 20+ 14 20+15 6+7 64+4l 224 37 34 35 13 105 16.5% 15% 15.5% 6% 47% 1 7 17 5 5 1 1 1 .1 _1 _ 25 1 24 249 38 34 35 13 1 29 15% 14% 14% 5% 52% 43 Legal Less than a third of the mund-words occur in legal texts: about 15% of the items are used in law codes, and 14% in charters, 29% of the field (72 items). Although these words are split almost evenly between the two kinds of legal texts, laws and charters, items with the Condition-sense are more than three times as common as those with the Agent-sense: 54 items mean ‘protection’ and 17 are agent words. Also, only the four main legal terms (mund, mundbora, mundbyrd, and mundbryce) are used in law codes (excluding the one occurrence of sceaftmund), while these and four other mund-words are used in the charters. One of these additional mund-words, mundbyrdnysse, is used in a formula in four charters (items M211, 212, 213, 214) and in a non-forrnulaic passage with similar meaning (M215), and in four passages in the poetic vita of Mary of Egypt. The four charters just mentioned are part of a subgroup of what Harmer calls the “shall have” group of charters: that large group is named for a formulaic arrangement that identifies the group of charters and distinguishes them from all others.8 The subgroup to which these four charters belong are all Westminster writs in which King Edward the Confessor grants certain rights and privileges, or confirms the grants of others, to Westminster Abbey; they are preserved in thirteenth- and fourteenth-century manuscripts. This group of four (and the fifth with the non-formulaic use of mundbyrdnysse) are part of a larger group of Westminster writs, all of which seem to be based on authentic writs but which have been “enlarged and embroidered in the Westminster Scriptorium” (Harmer 307). The editor does not label them spurious, but because of their language and late manuscripts they are in a gray area which makes them not entirely authentic, either. The only five occurrences of mundbyrdnysse in legal texts are in these five charters, all of them part of this coherent group in Harmer’s edition. I am not sure what conclusion to draw from this, except that my methods of collecting and grouping words have turned up a small bit of coherence confirmed by a different kind of study. Perhaps this comer of the word-field was formed by the systematic or 8 F. E. Harmer, mm (Stamford: P. Watkins, 1989) 64, 306-13. 44 genetically-related use of words by a writer or writers engaged in a common purpose at Westminster Abbey. The fact that the other four uses of this word are in one text by one author (in three eleventh-century manuscripts) does not help me draw a conclusion here, except to notice how limited the use of the compound is in these legal and religious texts. One other use of mund-words in legal texts (mentioned on pp. 35 and 37) can now be described. Mund is used with the agent-sense (protector, guardian, or executor) in eleven items, thereby showing its seeming interchangeability with mundbora. In all eleven passages, the pattern is “a person is/will be mund,” subject-be-verb—complement mund. These all occur in the legal language of charters and wills, and because a person is the grammatical subject, produce the agent-sense. Mundbora is occasionally used with the condition- sense: in four parallel chronicle passages, a person is sought to mundboran, “for protection” in a general sense by a group, not “as guardian,” a more precise legal relationship between individuals; the context signals the distinction. Gloss By examining the Gloss (interlinear gloss plus glossary items) and Other categories, we can see how the mund-words operate in non- legal contexts. Of the two categories, Gloss presents the more restrictive contexts: 3 translation is required, and a certain word is chosen. This has the advantage of giving modern readers more explicit information about the writers’ use of these words, even if the writers’ choices are more restricted. Bible glosses are conspicuous by their absence here. We can assume hand-words (rather than mund-words) would usually gloss manus, but what of all the places in Psalms, for example, where protection is mentioned? That concept must be covered by other Old English terms, (perhaps the scyId-words, as in iElfric’s homilies); does this mean that mund had a very precise meaning which did not allow it to be used in such contexts? (The numerous entries in the Other category might argue against this.) As I study the use of mund-words 45 and scyld-words in [Elfric’s homilies in future work, I will be trying to answer these questions; a few initial comments on possible answers appear below. Mund-words gloss Latin terms in 48 items (one fifth of the entire field); 35 are in interlinear glosses, and 13 are in glossary entries (about a 3 to 1 ratio). Of the 35 interlinear glosses, more than half (19) are from Aldhelm, five are from the Arundel Prayer Gloss, two each are from Boethius, Regularis Concordia Lorica of Gildas, a hymn collection, Bede’s metrical life of Cuthbert, and one is from a gloss in Bede’s Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. Of the 19 Aldhelm items (all from the long and much copied prose De laude virginitatis), several are from equivalent passages; that is, five of the six from the version Ald V 1 and five of the six from Ald V 13.1 are from the same passages in the text (summarized below). The 19 items from Aldhelm9 use three Old English words to gloss only three of the 11 Latin words in Table M1; the three OE words are three of our primary legal terms-mund, mundbora, mundbyrd—of the four we have noticed were used in legal texts, but they are used very many times elsewhere as well. Both mund and mundbyrd gloss patrocinium (legal defense) nine times, and mundbora glosses aduocatus (eight times) and patronus (twice). In a passage full of images of warfare, virgins must conquer “the leaders” of the principal vices, a conflict where “warlike squadrons of virgins” battle “savage armies of foes : victory is possible “when Christ offers a defence [M18, mund/patrocinium] and urges on the phalanxes of His soldiers” and so forth.10 Among the 60 chapters of the prose De laude virginitatis, Chapter 39 “moves on gradually with verbal footsteps” toward a list of examples of female virgins (the male examples having been dealt with in Chapters 20-38) who will have “the crown of eternal beatitude-provided [Christ] benignly grants the benefit of His protection” (M191, mundbyrde/patrocini , Lapidge and Herren 106). 9 This recent work serves as a very useful introduction to the Aldhelm glosses: Louis Goosens. Th_g WWW. Brussels Verhandeiingen van do koninkliike Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en schone Kunsten van Belgie, Klasse der Letteren, 36 (Brussels: Paleis der Academién, 1974). 10 Translation from Michael Lapidge and Michael Herren, W (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1979) 68. '1 i- ‘1 ul- 1;.- ‘1 N ‘e. I‘ I. 1‘ 1‘“- a .T P- ‘EYI‘; b. I. 7,, s: 46 Elsewhere Thecla, 3 devout virgin, “with Christ granting his protection (M169, mundbyrde/patrocinium) . . . kept the token of her chastity unbroken” (Lapidge and Herren 113). Benedict is said to share his “blessed appellation” with our “Redeemer” (M156, mundborum/aduocato, L and H 89). In Chapter 52, blessed Victoria “sustained by the assistance of an angel” M91, mundbora/patronus, Lapidge and Herren 120) drives out a savage dragon from the environs of 3 city to which she had been banished. The lexical distinction seems to be this: much of the text consists of stories of exemplary sainted virgins of both sexes, and among all the instances where the translation reads “protection,” the mund-words are used only for God’s protection of people who were not eventually martyred. Other Of the Gloss and Other categories (which show us the mund- words in non-legal contexts), Other is the least restrictive and is the one where we expect to find poetic and compounding uses to be freer. We also expect that this important legal concept (with its high number of uses in this category) would be used in ways that emphasized its legal importance to the Anglo- Saxons who encountered these texts. When we examine the Other category, we can see how the mund-words are used in non-legal and unglossed contexts. The 130 items forming this group make up just over half of the entire mund-field, and thereby these items become the area of major interest for this section of the dissertation; in addition to the weight of numbers, the fact that the majority of the uses of the head-word for an entire legal concept lie in areas outside the legal one shows the importance of this concept to Anglo-Saxon writing and culture at large: this will be an important area to describe here and an examination of its use in the two major subgroups will be developed at length elsewhere in the dissertation (see Chapters Six and Seven below). When we distinguish the 130 items in the Other category by whether they 1 if the see I: nice 091°. 62 Table A. La. “[sé'lr} C's-Ill. W‘AJCE .-‘d‘ O 47 they have Poetic, Religious, or Miscellaneous sources, we find that almost 90% of the items are equally distributed between the f’ust two subgroups (115 items; see Table M33 below); about one tenth form the third subgroup. This miscellaneous set of texts includes eleven chronicle items, two from Bede, and one each from Byrhtferth’s Manual and Boethius. Table M33: Proportion of mund-words in Other category by type of text Poetic Relig. Prose Misc. Total # of words 58 57 15 130 % of 130 44.5 44 11.5 100% % of 249 23 23 6 52% # of hand-words -_2_2 i _-I_l :24 # w/o hand-words 36 55 15 106 % of 106 34 52 14 100% % of 249 14 22 6 42% Almost all the mund-words with the Hand sense fall into the Other category here (24 of 25, 96%), and of these 24, 22 are used in poetry and two in homilies. The words in poetry are either the dative plural mundum (‘with hands’) or are the compound mund-gripe (used only in Beowulf). The two uses in homilies both mean the measure ‘hand-span.’ The question one can raise is whether the hand-sense can be completely separated from the legal-protection sense, and we can attempt to answer this based on our understanding of language in general. Etymologically, the two senses are connected in the concept ‘protecting hand.’ When we translate, we choose one sense or the other, depending on context (notice that the hand-sense does not appear at all in glosses, and only once in legal texts-in the code L_a_v1g1_’_P_a§ cited in Note 4, above). While we choose a particular sense in translating, we know that poets 48 often purposefully use words which carry more than one meaning to add depth or ambiguity or richness to their poetry; at other times, the words may carry this richness in spite of or irrespective of poets’ intentions. However, the Beowulf- poet formed the compound mundgripe when he could just as well have made it handgripe or folmgripe: there is much hand-irnagery in Beowulf which the mund terms amplify because they indicate simultaneously the hand sense and the protection sense under discussion here. In Beowulf these semantic links reinforce the conflict between the proper use of strength and the security it provides versus the malicious use of personal power that destroys security. We can summarize by commenting that mund-words with the hand-sense occur almost exclusively in poetic contexts (very occasionally also in religious prose). Perhaps we can conclude from this that the other words for the hand concept (folm, hand) are more important for giving that concept alone, “unloaded,” while the mund-words are more important for the dual sense of ‘protecting hand’ (with its legal connotation). We can continue to describe the Other category in its three subgroups by looking at the mund-words there which have the protection sense. Now we find (Table M33) 106 items, 42% of-the total mund-field, still a significant proportion. Just over one half of these items occur in homiletic texts, with about one third in poetry and 14% in the miscellaneous subgroup. The 58 mund-words in the Other category occurring in poetic texts, then, consist of 22 with the hand sense and 36 with the protection sense, a ratio of about 2 : 3. However, the 57 mund items in homiletic material consist of only two with the hand sense and 55 with the protection sense, and these 55 make up over 20% of the entire mund-field. This subgroup is thus an important one to study for its use of mund-words with the legal sense, and the interesting question to be examined further in future research will be why writers of homiletic material choose mund-words for the concept ‘protection’ in some cases, and other words with the protection sense in other cases: is there a particular type-scene that elicits the mund-words? or is some other factor or factors responsible, such as ..... v. .n.\..... 49 metrical needs in poetry or legal connotations whether in prose or verse works? We can look at IElfric’s works to help answer this question. Although IElfric is generally referred to as Abbot of Eynsham (where he governed from 1005 until his death after 1010), he produced much of his large body of work while head of the school at Cemel (987-1005).“ Trained under the reforming bishop lEthelwold, [Elfric composed two series of homilies and a set of metrical saints’ lives (done at Eynsham), all of which formed an intentionally encyclopedic work that dealt with universal history (Gatch 12). As he worked he was carefully expounding in the vernacular a theology “in accordance with strict orthodoxy as it was understood in the reformed monastic schools” (Gatch 15) and in an elegant alliterative prose style that several scholars have argued was influential on early Middle English prose.12 Thirty-three items in this study come from lElfric’s homilies and saints’ lives. My tentative answer to the question above is that there is indeed a type-scene that elicits the mund- words in about one third of [Elfiic’s Catholic Homilies (which number 85) and. Lives of Saints (39 of them by lElfric). Elfric uses both scyld-words and mund-words in contexts where protection occurs, in what seems at fust to be 3 general synonyrnity. In a passage where both kinds of words are used together in “On Auguries,” readers are told that the Christian man must not make inquiries in the old way at stones or wells or trees (the fridgeards mentioned below in Chapter Three), but instead that he “must cry to his Lord with mind and with mouth, and beseech His protection [his munda abiddan], that He may shield him against the devil’s snares” [pat he hine scylde wid deofles syrwunga], (Skeat’s trans., AELS XVII, lines 136-38). The use of mund and scyld in this passage suggests a possible distinction between the two words: the shielding is against something, while the protection exists in itself. We can also observe that the shielding is in this ‘1 M. Gatoh. WWWWmm: U of Toronto P, 1977) 12. 12 D. Bethurum, “The Connection of the Katherine Group with Old English Prose,“ JfiGfi 34 (1935) 553-64; Fl. W. Chambers. 'On the Continuity of English Prose from Alfred to More and His School," Wale ed E V HitchcockandFi W Chambers EETS 0--8 191 (London: 1932) [rpt. separately as EEl'S o. s. 1913 (London: 1966]. ilitls‘; rise ‘11., 50 world (albeit against a spiritual adversary), and call it horizontal, while the protection comes from eternity and could be described as vertical. The horizontal shielding is an act initiated by a person’s prayer, whereas the vertical protection is the result of a relationship with someone in authority and exists regardless of particular situations or acts. This distinction is borne out as we examine all the other passages in lElfric that use scyld- and mund— words (66 passages in 46 homilies and saints’ lives). The protection indicated by scyld-words has its source in the same Guardian as the protection indicated by the mund-words, but the two protections operate in different modes. [Elfric’s use of this lexical distinction helps differentiate the mund-words in his works from the larger set of Old English protection words in Old English, and it helps to define the mund concept more clearly, especially as it occurs in [Elfric but with possible extensions to other writers. It also demonstrates Ailfric’s consistent use of 3 precise distinction between a pair of words that could seem at first to be interchangeable synonyms. The 58 items in the Poetic subgroup of the Other category are located in 23 titles, identified in Table M3b. About one fifth are in Beowulf and include ten items with the hand sense and two (mundbora) with the protection sense: this is the only title with more mund-words that mean ‘hand’ than those with the protection-sense, and this fact emphasizes the importance of hand imagery in Beowulf. Another 14% of the Poetic items occur in Genesis (eight items, including three with the hand-sense), about one tenth occur in Guthlac, and nearly one tenth are in Andreas (including two with hand-sense). The Paris Psalter has 7% of these items, Christ and Juliana have 5% each, and about 3% are in Judith. The eight titles just mentioned include 74% of these 58 items. Iiibil 51 Table M3b: Location of mund-words in Poetic Texts Beowulf 12 items 21% of 58 \ Genesis A, B 8 14% Guthlac A, B 6 10% Andreas 5 9% F 74% Paris Psalter 4 7% Christ 3 5% Juliana 3 5% Judith 2 3% / plus 15, one each in three riddles, Capture of Five Boroughs, Dream of the Rood, Elene, Exhortations, 11911, Kentish Psalm, Lord’s Prayer II, Maxims, Metrical Charm 9 (for loss of cattle), Metrical Epilogue to Bede, Phoeni_x, and Resignation: .12 2.9% 58 100 The 57 items in the Homiletic subgroup of the Other category are described in Table M3c below. Nineteen of these items (33%) occur in texts identified as Ailfric’s; these consist of eight homilies from the first and second series of Catholic Homilies and his homily on Judith, ten from his Lives of m plus one from a tract called “The Twelve Abuses.” An additional fifteen items (26%) are miscellaneous homilies, three from the Blickling collection, one from the Vercelli Book, and twelve from homilies and lives of saints which are often bound up in manuscripts with material from Elfric. Almost 60% of the homiletic material, then, is either from this miscellaneous matter or is lElfric’s. An additional one fifth of these homiletic items come from Wulfstan (eight with the formula made and munde, and four others). There are also eight items from Gregory’s Dialogues. 52 Table M3c: Location of mund-words in Religious Prose Elfric 19 items 33% of 57 misc. homilies & saints’ lives 15 26% Wulfstan 12 2 1 % Gregory’s M. 8 14% Mart, Ps Hd _3 fl 57 (99) Of the eight items in Gregory, four are forms of mundbora, translated in Zimmerman” as “protector” of the church. The editor explains that this protector is “an ecclesiastical official who acted as spokesman for the church when its rights were in question” (20). The other four items are forms of mundbyrd used to designate God’s protection or that of a saint interceding in the lives of supplicants. The items in Wulfstan illustrate the archbishop’s concerns for the developing English nation and his interests in guiding it. In eight of those items he uses the formula made and munde, honor (or respect) and protection. Dorothy Bethurum writes in her edition of his homilies”: “if the many articles of legislation written by Wulfstan to protect [rights of the clergy] are reliable evidence, there must have been widespread indifference to them,” and she lists nine law codes (311 of which supply relevant items to this study) authored by Wulfstan which define “the position of the clergy and [insist] on their rights” (357). Dorothy Whitelock refers to several items in this group, all of which ‘3 John Zimmerman. trans. Wiles. vol. 39 01W WM (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc, 1959) 20. 14 D. Bethurum, WW (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1957); the nine law codes are Gepyncdo, Grid, 59,. Nordleoda Iaga, Hadbot V Ethelred VI iEthelred VIII Ethelred II Cnut. 53 were concerned with status, as a private compilation of Wulfstan’slS; the issue of status—defining it, establishing it and maintaining it-pervades much of Wulfstan’s writing. In Grip 3, Wulfstan writes hwilum waran heafodstedas and healice hadas micelre made and munde wyrde and gridian mihton pa, be has bedorfton and harm sohtan, aa be dare made he part0 gebyrede ; here “made has the technical meaning of the rights belonging to 3 particular station, and munde is also used in its legal sense” (Bethurum 357); Thorpe translates the passage as “and formerly the chief places and exalted degrees were entitled to great dignity and ‘mund’ [protection] and could give ‘grith’ [sanctuary] to those who needed it, and sought it, always according to the dignity which appertained thereto” (141; my brackets). In Sermo Lupi ad A_ngl_oslo Wulfstan laments that Godes peowas syndan make and munde gewelhwarbedcelde (“the people of God are everywhere deprived of respect and protection,” repeated verbatim in 291310.17 He recommends that cristene scoldan Godes lage healdan and Godes peowas gridian (“Christians ought to keep God’s law and protect God’s servants,” 11. 32-35). In another homily, where the context is a discussion of wicked men seeking the wrong things, those who love the right for God’s sake are deprived of made and munde all too often. In 139113, peOple who seek honor and protection more for the world than for the church are described as evil. In a homiletic context where he is praising what we all should do, he writes that the “church is better in respect of made and munde than it was formerly: that is, that sanctuary within a church [ciricgrid] and protection [handgrid] provided by a consecrated king stand equally inviolate” (a phrase from 6 Atr 14). And finally, in Law of Gepypcdo 7 he has recommended that “if there were a scholar who prospered in his learning 15 Whitelock includes in this ”compilation on status” texts called by Liebermann Gepyncdo, Nordleoda laga, Mircna Iaga, A_d, Hadbot, and writes "much of what is known of status in Anglo- Saxon times comes from these texts, which should not be regarded as official enactments but as a private compilation“; D. Whitelock, ed., English Histgriggl Dggpmgnts VQ. l: g. 332-] M2, 2nd ed. (London: Methuen, 1979) 468. 15 D. Whitelock, ed., W, 3rd ed. (London: Methuen, 1963). 17 ThestandardeditionisKarlJost,ed., "In“ fPIi " E i t' ': ' I W Swiss Studies in English 47 (Bem: Francke, 1959). 54 so that he took orders and served Christ, he should afterwards be entitled to so much honor and protection as belonged by rights to that order” (Whitelock BEE p.469). We can see from this set of passages the concern Wulfstan had with restoring and maintaining a kind of order in which proper status was a primary value. In addition to the oft-repeated formula made & munde, other mund- words repeat in Wulfstan. In a confessional text associated with his writings, a list of good works to be done indicates that hushleow [shelter] and mete and munde are to be given to the needy, as well as fire and fodder and bed and bath. In 3 homily quoted above (and the passage repeated word for word in Erlity), Wulfstan writes about the duties of 3 Christian king: “It is his duty, with all his power, to upraise Christianity, and everywhere to further and protect [fridie] and defend [mundie] God’s servants, and establish peace among and reconcile all Christian people, with just law,” and so forth (Thorpe 422). Finally, a passage of Wulfstan’s (Homily 19 in Bethurum’s edition) uses three of the four terms in this study to reveal Wulfstan’s ultimate objective for the country in his work; the archbishop paraphrases from Leviticus 26 where God speaks to Moses about the responsibilities of leadership: “and I give you prosperity and plenty and enough, and you will dwell in the land in peace and in security under my protection” (on gride and on fride under minre munde; my trans.). CHAPTER THREE: The F rid-words headword: frid mn. peace, truce; protection, refuge; violation of these fridu fm. peace, protection (poetry only) verbs: fridian to make peace with, to protect, to set free fridsumian to reconcile, make peace between compounds cyricfrid mn. penalty for violating right of sanctuary & other deorfrid n. preservation of game forms: fenfreodo f. fen-refuge ferdfridende adj. life-sustaining frid wk. adj. beautiful frida m. protector fridad m. oath of peace fridbena m. suppliant fridbrec f. breach of the peace fridburg f. city of refuge fridcandel f. the sun fridgeard m. sanctuary, court of peace fridgeorn adj. peaceable fridgewrit or. peace agreement fridgild n. peace-guild fridgisl m. peace-hostage fridhus n. sanctuary 55 56 fridland n. friendly territory fridmal 11. article of peace fridmann m. man under special protection fridobeacen 11. sign of peace fridoburh f. stronghold fridoscealc m. angel fridosibb f. peace-bringer fridosped f. abundant peace fridotacn 11. sign of peace fridodeawas mp. peaceful state fridowang m. peaceful plain fridowaar f. treaty of peace fridoweard m. angel fridowebba m. peace-maker fridowebbe f. peace-maker fridscip n. ship for defense fridsocn f. sanctuary fridsplott m. peace-spot, sanctuary fridstol m. sanctuary fridstow f. sanctuary fridwite 11. penalty for violation of peace madelfrid mn. security enjoyed by pub. assemblies unfridflota m. hostile fleet unfridhere m. hostile army unfridland n. hostile land unfridmann m. alien enemy unfridscip n. hostile ship woroldfrid n. worldly peace derivatives: fridiend m. protector fridleas adj. peaceless 57 fridleasa m. outlaw fridlic adj. mild, lenient fridsum adj. peaceful unfi'id adj. hostile unfrid m. hostility Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts To continue to describe the semantic field for the Old English concept ‘legal protection,’ we now consider the second and largest group of words, the frid-words. F rid means ‘peace, (national security); truce’ and ‘protection; refuge, sanctuary’; because in its second sense frid is nearly synonymous with some senses of mund and is used in legal texts to mean protection, it is included in this study. The frid- words form the largest group both in terms of number of items (520) and in terms of the number of individual words included in the word-field (56). Etymology There are two distinct roots for the frid-words in Old English, one which produces the legal term under discussion here and another which produces the frid-word which means “a wood of some kind, or wooded country collectively;” also, “3 piece of land grown sparsely with trees or . . . a space between woods; unused pasture;” and “brushwood . . . sometimes forming a hedge” (OED frith sb2). OED explains here that there may have been some confusion between this term and “frith sb1 23: game preserve, deer park”; also, the hedge sense may be regarded as a special use of ‘frith sbl’ (since it protects, provides security, and so forth). 58 The OED distinguishes the legal term we are considering here from that meaning ‘wood; pasture; hedge’ and calls it ‘frith sbl’ with the senses “1) peace; freedom from molestation, protection; safety, security.” Other senses include “23) a game-preserve, deer-park” (attested in the Anglo-Saxon Chroniclel) and the combined forms ‘frith-guild’ and ‘frith-soken’; ‘frith-stool’ has its own entry (more on this term below). I am omitting the wood/pasture/hedge words (OED sb.2) hereafter. In its etymology frid is connected with ‘free’ and ‘friend’ through its Old Teutonic root, *fr’i-, to love; this is descended from the root *pri to love (O_ED; and, pri— in the American Heritage Dictionapy Appendix, based on pra—i- of Pokomy 844). The descent of the Old English legal term frid from roots meaning love or dear involves the idea of related members of a household distinguishing themselves (as loved, kin) from un-free members of the same household (D12 sub Free). The participial form of the same root yields ‘friend,’ and a shortened form of this gives in Germanic a word for peace. The sequence ‘free, friend, peace’ is developed in w Appendix (1536 at pri— , to love) more specifically as “1) extended form *priyo- in Germanic *frijaz, beloved, belonging to the loved ones, not in bondage, free, in OE fre—o free. 2) suffixed (participial) form *priyont-, loving, in Germanic *frijand-, lover, friend, in OE fri—ond, fre—ond, friend. 3) suffixed shortened form *pri-tu- in Germanic *frithuz, peace, in a) OHG fridu, peace, b) Frankish *fi'ithu, *fridu, peace, c) Germanic *frij- peace, safety.” The OE fi'idu (friodu, freodu) str. masc. and fem., andfrid str. neut., are cognate with O. Fris. fretho, frede, ferd, O. Sax. frith, m., OHG fridu, ON frid-r, and Goth. *fripu-s. OE fridian is from this same root (OED; Holthausen), and QED gives its senses as “1) to keep in peace, make peace with; to secure from disturbance, defend, help, preserve, protect. 2) to free, liberate.” 1 Whitelock translates he satte mycel dear-frid ”he made great protection for the game“ in M W (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 1961) 165. 59 Definitions F rid ’8 two major senses, peace and protection, are closely related. The power to protect, associated both with particular persons and with special places, creates conditions of peace round about or wherever that power inheres; indeed, the Anglo-Saxon concept ‘legal protection’ develops over time into what is still known in English law as the King’s Peace. Clark Hall lists the two main senses as “peace, tranquility, security, refuge; privilege of special protection, and penalty for the breach of it”; refuge, it seems to me, belongs in the second sense. Holthausen describes the senses as “peace, truce; protection, defense; calm, quiet; security, safety; asylum, refuge; public order.” In _l)_i§_ Gesetze der Angelsachsen, Liebermann gives nine separate senses (nine different kinds of laws) after giving “peace, truce” as the main sense: “1) state of peace, reconciliation; 2) frid and friendship: a) civil (internal) compatibility, and b) national unity between the English and the Danes; 3) national public order; 4) enjoyment of the right of safety and security; 5) ordinances regarding public order; 6) international peace treaty (terms of peace); 7) international personal protection (i.e., laws regarding hostages); 8) privilege of sanctuary belonging to 3 church, and the penalty for its violation; and, 9) criminal law governing incomes from peacebreakers”2 (my trans.). For the verb fridian, Holthausen gives “to make peace; to protect, defend; to love, cherish, to preserve, care for; to guard, keep; to plead of behalf of; to observe, watch;” Clark Hall’s list is essentially the same. Liebermann gives “to bring peace to; to protect with security, safety.” We know that fridian also means ‘to set free’ because it translates eripio and libero in the prose Psalter. Most frequently, frid means peace, the public security which the Anglo- Saxons gradually created and worked hard at trying to maintain. Many law 2 "Frieda. 1) Friedenszustand, Versbhnlichkeit 2) frid and freondscipe a) mitbiirgerliche Vertraglichkeit b) staatl. Einung zwischen Danen und Engluandem 3) staatliche Ordnung, polizeiliche Sicherheit 4) Genuss privater Sicherheit 5) Polizeianordnung, Sicherheitgesetz 6) intemationaler Friedensvertrag 7) intemationaler Privatschutz 8) bevorrechteter Schutzgenuss und die fur dessen Verletzung fallige Busse 9) Strafrecht fiber Friedlose samt Ertrag (2: 82). of of iii” If Elia 60 codes begin with a preamble stating that the ordinances are for the preservation of the public peace. These almost always appear in a second or third law code of a given king, issued in an attempt to reinforce earlier decrees; examples are in codes known as Alfred and Guthrum, Edward and Guthrum 2 Edward, 3_ Athelstan, 3 Edgar and 3 lEthelred. F rid can refer to the peace purchased for particular districts (as in 2 IEthelred 1 et 31.). In addition, frid can mean truce or the particular terms of a treaty. Approximately three quarters of the items which comprise the frid-words have some form of this PEACE-sense. The remaining quarter of the frid-words have the PROTECTION-sense, either the protection provided by a person or that of a place of refuge. The legal term frid, as well as the verb fridian and several compounds,3 survived into Middle English and seem to have been in common use at least as late as the fourteenth century (according to _O_ED and ME. ME_D lists an added sense (“customary law within a manor; right to administer such laws”) and other compounds (frith-fm, frith-peni, frith-net, frith-silver) which were associated with this newer sense: frith meant “law and order” and as English law developed, this term developed with it. F rid as “wooded land” (with several compounds) was also in common use in the Middle English period; context and compounding presumably kept the two words distinct for their users. Old English Glasses of Latin Texts Twelve of the fourteen glosses of Latin texts employing Old English frid- words occur in interlinear glosses of Bible texts. Five of these are in glosses to the Rushworth Gospel of Matthew, two are in the Lindisfame Matthew, and one each occurs in the glosses of the Durham Ritual, Durham Proverbs and three manuscripts of the Psalter. Bede’s metrical life of St. Cuthbert contains one frid gloss, and the 3 IDE ‘fridborg, lit. 'peace-pledge': the word, though found in no document earlier than the spurious ‘Laws of Edward the Confessor' is certainly genuine. A mistranslation of the corrupt form friborg, freoborggave rise to the later name Frankpiedge' (QED, s.v. Frithborh); more on fridborgin F. E. Harmer. W (Stamford: P. Watkins, 1989) 405. Neither fridborgnor friborhis attested In OE. 61 Antwerp Glossary also has one frid item. Locations of mund— frid- grid- and borg- words in glosses of Latin texts are listed in Chapter 6, Tables 13 and 1b. Of the fourteen Latin words glossed by frid-words, eight mean ‘peace’ (six are pax; however, pax is most frequently glossed by sibb in Old English4). One item glosses 3 noun form of propitiatio (appeasement, something offered to make peace). Three of the remaining five items denote asylum, and one other Latin term has a less clear relationship to this field (‘to control or keep straight,’ for fridian, in Bede). These uses offrid-words to gloss Latin are thus a quite insignificant proportion of the total field. However, fridian translates Latin terms in the prose paraphrase/translation of the first 50 Psalms, and these terms are listed in Table F33 (below, Section 3, p. 78). Section 2: Description of the Field The purpose in describing the frid-field will be to show how it is related to the legal concept mund, and to show how it is used, both in legal texts and elsewhere. This field overlaps the mund-field where frid means protection, and both protection and peace are closely related legal concepts which are also used extensively in other texts. The FREEDOM-sense will be treated as a minor one because it is less closely related to the mund concept: it is never used as a legal concept, and it appears only in a very limited kind of writing. The 520 items in the frid-field make it the largest of the four under consideration, and its 43 compounds and 56 total number of different words give this group by far the greatest number of different lexical items to consider. However, this word-field is no more complex than the other three. The frid-field (illustrated in Chart F23, below) has two major divisions, and two minor divisions. The PEACE-sense (291 items of 520, or 56%), comprises the subsenses ‘peace, national peace, public security, safety’ (267 items, 51%) as well as ‘truce, terms of truce, alliance’ (20 items, 4%). 4 By scanning the entries for sibb in the WWW one can see that sibb very frequently glosses pax 62 Table F1: Latin frid-word equivalents in Glosses and Glossary frid fridian fridstol fridsum fridgeorn fridhus pax, pacis, f. 6 (peace) propitiatio, -0nis, f. 1 (appeasement) rego, regere 1 (to control) libero, -are (to free, release) 1 refitgium, -ii, 11. 1 (refuge) pacificus, -a, -um, aj. 1 1 (peaceful) munitus, -a, -um, aj. 1 (protected, secure) asylum, -i, n. 1 (asylum) 14 items, 2.7% of total field 63 Four uses of the verb fridian for ‘to make peace, to secure’ makes up another 1% of the total field. The second major portion of the field is the PROTECTION-sense (147 items of 520, 28% of the total field), and this comprises the subsenses ‘protection (and shelter, immunity, help) provided by persons’ (49 items, 9%) and ‘refuge, sanctuary, asylum, the protection provided by particular places’ (42 items, 8%). The 56 uses offridian meaning ‘to protect’ or its equivalent make up 11% of the total field. There are also two minor divisions. The third section of this word-field is formed mainly by the 39 uses of fridian meaning ‘to set free, deliver, redeem’ and so forth: three quarters (28) of these items occur in one title, the prose translation of the Psalter, and the remainder in religious prose (9 items) or poetic saints’ lives (2 items). There are also four uses of nouns translated as ‘freedom.’ In addition, another minor division of the field contains four miscellaneous items and 35 other items which I have called ‘negated senses’: the unfrid-group5 (32 items used only in laws and chronicle; ‘hostile’) and the fridleas-group (used twice in poetry, once in law; ‘barbarian, outlaw’). The totals for these divisions of the field include 14 Latin glosses (less than 3% of the total field; see Table F1). The arrangement of this field’s sense divisions just described shows two major areas: PEACE (56%) and, exactly half its size, PROTECTION (28%); the negated senses (which are actually ‘negative peace,’ 7%) can be seen as a sub- division within the PEACE-sense. The whole could be illustrated: PEACE (63%) PROTECTION (28%) FREEDOM (8%) Misc. (1%) peace 52% protection 19% neg. peace 7% refuge 9% truce 4% 5 See Christine E. Fell, "Unfrid An Approach to A Definition,” mm W (1982/83): 85-100, for a discussion of these words. Table F23: Senses of the frid-field I. PEACE-sense (56%) 51% 1. public peace, security 4% 2. truce, alliance 1% verb: to make, be at, peace; to secure II. PROTECTION-sense (28.6%) 9% 1. 8% 2. 11% verb: to protect III. FREEDOM-sense (7.9%) 1% 1. freedom 7% verb: to set free, deliver protection (by person) refuge (prov. by place) 64 fri d 235 IV. Negated senses and Miscellaneous (7.5%) 7% unfrid (32), fridleas (3): 35 1% Miscellaneous: to respect (2) strength (1) beautiful (1) _ 100% Total: 520 35 7% 279 54% fridu fridian Other 9 23 14 4 7 16 33 58 1 37 2 1 _ _ ._1 16 101 89 3% 19% 17% 65 The 56 different words which make up the frid-field (analyzed in Appendix F), fall easily into just five categories: frid, the headword; fridu, its u-declension equivalent; fridian the verbal form; the negated category (unfrid and fridleas groups); and all other forms. As noted in Table F23, there are 279 instances offrid: the head-word occupies 54% of the entire field. Of these items, 235 mean ‘peace, public peace, national security, safety’; thus, 45% of the entire field has this one primary sense offrid. F ridian is used only rarely in constructions signifying ‘make or be at peace’; this sense is most often created with the noun frid and 3 verbal collocation as we shall see below. F ridian is used much more frequently meaning ‘to protect’ (58 items, 11% of entire field), and meaning ‘to set free, deliver’ (37 items, 7%; most of these—27 items-are in the prose Psalter translation). F ridu occupies just 3% of the field with its 16 items. The 35 items in the negated category make up 7% of the field. There are 89 items in the remaining category of Chart F23 (Other), making up 17% of the field, but this includes 44 different words, mostly compounds on frid or fridu (approximately an equal number of each); most of these compounds are used in laws only, or in poetry only (approximately an equal number of each kind). All but three of these compounds are used in the PEACE-sense or the PROTECTION-sense (see Table F2b for a list of these compounds). As one can see from this analysis of Table F23, the frid-field, even with its large number of items and many compounds, is not particularly complex in its arrangement. That there were so many compounds formed to designate various particular legal senses shows that this was an important and useful legal term; that an equally large number of compounds was formed to indicate concepts in poetry shows that this important legal concept was very useful in texts other than legal ones as well. 66 Table F2b: Location of frid-words in the field (head-word and compounds) PEACE-sense 1. peace, security, safety 2. truce, alliance PROTECTION-sense 1 . protection, help immunity, indemnity, shelter Law Chronicle Religious Poetry Prose frid fridland fridsum fridu unfrid fridad fridsumian fridowar fridgild unfrid fridgeorne friduscealc fridgisl unfridhere fridusped fridwyte unfridflota friduwebba madelfrid fridcandel fridusibb fridotacn fridobeawas frid fridbrec fridman fridburg fridgewritu fridmal woroldfrid unfridland unfridman unfridscip frid deorfrid fridiend fridu fridlic frida ferdfridende fridbena fridobeacen fridscip fridweard Table F2b (cont’d) 2. refuge, asylum, sanctuary Freedom-sense 1. freedom Law frid cyricfrid fridsocn fridgeard fridsplott frid 67 Chronicle Religious Poetry Prose fridstol fridoburh fridstow fridowang fridhus fenfreodo (fridg eard) fridiend Having described the static arrangement of the frid-field’s contents, we can now add the collocations of verbs with the nouns under consideration to see how the terms were used by the Anglo-Saxons. This helps clarify the meanings of the terms and concepts in the frid- field. The number of times such collocations are used in the FREEDOM-sense is virtually nil; they are more numerous in the PROTECTION-sense and most numerous in the PEACE-sense. Particularly interesting is the fact that, in the PEACE-sense of the field (which makes up over half the total field), almost all uses of frid-words occur in noun- verb collocations. We can describe the range of meanings available across the frid-field by briefly surveying the meanings created with collocations for PEACE and PROTECTION, as illustrated in Table F2c. 68 Table F2c: Senses of the frid-field created with noun-verb collocations I. PEACE-sense (216 items) a) peace, national peace, 9 public security: 11 3 1 1 4 79 23 1 6 1 2 3 1 5 b) truce, alliance: 2 1 II. PROTECT’ION-sense (56 items) a) protection 1 l O 2 2 8 8 3 b) sanctuary 2 1 5 9 c) refuge 2 3 to offer, give, keep in peace to wish for, desire peace to ask or beg for, seek peace to buy or give money for peace to make, establish, confirm peace to obtain, have, dwell in peace to maintain, keep, love peace to improve or promote peace to go or pass in peace to scorn, break or violate peace to sue for or ask for truce to reach town included in truce to go for shelter to ask or beseech for protection to be entitled to protection to find or enjoy protection to have, dwell in, be given prot’n to protect, to give or maintain prt’n to determine merciful punishments to grant rt. of, or appoint, sanctuary to stand as sanctuary to seek sanctuary to be called to or have sanctuary to offer or make refuge to ask for refuge or gain refuge 69 One of the motives the Anglo-Saxons had for drawing up their law codes was to try to create for their land the peace and security that is frid’s primary sense. One of the senses under Peace in Table F3, then, is to ‘make, establish, or confirm peace’: the Preamble to the Laws of Edward and Guthrum states that these laws were agreed upon “when the English and the Danes entered into relations of peace and friendship”6 in the time just after Alfred’s reign (item F237). And Cnut’s proclamation of 1020 states that the Pope had urged him to “establish perfect security”7 through the power which God had given him (F147). Once established, this peace and security should be ‘maintained, kept and loved.’ In 5 lEthelstan (early 10th century), the king “learned that the public peace [had] not been kept to the extent”8 his earlier decrees had ordained (F12), and 5 and 6 Aithelstan are a series of instructions to his lords, bishops, ealdormen, and shire-reeves that they “should observe the provisions for public security”9 throughout his dominions (F103). The continuing peace was to be further developed as well: it was to be ‘improved and promoted.’ 5 [Ethelred 33 exhorts people to “zealously suppress every kind of injustice” because it is only by doing that “in matters both religious and secular, that any improvement shall be obtained in the condition of our country.”10 Earlier, in Ethelstan’s time, peace associations (fridgilds, F490, 491) had been established for this purpose; these contained the “tithings” and “hundreds” which may have eventually developed into the “frankpledge” of later times. Promotion of security is mentioned along with improvement of coinage in laws of Edgar, Aithelred and Cnut (F210-14, 217- 19). Security was to be promoted to benefit householder and to “be worst for the thief"; coinage was to be improved so that there would be “one currency 3 F. L. Attenborough, ed. and trans., W (1922; New York: AMS Press, 1974) 103. 7 A. J. Robertson. ed. and trans., Tpg Lags pf thg lfings gt Emlgm frgp Egmung tg ngy I (1925; New York: AMS Press, 1974) 141. 9 Attenborough 153. 9 Attenborough 169. 10 Robertson 89. 70 throughout all the country”11 (6_A_t_r 31; 32.1). This linking of laws on security and coinage shows the relationship between peace and security and the regulation of commerce. One could buy, or pay for peace (F268): many items of the unfrid-group are used in 2 [Ethelred which was drawn up somewhere between 991 and 994, just after the battle of Maldon and the buying of peace from the Danes in 991. Trading with the Danes must have been exciting business: 2 IEthelred is full of stipulations about territories, ships, and persons, who are either included in or excluded from the truce. Hostages (fridgisl) could be given to ensure peace while these commercial transactions were taking place (F291, 511). It took the deaths of eight persons to constitute breach of the truce (F462); fewer deaths were merely compensated by wergeld. One can see in all these 13w codes an attempt to develop and improve conditions in the country which would benefit both individuals and groups, an attempt to regulate both parties in the conflicts that continually threatened to destroy security. In addition to ‘peace, the security of the country,’ frid refers in the laws to ‘protection’ as well. In 3 lEthelred, a criminal whose deed has been broadcast is not “entitled to protection” (frid). However, even proven murderers or perjurers might be entitled to protection if they are near the king and they are fridbenan-supplicants for protection-and if they have already made their amends to the church first (F488, 489). 2 rEthelred 2-3 stipulates conditions in which protection shall be given to merchant ships, their crewmen, their goods, and subjects of ASthelred dealing with them in or out of specified towns, or houses, or seaside locations. The king’s hunting preserves were to be protected, of course (F389; the deorfrid of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, F501). Some laws stipulate that outlaws should not receive protection (F313, 332, 333, 514) by an individual or region; only the king could give protection, if he decided to, to an outlaw (F209, for example); this principle runs throughout Anglo-Saxon law. 11 Robertson 131. 71 Just as peOple can give protection, so can specified places: frid-words can denote aspects of sanctuary and refuge in the laws. For example, to illustrate this concept, we can note that $12 defines fridstol “OE only: a place of safety, a refuge” and then as “a seat, usually of stone, formerly placed near the altar in some churches, which afforded inviolable protection to those who sought privilege of sanctuary.”12 The idea of sanctuary and asylum was an old one, even to the Anglo- Saxons: the refuge found at pagan sanctuaries (fridgeard; fridsplott) was legislated against in two law codes and the treatise referred to as Canons of E_dgg (F494, 496, 497). The refuge which could be sought in churches was well defined and highly compensated. Alfred’s law code (cap. 5) stipulates that “we grant to every church consecrated by a bishop the right of sanctuary,”13 dis frid, and the code goes on to describe the practices relating to this cirican frid (5.4) in careful detail. The introduction to Alfred’s laws states that, even though he who slays another should die, if it were not premeditated he can save his life for bat, if he seeks refuge. A criminal who “seeks sanctuary” and “thereby finds refuge for his life” gains one of three possibilities in Law of Grid 16: “wergeld, perpetual thralldom, [or] imprisonment” (F433). The term for a breach of peace affecting the church is cyric frid (F476-78). But even someone who commits murder in a church, if he escapes and makes it into the king’s presence (where he “reaches so inviolable a sanctuary,” a fridsocn), may have his life granted to him if the king so chooses. From this brief survey of legal and political ideas which involve the frid- words we can see how the senses of this field-peace, national security, and truce; and protection, by persons and at places-involved the frid-words and the ranges of sense listed in Table F2c. We can now begin to appreciate the importance of this legal concept as we describe its use in texts other than legal 12 QEQ's example citations come from 17th through 19th century tour-guide books; this shows that the term survived or, more probably, was reactivated by entiquarians who could have found it easily in wow. 72 01188 . Section 3: Location of items in type of text: Law, Charter, History, Gloss, Glossary, Other Once the various senses of the frid-words have been distinguished and their anangement described, we can show how the terms are used in different kinds of texts and list their frequency there. Law codes and charters can be grouped together as Legal Texts, interlinear glosses can be grouped with glossaries as OE Glosses, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Orosius can form a History group,14 and all other texts can be placed in the Other category. The 56 different Old English words that constitute the frid-field are listed in Table F3, and individual items are listed with more information regarding inflexions, contexts, and meanings in Appendix F. In the previous section, the frid-field was shown to be made up of 3 PEACE-sense, 63%, (including NEGATED-PEACE terms) 3 PROTECTION-sense, 28%, a FREEDOM-sense, 8%, and Miscellaneous items, _1% 100% For simplicity of discussion in the following section I have shifted the two uses offridian as ‘respect’ and gefiydsum as ‘strength’ to the PROTECTION-sense. I have moved frid ‘beautiful’ to the PEACE-sense (‘beautiful’ in the sense of ‘tranquil, peaceful’). Combining these ideas from Table F23 with the totals illustrated in Table F3, we can see that the frid-field could be represented as 14 Since only eleven words in the mund-field came from historical writing, they were not separated out in Section 3 of the previous chapter. The same will be true for the borg chapter below. For the frid- and grid- words, however, historical sources are a substantial subgroup within the field as a whole and thereby merit a separate category. 73 326 PEACE words 63% of total field 153 PROTECTION words 29% A1 FREEDOM words 8% 520 total 100% . Several things are apparent from Table F3. Although the total number of items in this field is very high, and the number of different words is also very high, a) the largest number of different words is concentrated in the Legal and Other areas, and b) the largest number of items (mostly frid and the unfrid group) is in the History area. Old English glosses of Latin constitute only 2.5% of the field and frid- words in charters only about 1%; neither of these areas will be discussed in itself further. Despite large numbers of items, the history area uses only a few of the total number of different words. Also interesting is the fact that each of the many compounds formed on frid is usually found in either laws or in poetry, not in both. These patterns will be examined at greater length below as 3 way of describing the frid-words’ importance as legal terms used in non-legal texts. Legal Less than a fifth of the entire frid-field is occupied by legal terms: 18% of the words are used in laws; about 1% in charters; the 18% of the field taken up by words in law codes is similar to the 15% share of the mund- words found in law codes (Chapter Two, Section 3). The legal texts use 24 of the 56 different frid-words (eight hapaxes, four unfrid words, and twelve others), 43% of the total number; of the 43 different compounds formed with frid (or unfrid) and another substantive, twenty occur in the laws (while fourteen different compounds are used in poetry; see Table F2b). Of the 97 frid-words occurring in legal texts, 63% (61 items, 12% of the total field) have the PEACE-sense, while 37% (36 items, 7% of the total field) have the PROTECTION-sense. Of these 97 words, 21 occur in 2 Aithelred. This law code illustrates the precise use of frid compounds in legal texts: it 74 Table F3: Location of frid-words by type of text (in each column, PEACE-sense + PROTECTION-sense) Legal Glosses Total Law Charter History Gloss Glossary Other frid 276 33+12 1+0 149+2 7+0 49+23 fridu l6 9+7 fridian 64 1+11 0+1 3+3 0+1 0+44 unfrid-group (7 words) 32 7+0 25+0 fridstol 13 0+1 0+1 0+2 0+1 0+8 fridstow 7 0+1 0+6 fridi end 4 0+4 fridowar 5 4+1 fridbrec 3 2+0 1+0 fridleas (adj.) 2 2+0 fridsum (adj. & v.) 3 1+1 1+0 fiidad 3 3+0 fi'idmann 3 3+0 cyricfi'id 3 0+3 fridlic 3 3+0 fridsocn 2 0+2 fridoscealc 2 2+0 fridbena 2 0+2 fridgild 2 2+0 fridosped 2 2+0 fridgeard 2 0+1 0+1 fridsplott 2 0+2 fridowebbe, idowebba 3 3+0 fi. ii iii it 75 Table F3 (cont’d) Total Law Charter History Gloss Glossary Other Hapax legomena 2; 6+2 lfl .1+_1 .lfl (_)_+_1_ 5+7 Total for field 57+35 3+2 181+8 9+3 0+1 77+103 w/o ‘freedom’: 479 92 5 189 12 1 180 % of 520 92% 17.7% .9% 36.3% 2.3% .2% 34.6% fridian as ‘set free, deliver’ 37 (7%) 1 36 frid as ‘freedom’ 3 2 1 fridiend as ‘deliverer’ _1 1 FREEDOM-sense 41 (8%) L472 Total 520 PEACE-sense 327=63% PROTECTION -sense 152=29% FREEDOM-sense 41=8% 76 includes three hapax legomena, all four of the seven unfrid words used in any legal code, as well as two other compounds. History The largest area of the frid-field is occupied by words found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle or the Alfredian translation of Orosius: there are 189 items, representing 36% of the total field; 131 items are in the Chronicle, 56 are Orosius items, and two are in Bede’s Ecclesiastical Histog. In the mund- and borg-fields, the History items were infrequent enough to be grouped with the Other category (see p.79, note 14). Here, their number and patterns of usage justify separating them out into a category of their own. For example, while the frid-field as a whole is characterized by a large number of different frid-words, History uses only ten of them, a mere 18% of the total number of different frid-words (in spite of the fact that individual items under history make up over one-third of the total field). The Other category uses over twice that many, and Legal nearly three times as many. Also, History uses the words with a PEACE-sense almost exclusively: of the 189 items, only eight mean ‘protection’ or ‘refuge, sanctuary.’ The PEACE-sense includes collocations for ‘to make peace’ 79 times (usually niman frid, but also formed with a few other verbs); this is 42% of all the items in the History area, and 15% of all the items in the frid-field. Of the 32 uses of the unfrid-group, 25 occur in historical texts, 24 of them in Chronicle writing. The use offrid-words in historical writing is not surprising, of course, nor is the large number of these uses for peace and truce: the importance of this legal-political concept for History texts is clear from these numbers, but the concept is also widely used in texts in the Other category. What is interesting is the rarity of the PROTECTION-sense—perhaps a result of the relatively personal dimension of protection as opposed to the more public or even “national” quality of peace and un-peace. Other Of the several categories illustrated in Table F3, the texts 77 other than legal, historical, and glosses form the largest single group: the 218 items in the Other category occupy 42% of the total field. More than one third of these mean peace, almost half mean protection, and the remainder have the FREEDOM-sense: all but one of the uses of fridian meaning ‘to set free or deliver’ occur in the Other category. This category is treated in detail in Chapter 6; here I summarize its contents, with more detailed comments on Gen AD. % of 220 % of 520 in Other in Field PEACE-words 77 35% 15% PROTECTION-words 103 47% 20% FREEDOM-words 3_8 1_Wp E 21 8 (99%) 42% To see more easily how the frid-words are used in these texts, the Other category can be divided into two parts, Poetry and a remainder which can be called Religious Prose. The 114 items in the Religious Prose material (52% of Other items, 22% of total field) include 39 from the prose Psalter, 24 from Wulfstan, 19 from lElfric, seven from Gregory, five from anonymous homilies, and twenty items from fourteen other titles. The prose Psalter is not an interlinear gloss but rather a paraphrase and translation of the first 50 psalms. Of the 39 frid-words in this text and its headings, 35 translate a Latin expression and four appear in Old English passages with no Latin equivalent. These 39 items are the largest number of frid-words in any one text and represent a significant proportion of the entire field (7.5%). These paraphrases of the Latin Psalter supplement the gloss and glossary items discussed in Section 1 and help show how the frid-words were used to render Latin in Old English (see Table F33 below). 78 Table F33: Latin words translated or paraphrased in Prose Psalter fridian fridstow fridiend eripio, -ere 14 (to deliver) libero, -are 2 (to set free) protege, -ere 2 (to cover, protect) redimo, -ere 2 (to buy back, redeem) custodio, -ire l (to watch over, protect) restituo, -uere 1 (to rescue, deliver) salveo, -ere 1 (to save) refitgium, -ii, 11. 3 (refuge) protector 2 from ptc. of protege, -ere adjutor, -0ris, m. l (helper) liberator, -oris, m. 1 (deliverer) 30 total, plus 5 more uses of fridian in Psalter Headings, plus four uses of fridian with no Latin equivalent. 79 The Wulfstan materiallS in his homilies, _Po_lity, and Canons of Eggag which this study catalogues consists almost entirely of passages that also appear in law codes he authored. .Elfric’s material here contains nothing surprising or unusual to note: the frid-words mean simply peace or protection in contexts where one expects such usages; he does not use any of the compounded forms. In Old English poetry, however, the frid-words show a more complete and productive use of the range of possibilities available than in the religious material, a more even distribution. The 104 items in the Poetic material (48% of the Other items, 20% of the entire field) include 19 from Gen A B, 13 from Andreas, nine from Guthlac, eight each from Paris Psalter and Beowulf, six each from Daniel and Christ, four from Elene, three from Maldon, and one or two each from 21 other titles. Peace words predominate in the items from Genesis A B: 17 of the 19 have the PEACE-sense. All three of the m items, five of the eight frid-words in Beowulf, and two of the four items in file—neg have the PEACE-sense. In Andreas, Guthlac, Daniel and _Ch_ris; the protection sense occurs more frequently. The 19 items in Genesis A B make up the greatest number of frid-words in a single title16 aside from the prose Psalter, and 3 closer examination of their use in the Genesis will be a suitable conclusion to this chapter. The many fi-id-words in the 2936 lines of Gen A B employ the full range of senses these words have in Old English. Three occur in the story of the fall of Lucifer, one in the Cain and Abel story, three in the passage on the generations from Adam to Noah, and three in the Noah story. The other nine appear in various sections of the story of Abraham. Examining how the frid- words are used in Gen A B illustrates several of the Anglo-Saxons’ concerns about government and society. The frid-words in the fall of Lucifer passage establish a general 15 For a list of the several texts authored by Wulfstan, see Chapter 2, note 5. ‘5 Gggfiigfl. an over soc-fine translation of an Old Saxon original and generally regarded to be a separate poem from A is interpolated by the Junius Ms. compiler into the nearly 3000 lines of m A: DOE uses the collective title W. 80 principle. The angels originally lived on fride (in peace, F258), but God took away peace (frida F287) from the rebels and created hell; grap on wrade faum folmum, and him on fadm gebrcec “he seized his foes with hostile hands and crushed them in his bosom,” Gordon translates, and fifteen lines later continues “then was true peace in heaven, fair quiet” (freodobeawas F520). Properly, people live in peace and security when the throne is not challenged; when it is, peace is withdrawn from some. The crime of Cain (presented here more in terms of kinship than it is in the Bible) results similarly in his expulsion from his native land, but he wanders in exile with a freodobeacen (a sign of immunity, F516), a kind of special protection from God. Here we see that even an offender can be granted immunity in special cases. The passages from the story of the generations of Adam illustrate more about peace conditions. Enos lived on fride drihtnes (in the peace of God, F291), and Enoch increased freodosped (abundant peace, F492). However, the sons of Seth took the wrong kind of wives; this group of men ar an fride waron (who formerly were in peace, F255) were led astray by evil forces and are called warloga (whence warlock), covenant-breakers, by the Anglo-Saxon poet. Here again, the stories illustrate that proper leaders create conditions of peace in which people live securely; breaking that sort of implied covenant brings disaster. Even though God will bring on the flood for the covenant-breakers, he grants Noah a kind of special protection: he tells him bu scealt frid habban (you will have refuge, F85) because he knows bu eart freodo wyrde (you are worthy of peace, F294). After the flood, God tells Noah to live mid gefean frydo (with the gladness of peace, F288) and he tells him that he will have a noble heritage. Proper rulership is reestablished with the covenant after the flood. The remainder of the Gen A B passages are concerned with Abraham’s story. God’s promise to Abraham in Genesis 12.1-4 is expanded somewhat by the Anglo-Saxon poet; in part, God promises Abraham that bu gebletsad scealt 81 on mundbyrde minre ltfigan (you shall live blessed under my protection, M202). When he continues by telling Abraham that all mankind will be blessed through him, he adds onfod folcbearn freodo and freondscipe (the sons of men receive peace and friendship, F289): the blessing is expressed in terms that include peace. Two items occur in the Genesis passage where Sarah masquerades as Abraham’s sister in Egypt. When they are escorted out of the land, they are given safe passage bat he on fride were (so that he might be in peace, F256; the other is item F295). In the story of Ishmael and Hagar, an angel (freoduscealc, F486) speaks to Hagar, and Abraham puts the sign of peace (fridotacn, F519) on his sons. The other four passages are concerned with Abraham and Lot and the story of Sodom and Gomorrah. Lot asks the wicked men Iated frid agon gistas mine, ba ic for god wille gemundbyrden (“let my guests go free, since I will defend them against you as well as I can, before God,” Mason’s translation, F138, M84). Here, Lot exercises the host’s obligation to provide protection for his guests. Angels (freodoscealcas, F487) speak to Lot; when he requests safe passage to a city of refuge, the angels tell him wit be frid healdad and mundbyrde (we shall keep thee in peace and safety, F225 and M200). In two passages not mentioned so far, God is Lord of Peace (F295) and the sun is a peaceful luminary (fridcandel, F506). The frid-words in Gen A B denote various kinds of peace conditions, refuge, safe passage, and even special protection—not surprising in a book about a kind of tribal history. They (and the mund-words also found in the poem and synonyms for both) indicate the presence of a theme about the proper activity of governments and individuals in society that could be developed in future research. CHAPTER FOUR: The Grid-words headword: verb: compounds: derivatives: grid 11. peace, truce, protection, sanctuary gridian to make peace, truce; to protect cyricgrid 11. right of sanctuary with in church gridbryce m. breach of grid, penalty for breach gridlagu f. law of temporary or local peace hadgrid n. privilege as regards peace of holy orders halnesgrid n. peace-privileges attaching to a sanctuary handgrid n. protection granted (by king) in person gridleas adj. without special protection ungrid n. enmity Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts The third group of words to consider in describing the semantic field for the Old English concept “legal protection” are the grid-words. Grid, 3 Scandinavian loan word, fust comes into use in the mid-tenth century. According to Serjeantson, “the earliest loans . . . are of a more or less technical 82 83 character, having to do chiefly with the sea and with legal customs”! It is generally parallel in meaning to frid, but more specific: “it denotes ‘peace’ in a limited or localised sense, i.e., the sanctuary afforded by special places or the protection granted by a particular person.”2 In some of its uses, grid is also quite close in meaning to mund. Etymology As a preliminary to describing the field formed by the grid-words, we can survey the definitions for grid and gridian, and comment on their etymology. There is not much information on the etymology of grid: Holthausen states merely that it is from Old Icelandic, and MED only that it is “from ON.” For its etymology, QE_D states that it is adopted from “ON grid neut., orig. domicile, home; in pl., truce, peace, pardon; hence, sanctuary, asylum.” And the American Heritage Dictionag, while it gives definitions for ‘grith,’ only states “from Old Norse gridh” and shows no connection to its etymological appendix (where information from Pokomy is summarized for each IE root). Definitions The definitions for grid given in dictionaries list the senses as specific aspects of peace or protection. Clark Hall gives for grid, n., “truce, (temporary) peace . . . ; protection of the person, asylum, sanctuary, guarantee of safety” and for gridian, “to make 3 truce or peace . . . ; protect . . .”). Holthausen lists the four concepts “truce, peace, protection, safety.” In % Gesetze der Angelsachsen, Liebermann gives “peace” (F rieden) for the headword and lists the following senses for the various kinds of laws: “fust, security (safe conduct); second, special protection, either ecclesiastical or royal, and the amount of fine for its violation; and third, appointed time for ‘ M S. Serieantson. WMw York: button. 1936) 63. 2 A. J. Robertson, K I m t H n I(1925; New York: AMS Press, 1974)297. 94 asylum in house of king, prince, archbishop, bishop, or ealdorman”3 (my trans.). For gridian, Liebermann gives “to protect with special peace, to pacify with special protection.”4 Because grid and gridian continue to be used in the Middle English period, both OED and MED give a thoroughly subdivided and developed set of senses and examples. (As one would expect, given Scandinavian settlement patterns in England, many Middle English examples are northern.) OED gives six senses. First, the obsolete sense: “guaranteed security; protection, defense; safe conduct.” Examples are from OE laws, Cursor Mundi York Mysteries, and one each from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Second, “specifically in OE law, security, peace, or protection guaranteed under particular limitations of time or place; as church-grith . . . [or] hand-grith . . . ; after the OE period used without qualification” to mean church-grith. Besides OE examples, several are found in Ancrene .lelp, Barbour’s Dmcg, Caxton, Stowe (a seventeenth century chronicle), and Walter Scott (spelled ‘girth’). Third, “a place of protection; a sanctuary, asylum” with examples from Cursor Mundi, meg, Towneley Mysteries, and the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries. Fourth, again an obsolete sense: “peace (in the general sense). Often collocated in OE and early ME with frith, in later ME with peace.” There are OE examples, and Layamon, Havelok, Arthur and Merlin, Coventg and Towneley Mysteries. A fifth sense, also obsolete: “Quarter (in battle),” with fourteenth- and fifteenth-century examples. And sixth, Scottish, “the cessation of the criminal courts during Christmas time and certain other seasons . . . .” Besides grithbreach (“breach of the peace” and “penalty for breach of the peace”), OED also shows the combined forms grith-man, -priest, -sergeant; -rod; -place, -stool, -stone, -town, with ME and later examples of use. For the verb “to grith” (gridian), OED 3 '1) Sicherheit [des Geleits fur Befehdeten]... 2) Sonderschutz... a) kirchlicher... b) keniglicher... c) Geldbewertung der Busse fur Verletzung von ~... 3) Sicherheitsfrist fur Asyl im Hausa des Kbnigs, Prinzen, Erzbischofs bezw. Bischofs, Ealdorrnans" (2: 106). ‘4 '1) Sicherheit [dos Geleits far Befehdeten]... 2) Sonderschutz... a) kirchlicher... b) koniglicher... c) Geldbewertung der Busse ftIr Verletzung von ~... 3) Sicherheitsfrist far Asyl im Hause des Kbnigs, Prinzen, Erzbischofs bezw. Bischofs, Ealdon'nans' (2: 106). 85 gives “intr. to make peace” and “trans. to give peace or protection to” with examples from Layamon and the late thirteenth century. The _hfliD gives five senses for grid: peace of nation, general peace; cessation of fighting, truce; protection (in house, or by king), safe conduct; sanctuary (of church); mercy, pardon [equivalent with ‘quarter’ in Oil]. Here we can compare grid with frid, using comments from Stubbs in Bosworth-Toller and from Robertson in Laws of the Kings of England: The grith is a limited or localized peace, under the special guarantee of the individual, and differs little from the protection implied in the mund or personal guardianship which appears much earlier; although it may be regarded as another mark of territorial development. When the king becomes the lord, patron, and mundborh of his whole people, they pass from the ancient national peace of which he is the guardian into the closer personal or territorial relation of which he is the source. . . .The frith is enforced by the national officers, the grith by the king’s personal servants; the one is official, the other personal; the one the business of the country, the other that of the court. The special peace is further extended to places where the national peace is not fully provided for.” (Stubbs qtd. in M sub grid) And from Robertson: “Liebermann regards the two terms grid and frid as practically synonymous by the time of IEtheIred . . . but suggests that if there is an underlying difference between them, frid has the special sense of security against assailants, while grid implies the privilege of assuring safety to others.” (335) Grid and frid are parallel concepts, with grid being the more specific and localized of the two. Old English Glosses of Latin Texts There are only three instances where Latin words are glossed by the Old 86 English grid-words (summarized below in Table 61). The gloss of prasidio by grid in Boethius seems reasonable5; less plausible is the gloss (in duplicate manuscripts) of eripio,-ere (to snatch or take away, to set free or deliver) by gridian, in a passage in Aldhelm where Hilarion snatches the people out of the fiery breath of a dragon. It seems possible that the glossator has confused gridian with fridian, which would be the expected word, since that verb frequently glosses eripio (see Chapter 3: p. 62, and Table F33 on p. 78). The glosses of Latin words by grid-words seem insignificant and comprise only 1.5% of the total field. Table G1: Latin grid-word equivalents in Glosses prasidium, -ii, 11. 1 gloss by grid (Boethius) (guarding, protecting, defending) eripio, -ere 2 glosses by gridian (Aldhelm) (to snatch or take away; to set free, deliver) Section 2: Description of the grid-field Like frid, grid has the two main senses PEACE and PROTECTION; this word-field overlaps that of mund where grid means protection, and it overlaps frid in both senses. Since peace and protection are closely related legal concepts, mund, frid, and grid have closely related and overlapping word- fields. The grid-field is illustrated in Table 623 (below) which shows the proportions among grid ’s senses and subsenses. 52% (105 of the field’s 201 5 La Invader on gride synt trynd pa n3 magen 3c gewyrd gesibsumys glosses An praesidia sunt amici quos non virtue sed fortune conciliat; Loeb translates Are we really helped by friends who are drawn to us not by our vinue but by our fortune?, lit. are they friends at need (Latin: are they friends as a defense?): Qansobthnfll’lilm Book 3. prose 5. 87 items) have a PEACE-sense, and 47 % (94 items) have a PROTECTION-sense. The two glosses of eripio, -ere by gridian in Aldhelm make up the other 1%. The PEACE-sense can be subdivided into three sections: one includes items meaning ‘general peace, security’ (18% of total field); with these I include ungrid and two uses in laws of gridbryce where it specifically refers to breach of peace. Grid itself can also mean the fine for violation of the peace. Another subsense includes items meaning truce, terms of truce, or quarter (mercy on the battlefield); these make up 13% of the field. The use of gridbryce in charters I have included here as a third subsense rather than conflating it with the general peace subsense, so that this use can be seen and compared separately (see below, Section 3); it makes up 20% of the field. The PROTECTION -sense includes a subsense for ‘protection, safe conduct’ (and 4 gridbryce items from laws meaning breach of this specific kind of protection); these uses make up 39% of the field. The other subsense is ‘sanctuary, the right of sanctuary’ in a church (where I have included gridleas); this subsense makes up 8.5% of the total field. We can see from this table that grid-words are used in charters in about a fifth of their uses; these are formulaic and mean “the royal dues from breach of grid ” (whatever sense of grid it may be). In about a third (32%) of their uses grid-words mean peace or truce. In nearly half of their uses grid-words mean protection, either that provided to a specific person, or that deriving from specified places. These primary senses and subsenses can be seen to be at least partially analogous and parallel to those in the frid-field (see Table F23). Words in the Field Ten different words make up the grid-field: the headword, a verb, six compounds and two derivatives (four are hapax legomena). As Table G23 illustrates, the head-word is used for all four subsenses, most often for ‘protection, safe conduct.’ Aside from the dubious gloss in Aldhelm, gridian means ‘to make peace; to make a truce, to come to terms; or to give protection,’ three of the four subsenses. Gridbryce refers 88 Table G23: Senses of the grid-field grid gridian gridbryce other words I. PEACE-sense (52%) 18.5% 1. general peace, 15 15 2 cyricgrid 1 security hadgrid 1 (incl. 2 gridbryce) halnesgrid l gridlagu 1 ungrid 1 13.5% 2. truce,temrs 19 8 20% 3. gridbryce in Charters 41 II. PROTECTION-sense (47%) 39% 1. protection, 50 8 4 cyricgrid 8 safe-conduct handgrid 8 (incl. 4 gridbryce) 8% 2. sanctuary 3 cyricgrid 10 gridleas 3 111. Miscellaneous (1%) 1% (2 glosses for “to set free”) 89 specifically to breach of the peace twice, and to a breach of protection four times, but most often it is used fonnulaically in charters (see below in Section 3). The remaining seven words have more precise uses. Liebermann translates cyricgrid in one instance as “fine for breach of the special peace” of a church (item 6166), but this word usually refers to protection or sanctuary within or around a church (_ng 2:35). The parallel concept is handgrid: this is “the special protection conferred by the king’s hand (in person)” (QCLA 2.110). Each handgrid passage is in a parallel construction with cyricgrid, as in _E_Gp 1: “sanctuary within the walls of a church [cyricgrid], and the protection granted by the king in person [cyninges handgrid], shall remain equally inviolate” (Attenborough 102-03). Gridleas occurs in Sermo Lupi ad QgLog (Wulfstan) only, refening to violation of church sanctuaries. The four hapax legomena (hadgrid, halnesgrid, gridlagu, ungrid) all mean ‘peace.’ Six of these seven grid- derivatives, all instances of gridbryce outside charters, and large numbers of the headword and verb are used only by Wulfstan: 42% of all grid-field items appear only in texts attributed to Wulfstan,6 with almost all the remainder in Chronicle and Charters. This unusual distribution will be discussed below (Section 3). Collocations (including ‘grifl and friO’) We can continue to describe the field of the grid-words by discussing the range of meanings created in the subsenses by the use of the verbal form gridian, by the use of collocations of grid-words with verbs outside the field, and by the paired use of grid and frid. These are illustrated in Table 62b, which reflects uses of gridian and noun-verb collocations in the large portion of the grid- field drawn from laws and the Chronicle. The range of meanings available in the general peace and security subsense includes ‘give peace,’ ‘make peace,’ and ‘dwell in peace,’ (evidenced in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle), as well as ‘maintain security (of a church),’ ‘bl’eak peace,’ and ‘pay the compensation for breach of peace,’ (the latter three 8‘3“ Chapter 2, note 5, for texts attributed to wIIIIsran. 90 attested in the laws). For the truce subsense, we find ‘ask for a truce’; ‘arrange make or establish a truce’; ‘come to terms’; ‘repudiate a truce’ and ‘give quarter’; all of these occur in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The range of meanings associated with the PROTECTION-sense is greater and includes more of the legal uses of the grid-words. In the Chronicle, people are said to ask for or seek protection or safe conduct and to give and grant protection or safe conduct. Gridian is used in the laws meaning ‘to protect.’ Elsewhere in the laws, collocations produce the meanings ‘be entitled to protection,’ ‘have protection,’ ‘be under protection or safe conduct’ and ‘show respect for protection.’ Grid-words also refer to violation of protection and amends for such violation. All of the legal uses of these terms are Wulfstan’s except one referring to safe conduct during vendetta (G78) and four from 3_Ag dealing with the possibility of compensation for gridbryce. Grid-words also are used with the meanings ‘show respect for sanctuary’ and ‘violation of sanctuary.’ As this discussion and Table G2b show, the grid-words can form precise legal meanings, and most are associated with the PROTECTION-sense. grid and frid Grid-words also appear in the pairs grid and frid (three times, G19—21), on gride and on fride (once, G69), and gridian and fridian (six times, G88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 97). Six of these are used by Wulfstan, and the other four occur in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (for years during or after Wulfstan’s time). Whitelock translates the Chronicle pair grid and frid as ‘peace and truce’ made with a harrying army in the entry for the year 1011. She translates gridian and fridian as ‘protect and secure’ in the annal for 1093 where William 11, on what was supposed to be his death bed, makes many charitable vows to God (recanted later in better health), among them ‘to protect and secure’ God’s churches. The on gride and on fride phrase is found in Wulfstan’s Homily 19, where Wulfstan is paraphrasing passages from Leviticus 26 (Bethurum 354). There Yahweh promises Moses blessings if the people are faithful: 91 Table 6sz Senses of the grid-field created with noun-verb collocations I. PEACE-sense peace, security to give peace‘l’ to make peaceT to maintain security* G88; to dwell in peace to break peace* G34 to pay comp’n for breach of peace* 629 truce, terms to ask for a truce'l‘ to arrange, make or establish a truce‘l‘ to come to termsT to give quarterl' to repudiate a truceT II. PROTECTION-sense protection, safe to ask for or seek protection, or safe conduct'l' conduct to be entitled to protection* G43 to grant safe conduct; to protect“ GI 13 to take someone into protection‘l' to have protection* G25 to be under, or in, protection* G55 to be under safe conduct* G78 to show respect for protection* G62 to violate protection* G179 to make amends for violation of protection* G 122 sanctuary to show respect for (God’s) sanctuary‘l‘ to violate sanctuary‘l' * attested in laws, with example item number; 1' collocations marked with 1’ occur in the A-S Chronicle. 92 & ge orsorge wuniap on laude on gride & on fride under minre munde, ‘and you will dwell safely in the land in peace and security under my protection’ (my trans.). As we have already seen, Wulfstan here draws together three of the words under consideration in this dissertation. In the laws .6_A_t_r 42.3, L9; 2 and 143g 4 (G88, 89, 90) and in Homilies U27 and U48 (G92, 93), Wulfstan writes that Christian men should “diligently maintain the security and sanctity [gridian & fridian] of the churches of God,” (Robertson’s translation for the three laws, pp. 104-05, 154—55, 158-59). On parallel duplicate passages in Wulfstan generally, see below, Section 3. Section 3: Location of Items in Type of Text-Law, Charter, Chronicle, Gloss, Other Having distinguished the various senses of the grid-words and described the arrangement of the field, we can show where the grid-words occur and list their frequencies there. As in the previous sections, I distinguish laws, charters, history, glosses and glossaries, and place the remainder in an Other category. The ten different Old English words making up this field are listed in Table G3a: for the individual items, with more information regarding inflections, contexts, and meanings, see Appendix G. Grid-words occur with the PEACE-sense 105 times (52% of field), with the PROTECTION-sense 94 times (47%), and in two glosses meaning ‘set free,’ (1%). If we separate out the formulaic use of gridbryce in charters, we can illustrate this field as follows: PEACE-sense peace, security, truce 32% gridbryce in charters 20% PROTECTION-sense protection, sanctuary 47% Misc. _lfi 100% 93 Table G3a: Location of grid-words by type of text [no Glossary items] (in each column, PEACE-sense + PROTECTION-sense) Total Law Charter Chronicle Gloss Other grid 87 6+19 0+2 25+19 0+1 3+12 gridian 3 1 3+3 16+2 4+3 :2 [*2] 3 3 gridbryce 47 2+4 4 1 cyricgrid 1 9 1+ 12 0+6 handgrid 8 0+4 0+4 gridleas 3 0+3 hadgrid 1 1+0 hwlnesgrid 1 1+0 ungrid 1 1+0 gridlagu i _1;_t-Q_ _ __ __ __ 15+42 42+2 41+21 [*2]+1 7+28 Total 201 5 7 44 62 3 35 % of 201 28% 22% 31% 2% 17% *FREEDOM-sense 1% PEACE-sense 52% PROTECTION-sense 47% 94 Thus, the use of grid-words is split approximately half and half between a PEACE-sense and a PROTECTTON-sense, with about 2/5 of the PEACE-sense occupied by gridbryce items in charters. We can now discuss the patterns apparent in Table G3a. We notice that there are no Glossary items, and that the three glosses are an insignificant part of this field: because they have been described above, further discussion is unnecessary here. Use of grid-words in chronicle writing forms the largest single group, but it involves only two of the ten words, grid and gridian, the primary noun and verb of the field. Grid-words in charters form another large group, consisting very largely of the formulaic use of gridbryce. Unlike the Chronicle and Charter categories, law codes contain almost all of the grid- words (eight of ten), and texts in the Other category use five of the ten. Of the five words not found in the Other category, four are hapaxes, and one is the Charter term gridbryce. Legal writing (laws plus charters) involves almost exactly 50% (101/201) of the items. Perhaps the most striking point not immediately apparent in this Table is that Archbishop Wulfstan used these words extensively, in various kinds of texts. Their remaining uses are limited almost entirely to the Chronicle and Charter categories. The use of grid-words by Wulfstan and by other writers is compared in Table G3b. This table illustrates the location of the grid-words in a more useful way: the reader can see that ahnost half of the items for this late Scandinavian loan-word occur in texts attributed to Wulfstan (who was writing in the north), and we can see that they are all in the Law and Other categories. It is not surprising that many of the grid-words are in texts authored or compiled by Wulfstan: although there was not a lot of writing from the north of England preserved from this period (“our records for the north are scanty”7), much of what has come down to us is Wulfstan’s. In this study, for example, we find 7 D. Whitelock, ed., WW. 3rd ed. (London: Methuen 1963) 13, hereafter $1.35 This introduction and the one in Bethurum's WW (noted below) are the authoritative sources for Wulfstan studies in general. as well as for my purposes here. Table G3b WULFSTAN Law Other (Homs./Pol.) grid 2 1 12 gridian 6 7 gridbryce 6 cyricgrid 1 3 handgrid 4 gridleas hadgrid 1 hwlnesgrid 1 gridlagu 1 ungrid _ _ total: 201 53 32 Wulfstan: 85 % of field: 42% (201) 95 : Location of grid-words in Wulfstan and non-Wulfstan Texts non-WULFSTAN Law Charter Gloss Other Chronicle 5 2 43 1 3 18 2 41 _. .1 _ _ _ 5 44 61 3 3 non-Wulfstan: 116 58% 96 that 63% of all the mund— frid- grid- and borg- items in law codes are in codes compiled by Wulfstan and that 20% of all 916 items in the combined field are his. All but five of the 58 grid- words in the law codes appear in those written by Wulfstan; four of the five appear in 3 [Ethelred and the fifth in ;_ Edmund. Both are earlier than Wulfstan’s known writing of law codes: 3_At; can be dated 997, and m between 939 and 946 (see Appendex A for dates of law codes). The Other category in Tables 3a and 3b consists of 32 items in Wulfstan’s homilies and the m.