,llilllllllllll : r. This is to certify that the dissertation entitled An Investigation into Women's Cognitive Orientations to Leadership presented by MARY KAREN BROWN has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph .D degreein Education jor professor Date 2 flat flS“ MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 Mfl-M'V’. r awe 1 . lamrwg 1“ " “a e Uptwerslty PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove We checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or More dete due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE £- MSU Ie An Afflmetlve Action/Ewe] Opportunity Inetltutlon Wane-9.1 ”TOUGH H1 in Partial Della ruler AN INVESTIGATION INTO WOMEN'S COGNITIVE ORIENTATIONS TO LEADERSHIP By Mary Karen Brown A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1994 AN I}? The purpos,‘ .1 an”; i «E yuan‘tlve Or he :::f\nc e U‘~ 5‘3 by 24 w: e.. " -:\ ‘3E*~a . .‘al 1' n 3b. N: ‘l\ . e ‘Nfiq new s.' ”a? “k e X“ ' k' 352': >.. ” s .~e;i \ ve ( ~. 1 "$.15, 1‘ M. . koat) El 13a‘b ‘Q‘t 3~t .{ka E‘a its: it: . e to t 1: I e ‘19 c3t Q: l ABSTRACT AN INVESTIGATION INTO WOMEN'S COGNITIVE ORIENTATIONS TO LEADERSHIP BY MARY KAREN BROWN The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the cognitive orientations and underlying value systems espoused by 24 women leaders chosen from senior, middle and first line administrative positions in community college settings. Within the framework of Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model, the study describes the level of cognitive complexity demonstrated by these women in terms of their cognitive models of preference, and their overall preferred cognitive perspectives. The study also examined selected factors identified in the reviewed literature as being influential in the formation of one's values, beliefs and assumptions (i.e., socialization patterns, educational level, work experience, gender mix in referent groups and level in the organizational hierarchy). The design of this study used a combination of both qualitative (interview) and quantitative (Prism 1 instrument) elements. Statistical analysis was conducted using a two—tailed ANOVA at the p=.05 level of significance. Data from.this study indicated that these women leaders were able to draw on a number of different cognitive models, each reflective of distinct cognitive values and associated beliefs and behaviours. In contrast to Quinn's (1988) f l finding that 19' tenant cognit mfermce for nth the Human 3‘ the Open Sys netted. The vai tress Hodel w alsc demonstrate PEISPective dire twards 'control finally, M. that the middle I “minus in th« I“ 4.2 Stewed GIOU 111111? in the .fi finding that leaders demonstrate a preference for one dominant cognitive model, these women demonstrated an equal preference for the values, beliefs and practices associated with the Human Relations Model and the Rational Goal Model or the Open System Model depending on data collection method. The values, beliefs and practices of the Internal Process Model were least preferred. These women leaders also demonstrated a preference for an overall cognitive perspective directed towards ”flexibility” over one oriented towards ”control”. Finally, ANOVA results for the interview data indicated that the middle level women leaders tended to select behaviours in the Open System Model more frequently than the other two management groups, and that women leaders in the first line group selected behaviours more frequently in the Human Relations Model. In addition, women leaders in the Male Skewed Groups tended to select behaviours more frequently in the Rational Goal Model than the women in the other two gender ratio subgroups. Copyright by MARY KAREN BROWN 1994 e '1 1" h: .. $.231rt Shand Ca 35335 enCC iv To my husband David and my son Mark who provide the love, support and encouragement that enables me to follow my dreams. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge several important sources of financial, administrative, intellectual and collegial support in completing this dissertation. I am grateful to Mohawk College, Hamilton, Ontario; the Educational Centre for Aging and Health (ECAH), McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario; and the Department of Educational Administration, Michigan State University for funding that supported portions of my program of studies and/or this research project. I would like to thank Kathryn M. Moore, Ph.D., my dissertation advisor who directed this study and provided intellectual guidance and moral support through every stage of its development. Special thanks also to David Brown and Barbara Reeves who edited the manuscript before submission, and to Lauren Griffith for her assistance with the statistical analysis. Finally, to the women leaders who participated in this study and shared their beliefs and practices about their leadership with me, I give my heartfelt thanks. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS page List of Tables x List of Figures xii Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Statement of Problem 1 Purpose of Study 4 Overview of Interpretive Framework 4 Research Questions 5 Implicit Beliefs about Leadership 7 Cognitive Models, Perspectives, or Orientations 7 Leader Roles 8 Relationship between the Gender-Ratios in the Woman Leader's Referent Groups and her Leadership Behaviours 9 Level in the Hierarchy and Use of Frames 9 Outline of Dissertation Sections 10 Chapter 11. Literature Review 11 Definitions of Leadership 12 Theories of Leadership 14 Trait Theory 15 Power & Influence Theory 16 Behavioral Theories l7 Contingency Theories 18 Cultural & Symbolic Theories 19 Cognitive Theories 20 Theories of Organizations and Leadership 24 Summary 25 Differences between Academic and Business Organizations 26 WOmen and Leadership 28 Relationship Between the Gender Ratio Composition in Referent Groups and Women's Leadership Behaviours 34 Gender Differences in Leadership Behaviour/Style 40 Summary 45 | (table of Cont lapter 111. $ mnnn‘s CI Orga cognitivei Valu F011! Model Huma Open Ratii Inter Positive 5 humary strengths COQU: 111111”- He Finer“ A; Search Comte“ of Ontar and 1 Statu Populatigt Data C0118 Evidfihce 11113313 vii (Table of Contents, cont'd.) page Chapter 111. Interpretive Framework for Assessing Cognitive Orientations to Leadership 48 Quinn's Competing Values Model (CVM) of Organizations and Leadership 48 Cognitive Understructure of Competing Values Model 49 Four Models in the Competing Values Model 54 Human Relations Model 55 Open Systems Model 56 Rational Goal Model 59 Internal Process Model 60 Positive and Negative Zones 62 Summary 64 Strengths of the CVM in Examining Women's Cognitive Orientations to Leadership 71 Chapter IV. Methodology 75 General Approach 75 Research Questions 77 Context of Study Ontario's Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology (CAAT) 78 Status of Women in the Ontario CAAT System 83 Population & Sample 86 Data Collection Tools 88 Evidence 90 Analysis 90 Data Collection Plan 93 Ethical Considerations 96 Limitations of the Study 97 Chapter VI. Results 100 Background Factors 101 Age 102 Marital Status & Presence of Children 102 Birth Place in Family of Origin 102 Parents' Occupations 103 Highest Level of Formal Education 105 Career Path 105 Career Goals 106 Perception of Conflict between Home & Work 107 Basic Personality Beliefs, Traits and Values 109 Implicitly Held Beliefs about Leadership 112 Uhhome~ How Thesd Pee. (A' viii (Table of Contents, cont'd.) How These Women Came to Hold These Beliefs People Who Have Influenced Their Beliefs (A) Bosses (B) Influence of Fathers (C) Influence of Mothers (D) Influence of Friends & Colleagues (E) Influence of Grandmothers (F) Influence of Spouses Experiences that Influenced Beliefs about Leadership (A) The Influence of Work Experience Generally (B) The Influence of Experience on Community Boards or Professional Organizations (C) The Influence of Graduate Education and Workshops (D) The Influence of Professional Practice in a Human or Health Sciences Field (E) The Influence of Experiences with Assignments to Special Projects Essential Characteristics of Good Academic Leaders Motivation to be a Leader Primary Job Satisfiers Job Dissatisfiers Moral Orientation Critical Incident Reports Cognitive Frames, Perspectives & Leader Roles Results for Total Study Sample Population of Women Leaders (N=24) Results for the Senior Management Group of Women Leaders (N=8) Results for the Middle Management Level Women Leaders (N=7) First Level Management Group Leader Results (N=9) Relationship of Level in the Organizational Hierarchy to Cognitive Models & Perspectives Cognitive Models & Perspectives related Gender-Ratio in the Subordinate Group (First Level Leaders) Male Skewed Group Results (N=3) Results for the Women Leaders of Female Skewed Groups (N=3) Results for the Tilted Male Group (N=3) Perceived Influence on the Woman Leader's Behaviour of Various Gender—Ratios in her Referent Groups .Exemplar Summary page 116 117 117 120 120 122 123 123 124 124 126 126 127 127 128 130 134 136 138 140 144 147 149 151 153 158 160 162 164 168 173 :Tabie of Cor. Chapter VI. Principe Backgrou. Career Fe The Hear: Leadersh; Leader P: P C021!“ rue-A. ix (Table of Contents, cont'd.) Chapter VI. Discussion and Recommendations Principal Findings Background Socialization & Personal Characteristics Career Path The Meaning of Leadership Leadership Motivators & Job Satisfiers Leader Roles, Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives: Findings from the Interview Data and Prism 1 Instrument Relationship between Gender-Ratios in the Woman Leader's Referent Groups and Her Leadership Behaviours Relationship of Level in the Organizational Hierarchy to Cognitive Models and Perspectives Gender Differences in Leadership Recommendations for Further Study Conclusions Implications for Theory Development Implications for Practice Appendices Appendix A: Appendix B: Appendix C: Appendix D: Appendix E: Appendix F: Appendix G: References An Investigation into Women's Cognitive Cognitive Orientations to Leadership Prism 1 Self-Assessment Instrument by Quinn (1992) Letter Requesting Consent to Participate in Study Letters of Permission Respondent Consent to Participate Consent to Use the Prism 1 Instrument U.C.R.I.H.S. Permission University Committee on Research involving Human Subjects: Application Form Data Analysis Tool for Content Analysis of Leader Roles, Cognitive Models, & Perspectives Data Tabulation Tables page 185 187 187 190 191 194 195 201 203 205 209 211 214 214 217 222 226 228 '229 230 231 236 241 243 ' .able 1: 33218 2; 33.1.18 3; De: Car Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table l: 2: 9: 10: ll: 12: LIST OF TABLES Demographic Profile of Participants Career Information on Participants Summary of Job Motivators Summary of Job Satisfiers Summary of Job Dissatisfiers Leader Roles , Cognitive Perspectives, (N=24) Population, Leader Roles , Cognitive Perspectives, Management Group (N=8) Leader Roles , Cognitive Perspectives, Management Group (N=7) Leader Roles , Cognitive Perspectives, Cognitive Models & Total Study Cognitive Models & Senior Cognitive Models & Middle Group of Women Leaders (N=9) Cognitive Model s & First Level ANOVA of Interview Scores for Flexibility Organization and Level in the ANOVA of Interview Scores for Open Systems Model Organization and Level in the ANOVA of Interview Scores for Human Relations Model Organization and Level in Page 104 107 132 135 137 145 147 149 151 154 154 154 (List of Tab; ’able 13 Ra Ra Title 14: L. C: (Sr 11118 15 LE COQ Ske 11:11 161 Le Cog Grc (List Table Table Table Table xi of Tables, cont'd.) 13: 14: 15: 16: ANOVA of Interview Scores for Rational Goal Model and Gender Ratio in Subordinate Group Leader Roles, Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives, Male Skewed Group (N=3) Leader Roles, Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives, Female Skewed Group (N=3) Leader Roles, Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives, Male Tilted Group (N=3) 159 160 162 164 Wife 3. “site 4. Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure l: 2: xii LIST OF FIGURES The Competing Values Model Competing Values Framework of Leader Traits (T), Behaviours (B), Influencing Patterns (IP), and Change Strategies (CS) Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, Interview Data, Total Group (N=24) Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, Interview' Data, Senior Level Group (N=8) Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours , Interview Data, Middle Management Group (N=7) Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, Interview Data, First Level Group (N=9) Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, Interview Data, Male Skewed Group (N=3) Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours , Interview Data, Female Skewed Groups (N=3) Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, Interview Data, Male Tilted Group (N=3) xii PAGE 52 57 146 148 150 152 161 163 165 Chapter I Introduction Statement of Problem Although positions of influence and control in academic institutions tend to be occupied by males, increasing numbers of women are seeking voice and influence. Couple this with a qualitative shift in the way academic organizations must compete, manage, and do business in the 1990's, and the stage is set for powerful shapers of equity in the work place. Rosener (1990) argues that the first wave of women leaders, because they were breaking new ground, adhered to many of the "rules of conduct" that spelled success for men. Now the second wave of women is making its way into senior administrative positions, not by primarily adopting the style and habits that have proved successful for men, but by drawing on the perspectives, values, attitudes, beliefs and skills they have developed from their shared experience as women. Literature on women and leadership has tended to follow three main approaches. One approach focuses on the traits or personalities of leaders. Leaders are viewed as a chosen breed with s. thought not fenale, beca' iifferent 11'. A second to the tasks filationship , crzentations: breed with special characteristics. Generally, women are thought not to possess these traits because of being born female, because of their socialization, and/or because of different lived experience from that of men. A second approach focuses on differences in orientation to the tasks of leadership. This approach examines the relationship between gender groups on two major leadership orientations: consideration versus initiating structures. Conclusions drawn from this literature indicate that skill in utilizing both of these two major orientations is necessary for effective leadership regardless of the leader's gender. A third approach holds that it is not differences in gender-role socialization and lived experience that influence women's approach to leadership behaviours, but issues related to women's constrained access to and use of power. This latter approach argues that strong perceptual biases about who has access to power and how it can be used exist between the two gender groups (Caffarella & Barnett, 1993; Epstein, 1988; Nieva & Gutek, 1981). This approach also argues that perceptual biases exist which tend to associate leadership characteristics with masculinity. Perceptual bias is maintained in the organization by male- dominated power structures coupled with expectations by referent groups that female leaders must engage in gender appropriate behaviour (Haslett, et a1, 1992; Birnbaum, 1992: tamer, 198 1985). The stu med results traditional t nonstand, a “Y also be 1 W related 1'3 VOice' g1~ 111 °1 Power 5195' (6111:; In the la l fade: to {lave l“. H “113 (801 .311; Rimbaum :11“ .' 11‘19 COntr 3 Brenner, 1989: Deaux & Major, 1988: Epstein, 1988: Brass, 1985). The studies on gender and leadership have produced mixed results. This may reflect the inability of traditional theories to capture how women come to know, understand, and act in formal leadership roles. The results may also be influenced by "the diffidence prevalent among women related to their reluctance to speak publicly in their own voice, given the constraints imposed on them by their lack of power and the politics of relations between the sexes" (Gilligan, 1982, p. 70). In the last ten years, several cognitive theories have defined effective leadership in terms of the ability of the leader to develop skills in cognitive complexity. These theorists (Bolman & Deal, 1988; Quinn, 1988; Desjardins, 1989; Birnbaum, 1991) argued that adherence to single frame thinking contributes to rigidity and inattention to important cues in the environment. It may be this rigidity, rather than gender issues, that contributes to ineffective leadership style/behaviour. These cognitive models (Bolman & Deal, 1988; Quinn, 1988: Desjardins, 1989) may make possible new interpretations of effective leadership in which women's perspectives are better discerned and valued. These models, I believe, may also allow us to consider differences in the ways men and women come to understand the world of work uithout scaling tt. frat dominant t0 1 will help make viS perspective or or: t‘: Leadership behavic identified, named. tool for developtr .Eéders . .Stand their 0", . n'n . th of aet~ 11% 10a “Bee and 4 without scaling these differences from better to worse, or from dominant to inferior. Use of these cognitive theories will help make visible aspects of a women-centred perspective or orientation to leadership. It is believed that a women's perspective or orientation, and the leadership behaviours that are associated with it, can be identified, named, described and valued as an additional tool for developing cognitive complexity in academic leaders. Purpgse of the Study This study was concerned with how selected women administrators in Ontario's community colleges make sense of their leadership roles, given ways of perceiving that may be influenced by values, beliefs, skills and experiences that tend to be gender-related, or normative, among women. It is anticipated that this study will contribute to the development of effective models of academic leadership. By focusing on how these women leaders come to know and understand their work world, their preferred modes of operating, and the cognitive orientations that affect their choice of actions, this study will contribute both theoretically and practically to the study and practice of leadership. The framewor spastically, co, mceptual model the leadership th' erspectives, fra. ml orientation: 'msing what to c "Eat to do about ‘ An interpret lid describing the 151-3110an Of Home “Kings based on 11““ (1988). 5 Overview of Interpretive Framework The framework for this study was leadership theory: specifically, cognitive theories of leadership. The conceptual model that will guide this study was derived from the leadership theories that focus on the use of cognitive perspectives, frames, vantage points, conceptual maps, or moral orientations utilized by leaders to guide them in "knowing what to attend to, what sense to make of it, and what to do about it" (Bolman & Deal, 1988, p. 514). An interpretive framework was developed for analyzing and describing the leadership orientations and resultant behaviours of women administrators in community college settings based on the Competing Values Model (CVM) developed by Quinn (1988). This researcher believes that women administrators are a diverse group and therefore will demonstrate a range of cognitive orientations from single focus to multi-frame perspectives or models. Factors that may influence a woman administrator's ability to develop skills in using multi-frame thinking (i.e., prior socialization experiences, educational level, moral orientation, age, career experience, expectations for the identified leader position in that organizational hierarchy, and the gender-ratio composition in her referent groups) were examined. Bimbaum (191 partialar importe ssaesne makes sens :cgzztive frames, theorzes of leads: describe conceptu.‘ rierstanding an ( effectiveness of 1 References in he; .ecrres of leader .eader holds aboU‘ J6 a..ect the leader yerscn defines her The purpose d meat was made t 6 Research Qgestions Birnbaum (1992) identified three concepts that are of particular importance in interpreting and analyzing how someone makes sense of leadership. These concepts include cognitive frames, the use of strategy, and the implicit theories of leadership held by the leader. Cognitive frames describe conceptual maps used by the individual for understanding an organization and interpreting the effectiveness of leader behaviours. Strategies describe preferences in how a leader enacts the role. Implicit theories of leadership refer to those beliefs that the leader holds about what constitutes good leadership. These affect the leader's perceptions, behaviours and the way the person defines her role. The purpose of the study was twoefold. First an attempt was made to analyze the extent to which selected women leaders in the Ontario community college system incorporate single or multiple cognitive perspectives or orientations in their descriptions about what they believe constitutes good leadership and in the ways in which they describe their own approaches to their current leadership positions. The study also sought to describe how these women leaders developed their cognitive orientations to leadership. There were f thzs study: t implicit t; * cognitive * leader ro; * relations: woman leader bellaViOurs; 1 the woman: Of COgni titlel 7 There were five research areas of interest that guided this study: * implicit beliefs about leadership; * cognitive models, perspectives, or orientations; * leader roles; * relationship between the gender-ratio in the woman leader's referent groups and her leadership behaviours; and e the woman's level in the hierarchy and her use of cognitive frames. Implicit Beliefs about Leadership The study attempted to identify and describe the implicit theories that these women administrators held about what constitutes good academic leadership. The study also described how these women leaders came to hold these beliefs. The research questions that addressed this perspective were: 1. What does being a leader mean to these women? 2. What people and experiences do these women describe as being influential in shaping their values, beliefs, and assumptions about what consitutes good leadership practice? 3. What do Charade“ st This study a zogzitive oriente taps for helping that sense to mak take in their lea addressed this pe What not 5. What do their primar' Positions? 6- What do < 8 3. What do these women believe are the essential characteristics of a good academic leader? QggnitivggModels, Perspectivggg or Orientations This study attempted to identify and describe the cognitive orientations or models that serve as conceptual maps for helping these women leaders decide what to look at, what sense to make of the information, and what actions to take in their leadership roles. The research questions that addressed this perspective were: 4. What motivates these women to be good leaders? 5. What do these women leaders describe as being their primary satisfiers in their current positions? 6. What do these women leaders describe as being their primary dissatisfiers in their current positions? 7. What cognitive models or vantage points are revealed within their narratives, and in the scores on the Prism 1 instrument? Leader Roles Within the framework of the Competing Values Model, each of the cognitive perspectives utilized by these women Leaders held impl 3:“ leadership b trzed to identify men leaders. '1‘ :ssue was; 8- What lea 1°19“ in the WINS) of g. 9 leaders held implicit assumptions about what constitutes good leadership behaviours and roles. Therefore, this study tried to identify the leadership role(s) utilized by these women leaders. The research question that addressed this issue was: 8. What leadership roles are revealed by these women in their descriptions of their preferred mode(s) of getting things done, and by their Epigp l self-assessment scores? Relationship between the Gender-Ratios in the Woman Leader's Referent Groups and Her Leadership Behaviours Kanter (1977), Powell (1988) and Deaux & Major (1988) have all spoken to the powerful effect that the sex ratio of a group has on the dynamics of work relationships among its members. This study inquired into the women leader's perceptions about the influence of the gender ratios in her referent work groups on her leader behaviour. The research question that addressed this issue was: 9. Is there a relationship between the work place gender composition of these women and their cognitive orientations? Level in the His (Minn (1988‘ the organizatione cognitive complex was one mc latters becc it higher 15 is confronts contradictic like trade-c and there it decisions 5,, Stress and L 111 Study sought 11111115“? beta 11111“? and the h. .ue research QUE S 10' 13 thEr ”sanizmm Cilantatmm 10 Level in the Hierarchy and Use of Frames Quinn (1988) identified the impact that one's level in the organizational hierarchy has on the leader's need for cognitive complexity. He stated: ...as one moves up the organizational ladder, matters become less tangible and less predictable. At higher levels in the organization the manager is confronted with change, ambiguity, and contradictions. They are constantly forced to make trade-offs, there are often no right answers, and there is a need for complex, intuitive decisions and the ability to cope with tension, stress and uncertainty (Quinn, 1988, p.3). This study sought to examine whether there was a relationship between the level in the organizational hierarchy and the number and type of cognitive frames used. The research question that addressed this issue was: 10. Is there a relationship between level in the organizational hierarchy and cognitive orientations? __tline of Dissertation Sections The dissertation is divided into the following sections: Chapter 11 provides a review of the literature relevant to this research. This includes a review of six categories of theories of leadership. Leadership theory is then reviewed within the context of theories of organizations. A brief review of the differences between academic Organiza discussed next. selected literati: findings from stu as various compon Chapter III interpretive frat: man's (1988) C0 Chapter IV c this research, in in! sample select Hence to be cc Strategies; ethic the study. Chapter V pr 11 academic organizations and business corporations is discussed next. The review concludes with a summary of selected literature related to women in leadership, and the findings from studies that focused on the impact of gender on various components of leadership. Chapter III presents a detailed discussion of the interpretive framework of this study which was derived from Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model. Chapter IV describes the methodological approach to this research, including the research questions; population and sample selection process; data collection tools; evidence to be collected; modes of analysis: data collection strategies: ethical considerations; and the limitations of the study. Chapter V presents the results of this study, in relation to the specific study questions, for each of the interview and Prism 1 data collection tools. Chapter VI presents a discussion of the study results and recommendations for further study. This sectio: approaches to the Niels of leaders the context of ti is followed by a both the contexts hat"'98:: academic he 1 ' iterature rs mm“ Stuoies 1 y . arr CGuillotiem Chapter 11 Literature Review Theories of Leadership This section summarizes and critiques some of the major approaches to the study of leadership. First theories and models of leadership are reviewed. Then leadership within the context of theories of organization are discussed. This is followed by a brief discussion of the differences, in both the contexts and the resultant leadership requirements, between academic organizations and business organizations. The literature review concludes with a review of findings of various studies that have addressed the impact of gender on various components of leadership. nginitions of Leadership There does not appear to be a definitive definition of leadership in the surveyed literature. Definitions of leadership seen to be dependent on who is providing the 12 definition, the Leadership finds the person (or g and the person i. '1eader.‘ Bolma aPt‘roaches to Q will stated, cou I the use Of influl :Eleed as the al I r3~ p “955 0f facil 13 definition, the context in which the person defining leadership finds him/herself, and the relationship between the person (or group of persons) providing the definition and the person holding the position being defined as "leader." Bolman & Deal (1988) suggested four distinct approaches to the definition of "leadership". Leadership, they stated, could be defined as the ability to get others to do what you want. Leadership could also be described as the ability to motivate people to get things done through the use of influence or persuasion. Leadership could be defined as the ability to provide a vision for others that shapes and gives meaning and direction to their specific lived reality. Leadership could also be defined as a process of facilitation, a process of empowering people to do what they want (p. 405). In addition, leaders could be defined as people who hold formal administrative positions in organizations. The definition of leadership used in this study reflected the assumptions of leadership inherent in cognitive theories: Leadership arises from the social cognition of organizations...Leadership is a social attribution-—an explanation used by observers to help them find meanings in unusual organizational occurrences. Leadership is an invention of followers. What matters is perception: If leaders are seen as doing the desired leaderlike things, they will be regarded as effective leaders (Bensimon, Neumann, Birnbaum, 1989, p. 23 & 26). This study was C commit)! colleg perspectives or knowledge, attit :omeuted that " accurately repre likely to influe themselves as is '5 We 14 This study was concerned with how selected women leaders in community college settings develop their cognitive perspectives or understandings about desired leaderlike knowledge, attitudes and behaviours. Bensimon (1989) commented that "even though espoused theories may not accurately represent what leaders actually do, they are likely to influence the expectations these leaders have of themselves as leaders as well as their behaviour" (p. 109). Theories and Models of Leadership Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum's (1989) monograph provided an excellent summary and critique of the research traditions in leadership. They grouped the theories of leadership into six major categories: trait theories, theories of power and influence, behavioral theories, contingency theories, cultural and symbolic theories and cognitive theories. In addition, they suggested that leadership could be examined within the context of various frames, vantage points, or coherent perspectives about organizations. The summary described in this section reflects these authors' organizational framework and interpretation of the literature on leadership. frazt Theories Trait thec SpeleiC pet-SOD Person's abilit POSltions of Is the leader fro” Physrcal Charac appearance), pe self-confidence as “aracteristics | t 15 Theorieppof Leadership Trait Theories Trait theories of leadership attempt to identify specific personal characteristics that contribute to a person's ability to assume and successfully function in positions of leadership. These traits often differentiate the leader from the led. Traits include things such as physical characteristics (e.g. height, gender, age, appearance), personality characteristics (e.g. degree of self-confidence, energy level, degree of initiative), characteristics related to social background (i.e. level of education, where educated, socio-economic background), and specific abilities or skills valued by the group (i.e. intelligence, verbal fluency, technical proficiency). Bensimon, Neumann & Birnbaum (1989) described two major weaknesses of the trait theories. "Although some traits and skills appear to be characteristic of successful leaders, possession of these traits did not guarantee effectiveness, nor did their absence proscribe it" (p.8). Another weakness in these theories centred on their failure to consider the context in which leadership occurs. Few people exhibit consistent traits under all circumstances. Effective leaders, male and female, need to be able to manifest different traits iaimbaun, 1989 Pcwer and Influe' Power and i Neumann & Bi tnba the source and a ‘h' v . “ugh Either 11 These th . 16 different traits in different situations (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989, p.37). Ppwer and Influence Theories Power and influence theories, according to Bensimon, Neumann & Birnbaum (1989), "consider leadership in terms of the source and amount of power available to leaders and the manner in which leaders exercise that power over followers through either unilateral or reciprocal interaction" (p.7). These theories can be grouped into two main approaches: social power theories and social exchange theories. Social power theories emphasize one-way influence, usually top-down. Social exchange theories emphasize two-way mutual influence and reciprocal relationships between leaders who provide needed services to a group in exchange for the group's approval and compliance with the leader's demands (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989, p. 9). The social power approach looks at sources of power that leaders could use to influence followers, including legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, expert power and referent power (French & Raven, 1968). "Personal forms of power such as expert and referent have been found to lead to greater satisfaction and performance in followers” (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989, p.9). The social exchange approach recognizes that although leaders accumulate power through their positions and their personalities, their authority is constrained by followers expectations. The difference between fulfilling and changing expectati distincti transform in 1978 i’. p.10). Behaviora “mam (1989 hermiour. "‘h "“9Cted thro sampling. 17 expectations of followers is at the heart of the distinction between transactional leadership and transformational leadership as described by Burns in 1978 (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989, p.10). Behavioral Theories Behavioral theories, according to Bensimon, Neumann & Birnbaum (1989) study leadership by examining leaders patterns of activity, managerial roles, and categories of behaviour. They look at what leaders actually do. Data are collected through observations, use of diaries, activity sampling, self-reporting, questionnaires and the analysis of critical incidents. Early studies analyzed the effects on a group's performance of the leader's behaviours (i.e. Lippett & White, [1958] concepts of democratic, authoritarian and laissez-faire styles of leadership; Ohio State Leadership, [1957], concepts of initiating structure vs consideration and Blake & Mouton's, [1967], "managerial grid"; Mintzberg's [1978] aspects of roles such as interpersonal behaviour, information-processing and decision making behaviour). These studies have again tended to produce mixed results. Subordinates' performance may influence the leader's behaviour as much as the reverse (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989, p.12-14). 2::tingency The: Contingenc- leader's behavi factors and unf empl’iasize such as th 3 group, O eIllv'ironmen+ These theo require d1 behaviours Neumann. r 18 Contingency Theories Contingency theories attempt to indicate how the leader's behaviour is shaped and constrained by situational factors and unfolding events. These theories emphasize the importance of situational factors such as the nature of the tasks to be performed by a group, or the nature of the external environment, to understand effective leadership. These theories assume that different situations require different patterns of traits and behaviours for a leader to be effective (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989, p.7). Examples of theories in this category include: Fiedler's "Contingency Model”, Hersey & Blanchard's "Situational Leadership Theory", House's "Path-Goal Theory", and Kerr & Jermier's "Substitutes for Hierarchical Leadership Model." Contingency theories, however, "do not address questions about what it takes for a manager to see the differences in organizational situations, to grasp the contradictions inherent in them, and to behave in a contingent fashion" (Frost & Kaiser, 1989, p. 462). Cognitive theories of leadership, such as Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model, can help managers to gain insight into these situational differences and inherent contradictions. Cognitive theories recognize that the values, beliefs, and assumptions, held by individual managers/leaders, about what constitutes good leadership also influences what information a leader chooses to consider, what sense the leader makes of this information' an understanding- Cultural or SW55 —~_____ Cultural or Zeac‘ers in mint shared beliefs as arganizational 1 State that in co the culture represent a organizatio organizatiol invented no that leader' Systems who leaningful I that they c the nature ! aSimpor [tar Process oro their behav| :::1€toart1| I 19 information, and what actions may or may not flow from that understanding. Cultural or Sypbolic Theories Cultural or symbolic theories study the influence of leaders in maintaining or reinterpreting the system of shared beliefs and values that give meaning to organizational life. Bensimon, Neumann & Birnbaum (1989) state that in contrast to the other categories of theories the cultural perspectives and symbolic approaches represent a paradigmatic shift in thinking about organizations and leadership. They assume organizational structures and processes are invented not discovered. These theories propose that leadership functions within complex social systems whose participants attempt to find meaningful patterns in the behaviours of others so that they can develop common understandings about the nature of reality. Within this context, it is as important to study how leaders think and process organizational data as it is to look at their behaviour (p.21). Success of the leader depends on the degree to which she/he is able to articulate and influence cultural norms and values by creating new symbols or myths, developing organization sagas or stories, or establishing and reinforcing consistent values. Culture, in these theories, can also be thought of as a powerful constraint on the individual leader's behaviour, i.e., if the leader does not function within the culture of the organization, she/he may lose influence 1969, p.22). Coonitive Theor \_ C09ml t i ve the SYmboliC an that 'leadershi t° make sense 0 [59115111101]. Neum identified thre. in cognitme th. Str ategy‘ and t] 20 lose influence and authority (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum 1989, p.22). Cpgpitive Theories Cognitive theories of leadership are closely related to the symbolic and cultural theories. These theories suggest that "leadership is a social attribution that permits people to make sense of an equivocal, fluid, and complex world (Bensimon, Neumann, Birnbaum 1989, p.23). Birnbaum (1992) identified three concepts that are of particular importance in cognitive theories. These are cognitive frames, strategy, and the implicit theories of leadership held by the leader. Cognitive frames are the conceptual maps for understanding an organization and interpreting the effectiveness of leaders' behaviour. Frames focus the attention of individuals on one or another aspect of the organization, but they can also serve as cognitive blinders which leave that which is out-of—frame unseen (Birnbaum, 1992, p.63). Birnbaum (1992) modified Bolman & Deal's (1988) frames to better suit academic organizations. He identified four frames/perspectives labelled structural, political, collegial and symbolic, and he described assumptions and beliefs about what constitutes good leadership from each of these four perspectives. Birnbaum (1992) concluded that the use of different frames or conceptual maps helps us to see that leaders nc leaders for dif The secor. I according to B; cited three moc‘ as useful in a: Linear str results f: 9061 accon emPhasize and the lit. Strategist Organizes: 1.; environIDer. Changing i: into new 9 I low of re Interpretil Nome SEe "gamma“ 8 IS, a. behavmms organiZati perCeptl-Or‘ I . eir Orga: lll Birnbau; The third ( splint them“ 21 that leaders not only fill different roles, but are seen as leaders for different reasons (p.111). The second concept important in cognitive theories, according to Birnbaum (1992), is strategy. Birnbaum (1992) cited three models of strategy described by Chaffee (1985) as useful in articulating cognitive theories. Linear strategists believe effective action results from rational decision making. They view goal accomplishment in a means-end fashion, emphasize internal factors in the organization, and the improvement of efficiency. Adaptive strategists believe in aligning their organizations with the environment, monitoring the environment for threats and opportunities, and changing the organizational's programs to move into new environmental niches. They emphasize the flow of resources into the organization. Interpretive strategists are concerned with how people see, understand, and feel about their organizations. They try to shape the values, symbols, and emotions influencing individual behaviours by explaining and clarifying organizational purpose. They emphasize changing perceptions so that others can find meaning in their organizational roles (Chaffee, 1985, cited in Birnbaum, 1992, p. 65). The third concept identified by Birnbaum (1992) as important in understanding cognitive theories were the implicit theories of leadership held by the leader. These theories are described as "those beliefs that the leader holds about what constitutes good leadership. Birnbaum (1992) cited the following as examples of possible effects of implicit theories of leadership on leader behaviour. If a leader thinks of leadership as one-way communication in which the leader is expected to influence others, he/she may attend to or respond to information and people differently than a leader who thinks of leadership as a two-way exchange 1' mutual inf as helping toward ach different1 as helping prOCEdUres :aplicit theori perceptions. be TD-SSI- Cognit contingent? the models that ena situations, to contradictions , asp parent cont rat An emergin leadership, is total developme 22 exchange in which leaders and followers exert mutual influence. Leaders who define their role as helping to determine goals and directing others toward achieving these goals may respond differently than a leader who defines his/her role as helping others to establish their own goals and procedures (Birnbaum, 1992, p. 65—66). Implicit theories of leadership may affect the leaders perceptions, behaviours and the way they define their role" (p.65). Cognitive theories fill the gap left by the contingency theorists in that they provide frameworks or models that enable one to see differences in organizational situations, to grasp and understand the inherent contradictions, and propose ways of responding to these apparent contradictions. An emerging cognitive perspective, or way of looking at leadership, is based on Carol Gilligan's (1982) model of moral development in women. This model is currently being articulated by Carolyn Desjardins and others at the National Institute for Leadership Development in Phoenix, Arizona. Desjardins (1989) describes two perspectives or orientations to leadership. One orientation is focused on a male gender- related moral standard of justice and rights referred to as a ”justice perspective." The other orientation is focused on a female gender-related moral standard of care and attachment referred to as a "care perspective." Desjardins (1989) reported that in a study of 72 community college CEOs (50% male and 50% female), it was found that "the majority of CEOs exhibited behaviours in both perspecti‘v' 28's was to f a lisiually. In categorized as lncontrast, SC perspective.‘ men and 22% c combined modes 'ccnsiderations ”(19' or the '3 In her stuL 31389) found thi hEhGViours (behl fememe“) Her that this find. attraqed to 9d also refleCt th. PerSpective" m0, hid therefOre 1 H13! [Ole fOr MVIOurS ref 1‘ i considered i_ and style (13.9) I 23 both perspectives or modes. However, the tendency among the CEO's was to favour one mode, and to use the other minimally. In this study, 66% of the women CEOs were categorized as dominantly focused in the "care perspective". In contrast, 50% of the male CEOs favoured the "justice perspective." It was interesting to note that 17% of the women and 22% of the men in this study fell into the combined modes category defined as less than 75% of ”considerations" being categorized as either in the "care mode" or the "justice mode" (Desjardins, 1989, p.7). In her study of community college CEOs, Desjardins (1989) found that considerable caring and connecting behaviours (behaviours stereotypically associated with femaleness) were observed in both genders. She reflected that this finding may reflect the kind of people that are attracted to educational institutions. This finding may also reflect that behaviours associated with the "care perspective" mode, that in the past were considered feminine and therefore less valued, may now appear to be playing a major role for both male and female leaders. Thus behaviours reflective of the "care perspective" mode may now be considered important aspects in leadership orientation and style (p.9). Theories of 0rd Another us leadership is t vantage points assumptions anc' 'hat constitute and Quinn (198: based on COgni: model (1988) p, organizations . 