“ and only three other items by other writers. All instances of the use of cyricgrid, handgrid, gridlagu, hadgrid, hwlnesgrid, and gridleas are in texts by Wulfstan, while only the headword, the verb, and gridbryce are even used by other writers. (Gridlagu, it may be noted, is a compound in which both elements are Scandinavian loan-words.) Of the entire field of grid-words, 42% of the items are Wulfstan’s; 37% occur in texts by other writers, and 20% occur in charter formulas. Or, we could say that Wulfstan used 53% of the grid-words outside charter formulas, and other writers used the remaining 47%. Chronicle Despite the importance of Wulfstan’s contribution to the grid field, the biggest category of grid-words are the 62 items in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, beginning with the annal for 1002 (G13-15). Two- thirds of these have a PEACE-sense, while one third have a PROTECTION- sense. Whitelock translates fifteen of the 41 peace-words as ‘peace’ and 26 of them as ‘truce,’ usually in verbal collocations meaning ‘make or arrange a truce,’ ‘come to terms,’ or ‘ask for a truce.’ In the other 21 items, these words refer to some aspect of protection: 12 items for ‘to protect’ or ‘to grant or take into protection,’ or ‘to seek protection.’9 And in another nine items, they refer 3 K. Jost, ' " n tit l P l' 'vil E i t' I " Swiss Studies in English 47 (Sam: Franks, 1959). 9 The one who has been vanquished in a conflict asks for a truce or makes peace, while the one who has prevailed gives protection. We translate the same verb with two seemingly opposed senses, but the Anglo-Saxons probably regarded the outcome of the situation as one in which there were shared responsibilities: making peace and giving allegiance. and giving protection. 97 to safe conduct. Only the two most basic grid-words are used in the Chronicle category, grid and gridian. Charter Laws and charters could be discussed together here as ‘legal’ language (as in the mund, frid, and borg chapters), but for grid we will do well to keep them separate. Charters use grid-words 44 times, and only three are not formulaic uses of gridbryce. Grid refers to protection twice, and ungrid refers to the enmity of God in another charter. The remaining 41 items are used in lists of privileges expressed by a standard legal formulaic construction like that of Charter 986, a grant in AD 1020 from King Cnut to Archbishop lEthelnod of “judicial and financial rights over his own men, and over Christ Church, and over as many thegns as the king has granted him to have.”10 The charter reads, & ic cyde eow poet ic hazbbe geunnan him beet he beo his saca & socne wyrde & gridbryces & hamsocne & . . . : “and I inform you that I have granted him that he be entitled to his sake and soke, and to grithbrych and hamsocne and . . . ” (183). According to Harmer, this formula is called the “main announcement” and “appears in the form: ‘I inform you that I have granted, or given . . . ’ such and such an estate, privilege, or office, to X, or to a religious house . . . . This is the largest group of writs.” The “I have granted” formula is Harmer’s type #1.11 Three other main announcement formulas specified by Harmer are used in charters with gridbryce : items G145, 146, and 147 employ Harmer’s formula type #4 “my will is that he shall have such and such a thing . . . ”; items G132, 133, and 154 use formula type #3 “I inform you that my will is that the land (or sokes) at X shall belong to . . . such and such a religious house.” Item G139 employs Harmer’s formula type #2 “I inform you that my will is that X shall be ‘worthy of i.e. shall be entitled to . . . such and such an estate, privilege or office” (66). 10 F. E. Harmer, W 2nd ed. (Stamford: P. Watkins, 1989). 11 Harmer 63; this formula is employed in items 127, 128, 130, 131, 134. 135, 136, 137, 138. 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 148, 149, 151, 152. 155, 156, 157. 98 In five of the charters under consideration here, the list of privileges in Old English is embedded in a Latin text of the charter (items G129, 153.2, 158, 159, and 159.5). Only a part of the list of privileges appears in fragmentary sentences in four charters whose texts I have not seen (items 6150, 153, 153.1, and 160), and therefore the larger context cannot be known easily. In the post-conquest charter “Record of the dues pertaining to Taunton,” gridbryce occurs four times in lists of fines that various estates owed the king. The 41 uses of gridbryce in charters all appear in this kind of stiffiy formulaic writing, which seems to me to be quite different from the kind of writing that uses a “living” language like that which Wulfstan might have used in a homily or even a law code or, similarly, like the language a chronicle writer might have copied into his annal. For this reason I have kept these charter items in their own category throughout this analysis of the grid- words. Law Before discussing Wulfstan’s use of the grid-words in more detail, we can describe the five uses of grid in law codes written before Wulfstan began to compile the several codes attributed to him, the earliest of which can be dated with certainty at 1008 (_5_ lEdeIred). Four of the five uses occur in 3 [Edelred (dated 997; GS 29, 30 34), which the king and his councillors have enacted . . . for the promotion of public security [to frides bate]: Namely, that the king’s peace [his grid] shall continue to be maintained in accordance with the highest standards observed in the days of his ancestors, so that breach of the peace M he establishes in mrson shall not be atoned for (pet [net sy botleas beet he mid his agenre hand syld) by any payment of compensation, (Robertson 64-65; my emphasis). Here we can see frid, the public security, and the specific grid established by the king personally (literally, ‘with his own hand’), crimes against which are 99 bootless. Description of compensations at levels other than the king’s constitute the other three items in 3 ASdelred. The one use of grid in 2 Edmund (G78, and see Appendex A) is the earliest use in a legal code, dated 939-946 by Whitelock.12 This code helps regulate vendetta, a practice which the authorities were attempting to eradicate. A slayer gave security to his advocate to give to the victim’s kinsmen (that he would make reparation), and then the victim’s kindred would “give security to the slayer’s advocate (man sylle dces slagan forspecan on hand), that the slayer may approach under safe-conduct (beet se slaga mote mid gride nyr) and pledge himself to pay the wergeld” (Robertson 10-11). These examples show some of the concerns Wulfstan inherited, and some of the uses of grid in the laws prior to the archbishop’s own legal writing. Whereas the formulaic use of gridbryce in charters refers to the financial rights in someone’s jurisdiction, the remaining six uses of gridbryce in laws refer specifically to breaches of a special peace, or of special protection, conferred by the king himself. These six uses are all in law codes attributed to Wulfstan. Wulfstan served as Archbishop of York from 1002 until his death in 1023. “As the northern archbishop, he must have had a very difficult task, f0r Northumbria was an unruly area” due to the large numbers of Scandinavian settlers who had arrived in the ninth and tenth centuries and who had continued their pagan practices (Whitelock SEA 15). He compiled several law codes while in York (see Appendix A), including the Canons of Edgar and what Whitelock calls the “So-called Laws of Edward and Guthrum,” both of which seem from their titles to have originated in an earlier era; both have been shown to be Wulfstan’s work.l3 Edw and Gu is a “set of regulations on the observance of ecclesiastical laws especially in the Danelaw”; 5 and m were also drawn up primarily for the Danelaw (SLaA 24). In these, Wulfstan 12 o. Whitelock. ed.. W. 2nd ed. (London: Methuen. 1979) 427, hereafter gun. 13 R. Fowler. ed., Wag, EETS 0.8. 266 (Oxford: UP 1972); D. Whitelock, 'thistan and the So-called Laws of Edward and Guthrumffiflfl 56 (1941): 1-21. 100 “was appealing to tradition for authority to enforce law among the mixed population in the north.”14 In addition to the several law codes for lEdelred, and those of Cnut (compiled after 1018), Wulfstan gathered together what Whitelock calls 3 “Compilation on Status” (Ifl 468, where she writes that these “should not be regarded as official enactments but as a private compilation”). Gepflchdo, Nordleoda laga, Mircna laga, Ag, and Hadbot all deal with rank and status, both secular and ecclesiastical, and are directed toward either Mercia or Northumbria; Bethurum comments that they must have been “necessitated . . . by the social upheavals resulting from the Danish invasions” (_Im 45). Grid, composed next, deals with penalties for offenses against the Church, both in English law and in Danish law. “The attempt to make both serve the purposes of the Church is in line with much of Wulfstan’s legislation.”15 Wulfstan also drew up the two law codes of Cnut, one addressing secular matters and the second ecclesiastical. All of this legal writing was building toward his composition of the Institutes of Polity, Civil and Ecclesiastical: “one of the earliest courtesy books, it defines the duties of every class of society. More important for the history of political thought is Wulfstan’s statement here of the source of royal power and of the relationship of the secular and ecclesiastical realms” (Hi 46). In his dual role as archbishop and statesman, Wulfstan was in a key position to compose such a work: the dynamic relationship of ecclesiastical and secular power would have been particularly conspicuous to one who was strongly influenced by the tenth-century Benedictine Reform and who was involved in educating a young pagan king (born ca. 995?) to rule a Christian society. His later life seems to have been given to participating in that dynamic and actually helping create much of the order in Anglo-Saxon society that he had foreseen, or at least outlined as a social goal, in his writings. As we survey Wulfstan’s use of grid-words in law codes and elsewhere, we 14 D. Bethurum, WW (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957) 45, hereafter my. 15 D. Bethurum, ”Six Anonymous Old English Law Codes.” .1593 49 (1950): 451. 101 can group most of the items into a conceptual sequence that will show his interests in developing conditions of peace, orderly government, and proper priorities; this arrangement will also demonstrate Wulfstan’s frequent practice of repeating identical whole passages or long clauses in law codes, and in his homilies or Polity, or in all three. Several statements follow which I have put in (my own) logical sequence and numbered so that the parallel passages can be compared. 1) A general principle: 1a) A special case: 2) Source of grid : and people’s responsibility: 3) Formerly, people paid that respect to God’ s protection: God’s grid is of all grids most excellent to deserve. Law Grid 1 = 1 Ch 2.1 61, G49 G2, G48 all widows who lead a responsible life shall enjoy the special protection of God [on godes gride] and of the king. 5 Atr 21 = 6 Atr 26 = Hom U 40.173 658 659 660 every church is rightly in the protection of Christ himself [on Cristes agenan gride]. l Cn 2.1 = Grid 31.1 = Pol 206 = Pol 101 62, 54; 66, 63, 169; 67, 64, 170; 68, 65, 171 and it is the special duty of every Christian man to show respect for that protection [on [Jam gride]. l Cn 2.1 = Grid 31.1 = Pol 206 = Pol 101 62, 62; 66, 63, 169; G7, 64, 170; G8, 65, 171 wise men in former days firmly protected [gridedon] God’s servants and added secular laws to just divine laws. Grid 24 = Hadbot ll 61 13 6114 102 4) but now but now churches are, far and wide, weakly that respect protected [gegridode] and sanctuaries are has dwindled: violated far and wide. Pol 213 = Pol 108, similar to Sermo Lupi ad Anglos line 31 6100 6101; 6192, 193, 194 5) People should let us maintain the security and sanctity of accept their [gridian & fridian] the churches of God responsibility: everywhere. 6 Atr 42.3 =1 Cn 2 = Horn U 27.2 = 688 689 692 Born U 48.57: close to 1 Ch 4 693 690 6) These are our new laws to correct the situation: a) all churches shall be under the special protection of God [on Godes gride] and of the king and of all Christian people; 5 Air 10.1 = 6 Atr 13 . 652 653 b) it is right that every church shall be under the special protection of God [on Godes gride] and of all Christian people; Grid 31 = P01 205 = Pol 100 655; 656, 177, 189; 657, 178, 190 103 c) and that right of sanctuary within the walls of a church [cyricgrid] and the protection granted by the king in person [handgrid] are equally inviolate. P01 205 = Pol 100 = 6 Atr 14 = 656, 177, 189; 657, 178, 190; 6167, 191; E6u1=lCn 2.2:6rid2 6172, 184; 6173, 185; 6174, 186; Horn U 40.9 = Hom U 41.28 6175, 187; 6176, 188 7) For breaches of these laws: a) murder in a church is bootless unless the king grants the slayer his life; 8 Atr 1.1 =1Cn 2.3 6179 6180 b) if the king allows compensation for violation of protection of church [cyricgrid], payment is made to church of fine for breach of king’s mund and purification and compensation to kin 8Afl3=1CnLS 6182 6183 c) if protection of church [cyricgrid] is broken some other way, amends are made in accordance with the nature of the offense and the status of the church. 8AU4=1Cn3 6165 6168 104 These correspondences illustrate well Wulfstan’s practice of using identical passages in different contexts, and the sequence shows his concern with developing respect for the laws and for the church’s authority. These same interests are revealed in the thirteen legal items of Wulfstan not included in the outline above. In the Law of Grid concerned mainly with penalties for violation of the church’s peace (and which distinguishes between English and Danish sanctions for that violation), _6_ri§, 3 (691) “begins with a nostalgic reference to the past, when, presumably, ideal conditions existed for the church . . . ” which Dorothy Bethurum cites as evidence “of [Wulfstan’s] admiration for the reign of Edgar” (Bethurum “Six Anonymous” 451). GE 3 begins “and formerly the chief places and exalted degrees were entitled to great dignity and ‘mund’ [power] and could give ‘grith’ [protection] to those who needed it” (Thorpe’s trans.). m 4 and 5 (items 625 and 26) specify how long a period this grid would be for: it depends on the rank of the person whom the one in need sought out. The hapax legomena (items 6195- 197) in this law code—hadgrid, heelnesgrid, gridlagu-are in passages which detail the penalties for violations or which make general recommendations. Similarly, two items in Law Norgrid (Nordhymbra cyricgrid) specify the penalties for peace violations in three Northumbrian churches (63 and 166) as does the one item in La_w bio—n13]; (Nordhymbra preosta lagu, item 6181). The law code 8 lEdelred opens with an assertion that churches should “be entitled to exercise their right of protection to the full” (Robertson 117, 642) and 2 Cnut 82 stipulates protection for those going to and from assemblies (643). Item 64 is in the Law of Pax (referred to in Chapter 2, Section 2, and note 3) which specifies how far the king’s protection extends from his person. The remaining item is in the rubric for the Law of Grid (687). The concerns of Wulfstan evidenced in these single occurrences of the grid- words are coherent with the ones catalogued above, even though they do not appear in more than one text, and they help reveal the shape of the legal concept indicated by the grid-words. The larger issues in Wulfstan and his 105 use of the language under consideration in this study will be dealt with in more detail in Chapter Six. Other The 35 items in the Other category make up 17% of the grid-field; 32 of these items occur in Wulfstan’s homilies or Institutes of 139m. Most of the Wulfstan items in this category (24 of the 32) have been included in the passages parallel with laws arranged above, and the eight which are not included there are from homilies and also show Wulfstan’s characteristic concerns. Item 69 has the frid and grid pair and was discussed above in Section 2. The other seven refer to abuses of the church: in item 38 Wulfstan quotes a passage attributed to Gregory which states that whoever injures the grid of sanctuaries shall be anathema. This allusion serves as an authority for Wulfstan’s concern for abuse of churches. Items 666-68 and 694-96 (two sets of passages from the three versions of Sermo Lupi ad Anglos) refer to the people serving in the church: some are there who should not be, if people really wanted to show respect for God’s grid (666-68); furthermore, the servants of God should be protected by Christian people (as pagan priests are by their followers), but instead churchmen are abused (694-96). There are three items in the Other category not from Wulfstan’s texts. “Prognostications” (612) is a series of prophecies for years in which New Year’s Day is on the various days of the week: “if it be Sunday . . . there will be peace [grid] and abundance manyfold” (my trans.). The passage from lElfric’s Life of St. Nicholas (a DOE transcript that I have not seen) resembles the use of grid in the Chronicle for ‘safe passage’: “he fared over all that land with full protection” (my trans., 681). The third of these Other items (639) is from the speech of the Viking messenger near the beginning of Maldon: he asks for gold to establish a truce (grid in a speech which Fred Robinson describes as a “cluster of Scandinavicisms” which may have “contain[ed] the first literary use of dialect in English.”16 16 Fred Robinson. “Some Aspects of the Maldon Poet's Artistry“ (,LEQfi 75 [1976]: 27, 26). CHAPTER FIVE: The Borg-words headword: verbs: compounds: derivative: borg m. surety; loan borgian to borrow, lend aborgian to guarantee, act as surety onborgian to borrow borgbryce m. violation of surety or protection borhfcest adj. bound by pledge or surety borggelda m. lender, usurer borggilefde promise secured by surety borhhand fm. security, surety borgsorg f. anxiety about money matters borgwedd n. promise secured by surety godborg m. a pledge under sanction by God inborh m. security Iindgeborga protecting shield werborg m. surety borhleas adj. without a surety 106 107 Section 1: Etymology, Definitions, and Old English Glosses of Latin Texts In order to describe the semantic field occupied by the Old English legal words for protection, we now consider the fourth word-group, the borg-words. They must be considered in this study because in two passages, one in Alfred’s law codes and the other in the laws of Cnut, the writers have used borg “not, as usually, in the sense of bail, but as more or less equivalent to mund .”1 As we examine the senses of the borg-words, we discover the way in which the more usual legal sense of borg (surety) is related to the idea of ‘protection’ in a general way, and we can see how this kind of protection fits into the Anglo- Saxon legal system we have described above. Etymology In Old English, two divergent groups of words have their origin in Germanic *berg-an: what we could call the borg-words (or borrow- words), and the burg-words (or borough-words). At ‘borrow, sb.’, QED gives “O Teut *berg-an str. vb. ‘to protect’ ” for the source of OE borg. For ‘borough’ QED states that it is “apparently from the same root as O Teut *berg-an . . . but the phonology is not quite clear.” Accordingly, the American Heritage Dictionag in its etymological appendix gives two separate entries for the Indo-European root ‘bhergh—’: for bhergh-2 it gives “high; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts” as its basic definition. OE beorg, hill, comes from this root, and OE burg burh byrig (fortified) town, comes from its zero-grade form. It is this latter form that yields English burg, borough, and the -bury or Bury of place- names. For bhergh-1A_HQ gives “to hide, protect” as the basic definition. Germanic *berg-an appears in compounds like scabbard (from *sker-berg, 1 L. Attenborough. Wham New York: AMS Press 1974) 194; Wlitelocktranslatesmebayinmese pastimes 3%th 1052, 2nd ed. (London: Methuen, 1979) 409-10, 463. 108 sword protector). The zero-grade form bh'rgh- through Germanic *burgjan becomes OE byrgan, to bury. And Germanic *borge—n, to borrow, also from bhergh'l, becomes in OE borgian, to borrow (AHD 1509). Below we will see that the OE borg has two main senses, Surety and Loan, which can be seen joined in the etymology and history of borrow: “the essential notion of borrowing originally was the security given for the safety of the thing so taken” (9Q sub borrow, v., sense 1), so that in OE and ME, “the borrow” is either the “thing deposited as security,” or the “security-person.” We distinguish security and loan, while the Anglo-Saxons saw them as interconnected. The Latin words that gloss OE borg-words show this interconnection as well: borg-words serve in OE where two separate groups of Latin words— (words for money-matters like lucrum, usura, debitor, creditor, commodo; words for surety-matters like abiuratio, vas, vadimonium, fideiussor, sponsor: see Table B1 below)-provide the different senses. Borrow survives into ME in many forms, e.g. borgh and boru in Cursor Mundi, to borwe in Chaucer, and Scots to borwch in Barbour’s m. Also, “borowe appears as a synonym of ‘tithing’ or ‘frankpledge’ ” in the sixteenth century (OE—Dsub borrow, sb). In OE fridborh, the first element was corrupted into ‘free’ and thus became ‘frankpledge’, the association of neighbors who were legally responsible for each other (sub borrow, sb). F ridborh, however, is not attested in OE. Definitions The two main senses for borg are Surety and Loan, and the primary SURETY-sense can be seen as a kind of mund: the surety-person is a specific kind of protector. Liebermann in _6_d_A distinguishes seven senses for borg in Old English: 1) the surety, the person who pledges a security; 2) the person who guarantees security; 3) the security obligation itself; 4) bail association (like a tithing); 5) protection guarantee (peace assured to someone by a 109 protector), and the fine falling to the protector by its violation; 6) the security deposit; and 7) goods or money loaned.2 In general, the surety-sense involves a relationship among three parties, where one (the principal) transacts something with a second, and where the transaction is “secured” by a third party (the surety) by means of his promise (to pay the debt in case of default by the principal) and/or a deposit of something of value. This three-way relationship provides protection for both transacting parties, and helps create order and maintain peace in the society at large. The ideal in Anglo-Saxon law was that everyone should have a surety,3 someone to guarantee that he performed his legal duties. Lords were surety for their men4; buying, selling, and trading could not take place legally without a witness and eventually a surety.5 When these arrangements broke down, it was time to issue a whole new set of codes: in the prologue to 5_As_t (item B20), the king explains that he made this decree because after the previous agreements of a council at Grately (ca. 930) da apus & pa wedd & pa borgas synt ealle oferhafene & abrocene, de bar gesealde wceron (the oaths and pledges and securities given there have been disregarded and violated; Attenborough 152-53). The borg provided initially by kindred and later by neighbors was an essential stabilizing element in the developing Anglo-Saxon society, just as mund was. 2 '1) Barge, 2) Burgschaft, 3) Burgschaftsverpflichtung, 4) Bdrgenverband der Zehntschaft, 5) Schutzgewahrung (dem Beschatzten zugesicherter Frieda) und die bei Verletzung dem Schdtzer zufallende Geldbusse, 6) Burgschaftspfand, 7) Geborgtes"; QdA 2.26. 3 313993: 6 ”And every man shall see that he has a surety, and this surety shall bring and keep him to [the performance of] every lawful duty“; am has a similar text preceded by “everyone shall be brought within a hundred and a tithing“: A. J. Robertson, W MEL-[91m] (1925; New York: AMS Press, 1974) 27, 185. Commenting on the second of these codes, H. R. Loyn, Th v m n 1 An I - n n l n (Stanford: University Press, 1984) 147: “Entry into a tithing was associated directly with the age-old protection of group or lord to man, with borh and mund. Everyone, whether possessing a home of his own or in the following of another, was to be brought into a hundred or under surety, and it was this surety or borh, the tithing itself, that was responsible for bringing him to his every legal duty." 4 lAlL‘l .10 “And every lord shall be personally [responsible as] surety for the men of his own household“ and similarly 2_Qn_ 31: Robertson 55, 193. 5 LA]; 3 ”And no one shall either buy or exchange anything, unless he have a surety and witnesses": Robertson 5. 110 Old English Glosses of Latin Texts The 47 glosses of Latin texts employing the Old English borg-words occur mostly in six glossaries and in interlinear glosses of Bible texts. The six glossaries are the Cleopatra (with nine items), Antwerp (4 items), and the Harley, Corpus, Epinal, and Erfurt glossaries with either one or two items each (5 items total). Interlinear glosses with borg-words occur in [Elfric’s Grammar (3 times), Aldhelm (twice), and Sedulius’ Carmen Paschale (once). Twenty-three other borg glosses occur in a hymnal text, the Rushworth Gospel of Matthew, Psalter canticles, and several different manuscript versions of the Psalter itself. Locations of mund— frid- grid- and borg-words in glosses of Latin texts are listed in Chapter 6, Tables 1a and lb. Latin words glossed by Old English borg-words include terms for a variety of legal and financial matters. In the SURETY-sense, borhhand glosses the four Latin agent nouns fideiussor, sponsor, prces (a surety in pecuniary matters), and vas (a general surety). Vadimonium (from vas) means ‘pledge;’ it is glossed by borg, borgwed, and borggilefde, three OE words for pledge. Abiuratio (denying of an oath) is glossed twice by OE phrases for ‘denying an oath,’ borges andsaca and barges andswc. In the LOAN-sense, the same Old English phrases twice gloss inficiatio (denying of a debt). Debitor (debtor) is glossed by borggelda; res credita by an OE phrase for ‘things loaned’; mutuum is glossed by OE for both ‘borrower’ and ‘lender’; and mutuor (‘to borrow’) is glossed by borgian, and once by an OE verb and prepositional phrase with borg (niman on borge, ‘to take on borg’). F eneror ‘to lend on interest’ is glossed by borg gieldan ‘to pay borg.’ Commodo ‘to give, lend’ is glossed by borgian. 111 Table Bl: Latin borg-word equivalents in Glosses borg borggelda borhgiend fenus, -oris, n. 6 (interest; capital lent at interest) feneror, -ari 1 (to lend on interest) fenerator, -oris, m. 3 7 (money-lender) lucrum, -i, n. 1 (gain, profit, riches) usura, -ce, f. 1 (interest, usury) inficiatio, -onis, f. 2 (denying or disowning a debt) abiuratio, -onis, f. 2 (a denying of an oath) sequestra, -a:, f. 2 (a female trustee, depositary; mediatress) debitor, -oris, m. 2 (debtor; one under obligation) creditor, -oris, n. 1 (loaned) mutuum, -i, n. 2 (loaned; borrowed) mutuor, -ari 1 (to borrow) vas, vadis, m. l (a bail, security, surety) borggilefde borgwed vadimonium, -ii, 11. l 1 I (promise secured by bail; security) hypotheca, -ae, f. (pledge, mortgage) 1 20 5 9 1 l borg borggelda borhgiend (These 36 glosses involve 32 items because some items are applied to more than one Latin word; see items 5, 71, 72 in Appendix B.) 112 Table Bl: (continued) Latin borg-word equivalents in Glasses borgian borhhond commode, -ere l (to give, lend) mutuor, -ari 7 (to borrow) fideiussor, -oris, m. 2 (trustee, guarantor) vas, vadis, m. 3 (a bail, security, surety) pnes, prazdis, m. 2 (a surety, bondsman, in money matters) sponsor, -oris, m. 1 (bondsman, surety) _ _ 8 8 (These 16 glosses involve 13 items due to the multiple gloss in B123. 2 other items gloss the semantically uncertain Latin terms bux [gl. by borg] and intertiare [gl. by geborhftestan]; see items B8, 145.) Glosses: (54 total = 52 + 2 uncertain) borg borggelda borhgiend borggilefde borgwed borgian borhhand 20 5 9 l l 8 8 Items: (47 total = 45 + 2 uncertain) l6 5 9 l l 8 5 113 Section 2: Description of the field The borg-field as a whole, illustrated in Table B23 below, has the two main senses SURETY and LOAN. The LOAN -sense (a third of the items) includes the subdivisions debt, debtor, loan, interest, lender, and the verbal senses to borrow and to lend. SURETY, the more common sense, comprises two-thirds of the items, and includes the subdivisions surety, security, bail, and protection. The subdivision “surety” can be further divided into surety- condition, surety-person, and surety-pledge/promise; the subdivision “security” has the analogous subsenses of security-condition, security-person, and security-pledge/deposit. Bail refers to the deposit guaranteeing an accused’s appearance and is a specific sort of security. Both main senses include verbs and verbals (borg-words) which are used to designate the acts associated with the various senses, as well as collocations of borg-words with verbs outside this field which determine precise meanings within the subdivisions of sense. The SURETY-sense also includes a subsense “protection,” in eight of the 157 items, where borg is used as a synonym for mund. We can see the connection between borg and the idea of protection, generally, described above, and indeed, in these passages (Livy—of 5.111131. 3 and 2.1213; 58, items B33-36 and B73-75, B142) they are used interchangeably.6 We can now describe the field for the borg-words in some detail and show how the various senses stand in relation to each other. The LOAN -sense and the SURETY-sense form mutually exclusive categories; and, while within each of those major sense divisions there is naturally a blending and overlapping of senses, in Table B2a I have tried to show the distinctions of sense as indicated by the Old English texts themselves. One third of the borg- words indicate a LOAN-sense. Particular meanings within this sense can be arranged in a simple series: debt, debtor, loan, interest, and lender, with the corresponding verbal senses to borrow and to lend. The SURETY-sense is not 5 lnanoteonAlfredS, "borgseemstobeusednot, asusudly, inthesenseofbail, butasmcreorless equivalent to mund" (Attenborough 194). 114 Table 323: Senses of the borg-field I. SURETY-sense (67%) 50% 1. Surety (77 items) surety-condition (9) surety-person/role (61) surety-pledge/promise (7) 10% 2. Security (15 items) security-condition (4) security-person/role (7) security-pledge/deposit (4) 2% 3. Bail (3 items) 5% 4. Protection (8 items) 11. LOAN-sense (33%) 9% 1. Debt (14 items) debt (9) debtor (5) 14% 2. Loan (22 items) loan (6) interest (6) lender (10) 10% 3. Verbs (15 items) to borrow ( 13) to lend (2) Total 154 (+ 3 items which cannot be placed here: B8, 145, 156) 115 so easy to describe. Two thirds of the borg-words indicate some aspect of the SURETY- sense, where the particular meanings have a complex relationship. I refer to the whole sense as “surety,” following the practice of most writers, and will continue to do so, but it would make this discussion easier to refer to the whole primary sense as “legal guarantee which produces security in both the general and the legal sense.” Within that large category are the three surety subsenses (the condition, the person or role, and the promise or pledge) referring to the guarantee that a principal will fulfill his legal obligation(s). However, the notion of security can evidently be used in an analogous way, of a person or group who guarantees the legal activity of another or the validity of a transaction, but in situations which are less highly charged legally, requiring less in the way of guarantees. Bail is a particular kind of guarantee, that a person will appear as required. Borg’s protection subsense (1.4 in Table B2a and B2b) is synonymous with the surety-condition subsense (1.1 in both tables). What I have been calling the SURETY-sense, then, contains the subsenses surety, security, bail, and protection, and we can distinguish further categories of meaning within two of these subsenses, surety and security. The following description of the field for the borg-words and the collocations in which they appear is illustrated in Table B2b below. The meanings for the ‘surety’ area of the field fall into three categories, surety-condition, surety-person/role, and surety-pledge/promise. To be ‘under surety’ or ‘to place or bring someone under surety’ all indicate the surety- condition. To be under surety indicates the orderly ideal of this part of the legal system (as do the ‘to have a surety’ passages, below). To be placed under surety (by the shire-reeve and his men, typically) indicates a less desirable situation. “To place under distraint” is a procedure for collecting a debt which is declared illegal by ;_C_ngt 27. To act as surety, to stand surety, to guarantee, and to be responsible as 116 Table B2b: Senses of the borg-field created with noun-verb collocations I SURETY-sense 1. Surety surety-condition surety-person surety-pledge 2. Security security-condition security-person security-pledge 3. Bail 4. Protection 11. LOAN -sense 1. Debt, debtor 2. Loan, lender, interest [collocations] to be under surety to bring under surety to place under surety to place under distraint to act as surety to stand surety for someone to stand surety that . . . to guarantee to pledge oneself for someone to be responsible as surety to find a surety to furnish surety to appoint a surety that not to have surety to have surety to renounce an oath to give under security to act as security to have a security (person) not to have security (property) to make security to repudiate bail to violate protection to borrow to lend 117 surety all indicate the surety-person acting in his role, as subject of the construction. Conversely, to find or furnish surety and to have (or not to have) a surety are constructions which show the principal in his relationship with his surety. Borhhand and werborh indicate persons, and the adjective borhleas as well as the construction butan borge also refer to persons. In the surety- pledge/promise category belong godborg and the glossary items for ‘renounce an oath.’ In the ‘security’ area, the meanings fall into three categories analogous to those under ‘surety.’ The security-condition is indicated by the adjective borhfcest and by the construction for ‘to give under security,’ while ‘to act as security’ and ‘to have a security’ both refer to a person or a role, the category indicated by borhhand. Section 3: Location of items in type of text; Law, Charter, Gloss, Glossary, Other In order to discuss the use of the borg-words, we can analyze their occurrences by type of text and frequency. The legal texts form one category, charters form a second; glossed texts and glossaries form two more, with the remaining texts (including historical writing) grouped as ‘other.’ The eighteen Old English words that this word field comprises are listed in Table B3, and individual items are listed with more information regarding their inflection, context, and meaning in Appendix B. Borg-words occur with the SURETY-sense 104 times, and with the LOAN- sense 52 times, exactly a 2:1 ratio. When we look at the Gloss and Glossary categories, however, we see that the LOAN -sense predominates among words with Latin equivalents (46, or 29.5% of 156): of those 46 items, only 13 (28% of 46) have the SURETY-sense while 33 (72%) have the LOAN-sense. Within the unglossed group (Legal, Charter, and Other), more than 3/4 have the SURETY-sense (91 items or 83%) and less than 1/4 have the LOAN-sense 118 Table B3: Location of borg-words by type of text (in each column, SURETY-sense + LOAN -sense) Total Laws Charters Gloss Glossary Other borg 95 55+4 3+3 0+3 5+8+ l ?* 6+7 borgi end 6 0+6 borgian 13 0+ 10 0+ 1 0+2 aborgian 5 4+0 0+ 1 onborgi an 2 0+2 borhhand l3 6+0 2+0 3+0 2+0 borggelda 5 0+5 borhfcest 2 2+0 geborhfcesten 1 1+0 borgbryce 3 3+0 werborg 3 3+0 i nborh 2 2+0 godborg 2 2+0 borggilefde 1 1+0 borg wed 1 1+0 borhleas 1 1+0 borgsorg 1 1+0 lindgeborga _1 _ _ _ _ 1+0 70+4 9+6 2+24 ll+9+l?* 1219 Total for field 156+ l * 74 15 26 20+ 1* 21 47% 10% 17% 13% 13% * ‘1?’ refers to item B8, bux? glossed by borg; this is omitted from percentages. 119 (19 items, 17%). In the glossed group the situation is reversed: almost 3/4 have the LOAN-sense, while slightly more than 1/4 have the SURETY-sense. Legal, Charter, Other Gloss, Glossary 91 surety words = 83% 13 surety words = 28% Q loan words = 17% fl loan words = 72% 110 = 70.5% of total 46 = 29.5% of total Law The locations of the borg-words show their importance as legal terms: 47% of all borg-words occur in law codes (74 of 156), and almost all of these (70 items) have the SURETY-sense. Including charters with the law codes, we see that 57% of borg-words occur in both kinds of legal documents, with a large majority of those having the SURETY-sense. Of the 70 legal items which have the general SURETY-sense (45% of 156), 54 occupy the surety sub-sense, five mean security, three refer to bail, and eight have the PROTECTTON-sense. Thus, over three quarters of the 70 legal items have the specific legal sense ‘surety’; this represents approximately one third of the total number of borg-words. Some of the uses of borg as surety occur in constructions which have a grammatical marker for purpose. Among the 72 occurrences of the noun borg in the Legal and Other categories illustrated in Table B3, 15 (21%) have a purpose clause in the subjunctive attached, indicating the specific responsibility being secured; one of these is in an lElfric homily, one occurs in Wulfstan’s Institutes of Polity, and the other 13 are in the laws, i.e., 24% of the 54 legal items where borg means surety have the purpose clause construction. For example, in 2 lEthelstan, l§3 stipulates that after a thief has spent 40 days in jail, he may be released when relatives have paid 120 shillings, . . . & ga sio mcegp him on borh, dcet he cefre geswice: “but his relatives shall stand surety that he shall cease for ever after Ifrom thieving I” (my emphasis; Attenborough 128-9, item B52). These 13 codes having purpose clauses refer either to convicted 120 criminals (eight to thieves, murderers, or perjurers) or to persons whose legal status is highly questionable: four refer to “thoroughly untrustworthy men,” and one to a person whose goods are “attached.” In the AElfric item, a child who is not old enough to speak is joined to the church through the belief of his parents and the guarantee of his godfather “that the child will hold to its Christianity by God’s teaching” (B17); in the Wulfstan item, if someone who is only partly instructed is to be ordained, it can be done only if he find a borg “that he will eagerly seek after teaching” (B32). In both these cases, a person (whose status with the Church is analogous to the questionable legal status referred to in the law codes above) has others, his family or peers, guarantee his future behavior. The real responsibility is born by the borg, as it is in the law codes. In both these cases where the legal idea is used by the Church, learning, and the important responsibility of teachers, are at issue. For further discussion, see below in Other. Gloss By examining the Gloss and Other categories, we can see how the borg-words operate in non-legal contexts. Of the two categories, Gloss presents the more restrictive situations: a translation is required, and a certain word is chosen. As we have noted earlier, this has the advantage of giving modern readers more explicit information about the writers’ use of these words, even if the writers’ choices are more restricted. Of the twenty-six items in interlinear glosses (17% of 156), only three gloss non-biblical sources: one for Sedulius’s Carmen Paschale and two for Aldhelm’s prose Di laude virginitatis; all three of these have the LOAN-sense. The other twenty-three items in the Gloss category gloss verses in the Psalter, Psalter canticles (hymns collected in the psalter manuscripts), Parabola Salomonis (the book of Proverbs, in a tenth-century manuscript), and Matthew (Rushworth gospels). Among these twenty-three items, only seven 121 different verses are represented. In two of the verses in Proverbs,7 surety is used in a pejorative sense (the only uses of the SURETY-sense in the Gloss category). Borrowing and debt are condemned in two other verses,8 and usurers in a third.9 Charitable giving is approved in one,10 and Christ’s gift of life to those “in debt to death” is praised in the hymn verse.ll Twice, when a pejorative term is needed, Bible translators choose a word that is mainly a legal term for someone who functions as a protector, sponsor, or guarantor : in one case, someone is a surety for strangers,12 and in the other, one has his hands fastened down and is surety for debts. 13 This might suggest that those who functioned as borg in this society at times abused their position of power over others. However, use of the borg-words with the SURETY-sense in the Other category reveals that they could be used with a more positive connotation as well. Other The items in the Other category reveal Anglo-Saxon writers using the borg-words in less restrictive contexts where, even if they were following a Latin model, they were not required merely to translate it word for word. There is perhaps a freer use of language here. Among the twenty-one Other items (13% of 156) are eight from religious prose material (homilies, lives of saints, the martyrology: three of these are Elfric’s, and five are anonymous). Also, there are three items each from Gregory and from the prose Psalter. Two items are from Theodulf of Orleans’ Capitula, a monastic rule. One item occurs in the West Saxon Gospels, and one each in Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (D,the Winchester version), the Riming 7 Pr 20.16 (the OE passage is numbered 20.18; the numbering of verses is slightly different in an up- to-date Douay Bible, which I use for the references in this section), item 8122; and Pr 22.26, B134. 3 Pt 22.7, item 880; Ps 36.21, items 8102 - 108. 9 P810811, items 896 -101,111,135 -137. 10 Mt. 5.42, item 823. 11 Items B138, 139. 12 Pr 20.16: take away the garment of him that is surety for a stranger, and take a pledge from him for strangers. 13 Pr 22.26: be not with them that fasten down their hands, and that offer themselves sureties for debts. 