24 Theories of Organization and Leadership Another useful way of looking at the concept of leadership is to use different perspectives, frames, or vantage points about organizations and then to examine the assumptions and beliefs inherent in these perspectives about what constitutes effective leadership. Bolman & Deal (1988) and Quinn (1988) have each described models of organizations based on cognitive perspectives or frames. Bolman & Deal's model (1988) presents four frames or perspectives on organizations and their inherent assumptions about what constitutes good leadership. Quinn (1988) has also developed "A Competing Values Model of Organizations" that encompasses four frames or perspectives that he believes represent differing value orientations, and eight different leadership roles associated with the four frames in his model. Each of these two models argues that effective leadership depends on the level of cognitive complexity in the leader and the leader's flexibility in choosing and using different perspectives in interpreting and acting in their roles. Each of these theorists stated that no single frame/perspective is better or more dominant than others. Rather, they stated that adherence to single frame thinking contributes to rigidity, and inattention to important cues in the environr ineffective lee Quinn (19% is able to trar eight roles of levels of manag longer. Thisg representation using their cor; stereotypical r I rated higher or Sull>0rtiveness ! :haracteristics connected) cou‘. that men and MI me than diffl the inability 25 in the environment. It is this rigidity that contributes to ineffective leader behaviour. Quinn (1988) described a "master leader" as someone who is able to transcend style, who has higher scores in all eight roles of his model, who tends to be located at higher levels of management, and who has been in their organization longer. This group, in his studies, had a large female representation (p. 104). Bolman & Deal (1992), in studies using their cognitive frames model, found that the stereotypical beliefs about women (i.e., that women would be rated higher on characteristics such as warmth, supportiveness, and participation, and lower on characteristics such as being persuasive, shrewd or well- connected) could not be supported. In fact, they reported that men and women in comparable positions are actually more alike than different (Bolman & Deal, 1992, p. 527). Summary Studies that have focused on gender and leadership have tended to produce mixed results. These results may reflect the inability of traditional theories to capture the relationship between organizations and how women leaders come to know, understand, and act in leadership roles. I believe that the cognitive theories of leadership developed by Bolman & Deal (1988). Quinn (1988) and Desjardins (1989) say make possi see and value were previousl will allow us in the ways me Differences te from dominant the value of c one's orientat Wential weak] assumption tha1 melexity. 26 may make possible new interpretations that will allow us to see and value women-centred perspectives and behaviours that were previously not discerned. These theories, I believe, will allow us to consider the similarities and differences in the ways men and women understand their leadership roles. Differences tend not to be scaled from better to worse, or from dominant to inferior. Each of these models speaks to the value of cognitive complexity or multi—frame thinking in one's orientation to effective leadership behaviours. A potential weakness inherent in the cognitive theories is the assumption that cognitive complexity will produce behavioral complexity. Differences Between Academic and Business Organizations Kerr & Jermier's (1978) "Substitutes for Hierarchical Leadership Model” suggested that some organizations have elements in them that substitute for or neutralize leadership. Substitutes make the behaviours of the leader unnecessary (i.e., everyone understands their roles and tasks, and are motivated to perform them). Neutralizers include characteristics of the task or organization that prevent the leader from acting in a specified way or that counteract the effects of leadership (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989, p.19). Birnbaum I differences the business corpor business organi that universiti activities (Le do essentially apertise (i.e. redundant hist Professor), a f intemependmme over raw materi Ihere admiSSiop and 1983 visibl Emil Out their Professmnals c He CORCIUGed tf‘ 27 Birnbaum (1991) suggested that there are a number of differences that separate academic organizations from business corporations. In contrasting the "typical" business organization and the "typical" university, he noted that universities exhibit less specialization of work activities (i.e., assistant professors and full professors do essentially the same things), a greater specialization of expertise (i.e., it is more difficult to substitute a redundant history professor for a needed economics professor), a flatter hierarchial structure, a lower interdependence between parts or departments, less control over raw materials (e.g., especially at public institutions where admission may be non—selective), low accountability, and less visible role performance (i.e., faculty usually carry out their professional teaching unseen by other professionals or administrators)" (Birnbaum, 1991, p. 21). He concluded that leadership in an academic setting of higher education might require a different approach to leadership than that typical of business organizations. Green (1988), writing about leaders in academic organizations, stated that academic leaders of the present must continue to deal with issues related to diminished resources, increasing control from coordinating boards and government, and the conflicting demands of various constituents. Good management skills continue to be vital for academic leaders. In addition, "campuses and society in general will 1: institutional r and to be acco: graduates. LEr atmosphere of (_ institutional (Green. 1988, 3' I tasrs in the pr leaders to be ;- knowledge exec- Provide symboy to create shar: Stronger sense l’equiI'EIDEnts OI undersecre the mltiple Vanta, ”“9 with m 28 general will look to academic leaders to clarify their institutional missions, to articulate an academic vision, and to be accountable for the quality of their programs and graduates. Leaders will have to do all of this in an atmosphere of growing external controls, decreased institutional autonomy, and generally scarce resources" (Green, 1988, p.36). Green (1988) stated that leadership tasks in the postmanagerial era will require academic leaders to be coalition builders, team leaders, and knowledge executives. In addition, they must be able to provide symbolic leadership by helping their organizations to create shared values, a common agenda, and by fostering a stronger sense of community (Green, 1988, p. 40-47). These requirements of academic leaders in the postmanagerial era underscore the need for leaders who have the ability to use multiple vantage points, or cognitive perspectives, in coping with their leadership roles. This study sought to identify and describe the range and types of cognitive perspectives or orientations that women leaders in Ontario's community colleges utilize in their attempts to know, understand and act in these academic settings. Women and Leadership The bulk of the literature on women and leadership followed three main approaches that seem to typify much of the thinking on leadership and gender. These approaches focused on thr leaders are a There are wide these traits a socialization, authors argued leadership p05 Characteristic Donnell 5 Hall A second ileact °f send matmnsmp at to leadership: Researcyy Do do identification leadersmp (Stc 'initiatins st: of t he lefider. strategies, a1; 29 focused on the personalities of leaders, assuming that leaders are a chosen breed with special characteristics. There are widely held beliefs that women do not possess these traits as a result of genetics, gender-role socialization, and/or a different lived experience. Other authors argued that men and women, who elect to enter leadership positions, are very similar to each other in characteristics, motivation, and behaviour (Birnbaum, 1992: Donnell & Hall, 1980: Powell, 1988). A second approach focused on leadership style and the impact of gender. This literature tended to examine the relationship between gender groups on two major orientations to leadership: consideration and initiating structure. Research on actual working leaders and managers led to the identification of two factors or components of successful leadership (Stogdill, 1974). One of these factors, called "initiating structure" refers to the active, directive role of the leader. This role involves setting goals, planning strategies, allocating work, sequencing tasks to meet goals. and supervising the work of subordinates. This component represents a task orientation and tends to be associated with a masculine stereotype. The other component of successful leadership is labelled "consideration." This component is characterized by the leader's showing consideration for subordinates' needs, interests, wishes, welfare, and advancement. It reflects consultation with subordinates a This couponent stereotYPe (Ha Laborator' components to results with s the laboratory female leaders sale and femal and considerat generally high Donnell & Hall A third a gender-role so men's leader Power. In ter: alieroach argue | Sores (Caffare I - | 30 subordinates about goals, time-lines, strategies, etcetera. This component tends to be associated with a feminine stereotype (Haslett, et a1, 1992, p. 140). Laboratory studies examining the relationship of these components to gender and leadership produced conflicting results with studies done "in the field". In contrast to the laboratory studies, field studies involving male and female leaders, found no differences between the effective male and female leaders and the use of initiating structure and consideration behaviours. Successful leaders were generally high in both components (Dobbins & Platz, 1986; Donnell & Hall, 1980; Powell, 1988; Stogdill, 1974). A third approach holds that it is not differences in gender-role socialization and lived experience that impacts women's leadership, but issues of control and access to power. In terms of the enactment of leadership, this approach argues that strong perceptual biases about who has access to power and how it can be used, exist between the sexes (Caffarella & Barnett, 1993: Nieva & Gutek, 1981). This approach also argues that a perceptual bias exists that associates leadership characteristics with masculinity. This perceptual bias, it is argued, is maintained in the organizations by male-dominated power structures, and the expectations for leaders to engage in gender appropriate behaviour (Birnbaum, 1992; Brass, 1985; Brenner, 1989; Deaux Illajor, 1988: 1992; Konrad. In an eff leadership, ma Siegfried (198 research. So believe to be Style of leade anal'r'SiS of to was not centra hay studies 12 kg" at univ 1mm exPeri have bee“ cond informants, th studies ten d t the labOratory Sh“ n° differl Canal-Sr 31 s Major, 1988; Epstein, 1988; Gay, 1993; Haslett, et a1, 1992: Konrad, 1990; Perry, 1992; Segal and Zellner, 1992). In an effort to investigate the impact of gender on leadership, many studies have been conducted. Cann & Siegfried (1987) have identified some biases in this research. Some studies have used study tools that others believe to be biased toward the traditional, male-dominated style of leadership. Other biases have come from the analysis of tools in which the assessed for characteristic was not central to the successful enactment of leadership. Many studies have been conducted in "laboratory settings" (e.g., at universities with students who may have had limited experience in working with women leaders). Others have been conducted "in the field" with leadership informants, their superiors and subordinates. Field studies tend to produce results that conflict with those of the laboratory studies. Those done in the field tend to show no difference in leadership style. Cann & Siegfried (1987) explained these results by stating that "in contrived situations, subordinates are not influenced in important ways by the leader, and may make, judgements based upon stereotypes about leaders as managers of others" (p.406). Cynthia Epstein (1988) addressed the inherent weaknesses in categorizations based on differences. She stated that categories may be based on only one or a few of the attributes of the discrete items being grouped. each cate brothers. believe t their 51 extent to capacitie the conce sorting focus on Often the evidence 32 grouped...Particulars are denied or overlooked in each categorization. To believe that all men are brothers, one must overlook their differences; to believe they are competitors, one must ignore their similarities and common interests. The extent to which people attribute qualities and capacities to the two sexes is an example of how the concepts of 'male' and 'female' cause the sorting and skewing of perceptions of reality by a focus on differences rather than similarities. Often these distinctions are based on very slim evidence (Epstein, 1988, p. 12). Cann 8 Siegfried (1987) also discussed the impact of the relationship of the respondent to the leader as an important factor influencing the evaluation of leadership behaviour. They found that the respondents in their study had different expectations of effective leadership behaviour depending on their perspective as a supervisor versus that of a subordinate (1987, p. 402). Several authors argued that gender-role expectations do influence women’s leadership behaviour (Astin 8 Lelande, 1991: Capozzoli, 1989; Gay, 1993; Gardner, 1988: Jensen, 1987; Kruger, 1993; Macauley 8 Gonzalez, 1993; Miller, 1987; Rosener, 1990: Schaef, 1992; Shakeshaft, 1989). This was also true for a women leader's selection and use of influencing strategies or power (Hare-Mustin 8 Marecek, 1990; Linimon, Barron 8 Falbo, 1984; Nieva 8 Gutek, 1981). Women may tend to limit their use of influencing strategies to those which are congruent with gender—role expectations. Other authors have reported no difference in leadership style between male and female leaders (Birnbaum, 1992; Bolman 8 Deal, 1992; Donnell 8 Hall, 1980; Jones, 1986; Osborn a Vicar 1989; Wheeler that even thou in leadership that women are Epstein ( Changing different one anoth and intel aloreciat in terms than disc 33 Osborn 8 Vicars, 1976; Powell, 1988; Roueche, Baker 8 Rose, 1989; Wheeler 8 Tack, 1989). Birnbaum (1992) has commented that even though empirical studies have shown no differences in leadership style between men and women, the perception that women are different still persists. Epstein (1988) stated: changing historical circumstances require different peoples to become ever more dependent on one another. Such conditions demand that leaders and intellectuals possess the ability to appreciate complexity and ambiguity, and to reason in terms of ranges and dimensions of theory rather than discrete qualities (p. 15) In summary, to be effective, both men and women leaders must engage in similar behaviours associated with leadership positions. However, it seems that when women engage in these behaviours, they often contravene society's concept of socially acceptable female behaviour. All members of the organization seem to prefer gender appropriate behaviour in their leaders compared to gender- inappropriate behaviour. Women who initially entered leadership positions were always in a ”double-bind" or "no-win" situation. They were told to ”be like a man,” but evaluated negatively when they did. This situation created a work environment that was confusing, ambiguous and stressful for the female leader. It tends to constrain the enactment of leadership by women. This constraint creates a ”narrow band" of acceptable behaviour for female leaders compared to the much wider range of beha reason, it is rceived as not one of 'e the process 0 her gender. This res is influenced he‘llefs and d H; ‘. ’ 34 range of behaviour available to male colleagues. For this reason, it is argued that women's leadership continues to be perceived as different from that of men. This difference is not one of "effect" or ”outcome,” but one of enactment of the process of leadership given the constraints imposed by her gender. This researcher believed that the "doing" of leadership is influenced by one's cognitive perspectives, values, beliefs and assumptions. In her book entitled Deceptive Distincgions: Sexp,Gepggr. 8ASocial Ordep, Epstein (1988) cited mounting empirical evidence that makes it increasingly difficult to obscure the overwhelming similarities between men and women. The studies cited in her book "bring to light the processes by which the powerful contrive to create, emphasize, and maintain gender differences" (p. 240). For women in North American society, the "doing” of leadership may be constrained by perceptual biases held by self and others in the workplace. The ”doing" may also be constrained by altered access to, or selection of, influence strategies that are perceived to be gender inappropriate for women leaders. Relationship Between the Gender-Ratio Comppsition in Referent Groups and Women's Leadership Behaviours Kanter (1977), in her book Men and Women of the Qorpprptipn, spoke to the powerful impact that sex ratios had on the dy members. She of men to worn ratio of the affects whett. identified is can exist in union group ollposite pole "hiCh contain females . In the individua indl'v’ldual wa Kant“ identi Skewed. .3113 85:15 both the 91.0w rather than a homes 0f t‘. 35 had on the dynamics of work relationships among the group's members. She defined the sex-ratio of a group as the ratio of men to women or vice versa. She identified that the sex- ratio of the group was an important situational factor that affects whether gender stereotyping occurred. Kanter (1977) identified four types of groups, of varying sex ratios, that can exist in work settings. These she labelled: (a) uniform groups composed of only one gender group. At the opposite pole, Kanter identified (b) the balanced group which contained approximately equal proportions of males and females. In this group, Kanter stated that attributes of the individual other than gender would influence how the individual was interacted with. Between these two poles, Kanter identified two other groups. One she labelled (c) skewed. In skewed groups the ratio of men to women or women to men is 85:15 to 100%. The dominant gender group controlled both the group and its culture. The minority gender group was referred to as "tokens" and tended to be treated by the dominant group as representatives of their gender group rather than as individuals. Kanter (1977) believed that the dynamics of the skewed group applied to many of the interactions that occur between men and women in management. For "tokens” these dynamics included coping with additional performance pressures, coping with boundary heightening activities of dominant group members, and coping with role oapsuiation labelled as "l 1| behaviours re: Some dominant increasing th:h current POSitII in the re-rele stated that iil since the put; SOurCes of $132. 36 encapsulation activities enforced by dominant group members. Some dominant group members engaged in behavioral dynamics labelled as "backlash" and "discriminatory". These behaviours reflected the dominant group's realization of the increasing threat of more minority group members to their current position of dominance. In Kanter's (1993) afterword in the re-release of Men and Women of the Corporation, she stated that in the nearly twenty years that have lapsed since the publication of the first edition, changes in sources of support and power have made it more likely that men and women will be working side-by-side as peers in the middle and lower ranks of organizations with equivalent formal status. But this phenomenon also forces daily conflict with problems that occur when people who are different must collaborate. The dilemmas that are now being faced include periods of transition unease, comfort seeking behaviours of senior managers who work in roles characterized by ambiguity and high needs for trust among members. These members seek homogeneity among members of their peer group as a means of increasing both trust and comfort. Additional problems related to the dominant asserting behaviour of some majority gender group members, and problems of peer attraction/romance in the workplace (1993, p. 315-318). Renter's (1977) last sex-ratio group was labelled {d} tilted. 65:35 to 85:1 lioority had the abili lioority stat dominant grou Powell ( aPfitvierful ef “039 group in that are diff 50119691193, mug “fin and of work QIOUp stlldies that 37 (d) tilted. This group had a gender ratio ranging from 65:35 to 85:15 malezfemale or femalezmale. In this group, minority members tended not to be treated as "tokens." They had the ability to be seen as individuals within their minority status, but were also seen as different from the dominant group. Powell (1988) concluded that sex ratio of the group had a powerful effect on the dynamics of work relationships among group members. Tokens faced a set of work conditions that are different from those of their numerically dominant colleagues. This had importance in terms of interactions among men and women in management ranks and in other types of work groups (p. 115). Powell (1988) cited a number of studies that found that once subordinates worked with both male and female leaders, the effects of gender stereotyping tended to disappear and leaders were treated more as individuals than as representatives of their gender group (p. 165). Both Powell (1988) and Kanter (1993) concluded that the only meaningful difference between managerial men and women may be in the environments in which they operate with the imbalance in sex ratios, particularly at the top management levels, contributing to stereotype-driven perceptions and unrealistic expectations for managerial women. Deaux & Major (1987) articulated a social interactive theory of gender behaviour, grounded in expectancy theory, as a framewor, This model em; behaviour was dependent (p. demonstrated, behaviour. I. that have ten. concept, thesf leained the 38 as a framework to examine the impact of gender on behaviour. This model emphasized the degree to which gender—related behaviour was variable, proximally caused, and context dependent (p. 369). Their model focused on the behaviour demonstrated, rather than on the acquisition of the behaviour. In contrast to traditional psychological models that have tended to assume the stability of gender self- concept, these authors presented an alternative model that explained the flexibility and variability in one's selection and use of gender appropriate behaviour. Their model was grounded in social expectation theory in which the expectation of others and the goals of the individual converge (Deaux & Major, 1987, p. 384). These authors conceptualized gender as a component of ongoing interactions in which "perceivers" emited expectancies, "targets" negotiated their own identities, and the "context" in which the interaction occurs shaped the resultant behaviour (Deaux & Major, 1987, p. 369). The model had three main elements: (a) a "perceiver" who entered the interaction with a set of beliefs about gender and with personal interaction goals; (b) a ”target" who entered the interaction with her own gender-related self-conceptions and interaction goals; and (c) a "context" which may be varied in the degree to which it made gender-related issues salient (Deaux & Major, 1987, p. 371). "Perceivers" interacting with the only women among a group of men might be particularly likely to activate expectancies 1 light result expectancies : workplace. A; increased, or working with groups might I context would behavioral stg related QYOUPsl Hudson we at least three‘ {9. 84), This the importanm orientatmns' 331119311 (19a a 98' educatior in both tYpe (I I This StUC selected "Omel t he pErCel'vEd anositioni s 39 expectancies with respect to the target's gender. This might result in a spillover effect in which gender-based expectancies for behaviour were carried over into the workplace. As the number of "targets" in the group increased, or as the "perceivers" gained experience in working with ”targets", mixed gender behaviour in work groups might become more typical. This aspect of the context would decrease the influence of gender-based behavioral stereotypes on expectancies of behaviour in work- related groups. Hudson was cited in Kruger (1993) as stating "you need at least three women at a meeting before change can occur" (p. 84). This citation referred to Hudson's beliefs about the importance of other women as peers in allowing women's orientations, styles and influence to be visible. Rigor & Galligan (1980) identified that sex differences in work settings should begin to disappear when the influence of age, educational level, and experience were controlled for in both type of organization and at organizational level. This study sought to investigate the perceptions of the selected women leaders in Ontario's community colleges about the perceived relationship between work place gender composition(s) and their cognitive orientation(s). Setter Differ. Statham effective in sililar to me identified th styles to ago the ways in wj the literaturv inner the foli Carnality of Met, issues dECiSiOO-maki i Classuicatioi relationships and iuterdePE: accessed an d 1 1'6" f°Cus oi perceiVEd 511d :SSues of Pro. facilitatet al l in l «at attact 0‘ 40 gender Differences in Leadership Behaviour/Style Statham (1987) stated that women managers are equally effective in accomplishing desired ends, hence they look similar to men on specific behavioral indices. Yet, she identified that women appeared to use somewhat different styles to accomplish those ends (p.411). Characteristics of the ways in which women enact leadership, as identified in the literature, have been summarized by this researcher under the following categories: issues addressing the centrality of women's relationship with others, issues of power, issues of task, issues of process, issues in decision-making, and issues of values. For purposes of this classification, issues addressing the centrality of relationships refers to aspects of nurturing, connectedness and interdependence. Issues of power refer to how power is accessed and used. Issues of task refer to task completion, i.e., focus on wholeness, detail, hands-on, what are perceived and valued as the actual tasks of the leader. Issues of process refers to the use to time, space, structure, and the communication processes used to facilitate task completion. Issues of decision-making refer to the process of how decisions tend to get made. Issues of values refer to guiding principles, beliefs, or assumptions that affect one's choices in life and work. Caffarel (1990), Geved ioddings (198 of relationsr. tated that w wanted to int ll990) stated 41 Caffarella & Barnett, (1993), Schaef (1992), Josselson (1990), Gevedon (1992), Shakeshaft (1989), Loden (1985) Noddings (1984) and Gilligan (1982) addressed the centrality of relationships to women's leadership style. Gay (1993) stated that women tended to be relationship oriented. Women wanted to interconnect with those around them. Josselson (1990) stated that life stage development theory for women was not a theory of separateness and autonomy, but one of connection to others and relationship. She stated that the watershed issues for women tended to be social and religious, not political or occupational. Josselson (1990) further identified that the anchors for women tended to be security that is found in relationships, not in the work itself. Work is something to do, not be. Success is determined by relationships and not by achievements (Josselson, 1990). Rosener (1990) spoke to women's concerns with enhancing the self-worth of others and their ability to energize others. Gillett—Karam (1988) and Helgesen (1990) found that women leaders tended to spend more time with their subordinates than male counterparts. Bennis (1989) cited a female informant who spoke of women's tendency to continue their caretaking roles in the workplace. In terms of issues of task, Macauley & Gonzales (1993) and Helgesen (1990) stated that women tended to see things to completion. Other authors spoke of women's focus on the production of quality output over winning, an increased 42 focus on performance standards, and a tendency to "pitch—in" when help was needed to get the task done (Taylor, 1992; Loden, 1985). Helgesen (1990) found that women leaders tended to build more breaks into their scheduling of time to deal with the unexpected and for personal reflection. Helgesen (1990) reported that women leaders in her study viewed interruptions in their work differently than did men. Gillett-Karam (1988) found that women leaders spent more time at the job itself than male counterparts. In terms of issues of process, the surveyed literature emphasized women's tendency to resolve differences and problems in the group through strategies aimed at collaboration and accommodation versus competition, avoidance or compromise (Loden, 1985; Macauley & Gonzales, 1993). The literature described women's preference for a web or team structure that placed the leader at the centre versus the hierarchial command and control approach (Loden, 1985). Helgesen (1990) found that how women obtained and systematized information, and how they organized people and their time differed from that of male leaders. She discussed the ability of women to take on multiple roles and play parts, their ability to integrate home and work without compartmentalizing these aspects of self, and their preference for using “voice" not "vision" metaphors as being different for women. In addition, Helgesen (1990) found that how women leaders structured relationships vis-a-vis 43 communication, the use of meeting time, space, authority and control of information made their process of enacting leadership different from that of men as well. Gay (1993) and Helgesen (1990) highlighted a women's view of the world as being multidimensional, i.e., women tended to consider issues as they related to the company as a whole versus being target oriented. Shavlik & Touchton (1988) discussed women's ability to promote effectiveness of the group through interaction and cooperation, and through attention to each person's unique contribution to the whole. Women, they found, cultivated relationships to establish common interest, loyalty, trust and pride in the accomplishment of the whole. Loden (1985) also spoke to women's use of special interpersonal skills related to sensing, listening, management of feelings, intimacy, and the provision of feedback as skills that characterized how women leaders facilitated task completion. Miller (1987) talked about how women used meetings as both communication and management tools. In terms of issues of power, Loden (1985) reported that women tended to use low control strategies versus high control. She described this use of power as contextual versus the direct power that was more available to men. She spoke to the tendency of women to empower others through the sharing of knowledge versus the withholding of knowledge as a strategy of control. Bennis (1989) stated that women perceive discusse achievern Horn differen women. intuit“ rationa] found (3, WIS CI" being 1 44 perceive power in a different way than men. Miller (1987) discussed a woman leader's tendency to recognize employee achievements more than male colleagues. Women's decision-making style may also be an area of difference in the enactment of leadership between men and women. Loden (1985) found that women tended to use an intuitive-rational style of decision-making versus the rational style preferred by men. Taylor reported that she found women to be more able to "see the unsaid" and to be more creative in their approaches to problem-solving versus being linear, analytic thinkers and objective problem- solvers (cited in Gay, 1993). In term of values that appear to guide women's enactment of leadership, the literature spoke to women's beliefs about the importance of caring, to the fact that work is part of life not separate from it, and that one must take responsibility for others and the world seriously as important values that guide women leaders actions (Helgesen, 1990). Kruger (1993) found that women are kinder, gentler, more flexible and less ego-invested than men. Shavlik & Touchton described “fostering, nourishing, caring relationships, intuition and empathy as being values of female leadership styles" (1988, p. 107-8). on many measi the literatu rated with l society, act to be associ gender-role enacting lea ”-9.. peers her Ieadersh behaviour wo Harm“ & Fal‘ Birnbau. invent“ socl “benefited , ExperienCe ti,- nOt Yet viSi' 45 Summagy Although male and female leaders showed no difference on many measures of leadership behaviour and effectiveness, the literature indicated that women leaders tended to be rated with less influence (Brass, 1985). In Western society, acting as a leader is a characteristic which tends to be associated with maleness. When a woman violates gender-role expectations for behaviour in relation to enacting leadership, she may arouse in her referent groups (i.e., peers, subordinates and superiors) a perception that her leadership style is inappropriate even though the behaviour would be appropriate if done by a male (Linimon, Barron & Falbo, 1984: Nieva & Gutek, 1981). Birnbaum (1992) stated that if leadership were an invented social construct, and if women, in fact, experienced a different socialization pattern and work experience than men, there may be an important relationship not yet visible between gender and leadership. An examination of the cognitive orientations of women leaders and the inherent values, beliefs and assumptions that inform these cognitive orientation(s) to leadership may shed light on this relationship. Swoboda & Vanderbash (1983) used Virginia Woolf's analogy of a ”society of outsiders" from her 1938 novel Three Guineas as a framework to help identify and describe the changing Swoboda in Var. entered manag considered 'a to 'fit in, ' dissonance b °t§anization leadership. Ianelement, j Elist that wc S'merge ValL ”Smiling def tnotnesim Perspective, mm“ had fac Creating a CCI appropri “an! the task, thel task, and thel In the l 46 the changing relationships between women and leadership. Swoboda & Vanderbash (1983) stated that when women first entered management ranks in the 19708 and 19808 they were considered "anomalies" in the corporate culture. In order to "fit in," the woman leader tried to decrease the dissonance between her gender and her status in the organization by conforming to a male model or style of leadership. As more women entered the ranks of corporate management, it was believed that a "critical mass” would exist that would result in women no longer needing to submerge valued feminine aspects in order to adapt to a masculine defined image of leadership. Swoboda & Vanderbash hypothesized that a "women centred paradigm" (model, perspective, map or vantage point) could replace the dilemma women had faced of "fitting in" or "not fitting in" by creating a code of behaviour more in keeping with the appropriateness of women's own needs, the requirements of the task, the means available to her for completing the task, and the goals of the corporation (1983, p. 2). In the 19908 there now appears to be a "critical mass“ of women leaders in the corporation. Although the numbers of women have increased overall, their positions tend to be clustered in the lower and middle levels of management. In addition, major external forces are having an impact on both the academic and the corporate business world, affecting the ways organizations compete, manage, and do business (Epstein, (1993) argi programs, 1 ways organi favour incl and behavio undervalued If thi: Centred per: the lower a; economic and ““99 grou h'iPOthesize . because of t] lould contim to those of t Elanine the r the orgam-zat 47 (Epstein, 1988; Morrison, 1992; Webber, 1993). Webber (1993) argued that these forces required not just changes in programs, but changes in mind sets. These changes in the ways organizations must do business to survive seem to favour inclusion of leadership orientations, perspectives, and behaviours that have previously been associated with undervalued or unrecognized feminine characteristics. If this is true, one might hypothesize that a women— centred perspective of leadership should now be visible in the lower and middle ranks of management where these economic and social forces have merged with the presence of a large group or critical mass of women. One could also hypothesize that women in senior management positions, because of their isolation in a male-dominated culture, would continue to enact leadership behaviours more similar to those of their male colleagues. This study attempted to examine the relationship between a woman leader's level in the organizational hierarchy and her cognitive orientation(s). Interpret“ “Jinn's 192 There 5 agreement an to use in de leader effec that this in Me‘s: and define sever the underlYl t G0u1dne Chapter III Interpretive Framework for Assessing Cognitive Orientations to Leadership Quinn'§,(1988) Competing Values Model of Organizations and Leadership There are a variety of reasons for the lack of agreement among organizational theorists about what criteria to use in defining and assessing both organizational and leader effectiveness. Quinn & Rohrbaugh (1981) suggested that this inability to articulate a widely shared definition of effectiveness has resulted from the implicit values, beliefs, and assumptions that have served to shape and define several competing theoretical views of organizations. The theoretical views were labelled as "competing" because the underlying values, beliefs and assumptions that shaped these theoretical views tended to assign dominance to one set of values, beliefs and assumptions over the contrasting set. Gouldner (1959) identified two of these views as the rational system model and the natural system model. Scott 48 (1992) dist: meopen sys Accordi system bias, 1 given t produce (efficrt relatio Product require this or Pr0perr SYStem as Sysr emphas: (cited Quinn (1988 the Competin raia“Otis. mo. Co emu W 49 (1992) distilled a third theoretical view that he labelled the open system model. According to Scott, the emphasis of the rational system model, due to its mechanistic, instrumental bias, is on the number of units produced in a given time (productivity) and the number of units produced for a given number of inputs (efficiency). The natural system (or human relations) approach considers not only the production function but also the activities required for the unit to maintain itself. From this organic view, attention is focused on such properties as morale and cohesion. The open system model includes system—elaborating as well as system-maintaining functions. This model emphasizes adaptability and resource acquisition (cited in Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1981, p. 123-4). Quinn (1988) used the concept of competing values to develop a new, complex, and more holistic model to integrate the competing views or cognitive perspectives contained in the theoretical views of the rational model, human relations model, and open system model. ngnitive Understructure of the Competing Value§ Model Quinn's (1988) model was developed on the assumption that individuals generally prefer one of two dominant orientations in making sense of their world. He labelled one ”purposive" and described this orientation as being ”analytic, sequential, rational, time—oriented, discontinuous and verbal" (Quinn, 1988, p. 79). The alternative orientation is labelled "holistic" and is characterized as being ”holistic, synthetic, visuospatial, intuitive, t p.79). 0111: these two wai biological e: the structurr brain thinki: 5°Ciopsycnoi , i5 condition. i“WY" (01; these two he Odinn develc; CCEpeting 58‘ VEl'Sus flex if 011; I | l m means/ml l labelled .CO I I A filtemal fOC'I values model fle“bilityn .internaIQX: to the “Mel. t 1th time +' £1 . IQ llnes (51 .EpreSth Wh‘I 0 n,. I Widely acI 50 intuitive, timeless, diffuse and non-verbal" (Quinn, 1988, p. 79). Quinn (1984) proposed two possible explanations of these two ways of viewing the world. "The first is a biological explanation concerning information processing and the structure of the brain (i.e., left brain versus right brain thinking). The second explanation is more sociopsychological and suggests that one's perceptual system is conditioned to differentiate along these axes from early infancy" (Quinn, 1984, p. 12). Within the framework of these two main orientations to understanding the world, Quinn developed his model. Hi8 model utilizes three competing sets of values which he labelled (a) control versus flexibility; (b) internal versus external focus; and (c) means/processes versus ends/outcomes. Quinn used the two sets of competing values labelled "control versus flexibility" and "internal versus external focus" to create the two axes of his competing values model. The vertical axis was labelled the "control- flexibility" axis and the horizontal axis was labelled the "internal-external" focus. He then added a time dimension to the model. The left side of the framework was oriented to long time lines while the right side is oriented to short time lines (see Figure l). The polar ends of these axes represent what Quinn defined as competing values paradigms, or "widely accepted world views, or basic perceptual outlooks that are widely shared and difficult to alter" (Quinn, 1984 suggested a for control, with a tende advocate for In this worl 1mPOrtémt an consolidatic, eshopsed. The fie lurid View i flenhility uncertainty, Opportunity SuWort and motives are affiliatmn' “Poised. The have 51 (Quinn, 1984, p. 13). The control end of the vertical axis suggested a world view in which there is a strong preference for control, objectivity, and certainty with a tendency to search for logical direction and to advocate for perpetuation, entrenchment and the status quo. In this world view both the security and mastery motives are important and their related values of routinization, safety, consolidation, industry, mastery and achievement are espoused. The flexibility pole of the vertical axis suggested a world view in which there is a strong preference for flexibility and an increased tolerance for subjectivity and uncertainty. There is a tendency to search for variety, oPPOI‘tunity and change while advocating consideration, support and concern. Here the attachment and cognitive motives are both important and their related values of love, affiliation, nurturance, creativity, risk and growth are espoused, The two paradigms at opposite ends of the horizontal axis represented perspectives, values and beliefs that were differentiated along an internal-external focus. Quinn (1984) described the paradigm to the left as the internal focus or passive orientation that tended to be concerned with inner searching within the individual, or with the De Ople of the organization at the organizational level of KW RELATI Means: conesio Ends: human I (INTERNAL) . Means: infOrm COmmun 52 Competing Values Model (FLEXIBILITY) HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL r OPEN SYSTEM MODEL Means: Means: cohesion; morale flexibility readiness Ends: Ends: human resource development resource acquisition growth PEOPLE ORGAN I ZAT I ON ( INTERNAL) (EXTERNAL ) Means: Means: information management planning communication goal setting Ends: Ends: stability productivity control efficiency INTERNAL pnocsss MODEL RATIONAL GOAL MODEL (Control) (Adaptatl from Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1981) F igure 1: The Competing Values Model analysis. I harmony, co‘r. homogeneity, values were and serenityl right of th; action orier. ad'v'OCate the competitive I “gagement, 14). Oninn ; not only pa: 0f SChOlarS, diffErEnce is the EaSte aCCepting til WQCQSSarY suggeSts the or WtCOmesn 53 there was a tendency to seek analysis. In this paradigm, Imarmony, cohesion and cooperation while also seeking regularity and standardization. The dominant rest, reflection homogene i ty , values were directed towards withdrawal, 1984, p. 14). The paradigm to the and serenity (Quinn, right of this axis was externally focused and tended to be ai<:rtion oriented. In this paradigm, there was a tendency to advocate the initiation of planned action and to engage in The dominant values tended towards competitive acquisition. engagement, tension, impact and conflict (Quinn, 1984, p. Jwél ). "this internal—external focus Quinn (1984) stated that not only paralleled the inner-outer distinctions of a number of scholars, but they were also at the core of the On the left ‘11 fference in Eastern and Western philosophy. is the Eastern view which suggests oneness with nature, accepting things as they are, and the taking of no “ltjllrnecessary action. On the right is the Western view which EB‘JISEIgests the imposition of order onto nature and the "miaLJnhipulation of things in order to bring about desired ends C>J:’ outcomes" (p. 14). Quinn's (1988) model then was based on two primary ways 0 :15. thinking about the world, i.e., the purposive versus the 11 Q 1 istic view. He also stated that people have biases in ‘l: ln“53: way they process information. People tend to be very predispose orientatic Hithi are t frame the a Part1 as mo diffi weakn the t Four Model: \ QUinn .are repres 399mg the they ha i the “511mm is bad, the policieS. a t r name Or m0( C 54 predisposed to one dominant orientation and to use alternate orientations less frequently or not at all. Within these two broad orientations to the world are the quadrants of the competing values framework, and here too people are predisposed to the assumptions of one quadrant over another. Particular ways of organizing and leading are seen as morally right or wrong. People tend to have difficulty perceiving the strengths and the weaknesses in each of the quadrants or in each of the two frames (Quinn, 1988, p. 162). Four Models in the Competing Values Framework Quinn (1988) stated that his four models (quadrants) "are representations of four competing moralities or ways of seeing the world that people hold implicitly and about which they feel intensely. They represent the values that precede thE! assumptions that people make about what is good and what 13 bad, the unseen values for whose sake people, programs, pol 5- cies, and organizations live and die" (p. 42). One frailtle or model is not better than another: they are simply different ways of viewing the world. The four models are aligned along two axes. The Vet-t ical axis is polarized by descriptions of "flexibility and spontaneity" at the top half, and by "order and prgtiictability'I on the lower pole. The horizontal axis is 0r 1 exited towards an "internal focus and long time lines" on th ‘5’ .left side of the vertical axis, and by an "external to Qua and short time lines" on the right side. The models are label left quad Rational I contains 1 processes influence socially ¢ Within the 55 are labelled in a clockwise fashion starting at the upper left quadrant: Human Relations Model, Open Systems Model, Rational Goal Model and Internal Process Model. Each model contains within it implicit assumptions about valued and about those traits, behaviours, processes and outcomes, influence patterns and change strategies that contribute to socially constructed definitions of effective leadership within that model/orientation(see Figure 2). Iflmman Relations Model Quinn (1988) described the culture of the human relations model as being directed toward the development of hummiin resources. This model reflects the human relations moNrtament in organizational theory. iinformation sharing and participative decision making. It places great emphasis on P . ‘ec>lE>le are seen as cooperating members of a common soc1al s'1"£3"t:em with a common stake in what happens. The glue that h C>J~<fils them together is a sense of affiliation and belonging. Twas; human relations model places a great deal of emphasis on pe°E>le and flexibility and would stress the effectiveness Cri teria