122 m, and 1511999 All but these last three of the twenty-one items, then, appear in religious prose. Nine of the twenty-one Other items have the LOAN -sense: the three from prose Psalter, both items in Hom M 11 (Vere 14), both items from Theodulf's Capitula, and the passages in the Martyrology and West Saxon Gospels. In the latter passage from Matthew’s version of the Sermon on the Mount, Christ exhorts his listeners not to refuse a loan to those who would borrow from them. The two items in the passage in Verc Horn 14 are from the story in the parable on forgiveness where 3 lord forgives a debt, but then rebukes the forgiven debtor when he discontinues the charity his lord showed him. The Capitula passage condemns the practice of seeking repayment of loans from debtors on fast days. The psalter verses condemn borrowing but approve both giving of loans and mercy toward debtors. In these passages, Christian charity is approved while the abuse of power is condemned: the loan or debt itself is not the focus here. Almost all the items with the LOAN - sense in the Other and Gloss categories involve Bible verses or ideas directly relating to passages and ideas in the Bible. The remaining twelve Other items indicate the SURETY-sense. In three of these we read the terms literally and notice nothing remarkable, but in nine a more interesting use of these legal terms occurs. Constantine is a “protecting shield” (lindgeborga) in film, a poetic compound occurring only here (B157). The Riming Poem passage has no context (other than a list of rhymes) and must be taken literally—‘borrow-sorrow biteth’ (borgsorg bited). In the one Anglo-Saxon Chronicle passage, thegns (of Harold Godwineson) transfer allegiance to King Edward (they became borhfcest to him). This use can be taken literally, in a legal sense; the compound occurs only here and in the Vitas Patrum (see below). In the other nine passages, the SURETY-sense of borh has been used in writing which translates Gregory, or by 1Elfric or Wulfstan, and in three anonymous texts, where the legal sense has been extended into writing on 123 spiritual matters. A passage from a Blickling Homily on tithing teaches that when we give “under the Lord’s security”l4 (go; with God as borg) it will eventually bring rewards (B66). Mary of Egypt continually “raised the eyes of [her] heart to [her] security in trouble” (the Virgin, B133). Notice that in these passages the Deity is a security and not a surety, who would be liable for the faults of the principal and would answer to a higher authority, a situation which could not apply to God. In all but one of the remaining seven, people are borh or borhhand with God that something later be done with regards to a third party; this usually refers to continued or additional teaching in proper Christian living. In the second Vitas Patrum passage, borhfcest appears in a parallel construction: the speaker says that his master wants this, “that [he] be borhfast to him, and that [he] be more trustworthy than [he] had been before” (B143). This has a literal force similar to the one above, although it appears in a hagiographic context. (This seems strongly parallel to the Chronicle passage, where persons who had been aligned with enemies of the king were bound to him in a new allegiance. Both these resemble the examples above in the section on purpose clauses, where borg-words described church people with an obligation to bring someone into line with the Church’s desires in future.) The other six passages here definitely have the idea that someone is surety for another’s future improvement. Two of the passages have been discussed above in the purpose clause section, one each from lElfric and Wulfstan. In the passage from Gregory’s Dialogues, a deacon will be executed by the Lombards, so Sanctulus, the saint whose story Gregory is telling, offers himself as borg for the man’s custody. He then encourages the deacon to escape, and stays behind “like a surety betrayed” (after which God protects the saint from harm, B18). The saint has redeemed the man by taking on his responsibilities. In another text, a homily for the dedication of a church, those who have undertaken a duty at baptism or at the bishop’s hand are reminded “that they are borhhanda with God 14 Ne purfon ge wenan past 99 past orceape sellon, part ge under Drihfnes borh sylla p . . . 124 Almighty” (B132) with regards to the third party’s future learning and obedience: there is no purpose clause here, but the context and the intent are similar to those texts with the clause. The two items from the Pastoral Care show the spiritual borg’s great responsibility. Chapter 13 describes “how the teacher is to be pure at heart”15 in order to lead by his example. Those “who bear God’s vessels” must be pure, according to the prophet, and “they bear God’s vessels who undertake the guidance of other men’s souls”; therefore, they must “consider among themselves how pure they ought to be who carry in their breasts the ever- living vessels to the eternal temple on their own responsibility [on hira agenne borg, item B631.” This construction is similar to the several parallel passages in the laws which require lords to be surety for the men of their own household. The second item in E is several chapters further, in 28. Again, the principle is that the teacher has pledged himself for his friend beforehand: “What greater promise can a man make for his friend than that of accepting his soul at his own risk?” (p. 192). This means it is “necessary for him, when he teaches well, also to act well, without perverting his life contrary to his teaching” because later he will be accountable for these things “before the severe Judge.” The writer quotes Solomon: “free thyself, because thou hast pledged thyself [du eart on borg began] to thy friend” (p. 193; item B62). He continues by exhorting the teacher not only to live well, but to “draw those he is set over from the sloth of their sins.” He is responsible for many souls, as a borg before the court of God. The ‘lending money’ sense of borg (more like the sense of lend and borrow that we have) would have seemed a little strange to the Anglo-Saxons. This analysis reveals that borg’s BORROW/LOAN-sense and its SURETY- sense, seen as fused in its eymology, had not yet diverged. The insular economy was much less monetary than that of the Mediterranean culture from which came many of the texts containing Latin words glossed or translated by 15I'I.Sweet,ed., ' All W - V ' t t P t l ,2v0|s.EETS45,50 (London, 1871). 125 borg and its derivatives. When the texts we have been discussing were originally Latin, the borg-words tend more to have the ‘lending money’ sense; e.g., among borg glosses of the Bible, the LOAN-sense appeared almost exclusively. When the text was originally Anglo-Saxon, the SURETY-sense appeared more often, e.g., in laws and charters, and in religious prose. In the Other category, we have seen the SURETY-sense used with its legal sense extended to ecclesiastical matters in a way that shows the Anglo-Saxon church using secular legal terms to reinforce its moral teaching in powerful ways. CHAPTER SIX The Conceptual Field: Words for ‘legal protection’ in Old English In order to draw conclusions about the data analyzed so far, the first section of this chapter combines and summarizes ideas from Chapters Two through Five (with some redundancy-I attempt to synthesize information scattered across several chapters here). The second section describes the common field formed by the overlapping areas of the four word-fields: the common field could be called the semantic field or conceptual field for the Old English concept ‘legal protection.’ The third part of this chapter analyzes the Other category of the combined field. Chapter Seven will offer more literary-critical discussion of some of the results generated in the dissertation and sketch out directions for future study based on these materials. Section 1: Summary of Chapters Two through Five Etymology The etymology gives some information about the various senses of the head-words. The two main senses for mund, HAND and PROTECTION, are joined in its etymology as ‘protecting hand.’ The etymology for frid reveals that there are two separate words in Old English spelled frid; knowing this allowed us to distinguish words for ‘woods’ (in charter bounds) from the others and eliminate them. Also, one can see the 126 127 source of the FREEDOM-sense (in Old English limited almost exclusively to Bible translations) in the Germanic roots of the word. The word grid cannot be traced further back than its immediate Scandinavian roots. In contrast, borg’s roots reveal that its BORROW/LOAN-sense and its SURETY-sense were originally fused; they diverge after the Old English period, and we distinguish them now as separate ideas. From this we can see that the etymologies for three of the four words help to distinguish their various SCDSCS. Old English Glosses of Latin Old English glosses of Latin texts can reveal precise information about which meanings the Anglo-Saxons gave to particular words (depending on variables such as the date of the glosses and the education of the glossator or copyist, of course). The use of the various mund-words to gloss Latin words corresponds to mund’s subsenses: Latin agent nouns are glossed by mundbora, Latin words for defense (patrocinium, presidium, munimen, e. g.) are glossed by Old English words for protection, and so forth. Mund-words never gloss the Latin manus: the hand— (or hond—) words consistently gloss manus and occasionally dexter; swidre usually glosses dexter, and folm glosses palmus (and occasionally manus). Mund- words always gloss Latin legal terms for some aspect of defense or protection. The Latin words glossed by frid-words include most of the items with the “to set free” subsense (a sense not very evident elsewhere, except in Bible translations). The Latin glosses by grid- and borg-words were insignificant to a study of words for ‘protection’ (though borg-words frequently gloss words for loan and debt, and to a lesser extent those for surety). 128 Table 6.1a: Location of mund- frid- grid- and borg-words in Latin/Old English Glossaries mund frid grid borg Antwerp Glossary 1 1 4 Cleopatra ” 6 9 Corpus ” 2 2 Epinal ” 2 l Erfurt ” 2 1 Harley ” _ _ _ _1. 00 13 l O 1 129 Table 6.1b: Location of mund- frid- grid- and borg-words in Interlinear Glosses of Latin Texts mund frid grid borg Aldhelm (De laude virginitatis) 19 2 2 Arundel Prayer Gloss 5 Elfric’s Grammar 3 Boethius (Consolation of Pilosophy) 2 1 Cuthbert (Bede’s) 2 1 Durham Proverbs 1 Durham Ritual l Hymn Gloss 2 1 Lorica of Gildas 2 Matthew (Lindisfame) Matthew (Rushworth) 5 1 Occasional Gl. (Bede) l ” ” (Proverbs) 3 ” ” (Psalms) l Psalter Canticles 1 11 diff. Psalter Mss. 3 l6 Regularis Concordia 2 Sedulius (Carmen Paschale) _ _ _ __1_ TOTAL Interlinear 61. 35 13 3 29 plus Glossary items _fl _1_ _(_) _l_8 TOTAL OE Glosses 48 14 3 47 130 Definitions The definitions given in dictionaries for the various terms in the word-fields introduce readers to legal terms with which they might not be familiar, and the definitions form a starting point for setting up the distinctions of sense in the field for the group of words formed on each head-word. The analysis in this dissertation has not been concerned with correcting or creating definitions, but only with describing precisely the relationships among the senses and subsenses of each word-field. Collocations of words in each field with others not in the field (often verbs) reveal the range of possible uses within the senses and subsenses and are not meant to be exhaustive. Description and Location The description of each field reveals the “shape” of that field, that is, the relative proportions of its major sense divisions. The analysis of the words’ locations in various kinds of texts gives us additional information about how they were used. The proportion of the words’ uses in all the areas gives us general information about them. However, I am most interested here in their use in the Other category (discussed further, below) because I eventually want to know how the legal connotations affect the words’ use in the “other” texts and the literary interpretation of those texts. Mund As we have seen, the mund-field contains 10% hand- words and 90% words with some kind of PROTECTION-sense. The head word has three different legal senses (protection, protector, and breach of protection), and there are compounds for each of these senses. All but two of the 17 mund-words are used in the Other category, and this shows that this legal concept was used extensively in many kinds of non-legal writing. Among the mund-words, the analysis reveals that 60% of the non-gloss words with a PROTECTION-sense are used in non-legal texts, and this shows (again) the importance of the use of this legal concept outside the law codes. Further, about 50% of the entire field occurs in poetic or religious prose texts 131 in the Other category: 23% of words with a PROTECTTON- or HAND-sense are in poetic texts, and another 22% of words with a PROTECTION -sense are in religious prose texts. By isolating the locations of mund-words by author, we noticed that mund-words were used by the Aldhelm glossator in a way that revealed a particular preference: after further examination of contexts, it appears that mund-words were not used when the saint whose story was being told had been martyred. We have also noticed that Ailfric distinguished between the usual scyld-words for protection against particular assaults and the use of mund-words for the “vertical” state of protection offered by God’s grace. Almost all of the hand-words (96%) occur in Other texts; 88% of them are in poetry, especially in Beowulf, where hand imagery is very evident: Beowulf is the only text where mund-words with a HAND-sense outnumber those with a PROTECTION -sense, not surprising in a poem where the hero’s unarmed physical strength is an issue. The question raised above, and to be answered in future research, is whether the mund hand-words always bring a legal connotation; one could argue that they do. F n'd Of the four word-fields under consideration, the frid- field contains the largest number of different words and the largest number of items, but it is no more complex than the others. The PEACE-sense has about twice as many items as the PROTECTION-sense (64% to 29%), and the FREEDOM-sense occupies the remaining 7%. The FREEDOM-sense does not appear in the laws, and almost all its items appear in Bible translations. The 56 different words making up this field are mostly compounds formed on frid or its poetic equivalent fridu. The most striking observation on the location of the frid-words is their very frequent use in historical writing, with almost all of these occurrences having the PEACE-sense (and using very few of the 56 words). The compounds formed on fri d- words (which include most of the many distinct 132 words in this field) appear either in legal writing or in texts in the Other category. This distribution shows that the frid-words were very productive for word formation, and that, like mund, the concept they denoted was constructively employed in many kinds of texts both legal and non-legal. Grid The general shape of the grid-field resembles that of frid, since they are terms with similar meanings, but as we have seen grid has a more localized and particular use (of certain places or events or people). The grid-field consists of a PEACE-sense (52% of field) and a PROTECTTON- sense (47% of field); if the formulaic use of gridbryce is separated out (20%), then the PROTECTION-sense (47%) dominates the remaining PEACE-sense (32%). The location of grid-words shows one pattern similar to frid: historical writing forms the largest category of grid-word uses, two thirds of these having the PEACE-sense, but employing only two of the ten different grid-words. We noticed above that one writer dominated the use of the grid- words in Old English. Considering Wulfstan’s task of regularizing legal practices in the largely Scandinavian north, it is not surprising that he would use a variety of words from this field as he compiled law codes, homilies, and his Institutes of Polity, one of the earliest expositions on the relationship between ecclesiastical and secular power. Legal writing, by Wulfstan and others, uses eight of the ten words and, besides history, is the other large area of concentration (50% of the field); 81% of grid-words are used in legal or historical texts. Wulfstan’s writing will be given more commentary below. Borg The borg- words are included here because 5% of their occurrences are used as a synonym for mund in the laws. Generally, borg means SURETY (including the mund synonyms) in two thirds of its uses and LOAN in the other third. Borg, like grid, is a word with very many legal uses and with a limited 133 number in the remaining categories of texts. Over half of all borg-words occur in legal writing, and while 90% of these have the SURETY-sense, only 5% of the total field is used with the PROTECTION-sense, and all of these items are in a context discussing breach of protection. Many of the items with the SURETY-sense have a purpose clause indicating the act or condition which is to be secured by the surety. Borg occurs many times in Bible glosses, but with its LOAN-sense in most instances. Section 2: Combined Field, the Conceptual Field for Mund Having reviewed some of the conclusions for the individual word- fields, we can now attempt to describe the combined field, or the area where the four word-fields overlap; this area can be called the semantic field or conceptual field for the Old English concept ‘legal protection’ and contains 910 items. In the following description I include the PEACE-sense (offrid and grid ) as well as the PROTECTTON-sense of all four words, mund, frid, grid, borg, since these two main senses are closely related: the power to protect creates conditions of peace. What is not included in this field from the analysis given in Chapters Two through Five are the items with a FREEDOM- sense (frid- words), the HAND-words (in themund-field), and the borg-words with a SURETY- or LOAN -sense. 134 Table 6.2a: Locations of texts in the 4 word-fields of the Combined Field (numbers refer either to PROTECTTON-sense alone, or to PEACE-sense + PROTECTTON-sense) Law Charter Other Gloss Glossary Chron. Mund-field 3 7 34 l l 94 35 13 224 (25%) F rid-field 57+35 3+2 181+8 77+ 103 9+3 0+ 1 479 (53%) Grid-field 15+42 42+2 41+21 7+28 0+ 1 0 199 (22%) Borg-field 8 0 0 0 0 0 ._8 1.1%) _ _ _ _ _ _ 910 (100%) 194 83 262 309 48 14 21 % 9% 29% 34% 5% 2% 30% 7 % The field formed by the PROTECTION-sense and the PEACE-sense of the mund, frid, grid, and borg word-fields is analyzed in Table 6.2b. This combined field has frid-words for about half its members; mund-words and grid-words each make up approximately one quarter of its members, with the borg-words representing less than 1%. The words located in the combined field fall into three areas of approximately equal numbers: legal writing (laws and charters) forms 30%, historical writing makes up 28%, and the Other 135 category contains 34%, with glosses comprising only 7% of the total field.1 Texts such as poetry, homilies and other religious prose, Bible translations, and miscellaneous texts like Boethius, the Leechbook, and Byrhtferth’s Manual form the Other category, and this category makes up a substantial proportion of the semantic field for ‘legal protection,’ just over one third. Table 6.2b: Locations and proportions of the 2 senses in the Combined Field Legal Glosses Total Law Charter History Other Gloss Glossary Protection 478 122 38 40 225 39 14 (m.f. g. b) % of 478 26% 8% 8% 47% 8% 3% % of 910 52% 13% 4% 4% 25% 4% 2% Peace (f, g) 432 72 45 222 84 9 0 % of 432 17% 10% 51% 19% 2% % of 910 48% 8% 5% 25% 9% 1% 910 194 83 262 309 48 14 1 Here we can also note Wulfstan's striking contribution to the combined field: of the 194 items in law codes, 123 items (63%) are Wulfstan's; of the 309 items in the Other category, 59 (19%) are his; so Wulfstan is responsible for 182 of the 910 items in the combined field, or 20%. 136 The relative proportions of the two main senses in the combined field are analyzed in detail in Table 6.2b. Here the 478 items (52%) meaning ‘protection’ from the mund- frid- grid- and borg-fields have been combined and are compared with those 432 items (48%) from the frid- and grid-fields meaning ‘peace.’ What is apparent here is that while the two sense areas of the whole field stand in approximately equal proportions to each other, Historical items dominate the PEACE-sense, and Other items dominate the PROTECTION-sense; Legal items provide a substantial minority of the PROTECTION-sense. (For further analysis of the Other area, see Section 3 below.) ' Items from frid and grid together form three quarters of this combined field (see Table 6.2a); in the frid field the PEACE-sense dominates other senses by about two to one (see above, Table F2a), and the PEACE-sense occupies about half of the grid field (see above, Table 62a). However, when the fields are combined to show the relative proportions of all the Peace words and of all the Protection words in the conceptual field for the legal concept ‘mund,’ the PEACE-sense becomes the secondary one in all but the History and Charter categories, as Table 6.2b illustrates. This seems reasonable when we consider the subject of these categories. The kind of discourse employed in historical and charter writing is concerned with long-term public issues. History records the large picture here, describing wars and truces (among other things) that cover wide areas and large numbers of people; charters (wills, writs, and charters proper) record the legal details for particular transactions among individuals and involving specific tracts of land and other kinds of property, the minutiae of history. Both kinds of writing are concerned with the long term and with the public matters of the kingdom, the national security, peace, and truce that frid and grid can denote. By contrast, the use of mund and borg tends to reflect more private and local (and perhaps temporary) concerns, often among individuals. The 137 protection that mund denotes is bestowed by a person of power on individual persons, places, and events. The protection a surety (borg) provides is often of a still shorter term; (it may even be specified with a purpose clause to guarantee a very particular transaction or condition, as we have seen). The PROTECTION-sense is dominated by items in the Other category on which I will focus for the remainder of this chapter; it is these items which promise the most fertile ground for future critical work on this topic. Section 3: Other category in the combined field The four word-groups under consideration here have been discussed as legal terms at some length above, where we examined their occurrences in law codes and charters for each word-field. As we have seen, items in these word groups are also used in glosses and glossaries to translate Latin words, a function which generally places severe restrictions on semantic options. The use of the four groups in historical writing has been put in a separate category, in part because of the large number of items in the frid- and grid -fields in this area. Although it is less formulaic or semantically constrained than legal writing and glossing, historical writing tends to present information about events in a matter-of-fact way, much like newspaper writing in our own time. It thus leaves less room for “creativity,” or to put it differently, uses language in a more literal way, a less layered or less symbolic way, than writing in poetry and in prose religious texts, for example. Looking now at how the mund- frid— grid- and borg-words are used in the Other category’s various kinds of texts opens up new possibilities: it gives us a chance to see how the Anglo-Saxons used these words that have legal senses in kinds of discourse other than legal or historical writing, where the writers themselves may have been exploiting the words’ legal connotations for artistic or didactic purposes. Analyzing such uses may enable us to understand the words more as the Anglo-Saxons did and thereby to interpret the texts in which they occur more accurately, or more thoroughly, by including additional dimensions or layers 138 (the legal connotations in non-legal texts) which might otherwise be missed. The Other category is the largest among words in the combined field with a PROTECTION-sense (48% of 478); with the 20% of the PEACE-sense that the Other category occupies, it is also marginally the largest category of the field as a whole, with 34% of the 910 items in the combined field. The Other category of the combined field can be divided into four sub- categories: Poetic, 46%; Religious Prose, 44%; Bible translations, 6%; and Miscellaneous, 4%. The items in the Other category are analyzed in detail in Appendix $2, and selected features of this analysis are summarized in Tables 6.3a - 6.3d. 139 Table 6.3a: Location of items in Poetic Subgroup of Other category (titles given only for texts with 3 or more items) Title and Total mund frid grid # of items (prot’n + peace) (protection) (protection + peace)* Andreas l4 9 + 5 3 6+5 Beowulf 10 5 + 5 2 3+5 Christ A, B, C 10 8 + 2 3 5+2 Daniel 6 6 + 0 6+0 Elene 4 2 + 2 2+2 Genesis A, B 24 7 + 17 5 2+l7 Guthlac A, B 15 13 + 2 6 7+2 Judith 2 2 + 0 1 1+0 Juliana 5 4 + l 3 1+1 Battle of Maldon 4 1 + 3 1+2 0+1 Phoenix 2 2 + 0 2+0 Paris Psalter 12_ _9__+__3_ A it; _ Totals, 108 68 + 40 27 41+39 0+1 preceding 12 titles; 31 other titles (w/ 1 or 2 items): 3 M _9 _15_+9_ _L 141 92 + 49 36 56+48 0+1 (141) (104) 65% + 35% 141 = 46% of 309 (‘Other’ total from Table 6.2b) *applies in both frid and grid columns 140 The Poetic subcategory contains the largest number (141) of items among the Other subcategories in the combined field. There are over twice as many items with the PROTECTION-sense as with a PEACE-sense. These items are completely analyzed in Appendix S2, and their share of the combined field is summarized in Table 6.3a. There are 44 different short titles in this group, 31 of which have one or two items only and contain 33 items total. The remaining 12 titles have from 3 to 27 items (108 total) and contain the balance of the 141 Other-Poetic items. Genesis A B has 24 (out of 2936 lines), Guthlac has 15 (in 1379 lines), Andreas has 14 (in 1722 lines), Bali; Ps_altey 12 (in the 150 psalms), Beowulf has 10 (in 3182 lines), and Q1_r1;s_t_ has 10 (in 1664 lines); the rest have fewer. Among these, Beowulf, Andreas Guthlac, and possibly Genesis A B seem to be most promising for future study, some directions for which are presented in Chapter Seven. 141 Table 6.3b: Location of items in Religious Prose Subgroup of Other category Total mund frid grid (prot’n+peace) (prot’n) (protection + peace)* IElfric 38 25+ 13 21 4+ 1 3 0 Wulfstan 59 49+ 10 12 8+8 29+2 Gregory 12 12+0 8 4+0 0 other (Mart., anon. 24+3 12 11+2 1+1 hours. and LS, Ben R, liturgy) .21 _ _ 136 110-126 53 27+23 30+3 80%+20% 136=44% of 309 (‘Other’ total from Table 6.2b) *applies in both frid and grid columns The Religious Prose subcategory contains material attributed to lElfric, Wulfstan, Gregory,2 and anonymous homiletic and other texts. Wulfstan accounts for almost half of these items, lElfric has about one quarter, and the anonymous homilies and saints’ lives nearly that many; Old English Gregorian material has about 6%. The material of Wulfstan and .Elffic has been discussed above (Chapters Two and Four). The Religious Prose subgroup contains almost as many items as the Poetic subgroup, and together they form 89% of the Other category in the combined field. 2 The material by St. Gregory (ca. 540-604) analyzed in this study consists of King Alfred's translations of the magistrate: of Gregory and the W or Pastoral Care, ”a guide to bishops in their exercise of spiritual authority [that] developed into a first-rate treatise on authority, as useful for the secular as for the spiritual leader” (H. R. Loyn, AW (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1967] 55-56. 142 Table 6.3c: Location of items in Bible Translation Subgroup of Other category Title total Mund F rid Grid (protection + peace)* Genesis 1 1+0 Genesis (Ker) 1 1+0 Joshua3 4 1+3 Judges 1 0+1 Psalms 10 10+0 Psalms Headings 2 1 1+0 Matthew Marg (Li) __1 _ Q+_l_ 169-4 1 l4+5 (20) (19) 80%+20% 20=6% of 309 (‘Other’ total from Table 6.2b) *applies in both frid and grid columns The Bible Translation subgroup contains 6% of the items in the combined field. As noted earlier, items with the FREEDOM-sense have been left out of the combined field for PROTECTION and PEACE. Those items, found almost entirely in the prose Psalter, would more than double the size of this group if included. 3 Note that in Joshua and Judges the PEACE-sense is more numerous than the PROTECTION-sense (4 instances to 1), reflecting the trend identified above at the end of Section 2: historical works tend to deal more with peace than personal protection. 143 The Miscellaneous subgroup is a small and insignificant group here, containing only 4% of the items in the combined field: Table 6.3d: Location of items in Miscellaneous Subgroup of Other category Title total Mund F rid Grid (Protection+Peace)* Boethius 5 1 4+0 Byr Manual 1 1 Leechbook I 1 1+0 Prognostications 4 1 0+1 Prognostications 5.1 1 0+1 Record 10.8 1 1 Rev’l Monast’m _2__ _ l'lfl. 10+2 3 7+1 0+1 (12) (8) 83%+17% 12=4% of 309 (‘Other’ total from Table 6.2b) *applies in both frid and grid columns 144 Conclusions By combining the PROTECTION- and PEACE-senses of the four word-fields considered in the preceding chapters,4 we can generate the semantic field (or conceptual field) for the Old English concept ‘legal protection.’ Legal texts, historical writing, and other texts (exclusive of glosses) form three nearly equal-sized parts of this field, with the Other category being largest. It contains mainly Poetic and Religious Prose material in roughly equal proportions; considered collectively, these two subgroups constitute almost 90% of the Other category of the combined field. The PEACE-sense strongly predominates in the history area; the PROTECTTON- sense strongly predominates in the Other area; and in the Legal area, PEACE- and PROTECTION-senses are nearly balanced, with Protection having a slightly larger share than Peace. The fact that the Other area is the largest area in this combined field, and that the PROTECTTON-sense dominates here, once more shows the importance of the legal concept of mund in non-legal texts, reinforcing the conclusions reached earlier in the analysis in Chapters Two through Five. Most of the Religious Prose subgroup of the Other category, and several of the texts with large numbers of items in the Poetic subgroup, show promise for future research with a more literary focus. The lexical and linguistic approach that this study employs to examine the data base has yielded interesting and valuable results so far, and these can be supplemented and developed by examining individual texts in more depth. When one compares the kinds of discourses examined here (legal, historical, religious instructional, poetic), it becomes obvious that the various subsenses distinguished above in the word-fields are not distributed randomly across the different kinds of discourses, but instead are genre sensitive. The more private, personal, and local nature of the concept of legal protection mentioned above—in contrast to the more public and national dimension in 4 it is conceivable that a few instances of other Old English protection-words (for a complete list, see above Chapter 1, note 25) could have legal connotations and need to be included here; if there were such they would form a very insignificant proportion of this field. The field I have described and analyzed is formed by the only words used in the OE law codes to mean 'legal protection.‘ 145 historical writing—becomes apparent when we examine the words analyzed in this study in such texts as homilies, the poetic lives of saints, and Beowulf, for example, and can lead to interesting interpretive studies of those texts and others, the prospects for which are outlined in Chapter Seven. CHAPTER SEVEN Literary Applications for Future Research In the preceding chapters, this study analyzed lexical and linguistic elements of four word-fields and the semantic field for the Old English concept ‘legal protection’ and discussed the patterns formed by large numbers of items and their proportions in several categories. In those discussions, I mentioned intermittently the possibilities for further research and for fuller literary analysis. My study of the four word groups for mund, frid, grid, and borg showed that the several senses for the words are not spread randomly across various kinds of discourse but instead the words’ meanings are genre sensitive. For example, about half the items in the conceptual field for mund mean ‘protection,’ but only a small proportion of these items in history texts mean ‘protection.’ Instead, the words in the conceptual field are more likely to mean ‘peace’ in historical writing. To assist a discussion of the words’ distribution, we can specify four genres: legal, historical, religious instructional, and poetic. In the first group, the mundfrid grid borg words will have a legal/technical sense, and in historical writing their use is likely to reflect these legal ideas. In religious instructional writing, the words may be used with their legal senses and/or their less technical senses; in poetic writing, the words are likely to include connotations or ambiguities not found in the other groups, in part because of the presence of narrative contexts. In non-legal contexts, a reader is justified in interpreting the legal terms’ possible broader connotations. The above analysis has also drawn attention to the possibility of commenting on the synonyms for ‘protection’ in some texts: certain writers made 146 1 47 careful and consistent lexical distinctions between apparent synonyms. In other texts, large numbers of synonyms for the mundfrid grid borg words are present. In future work I hope to concentrate on the interaction between the mundfrid grid borg words and other words in the list of synonyms for protection (see Chapter 1, note 25) in particular texts, and more research should be done on the individual word-fields in that list throughout the corpus of Old English. The literary analysis in this chapter will suggest directions for future research into the operation of the mundfrid grid borg words and their senses in various genres, and on the relation of the protection words and their synonyms, in texts such as Wulfstan’s and lElfric’s, in the poetic saints’ lives Andreas and Guthlac A and in Beowulf. Part I: Wulfstan and [Elfric Wulfstan During the years 1002 to 1023 when Wulfstan was archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, he drafted a series of laws for lEthelred and another series for Cnut, he composed other legal texts for his own use (such as the Compilation on Status referred to above), and he composed the law codes m Rectitudines Singularum Personarum and Gerefa. He compiled the Canons of Edgar for the guidance of the secular clergy, and his name is associated with several other texts as well. Eventually he composed the Institutes of Polity, Civil and Ecclesiastical, where he organized many of the legal ideas in the above texts along with theoretical ideas on the nature of kingship and the Church’s role in society that he had developed as a result of his experience with the tenth-century monastic reforms. Much of Wulfstan’s legal writing was directed at the largely Scandinavian north and east of England: from his see in York, the Archbishop was engaged in regularizing relations between the English and the Danelaw. The occurrences of the mundfrid grid borg words in the texts of Wulfstan can be considered here as legal uses of these words: although some of these occur in homilies, the Canons of Edgar, and the Polity, many of these instances lift whole 1 48 passages verbatim from his law codes, and in all cases the words are used with their literal legal force. Wulfstan employs the words we are considering as literal legal terms, and this usage represents one end of the continuum that extends from legal to poetic; it thereby forms a starting point for the more literary discussions of the other writers and texts below. As we have already seen, in Chapter Four, even Wulfstan’s literal uses of a legal term like grid are quite rich; as we move away from these literal uses to the work of other writers, we will find increasing opportunities for interpretation, commentary, and rewarding semantic exploration. [Elfric Viewed as a whole, the writings of Abbot .lElfric of Eynsham form an encyclopedic program of Christian instruction on universal history. The mund frid grid borg words examined in this study occur regularly in his writings, as the commentary in Chapter Six, Section 3 (on religious prose) shows. But whereas the legal concepts which these words denote are an important core concept in Wulfstan’s writing, in ASlfric’s work they occur incidentally, as needed, in contexts where we would expect them. Generally they are used with their literal legal meaning, but in contexts with theological overtones: the legal ideas apply to the kingdom of God and not to the secular realm. The frid-words express the various peace senses. Christ keeps His Father’s kingdom where no one can disrupt His peace (his frid, F150); a king makes peace with Judas Maccabeus (F238); repentant thieving birds seek refuge with Cuthbert (F181); and Judas Maccabeus seeks safe passage (mid fride moston faran) through a town (F262). The mund-words also express their usual legal protection senses: God protects us as a father (M735), He protects particular places (M75.5), and His mercy protects us (M59). Mundbora is used of a Roman official (M108) and also of Christ, our Protector and Judge (M107). lElfric also employs these legal terms with some degree of freedom, in ways that are figural or that we might call slightly ironic, and by this freer use they emphasize key ideas in AElfric’s writing. For instance, in his metrical life of Mark 1 49 and in his homily on the passion of Peter and Paul, [Elfric writes that townspeople were glad to have the remains of the saints kept near at hand, to be their patron (M127) or protector (M149). In his homily for the second Sunday after Pentecost, Ailfric recounts the story of Lazarus and Dives in which Dives desires the poor man who had begged at his table to be his mundbora, and listeners are encouraged to ask similar poor saints to pray for them as mundboran. These four uses of the Old English mundbora employ the legal term in ways that do not carry its usual legal force: dead bodies and people without power do not normally serve as mundboran. The mundfrid grid borg words are used in other slightly unusual ways. In the metrical vita of Abdon and Sennes, the saints stand in an arena about to be destroyed by wild beasts. However, the beasts run in to the saints’ feet swylce hi frydes bcedon (F185, as if they prayed for protection), and then the beasts protect the saints from their persecutors: the passage is doubly ironic. Elsewhere, lElfric employs the peace/protection words, as often occurs elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon poetry, for the perversion of protection as practiced by the devil and his associates. In the life of Martin, a tree at a pagan shrine is protected (gefriped, F385) and counted holy; elsewhere, a brazen image is protected (gefribode, F302) by the devil; and the heathen pray for guardianship and protection (munde and gescyldnysse, M24), irnploring both the vertical and horizontal protection discussed below. The remarkable use of these terms in narrative passages like the ones just discussed produces effects that emphasize the ideas Ailfric is presenting, both by the aesthetic pleasure they give the reader and by a kind of figurative force. This is what we expect in a narrative context, as opposed to the words’ literal use in a legal text or in historical writing. These passages illustrate legal terms used in extra-legal contexts in ways that invite commentary and exploration. The discourse here is different from the legal end of the legal-through-poetical continuum mentioned above, and the words we have been examining have effects beyond what we encountered in Wulfstan. 1 50 [Elfric’s Use of Two Synonyms for the Concept ‘Protection’ lElfric’s writings can also illustrate the importance of examining in any particular text the interplay between the peace/protection words and synonyms from the list of synonyms for protection (see Chapter One, note 25). In Elffic’s writing two different groups of words seem to indicate the Old English concept of legal protection: the mund- and frid-words which this study has described, and the scyld-words (scyldian, and gescyldnysse). Words from both groups are translated as ‘protect’ and ‘protection’ by Skeat in LS and by Thorpe in 435;}; vol. 1 and 2. In this section on lElfric I will examine and compare his use of these synonymous word groups to see what if any lexical distinctions he makes. A total of 124 homilies and saints’ lives by [Elfric are extant—85 titles in the two series of Catholic Homilies and 39 of the 43 saints’ lives edited by Skeat. Of these, approximately one third (46 texts, 28 homilies and 18 saints’ lives) use either of the two sets of words being considered here. As I examined the sixty-six different passages containing these words, I grouped them according to part of speech and location, summarized below: Table 7.1: Locations of Scyld- and Mund-words in [Elfric scyld- scyld- mund- frid- mund- frid- verbs nouns verbs nouns Total @_C_H 19 12 2 5 38 flé 1_3. -5. i _6 E 32 17 6 11 66 (4frid-words which mean ‘peace’ have been omitted) Approximately 33% of the Catholic Homilies have at least one of these passages, and these sermons use the words at a rate of 1.4 times per sermon. Approximately 40% of the L_S_ have at least one of these passages, and they use the words about 1.5 times per title. So we can say that about one third of Elfric’s titles have one or two of these passages. 1 51 At first sight, IEIfric seems to treat the mund— frid-words and the scyld-words as synonyms. However, Ailfric does distinguish between the two sets of words, and we can point out what the lexical distinction is. This assists us in distinguishing the mund- frid-group from the larger set of all Old English protection words. It also helps define mund more precisely, and it shows how Anglo-Saxon writers distinguished among what appear to be synonyms. The scyld-words and the mund- frid- group share the general sense ‘protection.’ This is evident in one of the two passages where the two word-groups appear together in one sentence. In a local conflict between Christians and pagans, “the heathen also . . . implored the guardianship and protection [munde and gescyldnysse bcedon] of their false gods” ( £C_H v.1, pp. 504-05, hereafter cited in the form 1.504-05: Thorpe’s trans., used here throughout,). The syntax of compound direct objects implies an equivalence between the two terms. This is not so, however, in the second passage where the two word-groups occur together. In “On Auguries,” readers are told that they must not make inquiries in the old way at stones or wells or trees (the fridgeardas mentioned in Chapter Two), but instead “the Christian man must cry to his Lord with mind and with mouth, and beseech His protection [his munda abiddan], that He may shield him against the devil’s snares” [beet he hine scylde wid deofles syrwunga], (ELS XVII, lines 136-38, hereafter cited in the form XVII.l36-38: Skeat’s trans., used throughout). From this we can propose a distinction: here the shielding is against something, while the protection exists in itself. We can also observe that the shielding is in this world (albeit against a spiritual adversary), and call it horizontal, while the protection comes from eternity and could be described as vertical. The shielding is an act, and the protection is the result of a relationship. This distinction will be borne out as we examine the other passages which use scyld—words and words from the mund- frid- group. In his preface to LS in the passage outlined above, lElfric had used a mund-word to describe his purpose in writing: it was for encouragement, and to munde us sylfitm, which Skeat translates “for our own security.” Knowing about the saints, and knowing that they intercede for believers with God, provides access to a kind of 1 52 security which exists regardless of particular situations or acts. The mund- frid- group in lElfric reveals this condition of constantly available protection from above, while the scyld-words will be seen to indicate an act of protection against a foe in this world. Twenty-three of the thirty-three scyld-verbs occur in passages where the threat is clearly identified. Besides the one described above, people are shielded from the devil’s wiles or temptations and against sins or stains, as well as against a host of other threats. In all of these the threat is the object of a preposition wid or fram, and the phrase is used adverbally. In the ten remaining passages where scyld-verbs are used, the shielding is against a foe which is evident from the context, even if it is not marked by a prepositional phrase. For instance, in a homily on the Lord’s Prayer, listeners are exhorted to pray that they be shielded so they will not sink under trials-the foe has sent, and God allows, the trials: the supplicant’s act initiates the shielding, or, one could say, the prayer is a shield. The analogy of warfare is used in one of the homilies: “If a man shoot at thee, thou shieldest thyself, if thou seest it” @C_H 2.539). This shielding uses the analogy of physical warfare to describe battles against spiritual foes, and we should remember that the etymology of ‘satan’ is ‘adversary.’ In the story of St. Martin, he challenges the Emperor Julian by refusing to fight in his army, but if Martin must, he will stand before the enemy without physical weapons: Martin acts on his belief to shield himself with the cross rather than a “real” weapon, and this example encourages listeners to make similar choices (as Elfric in his preface indicated was his intent). The shielding is against a present enemy identified in the story context and not by a phrase like “against the enemy.” In some of the other passages, what the shielding is against is less clear. It may be against all kinds of foes in day-to-day activity; acts of love may shield one from present dangers; or a saint’s acts of faith may elicit God’s protection. One passage where lElfric employs a scyld-verb seems not to fit the pattern I am describing. There it sounds as if a principle of vertical protecting is already in 1 53 place, and as though acts do not initiate it. A bishop explains to Eugenia that she will “suffer persecutions because of her virginity, and yet be preserved” [beon gescyld] by God “who shields his chosen ones” [pe gescylt his gecorenan], (Q 11.82-3). Here it seems that the protection is from above, in place and available at all times. However, the context shows that it can be regarded another way. The bishop has told Eugenia that she has pleased God by choosing virginity in the past; and, we can imagine her continuing to make choices which please God at various times in her life, as threatening situations arise: as she chooses the right way, she will be choosing God’s shielding against present foes with her acts of faith. In all of these examples, the scyld-verbs indicate protection against foes present in this world initiated by the acts of a believer. The syntax and text may clearly designate the foe, or an audience may understand who the adversary is from the context, but all these passages fit this pattern (with varying degrees of precision). The sixteen scyld-nouns indicate the same horizontal sort of protecting that the scyld- verbs do. Some of these involve military conflicts: in the one mentioned above, Martin has “no red shield” but instead the cross of Christ. In “The Maccabees” (LES XXV), after a thoroughly successful campaign against the enemy nations (which the writer calls “the heathen,” line 449), the Israelites “came safe to their lan ” and made offerings to God, “thanking His protection” [panciende his gescyldnysse] that they “had come again to their country” (lines 450-54). Here acts of God’s people result in military victories against the heathen nations, who in saints’ lives are agents of the devil in this world. Military victories over the heathen figure prominently in another passage in “Maccabees.” “In those days he . . . defeat[ed] his enemies and especially the heathen . . . ” (lines 684-86): this ancient warfare “had the significance of holy men who drive away vices and devils from them in the New Testament” (lines 701-704). These historical battles involve the horizontal protection we are discussing, and the victories there symbolize the victories believers can have in their daily struggles: “then shall we be God’s champions in the spiritual battle if we despise the devil 1 54 through true belief . . . and if we perform God’s will with our works” (lines 697-700). In the above passage, they fight with spiritual weapons and pray for protection to overcome evil. In another passage dealing with military conflicts, a homily on Midlent Sunday includes a retelling of the several acts of the Israelites in taking the promised land: they act in God’s will against enemies in this world and they thereby call into operation the protection of God. The same homily sets forth the principle which the faithful follow in all the passages involving “shielding” in this world. [Elfric instructs his listeners that “Christian men should fight spiritually against sins” and “accursed spirits” (EC); 2.217), using the “ghostly weapons” which are “God’s armor” [Godes weepnunge], including “the shield of belief ’ [pres leafan scyld]; this and the other familiar parts of the armor allow the faithful to “stand against the wiles of the devil” for “it is [a] contest against” the devil himself. Acting on one’s true belief is how one wields these weapons and this is what is being done in all these examples involving the scyld-words. In the seven remaining passages which involve scyld-nouns, the opponents of the shielding become clear from the context. In one homily readers are told that “our protection is in the hand of our Father.” The context here identifies the foe: “the devil deceived Adam; and he is now even striving against our faith: but our protection [belongs to] our Father” (even as believers themselves resist the devil with their faithful acts). In these and similar situations the believer has overcome the foe through God’s protection [bur/t Godes gescyldnysse] to which he has access through his own believing acts. From these examples, we can see that the scyld— words all indicate protection against an adversary in this world which is initiated by acts of the faithful. It remains to be seen whether the mund- frid- group is used differently. Mund-verbs are used four times in the homilies and saints’ lives. In a homily on the Lord’s Prayer, we read that He who protects one as a father is, as it were, that person’s head (_IE_CH_ 1.275). And in St. Eugenia’s life, the converted governor Philip gives the Christian community at Alexandria “many possessions for their 1 55 common use, and well protected them" (L_S_ 11.283). In both of these situations, an authority provides protection to those under him because of their relationship with him. This protection exists independent of the acts of those protected, and no adversary is mentioned (nor is one necessary to elicit the protection). Mund- verbs are used in two passages concerned with protection of a sanctuary. In Anglo-Saxon thought, a sanctuary is a place of refuge, a place where the king guarantees that God’s protection will be available to those who can find it. In the relevant passage in scripture (1 Mac 3.27-4.54), we read that a central concern in “Maccabees” is defending the rebuilt sanctuary, and, after a series of battles, rededicating it. In lElfric’s narrative, Judas fasted and prayed to God that He would protect them (bet he hi gemundian sceolde) and defend His temple against the heathen. This kind of protection is also evident later in “Maccabees.” The enemy king sends “a thane” to the temple at Jerusalem to take treasure; this person is “thrown down” and beaten by two angels and later explains that “the Almighty God protecteth the place,” se celmihtiga god mundad pa stowe (line 804). The vertical protection of God is operating here because of the relationship of the place to God: it is consecrated ground, and this protection is available at all times. In two passages in lElfric, frid- verbs indicate an analogous sort of protection of a heathen holy place. In a homily on St. Benedict, a devil haunts a church raised on the foundation of what had been a shrine to Apollo. Eventually the holy man drives away the demon, and under a stone where he had been sitting the workmen find “a brazen image, which the devil had there protected” [be se deofol beer gefridode] (gig 2.166-67). Again, in lElfric’s life of St. Martin, the saint overthrows an idol “in a certain place; and there was a pine-tree close to the temple, protected and accounted very holy in heathen wise” [an pin-treow wid beet templ gefrided] (lines 389-91). These two passages show the sort of protection of sanctuaries described above, but the protection is inverted and turned to the wrong ends. It may not be a coincidence that a frid-word, not a mund- word, indicates this perversion of the concept of sanctuary. 1 56 The sort of protection being described here is also designated by the term mundbora, which means protector or guardian, the person who provides mund. The eight uses of this word in AElfric’s homilies and saints’ lives always indicate the person who provides the condition of protection which exists because of a relationship of someone to this authority, the vertical relationship which accompanies the mund concept. In one instance, St. Sebastian was appointed by the Pope as mundbora of a Christian church in Rome during a time of persecution (L_S_ V.349). In examples used above (p. 149), twice the bodies of departed saints are mundbora to a particular population (L_S XV.102, St. Mark; /E_CH_ 1.384, Peter and Paul). Moreover, at the end of a homily, Christ is referred to as ure Mundbora and Demo, “our Protector and Judge” (IE—CH .350-1). The remaining mund-nouns have been discussed above. Two occur in passages with scyld-words, and one in the preface. In these three, mund was translated as guardianship, protection, or security. In the one passage where scyld and mund did seem to be synonyms, perhaps the writer was placing the two modes in parallel, as if saying that the heathens too implore both the vertical and horizontal modes of protection. All three can serve to remind us of the characteristics that the seventeen mund- and frid- words indicate: the condition of protection constantly available from above which results from a relationship with someone in authority. The sixty-six scyld-words used in @Q-I and _L_S indicate different conditions of protection: there the protection results from individual acts by believers, and it results in their being shielded from forces also in this world. This shielding protection has for its source the same guardian as that which the mund- frid- words indicate, but it operates in a different mode, as we have seen. Realizing this helps us distinguish the mund- frid-group subset from the larger set of all Old English protection words, and this helps to define the mund concept more clearly. It also demonstrates ASIfric’s consistent use of a precise distinction between two words that could seem at first to be interchangeable synonyms. 1 57 Part 11: Old English Poetry The preservation and transmission of literary culture during the Anglo- Saxon period in England devolved mainly upon the Church and depended almost entirely on her literate Anglo-Saxon monks; in them, as in the literature, what was Germanic and Christian met and interacted in interesting and revealing ways. While poetry was being written in the traditional poetic idiom, laws were being codified in the vernacular as well (from the seventh century onwards). So it is not surprising that Anglo-Saxon legal concepts and legal diction can be found in Old English poetry. There are several ways to justify taking a “legal approach” to the literature of the Middle Ages. During this period, when the Christian world view shaped ideas about all areas of human activity, the law-divine law, natural law, and that posited by men-reflected the divine plan of God. We can also remember that Anglo-Saxon England was the first area of the west in which laws were codified in the vernacular, beginning shortly after 600 AD. The literate Christian church gave the impulse to do this, partly because it was necessary to integrate the men and women of the Church into the already thoroughly developed system of Germanic law, and partly because it was natural for literate men to record things in writing. These same literate Christians were involved in transmitting the corpus of Old English writings that have come down to us, so it is not surprising that legal ideas show up in the literature, and it can be useful to approach the literature by means of some of those ideas. The legal ideas indicated by the mundfrid grid borg words form a coherent group, as the earlier chapters of this study reveal. The words occur in poetry with both their protection and peace senses, in some texts frequently, and often with many non-legal synonyms. We found that the words used literally by Wulfstan were often used by lElfric with somewhat more freedom. This naturally happens in a narrative mode; in poetry we expect that the words 1 58 will be used freely very often, perhaps even ambiguously, as we study their usage. By examining the mundfrid grid borg words’ presence in particular literary texts, their relationship with synonyms in the list of synonyms for protection (identified above, Chapter One, note 25), and the nature of the type- scenes that they inhabit, important unifying themes may be identified. God protects His saints as part of the plan for all mankind. Because this kind of protection was an important idea in the Church and its counterpart legal protection was important in Anglo-Saxon law, when the mund frid grid borg words are used in poetry it reminds us of the king’s protection and, by extension, of its ideal functioning as envisioned by Wulfstan in Institutes of Bo_li_ty, for example. When they are used to indicate God’s protection, the use of these words emphasizes assurance: the one being protected is certain of the Almighty’s absolute power to protect. In episodes where the saint is particularly at risk, the concept of protection is very likely to come into play; in the next two sections, the use of the Old English words for legal protection and some of their synonyms will be examined in Andreas the ,[oumey Charm, and Guthlac A. In the third section, the widespread presence in Beowulf of the concept of legal protection will be explored. Many of the synonyms for protection listed in Chapter One (note 25) are attested in Beowulf with a protection sense; if they occur in narrative contexts (type-scenes) that are analogous to legal situations, the possibility that these other protection words are functioning with a legal connotation exists and could be explored in future research. 159 Legal Diction in the Old English Andreas When we look closely at Andreas and its sources, we discover that the poem is most like the Greek text Praxeis Andreou kai Mattheia . . . (The Acts of Andrew and Matthew in the Land of the Cannibals)—called P—and the Latin text Recensio Casanatensis -called C—which is very similar to the Greek version; there are nine manuscripts of P, and five different Latin recensions. The Andreas poet’s text, however, contains legal diction throughout for which there are few analogous ideas in the sources. Sixty-three occurrences of mund- or frid-words (or their synonyms) indicate the Old English concept of legal protection. In all but three of these, there is not even an analogous passage in the plot as it is presented in P or C. The poet has made the story of Andrew into a thoroughly Anglo-Saxon poem, and using legal concepts allows him to tell his version of the story in a particularly powerful way. The words the poet employs to indicate the concept of ‘protection’ are sometimes the mund- or frid-words themselves but usually are synonyms for these; groups of synonyms for any concept are required by a poetry whose line is composed of alliterating units and where ideas are often developed by the technique of enumeration and variation. Whether or not the poet of the extant version himself has added these legal ideas, the Anglo-Saxon legal concept of ‘mund’ is present and widespread in Andreas, it is emphasized in the poetry, and describing its occurrence there may provide us with a good way to understand this text. We can begin to describe how this legal concept works in Andreas by looking at the places where the poet uses the mund- or frid- words themselves (not synonyms). In Section VII Christ explains that, in heaven, Cherubim and Seraphim stand before God and praise “the glory of the heavenly King, the protection of the Lord [meotudes mundbyrdl” (RKGl 193). In XIII, when Andrew wonders how much more suffering he will have to endure, God tells 1 Translations are from R. K. Gordon. 329W (London: Dent, 1970), hereafter 'RKG' with page number; Old English text and line numbers are from ASPR ll. 1 60 him, “I guard your peace [frid], I surround you with the power of my protection [mundbyrd].” And in XV, after the Merrnedonians are saved, they receive “baptism, the covenant of peace [freoduwcere, a legal term], a promise of glory, God’s protection [meotudes mundbyrdl” (RKG 209). We can see from these examples that mundbyrd, ‘legal protection,’ occurs several times, and frid- words also indicate related legal concepts. In Section IX, when Andrew leads the captives out of prison, the sources have him say something like “go down by the fig tree and wait for me”; the Anglo-Saxon poet simply writes that he led them out of prison into the safety of the Lord [on frid dryhtnes]. God acts to protect what is His by exercising His power; these acts result in conditions of peace and safety, often indicated by frid and its compounds. The ideas of peace and protection are interconnected, and many times are associated in the text. For instance, Andrew explains that, as God sent the apostles out to save souls, He told them “I will preserve you in peace [ic eow freodohealde]” (line 336). A boy about to be killed and eaten by the cannibals craves this safety (frides), he cannot find protection (freodes) from the people; but God defended him from the heathens, and eventually the boy receives freod unhwilen, eternal peace or safety. These two paragraphs show the mund- and frid-words themselves being used to indicate protection, peace, and safety. Synonyms are also used to emphasize the concept of legal protection. In Section IV where Andrew discusses God’s attributes with Christ, who has made Himself appear as the boat’s helrnsman, Andrew says, “I myself know that the Creator of angels, the Lord of hosts, protects us [us gescyldedl” (RKG 188). As this discussion is continued in V, Christ explains that the Jews rejected Him because “sinners could not recognize the royal child who was born to protect and comfort [to hleo 0nd to hrodre] mankin ” (RKG 190, lines 565-67). And in VIII (line 824), protection is a characteristic of God: Andrew is carried by angels from the boat to Mermedonia, “borne in their embraces to the Father’s protection [on fader wcere].” 1 61 The 22 formulas for the names of God, Andrew, or the pagansZ form the largest category of the diction under consideration, including many of the synonyms for the mund— and frid-words. Besides His many other attributes, the names for God describe Him as guardian or protector of heaven, earth, towns, all creatures, kingdoms, victories, and of princes or nobles (using such words as weard, helm, hleo). These are used in appositive constructions which pile up attributes using the Old English technique of enumeration and variation: “then the holy Ruler and Master, Lord of angels, Keeper of the earth, departed to seek His dwelling-place, the glorious home, . . .” and so on (RKG 185; line 227ff). Similar formulas also describe Andrew and the pagans. For instance, Andrew is the “protector of warriors” (wigendra hleo), and the pagans are “heathen temple guardians” (haedene herigweardas). Besides the uses of the concept of legal protection already described, we notice that the Anglo-Saxon poet emphasizes it by contrasting it with its opposite. In Section I, God tells Matthew “1 will send Andrew to you for a protection and a comfort in this heathen town; he will free you from this hostility;” (RKG 183; lines 110-11). The sources say something like “I will send Andrew to you, to free you from this hostility;” the Anglo-Saxon poet has added the idea “for a protection and a comfort” and used the alliteration to emphasize it by pairing it with its opposite “in this heathen town”: to hleo 0nd to hrodre for a protection and a comfort in has heedenan burg in this heathen town. The alliteration and contrast used together help emphasize the idea of protection. Another way the poet uses an opposite concept to emphasize God’s protection is by showing the perversion of this idea in the devil and his 2 The following refer to God, except as indicated: helm wlwihta (guardian of all creatures: line 118), wdelinga helm (guardian of princes: lines 277, 623, 655): Wigendra hleo (protector of warriors: 506, 896, 1450, 1672—the last 3 refer to Andrew); rices hyrde (guardian of the kingdom: 807); neregend fira (savior of men: 290, 1286), nergend (savior: 1377), sawla nergend (savior of souls: 549, 921); burhweardes (city's defender: 660), middangeardes weard (keeper of the world: 82, 227), sigora weard (lord of victories: 987), weges weard (ruler of wave: 601, 632), wuldres weard (glorious guardian: 596), hardene herigweardas (heathen temple guardians: 1124-refers to the pagans). 1 62 associates the Merrnedonians. In the Greek and Latin sources the devil is an old or lame man—here in the poet’s legal diction he is called an outlaw. In Section II Matthew is told that Andrew will bring frid (peace, safety) to a place where cannibals guard the land, where they protect the country with murderous crimes. Here frid (safety) is contrasted with what the heathens offer; also, the words used elsewhere for God’s protection are used ironically of the heathens: they “protect” the country with murders. This technique of describing the opponents of God as His opposite by using the same terms ironically can be seen in the situation of the boy about to be killed. A man was chosen by lot to be killed and eaten; in his stead he offers his own son (which is acceptable), the exact opposite of God offering His Son so that people might live. Also, some of the formulas for God’s and Andrew’s names are used of the jailers: they are prison guardians (weardas and hyrdas), and the heathen high priest is the temple guardian (weard). Andrew is told that he will fall into the “grasp of foes” (in gramra gripe) who later rush on him “with eager clutches” (gifrum grapum), the perverted inversion of the image of the protecting hand. Even when the legal diction we have been describing is not present, we may find the theme of protection operating in important ways. In one instance, after Andrew frees the captives from prison, the Greek and Latin sources have God command clouds to carry Matthew and the 250 others into heaven. In the Old English, they were covered with clouds “lest wicked persecutors . . . should come to assail them with a flight of arrows” (RKG 198; line 1047). The clouds in this case are not merely the conventional conveyance of angels, but are there to provide protection. There are other legal ideas here, which, if we searched them out, would give us even more insight. There are situations in this story which would have reminded an Anglo-Saxon audience of its laws against and compensations for such things as insult, slander, false accusation, false imprisonment; also, the various kinds of injuries that Andrew receives had their just compensations specified in Anglo-Saxon law. Still another example: in the last section, one 1 63 result of the Mermedonians being converted was that they would “abandon idolatry and old altars”; then, Andrew “cast down heathen temples, destroyed idolatry, overthrew false belief.” The Anglo-Saxons and their Scandinavian neighbors were periodically plagued with the temptation to return to their pagan ways, and laws against such practices were frequently included in their legal codes along with exhortations to serve the one true God and His church. For one last glimpse into the mind of the Anglo-Saxon poet composing this saint’s life in a cultural milieu in which legal, poetic, and theological ideas merge and cooperate in interesting ways, we can read the aside the poet offers at the beginning of Section XIV, before the flood and conversion are described. Although the language in this passage does not contain the legal terms being discussed in this dissertation, the narrator’s comments here on the relationship between law and storytelling do support the idea that legal concepts were important to the poet and his audience. The poet apologizes for his lack of power to describe these miraculous events; it is beyond his ability, he says. There is much to tell, and someone “more learned in the divine law [ceglcewra] than I am” (lines 1483-84) would be able to do so much more effectively; but, he says, he will attempt it, and goes on to finish the story. There are many first-person narrators in Old English poetry, but the self-reflexive nature of this one is very unusual. Significantly, we notice that he does not apologize for being a bad poet, or for being a novice scholar, or for lacking theological insight, but for being less skilled in understanding the law than he might be: to a medieval thinker, that is where things ultimately are held together, in the divine law of God’s plan. The irony of an “unskilled” poet’s using legal diction to emphasize his ideas was probably not lost on his Anglo-Saxon audience. 1 64 The Lorica of Love: God’s Protection in the Journey Charm, Andreas, and Guthlac A As we have seen, legal diction which contains the mundfrid grid borg words may indicate the theme of God’s protection in contexts where saints are in dire straits. In some places, Old English religious poetry emphasizes God’s protection by linking it with the concept of God’s protecting hand. I begin with a passage from the Lorica of Gildas as an example of a prayer for protection identified as a ‘lorica’ (Latin for ‘breastplate’): cefter [Jon beodu me byrne seo gehealdfcestesde ymb min leomu ymb mine innodas prette du ascufe from me da ungesewenlican slega nteglas da feestniad da ladwendan gescyld sodlice god strongre byrnan mid gescyldrum eaxle 0nd earmas gemundbyrd elne mid pan elnbogan & hondum fyste folme fingras mid pcem nceglum ( . . . be Thou a most secure lorica to me as to my members and to my inner parts, so that Thou thrust back from me the invisible points of the shafts which the abhorred ones devise. Cover then O God, Thou strong lorica,3 shoulders together with their blades, and arms; protect forearms with elbows and hands, fists, palms, fingers with nails; . . . )4 (Erica of Gildas, lines 26 - 29) 3 Literally, with a strong breastplate. 4 J. H. C. Grattan and C. Singer, MW Publications of the Wellccme Historical Medical Museum n. s. 3, (London: 1952) 140-41. 165 The mund-verb gemundbyrdan is used to implore God to be our breastplate (lorica) against the devil’s temptations. This prayer for protection has a counterpart in the _A_SI_’R. In Anglo-Saxon times, before taking a lengthy trip, we might have recited something like the ,[oumey Charm that F. P. Magoun has referred to as a kind of “lorica” (ASPR VI 137). In the Journey Charm, the writer has combined the language of legal protection with the image of the protecting hand of God. Invoking a litany of Bible heroes, both men and women (Abraham, Jacob, David, Joseph, Eve, Anna, Elizabeth, Sarah, Mary the mother of Christ, Peter and Paul), and a thousand angels, the charm reads “May they lead me and guard me [fridion] and protect my path, wholly preserve me and rule me, shaping my work; may I have the hope of heaven, 3 hand to guard my head [hand ofer heafod], saints to shield me, a company of conquering, righteous angels.” (RKG 91). In this passage, as in the one which follows, God’s power to protect is associated with the image of the hand of God, both times in the same sentence. The Journey Charm ends: “May I meet with friends, so that I may dwell in the Almighty’s protection [frid], guarded from the enemy who seeks my life, set amid the glory of the angels, and in the holy hand of the Mighty One of heaven, while I may live in this life. Amen” (RKG 92). Here the idea of protection has been linked with an image of the power of God. This imagery juxtaposes hand and protection, in a way that combines the old mythic sacral power latent in ‘hand’ in Germanic culture with the Christian concept of healing, blessing hands, presented as one of the most common icons of divine power. A passage from Gregory the Great’s Moralia on ,[ob5 clearly explains 5 A treatise not intended for the general public but which would strongly influence the biblical scholars of the Middle Ages, according to Jeffrey Richards, Consul of God 262- 63. 1 66 the Church’s idea behind the power of God to protect persons in their struggle with the forces of evil. Moralia on Job 2.6: And the Lord said unto Satan, Behold, he is in thine hand; but save his life. His [Gregory’s] commentary: Here again, the safeguard of protection goes along with the permission to smite, and the dispensation of God both(:) while guarding, forsakes his elect servant, and while forsaking, guards him. A portion of him He gives over, a portion He protects. For if He had left Job wholly in the hand of so dire a foe, what could have become of a mere man? . . . Thus the holy man is given over to the adversary’s hand, but yet in his inmost soul he is held fast by the hand of his Helper. For he was of the number of those sheep, concerning whom Truth itself said in the Gospel, Neither shall any man pluck them out of My hand (Jn 10.28). And yet it is said to the enemy, when he demands him, Behold, he is in thine hand. The same man then is at the same time in the hand of God, and in the hand of the devil. For by saying, he is in thine hand, and straightway adding, but save his life, the pitiful Helper openly showed that His hand was upon him whom He yielded up, and that in giving He did not give him, whom, while He cast him forth, He at the same time hid him from the darts of his adversary.6 This passage and its commentary are a particularly clear exposition of God’s power manifest in His protecting hand and also of His initiating its use. The principle of God’s protection is illustrated to some degree in all of the OE poetic saints’ legends, m Edith, Mag, Andreas and Guthlac but it is most frequent in Guthlac A and Andreas. By comparing Andrew’s situation 6 -7021 1 F: rsr- 0.1111 H0. 2.110. 011 r 111%. 0 11.: ' 5‘11 0 .= 2.1.0 Wa- ,trans. by members of the English Church. (Oxford: J. H. Parker, 1844) v.1, 133. 1 67 to that of Job, above, we can clearly see the Anglo-Saxon poet describing Andrew’s plight and triumph in terms almost identical with those used by Gregory of Job. In Andreas Section VIII, Christ reveals Himself to Andrew while he and his disciples, sitting in front of the city gates, are discussing their miraculous boat ride; He then tells Andrew “I will protect thee [ic be fride healde], so that foul foes, hostile evildoers, may do no harm to thy soul” (RKG 196; lines 915- 17). And again, shortly after this, He says “Now Andrew, thou shalt quickly venture into the grasp of foes; . . . thy body shall be rent with wounds . . . ; thy blood shall run forth . . . . They cannot give thy life over to death, though thou suffer a blow, the stroke of sinful men” (RKG 197; lines 950-56)—much like Gregory’s commentary. Andrew goes into the city, prison guards are struck dead, Matthew and the others are led forth, and so on. But all this time Andrew is invisible (lines 986-89): . . none of the sinful men could see him. The Lord of victories had with His love surrounded [him] in that place with His protection [wcere betoldenl.” This invisibility will not last, however. Now the townspeople, having been deprived of their food source, draw lots; as Andrew watches the scene where the man to be eaten offers his son in his stead, it seems grievous to Andrew, but he then sees God protect the boy. After this the devil appears in the assembly of the Mermedonians and tells them that this is all Andrew’s doing; he challenges the apostle, who answers from invisibility. Now God tells Andrew to be brave—“hide not from the throng; ‘show thyself, . . . make steadfast thy heart, that in thee they may perceive My power. They in their guilt cannot and are not able to give thy body over to wounds and death against my will, though thou suffer a blow, evil cruel strokes. I shall stand by thee” (RKG 201; lines 1211-18)—once again, this is much like Gregory’s explanation of God’s statement to the devil in Job 2.6. 1 68 The plight of Guthlac and God’s response in Guthlac A follow a similar pattern; here the hand imagery mentioned above is even more evident. In Guthlac’s story, the saint has taken up residence in the fens and is under attack by the demons who consider it their territory. Guthlac tells them that “my heart is never frightened nor fearful, but He who governs the works of all mighty things holds me safe [frid] above mankind” (RKG 261, line 309). Of course the holy hermit must suffer much tribulation later on, for the testing of his own faith and the strengthening of that of his readers: the wicked spirits “were fiercely eager to attack him with greedy clutches”; however, “God willed it not that his soul should suffer that agony in his body; yet He granted that they should lay hands upon him” but while still protecting Guthlac. This reflects Gregory’s commentary almost exactly, as does the response of St. Bartholomew, Guthlac’s guardian spirit, who descends from heaven to end the torments: the mundbora keeps Guthlac’s soul in protection, and he tells the demons that they may not break a bone or wound him or bruise his body, but that Guthlac will keep his dwelling place. In fact, the fiends must become obedient to Guthlac, after “healing all his pains with [their] hands” (RKG 267, line 705). Guthlac has been able to withstand these torments because of his faith, which he had declared to the fiends earlier: “I desire security [frid] from God; my spirit shall not fall into error with you, but God’s hand shall mightily protect me [mec dryhtnes hond mundad mid mwgnel,” (RKG 260, line 257). This brief illustration from Guthlac A shows how a poet could combine an Anglo-Saxon legal concept with ideas of the church in a powerful example both of God’s attributes and of the saints’ proper response. This diction which combines hand imagery with the idea of legal protection occurs in Guthlac an average of once every twelve lines. In Andreas, a poem for which there are well-known sources, we find the poetic diction which includes the concept of legal protection over 60 times in places where there is nothing to elicit it in the 1 69 Greek or Latin recensions which were the poet’s ultimate or immediate sources. These examples show the Church coopting the old legal ideas of the Anglo- Saxons for their own purposes. When we read the poems with these ideas in mind, we find that they add another level of unity to what are already thoroughly artful poems and not merely pedantic imitations of earlier Latin texts. We also find that this reading illuminates in a new way the Anglo-Saxon culture which produced it: that literate Anglo-Saxon poets were able to use complex Christian themes in the traditional Germanic poetic idiom and include the legal diction that was becoming part of the written vernacular corpus shows a culture “creating itself" in its vernacular. The poetry composed in this way must have provided the Church with a powerful and beautiful new voice with which to make its ideas known to the recently converted English people and their pagan neighbors- powerful in part because of the analogies between some of the ancient Germanic legal concepts and Christian ideas (which are often stated in legal terms). This combination of Germanic, Christian, and legal ideas was widespread in the poetic corpus and thus shows that Andreas Guthlac and the other Old English saints’ lives formed not an isolated, specialized genre, but an important part of the Anglo-Saxon poetic mainstream. Mund-words and Their Synonyms in Beowulf As Beowulf prepares to seek out and do battle with Grendel’s darn, he asks Hrothgar to “be in a father’s place for me when I am gone: be guardian of my young retainers, my companions, if battle should take me” (lines 1480-81; page 26: the line numbers given are Klaeber’s, from the third edition, and the 1 70 translations in quotation marks are from Donaldson’s prose translation, hereafter cited in the form 1480-81/26). Guardian here is mundbora, literally the bearer of mund, i.e., protector/guardian. Legally, every person in Anglo- Saxon society had to have a lord, and here Beowulf is in effect deeding over his men’s allegiance to Hrothgar in the event he should fail to return. The only other use of mundbora in Beowulf describes a different kind of guardian: late in the poem, the dragon near the boarded treasure is referred to as the madma mundbora, the ‘guardian of the treasure.’ The same legal term used positively to designate a proper legal guardian is here used negatively to describe one of the monsters representing the destructive forces of evil and the chaos that confronts civilization. These two uses of this legal term, then, illustrate one of the major conflicts in the poem. The kind of legal protection conferred by a father or king, or its perversion, appears many times in Beowulf. I have outlined references below to over 100 passages where this concept occurs, and organized the discussion in several categories according to who does the protecting. The examples include the words for ‘protection’ discussed in the first six chapters above as well as the plentiful synonyms for this concept.7 I have included passages where the sense is protection, whatever the Old English word is. Healdan (hold), for example, is included only where it has the sense ‘keep’ or ‘guard,’ as are verbs like wacian, ealgian, nerian, and werian. My purpose here is to show that these passages are plentiful and apply to all the main characters and some of the minor ones, in the main episodes and in the digressions. In future research I hope to determine whether the narrative contexts (sometimes called 7 Le, words from the list of synonyms in Chapter 1, note 25 that occur in by Klaeber's glossary. Future research would justify keeping or culling words from the following: beorg, beorgan, bebeorgan. ymbbeorgan, bebeorgan. heafod beorg; belucan; ealgian; eodor; fasten; faedm; healdan, hyldo, gehyld, behealdan; hedan, behelan; helm (and cpds. grim-, gud—, niht-, scadu-); hyrde (and cpd. grund-); hleo (and -burh); nerian, genesan; scead (and scadu-helm); scyld, scyldan; deccean; waer. fride-war; warian; weard, m. (and cpds. bat-, eord-, edel-, gold-, hord-, hyd-, land-, ren-. sele-, yrie-, hlaford), weard. f. (and cpds. aag-, eoton-, ferh-, heafod-), weardian; werian. bewerian, wergend; wine, (and cpds. frea-, freo-, gold-, gud-, maeg-, wen-, -drihten, -leas, mag); ymbefon. 171 type-scenes) in which protection words appear are analogous to particular legal situations. If they are, and if I can clarify the relationship between the synonyms for protection that appear in Beowulf and the conceptual field for ‘mund,’ then perhaps an important controlling theme in Beowulf can be identified and analyzed for the first time. One large category of words has been omitted. I have excluded the words for armor when they indicated literally the kind of protection that armor provides. The physical security that the armor may or may not give its wearer in this poem about warfare is of a different order than the protection based on relationships between people that I am describing in this study; references to this legal protection would be obscured by including the words that indicate literal armor. Only when the armor word is used metaphorically (as wedra helm is of Beowulf, for instance) have I included it.8 God as protector The words for protection are used for the Christian God in eight instances, and these eight examples all illustrate a protection which never fails. As wuldres Hyrde (line 931) “the Guardian of heaven” (p. 17), God keeps Beowulf safe (1658/29): he is manna gehyld (3056), “He is man’s protection” (p. 53). Beowulf tells Hrothgar that he would not have survived the fight with Grendel nymde mec God scylde, “if God had not guarded me” (29). The plight of the Scyldings before Beowulf arrives contrasts God’s protection with its opposite (the perversion of protection by the demons). For twelve years Grendel had been devastating the company at Heorot to the extent that they were praying to heathen gods in their temples. “They did not know how to praise the Protector of Heaven” (heofena Helm, 182/4), the narrator 8 One other example may be mentioned here. The half-line Nihthelm geswearc, “night's cover lowered” (1789/31 ), indicates a threat to the men at Heorot because the night prOtects “the walker in darkness” (p.13) and later in the poem night protects “the old night flyer' (48), both of whom represent the forces of evil and chaos. The metaphorical use of helm here produces an irony on protection and contributes to the motif I will be describing in a way that numerous references to literal armor do not. 1 72 explains, and adds: “Woe is him . . . ” (Wa bid pram . . . , 183) who, under such stress, must give his soul “into the fire’s embrace,” in fiyres fazpm, where there is no hope, but “well is the man” (Wel bid poem . . . , 186) who in death finds God and “peace in the embrace of the Father” (ond to F ceder ftepmum freodo wilnian, 188). The parallel construction of Wa . . . and Wel . . . highlights the opposition between hellfire’s “embrace” and that of a protecting Father. As in much Old English poetry, the words for protect and protection are sometimes used of monsters, fiends, and the devil, the sense inverted ironically to show evil’s perversion of the good. Monsters The words for protection in M are used of Grendel and his dam eleven times, and of dragons seventeen times (one of these in the Sigemund digression). The dragons are weard or hyrde of hoard, barrow, or gold fourteen times, and mundbora once, and in the other two passages the dragon guards or keeps watch over the treasure. The dragon is consistently a “guardian,” but his various epithets show that he has perverted this activity: he is a night ravager, the evil doer, a harmer of folk (twice), monster (four times), a foe (with various pejorative adjectives, six times), and so on. Grendel’s and his dam’s perversion of the activity of protection show more variety. Like the dragon, he is a hyrde (“fosterer of crimes, 753/14) and, with Beowulf, a renweard (house guardian, 770): men suffered “when Grendel guarded [warode] the gold-hall” (1253/23). Beowulf says that he “hewed the house-guardians [huses hyrdasl” (1666/29); Grendel’s dam is “guardian of the deep pool [grundhyrde]” (2136/37) where she would “protect [beorgan] her life” (1253) against Beowulf. Besides these ironic uses of protection words applied to the monsters, there is another pattern that shows their perversion of appropriate protection. A king “holds” his realm: his power provides stability and peace, and as a result he can confer protection on individuals and designate an area as a refuge. In analogous fashion, Grendel and his dam “hold 1 73 the moors” (line 24, p. 3), the “wolf-slopes” (24), and the “flood’s tract” for fifty years (27), and it is into this “refuge” (fenfreodo, 851) that the wounded Grendel flees. The monsters’ lonely occupation of deserted wastes provides a refuge for their kind only, in tracts even the noble stag fears to traverse: “that is no pleasant place” (1372/25). Their security in the fens is actually opposite to that in the stable realm of a just king, and the “guarding” the monsters do is fatal. So far we have seen that the attributes of an Almighty God and those of the forces of evil have been stated in terms which include the words for protection; we can also find very numerous places where kings (including Beowulf) as well as other kinds of people are described in terms of their role as protectors. These people’s activity in the world of the poem helps determine whether a social order will survive. The protection motif I am describing is not merely an ideal, nor does it form only a surrounding spiritual or mythical dimension applicable only to God or monstrous demons; instead, the large numbers of these references show that, in the world of the poem, civilization and people’s proper participation in it are described in terms of protection. Kings The rulers in Beowulf are indicated by names and circumlocutions of various kinds. A common formula at the opening of a speech includes madelode (he spoke), as in Hrothgar madelode, helm Scyldinga (“Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scyldings (371/6; and 456, 1321): this occurs three times, each time as the opening line of one of the poem’s forty-three sections. Epithets like this and other naming phrases are used approximately 250 times in Beowulf. Of these, 30 epithets (about 12%) include protection words. Hrothgar, “lord of the Danes” and “the glorious ruler” figures prominently in much of the poem as an exemplary ruler. Protection words are 1 74 used of Hrothgar 22 times in Beowulf. Some are epithets like the three above: he is protector of the people, refuge of warriors, keeper of the land, and so forth, nineteen times.9 Elsewhere, the narrator tells us that Hrothgar “held the wide kingdom” (p. 9), and as Hrothgar narrates stories to Beowulf, he tells how he and his companions defended themselves (weredon, 1327/24), and how he “protected [the Ring-Danes] in war” (1770/31; Klaeber gives “protect” for belucan). In the passage refered to above (page 183), Beowulf asks Hrothgar to act “in a father’s place” as mundbora (1479, 1480/26) to his men. All of these examples show Hrothgar acting in his proper role as a powerful king who can provide protection Hygelac, Beowulfs king, is referred to four times with epithets referring to protection (folces hyrde and eorla hleo, each twice), and protection words are used of him in two passages where he defends treasure (1204) and his board (2955), and protects the spoils of war (1205). The old king who was the last of his race and who left the treasure hoard to the dragon 250 years before Beowulf’s time is referred to with epithets for protection twice. In the digressions, other kings are named and referred to with epithets and constructions containing protection words: in the prologue, Scyld is “protector of the Scyldings [wine Scyldinga]” (l. 30), and Sigemund (wigendra hleo, 899), Heremod (folc gehealdan, 911), Heardred (helm Scylfinga, 2381), a Swedish king (folces hyrde, 2981), and Firm (wige forpingan, 1084) all have epithets using protection words. When Finn swears to “hold . . . in honor” the survivors of battle, protection from vengeance is the issue (1099). The 39 instances in the passages cited above refer to nine different kings and show them in their proper royal roles as protectors of their retainers, their folk, and their kingdoms. 9 Ieodgebyrgean protector of the people, 269; eodor Scyldinga protector of the Scyldings 428, 663; wigendra hleo refuge of warriors, 429; eorla hleo protector of earis,1035, 1866, 2142; folces hyrde folk's guardian, 610; rices wearde and rices hyrde, guardian of the kingdom, 1390, 2027; ope/weard guardian of the land, 616, 1702; beahhorda weard guardian of the ring-hoards, 921; hordweard, guardian of the hoard, 1047. 1 75 Beowulf The Beowulf poet refers to the poem’s hero with words having a protection sense 18 times. Eleven of these are epithets much like the ones used of Hrothgar and listed above, with the addition of lidmanna helm, protector of seafarers (1623/29), and Wedra helm (twice, mentioned above). He is called protector or defender of warriors, seafarers, earls, Weather-Geats, the folk, and the kingdom, and this list illustrates the appropriate range of duties for the king as protector. The other references to protection associated with Beowulf show that this role forms a large part of the hero’s purpose. He sought to protect himself against whales in the youthful swimming contest in Section VIII, and Wiglaf urges him to “protect [his] life with all [his] might” (2668/47) against the dragon. These two do not necessarily show him to be a protector of others, but several others do, all associated with the fight against Grendel. As Hrothgar prepares to rest on the night of Grendel’s attack, he counsels Beowulf to “guard the best of houses” and “keep watch against the fierce foe” (658 and 660/12), both references to Beowulf’s adopted role as protector of the Scyldings at Heorot. The poet refers to both Grendel and Beowulf in one passage as the two fury-filled renweardas, “house-guardians,” both of whom sought to “control the hall” (770/14). And after he has “saved Hrothgar’s house from affliction” (15), the old king advises the hero to carefully guard the new kinship in which Hrothgar says he loves him as a son, a metaphorical guarding of a relationship which typifies all mund relationships. These examples show that the mighty hero, perhaps the ablest fighter in the world of the poem, is regarded as protector in a substantial number of instances, and this illustrates the principle of proper leadership in early Germanic civilization. Beowulf and the other kings mentioned all have great power, and its just and responsible use includes the power to protect. Other protectors There are thirty-nine other passages in the epic poem in which people other than kings, princes and heroes protect. People 1 76 guard each other, but when this is not done, chaos can enter. The hoard at the poem’s end rests “in the hall without guardian” (3127/54); originally, it had been made safe “by having its entrances skillfully hidden" (p. 39), but that was not enough to keep the dragon, or rust and decay, away from the treasures. When people live in groups, they trust each other to perform responsibly; one kind of protecting that occurs in this poem includes the guard duty which inevitably becomes the lot of some soldiers. The endesceta (241), the coast guard near Heorot, is referred to by protection words eight times, and an outpost near Hygelac’s court is mentioned in a similar way three times. Fortified towns are also indicated with protection words three times. A standard-bearer in battle is a hyrde (2505), and twice people hold land in an occupying or protecting way (1214, 1265). Eight times in connection with the fight at Heorot, soldiers’ duty is described in terms of protecting each other. This sometimes fails, but what is at stake here is the kind of protection based on mutual trust that allows for social order. Hrothgar “had set a hall guard” (667/12) who keeps watch against monsters (668/12), but “warriors slept who should hold” Heorot (704/13). Some guarded weapons; they “wishledl to protect Beowulf's life” (796/14), but “none thought he could defend” Heorot (937). At other times men occupy the hall (1237) and watch over it (1407). In the context of Beowulf’s fight with the dragon, protection is mentioned several times in connection with his retainers and others there. The man who stole the cup from the dragon’s hoard asks his master “for a compact of peace” (fridowcere bred, 2282): he is asking his lord to protect him. Beowulf‘s cowardly retainers “protected their lives,” not his, when “they crept to the wood” (2598-99/45). Wiglaf speaks of the proper sort of protection in this scene three times (2655, 2877, 2882) and keeps a death watch over Beowulf‘s corpse (and the dragon’s, 2909/51). These thirty-nine examples of the protection words being used of places and common folk illustrate the 1 77 extent to which stability is maintained (or not) in this military society as a result of the protection from higher orders of society being delegated and acted upon in the lower echelons. In Hrothgar’s sermon Hrothgar’s sermon on pride in Sections XXIV and XXV contains the last five examples of the protection words under consideration here; two others were mentioned above in the section on Hrothgar. In his sennon’s advice to Beowulf (and to the audience of the poem), Hrothgar cautions that after one has power over a kingdom and folk, he may forget his proper place and “his portion of pride increases”; then se weard swefed [sawele hyrde, “the watcher sleeps, the soul’s guardian” (1741-42/30) and “he cannot protect himself" against “the accursed spirit” (31). After an example of one who does not guard treasure carefully (1757), he urges Beowulf to protect himself against the wickedness he has been describing (bebeorh be, 1758). The protection that we have been outlining is here used metaphorically of Christian values in something like a homiletic context. The prideful person he describes ignores the transience of his life and depends on his own strength, when he should have the wisdom to see that his strength comes from the Almighty. Hrothgar’s sermon could be seen as the heart of the poem, since in its particulars it can be read practically as an outline of the important events of the whole poem. This observation is accurate in the somewhat limited reading of the poem that wishes to emphasize the Christian elements: the futility of human power does not preclude the operation of God’s protecting power in the world of the poem; the power of the Almighty ultimately holds the forces of destruction at bay and can keep human society secure. The observations that I have been making also apply in a broader reading of the poem that would deemphasize the Christian elements. In this reading, the futility of human power becomes evident in the third episode, 1 78 where several individuals who are the last of their races fade out of the picture, leaving only a rusting treasure board or a burial mound on a prominent headland. Despite this outcome, readers are aware of an important theme: the proper use of power in the world of the poem creates order and allows a society to continue in peace and security. All the words catalogued here-mund-words and other words designated by Klaeber to mean ‘protect’ or ‘protection’— indicate a kind of proper civilizing human activity (or its perversion) in their narrative contexts. Identifying the interplay between all the words for protection, and analyzing their widespread use in narrative contexts with legal overtones, may indicate the operation of an Mportant controlling theme in Beowulf. This chapter has attempted to illustrate how the ideas generated in the analysis of a semantic field can be applied to literary topics. As the discussions in earlier chapters demonstrated, the senses of the mund frid grid borg words are not interchangeable but instead are genre sensitive. When we look at the words’ use in Wulfstan and [Elfric on the one hand, and in poetic texts on the other, we notice several things that can lead toward interesting and fruitful research for Anglo-Saxon studies in the future. Analyzing the entire field forces one to seek out all occurrences of a word and leads the research into seldom studied texts. In a “personal communication” with Jonathon Wilcox about relative proportions among the kinds of Old English texts, Antonnette diPaolo Healey of the DOE Project in Toronto reported that prose texts comprise about 69% of the corpus and poetry only about 6%, with glosses making up the remaining quarter.10 This leads to the conclusion that studying what may appear to be the more interesting poetic texts ignores over 90% of the corpus. By looking at the whole corpus we are 1° Jonathon Wilcox, ”Famous Last Words, " ' z. a. = m ed. Allen J. Frantzen (Chicago: Illinois Medieval Assoc, 1994) 2. 1 79 more likely to place things we find accurately in their proper context. The writings of [Elfric were important as religious instruction in their own time and set a stylistic standard for eloquent Old English prose whose influence extended beyond the Anglo-Saxon period. As we pursue the mund- words in the homilies of lElfric, we find that his religious instructional writing often took the form of narrative, thus placing it at a slight remove from Wulfstan’s writing at the literal/legal end of the spectrum we have identified. By studying the appearance of the mundfrid grid borg words in ZElfric’s texts we discovered that in narrative contexts often they were employed with a degree of artistic effect, emphasizing the theological ideas there. We also discovered that [Elfric made a careful lexical distinction between the mund- words and one of their synonyms, and this should encourage us to look for such distinctions elsewhere in the Old English corpus. Semantic studies such as the one made here allow us to identify and carefully examine such relationships. Another important effect of studying the words’ occurrences in all texts is that it enables us to locate their poetic use in the larger context of Anglo- Saxon culture as a whole. For instance, we see legal diction widely used in one text where its well-known sources had little or none; when the poet has the narrator comment on his need to know the law in order to tell stories effectively, we begin to realize how important the interaction between the legal and poetic ends of the spectrum we have identified must have been. Elsewhere, we notice the concept of the protecting hand of God mentioned frequently in several texts where Christian characters are at risk; when we are able to make the connection between this concept and the parallel ancient legal concept of the king’s protection, we can see both the poetry and the legal and church history in a new light. And finally, as we notice in Beowulf that many characters and episodes are described in ways that employ the legal diction, the imagery of protecting hands, and the concepts of peace and protection that this 1 80 dissertation has analyzed, we are encouraged once again to pursue the concepts identified in this study in their interesting poetic contexts and elsewhere in Old English as a way of placing them intelligently in the Anglo-Saxon culture that produced them. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Dates for the Anglo-Saxon Laws Examined in this Study Appendix A: Dates for the Anglo-Saxon laws examined in this study 181 (w=compiled by Wulfstan) proposed date (and authority) m, f, g, b words Laws of Aithelberht 602-603 (9% 111.2) Laws of Hlothhere & Eadric 685-686 (GdA) Laws of Inc 688-94 (on intemal evidence: Attenborough 34) Laws of Wihtrcd 695 (6315 111.24) Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum 885 (D. Whitelock, E_IQ 416) Laws of Alfred 892-93 (6_(l_A_ 111.34) Laws of Edward (I) 901-924 (Q15) Edward (II) later than I, and ca. 920 (Attenborough 205) Laws of Ethelstan (11) 926-30 (E 417) [Ethelstan (IV) (V) (VI) 929-939 (9%) Dunscete 935?: (Qd_A_) Law of Pax (10th century fragment) Laws of Edmund (11) 939-46 m 427) Laws of Edgar (111) 959-63 m 431) Edgar (IV) 962-63 (_‘tlIQ 434) Laws of lEthelred (1) 980-1013 ((_JQQ [Ethelred (II) 991 or 994 @I-fl 437) zEthelred (III) 997 m 439) w Laws of Edward & Guthrum 1002-1008 (D. Whitelock 1941) w [Ethelred (V; VI) 1008 @442) w [Ethelred (VIII) 1014 (ELIE 448) w lEthelred (X) 1009-16 (GdA; fragment) 182 Wulfstan’s Compilation on Status: 1002-23 (El-Q 468) w Gebynchdo m w Hadbot f g w Law of Grid after Compilation on Status, before Laws of Cnut (D. Bethurum 1950 463) m f g b w Proclamation of Cnut 1020 (internal evidence) f w Laws of Cnut (I; 11) 1020-23 (El—ID 454) m f g b w Nordhymbra Preosta Lagu1020-23 (E 471) m f g w Rectitudines Singularum 1020-23 (D. Bethurum 1963) Personarum f w Gerefa 1020-23 [2nd part of Rect.] f w Episcopus 1000-1050: (GdA) f Be Wifinannes Beweddunge 975-1030 ((1%; Liebermann and b Whitelock both place this nearer 1030) Law of Wergilds 944-1060: (_GjA) m b Northhymbra C yricgrid 1015-1050: (@131) f g APPENDIX M The Mund-words arranged by forms 183 Appendix M: Mund-words arranged by forms (nouns; verbs; compounds; hapax legomena) Item Short title Mund, f. mom. 8. mund interlinear gloss: 1 Ald V 3.2 15 2 Ald V 9 61 OE item: Law Abt 76.1 Law Northu 19 Law Abt 75.1 Law Wer 4 Ch 1064.11 Ch 1067.4 Ch 1521.11 10 Ch 1525.6 0 \OOOQOUIALD Latin Word, or OE Syntactic Function Latin word: patrocinium glossed by mund 99 99 patrocinium mund syntactic function: subj. of wesan subj. of betan subj. of standan subj. compl. of beon '9 ,9 H 9’ ’9 99 99 99 ’9 99 99 99 Latin Meaning or OE Meaning Latin meaning: protection, (legal) defense protection, (legal) defense OE meaning: value of mund church’s right of protection comp’n for violation of mund (king’s) mund guardian guardian guardian guardian 4. Whitelock’s trans. (and see below, M31); made and munde occurs as a formula in Wulfstan 10 times; here the ideas occur together, made and mund, (in a law code compiled by Wulfstan) as well: one pays compensation for violation of a sanctuary according to its ‘status’ and ‘the value of its mund’ (Bethurum, Homilies of Wulfstan 357). 6. Here, all parties place their hands on one weapon, and swear to uphold the king’s mund. 7. The formula is geheald and mund, protector and guardian. 9. Whitelock translates ‘guardian’ but has a note for alternative trans: could be protection. 184 OE item: syntactic function: 11 Ch 1536.67 ” ” ” ” 12 Ch 1608.8 ” ” ” ” 13 Ch 1 Wm. (Dug 39W) ” ” ” ” 14 Ch 1047.4 subj. compl. of wesan 15 Ch 1232.17 ” ” ” ” 16 Ch 1536.29 ” ” ” ” nom. p1. mundes [sic] 17 Ch 1490.13 subj. compl. of beon ace. 8. mund, munde interlinear gloss: Latin word: 18 Ald V l 854 patrocinium glossed by munde 19 Ald V 13.1 789 patrocinium glossed by munde OE item: syntactic function: 20 Law 2 Em 7.3 D0 of neran 21 Law Wer 4 ” ” ” 22 Law Wi 8 D0 of agan 23 Law 6 Atr 34 D0 of betan 24 IECHom134 DOofbiddan 25Law2Em 1.1 DOofdon 26 Conf 4 (Fowler) D0 of giefan ll. 20. . The formula mete and munde occurs here and in a confessional (M26) in a ms. OE meaning: protector guardian protector guardian guardian protector CXCCUIOI’ Latin meaning: protection, (legal) defense protection, (legal) defense OE meaning: establish mund establish mund have (rt. to amt. of) guardianship fine for breach of mund guardianship shelter protection Similar to 7: people are named to be ‘mund and friend and advocate’ of a foundation, the three legal duties and rights of an A-S person; here, against the alienation of lands of a religious foundation, a big problem. ' Establishing mund probably involves the same oath as 6. associated with Wulfstan; here a kindred who deny these to a perpetrator shall be free from vendetta. 185 OE item: syntactic function: 27 Ch 985.4 D0 of habban ° 28 Christ A, B, C 92 D0 of healdan 29 L Pr II 46 DO of sellan gen. s. munde interlinear gloss: Latin word: 30 BO 61 P.3.56 prcesidio glossed by munde OE item: syntactic function: ° 31 W Horn 20.1 26 obj. of bedoelan 32 W Horn 20.2 28 ” ” ” 33 W Horn 20.3 27 ” ” ” 34 WP012.1.1214 ” ” ” 35 WPol 2.1.2 109 ” ” ” 36 Horn U 38.14 ” ” ” 37 W P01 6.2 136 w/ weordan 38 Law Grid 3 ” ” 39 E LS (Augurs.) 136 gen. of thing w/ abiddan 40 Ch 1447.32 w/ myndgian dat. s. mund, munde interlinear gloss: Latin word: 41 BO 61 P350 prtesidio glossed by munde 42 Reg C 61 1.130 munimen glossed by munde OE item: syntactic function: ° 43 Law Gebyncdo 7 dat. of comparison? OE meaning: amt. of mund (like status, rank) virginity? integrity? bride price? protection Latin meaning: defense OE meaning: protection protection protection protection protection protection protection protection protection guardianship Latin meaning: defense defense OE meaning: amt of prot’c’n (like status, rank) 27. Cnut grants Christ Church, Canterbury, its proper status and rank (which had gradually been reduced). 28. Masc. adj. marks this as the only use in OE of mund as a marriage term; see 50. 31 - 38, and 43. Meade and munde here refers to persons, not churches (as in 4, 27, 44). 43. Another law code compiled by Wulfstan, which like several others that be compiled deals with the status of individuals in society. dat. OE item: 44 Hom U 40 9 45 Law Grid 1 46 Law 8 Atr 5.1 47 Law 1 Cn 3.2 48 Ch I Wm (Dug 6) 49 Ch 1118.9 50 Ch 1531.35 51 IE LS (Preface) 35 52 Horn U 35.2 45 53 Ch 1477.10 54 W Hom 19.47 pl. mundum 55 And 489 56 And 746 57 Beo 234 58 Beo 3021 59 E1723 60 Gen A, B 1040 61 Gen A, B 1363 62 Jud 225 50. 54. 186 syntactic function: ’9 99 '9 obj. of be in rubric obj. of be w/ betan obj. of be w/ wesan obj. of on w/ wesan ,9 99 ’9 99 ’9 obj. of to w/ giefan obj. of bufan w/ wesan obj. of mid w/ standan obj. of under dat. of means, manner 99 99 99 '9 99 99 99 ’9 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 9' 99 9’ 99 99 99 OE meaning: amt of prot’c’n (like status, rank) ‘mund’ itself fine for breach of (king’s) mund fine for breach of (king’s) mund under protection under protection as a maniage payment for security above hand mund under protection with hands with hands with hands with hands with hands with hands with hands with hands Whitelock notes to mund and to maldage is a Scand. expression, here ‘as a marriage payment and according to our contract’; “OE mund does not occur with this meaning’ (price paid to bride’s guardian prior to marriage, A-S Wills 195). See 28. A passage which unites several concepts under consideration here: “And I give you enough prosperity and abundance, and you dwell safely in the land in peace and security under my protection,” on gride and on fir’de under minre munde. OE item: ° 63 MaxI 104 64 M Ep 1 65 Phoen 331 66 Mart 5 (Res. Day) ° 67 B60 513 68 Beo 1458 69 Beo 3090 70 Gen A, B 1523 Verbs/verbals Mundian, gemundian 187 syntactic function: 99 99 9’ dat. obj. of bregdan obj. 99 99 99 99 99 99 ’9 of degree of difference of mid 99 99 9’ 9’ interlinear gloss: Latin word: 71 Hy 612 2.8 OE item: 72 AS Abus Mor 241 74 :E C Horn 11 7.48 75 1E LS (Eug’a) 282 76 Ch 1447.29 77 Chron E 1037.2 78 Guth A, B 257 ° 79 Horn U 40.14 fave glossed by gemunda syntactic function: mundian completes sculan 73 AS LS (Mac’b’s) 335 gemundian completes sculan to protect 73.5 E C Horn 1 19.274 mundad gemundad gemundade ta mundgenne mundade mundab mundie OE meaning: in its power with hands with hands by (three) bands hands in hands with hands with hands Latin meaning: cherish, love, support, assist OE meaning: to protect protects protects protected (act) as guardian protected guard ought to defend 63. The sea has a ship in its power; all these dative plurals [mundunt M55-M70] mean literal hands, even here where the sea is personified as holding the ship, thereby revealing the easily transferred sense hand=power. 67. Bregdan takes a dative object. 78. F rid, mund, and hand together: Ic me fiid wille tet gode gegyrnan; mec dryhtnes hand mundab mid magne: I desire security (frid) from God; the Lord’s hand will guard(mundab) me with its might. 79. This passage, like its analogue in m, outlines the duties of a Christian king: he is to further and protect (fridie) the Church and defend (mundie) God’s people. 188 Mundbyrdan, gemundbyrdan interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: ° 80 Lor 61 I 29 tege glossed by gemundbyrd protect 81 Lor 61 I 33 tege glossed by gemundbyrd protect OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 82 Bo 35.18 gemundbyrde he would protect ° 83 GD 1 4.43.12 mundbyrde protected 84 Gen A, B 2473 gemundbyrdan completes willan to protect 85 Hom S 39 mundbyrden ought to protect 86 LS 8 (Bust) 4 gemundbyrde he protected Amundian 87 IE Hom M 15.183 amundige he would protect 88 Ch 1486.7 amundie you will protect 89 Ch 1501.16 amundige he will protect Compounds Mundbora, wk. m. nom. s. mundbora interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 9O Ald V 1 2512 advacatus glossed by mundbora (legal) advocate 91 Ald V 1 4760 patranus glossed by mundbora protector 92 Ald V 13 4877 patranus glossed by mundbora protector glossary item: 93 Ant 61 6 575 advacatus patranus vel interpellatar advocate protector or interrupter glossed by farspeca vel mundbora 94 C161 1 4776 patranus glossed by mundbora protector 95 Corp 61 2 17.644 subfragator glossed by mundbora supporter 96 Ep 61 799 sufl'ragatar glossed by mundbora supporter 97 Erf 61 1 934 sufi'ragatar glossed by mundbora supporter 80. The Lorica [breastplate] of Gildas is an elaborate prayer for protection. 83 (and 182). This story in the Dialogues is cited in one of Gregory’s sermons as an example of his teaching that one should invoke the saints for protection. 189 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 98 Beo 2777 subj. of wesan guardian 99 Capt 1 appositive protector 100 Chron D 975.2 ” protector 101 Chron B 975.1 ” protector 102 Exhort 46 ” protector ° 103 GD 1 29.71.11 ” protector 104 GD Pref.4 31.305.19 ” protector 105 Guth A, B 694 subj. of habban guardian 106 Res 108 appositive succorer 107 [E C Horn 1 24.24 subj. compl. of wesan protector 108 IE LS (Apoll.) 98 ” ” ” ” prefect 109 Beo 1480 ” ” ” ” guardian ° 110 Byr M 1 72.11 ” ” ” ” protector 111 Ch 1482.46 ” ” ” ” patron 112 6D 1 10.71.14 ” ” ” ” protector 113 6D Pref 4 55.341.14 ” ” ” ” protector 114 Guth A, B 787 ” ” ” ” guardian 115 Hell 70 ” ” ” ” preserver 116 Jul 147 ” ” ” ” protector 117 LS 18.2 (Mary) 699 ” ” ” ” protector 118 LS 24 (Michael) 143 ” ” ” ” protector 119 Rid 17.1 ” ” ” ” protector ° 120 LS 18.1 (Mary) 695 subj. compl. of bean protector 121 P Ps 120.5 subj. compl. of weardan protector 103. Fathers of the Church series editor Zimmerman notes in Gregogy’s Dialogues that a ‘protector’ was “an ecclesiastical official who acted as spokesman for the Church when its rights were in question.” 108. A prefect, a high official of varying rank, presided over a command, department, commission, etc. 110. Those calculating the calendar had to make sure that March, “protector and most honored of all the months” (during which Creation and the Passion both occurred), had its proper length. 120. Parallel ms. to 117 has mundbare, wk. fem. aj., in the analogous passage. 190 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: nom. pl. mundboran 122 LS 35 (Vit Pat) 146 subject protectors 123 A3 C Horn 1, 23.32 subj. compl. of bean protectors acc. s. mundboran interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 124 Ar Pr 61 1 38.1 patranum glossed by mundboran protector OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 125 Jul 212 D0 of habban protector acc. pl. mundboran 126 LS 32 (Peter/Paul) 371 subject protectors 127 AS C Horn 1, 26.30 D0 of habban patrons gen. 8. mundboran interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 128 Reg C 61 1.166 patrani glossed by mundboran protector 129 Cuth 61 1 119 patrani glossed by mundboran protector 130 Cuth 61 1 123 patrani glossed by mundboran protector 131 Occ 6145.4 2 patrani glossed by mundboran protector OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 132 LS 12 (Jn Bapt) 152possessive protector 133 Gu A, B 541 ” protector dat. s. mundboran interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 134 Ald V 3.1 41 aduacata glossed by mundboran advocate 135 Ald V 7.1 141 aduacata glossed by mundboran advocate 136 Ald V 9 173 aduacata glossed by mundboran advocate 137 Ald V 12 25 aduacata glossed by mundboran advocate 138 Ald V 13.1 2587 aduacata i iudice glossed by advocate or judge bingere, mundboran 139 Ald V 14 110 advacata glossed by mundboran advocate OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 140 LS 25 (Michael) 88 apposition guardian 123. Those who pray for us are our advocates (dingeras) and therefore our protectors. 191 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 141 Chron A 823.9 obj. of to w/ secan for protection 142 Chron C 823.8 ” ” ” ” ” for protection 143 Chron D 823.10 " ” ” ” ” for protection 144 Chron B 823.9 ” ” ” ” ” for protection ° 145 Chron A 921.53 ” ” ” ” ” for protection I46 Chron A 921.72 obj. of to w/ ceasan protector 147 Rec 10.8 23 ” ” ” ” ” protector 148 .E C Horn 1, 23.26 obj. of to w/ habban protector 149 IE LS (Mark) 97 ” ” ” ” ” protector 150 IE LS (Seb’stn) 349 obj. of to w/ settan protector 151 Christ A, B, C 22 obj. of to w/ weardan guardian 152 Law E Cu 12 obj. of for w/ bean protector 153 Law 8 Atr 33 ” ” ” ” ” protector 154 Law 2 Cu 40 ” ” ” ” ” protector 155 W Hom 19.53 ” ” ” ” ” protector dat. p1. mundbarum interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 156 Ald V l 2512 aduacata glossed by mundbarum advocate 157 Ar Pr 6] 1 35.40 patraciniis glossed by mundbarum protection, (legal) defense Munfiyrd, f. nom. s. mundbyrd glossary item: 158 C1 61 2 669 patrocinium glossed by mundbyrd protection 159 Corp 61 2 14.10 patrocinium glossed by mundbyrd protection 160 Ep 61 800 suffrag ium glossed by mundbyrd favorable decision (vote) 161 Erf 61 l 935 subfragium glossed by mundbyrd favorable decision, support 145. Earl Thurferth and the “holds” submit to K. Edw.; a ‘hold’ is “a Scand. title, applied to a class of nobleman in the Danelaw” (Whitelock Chronicle 60). 192 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 162 Law Abt 8.1 subj. of wesan mundbyrd[amt for comp of vio] 163 Law Abt 15.1 ” ” ” mundbyrd [amt of comp for vio] 164 Law Grid 8 ” ” ” mundbyrd [amount ” ] 165 Law Wi 2 ” ” ” mundbyrd [amount ” ] 166 Dream 129 ” ” ” help ° 167 Law Af I 3.1 subj. of betan guardianship[amount ” ] 168 Law Af I 3.2 ” ” ” guardianship [amount ”] °acc. s. mundbyrde, mundbyrd interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 169 Ald V 1 4262 patrocinium glossed by mundbyrde protection 170 Ald V 13.1 789 patrocinium glossed by mundbyrde protection 171 Ald V 13.1 4383 patrocinium glossed by mundbyrde protection 172 Ar Pr 61 1 35.24 paternitatem glossed by mundbyrde guardianship glossary item: 173 C161 1 4726 patrocinium glossed by mundbyrde protection OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 174 Gu A, B 880 DO of ceasan help 175 Gen A, B 2708 D0 of ceasan protection 176 Chron A 921.58 D0 of secan protection 177 Jul 169 DO of secan protection 178 Law 4 As 6.3 D0 of betan mundbyrd [amount of comp. for violation] ° 179 Bede 5 20.15 D0 of blissian protection ° 180 Kt Ps 105 acc. w/ cierran protection 181 Jud 2 D0 of findan protection 167, 168. The passage in Alfred’s laws where borg is used as if it were mund; see B33, 73, 142. 179. blissian w/ acc., not gen. or dat., the only such ex’l in OE; cited by Dic. of OE. 180. Kt Ps is a problematic mixture of Kentish and West Saxon fonns (ASPR VI lxxxi- iii). 193 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: ° 182 GD 1 4.43.12 D0 of fargiefan protection 183 Law H1 1.14 D0 of fargieldan mundbyrd [amount of comp. for violation] 184 PPs 70.5 D0 of habban protection 185 And 721 ' D0 of herian protection 186 L8 25 (Michael) 174 D0 of liefan guardian 187 And 1630 D0 of anfan protection 188 Guth A, B 184 D0 of sellan protection acc. pl. mundbyrda, mundbyrd interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 189 Ar Pr 61 1 42.1 sufl‘ragia glossed by mundbyrde favorable decision, support 190 Ar Pr 6] 1 43.1 patracinia glossed by mundbyrd protection gen. 8. mundbyrde 191 Ald V l 3775 patracini glossed by mundbyrde protection 192 Ald V 13.1 3883 patracinii glossed by mundbyrde protection OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 193 Law Af 1 5.2 possessive guardianship [amt of fine for violation] 194 And 1432 ” protection 195 Ps Head 17.3 gen. w/ dancian deliverance dat. s. mundbyrde glossary item: Latin word: Latin meaning: 196 C161 1 4793 presidia glossed by mundbyrde defense, protection ° 197 Cl 61 3 743 sub pretextu glossed by mundbyrde covered 198 C1613 1074 sub pretextu glossed by mundbyrde covered OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 199 Gen A, B 1946 manner protection 182. see 83 197, 198. under mundbyrde glosses sub pretextu : from praetexa (?) which has a meaning ‘to cover’; praiextu is immediately from prtetextus, -us literally ‘pretense’ (a covering of a different sort than that indicated by most uses of mundbyrd). Prwtexa may have been confused with prcetega, to cover, shelter, protect. 194 OE item: syntactic function: 200 Gen A, B 2529 manner 201 Mart 5 (Marcel’) means 202 Gen A, B 1752 obj. of on w/ libban 203 Law Grid 14 obj. of an , d. of rest 204 Ch 1510.4 obj. of to, purpose 205 PPs 83.12 obj. of to 206 Bede 5 19.23 obj. of mid w/ scyldan 207 GD Pref 3 20.2229 obj. of under, (1. of rest dat. p1. mundbyrdum interlinear gloss: Latin word: 208 Hy 612 93.3 patraciniis glossed by mundbyrdum OE item: syntactic function: 209 6D 2 38.176.27 obj. of in 210 LS 18.2 (Mary) 322 obj. of an, d. of rest Mundbyrdnes, f. nom. s. mundbyrdnesse ° 211 Ch 1121.19 subj. of wesan 212 Ch 1129.20 ” ” ” 213 Ch 1142.22 ” ” ” 214 Ch 1146.23 ” ” ” ace. 8. mundbyrdnysse, mundbirdnesse 215 Ch 1150.11 D0 of tabrecan 216 LS 23 (Mary of Eg.) obj. of infinitive gen. 8. mundbyrdnysse 217 LS 23 (Mary of Eg.) g. w/ myndgian dat. s. mundbyrdnysse 218 L8 23 (Mary of Eg.) obj. of to w/ ceasan OE meaning: protection protection protection mundbyrdzprotection protection for protection patronage protection Latin meaning: protection OE meaning: care protection protection protection protection protection protection protection protection protector 211 - 214. Four writs from what Harmer calls “the ‘shall have’ group” (306 ff): highly formulaic. 218. As agent: Skeat translates to mundbyrdnysse gecease wid bin agen beam, “and [Mary of Egypt will] choose [Mary] for my protector against thine own Son.” OE item: 219 LS 23 (Mary of Eg.) obj. of to w/faran andraedan Mundbryce, m. 195 syntactic function: nom. s. mundbryce, mundbreche 220 Ch 357.3 221 Law 2 Cn 12 subj. compl. in long list subj. compl. of wesan acc. s. mundbryce -bryces -brice -brices 222 Ch I Hen (29436) 3 D0 of unnan 223 Ch 1148.9 224 Ch 1151.4 225 Ch 1152.5 226 Law Grid 6 227 Law Grid 11 228 Ch 1098.15 229 Law 6 Atr 34 230 Law Grid 11 dat. s. mundbryce, -brice 231 Law 1 Ch 2.5 232 Law 2 Cu 42 233 Law 8 Atr 3 234 Law 2 Em 6 235 Law 1 Cn 3.2 Mundgripe, m. ace. 8. mundgripe 236 Beo 750 237 Beo 1531 D0 of unnan D0 of weardan D0 of weardan D0 of agan D0 of betan DO of habban D0 of fargieldan D0 of wyrcan obj. of be w/ betan obj. of be w/ betan obj. of be w/ betan obj. of be w/ cwedan obj. of at w/ wesan D0 of metan DO of truwian OE meaning: protection fine for breach of protection m-br itself: (pay. for] vio. of mund fine for vio. of mund fine for vio. of mund fine for vio. of mund fine for vio. of mund (amt., value of) mundbreach vio. of mund (amt, value of) mundbreach fine for mundbreach vio. of mund breach of king’s mund fine for breach of mund fine for breach of king’s mund violation of mund fine for breach of king’s mund handgrip handgrip OE item: dat. s. mundgripe ° 238 Beo 1933 ° 239 Beo 963 240 B60 377 Hapax legomena F edemund, f. dat. pl. fedemundum 240.5 Rid 15.15 Mundbearg, tit. mom. pl. mundbeargas 241 PPS 124.2 Mundcrceft, m. acc. p1. mundcnefias 242 M Charm 9 14 Mundheals, f. acc. s. mundheals sic 243 Christ A, B, C 440 Mundiend, m. nom. s. mundiend 244 Ch 1486.49 Mundraf, aj. nom. s. mundraf 245 Rid 87.2 196 syntactic function: obj. of after obj. of for d. of cause obj. of an d. of rest means w/ wyrcan subject of wesan DO of cunnan D0 of ceasan subj. compl. of bean modifies subject OE meaning: seizure (arrest) hand-grip hand- grip forepaws protecting hills, great mountains skill to protect protection protector CH: strong with the hands 238. Here wwlbende ...handgewribene mundgripe (deadly bonds handwrought arrest) stand in close proximity to each other; see 239. 239. chlbedde clammum wribam mundgripe (on deathbed bind with hard grasp handgrip) in close proximity, and closely parallel, with 238. 197 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: Mundwist, f. dat. s. mundwiste 246 Horn M 1 147 obj. of afw/ animan guardianship Sceaftmund, f. nom. pl. scceftamunda ’247 Law Pax 1 subj. compl. of wesan (hand)span 249 items (including 73.5 and 240.5) 247. “Sca:ftamund=sceaftmund”: CH; see Chapter 2, note 4 above, p. 33. APPENDIX F The F rid-words arranged by forms 198 Appendix F: Frid-words arranged by forms (nouns; verbs; compounds; hapax legomena) Item Short Title Latin Word, or OE Syntactic Function F rid, mn. nom. s. frid interlinear gloss: Latin word: 1 Mt Gl (Ru) 10.12 pax glossed by frid 2 Mt 61 (Ru) 10.13 pax ” ” " OE item: Hom U 40.32 WP012.1.1 12 WP012.1.2 10 Gu A, B 407 Law MI 5.4 Or4 10.202.18 Or Head 256.10 Law 2 Em 1 Law 6 As 12.3 Law 5 As Prol 1.0 Law 6 Atr 8 Horn U 41.2 Or 3 5.106.20 Chron E 1086.95 Dan 463 Law 2 Atr 6.1 Christ A, B, C 1652 Law A Gu 1 Or 1 10.48.32 P Ps 143.2 P Ps 148.14 syntactic function: subj. of cuman 99 99 99 99 99 99 subj. of wesan 99 99 99 subj. of aliefan 99 99 99 subj. of bean 99 99 99 subj. of healdan 99 99 99 subj of weardati subj. of fargietan subj. of gescyldan subj. of settan subj. compl. of wesan 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 Latin Meaning or OE Meaning Latin meaning: peace peace OE meaning: peace peace public peace security public peace maintain peace peace quietness security protection truce peace peace frwdom security security acc. s. frid,fryd interlinear gloss: 199 Latin word: 25 Dur Rit 61 3 37 pacem glossed by frid 26 Mt 61 (Li) 10.34 pacem ” ” ” 27 Mt Gl (Ru) 10.34 pacem ” ” ” 27.5 Mt Gl (Ru) 10.34 pacem ” ” ” OE item: 28 29 30 3 l 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 Chron A 865.1 Chron D 865.1 Chron B 865.1 Chron A 866.1 Chron C 866.1 Chron D 866.1 Chron E 866.1 Chron C 867.1 Chron C 867.4 Chron D 867.1 Chron A 867.10 Chron B 867.7 Chron C 868.4 Chron D 868.4 Chron A 868.1 Chron E 868.4 Chron A 871.33 Chron D 871.36 Chron E 871.38 Chron A 872.1 Chron C 872.31 Chron D 872.1 Chron B 872.1 Chron A 873.1 Chron C 873.1 Chron C 874.1 Chron A 876.1 Chron D 876.1 syntactic function: D0 of (ge)niman 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 Latin meaning: peace peace peace peace OE meaning: make peace 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 200 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 56 Chron B 876.2 ” ” ” ” ” 57 Chron C 877.1 ” ” ” ” ” 58 Chron A 989.4 ” ” ” ” ” 59 Chron A 1001.16 ” ” ” ” ” 60 Chron A 1001.27 ” ” ” ” ” 61 Chron C 1002.1 ” ” ” ” ” 62 Chron D 1002.1 ” ” ” ” ” 63 Chron B 1002.1 ” ” ” ” ” 64 Chron C 1009.24 ” ” ” ” ” 65 Chron D 1009.32 ” ” ” ” ” 66 Chron E 1009.31 ” ” ” ” ” 67 Chron C 1011.10 ” ” ” ” ” 68 Chron D 1011.10 ” ” ” ” ” 69 Chron E 1011.10 ” ” ” ” ” ° 70 D Alf 11 ” ” ” ” ” 71 Josh 9.6 ” ” ” ” ” 72 Mald 36 ” ” ” ” ” 73 Or 1 1046.7 ” ” ” ” ” 74 Or2 2.66.17 ” ” ” ” ” 75 Or 3 1.96.14 ” ” ” ” ” 76 Or 3 5.106.22 ” ” ” ” ” 77 Or 4 12.2109 ” ” ” ” ” 78 Or 5 2.218.29 ” ” ” ” ” 79 Or 5 7.228.25 ” ” ” ” ” 80 Or 5 7.230.28 ” ” ” ” ” 81 Or 6 13.268.7 ” ” ” ” ” 82 Or6 35.2929 ” ” ” ” ” 83 Or Head 320.2 ” ” ” ” ” 84 IE LS (Apoll’s) 223 D0 of habban have peace 85 Gen A, B 1299 ” ” ” have sanctuary 86 Josh 2.19 ” ” ” have sanctuary, refuge 87 Law 2 Atr 2 ” ” ” to be afforded protection 70. One of the Chronicle poems attributed to Wulfstan (Dam of Alfred). OE item: 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 ° 99 Law2Atr 2.1 Law2Atr3 Law2Atr 3.1 Law2Atr 3.2 Law2Atr 3.3 Or2 8.92.6 Or3 5.104.12 Or3 5.106.15 Or3 5.106.18 Or3 7.116.4 Or4 13.212.13 Or6 13.268.19 100 Rid 73.22 101 Law 6 As 8.9 102 Law 6 As 10 103 Law 6 As 11 104 Law 5 Atr 1.1 105 Law 10 Atr 2.1 106 Chron A 877.3 107 Chron D 877.5 108 Chron B 877.6 109 Chron C 878.2 110 Chron D 1066.34 111 Horn U 41.14 112 Lit 4.2 6 113 Chron A 885.31 114 Chron D 885.31 115 Chron B 885.20 116 Chron C 886.27 117 Chron A 911.1 118 Chron C 911.1 201 syntactic function: 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 D0 of healdan 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 D0 of brecan 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 OE meaning: to be afforded protection to enjoy protection to be afforded protection to be afforded protection to have protection to make peace to have peace to have peace to have peace to have peace to have peace to have freedom to have peace to be loyal re: maint’c pub. security to observe decrees for ” ” to observe decrees for pub. security to maintain peace to maintain peace to keep peace to keep peace to keep peace to keep peace to keep peace to maintain peace to maintain peace to violate the peace to violate the peace to violate the peace to violate the peace to break the peace to break the peace 99. Here fir'd and sibbe is translated ‘freedom and peace,’ sibb being used very many times as a synonym for frid ; it also frequeme glosses pax. OE item: 119 Chron D 911.1 120 Chron C 914.1 121 Chron D 914.1 122 Chron A 917.1 123 Chron A 921.5 124 Chron A 906.1 125 Chron C 906.1 126 Chron D 906.2 127 Chron B 906.1 128 Chron D 926.2 129 Chron C 1055.21 130 Law 2 Atr l 131 Chron C 1016.90 132 Citron D 1016.98 133 Chron E 1016.94 134 Christ A, B, C 1339 135 Or 3 1.98.29 136 Or Head 192.5 137 E11181 138 Gen A, B 2473 139 Orl 10.48.26 140 Or4 6.174.24 ° 141 ChronD959.7 142 Chron E 959.7 143 Or 5 15.250.16 144 Or6 35.292.11 145 Chron A 921.58 146 Or3 9.136.27 147 Law Cn 1020.3 148 Law Episc 4 149 Or4 7.182.8 202 syntactic function: .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. D0 of feestnian .. .. .. n .. .. .. .. .. n .. .. .. .. n DO of bycgan n n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. D0 of (ge)beadan .. .. .. n n .. DO of agan 99 99 99 D0 of begietan 99 99 99 D0 of beterian 99 99 99 D0 of geceasan 99 99 99 DO of secan 99 99 99 D0 of wyrcan 99 99 99 D0 of abrecan OE meaning: to break the peace to break the peace to break the peace to break the peace to break the peace to establish peace to establish peace to establish peace to establish peace to establish peace to confirm peace to buy peace to buy peace to buy peace to buy peace to offer refuge/proclaim prot’n to offer peace to offer peace to have protection to have peace (my trans.) to obtain peace to have peace to improve the peace to improve the peace to wish for peace to wish for peace to ask for peace to seek peace to establish security to effect peace to break the peace 141, 142 “This passage is written in alliterative prose, and is in the style of Archbishop Wulfstan II of Yor ” (Whitelock, A-S Chronicle 74). OE item: 150 1B LS (Thomas) 80 151 Or5 3.220.18 152 Or4 10.202.7 ° 153 GD1 4.43.13 154 Chron A9ll.l ° 155 6a A, B257 157 Or3 5.106.22 158 Law MI 5 159 IEGen Ep 56 160 Christ A, B, C 999 161 Law4Eg 16 162 ChronD 1049.1 163 Or3 11.1421 164 And 1029 ° 165 MCharmll.37 gen. 8. frides (frydes, fridces) Latin word: propitiatiane glossed by frides interlinear gloss: 166 Dur Prov 24 OE item: 167 And 447 168 And 1125 169 IE Gen Ep 40 170 IE Gen Ep 82 171 Bede 3 1.154.4 172 Dan 209 173 Josh 9.6 174 LS 28 (Neot) 150 ” 203 syntactic function: D0 of awierdan D0 of gedan DO offindan D0 of fargiefan DO offarsean D0 of gegiernan D0 of lufian D0 of settan D0 of willan DO of gewinnan . of ymbe 99 99 99 99 99 99 '. of on w/ gelcedan 99 99 99 w/ wunnian syntactic function: obj. of wilnian 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 OE meaning: to violate his peace to make peace to make peace to give peace to scom peace to gain security to love peace to grant right of sanctuary to desire peace to gain refuge about peace about peace about peace to lead into safety [=protection] to dwell in protection Latin meaning: appeasement OE meaning: to desire safety [=protection] to crave safety ” to desire peace to desire peace to sue for alliance to pray for indemnity to desire peace to ask for peace 153. Ms. C has (recedam and mundbyrde (M83) where this Ms. has frid and lwcedam. 