of cohesion and morale (as means) and human regQurce development (as ends). The assumptions or beliefs abQ‘Jt what constitutes good leadership inherent in this model are that leaders should exhibit a concerned and 8“ bl>ortive style. Leaders in this quadrant/model are labelled 'fa leaders in t the use of I 'Facili effort, to t interl>€2rsone Expected to They facilit Iain way of decisions as "Kenton Peeple throw, “Enters ShOu seek to in n “in strateg culture of t 56 labelled ”facilitators" and ”mentors". The focus for leaders in this quadrant is on human relations skills and the use of relational power. ”Facilitators" are expected to foster collective effort, to build cohesion and teamwork, and to manage interpersonal conflict. In terms of leader traits, they are expected to be process oriented, diplomatic and tactful. They facilitate interaction and utilize involvement as their main way of influencing others. They tend to identity decisions as their main change strategy. ”Mentors" are expected to engage in the development of people through a caring, empathetic orientation. Effective mentors show consideration in their leader behaviour and seek to influence others through mutual dependence. Their “3111 strategy for creating or facilitating change involves the use of informal expectations. Quinn (1988) labelled the cul‘t'ure of this model "The Team" (p.41) \The Om Systems Model Quinn (1988) described the culture of the open systems mo dQl as "The Adhocracy." This model emphasizes innovation an <1 creativity. It is oriented toward expansion and tr a‘tYlsformation. In this model, a leader does not control 57 FLEXIBILITY Human Relations Model Open Systems Model Focus: Human Resource Skills Focus: Boundary-Spanning Power: Relational Power: Reward MENTOR ROLE INNOVATOR ROLE caring, empathetic (T) creative, clever (T) shows consideration (B) envisions change (B) mutual dependence (IP) anticipates better future (IP) informal expectations (CS) generates hope (CS) QBOUP FACILITATOR ROLE BROKER ROLE process oriented (T) resource oriented (T) diplomatic, tactful (T) politically astute (T) facilitates interaction (B) acquires resources (B) involvement (IP) resource control (IP) decision identification (CS) instrumental compliance (CS) INTERNAL FOCUS EXTERNAL FOCUS MONITOR ROLE PRODUCER ROLE technically expert (T) task oriented (T) "9.1 l-prepared (T) work focused (T) Provides information (B) initiates action (B) in-‘E<'.irmation access (IP) accomplishment (IP) in-‘fc>rmation control (CS) rational persuasian ((253 ) COORDINATOR ROLE DIRECTOR ROLE dependable, reliable (T) decisive, directive (T) maintains structure (B) provides structure (B) workflow (IP) formal position (IP) situational engineering (CS) legitimate request (CS) F P::‘:=Ius: Coordinating Skills Focus: Directing ‘“'Qer: Expert Power: Legitimate 1333.? “-\ilERNAL PROCESS MODEL RATIONAL GOAL MODEL GMHROL ( Adapted from Quinn, 1984) F' 3:911re 2: Competing Values Framework of Leader Traits (T), sthaviours (B), Influence Patterns (IP) and Change I:‘ategies (CS) people but People fee; function be is no great places a g: flexibility flexibility aCllilisitior leaders, ir 'blokErs,' Spammg sir. The '; and Change ”imminent conCaptuali relies 0n 1 effectin 1 Ways and co desirable. others and better futu The "t menial le 58 people but inspires them. Motivation is seldom an issue. People feel fully committed and challenged. Adhocracies function best when the task is not well understood and there is no great urgency in completing it. The open system model places a great deal of emphasis on organization and flexibility and would stress the effectiveness criteria of resource flexibility and readiness (as means) and growth, and external support (as ends). Effective acquisition, "innovators" and in this model, Effective leaders focus on the use of boundary- 1984). leaders, are viewed as "brokers." spanning skills and the use of reward power (Quinn, The "innovator" is expected to facilitate adaptation and change by absorbing uncertainly in the external environment, identifying important trends, and 001112eptualizing and projecting needed changes. This leader rel ies on induction, ideas, and intuitive insights. The effective leader can create a vision, package it in inviting ways and convince others this vision is both necessary and (183 irable. The leader as innovator seeks to influence 0 t13~ers and to facilitate change by creating a vision of a bet her future and generating hope in others (Quinn, 1984). The "broker” role is concerned with maintaining e :‘1tlternal legitimacy and obtaining external resources. This 1% a~<1er is expected to be politically astute, persuasive, i ht luential and powerful. Image, appearance and reputation at Q valued (Quinn, 1988, p. 40-1). The broker attempts to influence c change thrc The Rationa Quinn to describe model is or “310! empha assumes the action, T is taken, 3 deciswe they Perfo Sh0rt time dEal of €111 StresS the setting (a 911118). Eff "direCtOrn 59 influence others through resource control and facilitates 1984). change through instrumental compliance (Quinn, The Rational Goal Model Quinn (1988) chose the descriptive term of "The Firm" This to describe the culture of the rational goal model. The model is oriented toward the maximization of output. This model Inajor emphasis is on profit and the bottom line. assumes that goal clarification results in productive Tasks are clarified, objectives are set, and action actimL are clearly instructed by is taken. People, in this model, a decisive authority figure and are rewarded financially if they perform well. This model assumes task clarity and The rational goal model places a great Short time lines. deal of emphasis on organization and control and would 81:1?1388 the effectiveness criteria of planning and goal Se"'i‘ting (as means) and productivity and efficiency (as Effective leaders in this model perform the roles of tunajlgs). I! <1:i-Jrector” and "producer." Criteria for effective 1 GEESlcflership focuses on directing skills and the use of l 39 itimate power . is expected to clarify The leader as "director" t1E>ility and predictability. The emphasis is on ihLBurement, documentation, and information management. Re. lefias are well defined and people are expected to follow the 3L“§as. Job security constitutes the major reward. This “It; ‘slfial of organizations functions well when tasks are well understood internal pr people and and common: ends) in tl Managers, ; roles. The Effective j COOIdinatir power (01m 61 understood and time is not an important factor. The internal process model places a great deal of emphasis on people and control and would stress information management and communication (as means) and stability and control (as ends) in the assessment of effectiveness (Quinn, 1984). Managers, in this model, are expected to play two primary roles. They are expected to Effective leaders in this model are expected to possess good "monitor" and "coordinate." (coordinating skills and to influence others through expert power (Quinn, 1984). the leader is expected to In the role of "monitor," know what is going on in the unit, to determine if people and to see if the unit is are complying with the rules, Behaviours associated with this role lKaeeting its quotas. in<::.‘lude handling paper work, reviewing and responding to routine information, and carrying out inspections, tours, 311(3- reviews of printouts and reports. The leader in the rt)i1-Cendable, reliable, well-prepared and technically expert. T111 8 leader is also expected to use work facilitation bSam-liaviours such as scheduling, organizing, coordinating staff efforts, handling crises, and attending to 't thnological, logistical, and housekeeping issues (Quinn, 1_ 988, p.39). The leader in the role of monitor influences others pr (Quinn, 1 Quin continual complex a single se' leadershi] (p.78). '. is able t, scores in demonstrai recognue Well as it the "maSte 30mph in r M 62 others primarily through control of access to information (Quinn, 1984). Quinn (1988) stated "that effective managers must continually change and balance opposites and must have a complex and dynamic theory of behaviour. To pursue some as implied in existing theories of single set of values, leadership, is both unrealistic and potentially dangerous" is someone who The "master leader" in this model, (p.78). is able to transcend style. scores in all eight of Quinn's leader roles thus This person would have higher ideunonstrating cognitive complexity in their ability to recognize and espouse values in their dominant quadrant as Quinn also reported that WmeJ.l as in the adjacent quadrants. tile: "master" category contained a high representation of Women in his studies. M and Negative Zones Quinn (1988) enclosed the four quadrants of his model w j‘1tllhin three concentric circles. The circle closest to the c Gaul'33-‘Il:re of the quadrants he called a "negative zone." This 2 one is characterized by what Quinn called unclear values or c: Q‘llateractive values. The next zone he calls the "positive 2 Qhe.” This zone is characterized by participation, c: anness, discussion, commitment, morale, and human Ci Q"elopment in the human resource quadrant; by innovation, adaptation. and growth accomplish: planning ii control, C: documentat: The 01 this zone c single Way Character“ discussion indiviGUal; reSponsive, ”Ndiency quadrant: l llntlichmil quadrant; a procefloral 63 adaptation, change, external support, resource acquisition and growth in the open systems quadrant; by productivity, accomplishment, impact, direction, goal clarity, and planning in the rational goal quadrant; and by stability, control, continuity, information management, and documentation in the internal systems quadrant. The outer circle Quinn called the "negative zone." In this zone of each quadrant the leader becomes fixed on a single way of seeing, thinking, and believing. This zone is characterized by inappropriate participation, unproductive discussion, extreme permissiveness, and uncontrolled individualism in the human resource quadrant; by premature responsiveness, disastrous experimentation, political expediency and unprincipled opportunism in the open systems quadrant; by perpetual exertion, human exhaustion, undiscerning regulation and blind dogma in the rational goal quadrant; and by habitual perpetuation, ironbound tradition, procedural sterility, and trivial rigor in the internal systems quadrant (Quinn, 1988, p. 61-69). Within the outer limits of each quadrant in this zone, Quinn (1988) described organizational cultures that are in trouble. The Human Relations quadrant that is labelled "The 'Team" in the positive zone is called "The Irresponsible Country Club” in the negative zone range. ”The Adhocracy" Of the Open System quadrant evolves into what is labelled "The Tumultuous Anarchy.“ ”The Firm“ of the Rational Goal Fodel evolx Sweat Shop' Bureaucracy axis is 'd while the 1 axis is Che 19ft POle a 64 Model evolves into a culture Quinn calls "The Oppressive Sweat Shop"; and "The Hierarchy" becomes "The Frozen Bureaucracy" in the Internal Systems Model. The horizontal axis is ”chaotic" at the upper limit of the negative zone, while the lower pole is labelled as "rigid." The horizontal axis is characterized as "apathetic and indifferent" on the left pole and "belligerent and hostile" on the right pole. Summary Quinn (1988) argued that moving beyond rational management means either having, or developing, the ability to use both the purposive and holistic frames. Both frames are equally valued. It requires of the effective leader the ability to recognize the polarities inherent in each quadrant, and in diagonally opposite leader roles. It requires the ability to see the strengths and weaknesses in each of the quadrants/models and to not become attached to only one perspective. Finally, it requires leaders to be cognitively complex, to be able to use what he calls 'transformative logic” i.e. the simultaneous use of integration and differentiation strategies in thinking (Quinn, 1988, p. 165). Quinn (1984) suggested that leaders, as individuals, thaws a tendency to conceive of and to employ only three of the four sets of competing cognitive models (p.14). In terms of only one respond the othe beliefs . ESpouse ' this frar their or:_ discount reflected that dorn ”leans-en Produce Cl diagOnall, Quin] “muting Values) 0‘ 65 terms of levels of cognitive complexity, some leaders use only one dominant model in the ways they make sense of and respond to their world. Cognitively complex individuals on the other hand, may have one strong quadrant of values, beliefs and assumptions, but they tend to recognize and espouse the values of the adjoining quadrants or models in this framework. Quinn (1988) reported that individuals and their organizations tend to deny, diminish, devalue and discount those values, beliefs and assumptions that are reflected in the quadrant or model diagonally opposite to their dominant quadrant in this framework. In terms of the "means-ends" value dimension, "means" in one quadrant produce conflict in terms of achieving "ends" in the diagonally opposite quadrant. Quinn also stated that there is a general cultural bias favouring assertiveness and conflict (external oriented values) over passiveness and harmony (internal focused values) in Western culture. This bias, he stated, "permeates the entire literature on leadership" (Quinn, 1984, p.16). The inference is that this cultural bias in Western society's theoretical views of organizations and leadership has tended to devalue, discount, diminish or to idemy the values inherent in the internally focused quadrants (human relations quadrant and the internal processes guladrant). Fergi chiefly 11 because, a recognize perceived regulatiox little in: Sinc¢ Examined ! leadershi] Study, thq nixed, B; Instituti, inund to l 6011:1an , COHCluded 66 Ferguson (1984) suggested that women were located chiefly in the first and second levels of management because, as "outsiders" to the dominant male value system recognized by organizations in Western society, they were perceived to require control through the use of rules, regulations, procedures, and routinized work that requires little independent judgement. Since the late 1970's a number of researchers have examined gender differences related to various dimensions of leadership. As reported in the literature review for this study, the results of these many studies are ambiguous and mixed. Birnbaum (1992) concluded from studies in the Institutional Leadership Project that although women were found to be no less effective than men as presidents, women continue to be seen as different. Many researchers have concluded that although there may not be statistically significant differences in the effectiveness (ends) of male and female leaders, there do appear to be perceived differences in the processes used to achieve these ends (Astin & Lelande, 1991; Bennis, 1989; Capozzoli, 1989; Gardner, 1988; Gillett-Karam, 1988; Helgeson, 1990; Jensen, 1987; Kruger, 1993; Loden, 1985; Macauley & Gonzalez, 1993: Miller, 1987; Rosener, 1990; Schaef, 1992; Shakeshaft, 2L989; Shavlik & Touchton, 1988). Other researchers have PrOposed alternate hypotheses to explain the findings of no difference between male and female leaders. These explanatic can influe situation. level in 1 variable 1 process 01 imPact of another Cc Process 01 time in pc Variables Orientatic (1977), SL '0“ might ””958 01 no diffErE Wider So( developed onin: dinensiom 67 explanations may serve to identify mediating variables that can influence changes in one's way of making sense of a situation. Quinn (1988) spoke to the influence of one's level in the organizational hierarchy as being a contextual variable that may affect one's cognitive orientation or process of sense making. Bolman & Deal (1988) spoke to the impact of one's organizational culture or group culture as another contextual variable that might influence one's process of sense making. Wheeler & Tack (1989) identified time in position and years of administrative experience as variables that might explain differences in cognitive orientation. Powell (1988), building on the work of Kanter (1977), suggested that imbalances in the gender—ratios at work might be yet another variable that contributes to one's process of sense making. Finally, there might, in fact, be no differences in either biological or sociopsychological gender socialization patterns that influenced how one developed cognitive orientations. Quinn (1984) stated that studies of leadership dimensions and leadership effectiveness could also be organized along the three value dichotomies which were reflected in his model. He cited Bass's (1981) Handbook of .Leadership as devoting five chapters to the study of leadership along the following value dichotomies: democratic versus authoritarian; participative versus d1 rective; relations oriented versus task oriented; considera motivatio weaknesse different PerSPeCti Lyon (1988) of difficult differenc [1983) an women 93C their app pe“Pratt: (1984, 19 to use 0n °f their boundary- their qua valueS' t findings relation hOpes tha organized commEx a because i ratingr th 68 consideration versus initiation; and laissez-faire versus motivation to manage (Quinn, 1984, p. 14). One of the weaknesses of many of these studies was the tendency to seek differences along polarized dimensions, values or perspectives. Lyons (1983), Gilligan & Attanucci (1988) and Quinn (1988) offeed an explanation that might help to explain the difficulty in finding statistically significant gender differences among leadership dimensions/concepts. Lyons (1983) and Gilligan & Attanucci (1988) stated that men and women each use both moral perspectives (justice and care) in their approach to making moral decisions even though one perspective appears to be preferred by each gender. Quinn (1984, 1988) stated that leaders in his studies also tended to use one dominant moral quadrant or model in making sense of their world, but they also tended to recognize and use boundary-spanning values from the two quadrants adjacent to their quadrant. Therefore, one's use of boundary-spanning values, traits or behaviours might serve to mediate against findings of statistically significant differences in relation to dominant quadrant orientations. This researcher hopes that Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model of Organizations and Leadership will make visible a more complex and holistic woman-centred orientation to leadership tuacause it is designed around three sets of competing values rather than being dualistic in approach. 69 In an attempt to examine the utility of Quinn's model in making visible gender-related differences as identified or described by other researchers, this researcher reviewed the published works of several others. She compared the gender differences found in areas of traits, behaviours, influence patterns and/or change strategies to those identified by Quinn (1984, 1988) for each of his four quadrants. The studies examined included Ferguson, 1984; Loden, 1985; Blackmore, 1987; Melia & Lyttle, 1987; Miller, 1987: Desjardins, 1989; Bensimon, 1989b; Shakeshaft, 1989; Shavlik & Touchton, 1988; Helgeson, 1990; Josselson, 1990; Schaef, 1992; and Heim with Golant, 1992. In the majority of these studies, the leaders occupied senior administrative positions in their organizations. In classifying the traits, values, behaviours, influencing patterns and/or change strategies cited by these authors for both men and women, the vast majority of the characteristics associated with women leaders fell into Quinn's Human Relations quadrant with a sprinkling of characteristics found also in both the Open Systems quadrant and the Internal Process quadrant. In contrast, the vast majority of characteristics associated with male leaders in these studies fell into Quinn's (1988) Rational Goal quadrant with a sprinkling of Characteristics in each of the Open System and Internal I¥rocess quadrants. These results would appear to support hKDth Lyons (1983), Gilligan & Antanucci, (1987) and Quinn's (1988) 5 orientat the cogr. mediated values, This cur QUinn's four mod, behaviou; in the m. individué devalued! To I identify, C0‘Jnitive by Select of the On attempted developed peISpeCti Model, th are (209111 .‘ ““1611, t 70 (1988) positions that individuals tend to use one dominant orientation/model in making sense of their world. However, the cognitive orientation of the dominant model can be mediated by the individual's ability to recognize and use values, beliefs and assumptions of the adjoining quadrants. This cursory analysis also provided findings that support Quinn's view that individuals tend to use only three of the four models of his framework. The values, traits, behaviours, influence patterns and change strategies located in the model or quadrant that was diagonally opposite to the individual's dominant quadrant tended to be ignored, devalued, or not addressed. To reiterate, the purpose of this study was to identify, using Quinn's competing values model, the cognitive orientations and underlying value systems espoused by selected women leaders at various organizational levels of the Ontario community college system. The study attempted to describe, compare and contrast how these women developed their cognitive orientations from their perspective. Within the framework of the Competing Values Model, the study attempted to describe whether these women are cognitively complex. The study also examined selected factors as identified in the literature which may produce variability in the development of cognitive orientations (socialization patterns, educational level and work experiex rganiza Strengtl C_o_ Control (47%) External (57%) > Internal (47%) Prism 1 Scores (avaraga of iaatra-aat acora calcalatad for aach rola of aach raapoadaat (raaga 1.0- 1.0)) Mentor (6.1) Innovator (5.8) Broker (5.73) Producer (5.73) Coordinator (5.5) Facilitator (5.5) Director (5.4) Monitor (5.3) Human Rel. (5.79) Open System (5.76) Rational Goal (5.6) Internal Proc. (5.4) Flexibility (5.8) > Control (5.5) Internal (5.7) > External (5.6) ‘I‘ <11 146 l HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL { The Mentor ( Tolerance for Diversity (23) l Belief in Participatory l Decision Making (21) E Delegate Task & Resp. (21) { Open 8 Sharing Environment (21) ; Importance of Modelling and Teaching (20) l Seek Diversity of Opinion (20) 1 Empower Others (17) i Concern for Others (17) l Influence by "Selling” (1?) } Know and Be Known (14) Importance of Recognition of 1 Others (13) ‘ Importance of Listening (12) l l I The Facilitator Share information up-front (23) Decision making by Consensus (22) : Identify decisions, clarify ‘ roles and tasks (20) 1 Making Meeting more effective (19) ; Express views and value whole 1 over part (18) I Resolve conflict by ‘ collaboration (16) OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL The Innovator Identifies Trends & Opportunities (13) Tends to be politically astute (21) Resource Oriented (18) Presents Ideas in Writing (17) Networks Externally (16) The Monitor Use of 1:1 meetings for review and feedback (14) Use of Regular Meetings (12) The Coordinator g INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL Ihg Director Gives clear directions, expectations & limits (22) Clarifies unit's purpose (20) Communicates plan in meaningful way (20) Is decisive (12) The Producer Is task oriented (19) Climate of Productive Achievement (15) Use of rational persuasion (14) Gets hands dirty (13) Achieves results (13) ! l The Broker 3 l l l g l I l ‘ l RATIONAL GOAL MODEL Figure 3: Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, Interview Data, Total Group (N=24) -L-v'!——A--"I_-.I.