155. A key concept: the saint desires security (frid) from God whose hand will guard him with its might (mundad mid mgne). see F165 and F254 as well. 165. A key concept: traveller prays to be kept in God’s protection, and “in His holy hand”: the power to protect creates security, fn’d’s primary sense. OE item: 175 Met 1.33 176 Or3 9.136.8 177 Or4 6.174.23 178 Or4 6.178.5 179 Or4 6.180.11 180 Or4 10.202.16 204 syntactic function: 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 181 ECHom 11 10.194 obj. ofbiddan 182 E Hom 22.225 183 E Hom M 15.56 184 E Horn M 15.79 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 185 E LS (Abd. & Sen.) 53 ” ” ” 186 Fates 88 187 Gen 42.21 188 Gen (Ker) 42.21 189 Orl 10.48.17 190 Orl 10.48.26 191 Or4 11.204.34 192 Or4 11.2061 193 Or4 13.210.19 194 Chron C 1009.24 195 Chron D 1009.28 196 Chron E 1009.27 197 ChronC 1011.1 198 Chron D 1011.1 199 ChronE 1011.1 200 Chron C 1004.2 201 Chron D 1004.2 202 Chron B 1004.2 203 Law 3 Atr15 204 Chron E 1095.56 205 Law 6 As 8.9 206 Part 12 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. obj. of giernan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. partitive w/ ceapian .. .. .. .. .. .. gen. w/ weardian n .. n partitive w/ aslacian obj. of earnian OE meaning: to wish for peace to wish for peace to wish for peace to seek peace to sue for peace to seek peace to ask for refuge to ask for refuge to ask for peace to ask for peace to ask for peace to pray to for peace to beseech for help [protec’n] to beseech for help [protec’n] to ask for an agreement [truce] to ask for peace to ask for peace to ask for peace to beg for peace to ask for peace to ask for peace to ask for peace to ask for peace to ask for peace to ask for peace to buy peace to buy peace to buy peace to be entitled to protection to be entitled to protection to be negligent re pub. security toearnpeace OE item: 207 Mald 36 208 Law 2 Em 5 209 Law 2Cn 13 210 Law 5 Atr 26.1 211 Law 6 Atr 31 212 Law 6 Atr 32 213 Law 2 Cn 8 214 Law 2 C11 8 215 Horn U 40.185 216 Horn U 40.185 217 Law 4 Eg 14.1 218 Law 1 Atrl 219 Law 3 Atrl 220 Law MI 5.2 221 Jul 319 dat. s. fi'ide 222 And 915 223 And 1432 224 Christ A, B, C 488 225 Gen A, B 2529 226 Gu A, B 309 227 Sat 309 228 Or 3 1.96.22 229 Law A 6u 5 230 Chron A 823.9 231 Chron C 823.8 232 Chron D 823.10 205 syntactic function: gen. w/ healdan obj. of bancian obj. of wealdan ymbe frides bate n .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. n .. .. .. .. n .. .. tafrides bate .. .. .. 99 99 99 possessive possessive manner, w/healdan 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 means, w/ befcedman obj. of anfan purpose w/ sellan obj. of to w/ gesecan 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 OE meaning: to keep peace to thank one for immunity [prot’] to grant security for promotion of public security for promotion of public security for promotion of public security for promotion of public security for promotion of public security for promotion of public security for promotion of public seucrity for promotion of public security for promotion of public security for promotion of public security fine for violating Ch. sanctuary [368% to keep safe, protect to keep guard to keep in peace to keep in peace to hold safe [=protection] to enfold in protection to make peace to give as security for peace to appeal for peace to appeal for peace to appeal for peace 207. Fred Robinson suggests that the use of the genitive (rather than the expected accusative or dative) in this collocation may have helped “suggest the speech of a non- native” (“Some Aspects of Maldon” p. 27); he notes several ‘foreignisms’ in this speech. See note to 639. 210. ‘Public security’ is frid’s primary sense, and a central concern in many law codes. OE item: 233 Chron B 823.9 234 Or5 7.228.12 235 Or5 12.242.30 206 syntactic function: 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 OE meaning: to appeal for peace to go for shelter [=protection] to seek peace 236 Or 5 15.250.13 ” ” ” ” ” to seek peace 237 Law E Gu Prol 1 obj. of to w/fon to enter into relations of peace 238 E LS (Mac’s) 583 ” ” ” ” ” to make peace 239 Chron C 1055.21 obj. of to w/ sprecan to discuss peace 240 Chron C 1066.50 ” ” ” ” ” to settle a peace 241 Ch 1510.4 obj. of to w/ befazstan to entrust for security 242 Law 6 As 8.4 obj. of to w/jylstan to help maintain security 243 And 617 obj. of to w/ hagian to drink about peace 244 Dan 61 obj. of to w/ standan to stand as sanctuary 245 Dan 712 obj. of to , manner for protection 246 Hom S 25.379 obj. of to to peace 247 Law 4 Eg 2 obj. of to to security 248 Law 4 Eg 12.1 obj. of to for security 249 Law 4 Eg 15 obj. of to to security 250 E Horn M 14.312 obj. of on w/ wunian to dwell in peace 251 E Let 4 (Sig) 508 ” ” ” ” ” to continue in liberty 252 Josh 23.1 ” ” ” ” ” to dwell inpeace 253 Judg 8.28 ” ” ” ” ” toremaininpeace 254 W Horn 19.47 ” ” ” ” ” to dwell in security 255 Gen A, B 1256 obj. of on w/ wesan to be in peace 256 Gen A, B 1869 ” ” ” ” ” to be in peace 257 E Horn M 14.295 obj. of on w/ bean in security 258 Gen A, B 18 obj. of on w/ libban to live in peace 259 Dan 436 obj. of on w/ treddian to walk in [God’s] keeping [prot’] 260 Law 6 As 8.7 obj. of an, dat. of rest in the public security 261 Or 5 1.214.20 obj. of an, dat. of rest in peace 254. & ge arsarge wuniab an lande an gride & an fride under minre munde, "and you shall dwell without care in your land, in peace and in freedom under my protection”; here Wulfstan uses three of the key words considered in this study together. 207 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 262 E LS (Mac’s) 440 obj. of mid w/faran to go in peace 263 Chron E 1094.38 obj. of mid w/faran to go in peace 264 Mald 175 obj. of mid w/ferian to pass in peace 265 Or 6 34.290.17 obj. of mid w/ gesettan to settle peaceably 266 Chron A 920.3 obj. of mid, manner with peace 268 Law 2 Atr 7.2 obj. of wid (give money) as price of truce 269 Chron A 865.1 ” ” ” (give money) for peace 270 Chron D 865.1 ” ” ” (give money) for peace 271 Chron B 865.1 ” ” ” (give money) for peace 272 Chron C 866.1 ” ” ” (give money) for peace 273 Or 4 6.174.24 ” ” ” (want tribute) for peace 274 B0 26.60.4 obj. of refler w/ aleccan to cringe for protection 275 Or 3 9.136.21 obj. of cefler w/ secan to seek one for peace 276 Or 4 7.1829 obj. of after w/ sendan to send for peace 277 Chron A 865.1 obj. of under under cover of the peace 278 Chron C 866.1 obj. of under under cover of the peace 279 Or 4 12.2109 obj. of under under the peace 280 Chron E 1011.12 obj. offar for all this truce [despite trib.] 281 Law Af Rb 5 obj. of be re: privilege of sanctuary F ridu (fi‘iadu/a, freadu/a), m. ace. 8. fi'ida, fryda, friada, freodo, freadu 282 And 918 0b]. of wilnian to crave protection 283 Beo 183 ” ” ” to find peace 284 Dan 218 ” ” ” to beg indemnity [=protection] 285 Hell 95 ” ” ” to pray for protection 286 P P8 55.8 ” ” ” to call for help 287 Gen A, B 54 D0 of beniman to take [away] peace 280. Le, the army harried them in spite of “all this truce and tribute” (for eallum gride and fride and gafale). 282. F ridu occurs in poetry only; according to Tolkien, fiid is synonymous and “represent[s] a variant of this u-declension noun transferred to the normal masculine declension” (Exodus, ed. Tolkien, p. 67 note 422). OE item: 288 Gen A, B 1510 289 Gen A, B 1759 290 Phoen 594 291 Gen A, B 1150 208 syntactic function: DO of brucan D0 of anfan obj. of in obj. of on OE meaning: to enjoy peace to receive peace in safe-keeping [=protection] in peace gen. 8. freada, fryda; freodo 292 Christ A, B, C 771 obj. of wilnian to beseech (one) for protection 293 Seasons 9 ” ” ” to beg for peace 294 Gen A, B 1346 possessive of peace 295 Gen A, B 1836 ” of peace dat. s. freodo 296 And 336 manner, w/ healdan in peace F readu, f. ace. s. fieade 297 And 1129 D0 of findan to find protection Verb F ridian, gefridian infinitive fridian (gefridian, fridian) 298 E Ls (Eug’a) 209 completes willan would let go free 299 Chron A 921.69 ” ” would keep peace 300 Chron A 921.69 ” ” to want to keep peace 301 Law 2 As 20.3 ” ” to want to respect 302 Or 4 1.160.10 ” ” to wish to protect 303 Or 4 1.1608 completes sculan ought to protect 304 Rid 16.4 ” ” ought to keep safe [=protect] ° 305 Chron B 1093.3 completes behet to vow to secure ° 306 Ps 49.23 completes magan to be able to deliver [L. eripio] 305. Whitelock translates the formula in Godes cyrcean gridian & fridian ‘to protect and secure’-see F307. 306. The first 50 psalms have a prose OE translation that is not interlinear and which does not always follow the Latin exactly-where I can, I give the Latin which the OE translates; in some cases there is no Latin equivalent for the Old English (see 318). OE item: ° 307 Horn U 27.2 308 Hom U 48.57 309 Law 1 Cn 2 310 Law 1 Cn 4 311 Law 6 Atr 42.3 ° 312 Law Had 1.1 313 Law2Ew4 314 M Charm 11.21 prs. indic. 1 s. 315 Horn S 47.84 316 Ps 49.16 317 W Horn 19.78 prs. indie. 2 8. ° 318 Ps 11.9 319 Ps 34.17 320 Rev Mon 72 321 Ps 11.8 prs. indie. 3 s. interlinear gloss: 322 Ps 611 71.12 OE item: ° 323 Law Rect 20.2 324 Ps 33.22 325 P8 40.1 326 Cu A, B 242 327 Rid 91.3 209 syntactic function: future sense 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 subjunctive sense freabige gefridie gefiibige gefridast gefridast fribast gefieadast Latin word: liberabit glossed by gefribad he shall deliver syntactic function: gefridad 99 freabad OE meaning: to maintain sanctity [of church] to maintain sanctity to maintain sanctity to maintain sanctity to maintain security to protect to shield to protect I will intercede [=protect] I will deliver [L. eripio] I will protect you will deliver [no Latin] you will rescue [L. restitua] you protect you will keep [=prot’] [L.custadia] Latin meaning: OE meaning: he protects he will redeem [L. redima] he will deliver [L. libero] he will protect it guards [=protect] 307. Here Robertson translates gridian & fn’dian (this passage is in 6 Atr 42.3) “to maintain the security and sanctity” (of the church of Christ); see F305. 312. Whitelock translates fi'idian & nerian ‘protect and defend’; Ms. H has gridian for nerian. 318. Here (and in other items labelled similarly) the Old English expands the verse and there is no Latin equivalent, see 306. 323. A law code attributed to Wulfstan. OE item: 328 B0 34.91.24 ° 329 Glor 1.27 prs. suij. s. 330 Ben RW 64.39 331 Law 2 As 20.3 332 Law 2 Atr 1.2 333 Law Cn 1020.12 ’ 334 Law Ger 2 335 WP012.1.1 29 336 WP012.1.2 22 337 Ps 19.1 338 Ps 26.5 339 Ps 24.15 340 Ps 30.2 341 Ps 32.16 342 Ps 33.7 343 WPol2.1.1 5 344 Horn U 40.14 present imperative singular 210 syntactic function: fridad freadiab fridige 99 fn'die frydie 345 Mart5 (Marina) 1318 gefrida 346 Ps 7.1 347 Ps 17.41 348 Ps 21.19 349 Ps 24.18 350 Ps 24.20 351 Ps 30.] 352 Ps 30.18 353 Ps 38.10 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 OE meaning: it protects all will observe [=protect] ought to protect men shall respect one provides protection one protects he protects he should protect he should protect may it protect you [L. protega] he may protect [no Latin] you may deliver [L. eripio] you may deliver ” he may deliver he shall deliver them ” he ought to protect he ought to protect 99 Protect (him) deliver (me) [L. eripio] deliver (me) ” save (me) [L. libero] deliver (me) [L. eripio] deliver (Israel) [L. redima] rescue (me) [L. eripio] deliver (me) deliver (me) ” 99 329. Lurnby’s trans: [Sunday] all will hold and observe [=keep; healdad and freodiab]. 334. The lawcode Gerefa is attributed to Wulfstan. 335. Thorpe translates (?) flrdrige & fir’dige ‘that he further and protect’ God’s church. OE item: syntactic function: 354 P8 42.1 gefrida 355 Phoen 630 gefreaba 356 Res 59 gefreada preterite indicative 1st singular 357 Rim 40 freadade preterite indicative 2nd singular 358 Horn S 40.1 107 gefreadadest 359 Hom S 40.3 126 ” 360 P8 29.1 gefridadest preterite indicative 3rd singular interlinear gloss: Latin word: 361 Cuth 61 1 18 regebat glossed by fridade OE item: syntactic function: 211 362 a C Horn 11 11.193 gefridade 363 CP 21.167.21 364 Jud 2 365 Ps 26.6 366 P8 33.4 367 Ps 43.8 368 Ps Head 27.1 369 Ps Head 32.1 370 Ps Head 45.2 371 Ps Head 46.1 99 372 Bede 2 6.1164 freadade 373 El 1142 ” 374 Rid 9.3 ” 375 Christ A, B, C 586 gefreadade 376 Gu A, B 440 ” 377 Jul 563 ” 378 And 1029 gefreadade 379 B0 39.133.10 gefi'iadade 380 Guth A, B 393 freadade 381 Rev Mon 79 frilmde OE meaning: deliver (me) [L. eripio] protect (us) preserve (my soul) I protected you have set us free you have set us free you have defended me (upheald) [no Lat.] Latin meaning: he kept OE meaning: he had protected it protects he guards he has protected [L. pratega] he delivered (me) [L. eripio] it has not saved (me) [L. salvea] he has delivered (me) he has delivered (me) he has protected (me) he has delivered (me) be protected he guarded she guarded he safeguarded he guarded he defended he set free he saved [defended, protectedl] he protected be protected OE item: 212 syntactic function: 382 L S 24 (Michael) 42 gefrydade preterite plural 383 Ch 325.2 preterite subjunctive singular 384 Gu A, B 146 past participle gefridadan gefreadade 385 E LS (Martin) 388 gefrided, nom. s. 386 CP 16.105.25 gefi‘iaOd, 99 n 387 on Pref3 14.199.17 gefreadad, " " 388 Gu A, B 407 ° 389 Law 2 Cu 80.1 390 M Charm 1.59 391 Ps Head 47.3 392 CP 51.399.26 gefieopad, n 99 gefridad 99 99 99 99 99 99 gefridade, nom. pl. 393 or) Pref4 57.343.37 gefreadade " " 394 Horn S 40.1 17 395 Hom S 40.2 15 396 Horn S 40.3 397 Lch 1.1 inflected infinitive 398 P5 41.9 gefridade ” ” gefreadade ” ” gefriadade gefi'ibedum , dat. pl. ta gefribianne Other nouns, adjectives, and compounds Unfi'id-group Unfrid, m. nom. s. unfrid 399 Law Cn 1020.5 400 Law Cn 1020.4 401 Chron E 1123.78 402 Chron E 1124.20 403 Chron A 1001.1 subj. of cuman subj. of standan subj. of weaxan subj. of wesan subj. compl. of wesan OE meaning: he protected protected he might protect protected delivered protected kept preserved kept safe set free set free redeemed freed freed freed protected to deliver [no Latin] hostility hostility hostility hostility fighting 389. “Lit. ‘Let every man leave my hunting alone where I wish to have it preserved’ ” (Robertson 359). OE item: 404 Chron E 1135.18 ace. 8. unfrid 405 Chron B 1124.1 406 Chron B 1128.1 dat. s. unfride (unfn‘da) 407 Chron C 994.17 408 Chron E 994.20 ° 409 ChronE 1048.35 410 Chron B 1101.3 411 Chron E 1101.27 412 Chron A 921.15 413 Chron A 905.1 414 Chron D 905.1 415 Chron C 905.1 416 Chron A 905.16 417 Law Northu 56 418 Or 1 1.17.21 419 Law 2 Atr 6 Unfridhere, m. nom. s. unfi-idhere 420 Chron C 1009.24 421 Chron D 1009.28 422 Chron E 1009.27 dat. s. unfridhere 423 Chron D 1007.1 Unfrid, aj. nom. s. unfrid 424 Chron E 1046.29 dat. s. unfn'de 425 Chron B 1007.1 213 syntactic function: 99 99 99 99 obj. of for w/ wesan 99 99 99 99 99 obj. of midw/ cuman obj. of mid w/faran obj. of midw/fundian obj. of mid w/ secan obj. of mid, manner obj. of to w/ aspanan obj. of to w/gelcedan dat. w/ gelwdan obj. of to w/ spanan obj. of for, cause 99 99 99 99 obj. of on w/ licgan subj. of cuman 99 99 99 99 99 99 10 of gelcestan part of subj. of licgan 10 of gelazstan OE meaning: disturbance hostility hostility to come in hostility to come in hostility to carry war to set out to carry war to come with warlike intent with hostility to seduce to break the peace to induce to break the peace to induce to break the peace to entice to war on account of war on account of hostility to exclude from truce raiding anny raiding army raiding army to pay to the (hostile) army hostile ships lay to pay to the hostile army 409. bed hine faran in to Cent mid unfrida; Whitelock translates ‘ordered him to carry war into Kent’. 214 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: Unfridflata, m. nom. s. unfridflata 426 Chron C 1000.3 subj. of wesan enemy fleet 427 Chron B 1000.4 ” ” ” enemy fleet Unfridland, n. ace. 8. unfir’dland ° 428 Law 2 Atr 3.1 obj. of on w/ cuman region not included in truce Unfridmann, m. gen. pl. unfridmanna ° 429 Law 2 Atr 3.3 possessive of a man not included in truce Unfridscip, n. nom. s. unfridscyp ° 430 Law 2 Atr 2 subj. compl. of wesan ship of region not incl’d in truce F ridstal, m. nom. s. fn’dstal interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 431 Ps 61 G 17.3 refugium glossed by fridstal refuge OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 432 P Ps 89.1 subj. compl. of wesan refuge ace. 3. fridstal 433 Law Grid 16 D0 of secan to seek a sanctuary 434 P Ps 90.9 DO of settan to make a refuge dat. s. fi'idstale ° 435 Horn S 7.202 obj. of to w/ gehatan & geladan summoned & invited to (royal) throne of peace ’ 436 Horn S 40.1 332 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” sum’n’d/invited to peace throne 428, 429, 430. these are hapax legomena, but listed here with the rest of this group. 435, 436, 437, 438. The corresponding four sentences in these passages are nearly identical; Ker notes the correspondence between F436 and F438 only. 215 OE item: syntactic function: '437 HomS40.3 361 " ” " " ” " " ’ 438 HomU3 164 ” ” ” ” ” ” " 439 Chron C 1006.13 obj. of to w/cuman 440 ChronD 1006.14 ” ” ” ” ” ° 441 M Ps 93.19 obj. of to w/ wesan 442 PPS 93.19 ” ” ” ” ” dat. pl. fn'dstalum 443 Ch 1622.6 (Somner) obj. of in F ridstaw, f. nom. s. fridstaw 444 Bo 34.89.10 subj. compl. of wesan 445 Met 21.16 ” ” ” ” ° 446 Ps 9.9 ” ” ” ” 447 Ps 17.1 ” ” ” ” ° 448 P8 30.3 ace. 8. fn'dstawe 449 Law Af E1 13.2 dat. s. fridstawe 450 GP 21.165.23 subj. compl. of bean DO of secan obj. of to w/ gesettan F ridiend, m. nom. s. fridiend, gefiidiend, fn'digend 451 Ps 17.29 subj. compl. of wesan ° 452 Ps 32.17 ” ” ” ” 453 Ps 39.21 ” ” ” ” OE meaning: sum’n’d/invited to peace throne sum’n’d/invited to peace throne to come to a sanctuary to come to a sanctuary refuge refuge sanctuary asylum peace-place refuge [refugium] refuge [refugium] refuge [refitgit] to seek shelter to appoint as a sanctuary protector bratectar] helper [adjutar] deliverer [liberatar] 435, 436, 437, 438. The corresponding four sentences in these passages are nearly identical; Ker notes the correspondence between F436 and F438 only. 441. Eadwine’s Canterbury Psalter [M Ps] 446. Tupper’s trans. in Fox (‘peace-place’) seems less than useful; context demands ‘refuge.’ 448. see F455: fi'idstaw parallel with gefridiend [pratectarem] 452. parallel with gescyldend [protector] 216 DE item: syntactic function: 454 Hom U 37.185 subj. compl. of bean ’ 455 Ps 30.3 ” ” ” ” °Fridawcer, f. ace. 8. friaduwcere, freadawcere, fridawcere 456 Bee 1095 D0 of getruwan ° 457 BX 303 D0 of healdan 458 PPs 118.158 ” ” ” gen. 8. friadawcere 459 Beo 2278 obj. of biddan dat. s. freaduwcere 460 And 1630 obj. of anfan F ridbrec, f. nom. s. fridbrec, fridbrcec, frithbrice, frithesbrace 461 Law 2 Atr 6 subj. ' 462 Law 2 Atr 5.2 subj. compl. of wesan 463 Ch 499.4 in a list of fines . . . F ridleas, aj. nom. s. fi‘idaleas 464 And 29 subj. compl. of wesan nom. pl. fridelease 465 El 126 subj. of feallan 455. See 448. OE meaning: protector protector [pratectarem] to confirm a peace compact to keep a promise of protection to keep peace compact ask for a compact of peace to receive a covenant of peace breach of the truce breach of the truce fine for breach of truce savage barbarians 456. F rest occurs in the same line with fridawazr in all three instances in ace. 8. 457. Tolkien follows several other editors in supplying a missing half-line here; ASPR lets it stand. 462. ‘Breach of truce’ is caused by 8 or more deaths (2 Atr). 217 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: F ridsum- group F ridsum, aj. nom. pl. fridsume interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: ° 467 Mt Gl (Ru) 5.9 pacifici glossed by fridsume peaceful (peacemaker) gen. 3. gefrydsumre ° 468 Ps 61 F 70.3 muniturn glossed by gefrybsumre strength F ridsumian present indicative 3 s. OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 469 Prog 4 .14 fridsumab to reconcile F ridad, m. nom. pl. fridabas ° 470 Chron C 1012.19 subj. of aswerian to swear peace 471 Chron D 1012.20 ” ” ” to swear peace ’ 472 Chron E 1012.19 subj. of swerian to swear peace F ridmann, m. nom. s. fridman 473 Law 2 Atr 3.1 subj. of cuman one included in a truce 474 Law 2 Atr 3.4 subj. of flean one included in a truce gen. pl. fridmanna 475 Law 2 Atr 3 partitive one included in a truce C yricfi'id, mn. nom. s. cyricfrid, ciricfn'd 476 Law Abt 1.3 subj. of gieldan fine for vio’n of church sanct’y 467. Rushworth has ba sibsume 7 fridsume for the Beatitudes’ “peacemakers”; see F509. 468. In locum munitum glossed by an stawum gefrybsumre ; both parallel w/ a protecting God 470, 472. F ridabas is not compound in C and E. OE item: 477 Law Norgrid 2 gen. 8. ciricfrides 478 Law MI 2.1 F ridlic, aj. 300. pl. fridlice ° 479 Law 5 Atr 3.1 ’ 480 Law 6 Atr10.1 ’ 481 Law 2 Cn 2.1 F ridsacn, f. ace. 3. fn'dsacne ° 482 Law 8 Atr 1.1 483 Law 1 Cn 2.3 F ridascealc, m. nom. s. freadascealc 486 Gen A, B 2301 nom. pl. freadascealcas 487 Gen A, B 2498 F ridbena, m. nom. s. fridbena 488 Law 5 Atr 29 nom. pl. fridbenan 489 Law 6 Atr 36 218 syntactic function: subj. of wesan possessive D0 of rcedan D0 of nedan DO of rcedan D0 of secan DO of secan // to subj. of secgan subj. of sprecan subj. compl. of wesan 99 99 99 99 OE meaning: fine for vio’n of church sanct’y fine for vio’n of church sanct’y (determine) merciful (punishm’ts) merciful merciful sanctuary sanctuary minister of peace [angel] minister of peace suppliant for protection suppliant for protection 479, 480, 481. All are f. steara, which Liebermann trans. schanende Strafen; Robertson queries ‘does this refer to substitution of mutilation for capital punishment?’ (327); Whitelock affinns that it does, so that the criminal’s soul may be saved (DW 1968). 482. swa de0pe fridsocne, ‘so inviolable a sanctuary’: Robertson’s note, and the cross- references, imply that this phrase refers to the residence of the king. 219 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: F ridgild, n. dat. pl. fridgildum, fi'idgegyldum 490 Law 6 As 1 obj. of on peace association 491 Law 6 As 8.9 obj. of to peace association F ridasped, f. acc. sfreodasped ° 492 Gen A, B 1197 DO of ahebban CH: abundant peace gen. 8. fridaspede 493 Rid 59.3 obj. of biddan peace abounding F ridgeard, m. nom. s. fridgeard ° 494 Law Northu 54 subj. compl. of wesan sanctuary dat. pl. fridgeardum ° 495 Christ A, B, C 391 obj. of in court of peace F ridsplatt, m. dat. p1. fi'idsplattum ° 496 W Can 1.1.1 16 obj. of on w/ drifan peace-place ’ 497 W Can 1.1.2 16 ” ” ” ” ” peace-place 492. CH’s definition seems to fit the context better than Mason’s trans., ‘sagacious leadership’: here the fn'd-cmpd. is parallel with “dominion and authority” of the people, from which the peace which is fn’d’s primary sense would arise; trans. also makes best sense for Rid 59.3 (F493). 494. Here, as in Wulfstan’s Canons of Edgar (F496, 497), the law describes and forbids religious activities at what had been sacred trees, rocks, and wells. 495. In this passage, heavenly beings hover around the throne in the ‘courts of peace,’ an interesting use of the word in light of the comment on 494. 496, 497. Fowler offers several parallels to these passages, and sources in penitentials (26). 220 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: F ridawebbe, f. nom. s. freaduwebbe ° 498 Beo 1940 subj. of ansecan one who weaves peace dat. s. freabuwebban 499 Wid 5 // to obj. of mid weaver of peace F ridawebba, m. nom. s. fridawebba ° 500 E185 // w/ subj. of abeadan weaver of peace Hapax legomena [items 428, 429, and 430 in unfrid-group are also hapax legomena] Dearfrid, n. acc. s. dearfrid ° 501 Chron E 1086.23 D0 of settan protection for game [deer-frid] F enfi'eada, f. dat. s. fenfieada 501.5 Beo 851 obj. of in fen-refuge F erdfi'idende, aj. nom. pl. ferdfribende 502 Rid 38.1 in subject phrase life-saving F rid, wk. aj. nom. s. fride 503 Rid 9.9 in subject phrase beautiful F rida, m. nom. s. freodo 504 P Ps 70.3 // w/ subject protector 498. Donaldson Beowulf p. 34 n. 3: “daughters of kings were frequeme given in maniage to the king of a hostile nation in order to bring about peace.” 500. Here the peace-weaver is an angel, who has come from the glorious Protector=weard. 501. A poetic passage with rhyme: He scette mycel dearfn’d, & he lcegde laga beer wid OE item: F ridburg, f. acc. s. fn’dbyrig 505 Law 2 Atr 2.1 F ridcandel, f. nom. s. fridcandel 506 Gen A, B 2540 F ridgearn, aj. nom. pl. fn'dgearne interlinear gloss: 221 syntactic function: object of to w/ aetflean subject of gun Latin word: ° 509 Mt Marg (Li) 5.9 pacifici glossed by fridgearne F ridgewrit, 1n. nom. pl. fridgewritu OE item: 510 Law 2 Ew 5.2 F ridgisl, m. ace. 8. fridgislas 511 Law Duns 9.1 F ridhus, n. nom. s. fri/hus glossary item: 512 Ant 61 6 658 OE item: F ridland, n. dat. s. fi'idlande 513 Citron E 1097.26 F ridleasa, m. acc. s. fn‘dleasan ° 514 Law 2 C11 15 syntactic function: subj. of secgan D0 of ltetan Latin word: asilum glossed by fridhus syntactic function: object of innan OE meaning: . to reach town included in truce peaceful luminary [i.e., sun] Latin meaning: peacemakers OE meaning: treaties peace-hostages Latin meaning: sanctuary OE meaning: landat peace DO of healdan adde fearmian to maintain or harbor outlaw 509. Lindisfame gospel has sibsume & fridgearne for pacifici, peacemakers; see F467. 514. Robertson, Laws: “the term ‘fn’dleas’ does not occur elsewhere” and cites Toller Suppl 222 OE item: syntactic function: F ridmal, n. nom. pl. fridmal 515 Law 2 Atr l Pream. subj. compl. of wesan F ridabeacen, n. ace. 8. freadabeacen 516 6611 A, B 1044 D0 of settan F ridaburh , f. ace. 8. freadaburh 517 B60518 DOof secan F ridasibb, f. nom. s. fridusibb 518 Beo 2016 // w/ subject F ridatacn, n. acc. s. fiidatacen 519 Gen A, B 2370 DO of settan F ridadeaivas, mp. nom. pl. freadadeawas 520 Gen A, B 78 subj. comp. of wesan F ridawang, m. acc. s. freadawang 521 Beo 2957 D0 of afergan F ridaweard, m. nom. s. freaduweard 522 Gu A, B 172 // to subj. of wesan F ridscip, n. dat. s. fridscipe 523 Law Rect 1.1 object of to F ridwite, n. dat. or ace. 3. frithwyte 524 Ch 1 Wm (Dav 7) object of an OE meaning: sign of immunity [=protection] stronghold peace pledge sign of peace amity, quiet stronghold protector ship for defense penalty for violation of peace 223 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: Mcedelfi'id, mn. nom. s. meethlfrib 524.5 Law Abt 1.3 subj. of gieldan fine for breach of peace in meeting place Waraldfrid, n. nom. s. woroldfrid ° 525 Law 2 Atr 1 subj. of standan a general truce 520 total N. B.: some items were eliminated as analysis revealed that they did not belong in this field, and their numbers are missing; other items were added after numbering was set up, and they get a decimal .5. I have also identified three other fiid-words; all are anomalous in some way and have not been included in the appendix or the word counts. They are fi'id Charter 1155 (Harmer 114) 3 fride Charter 783 (Birch 1277) 1.1 frihidbriche Charter 11 Henry (Heame) 1 524.5 “Letters between M and frid erased; Mcedlfn'd is found in a copy of [ms.] made in 1589” (Attenborough 4). 525. Robertson thinks that this term denotes the general truce established in this law code (dated 991, immediately after the Battle of Maldon); there are many compounds on frid in this text, and this term would distinguish the general truce from the many individual ones set up in various districts. APPENDIX 6 The Grid-words arranged by forms 224 Appendix G: Grid-words arranged by forms (nouns; verb; compounds; hapax legomena) Item Short title Latin Word, or Latin Meaning OE Syntactic Function or OE Meaning Grid, 11. nom. 3. grid OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 1 Law Grid 1 subj. of wesan (God’s) protection 2 Law I Cn- 2.1 ” ” ” ” protection 3 Law Norgrid 5 ” ” ” protection of a church acc’g to rank 4 Law Pax ” ” ” (extent of king’s) peace ° 5 Law 111 Atr 1 subj of standan king’s peace 6 Law Grid 31.1 subj. compl. of wesan protection (by Christ, of ev. church) 7 W Pol 2.1.1 206 ” ” ” ” protection (rt. of sanct’y in church) 8 W Pol 2.1.2 101 ” ” ” ” protection (same) 9 Chron C 1006.39 ” ” ” bean truce 10 Chron D 1006.42 ” ” ” ” truce 11 Chron E 1006.41 ” ” ” ” truce 12 Prog 5.1 ” ” ” ” peace acc. 3. grid (gryd) l3 Chron C 1002.3 DO of settan arrange a truce 14 Chron D 1002.1.4 ” ” ” arrange a truce 15 Chron B 1002.3 ” ” ” arrange a truce 16 Chron E 1046.26 ” ” ” * give a safe conduct 17 Chron C 1052.39 ” ” ” make a truce 18 Chron D 1052.2.50 ” ” ” make a truce l9 Chron C 1011.10 D0 of niman make peace 5. “The king’s peace [grid] shall continue to be maintained” as it was in the past, “so that breach of the peace which he establishes in person” shall be bootless [... beet beet sy botleas beet he mid his agenre hand syld]. OE item: 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3O 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 ° 39 40 225 syntactic function: Chron D 1011.10 ” ” ” Chron E1011.10 ” ” ” Chron D 1052.1.14 ” ” sellan Chron E 1075.20 ” ” ” Chron D 1076.1.21 ” ” ” Law Grid 4 D0 of agan Law Grid 5 ” ” ” Chron B 1037.2 DO of secan Chron E 1048.78 ” ” ” Law 111 Atr 1.1 D0 of betan Law 111 Atr 1.2 ” ” ” Chron E 1048.59 D0 of giefan Chron D 1066.1.34 ” ” ” Ch 1110 D0 of habban Law 111 Air 13DO of tobracan Chron E 1048.76 D0 of sceawian Chron E 1070.24 D0 of biddan Chron B 1094.3 D0 of ceftercwedan W Horn 10c D0 of scyrdan Mald 34 D0 of fastnian Chron D 1067.1.11 obj. of prep. an ace. p1. gridas 41 Chron E 1087.64 D0 of gyrndan gen. 8. grides (grydes) 42 43 Law VIII Air 1 w/ weard & bean Law 11 C11 82 ” ” OE meaning: make peace make peace grant protection give safe conduct give safe conduct to have protection (for a given time) to have protection ” ” ” ” seek protection seek protection pay comp. for breach of peace pay comp. for breach of peace give peace give quarter have protection break peace (of a lord) grant safe conduct (for a given time) ask for truce repudiate a truce violation of sanctuary [my trans] establish truce under protection (with verb of motion) ask for truce be entitled to exercise right of protection (church) be entitled to protection 39. The Viking messenger suggests that the king “establish a truce with that gold” (Gordon 330) in the passage which Fred Robinson describes as Old English with a Scandinavian accent (“Some Aspects of Maldon,” p. 27); see note to F207. 226 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: ° 44 Chron E 1095.11 ” ” be entitled to protection 45 Chron E 1048.68 w/ giernan ask for safe conduct 46 Chron E 1048.74 ” ” ask for safe conduct 47 Chron D 1075.1.22 w/ biddan ask for protection [grybes bruches in Ch 1162 listed with gridbryce, below, item 127] gen. pl. grida 48 Law 1 C11 2.1 modifier in subj. compl. (of all kinds of) protection 49 Law Grid 1 ” ” ” ” (of all kinds of) protection dat. s. gride (gryde, grybe) interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 50 B0 61 P.5.55 praesidia glossed by on gride under protection OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 51 Chron E 1070.17 D0 of secan seek protection 52 Law V Atr 10.1 obj. of on w/ wesan be under special protection (of God, king) 53 Law VI Atr 13 ” ” ” ” ” be under special prot’n (of God, king) 54 Law I Cn 2.1 ” ” ” ” ” be in prot’n (of Christ himself) 55 Law Grid 31 ” ” ” ” ” be under special prot’n (of God) 56 W Pol 2.1.1 205 ” ” ” ” ” be under special prot’n (of God) 57 W P012.1.2 100 ” ” ” ” ” be under special prot’n (of God) 58 Law V Atr 21 ” ” ” ” ” be under special prot’n (of God, king) 59 Law VI Atr 26 ” ” ” ” ” be under special prot’n (of God, king) 60 Horn U 40 (Nap 50) ” ” ” ” ” be under special prot’n (of God, king) 61 Chron E 1048.81 ” ” ” ” ” under protection 62 Law I Cn 2.1 obj. of on w/ witan (show respect) for protection 63 Law Grid 31.1 ” ” ” ” ” (show respect) for protection 64 W P012.1.1 206 ” ” ” ” ” (shew respect) for protection 65 W Pol 2.1.2 101 ” ” ” ” ” (show respect) for protection 66 W Hom 20.1 ” ” ” ” ” (show respect) for (God’s) sanctuary 44. In 1095, King William, angry with Robert of Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria, who will not come to court, ordered him “to come to court at Whitsuntide if he wanted to be entitled to protection” (Whitelock 172): presumably, one must pledge loyalty to receive this special protection. 227 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 67 W Horn 20.2 ” ” ” ” ” (show respect) for (God’s) sanctuary 68 W Horn 20.3 ” ” ” ” ” (show respect) for (God’s) sanctuary ° 69 W Hom 19 obj. of on w/ wunian dwell in peace [my trans] 70 Chron C 1055.7 obj. of on w/ underfan take (someone) into protection 71 Ch 1098 obj. of on w/ standan be under protection (of God) 72 Chron C 1004.5 obj. of under under (cover of the) truce 73 Chron D 1004.1.6 ” ” ” under (cover of the) trace 74 Chron B 1004.6 ” ” ” under (cover of the) truce 75 Chron C 1041.6 ” ” ” under a safe conduct 76 Chron D 1041.1.6 ” ” ” under a safe conduct 77 Chron E 1046.53 ” ” ” under protection ° 78 Law II Em 7.1 obj. of mid (w/ v. of motion) under safe conduct 79 Chron E 1094.13 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” peaceably 80 Chron E 1095.18 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” with a safe conduct 81 LS 29 (Nicholas) ” ” ” ” ” ” ” with protection 82 Chron C 1011.10 obj. of for for (in spite of) truce 83 Chron D 1011.1.10 ” ” ” for (in spite of) truce ° 84 Chron E 1011.12 ” ” ” for (in spite of) truce 85 Chron D 1075.1.9 obj. of af(w/ v. of motion) out of (his) jurisdiction 86 Chron D 1075.1.25 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” out of (their) jurisdiction 87 Law Grid 1 obj. of be concerning ‘grid’ [in rubric] 69. Wulfstan uses three words this study is considering together: the Lord speaks to Moses, Lev. 26, ge arsarge wuniab an lande an gride & an fride under minre munde, “you will dwell safely in the land in peace and security under my protection” (my trans.). 78. The earliest use of grid, in a law code regulating vendetta: the heir of one slain gives security to the slayer’s advocate, “... that he [the slayer] may approach under safe conduct [mid gride nyr] ” to pay wergeld. 84. After the English had made a truce with a harrying army, the army continued its plunder in spite of gride and gafal (gride and fride and gafale in E), “all this truce and tribute” (Whitelock 91). 228 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: Verb: Gridian infinitive: 88 Law VI Atr 42.3 gridian maintain security (of church) 89 Law I Cu 2 ” maintain security (of church) 90 Law I Cn 4 ” completes byn'an to maintain security (of holy things) ° 91 Law Grid 3 ” able to give sanctuary (my trans.) 92 Horn U 27 burfan (takes inf v) gridian maintain security (of church) 93 Hom U 48 gridian maintain security (of church) 94 W Horn 10c gridian to'protect 95 W Horn 20.2 ” to protect 96 W Horn 20.3 ” to protect 97 Chron E 1093.3 gridian to protect prt. indic. 3 s. interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: 98 Ald V 1 eripuit, liberavit glossed by gridade to free, deliver, 99 Ald V 13.1 ” ” ” ” to free, deliver, OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 100 WP012.1.1 213 gegridade 101 W Pol 2.1.2 108 ” (churches) ‘grithed’ (Thorpe) = security (of churches) maintained 91. A basic concept, here in Law of Grid: the larger context reads as follows (with Thorpe’s translation: & hwilum wceran heafadstedas & healice hadas micelre mcede & munde wyrde & gridian mihtan be, be bars bedarfltan] & beerta sahtan, aa be dwre mcede, be barrta gebyrede: “and formerly the chief places and exalted degrees were entitled to great dignity and ‘mund’ [respect and protection-Whitelock; Swanton], and could give protection [or sanctuary, my trans] to those who needed it, and sought it, always according to the dignity which appertained thereto” (Thorpe’s translation). 97. See note at 102, next page. OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 102 Chron C 1016.90 gridade come to terms 103 Chron D 1016.1.98 grydede come to tenns 104 Chron E 1016.94 gridede come to terms 105 Chron E 1046.21 gridade make peace 106 Chron D 1063.1.1 gridede make peace 107 Chron C 1066.23 gridede give protection 108 Chron B 1070.1 gridede make peace 109 Chron D 1071.1.1 grydade make peace 110 Chron B 1072.4 gridede make peace 111 Chron D 1073.1.1 grydade make peace 112 Chron E 1087.83 gridade make a truce prt. indic. 3 pl. 113 Law Grid 24 gridedan protect (laws protect Church and ch’men) 114 Law Had 11 gridedan protect” ” ” ” ” 115 Chron D 1068.1.4 grydedan make peace 116 Chron E 1068.4 gridedan make peace 117 Chron B 1070.3 gridedan make a truce 118 Chron E 1087.50 gridadan make a truce 119 Chron E 1087.78 gridedan make a truce 120 Chron B 1114.4 grtfedan make a truce Compounds: Gridbryce, m. nom. s. gridbryce ° 121 Law I Cn 3.2 subj. of wesan fine for violation of protection 97, 102. In these items and several Chronicle items following, gridian means either ‘give protection’ (for the winner of a conflict) or ‘come to terms’ (for the loser); we see these as quite different concepts, but for the Anglo-Saxons these ideas would have seemed reciprocal, more of a two-way relationship (like guest-host) and so they use the same word. 121. A basic principle: gridbryce (fine for breach of protection) for a principal church is equal to the payment of the fine for the king’s mund. 230 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: ace. 8. gridbryce ° 122 Law VIII Atr 4 ” ” ” amends for breach of protection 123 Law VIII Atr 5.1 ” ” ” amends for violation of protection 124 Law 1 C11 3 D0 of betan amends for breach of protection 125 Law II Cn 15 D0 of agan have rcp’t of fine for breach of peace 126 Law 11 C11 61 DO offitllwyrcan be guilty of capital deed of violence Items in charters: grid- grib- gryd- gryb- grith- -bryce -bryche -bryces -brice -brices -breche -breches -breces -bruche ~bruches -bruces Formula Type (after Harmer): 127 Ch 1162 (Harm in Clemoes) 3 grybes bruches #1 see note below. 128 Rec 6.10 (Stanley) 2 gridbrices #1 129 Ch 783 (Birch 1277) 1.1 gribbrice 130 Ch 986 (Harm 28) 3 gridbryces #1 131 Ch 1065 (Harm 4) 3 gridbryce #1 132 Ch 1078 (Harm l8) 7 grithbreche #3 133 Ch 1084 (Harm 24) 6 gridbryce #3 134 Ch 1088 (Harm 33) 4 gribbrices #1 135 Ch 1089 (Harm 34) 4 gridbrices #1 136 Ch 1091 (Harm 38) 2 gridbrices #1 137 Ch 1093 (Harm 40) 2 gritlhlbruche #1 138 Ch 1094 (Harm 41) 3 gridbruche #1 122. Amends for breach of the church’s protection are made according to the nature of the offense and in proportion to the status of the church. Items in charters: as these important documents were copied by scribes not literate in Old English and as the language lost its inflectional endings, the spelling of this term showed great variations; I have listed them here in a group and not tried to sort out their inflections. Where it is possible, the formulas are analyzed according to the types identified by F. E. Harmer, Anglo-Saxon Writs, 2nd ed. (Stamford: P. Watkins, 1989) 63-64; these are explained more fully in the text of Chapter 4, Section 3, above. 231 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 139 Ch 1095 (Harm 42) 6 gridbruche #2 140 Ch 1100 (Harm 47) 3 grybbryce #1 141 Ch 1109 (Harm 61) 3 gridbryce #1 142 Ch 1125 (Harm 81) 3 gribbryce #1 143 Ch 1126 (Harm 82) 3 gridbrice #1 144 Ch 1127 (Harm 83) 3 grithbrice #1 145 Ch 1142 (Harm 98) 12 gridbryce #4 146 Ch 1146 (Harm 102) 13 gridbrice #4 147 Ch 1148 (Harm 104) 9 gridbrice #4 148 Ch 1149 (Harm 105) 2 grydbrice #1 149 Ch 1150 (Harm 106) 2 grit/thrice #1 150 Ch I Hen (Birch) 8 grithbreces 151 Ch I Hen (Gibbs 23) 2 gribbrice #1 152 Ch I Hen (PRO 1907 10) 5grithbreces #l 153 Ch I Hen (Somner) 8 gridbreces 153.5 Ch 11 Hen (PRO 1912 3) 9 grihbreches 153.6 Ch 11 Hen (Heame) 1 grihtbriche 154 Ch I Wm (Davis 7) l grithbryche #3 155 Ch 1 Wm (Hardwick) 4 gridbryces #1 156 Ch I Wm (Hunt 2) 3 gridbryce #1 157 Ch I Wm (PRO 1907 3) l grithbruces #1 158 Ch 1 Wm (PRO 1908 2) 2 grithbrice 159 Ch 11 Wm (Gibbs 9) 2 gridbrice 159.5 Ch 11 Wm (PRO 1906) 22 gridbreches 160 Ch Steph (PRO 1912 2) 8 gridbreches 161 Ch Taunton (Rob App I 4) 3 gribbrice 162 Ch Taunton (Rob App I 4) 10 gridbrice 163 Ch Taunton (Rob App 4) 16 gridbrice 164 Ch Taunton (Rob App I 4) 20 gridbrice 232 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 'Cyrt'cgrid n. nom. s. ciricgrid (cyricgrid) 165 Law VIII Atr 4 subj. of bean protection of church 166 Law Norgrid 8 subj. of bean fine for violation of right of sanctuary 167 Law VI Atr 14 subj. of wesan right of sanctuary (w/in) church 168 Law I Cn 3 subj. of wesan protection of chtueh 169 Law Grid 31.1 ” ” ” right of sanctuary (w/in) church 170 W Pol 2.1.1 206 subj. of wesan right of sanctuary (w/in) church 171 W P012.1.2 101 ” ” ” right of sanctuary (w/in) church 172 Law E Gu 1 subj. of standan sanctuary (w/in) church 173 Law I Cn 2.2 ” ” ” protection by church 174 Law Grid 2 ” ” ” right of sanctuary (w/in) church 175 Hom U 40 ” ” ” right of sanctuary (w/in) church 176 Hom U 41 ” ” ” sanctuary (w/in) church 177 W Pol 2.1.1 205 ” ” ” right of sanctuary (w/in) church 178 W Pol 2.1.2 100 ” ” ” right of sanctuary (w/in) church ace. 5. ciricgrid (cyricgrid) 179 Law VIII Atr 1.1 DO of abrecan violate protection of church 180 Law I Cn 2.3 ” ” ” violate protection of church 181 Law Northu 19 ” ” ” violate protection of church 182 Law VIII Atr 3 183 Law I Ch 2.5 D0 of betan 'Handgrid n. nom. s. handgrid 184 Law E Gu 1 subj. of standan 185 Law I Cn 2.2 ” ” ” 186 Law Grid 2 ” ” ” [amends for] violation of prot’n of church [amends for] violation of prot’n of church prot’n granted (by king) in person prot’n granted (by king) in person prot’n granted (by king) in person Cyricgrid. ‘church-grid,’ 6172-178, 6167, occurs in formulaic conjunction with ‘king’s hand-grid,’ 6184-190, 6191, respectively; translation: cyricgrid, right of sanctuary within the walls of a church, and cyninges handgrid, protection granted by king in person, shall remain equally inviolate. Handgrid. see note on cyricgrid. 