— Ill, 1’ ||Iy l bel San fray 147 Resulteefor the Sepior Management Group:9f Wopen Leadere N=8 An analysis of the interview data and the Prism 1 scores for the senior management group of women leaders is summarized in Table 7. Leader Roles, Cognitive Models, Table 7 & Cognitive Perspectives Senior Management Group (N=8) Category Interview Data (avaraga of parcaat acoraa calculatad for aach rola of aacb raIPOadaat) Prism 1 Scores (avaraga of inatrn-aat acoraa calcalatad for aach rola of aach raapoadaat [raaga 1.0- 1.01) lLeader Roles 13 l Director (63%) Producer (59%) Mentor (59%) Broker (54%) Facilitator (50%) Monitor (38%) Coordinator (25%) Innovator (13%) Broker (6.2) Mentor (5.9) Innovator (5.8) Producer (5.63) Director (5.56) . Facilitator (5.3) Coordinator (5.19) Monitor (5.16) iCognitive Models Rational Goal (61%) Human Relations (58%) Open System (34%) Internal Proc. (31%) Open System (6.0) Human Relations (5.7) Rational Goal (5.6) Internal Proc. (5.2) iCognitive ;;Perspectives Flexibility (46%) = Control (46%) External (48%) > Internal (45%) Flexibility (5.8) > Control (5.3) External (5.7) > Internal (5.5) Figure 4 displays a summary of the dominant traits, beliefs & behaviours reported by more than half of this senior management group visually displayed within the framework of the CVM to which they relate. 148 HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL The Mentor Belief in participatory decision making (7) Import. of Modelling/Teaching (7) Delegate task & responsibility l (7) 3 Seek diversity of opinion (7) 1 Create open environment (6) l OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL The Innovator _..-___- - _ ---__.___.—-————'- Concern for others (5) The Facilitator The Broker Decision making by consensus (7) Express views (7) 1 Value of whole over part (7) 1 Share information up-front (7) Conflict resolution by 3 collaboration (5) ’ Identify decision, clarify tasks & roles (4) 1 Meetings more effective (4) Is politically astute (6) Is resource oriented (6) Networks internally (5) Presents ideas in writing (4) +1 The Monitor Use of 1:1 meetings for review & feedback (4) The Producer Climate of productive achievement (6) Is task oriented (5) Use of rational persuasion (5) Getting results (4) Doing work/getting hands dirty (4) The Coordinator The Director ; Use of clear expectations & ( limits (7) 3 ‘ Clarify purpose of unit (6) ‘ Communicate plan in meaningful way (5) l l l ‘3 INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL 1 RATIONAL GOAL MODEL Figure 4: Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, Interview Data, Senior Level Group (N=8) 149 Resulps for the Middle Management Level Wepen Leaders (N=7) An analysis of the interview data and the Prism 1 scores for the middle management group of leaders (N=7) is summarized in Table 8. Table 8 Leader Roles, Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives Middle Management Group (N=7) Prism 1 Scores (avaraga of iaatraaaat acoraa Interv1ew Data (avaraga of parcaat acoraa calcalatad for aach rola of calculatad for aach rola of each raapoadaat) aach raapoadaat [raaga 1.0- 7.0)) Category Director (83%) Mentor (6.1) Broker (76%) Facilitator (6.0) Mentor (74%) Innovator (5.96) Facilitator (66%) Broker (5.86) Producer (54%) Producer (5.79) Innovator (49%) Monitor (5.5) Monitor (36%) Coordinator (5.3) Coordinator (0%) Director (5.2) 3 Cognitive Models Human Relations (70%) Human Relations (6.1) Rational Goal (69%) Open System (5.9) Open System (63%) Rational Goal (5.6) Internal Proc. (20%) Internal Proc. (5.4) ' Cognitive Flexibility (67%) > Flexibility (6.0) > . Perspectives Control (45%) Control (5.5) Internal (5.75) > External (5.73) External (66%) > Internal (45%) A summary of the dominant traits, beliefs, and behaviours reported by more than half of the middle level group of leaders is shown in Figure 5 visually displayed within the CVM framework. HHMMAJIIREflJvrlanS EKHEEI. The Mentor Tolerance for diversity (7) . Concern for others (7) i Influence by "selling" (7) . Seek Diversity of opinion (6) i Importance of modelling & teaching (6) . Belief in participatory decision making (6) Empowerment of others (5) i Delegate task a responsibility i (5) I The Facilitator ! Identify decisions & clarify i roles and tasks (7) 1 Structure meetings for i effectiveness (7) ; Share information up-front (7) { Decisions based on consensus : (6) E!Va1ues expression of views (6) ) Resolve conflict by . collaboration (6) 2 Good of whole over parts (6) The Monitor Use of 1:1 meetings for review (6) l 1 i i i ! i i The Coordinator i i 1 l q ; INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL Figure 5: Summary of Dominant Traits, .150 OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL The Innovator Identifies trends & opportunities (6) Envisions change (4) Plant seeds & nurture (4) The Broker Is politically astute (6) Presents ideas in writing (6) Presents ideas orally (5) Is resource oriented (5) Networks externally (6) The Producer Climate of productive accomplishment (5) Use of rational persuasion (5) Task oriented (4) Achievement oriented (4) IhggDirector Clarifies expectations, sets limits (6) Clarifies purpose of unit (6) Communicates plan well (6) Is decisive (5) IRAJUKNEAL (KIAL EKHNEL Interview Data, Middle Management Group (N=7). Beliefs & Behaviours, 151 First Level Management Group Leader Results (N=9) An analysis of the interview data and the Prism 1 scores for preferences in leader roles, cognitive models and overall cognitive perspective is shown in Table 9. Leader Roles, Cognitive Models, Table 9 & Cognitive Perspectives First Level Group of Women Leaders (N=9) Category Interview Data (evereqe of percent scores cslceleted for each role of each respondent) Prism 1 Scores (everege of instrument scores celcnleted for eech role of eecn respondent [tense 1.0- 7-01) Leader Roles Director (87%) Mentor (83%) Broker (67%) Facilitator (63%) Coordinator (50%) Monitor (50%) Producer (46%) Innovator (31%) Innovator (5.57) Coord. (5.55) Mentor (5.54) Producer (5.52) Monitor (5.52) Director (5.5) Facilitator (5.5) Broker (5.48) Cognitive Models Human Relations (73%) Rational Goal (67%) Internal Proc. (50%) Open System (49%) Human Rel. (5.55) Rational Goal (5.55) Open System (5.55) Internal Proc. (5.55) . Cognitive iPerspectives Flexibility (61%) > Control (59%) Internal (62%) > External (58%) A summary of the dominant traits, beliefs, Control (5.59) > Flexibility (5.56) Internal (5.7) > External (5.5) and behaviours described by more than 50% of this group of first line women leaders (N=9) is shown in Figure 6. it 152 HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL The Mentor Empowerment of others (9) Delegate task & responsibility (9) Create an open environment (9) Tolerance for diversity (9) , Belief in participatory j decision making (8) ; Seek diverse opinions (8) 5 Know and be known to others (8) 3 Influence by ”selling" (8) 3 Change through modelling & i teaching (7) § Importance of giving i recognition (7) i Importance of listening (7) l . Concern for others (7) The Facilitator 1 Identify decisions, clarify ' roles & tasks (9) E Decision making by consensus : (9) ; Share information up-front (9) 1 Structure meetings for . effectiveness (8) i Resolve conflict by collaboration (5) The Monitor Use of regular meetings (6) Monitoring by walking about (5) The Coordinator INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL Figure 6: Summary of Dominant Traits, OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL The Innovator Identifies trends & opportunities (6) The Broker Is politically astute (8) Is resource oriented (7) Networks externally (7) Presents ideas in writing (6) The Producer Is task oriented (6) Does work/hands dirty (6) Is achievement oriented (5) The Director Clarifies expectations/limits (9) Communicates plan well (9) Clarifies purpose of unit (8) Is decisive (5) RATIONAL GOAL MODEL Interview Data, First Level Group (N=9). Beliefs & Behaviours, ch fr: fl] lea sigr Rela leadi [See Gifte- ‘hfi on “$3; C 153 Relationship of Level in the Organizational Hierarchy to Cognitive Models and Perspectives An analysis of the interview data (ANOVA p=.05) indicated that the middle level women managers selected, at a statistically significant level, behaviours associated with the cognitive perspective oriented towards flexibility more frequently (Mean=0.67) than did the first line women leaders (Mean=0.61), or the group of senior women leaders (Mean=0.44) [see Table 10]. In addition, the middle level group of women leaders chose behaviours associated with the Open System Model more frequently (Mean=0.64) than did the women leaders at the first line level (Mean=0.49) or the senior level (Mean=0.35) [see Table 11]. Finally, the data indicated that the first line women leaders chose more frequently, at a statistically significant level, behaviours associated with the Human Relations Model (Mean=O.73) than did the middle line women leaders (Mean=0.69) or the senior women leaders (Mean=0.54) [see Table 12]. No other areas of statistically significant difference were found among the women leaders by level of the organizational hierarchy. The ANOVA done with the Prism 1 scores indicated no areas of statistically significant differences among the women leaders by level in the organizational hierarchy. ‘Source 154 Table 10 ANOVA of Interview Scores for Flexibility and Level in the Organization Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Squares 'within 2 21 0.20391443 0.21709164 0.10195721 0.01033770 23 0.4210060? Table 11 ANOVA of Interview Scores for Open System Model and Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Level in the Organization Mean Squares 2 21 0.31914021 0.62692460 0.15957011 0.02985355 23 0.94606481 Table 12 ANOVA of Interview Scores for Human Relations Model and Level in Organization Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Squares IWIthin 2 21 0.15992137 0.22624559 0.07996069 0.01077360 23 0.38616696 In terms of behaviours that were reported by greater than 50% of respondents in each group, the behaviour titled: "creating an open environment" was valued more by the first line women leaders (N=9) and senior level leaders (N=6) than by middle level women leaders of which less than 50% of this 0t QIO mane (N=7 Othe. ”sell Choic refle< among “W11: Mme, imageL “9”)ng \k ”flag 155 group reported the use of this behaviour. In addition, the first line women leaders, in contrast to the middle and senior level leaders, cited the following behaviours as being important to them in the enactment of their role: knowing others and being known to them (N=8), giving recognition (N=7), and listening (N=7). This may reflect the more intimate and interdependent nature of working relationships between first line leaders and the people they work with and could account for the selecting of behaviours from the Human Relations Model more frequently than the other two groups. In terms of influencing strategy, the senior management group (N=8) indicated that the use of rational persuasion (N=5) was their strategy of choice. The middle level management leaders (N=7) used both "selling" strategies (N=7) and rational persuasion techniques (N=5) to influence others. The first level group (N=9) reported the use of "selling" strategies (N=8) as their influence pattern of choice. This choice of influencing strategy might also reflect differences in the degree of intimacy or closeness among people who work together at the various levels in the organization as well as the degree of intimacy shared between superiors and the first level group of managers. The selling strategy, to be effective, requires a good knowledge of the needs and interests of the person/group to be influenced. As one moves up the hierarchy, the intimacy ac fo Th 68! ter (Neg Pres midd writ: level 1evel: the o: ”mun. 156 and interdependence between the leader and the front line worker tends to decrease. Middle level managers tend to perform a spanning role between the top and lower levels of the organizational hierarchy. They may need to become comfortable with using influencing strategies associated with closer work relationships between first and middle level managers, as well as using more formal strategies (i.e. rational persuasion) that are more usual in influencing higher levels of management, and/or those outside the college. Many of the middle level leaders were extensively involved with their community vis-a-vis acquiring resources (i.e. use of equipment, field placements for students, access to new technology and procedures). This may account for their increased focus on behaviours associated with the Open System Model. A difference was also noted among the three groups in terms of how they presented ideas. The senior level women (N=8) and the first line women leaders (N=9) reported presenting ideas predominantly in writing, whereas the middle line leaders (N=7) reported presenting ideas both in writing and orally. Again this might reflect differences in levels of intimacy, and hence the formality required between levels of the organizational hierarchy, as well as between the organizational leaders and leaders in the external community. In these situations, a traditional (i.e.male) is lev rep. lea: leve °riel This Organ. ”nit/c 157 preference for the presentation of ideas in a more formal, objective format may be the accepted standard for operating. In terms of the Monitor role and how the leader keeps track of what is going on in the unit/organization, the senior level women leaders (N=8) and the middle level leaders (N=7) tended to rely more on one-to—one meetings and reviews (i.e. 4/5 in the senior group, and 6/7 in the middle management group). In contrast, the first line women leaders (N=9) demonstrated a marked preference for regular meetings (N=6) and walking about visiting and talking with those who report to them (N=5). Again this finding might reflect the level of intimacy between first line leaders and the people who work with them, or it might reflect a gender issue related to the valuing of intimacy with those with whom one works. In terms of the behaviour entitled "networking" which is concerned with building bases of support, the middle level women leaders and the first line women leaders reported being externally oriented (i.e., 6/7 middle level leaders, 7/8 first level leaders), compared to the senior level women leaders who reported being more internally oriented in terms of forming networks and bases of support. This might reflect different ways among levels in the organization of obtaining needed resources to meet the unit/organization goals and objectives. The middle and first line managers generally reported being more externally . u——-.- - ..-- e. 158 oriented regarding the securing of needed resources from individuals both higher up in the organizational hierarchy, and euternally in the community. Senior level leaders, in the interviews, spoke more often about behaviours influencing the internal organization's people towards the achievement of the organization’s vision. ngnitive Modele and Perepectives related to Gender-Ratio in the Subordinate Group (Firet Level Leaders) In order to examine the impact of gender on women's cognitive orientations to leadership, the sample of first line women leaders (N=9) was divided into three equal groups of three women each based on the different gender ratios in their subordinate groups. One group of first line women leaders had a subordinate group that was greater than 85% male (Male Skewed Group). These women leaders were drawn from the business and technology academic divisions. Another group of first line leaders had a subordinate group that was greater than 85% female (Female Skewed Group). This group was drawn completely from the health science academic division. The third group of women leaders had a subordinate group that was between 65% and 85% male (Tilted Male Group). This group of women leaders was drawn from the applied arts and business academic divisions. Once again an ANOVA was completed for each the two data collection methods. The dependent variables were the 159 outcomes (mean scores) as they were computed for each tool. The analysis of variance of the Prism 1 data did not indicate any areas of statistically significant differences among the gender groups in terms of choice of preference in cognitive model (i.e., Human Relations, Rational Goal, Open System and Internal Process), nor on the overall cognitive perspectives (i.e., flexibility, control, an internal focus, or an external focus). However, the ANOVA for the interview data indicated that the women leaders in the Male Skewed Group tended to describe behaviours associated with the Rational Goal Model (Mean=0.83) more frequently (at a statistically significant level) than did women leaders in the Male Tilted Group (Mean=0.75) or the Female Skewed Group (Mean=0.40) [see Table 13]. Table 13 ANOVA of Interview Scores for Rational Goal Model and Gender Ratio in Subordinate Groups Degrees of Sum of Mean Freedom Squares Squares 0.31288580 0.15644290 0.08796296 0.01466049 0.4008487? beh lea: have resp 1992 160 Male Skewed Group Result§;LN=3) An analysis of the interview data and the Prism 1 scores for preferences in leader roles, cognitive models and overall cognitive perspectives as expressed by the leaders of the Male Skewed Groups is shown in Table 14. Leader Roles, Category Table 14 Interview Data (everege of percent scores celcnleted for each role of eech respondent) Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives Male Skewed Group (N=3) Prism 1 Scores (everege of instrument scores cslcnleted for each role of each respondent [range 1.0- 7.0)) Leader Roles Director (100%) Mentor (77%) Producer (66%) Facilitator (63%) Broker (57%) Monitor (50%) Innovator (33%) Coordinator (0%) Mentor (6.4) Coordinator (6.3) Producer (6.2) Innovator (6.1) Broker (6.0) Facilitator (5.7) Director (5.6) Monitor (5.3) Cognitive Models Rational Goal (83%) Human Relations (70%) Open System (47%) Internal Proc. (25%) Human Relations (6.1) Open System (6.0) Rational Goal (5.9) Internal Proc. (5.8) Cognitive “Perspectives Flexibility (59%) > Control (54%) External (65%) > Internal (48%) A summary of the dominant traits, Flexibility (6.0) > Control (5.9) Internal (6.0) > External (5.8) beliefs and behaviours indicated in the narratives of these three women leaders is summarized on Figure 7. These characteristics have been displayed within the CVM quadrants under the respective leader roles as defined by Quinn (1988, 1992). 1990. Fjgt Inte ; HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL E The Mentor Belief in participatory decision making (3) Empowerment of others (3) Delegate task & responsibility (3) f Seek diversity of opinions (3) ' Tolerance for diversity (3) , Know and be known (3) 3 Change through modelling & teaching (2) Create open environment (2) Importance of listening (2) Influence by "selling" (2) The Facilitator Identify decisions, clarify roles & tasks (3) Decision making by consensus .I (3) 3 Share information up-front (3) ‘ Values good of whole over part L (3) ; Resolves conflict by compromise (2) 1 Structures meetings for effectiveness 2) 161 OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL The Innovator Identifies trends 6 opportunities (2) Trust intuition & hunches (2) The Broker Is resource oriented (3) Networks externally (3) Presents ideas in writing (2) Is politically astute (2) ' The Monitor Uses 1:1 meetings for review & feedback (2) Uses regular meetings for review a feedback (2) i The Coordinator INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL F14nuren'7: The Proghcer Is task oriented (3) Influences by rational persuasion (3) Is achievement oriented (2) Actually does work (2) Climate of productive achievement (2) The Director Is decisive (3) Clarifies expectations/limits (3) Clarifies unit's purpose (3) Communicates plans well (3) FUVPICMHEL (“MAL KENNEL Interview Data, Male Skewed Group (N=3). Summary of Dominant Traits, Beliefs & Behaviours, St 162 Results for the Wogen Leaders of Female Skewed GrQQE§ (N=3) An analysis of the interview data and the Prism 1 scores for preferred leader roles, cognitive models, and cognitive perspectives for this group of three women is shown in Table 15. Leader Roles, Table 15 Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives Women Leaders of Female Skewed Groups (N=3) Category Interv1ew Data (average of percent scores calculated for each role of each respondent) Prism 1 Scores (average of instrnmeet scores calculated for each role or each respondent [range 1.0- 7.0)) Leader Roles Mentor (93%) Director (75%) Broker (73%) Monitor (58%) Facilitator (57%) Director (47%) Producer (11%) Coordinator (0%) Mentor (6.3) Coordinator (5.8) Monitor (5.4) Innovator (5.33) Producer (5.33) Director (5.33) Facilitator (4.9) Broker (4.3) Cognitive Models Human Relations (77%) Open System (60%) Rational Goal (42%) Internal Proc. (29%) Human Rel. (5.63) Internal Proc. (5.63) Open System (4.8) Rational Goal (3.7) Cognitive Flexibility (69%) > Control (36%) Internal (53%) > External (52%) A summary of the dominant traits, beliefs, Control (5.5) > Flexibility (5.2) Internal (5.6) > External (5.1) and behaviours that were described by this group of women is shown in Figure 8. 163 HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL The Mentor Belief in participatory decision making (3) Delegate task & responsibility (3) Empowerment of others (3) Seek diversity of input (3) Importance of recognition of others (3) Importance of good I.P.R. skills (3) Tolerance for diversity (3) Importance of listening (3) Change by modelling & teaching (2) Create an open environment (3) Influence by ''selling" (3) : Concern for others (3) ? Know and be known (2) The Facilitator f Identify decisions & clarify roles and tasks (3) 3 Make meetings more effective (3) ; Decision making by consensus (3) ‘ Resolve conflict by collaboration i 1 l I i i i liiguuna 8: Interview Data, (3) Values good of whole over parts (3) Shares information up-front (3) OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL The Innovator Identifies trends & opportunities (3) Envisions change (2) Trusts intuition & hunches (2) The Broker Is politically astute (3) Networks externally (3) Presents ideas in writing (3) Is resource oriented (2) The Monitor Use of regular meetings for review a feedback (3) Use of trusted others for feedback (2) Monitoring by walking about (2) The Coordinator INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL Summary of Dominant Traits, The Producer Does work/gets hands dirty (2) The Director Clarifies expectation/limits (3) Communicates plan well (3) Clarifies purpose of unit (2) RATIONAL GOAL MODEL _.-. _-—.———-—_ -‘—_—.__——__-M___—-_LF‘_______. ._—____——.___..__.~_—_____,____._._.__—_ Wm-m-< r l l l l I Beliefs & Behaviours, Female Skewed Groups (N=3). 164 Resulte for the_Til§ed Male Group (N=3l An analysis of the interview data and the Prism 1 scores indicated the following preferences for leader roles, cognitive models and overall cognitive perspectives in this group of three women as shown in Table 16. Leader Roles, Table 16 Cognitive Models & Cognitive Perspectives Male Tilted Groups (N=3) Interv1ew Data (average of percent scores calculated for each role of each respondent) Prism 1 Scores (average of instrument scores calculated for each role of each respondent (range 1.0- 7-01) Leader Roles Director (83%) Mentor (80%) Facilitator (70%) Producer (61%) Broker (57%) Coordinator (50%) Monitor (41%) Innovator (13%) Coordinator (5.9) Producer (5.8) Mentor (5.5) Innovator (5.5) Broker (5.4) Facilitator (5.3) Director (5.1) Monitor (4.8) Cognitive Models Human Relations (77%) Rational Goal (72%) Internal Proc. (46%) Open System (37%) Open System (5.46) Rational Goal (5.46) Human Rel. (5.38) Internal Proc. (5.38) . Cognitive fPerspectives Flexibility (57%) > Control (49%) Internal (62%) > External 54%) A summary of the dominant traits, Flexibility (5.42) = Control (5.42) External (5.5) > Internal (5.4) beliefs and behaviours described by this group of women in their interview narratives is shown in Figure 9 displayed within the CVM framework. i HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL I The Mentor I Empowerment Of others (3) I Change through modelling & 5 teaching (3) < Delegate task & responsibility (3) I Importance Of giving recognition . (3) I Create Open environment (3) I Tolerance for diversity (3) i Know and be known (3) ; Influence by "selling" (3) i Belief in participative decision , making (2) ; Seek diverse Opinions (2) i Importance Of listening (2) I I I I I I The Facilitator Identifies decisions, clarifies , roles & tasks (3) 7 Makes meetings more effective (3) Decision making by consensus (3) ' Share information up-front (3) Resolve conflict by compromise (2) & accommodation (2) Values good Of whole over parts (2) 165 OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL The Innovator The Broker Is politically astute (3) Networks internally (2) The Monitor Uses 1:1 meetings for review and feedback (2) Monitors by walking about (2) The Coordinator INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL FitnureIS): Summary of Dominant Traits, IT“; Prghyuceh; Is task oriented (3) Is achievement oriented (2) Does work/gets hands dirty (2) Climate Of productive achievement (2) The Director Clarifies expectations/limits (3) Clarifies unit's purpose (3) Communicates plans well (3) RATIONAL GOAL MODEL Interview Data, Male Tilted Group (N=3). Beliefs & Behaviours, I I I I I I I I I I I I I | I I 166 The women leaders of the Female Skewed Groups did not seem to stress their Producer role (i.e., focus on task and goal achievement and the creation of a climate of productive accomplishment) within their work units. In spite of this, these women demonstrated the highest scores for behaviours related to the facilitation of group work and the development of individuals. This might be accounted for by the fact that these leaders supervised health and human service departments that had very high ratios of health care professionals who themselves may be more accustomed to working both independently and within groups. The women leaders of the Female Skewed Groups favoured collaborative strategies for conflict resolution (N=3), whereas the leaders of numerically male dominated subordinate groups tended to favour strategies aimed at compromise (N=2 for each group). In terms of the monitoring of activities in the work unit, the leaders of the Female Skewed Groups tended to favour the use of regular meetings (N=3), feedback from trusted others (N=2), and collecting information by walking around (N=2). The Male Skewed Groups' leaders tended to prefer one-to-one meetings (N=2), and the women leaders of the Male Tilted Groups tended to monitor using both the one- to-one meeting strategies (N=2) preferred by women leaders of Male Skewed Groups and the walking around strategy (N=2) used by the leaders of the Female Skewed Groups. 167 In terms of how these women leaders chose to influence others, the leaders of the Female Skewed Groups and the Male Tilted Groups tended to favour strategies related to selling (both N=3). The leaders of the Male Skewed Groups favoured rational persuasion (N=3) primarily and the use of selling (N=2) strategies to a much lesser extent. In terms of networking and building bases of support, the leaders of the Male Tilted Groups and Female Skewed Groups chose an internal orientation compared to an external one chosen by leaders of the Male Skewed Groups. The three gender-ratio groups differed in their preferences for ”presenting ideas" for securing resources for their units. The women leaders of the Male Tilted‘ Groups did not comment in this area. The women leaders of the Male Skewed Groups used both written (N=2) and verbal (N=2) formats for presenting ideas, while the women leaders of the Female Skewed Groups relied exclusively on the written proposal format (N=3). Finally, gender-ratio groups that were dominantly populated by males compared to female skewed groups seemed to differ primarily in the use of conflict resolution strategies, in how they went about monitoring the work in their units, and in their preference for influencing strategies. As the number of women increased in one's subordinate groups, there seemed to be a shift towards "selling” as an influence strategy, and towards the habit of 168 "walking about talking to people in their offices, lounges and corridors." This might reflect a more intimate and interdependent relationship between a leader working in an environment with increasing ratios of women than in one dominated by men. This finding might also help to explain the statistically significant finding that women leaders in Male Skewed Groups chose behaviours in the Rational Goal Model more frequently than behaviours from the Human Relations Model or the Open System Model. Perceived Influence on the Woman Leader's Beheviogp_g§ Various Gender Ratios in her Referent Groups In the interview, the woman leader was asked: "Do you perceive a relationship between the work place gender compositions in your referent groups and your use of leader behaviours?” Sixteen of the 24 women in this study reported that they did not perceive that various gender ratios in their referent groups at work had an impact on their leadership behaviour. Many of their comments, though, indicated an awareness of differences in the way they “do business" compared with male colleagues. Some of their perceptions resulted in behaviourial change or modifications. However, none of the women believed that she had ”changed her spots" as one women leader described her response to the stereotype that women leaders must become male-like to succeed in leadership. 169 A number of the women leaders did talk about some observations and assumptions they held about the impact of gender on leadership practice in general. Fifteen of these women commented that they perceived women to be more relaxed and more open to how others feel. They perceived that women valued the exploration of ideas and suggestions, and the critical analysis of these, within the context of discussion by working teams. They thought that women favoured a more collaborative decision making style than men, and that women preferred a more interactive and "hands-on" style of leadership compared to the more directive, controlling style traditionally associated with male leaders. Some sample comments included: Women are more people managers. They tend to be more sensitive to other people. Women tend to be more interactive managers. Middle Level Leader # 4 Women work on a much more participative basis engaging all staff, whereas men work more with sub-leaders of the group only. Senior Level Leader # 1 My style is very different from some of my colleagues...My style is very collaborative and risky...My colleagues need to get all the pieces together before they talk about it. Middle Level Leader # 2 Some other employees in other divisions have commented that there is not a lot of communication between them and their boss. Quite often they are working in isolation until dictates come down from above. Then they just do it. There is not a lot of discussion. There are times when I tell my male colleagues that we are coming from two different spaces. The men want to come in and step on everyone's head...'we're going to come in and take charge'. I don't suggest that we not 170 take a strong stand, but we could at least provide room for collaboration...'Look, here are the guidelines and limitations on what we have to do. How can we do this together?‘ The men want to go in and say: "This is the way we are going to do it! Middle Level Leader # 1 Thirteen of these women leaders believed that women needed to develop some specific skills to increase their comfort and effectiveness in working in a dominantly male culture. They spoke of a need for women to become more skilled at "getting and holding air time" in meetings dominated by a male presence. They also reported that ”women need to learn how to be more logical, clear and concise in the presentation of ideas or points of view when at meetings dominated by men.“ They said that women "tended to want to talk more than men about the issue under discussion". A sample comment was: I've learned that to be part of the male team, you have to fight right back....call the behaviour. If you've got a bully in the group, hiding in the corner is only asking for more of the same. Middle Level Leader # 6 Finally, 50% of the study respondents indicated that they really didn't believe that the directive, authoritative, "do it because I tell you to“ style of influencing others was effective for either men or women leaders in the long run. They believed that a collaborative decision making style, in which the people affected participated in the decision making process, was superior in terms of increasing commitment of followers, as well as 171 producing more effective decisions. They also thought that the use of a directive, authoritative style was less well tolerated by either male or female followers when used by women leaders whereas men could get away with it. Three other observations related to perceived gender differences were reported by more than 25% of the women in this study, and may be worthy of further follow-up in later research. Seven women perceived that women, more so than men, spend more time and effort in getting to know the "whole" person with whom they interact in the context of work. A sample comment was: Women, I think care more about each other's personal lives than men do. First Line Leader # 7 Seven women leaders perceived that "women in leadership positions tended to recognize the achievements of others more so than men did." Several women spoke about sending acknowledgements to followers via personal notes or use of electronic mail. One talked about her once-a-semester staff get-togethers as being times for recognizing the achievements of others publicly, and for acknowledging the effectiveness of the whole group. Seven of these women commented that women tended to think and approach problems differently from men, but that they come to the same or similar conclusions. They perceived that women Often tended to move from a general ”I've got a feeling“ approach to the specifics, whereas men 172 tended to move in a more logical, linear style from the details to the general. Some sample comments include: Men are facts and logic oriented, whereas women will say: ‘I've got a feeling'. Therefore, women need to learn to get the data and facts to support their ‘feeling'. If you can overcome this difference and recognize alternative views and approaches, you can work in both a collaborative and complementary way with men to get better outcomes and results. Senior Level Leader # 8 Men think and approach problems differently from women, but come to the same conclusions. Women tend to move from the general to the specific. Men move more from the specifics to the general. Senior Level Leader # 2 Men tend to work top-down...'here it is and here is how we are going to do it'. Women tend to provide room for collaboration. They set limits and establish guidelines. Then they plan together how to achieve it. Middle Level Leader # 1 An interesting finding reported by 4 of the women in the study related to perceived difficulties among women with women leaders. These women spoke of feelings of concern and/or shock over what was perceived to be non-support by other women both as colleagues and as followers. They made comments related to women not liking to work for a woman boss, and women not liking to be told what to do by other women. Some thought that other women, as a group, were their worst critics. This was hurtful because they had anticipated some backlash from male subordinates and colleagues and had thought through strategies for handling these situations but they were not prepared for this lack of 173 support from women. This also may be an issue worthy of further study. WOmen give me the most criticism about my leadership behaviour. A classmate in one of my graduate classes told me that she believed women were our own worst enemies. I can deal with the men because I recognize the behaviour and realize it exists. But the shock is you don't think that this behaviour exists among other women. But it does! First Line Leader # 9 Exemplar Summapy In order to depict the findings in a more telling way, I have developed a composite based on the modal values, beliefs and practices of these women. This composite is based on the values, beliefs and behaviours cited by greater than 50% of these women. This composite is crafted in the form of a woman exemplar. This exemplar is a woman in her mid-forties. She is currently married and has children living at home. She grew up in a home with both parents and siblings present. Her mother probably worked outside the home while she was growing up. Both of her parents believed strongly in the value of education and of a career for all of their children regardless of gender. The value of contributing to the community in which one lived was also instilled in her growing up years. She attributes to her father the encouragement to do what she wanted in life. From her 174 mother she learned that women could be leaders and that they could be successful in the business world. She learned to be willing to take risks and to learn from mistakes. Most importantly though, she learned how to be organized, direct, clear and focused in her approach to getting things done. She also observed that her mother was admired and respected in the community as a result of her work and that this admiration spilled over to the rest of the family as well. Grandparents, especially her grandmother, also had influence in shaping her values and beliefs about effective leadership and how it should be enacted. In terms of birth position in her family of origin, she had a fairly even chance of being either the eldest, middle or youngest child. During her growing up years, she became aware of her leadership potential. She described herself as usually being the leader among her friends and later she assumed leadership roles in school and community organizations. Frequently she grew up in a small community where she learned that if she wanted something to happen, she often had to take an active role in making it happen. Consistent with her family's belief in the value of education, she has now achieved a minimum of at least one graduate degree, usually in education. Typically, she reports having progressed along a somewhat linear academic career path to her current position within a single college. The average length of time spent 175 in her current position was 4.7 years. As a general rule she reported not really planning her career. Rather, she tended to evaluate opportunities as they were presented and to make appropriate career choices in terms of her life commitments a the time of the decision. In terms of future career plans, she is interested in seeking additional leadership positions in either business, government or academic settings. As a rule, she usually does not perceive conflict between her work and home commitments. The pursuit of solitary activities, and the support of family and friends, are described as being among the main strategies she utilizes to seek balance in her life. In terms of her personal traits and characteristics, she describes herself as someone who is a risk taker and who likes a challenge. She becomes bored easily and seeks variety in her life. In addition, she describes herself as a self-starter, who is independent, competitive, determined, ambitious, committed, honest and up-front. In fact, she often describes herself as being more competitive and ambitious than either other men or women that she knows. She is very results oriented, likes a sense of completion on tasks or projects, and views herself as a good listener. She values the expression of diverse views and opinions by others; the demonstration of good interpersonal skills: the acceptance of responsibility and accountability; and the use of clear expectations, guidelines, priorities and limits to 176 create work environments in which she or others can work independently. She believes strongly in recognizing and valuing the dignity and worth of individuals. In addition, she believes that the use of directive or authoritative power strategies are generally ineffective as change strategies as well as being less well tolerated by subordinates when used by women leaders. In contrast, she believes that the use of modelling, selling, teaching, explaining and helping strategies are more effective ways of achieving commitment and buy-in from others. As a general rule, she believes that conflict should be handled in an up-front manner and not ignored or left to simmer. In terms of decision making, she believes that the good of the whole takes precedence over the good of part(s). Her descriptions about what being a leader means to her reflect her beliefs, values and assumptions cited above. In addition to lessons learned at home and at school while growing up, she states that the experience of work itself, working with both good and poor bosses, leadership experience in her professional organization or on a community agency board, and her graduate education influenced her beliefs about what constitutes good leadership. In terms of her perceptions about how she enacts her leader role, she describes personal traits, beliefs and practices that reflect a preference for the inherent values 177 of Quinn's (1988) Human Relations Model equally to those of the Rational Goal Model or the Open System Model depending on the data collection method used. The values, beliefs and practices associated with the Internal Process Model were least preferred. In terms of her overall cognitive perspective or way of viewing the world, she is oriented more towards a flexible, adaptive perspective than one oriented towards control, order and stability. Regardless of her level in the organization she typically organizes her unit/division to get work done around a small management team (coordinators, deans or vice— presidents). She usually meets with this group to decide what needs to be done and how. Once clear expectations, guidelines, priorities and limits have been established, she generally delegates the task to the team and leaves them to it. She expects ongoing reports of progress, and that she will be kept informed if a significant problem arises. Typically, she expects the group leader to come to her with the problem clearly outlined and suggestions for resolution prioritized. She perceives her role to be one of facilitation in terms of listening to help clarify problems: questioning, probing, suggesting in terms of expanding the exploration of solutions; or of acquiring needed resources. She describes her role in terms of creating an environment in which people feel comfortable and in which their ideas are valued, expected, encouraged and facilitated. She 178 expects others to make decisions based on consensus of opinion in which the good of the whole takes precedence over the good of some individual or part(s). She believes strongly in establishing clear roles, time lines, agendas, check-points and assigned accountability as ways of facilitating task achievement. In terms of monitoring progress of task completion, as well as the climate of the unit, she relies on regular meetings with the group, one—to- one meetings with individuals that tend to be more informal, the use of trusted others, and walking about talking with staff, faculty, and students in their own environments. This woman leader minimizes her use of positional, direct or authoritative power to get things done. She believes that the use of command and control strategies do not produce the buy-in and commitment needed for long-term change. In addition, she believes that the use of positional, directive, or authoritative strategies are less well tolerated by male and female subordinates when used by female leaders. Instead, she chooses to rely on strategies aimed at selling, explaining, sharing information up-front, teaching, coaching and persuading. She tries to really know her people and to be known to them. She believes in listening carefully to hear their concerns and perspectives. As individuals, she wants her subordinates to feel both safe and valued. She then sets clear expectations, goals, and limits, chooses the appropriate people with the requisite 179 knowledge and expertise, conveys confidence in their abilities to complete the task, and delegates both task, responsibility and accountability along with time lines to these individuals (or more typically groups of people). Because she tends to be a very hands-on and interactive kind of manager, she knows that she has a tendency to monitor the task more closely than her male colleagues. This can be problematic to some colleagues and subordinates who might feel that she distrusts them or that she is taking over the task. Despite her awareness of this perception, she continues to be interested in the process by which the task is accomplished and believes she needs to have knowledge of this process for purposes of negotiating additional resources for the project or for presenting it more effectively to those outside the unit. Therefore, she struggles to find processes that provide her with needed feedback, while also providing the distance that allows others to work independently. The main strategy she uses to negotiate for needed resources from outside her unit/division is a formal proposal. She states that she frequently discusses her unit's need informally among her peers and sometimes she ”floats a trial balloon" or" plants a seed" to test reception of her plan. In the end, she presents a well researched, carefully thought out written proposal and supports her recommendation with good documentation. She 180 states that she usually has little difficulty getting what she needs because of her record of achievement, (i.e., always within budget limits) and her overall credibility. She is uncomfortable with back door wheeling and dealing that she perceives to be more typical of some of her male colleagues. In comparing herself with her predominantly male peer group, she describes her style of management as different in terms of process but not outcome. She states that she is more structured than her colleagues in terms of the use of regular meetings with agendas and expectations about participation and follow-up actions. She believes she works on a more participative basis with her people engaging all staff and not just the group leaders in the process. She tends to be more "hands-on" in her style in terms of both monitoring the work and participating in the work effort itself. When asked to describe a critical incident that to her is typical in her job and is particularly problematic in terms of her value system, she described three types of conflict with equal frequency. These involved conflicts that centred on the need for change and adaptability versus the need for security and control. Typically these conflicts focused on the need for changes in curriculum versus the faculty's desire to continue doing the same thing. A second type of conflict focused on the disrespect 181 for the dignity and worth of the individual. This type of conflict centred on disagreements between faculty, or between faculty and a student. The third type of conflict typically dealt with situations in which some individual or group sought preferential treatment over the good of the whole (often defined by the leader as student learning outcomes). Typically, she would deal with these conflict situations by bringing the conflict into the open. She would bring together the parties to sort out the issues while attempting to protect each individual's dignity and worth. Her basic arguments focused on the good of the whole over some part, an understanding that the status quo or current behaviour was unprofessional and therefore unacceptable, and a focus on fairness, (i.e., everyone else is pulling their load. To give you preferential treatment will demoralize the rest.) Her primary motivators to be a leader are the achievement of results; the perception that her abilities are valued by others; the perception of recognition by others: and the scope, challenge and variety of the job itself. Her primary job satisfiers include the achievement of goals or results, the perception that she is making a difference and contributing to her community, the scape and challenge of the job, and the perception of recognition of her abilities by others. 