233 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 187 Hom U 40 ” ” ” prot’n granted (by king) in person 188 Horn U 41 ” ” ” prot’n granted (by king) in person 189 W Pol 2.1.1 205 ” ” ” prot’n granted (by king) in person 190 W Pol 2.1.2 100 ” ” ” prot’n granted (by king) in person 191 Law VI Atr 14 subj. of wesan prot’n granted (by king) in person Gridleas dat. s. gridlease 192 W Hom 20.1 obj. of to: subj comp ofwesan (sanctuaries) are violated 193 WHom 20.2 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” (sanctuaries) are violated 194 W Hom 20.3 ” ” ” ” ” ” ” (sanctuaries) areviolated Hapax legomena: Hadgrid n. acc. s. hadgrid 195 Law Grid 19 DO of healdan CH—privilege re: peace of holy orders lenesgrid n. acc. s. hwlnesgrid 196 Law Grid 19 ” ” ” CH—peace privileges attaching to a sanctuary Gridlagu f. nom. s. gridlagu 197 Law Grid 9 subj. of standan Thorpe-‘grid’-law (stands) Ungrid dat. s. ungride 198 Ch 1098 obj. of on w/ standan (incur) enmity (of God) 201 items (with addition of items 153.1, 153.2, 159.5) APPENDIX B The Borg-words arranged by forms 234 Appendix B: Borg-words arranged by forms (nouns; verbs; compounds; hapax legomena) Item Short title Latin Word, or Latin Meaning OE Syntactic Function or OE Meaning Borg, m. [© = with purpose clause] nom. s. borg, barh, barah glossary item: Latin word: Latin meaning: ° 1 E Gram fenus glossed by barh interest 2 Cl 61 l farnus glossed by barh interest 3 Cl 61 3 fenus glossed by borg interest 4 Corp 61 2 farnus glossed by barh ' interest 5 H161 fenus usura; lucrum glossed by borg interest; money 6 Erf 61 l vas glossed by borg surety 7 Ep 61 vadimonium glossed by borg promise secured by vas (surety) ° 8 Cl 61 1 bux ?? glosses borg ?? OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 9 Law I Atr 1.7 subj. of gieldan surety 10 Law 111 Atr 6.2 ” ” ” surety 11 Law 11 C11 30.6 ” ” ” surety ° 12 Law 11 C11 20 subj. of gehealdan, geladan surety 13 Law 111 Eg 6 ” ” ” ” surety 14 Law III Eg 6.1 subj. of aberan surety 15 Law I Atr l subj. of healdan surety ° 16 Ch 1460 subj. of sweatalian surety 17 E Cath Horn 11 3 subj. compl. of wesan surety © 18 GD Pref 3(c) ” ” ” ” surety 1. Elfric’s Grammar is not a glossary, but the lists of words in paradigms seem to be most like that category of the four in use here; this one reads in part Sume habbad scartne a: tempus tima, temparis; ...nemus halt, nemaris,'fenus barh, fenaris etc. See also 124, 125. 8. Bux? same glossary as 145. 12. “Everyone shall be brought within a hundred and under surety, and his surety shall hold and bring him to the performance of every legal duty” (Robertson m; 184-85); see 37. 16. A charter drawn up by Wulfstan settling his dispute with Bishop Athelstan. 235 OE item: syntactic function: ° 19 Ch Peterbor subj. compl. of wesan 20 Law MI 1.8 ” ” ” ” nom. pl. borgas 21 Law V As Prol. 1.3 subj. of wesan acc. s. borg, barh OE meaning: surety surety sureties (pledges) Latin meaning: to lend on interest res credita glosses an borg geseald loaned things OE meaning: to find surety to find a surety to find surety © to find surety © to find a surety to find surety © to find a surety to find surety © interlinear gloss: Latin word: ° 22 Sed 61 2 venerantur [fenerantur] = borg gildad 23 Mt Gl (Ru) 5.42 mutuar glossed by niman an borg borrow glossary item: ° 24 Ant 6] 2 OE item: syntactic function: 25 Law E Cu 3 D0 of findan 26 Law 111 Eg 7 ” ” ” 27 Law VIII Atr 27 ” ” ” 28 Law I Cn 5.3 ” ” ” 29 Law 11 C11 25 ” ” ” 30 Law 11 Cu 36.1 ” ” ” 31 Law Grid 17 ” ” ” ° 32 W Pol 6.1 ” ” ” ° 33 Law Afl 3 DO of abrecan to violate protection 19. ba was him barah [list of names]: see 128, 132 for similar variant spelling, all from Peterborough Charter. 22. venerantur, i.e. fenerantur. 24. an barb is ‘as a loan’, so, “goods loaned or given as a loan” or “sold with surety”: all such transactions required a surety (see note to 37). According to the editors, the Latin term is in “a series of terms belonging to Roman law, which appears to be quite out of its place ...” in a glossary of Elfric (Wright and Willker 1.116). 32. “Winchester glossator: plegges ”—Wulfstan editor Jost’s note on this barh; OED gives ‘plege plegge’ as late Middle English fonns for ‘pledge.’ 33. This passage in Alfred’s Law (with items 73, 74, 75, 142) and 11 C11 58 (items 34, 35, 36) are the two passages in which borg is used as a synonym for mund. OE item: ° 34 Law 11 C11 58 ° 35 Law 11 C11 58.1 ° 36 Law II Cn 58.2 ° 37 Law 111 Eg 6 38 Law I Atr 1 39 Law I Atr 3 40 Law II Atr 9.1 41 Law II Ew 3.2 42 Law I Atr 4.1 43 Law II Cn 33.1 44 Law 11 C11 35 45 Law V Atr 20 46 Law VI Atr 25.2 47 Law 1 C11 17.3 48 Ch 1488 49 Horn M 11 50 Ch 1488 51 Law II Atr 8 52 Law 11 As 1.3 53 Law 11 As 6.1 54 Law VI As 12.2 55 Ch 1461 56 Law II Ew 3 57 Law II Ew 3.1 58 Law 11 As 7 59 Law VI As 12.2 60 Law 11 As 20.1 61 Law 11 As 20.4 236 syntactic function: D0 of abrecan 99 99 99 99 99 99 DO of habban 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 DO of nabban 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 DO of sculan 99 99 99 99 99 99 D0 of agieldan D0 of astandan D0 of fargiefan D0 of settan obj. of on w/ gan 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 obj. of on w/ gan obj. of on w/ niman 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 obj. of on w/ settan 99 99 99 99 99 34. King’s protection (see 73). 35. Archbishop’s or cedeling’s protection (see 74). 36. Bishop’s or ealdonnan’s protection (see 75). 37. “Every man shall see that he has a surety”—the basic legal concept here; see 12. OE meaning: to violate protection to violate protection to violate protection to have a surety to have a surety to have a surety to have security not to have security not to have surety not to have surety not to have surety owe a debt owe a debt owe a debt pay a debt endure a debt forgive a debt to fumish surety © to stand as smety © to stand surety © to stand surety to act as security to stand surety © to stand surety to stand surety to stand surety © to place under surety to place under surety OE item: ° 62 CP 28 ° 63 CP 13 64 Law 11 C11 20 65 Law VI As 1.4 66 Horn S 14 acc. p1. borgas 67 Law I Atr 1.5 68 Law 11 C11 30.3 ° 69 Th Cap 1 70 Ch 1489 gen. s. barges glossary item: ° 71 Ant 6] 2 ° 72 C161 1 OE item: ° 73 LawAfI3 ° 74 Law Af I 3.1 ° 75 Law Afl 3.2 76 Law Ine Rb 237 syntactic function: obj. of on w/ began obj. of on w/ beran obj. of on w/ bringan obj. of on w/ habban obj. of under w/ sellan D0 of settan D0 of asecan D0 of scyttan Latin word: inficiatia vel abiuratia = barges answc infictiatia et abiuratia = barges andsaca syntactic function: barges bryce w/ gebetan 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 barges andscec OE meaning: to pledge oneself [CH] to be responsible for to bring under surety to stand surety © to give under security to appoint sureties © to appoint sureties © to demand payment from debtors to pay debts Latin meaning: to deny a debt or to deny an oath to deny a debt or to deny an oath OE meaning: to pay compensation for violation of protection to pay comp. for vio’n of prot’n to pay comp. for vio’n of prot’n repudiation of bail 62. F ardazm du eart an borg began dinum friend Sweet translates as “because thou hast pledged thyself to thy friend.” 63. Sweet translates “let those consider how pure they ought to be who carry in their breasts the ever living vessels to the eternal temple on their own responsibility”; on him agenne borg here seems analogous to on his agenan barge in 90 and 91 below where the lord acts as surety for the men of his own household. . 69. The Latin version [elsewhere in the manuscript] of this passage and item 79 below confirm that what is being condemned here is demanding payment from a debtor on fast days; item 84, in the introduction to Alfred’s laws, condemns the same practice. 71, 72. see 76, 77: the same OE phrase is equivalent to the two Latin phrases. 73, 74, 75. see 33, 34, 35, 36, and 142. 238 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 77 Law Inc 41 barges adsacan to repudiate bail 78 Horn M 11 barges alcetan to pardon a debt gen. pl. barga ° 79 Th Cap 1 barga manian to make claims on debtors dat. s. barge interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: ° 80 Occ 6149 mutuum glossed by to barge borrower glossary items: ° 81 Ant 6] 2 Ipatheca glossed by feahltenung butan barge (OE: lending w/o surety) 82 C161 1 mutua glossed by barge loan 83 Cl 61 1 fenare glossed by barge interest OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: ° 84 Law Af E1 34.2 obj. of to w/ sellan to give as a loan, to lend 85 Mart 5 ” ” ” ” ” to give as a loan 86 Ps 36.25 ” ” ” ” ” to give as a loan 87 Ps 36.20 ” ” ” ” ” to give as a loan ° 88 Law Wif 6 obj. of to w/ fan to take possession of the ‘borh’ (deposit) ° 89 Law I Ew 1.5 obj. of to w/ settan to place under distraint 79. like 69, condemns demanding payment for a loan on fast days; see 84. 80. mutuum aj. m/n nom/acc s. ‘in exchange’; noun n. nom/acc s. something borrowed, obtained on loan. Prov. 22.10 in DOE fiche (22.7). 81. Ipatheca = pledge, security for a loan; £ng s.v. hypothec: “a security established by law in favor of a creditor over a subject belonging to his debtor, while the subject continues in the debtor’s possession.” Anglo-Saxon property transactions must have a borg, so one without a borg would be incomplete. In same list refened to in 24. 84. “If you give money as a loan to your friend who will live with you, do not press him as a needling and don’t oppress him with the interest.” 88. in this case, the barh was the deposit the bride’s family had made; & fa to barn barge se de dazs weddes waldend sy —and let him take possession of the ‘borh’ who has control of the ‘wed’ (Thorpe)- 89. to place under distraint is to put a claim on goods to get their value for a debt; forbidden by 11 C11 27 (Attenborough 204; Thorpe 68). 239 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: ° 90 Law II Cn 31 obj. of on w/ habban to be responsible as surety ° 91 Law I Atr 1.10 ” ” ” ” ” to be responsible as surety 92 Law H Cn 20 obj. of on w/ gebringan to bring under surety 93 Law 11 C11 33 obj. of under w/ gebringan to place under surety © 94 Law I Atr 4 obj. of under w/ gebringan to place under surety © 95 Law IV Eg 3 obj. of under w/ wesan to be under surety Barhgiend, m. nom. S. (barhgiend, borgiend, bargigend) interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: ° 96 PS 61 D 108.11 feneratar glossed by barhgiend lender, usurer 97 Ps 61 6 108.11 ” ” ” ” lender, usurer 98 Ps 61 K 108.11 ” ” ” ” lender, usurer 99 Occ 6150.1 (PS 108.11) ” ” ” ” lender, usurer 100 Ps 61 H 108.11 ” ” ” borgiend lender, usurer ° 101 PS 61 J 108.11 veneratar glossed by bargigend lender, usurer Verbs/verbals Bargian ° 102 PS 61 D 36.21 mutuatur glossed by bargad to borrow 103 PS 61 E 36.21 mutuatur glossed by bargad to borrow 104 PS 61 6 36.21 mutuabitur glossed by bargad to borrow 105 PS 61 H 36.21 mutuabitur glossed by bargad to borrow 106 PS 61 I 36.21 mutuabitur glossed by bargad to borrow 107 Ps 61 J 36.21 mutuabitur glossed by bargad to borrow 108 PS 61 K 36.21 mutuabitur glossed by bargad to borrow 109 Ald V l sequestra glossed by bargiendre female depositary, trustee 110 Ald V 13.1 sequestra glossed by bargiendre female depositary, trustee 90, 91 . see 63. 96. PS 108.1 1: Scruteturfeneratar amnem substantiam eius et diripiant alieni amnes labores eius. [Ascrudnie barhgiend ealle spede his & reafien fremde ealle geswinc his. 101. veneratar, i.e. feneratar. 102. PS 36.21: Mutuatur peccatar et non saluet iustus autem miseretur et cammadat. Bargad se synfulla agylt se ryhtwisa afearmad & alend. 240 glossary item: Latin word: Latin meaning: ° 111 PS 61 F 108.11 faeneratar glossed by bargiende w/ wesan to keep borrowing 112 C161 1 cammadarent glossed by bargedan to lend OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 113 Mt (WSCp) 5.42 borgian completes willan to want to borrow 114 PS 36.20 bargiad to borrow Abargian 115 Law Wif 1 & aborgian his frind dart. to guarantee 116 Law Wif 2 & hit aborgian his frynd. to guarantee 117 Law Wif 5 & aborgian frynd bet. to guarantee 118 Law 11 AS 20.5 abargie to act as surety 119 Ch 1211 aborgude wt Godan to borrow from Godan Onbargian ° 120 Ch 1387 anbargede wt Bearhnade to borrow from Beorhnod ° 121 Rec 28.4 anbargede at Bearhtnade to borrow from Beorhtnod Compounds Borhhand, fm. nom. s. borhhand, borhhand, baruhhand interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: '122 Occ 6149 fideiussar glossed by borhhand one who gives surety glossary item: 123 Ant 616 sponsor, prtes, fideiussar, vas, glossed by borhhand bondsman, surety 111. of the several versions here for PS 108.11, this one has syn hi bargiende ealle spede his “may they keep borrowing all his money” (‘they’ being the strangers of the verse’s second half) rather than ascrudnie barhgiend ealle speda his “may the usurer search all his substance.” 120, 121. onborgian used only in these 2 manuscript versions of the same charter. 122. Prov. 20.18 in DOE fiche (20.16). 241 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: ° 124 E Gram vas glossed by borhhand surety ° 125 E Gram praes glossed by borhhand surety OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: 126 Ch Peterbor subj. compl. w/ wesan security ° 127 Ch Peterbor ” ” ” ” surety ° 128 Ch Peterbor subj. compl. w/ wesan security 129 Ch Peterbor ” ” ” ” security 130 Ch Peterbor ” ” ” ” security nom. pl. borhhanda, baruhhanda 131 Ch Peterbor subj. compl. w/ wesan sureties ° 132 Hom S 49 ” ” ” ” sureties 133 LS 23 Mary of Eg. obj. of to security dat. s. barhhande interlinear gloss: Latin word: Latin meaning: '134 Occ 6149 vas glossed by barhhande surety Barggelda, m. nom. s. borggelda, barggylda 135 PS 61 A 108.11 feneratar glossed by borggelda lender, usurer 136 PS 61 B 108.11 feneratar glossed by borggelda lender, usurer 137 PS 61 C 108.11 feneratar glossed by barggylda lender, usurer dat. s. barggeldum, barhgeldum ° 138 PS Ca A l debitaribus glossed by barggeldum debtor ° 139 Hy 61 2 debitaribus glossed by barhgeldum debtor 124, 125. see 1. 127. Scandinavian festennen equivalent to, and used here interchangably with, borhhand. (Robertson Livs 330). 128. baruhhand in Peterborough Charter; see also 19, 132. 132. baruhhanda in Horn S 49 (Brot 2): Dedication of a Church [not seen]. See also 19, 128. 134. Prov. 22.41 in DOE fiche (22.26). 138, 139. same Latin hymn; OE slightly different. OE item: Bargbryce, m. nom. S. borgbryce 140 Law Inc 31 acc. s. borgbryce 141 Law Af I 1.8 dat. s. borgbryce ° 142 Law Af Rb 3 Barhfrest, adj. nom. s. barhfcest 143 LS 35 (Vit Patr) OE item: nom. pl. barhfceste 144 Chron D 1052 242 syntactic function: subj. of wesan D0 of betan object of be subj. compl. w/ wesan syntactic function: subj. compl. w/ wesan verb formed on adj: gebarhfcestan glossary item: ° 145 C161 1 Werbarg, m. OE item: acc. s. wcerbarh 146 Law II Em 7.2 147 Law Wer 3 dat. S. werborge 148 Law Wer 3 Inbarh, m. acc. S. inborh 149 Law II Ew 3.1 150 Law Duns 8 Latin word: intertiare ?? glossed by gebarhfrestan syntactic function: DO of findan 99 99 99 object of to DO of taberan D0 of settan 142. see also 33 (and 34, 35, 36; 73, 74, 75). 145. ? Could this possibly be inter + tuear watch, guard, protect? OE meaning: compensation for violation of surety compensation for violation of bail re: violation of king’s protection to be bound by pledge or surety OE meaning: to be bound by pledge or surety (OE: to bind by pledge or surety) OE meaning: to find surety for payment of wergeld to find surety for payment of wergeld as a surety for payment or wergeld to make security to place security 243 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: Gadbarg, m. gen. 8. gadbarges ° 151 Law Af I 33 w/ ancunnan a pledge under sanction of God dat. pl. gadbargum ° 152 Law Af Rb object of be re: pledge under the sanction of God Hapax legomena glossary item: Latin word: Latin meaning: Barggilefde nom./acc. s. 153 Corp 61 2 vadimonium glossed by borggilefde promise secured by vas (surety) Bargwedd, n. nom./acc. S. 154 Cl 61 2 vadimonium glossed by borgwed promise secured by vas (surety) OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: Barhleas, adj. acc. s. borhleas 155 Law 111 Atr 5 w/ habban to possess something w/o a surety Bargsarg, f. nom. s. ° 156 Rim 61 borgsorg bited anxiety about money-matters gnaws at one Lindgeborga nom. s. 151, 152. Gadbarg, occuning here only, “contrasted with mennisc borg [Af 1.8]” is “an appeal to God instead of a human surety” (Attenborough 196). 156. ‘borrow-sorrow’; E. 6. Stanley (in “Studies in the Prosaic Vocabulary of Old English Verse,” _NM 72: 402-3) considers whether the ms. burg sarg actually needed to be emended, then seems to concur with the editors’ good sense. 244 OE item: syntactic function: OE meaning: ° 157 Elene 11 Woes se leadhwata lindgebarga earlum arfcest. The valiant one was a protecting shield, respected by the nobles. N. B.: The burhbryce in 4 Atr 4.1 “can hardly be anything but a corruption of borgbryce (cf. Af 3)” (Robertson, Laws 325). This occurrence was discovered late and was not included in the word counts above. 157. Grein’s emendation from leadhwata lindgebarga to lindhwata leadgebarga (the shield- valiant one [was] a protector of the people) makes the best sense of the several suggestions in Krapp’s notes, ASPR II 132; however, I see no need to emend. APPENDIX 92 Locations of Words in the Titles of the Other Category 245 Appendix (2; Locations of Words in the Titles of the Other Category Short Title Mund-words Frid-words Grid-words Borg-words Total (Protection) (Protection- + Peace-sense)* [Surety + Debt]‘l' POETIC; Andreas 3 6+5 9+5 [2 hand] [1 set free] Beowulf 2 3+5 5+5 [10 hand] Capt 1 1+0 Christ A, B, C 3 5+2 8+2 D Alf 0+1 0+1 Daniel 6+0 6+0 Dream 1 1+0 Elene [1 hand] 2+2 2+2 Exodus 1+0 1+0 Exhort 1 1+0 Fates 0+1 0+1 Gen A, B 5 2+17 7+l7 [3 hand] Glor 1 1+0 1+0 Guth A, B 6 7+2 13+2 Hell 1 1+0 2+0 Judith 1 1+0 2+0 [1 hand] Juliana 3 1+1 4+1 Kt Ps 1 1+0 L Pr H 1 1+0 Maldon 1+2 0+1 1+3 Max I [1 hand] M Charm 1: 1+0 1+0 9: 1 1+0 *applies in frid, grid, and Total columns T[minor senses in brackets] 246 Short Title Mund-words Frid-words Grid-words Borg-words Total (Protection) (Protection- + Peace-sense)* [Surety + Debtl‘l' (Poetic, cont’d) M Charm 11: 2+0 2+0 Met Ep [1 hand] Meters 1+1 1+1 M Ps 1+0 1+0 Partridge 0+1 0+1 Phoenix [1 hand] 2+0 2+0 Paris Psalter 4 5+3 9+3 Resignation 1 1+0 2+0 Riddle 9: 1+1 1+1 15 [1 hand] 16: 1+0 1+0 17: 1 1+0 38: 1+0 1+0 59: 0+1 0+1 73: 0+1 0+1 87: [1 hand] 91: 1+0 1+0 Riming Poem 1+0 [1 debt] 1+0 Satan 1+0 1+0 Seasons 0+1 0+1 Widsith _ _0_+; _ _ 9+; Totals: 36 56+48 0+1 921-49 104 141 [22 hand] [1 set free] [1 debt] [24 items in minor senses] 165 total *applies in frid, grid, and Total columns Tlminor senses in brackets] 247 Short Title Mund-words Frid-words Grid-words Borg-words Total (Protection) (Protection- + Peace-sense)* [Surety + Debtl‘l' RELIGIOUS PROSE; Elfric; E Abus Mor 1 1+0 E C H I 19: 1 1+0 23 2 2+0 24. 1 1+0 26: 1 1+0 34 1 1+0 E C H II 3: [1 surety] 7: 1 1+0 10: 1+0 1+0 1 1: 1+0 1+0 E Gen Ep 0+3 0+3 E Gram [2 surety + 1 debt] E Horn 22 1+0 1+0 E Hom M 14: 0+2 0+2 15: 1 0+2 1+2 E Let 4 0+1 0+1 E L S Ab. & Sen. 0+1 0+1 Apoll. 1 0+1 1+1 Augs. 1 1+0 Eug’a 1 [1 free] 1+0 Macc’s 1 0+2 1+2 Mark 1 1+0 Martin 1+0 1+0 Preface 1 1+0 Sebas’n 1 1+0 Thomas 0+1 0+1 L S 8 (Eustace) 1 1+0 23 (Mary Eg.) 4 [1 surety] 4+0 *applies in fiid, grid, and Total columns 'l'[minor senses in brackets] 248 Short Title M and-words Frid-words Grid-words Borg-words Total (Protection) (Protection- + Peace-sense)* [Surety + Debt]'l' (Religious Prose, cont’d) Gregory; GD 1 (C) 3 3+0 (H) 1 1+0 2+0 GD 2 (C) 1 1+0 GD Pref 3 (C) 1 1+0 [1 surety] 2+0 GD Pref 4 (C) 2 [1 free] 2+0 CP 2+0 [2 surety] 2+0 Wulfstan; Conf. 1 1+0 W Can 1: 1+0 1+0 2: 1+0 1+0 W Hom 10¢: 2+0 2+0 19: 2 1+1 0+1 3+2 20.1: 1 2+0 3+0 20.2: 1 3+0 4+0 20.3: 1 3+0 4+0 Horn U 38: 1 1+0 40: 2 1+3 3+0 6+3 41: 0+2 2+0 2+2 48: 1+0 0+1 1+1 WP012.1.1: 1 2+1 7+0 10+1 2.1.2: 1 1+1 7+0 9+1 6.1: [1 surety] 6.2 1 1+0 *applies in frid, grid, and Total columns 1'[minor senses in brackets] 249 Short Title Mund-words F rid-words Grid-words Borg-words (Protection) (Protection- + Peace-sense)* [Surety + Debt]'l‘ (Religious Prose, cont’d) Anonymous; Ben Rule W 1+0 Horn M 1: 1 1 l: Hom S 7: 1+0 14: 25: 0+1 39: 1 40.1: 1+0 [2 free] 40.2: [1 free] 40.3: 1+0 [2 free] 47: 1+0 49: Horn U 3: 1+0 27: 1+0 35.2: [1 hand] 37: 1+0 L S 12: 1 18.1: 1 18.2 : 2 24: 1 1+0 25: 2 28. 0+1 29: 32: l 35: 1 Lit 4.2 1+0 Mart 5 1 1+0 [1 hand] ThCap [2 debt] [1 surety] [l surety] 0+1 1+0 [1 surety] [1 debt] [2 debt] Total 1+0 1+0 1+0 0+1 1+0 1+0 1+0 1+0 1+0 1+1 1+0 1+0 1+0 2+0 2+0 2+0 0+1 1+0 1+0 1+0 1+0 2+0 250 Short Title Mund-words Frid-words Grid-words Borg-words Total (Protection) (Protection- + Peace-sense)* [Surety + Debt]1' (Religious Prose, cont’d) Totals: 53 27+23 30+3 1 10+26 50 33 136 [2 hand] [7 free] [11 surety [26 items + 6 debt] in minor senses] 162 total BIBLE TRANSLATIONS; Genesis 1+0 1+0 Genesis (Ker) 1+0 1+0 Joshua 1+3 1+3 Judges 0+1 0+1 Psalms (prose psalter) 10+0 101-0 [24 free] [3 debt] Ps Heading 1 1+0 2+0 [4 free] Mt (WSCp) [l debt] Mt Marg (Li) _ _Oi __ __ _0+_1 Totals: 1 l4+5 15+5 19 20 [28 free] [4 debt] [32 items in minor senses] 52 total *applies in frid, grid, and Total columns 1‘[minor senses in brackets] 251 Short Title M and-words Frid-words Grid-words Borg-words Total (Protection) (Protection- + Peace-sense)* [Surety + Debt]'l‘ MISCELLANEOUS; Boethius 1 4+0 5+0 Byrhtferth’s M 1 1+0 Lch I (Herb) 1+0 1+0 Prog. 4 0+1 0+1 Prog. 5.1 0+1 0+1 Record 10.8 1 1+0 28.4 [1 debt] Rev’l Monast. _ M _ _ fl Totals: 3 7+1 0+1 10+2 8 12 [1 debt] [1 minor sense item] 13 total SUMMARY; Poetic 36 56+48 0+1 0 92+49 104 1 141 Religious 53 27+23 30+3 0 l 10+26 Prose 50 33 0 136 Bible trans. 1 14+5 0 0 15+5 19 20 misc. 3 7+1 0+1 0 10+2 __ __8_ _1_ _ _42 Totals: 92 104+77 30+5 0 227+82 181 35 309 [minor sense: 24 hand; 36 free; 11 surety, 12 debt] fl *applies in frid, grid, and Total columns Grand Total, items in Other category 392 1‘[minor senses in brackets] BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS CONSULTED Editions: Dictionaries: Linguistics, Lexicography, Semantics: Word Studies: Laws and Legal Topics: History: Individual Authors: Elfric Alcuin Aldhelm Alfred Bede Gregory Wulfstan Individual Works and Miscellaneous Books/Articles: Short Titles for Old English Texts Cited: 252 25 3 259 259 261 263 264 264 265 265 265 266 266 266 267 269 253 Editions: Amgart, Olaf 8., ed. The Durham Proverbs. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift, N.F. Avd. 1, Bd. 52, Nr. 2. Lund, 1956. ASPR (Anglo-Saxon Poetic Record, vol. 1-6), see Dobbie, Elliot Van K.; Krapp, George P.; and Krapp, G. P. and E. V. K. Dobbie. Assmann, Bruno, ed. Angelsiichsische Homilien und Heiligenleben. 1889. Rpt. with intro. by Peter Clemoes. Dannstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1964. Bately, Janet, ed. The Old English Orosius. EETS 5.8. 6. London: Oxford UP, 1980. Belfour, Algernon 0., ed. Twelfth-Century Homilies in MS. Bodley 343. EETS 137. London: Oxford UP, 1909. Bethurum, Dorothy, ed. The Homilies of Wulfstan. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957. Birch, Walter de 6., ed. Cartularium Saxonicum: A Collection of Charters Relating to Anglo-Saxon Histog. 3 vols. 1885-99. New York: Johnson Reprint, 1964. Brenner, Edouard, ed. Der altenglische Junius-Psalter. Anglistische Forschungen 23. Heidelberg: Winter, 1908. Brotanek, Rudolf, ed. Texte und Untersuchungen zur altenglischen Literatur und Kirchengeschichte. Halle: Niemeyer, 1913. Campbell, A. P., ed. The Tiberius Psalter. Ottawa: U of Ottawa P, 1974. Campbell, Jackson J. “Prayers from MS. Arundel 155.” mm 81 (1963): 82-117. Classen, Ernest, and Florence E. Harmer, eds. An Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1926. Cockayne, Thomas 0., ed. LeechdomsI Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early England. Rolls Series 35. 3 vols. London, 1864-66. Crawford, Samuel 1., ed. Bflhtferth’s Manual EETS 177. London: Oxford UP, 1929. 254 ---,ed. The Old English Version of the Heptateuch: Elfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis. EETS 160. London: Oxford UP, 1922. Dobbie, Elliot Van K., ed. The Anglo-Saxon Minor Poems. ASPR 6. New York: Columbia UP, 1942. ---, ed. Beowulf and Judith. ASPR 4. New York: Columbia UP, 1953. Earle, John, ed. A Hand-Book to the Land-Charters and Other Saxonic Documents. Oxford, 1888. Fdrster, Max. Zur Geschichte des Religuienkultus in Altengland. Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil-Hist. Abt., Jahrgang 1943, 8. Munich, 1943. Fowler, Roger G. “A Late Old English Handbook for the Use of a Confessor.” Angli_a 83 (1965): 1-34. ---, ed. Wulfstan’s Canons of Edgar. EETS 266. London: Oxford UP, 1972. Godden, Malcolm, ed.. Elfric’s Catholic Homilies: The Second Series Text. EETS 5.5. 5. London: Oxford UP, 1979. Goosens, Louis, ed. The Old English Glosses of MS. Brussels, Royal Libragy 1650. Brussels: Paleis der Academien, 1974. Grattan, John H. 6., and Charles Singer. Anglo-Saxon Magic and Medicine. Publications of the Wellccme Historical Medical Museum us. 3. London: Oxford UP, 1952. Hale, W. C. “An Edition and Codicological Study of CCCC MS. 214.” Diss. U. of Pennsylvania, 1978. Harmer, Florence E., ed. Anglo-Saxon Writs. 2nd ed. Stamford: P. Watkins, 1989. ---, ed. Select English Historical Documents of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. 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Sammlung englischer Denkmiiler 1. Berlin, 1880. ---. “Kentische Glossen des neunten Jahrhunderts.” ZfdA 21 (1877): 1-59. Dictionaries: American Heritage Dictionagy of the English Language. 1973 ed. Bosworth, Joseph, and T. Northcote Toller. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionagy. London, 1898. Supplement. T. Northcote Toller. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921. Enlarged Addenda and Corrigenda. Alistair Campbell. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. Clark Hall, John R. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionag. 1894. 4th ed. with a Supplement. Herbert D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1970. Holthausen, Ferdinand. Altenglisches Etymologisches Wt'irterbuch. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: Winter, 1963. Oxford English Dictionag. 1979 ed. White, John T. Latin Dictionag. Chicago: Follett, 1941. Linguistics, Lexicography, Semantics: Bammesberger, Alfred, ed. Problems of Old English Lexicography: Studies in Memog of Angus Cameron. Regensburg: F. Pustet, 1985. Frank, Roberta, and Angus Cameron, eds. 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Green, Dennis H. The Carolingian Lord; Semantic Studies on Four Old High German Words: Balder Fro Truhtin Hérro. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1965. Healey, Antonette diPaolo, and Richard L. Venezky. A Microfiche Concordance to Old English. Toronto: Dictionary of Old English Project, 1980. Holthausen, Ferdinand. See above under Dictionaries. Hoops, Johannes. Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Strasburg: Triibner, 1911-13. Kjellrner, 6. Middle English Words for ‘People.’ Gothenburg Studies in English 27. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1973. Kotzor, 6. “Wind and Weather: Semantic Analysis and the Classification of Old English Lexemes.” Problems of Old English Lexicography: Studies in Memogy of Angus Cameron. Ed. A. Bammesberger. Regensburg: Pustet, 262 1985. 175-95. Kroesch, Samuel. “Semasiological Development of Words for ‘Perceive’ etc. in the Older Germanic Dialects.” _hfl 8 (1911): 461-510. Kuhlwein, Wulfgang. 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Eine Kommnentanalyse irn verbal- und situationskontextuellen Bereichnungen ffir ‘Herr’ und ‘Gebieter’ in der altenglischen Poesie. AF 103. Heidelberg: Winter, 1974. Wilcox, Jonathon. “Famous Last Words.” Four Last Things: Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell in the Middle Ages. Ed. A. J. Frantzen. Chicago: Illinois Medieval Association, 1994. 1-14. 263 Laws and Legal Topics: Attenborough, Frederick L, ed.. The Laws of the Earliest English Kings. 1922. New York: AMS Press, 1974. Humard, Naomi D. “Anglo-Norman Franchises.” E_HR 64 (1949): 289-327; 433-60. Jolliffe, J. E. A. The Constitutional Histog of Medieval England. 4th ed. London: A. & C. Black, 1961. Liebermann, Felix. See above under Editions. Pollock, Frederick. “Anglo-Saxon Law.” EH_R_ 8 (1893): 239-71. ---. “The King’s Peace.” Oxford Lectures and Other Discourses. London, 1890. Pollock, Frederick, and Frederick W. Maitland. The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward 1. 2nd ed. 1898. Reissued with new intro. and biblio. by S. F. C. Milsom. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1968. Richards, Mary. “The Manuscript Contexts of the Old English Laws: Tradition and Innovation.” Studies in Earlier Old English Prose. Ed. Paul E. Szarmach. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1986. 171-92. Richardson, Henry 6., and George 0. Sayles. Law and Legislation from Ethelberht to Magna Carta. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1966. Robertson, Agnes J. See above under Editions. Ullmann, Walter. The Church and the Law in the Earlier Middle Ages. London: Variorum Reprints, 1975. ---. The Individual and Society in the Middle Ages. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966. ---. Principles of Government and Politics in the Middle Ages, New York: Barnes and Noble, 1961. Whitelock, Dorothy. See below under Individual Writers: Wulfstan. 264 History: Campbell, James, gen. ed. The Anglo-Saxons. Oxford: Phaidon, 1982. Chaney, William A. The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. Berkeley: U of California P, 1970. Hill, David. An Atlas of Anglo-Saxon Epgmd. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1981. Loyn, Henry R. The Governance of Anglo-Saxon England 500 - 1087. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1984. ---. “The King and the Structure of Society in Late Anglo-Saxon England.” H_is_to_ry 42 (1957): 87-100. Sawyer, Peter H., and Ian N. Wood, eds. Early Medieval Kingship. University of Leeds: University Printing Service, 1977. Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. ---. Early Medieval Histog. Oxford: Blackwell, 1975. Wormald, Patrick, ed. Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society: Mics Presented to J. M. Wallace-Hadrill. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983. Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Revised Translation. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 1961. ---, ed. English Historical Documents Vol. 1: c. 500-1042. 2nd ed. London: Methuen, 1979. ---. Histogy, Law, and Literature in Tenth- and Eleventh-Century England. London: Variorum Reprints, 1981. Individual Writers: Elfric: Gatch, Milton McC. Preaching and Theology in Anglo-Saxon England: Elfric and Wulfstan. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1977. 265 Greenfield, Stanley. “Elfric and Wulfstan.” Old English Literature: Twenty-Two Analytical Essays. Ed. Martin Stevens and Jerome Mandel. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1968. Hurt, James. flip. Twayne’s English Author Ser. 131. New York: Twayne, 1972. Reinsma, Luke M. Elfric: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1987. Alcuin: Godman, Peter, ed. Alcuin: The Bishops, Kings, and Saints of York. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. Aldhelm: Goosens, Louis. See above under Editions. Lapidge, Michael, and James L. Rosier, trans. Aldhelm: The Poetic Works. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985. Lapidge, Michael, and Michael W. Herren, trans. Aldhelm: The Prose Works. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1979. Alfred: Fox, 8., ed. King Alfred’s Version of Boethius’ De Consolatione Philosophiae. 1864. New York: AMS Press, 1970. Frantzen, A. J. King Alfred. Twayne’s English Author Ser. 425. Boston: Twayne, 1986. Giles, J. A. The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great, vol. 2. 1858. New York: AMS Press, 1969. Loyn, Henry R. Alfred the Great. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1967. 266 Bede: Brown, George H. Bede the Venerable. Twayne’s English Author Ser. 443. Boston: Twayne, 1987. Carroll, Thomas Acquinas, (sister). The Venerable Bede: His Spiritual Teachings. Washington, DC: Catholic U. of America Press, 1946. Colgrave, Bertram, ed. Bede’s Ecclesiastical Histog of the English People. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969. Meyvaert, Paul. Bede and Gregopy the Great (Jarrow Lecture, 1964). Newcastle upon Tyne: Bealls, 1966. Gregory: Dudden, F. Homes. Gregogy the Great: His Place in Histog and Thought. 2 vols. London: Longmans, 1905. Gregory, St. Morals on the Book of Job by St. Gregog the Great. Trans. by members of the English Church. A Librag of Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church Anterior to the Division of the East and West. Oxford, 1844. Hecht, Hans. See above under Editions. Meyvaert, Paul. See above under Bede. Richards, Jeffrey. Consul of God: The Life and Times of Gregopy the Great. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980. Zimmerman, O. J., trans. Saint Gregogy the Great: Dialogues. Vol. 39. The Fathers of the Church: A New Translation. New York: Fathers of the Church, 1959. Wulfstan: Bethurum, Dorothy. “Episcopal Magnificence in the Eleventh Century.” Studies in Old English Literature in Honor of Arthur G. Brodeur. Ed. Stanley B. Greenfield. Eugene: U of Oregon Books, 1963. 162-70. 267 ---. “Six Anonymous Old English Law Codes.” @613 49 (1950): 449-63. Gatch, Milton. See above under Elfric. Greenfield, Stanley. See above under Elfric. Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. Sermo Lupi Ad Anglos. 3rd ed. Methuen’s Old English Library. London: Methuen, 1963. ---. “Wulfstan Cantor and Anglo-Saxon Law.” Nordica et Anglica: Studies in I-Ion_orof_S._l-3imso_n. Hague: Mouton, 1967. ---. “Wulfstan and the Laws of Cnut.” EHR 63 (1948): 433-452. ---. “Wulfstan and the So-Called Laws of Edward and Guthrum.” EHR 56 (1941): 1-21. Individual Works and Miscellaneous Books/Articles: “The Acts of Andrew and Matthias in the City of the Man-Eaters.” The Ante- Nicene Fathers: Translations of the Writings of the Fathers Down to AD. 325. Vol. 8. Ed. A. Roberts and J. Donaldson. New York: Scribners, 1899. 517-25. Allen, Michael J. B., and Daniel 6. Calder. Sources and Analogues of Old English Poetgy: The Major Latin Texts in Translation. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1976. Anderson, J. J. “The Cube Falme in Beowulf.” Neophilologus 67 (1983): 126-130. Bethurum, Dorothy. “The Connection of the Katherine Group with Old English Prose.” [1132 34 (1935): 553-64. Chambers, Raymond W. “On the Continuity of English Prose from Alfred to More and His School.” Nicholas Happsfield’s Life of Sir Thomas More. Ed. E. V. Hitchcock and R. W. Chambers. EETS 0.8. 191. London: Oxford UP, 1932. Donaldson, E. T., trans. Beowulf. New York: Norton, 1966. Gordon, Robert K., trans. Anglo-Saxon Poetg. London: Dent, 1970. Harris, Anne Leslie. “Hands, Hehns, and Heroes: The Role of Proper Names in 268 Beowulf.” Neuphilologische Mitteillungen 83 (1982): 414-421. Irving, Edward B, Jr. “A Reading of Andreas: The Poem as Poem.” Anglo-Saxon England 4 (1983): 215-237. Klaeber, Frederick, ed. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. 3rd ed. Lexington, Mass: D. C. Heath, 1950. Mason, Lawrence, ed. Genesis A. New York: Holt, 1915. Quinn, Karen J ., and Kenneth P. Quinn. A Manual of Old English Prose. New York: Garland, 1990. Roberts, Jane. The Guthlac Poems of the Exeter Book. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. Robinson, Fred C. “Some Aspects of the Maldon Poet’s Artistry.” ,IEGP 75 (1976): 25-40. Rosier, James L. “The Uses of Association: Hands and Feasts in Beowulf.” PM 78 (1963): 8-14. Tester, S. J ., trans. Boethius: The Consolation of Philosophy. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1978. Weil, Susanne. “Grace Under Pressure: ‘Hand-Words,’ Wyrd, and Free Will in Beowulf.” ,[oumal of Pacific Coast Philology 24 (1989): 94-104. SHORT TITLES FOR OLD ENGLISH TEXTS CITED (Following Mitchell et al., “Short Titles of Old English Texts” and Healey and Venezky, Microfiche Concordance to Old English; fuller information on editions used may be found in Healey and Venezky.) SHORT TITLE COMMON TITLE Aldhelm, De laude virginitatis (Latin prose glossed in Old English) AldV 1 Old English glosses on Aldhelm’s AldV 3.1 De laude virginitatis; different AldV 3.2 numbers indicate different AldV 7.1 manuscript sources. AldV 9 AldV 12 AldV 13.1 AldV 14 And Andreas (vol. 2) AntGl Antwerp Glossary ArPrGl Arundel Prayer Gloss 269 Elfric: EAbuSMor ECHom I ECHom II EGenEp EGram EHom EHomM 14 EHomM 15 ELet 4 ELS Bede BenRW Beo Bo BoGl Ber 1 Capt 270 De duodecim abusivis (ed. Morris) Catholic Homilies, First Series (ed. Thorpe) Catholic Homilies, Second Series (ed. Godden) Epilogue to Genesis Elfric’s Grammar Homilies, Supplementary Collection (ed. Pope) Homily on Esther (ed. Assman) Homily on Judith (ed. Assman) Letter to Sigeweard Elfric’s Lives of the Saints (ed. Skeat) Ecclesiastical Histogy of the English People (ed. Miller) Benedictine Rule, Winteney Version Beowulf (ASPR vol. 4) Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy Boethius Gloss Byrhtferth’s Manual The Capture of the Five Boroughs (ASPR vol. 6) 271 Charters in English (with number assigned in Sawyer 1968; editor and number in edition, in parentheses) Ch 300 (Birch 459) Ch 325 (Birch 493) Ch 327 (Birch 502) Ch 357 (Robertson 13) Ch 424 (Birch 699) Ch 457 (Birch 647) Ch 499 (Birch 794, MS. B) Ch 663 (Birch 1002) Ch 783 (Birch 1277) Ch 985 (Harmer 26) Ch 986 (Harmer 28) Ch 1028 (Harmer Appendix 2) Ch 1033 (Rose-Troup) Ch 1036 (Kemble 813) Ch 1047 (Robertson 95) Ch 1064 (Harmer 2) Ch 1065 (Harmer 4) Ch 1067 (Harmer 7) Ch 1078 (Harmer 18) Ch 1084 (Harmer 24) Ch 1088 (Harmer 33) Ch 1089 (Harmer 34) Ch 1091 (Harmer 38) Ch 1093 (Harmer 40) Ch 1094 (Harmer 41) Ch 1095 (Harmer 42) Ch 1098 (Harmer 45) 272 Ch 1100 (Harmer 47) Ch 1109 (Harmer 61) Ch 1110 (Harmer 62) Ch 1118 (Harmer 74) Ch 1121 (Harmer 77) Ch 1125 (Harmer 81) Ch 1126 (Harmer 82) Ch 1127 (Harmer 83) Ch 1129 (Harmer 85) Ch 1142 (Harmer 98) Ch 1146 (Harmer 102) Ch 1148 (Harmer 104) Ch 1149 (Harmer 105) Ch 1150 (Harmer 106) Ch 1151 (Harmer 109) Ch 1152 (Harmer 110) Ch 1162 (Harmer in Clemoes) Ch 1165 (Birch 34) Ch 1211 (Harmer 1914 #23) Ch 1232 (Robertson 113) Ch 1387 (Napier and Stevenson 4) Ch 1447 (Robertson 44) Ch 1460 (Robertson 83) Ch 1461 (Robertson 77) Ch 1477 (Kemble 844) Ch 1482 (Harmer 1914 #2) Ch 1486 (Whitelock 15) Ch 1488 (Whitelock 18) Ch 1489 (Whitelock 26) Ch 1490 (Whitelock 28) 273 Ch 1501 (Whitelock 16/1) Ch 1510 (Robertson 6) Ch 1521 (Whitelock 29) Ch 1525 (Whitelock 37-38) Ch 1531 (Whitelock 31) Ch 1536 (Whitelock 17) Ch 1608 (Hart) Ch 1622 (Somner) Ch IHen (Birch) Ch IHen (BLAdd 29436) Ch IHen (Gibbs 23) Ch IHen (PROI907 10) Ch IHen (Somner) Ch IWm (Davis 7) Ch IWm (Dugdale 6) Ch IWm (Dugdale 39W) Ch IWm (Hardwick) Ch IWm (Hunt 2) Ch IWm (PROI907 3) Ch IWm (PROI908 2) Ch IIWm (Gibbs 9) Ch Peterbor (Robertson 40) Ch Steph (PROI912 2) Ch Taunton (Robertson Appendix I ) Ch Head 165 (Birch 339) [Charter Heading] ChristA,B,C ChronA ChronC ChronD ChronE ClGl Conf CorpGl CP CuthGl DAlf Dan Dream DurProv DurRitGl El EpGl ErfGl Ex Exhort Fates GD GDPref 2 GDPref and 3 GDPref and 4 274 gm (ASPR vol. 3) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A-Text (The Parker Chronicle) C-Text D-Text E-Text Cleopatra Glossary Handbook for the Use of a Confessor Corpus Glossary Gregory the Great, Pastoral Care Gloss on Bede’s Vita S. Cuthberti (verse) The Death of Alfred (ASPR vol. 6) Daniel (ASPR vol. 1) Dream of the Rood (ASPR vol. 2) Durham Proverbs Durham Ritual, Gloss m (ASPR vol. 2) Epinal Glossary Erfurt Glossary Em (ASPR vol. 1) An Exhortation to Christian Living (ASPR vol. 6) The Fates of the Apostles (ASPR vol. 2) Gregory the Great, Dialogues Dialogues, Pref. to Bk. 2 Pref. and Bk. 3 Pref. and Bk. 4 Gen GenA,B Glor I GuthA,B Hell HIGI HomFr I Miscellaneous Homilies: HomM 1 HomM 11 HomS 7 HomS 14 1101118 25 1101118 39 HomS 40.1 HomS 40.2 HomS 40.3 HomS 47 HomS 49 HomU 3 HomU 27 HomU 35.2 HomU 37 HomU 38 HomU 40 HomU 41 HomU 48 275 Genesis (Old English Bible) Genesis (verse; ASPR vol. 1) The Gloria (ASPR vol. 6) Guthlac (ASPR vol. 3) The Descent into Hell (ASPR vol. 3) Harley Glossary Homiletic Fragment (ASPR vol. 2) IinH Josh Jud Judg Jul KTPS 276 Hymn Gloss ,[o_sh_up (Old English Bible) Jprmh (verse; ASPR vol. 4) Egg (Old English Bible) Ju_liarfi (ASPR vol. 3) Psalm 50 (ASPR vol. 6) Laws of England (all from Liebermann, GdA) LawAbt LawAfEl LawAbe LawAf 1 LawAGu LawIAtr LawIIAtr LawIIIAtr LawVAtr LawVIAtr LawVIIIAtr LanAtr LawIIAs LawIVAs LawVAsProl LawVIAs Laan 1020 LawICn LawIICn LawDuns LawIIIEg LawIVEg Ethelberht Alfred-Inc (Introduction to Alfred) Alfred-Inc (Headings to Alfred) Alfred-Inc (Alfred) Alfred and Guthrum I Ethelred II Ethelred III Ethelred V Ethelred VI Ethelred VIII Ethelred X Ethelred II Ethelstan IV Ethelstan V Ethelstan (Prologue) VI Ethelstan Cnut, 1020 I Cnut II Cnut Dunsaete III Eadgar IV Eadgar LawEGu LawIIEm Laprisc LawIEw LawIIEw LawGer LawGebyncdo LawGrid LawHad Lale Lawlne LawIneRb LawNorgrid LawNorthu LawPax LawRect LawWer Law Wi LawWif Lch I (Herb) Lit 4.2 Lit 5.9.2 Lit 6.1 L016] 1 (Grattan-Singer) LPrII 277 Edward and Guthrum II Eadmund Episcopus I Edward 11 Edward Gerefa Gebyncdo Grid Hadbot Hlothmre and Eadtic Alfred-Inc (Ine) Alfred-Inc (Headings to Ine) Nordhymbra cyricgrid Nordhymbra preosta lagu Pax Rectitudines Wer Wihtrted Wifmannes beweddung Pseudo-Apuleius: Herbarius Bidding Prayers Rubrics and Directions for the Use of Forms of Service On Alleluia 141mg of Gildas, Gloss The Lord’s Prayer 11 (ASPR vol. 6) 278 Lives of Saints, author unknown: LS 8 (Eustace) L8 12 (Nativity of John the Baptist) LS 18.1 (Nativity of Mary) LS 18.2 (Nativity of Mary) LS 23 (Mary of Egypt) LS 24 (Michael) LS 25 (Michael) LS 28 (Neot) LS 29 (Nicholas) LS 32 (Peter & Paul) L8 35 (Vitas Patrum) Mald The Battle of Maldon (ASPR vol. 6) Mart Martyrology Max I Maxims I (ASPR vol. 3) MCharm 1 Metrical Charm for Unfruitful Land (ASPR vol. 3) MCharm 9 Metrical Charm for Loss of Cattle (ASPR vol. 3) MCharm 11 A Journey Charm (ASPR vol. 3) MEp Metrical Epilogue [to Bede’s fl] Met The Meters of Boethius (ASPR vol. 5) MP5 Metrical Psalms 90.15 - 95.2 Mt(WSCp) Matthew, West Saxon version MtGl (Li) The Lindisfame Gospels (Mt) MtGl (Ru) The Rushworth Gospels (Mt) MtMarg (Li) The Lindisfame Gospels (Marginalia to Mt.) Occasional Glosses: OccGl 45.4 OccGl 49 OccGl 50. 1.2 Or OrHead Part Phoen PPS Prog PS PSCaA PsCaG Psalter Glosses PsGlA PsGlB PsGlC PsGlD PsGlE PsGlF PsGsG PsGlH PsGlI PsGlJ PsGlK PsHead 279 to Bede’s _I-E to Bible, Proverbs to Bible, Psalms Orosius Orosius Headings The Partridge (ASPR vol. 3) The Phoenix (ASPR vol. 3) The Paris Psalter ASPR vol. 5) Prognostics ’ Psalms 1-50 (ed. Thorpe) Vespasian Psalter Canticles Vitellius Psalter Canticles Vespasian Psalter Junius Psalter Cambridge Psalter RegiuS Psalter Canterbury Psalter Stowe Psalter Vitellius Psalter Tiberius Psalter Lambeth Psalter Arundel Psalter Salisbury Psalter Psalter Headings Records: Rec 6.10 Rec 10.8 Rec 28.4 RegCGl Res RevMon Rid Rim Sat Seasons SedGl ThCap 1 Vitas Patrum Wid Wulfstan: WCan WHom WPol 280 Christ Church, Canterbury, Writ of William I Exeter, List of Relics Crediton, Pledge of Eadnoth Regularis Concordia, Gloss Resignation (ASPR vol. 3) Revival of Monasticism Riddles, (ASPR vol. 3) The Riming Poem (ASPR vol. 3) Christ and Satan (ASPR vol. 1) The Seasons for Fasting (ASPR vol. 6) Sedulius, Carmen Paschale Theodulf of Orleans, Capitula see L8 35 m1; (ASPR vol. 3) Canons of Edgar, (ed. Fowler) Homilies (ed. Bethurum) Institutes of Polity (ed. Jost)