182 In terms of her level in the organizational hierarchy, if she is in middle management, she tends to describe more behaviours associated with the values and perspectives of the Open System Model and a flexibility perspective. If she is a first line manager she described behaviours associated with the Human Relations Model more frequently than did her middle or senior level colleagues. In terms of gender ratio in her subordinate group, if she is a leader of a Male Skewed Group, she tends to choose behaviours more frequently associated with the Rational Goal Model. As the number of males in her subordinate group decreases, she tends to increase her use of monitoring behaviours related to "walking around" and to using strategies associated with ”selling" the idea based on her knowledge of group members' needs and interests. In conclusion, the typical woman leader as revealed in this study's findings utilizes a cognitively complex approach to her thinking and practice of leadership. The study findings reveal that she utilizes behaviours associated with seven of Quinn's (1988) eight leader roles. In addition, she equally prefers and uses the values, beliefs and practices associated with at least two of Quinn's (1988) four cognitive models. This contrasts with findings reported by Quinn (1988). Typically, leaders in his studies demonstrate a preference for one cognitive model and balance this preference by using values, beliefs and 183 practices from the adjacent models to a lesser extent. The leaders in his studies tend to ignore, minimize or devalue the beliefs and practices associated with the diagonally opposite or competing model. In contrast, these women leaders would appear to draw on and utilize the values, beliefs and practices of the competing models in their thinking about leadership and in their practice. There was a great deal of diversity apparent in the ways these women developed their cognitive complexity. Only six of these women leaders talked about being groomed for leadership roles by being assigned to specific projects or tasks to help them develop requisite knowledge, skills and abilities. In contrast to this pattern of learning by doing, these women spoke more about acquiring the requisite knowledge, skills and abilities for leadership through processes of observation and reflection about what worked and didn't work for current and former bosses/supervisors. They then incorporated this learning into their own behavioral repertoire usually on a trial and error basis. Their thinking about effective leadership and leaders would seem to be influenced more by significant people in their lives than by a series of work experiences designed to groom them for leadership roles. Finally, their motivation to seek leadership positions versus being a follower, along with the aspects of leadership they report to be most satisfying, are consistent 184 with the personality traits and needs they utilized in describing themselves as individuals. It is in leadership roles that this group of women leaders seem to find the personal scope, challenge, variety, visibility, recognition and achievement they seek. Chapher VI Discussion and Recommendations The purpose of this study was to identify and describe 4 the cognitive orientations to leadership, of a group of women leaders chosen from community college settings. The study was also interested in determining if this cognitive orientation reflected a woman-centred paradigm, or cognitive perspective on leadership that was valued by women, normative to women, and that was shaped by their life experiences and value orientations. Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model was used as the interpretive framework for this study because of its strength in integrating three theoretical perspectives (i.e., rational system, human relations and Open system) by identifying two dominant underlying value dimensions. This provided an integrated framework that allowed for a more comprehensive/holistic and balanced view of effective leadership than more polarized either/or perspectives found in some other frameworks used in examining gender and leadership. The researcher acknowledges that the use of 185 186 this model is simply one frame or vantage point from which the researcher determined what data to examine and what sense to make of this observed data. Examined through another interpretive framework, this study's data may result in other interpretations or conclusions. For this researcher, however, the Competing Values Model provided a visually appealing map that allowed for the integration of leader roles and cognitive models which might be reflective of different values, beliefs and assumptions developed within the context of different lived realities. I also believed that the Competing Values Model would assist me to make sense of the dynamic movement between different perspectives that I believe is more consistent with the reality of leadership. In order to explore these women's cognitive orientations to leadership, the study questions were designed to address five major themes identified in the reviewed literature as potentially influencing how a woman comes to know, understand and act in the context of being a leader. These included the implicit beliefs she holds about leadership and those people and experiences that she perceived helped to shape these beliefs. The woman leader's perceptions about the impact of her context (i.e., academic versus business setting) was also examined as part of her inherent beliefs about what being a leader means to her. Next, the study examined what motivates these women to be 187 leaders, their perceived job satisfiers and dissatisfiers, and the types of critical incidents they described as being problematic as another way of identifying the values, beliefs and assumptions that frame their perceptions. Preferred leader roles, cognitive models and cognitive perspectives were examined within the framework of the Competing Values Model. Finally, the study examined the influence of gender ratios and level in the organizational hierarchy on a woman leader's preferred cognitive models and overall cognitive perspectives. Principal Findings Baehground Socialization and Personal Characteristics The typical woman leader in this study was 45.6 years of age, married and had at least one child still living at home. Consistent with other researchers' findings (e.g., Astin & Lelande, 1991) she grew up in a home among both parents and siblings. Her birth position was not related to her becoming a leader. The importance of having a good education and a career was stressed in her home. Consistent with this valuing of formal education, she has achieved a minimum of one graduate degree, generally in education. Nearly half of these women's mothers worked at paid jobs during the women leader's formative years. This had an 188 impact on her beliefs about careers and opportunities for women in general. From their mothers, these women reported lessons in how to be organized, clear, focused, direct, and about the importance of taking risks and learning from one's mistakes. Several women also spoke about the influence of grandmothers in their lives. These grandmothers either worked along with their spouses in family owned businesses or successfully took over businesses when spouses became ill or died. They learned from their grandmothers that persistence and discipline is what produces success in life's endeavors. Heim with Golant (1992) stated "that in the final analysis, when boys and girls grow up, they play business in much the same way they played as children” (p.15). They argued that in Western culture, girls are socialized to develop values, beliefs and behaviours associated with how to get along with others, how to play fair, how to negotiate differences and keep power dead even, that everyone wins when we share and compromise, teamwork means finding a solution that meets everyone's needs, leadership is what others allow, showing power breaks the rule about keeping power dead even (Heim with Golant, 1992). In contrast, boys who grow up in a Western culture learn that competition is the name of the game, winning is everything, attacking is part of competition, it's more important to be a winner than to be liked, there is always someone above and below you and 189 the person on top has more privileges, power if not used is lost, other team players do not have to be likeable...they just have to be winners, to win team strategy needs to be organized before getting on the playing field, to be a leader one must give orders and make them stick, one should demonstrate dominance through aggressive displays, criticism and feedback make you a better player, and big boys don't cry or show hurt (Heim with Golant, 1992). The data in this study indicates that these women leaders learned similar lessons in their early socialization years in terms of the development of traits, values, beliefs and practices. However, they also attended to lessons directed at their brothers , male cousins and friends even though most of these women did not play competitive sports. The sources of these lessons were attributed in part to their working mothers, brothers, fathers, male cousins and other childhood friends. However, the experience of work itself, advice from male colleagues and/or bosses, and observations of effective and ineffective leadership in the workplace also contributed to the development of these traits, values, beliefs and practices. More research is required into how women come to hold their beliefs about good leadership and its enactment. 190 W Consistent with the reviewed literature (Caffarella & Barnett, 1993) these women leaders reported not really planning for their careers. In spite of this lack of planning, most followed a rather linear academic career path within the same college moving from teaching positions, to coordinator roles and then into administration. Edson (1988) stated that women academic leaders often seek higher academic credentials as a way of compensating for a lack of administrative experience. These women leaders have acquired the requisite administrative experience, assuming that this is the path to senior leadership in community college settings, along with the advanced educational credentials. One troubling observation was the lack of women with the powerful (from a business perspective) administrative and financial portfolios. Two of the senior administrators in this study pointed out that they had either no budget assigned to their portfolio and/or no "functional” responsibility. They believed this situation allowed them more time to engage in creative endeavors on behalf of their organization and to focus on building cohesive management teams. However, for this researcher this raised two questions. Are these women leaders being disadvantaged in terms of acquiring requisite financial and institutional management skills required for 191 future more influential leadership positions? Alternatively, is the context in which academic business is conducted changing so that these skills are no longer essential for movement to more influential positions (i.e., presidential positions)? This observation becomes more significant in light of comments by several senior level respondents that women require more knowledge about fiscal management of institutions. The researcher questions if some senior level women have not inadvertently cut themselves out of the administrative pipeline to more influential positions. The Meaningeof Leadership To the question about what being a leader means to you, these women gave responses that were consistent with current views in the literature about leadership. Their responses addressed the leader's ability to have a clear vision. They spoke about the need to have a plan for implementation that is realistic and achievable, so that followers are motivated to ”buy-in.” In addition, they spoke about the power of "followership" and the need to treat people well. Their descriptions of what it means to be a leader addressed concerns for ethical or principle-centred leadership and about the empowerment of others as ways of achieving organizational goals. 192 In response to the questions describing those people and experiences that helped to shape their beliefs about leadership, the majority of these women leaders talked about the impact of work itself and of being exposed to both good and ineffective bosses. They also discussed the impact of their mother, father, grandmothers, colleagues, education, leadership in community boards and professional associations, and work associated with special projects as being influential in shaping their beliefs about leadership. Two observations stand out from the analysis of the interview data. First, people and relationships were crucial to the sense-making perspectives of these women. In relation to the first observation, these women rarely spoke about starting a unit or project from scratch, about being assigned to turn around a department or project that was in trouble, or about assuming responsibilities that reflected a major leap in sc0pe of responsibility. Only 6 women out of 24 spoke about lessons learned by being assigned to special projects. Ten women cited leadership in professional associations and on community boards as being influential in shaping their beliefs. In contrast, the researcher was struck by the significance these women leaders attributed to the advice, counsel, and support of important others (bosses, colleagues) as being the source of the learning that arose within the context of specific work experiences. It seemed that the nature of the relationships 193 was more significant to these women's learning than the ”doing“ which seems to be more characteristic of men. The second observation related to the importance of observation and reflection to these women's learning styles. This observation concerns the process of learning at a distance rather than being directly involved by observing how others did things and then reflecting on the consequences of these behaviours to both followers and the organization. McCall, Lombardo & Morrison (1988) described this learning process as being: a more cognitive and reflective kind of learning that results from first observing, then interpreting, followed by incorporating and then modelling the 'right way' or avoiding the 'unacceptable' way of enacting leadership (p. 134). For these women leaders, the importance of personal observation and reflection seemed to dominate their descriptions about the people and experiences that shaped their beliefs about leadership. This researcher believes that the importance of observation and reflection may have significance in terms of curriculum design and implementation strategies that address the learning needs of women. The women leaders in this study seemed to be able to compensate for a lack of planned experiences in their grooming for leadership roles by this alternate method. More research into how women learn, utilizing representative samples, is required to address this issue. 194 Finally, the citing of the influence of mothers and grandmothers on women's leadership aspirations adds to the findings of other researchers (e.g., Astin & Lelande, 1991) and begins to balance the literature that spoke mainly to the influence of fathers on their daughters' leadership aspirations. Leadership Motivators & Job Satisfiers In the interview, the women leaders were asked to identify their primary motivators to be leaders and their primary job satisfiers and dissatisfiers. It was interesting to note that no single job dissatisfier was reported by greater than 50% of the study pOpulation. On the whole, these women leaders described themselves as being very satisfied with their leadership experience. There was also a remarkable similarity among those items they cited as being motivators to be leaders and satisfiers in their leadership roles. The researcher found it intriguing that in contrast to suggestions in the leadership literature regarding the centrality of relationships to women leaders, that issues of nurturance, connectedness and consideration were not cited among these women leaders' primary motivators to be leaders nor among their list of job satisfiers. Rather, they identified the achievement of results; the making of a difference; the scope, challenge and variety 195 associated with the job; and the perception of having their abilities and worth recognized by others as being their primary job motivators and satisfiers. These findings are consistent with those of Edson (1988) who stated that the growth and challenge associated with the job was the number one motivator of female administrative aspirants, followed by a belief in one's abilities and a sense of contributing and making a difference. The women in this study conveyed a sense of believing that they had the "right stuff" to be effective leaders. Their confidence in their own abilities was high. Leadership positions provided the opportunities to display these abilities to significant others and to the larger community. The visibility associated with holding leadership positions and the perception that others recognized their abilities would appear to be as important to the self-esteem of women leaders as it is for their male counterparts. Leader Roles, Cogpitive Models and Cognitive Perspectives: Findings from theplntervieg Data and Prieh l Instrumeht In order to determine these women's preferred leader roles, cognitive models and cognitive perspectives, the study participants were asked to discuss how they organized their units to get work done; the influence strategies they preferred to use; and about how they negotiated for, and secured, needed resources for their units. One of the 196 weakness of cognitive theories of leadership is that they tend to assume that one will act in accordance with one's cognition (i.e., beliefs, values and assumptions). Interview questions directed at probing the strategy or behaviours used by these women leaders attempted to correct for this weakness. From these behaviours, the researcher utilized the Competing Values interpretive framework to identify their leader roles, cognitive models and their overall cognitive perspectives. The Prism 1 scores were also used to help determine preferred leader roles, cognitive models and cognitive perspectives. This instrument assessed for these characteristics in a slightly different way from the interview. Behaviours associated with each role were already identified, and the leader rated her own performance on each specified behaviour recording a score ranging from 1 (almost never) to 7 (almost always). Leader roles of preference, cognitive models and cognitive perspectives were then computed using the mean scores for each leader role that was identified in the Competing Values Model. The results of the interview data and the Prism 1 instrument data varied in the ranking of Quinn's (1988) leader roles. In fact, each data collection method revealed 11 different patterns of preference in the ranking of cognitive models indicating the amount of cognitive diversity within this group of 24 women leaders. In terms 197 of the cognitive models of preference, both data collection methods indicated the Human Relations Model was most preferred and the Internal Process Model was the least preferred. The preference for the Rational Goal Model or the Open System Model varied, depending on the data collection method used. The Rational Goal Model was preferred equally to the Human Relations Model in the analysis of the interview data while the Open System Model was equally preferred to the Human Relations Model in the Prism 1 data. Both data collection methods supported these women's preference for a cognitive perspective oriented towards flexibility in preference to one of control, order and stability. The two data collection methods did not demonstrate agreement with regards to a preference for an internal focus over a more externally oriented way of viewing the world. Part of the discrepancy could be attributed to the differences in the data collection methods. The interview allowed the women leaders to talk about those behaviours and hence roles that seemed pertinent to them in terms of answering the posed questions. The Prism 1 instrument was designed so that each of the eight roles in the Competing Values Model would be assessed by four questions. During the course of the interviews, these women leaders usually did not discuss behaviours associated with the Coordinator Role as described in this model. The women indicated that 198 these functions seem to be ones that could be delegated to responsible subordinates or work groups and monitored by the leader for effectiveness. One should be cautious not to assume that because this role was-not discussed prominently in the interview, that it is not valued by these women leaders. Differences in the scores used to determine leader roles, cognitive models and overall cognitive orientations probably reflect the different foci of these two methods. An alternate explanation could be that both the model and the assessment tool are grounded more in business contexts than academic ones. This may also explain the finding that one whole cell (the Coordinator Role) was not addressed by the women leaders in their descriptions of how they organize their units to get work done. From the women leaders' descriptions about how they conduct business in the community college settings, it seems that some faculty members assume the formal role and title of coordinator as an added responsibility. The leader's role in academic contexts in which one works with independent professionals may be more that of Monitor than Coordinator. These women demonstrated cognitive complexity by using behaviours from all four cognitive models, and all four cognitive orientations in their descriptions of their leader behaviours. The findings of this study differed in terms of preference for cognitive models or perspectives from findings cited by Quinn (1988), Gilligan & Attanucci (1988) 199 and Desjardins (1989). These researchers found that leaders (men and women) tended to use one dominant model or perspective in making sense of their world, but they also tended to recognize and use boundary-spanning values from the adjacent model(s) or perspective(s). They argued that it was this use of boundary-spanning values, traits or behaviours that might serve to mediate against findings of statistically significant differences in relation to dominant orientations. In contrast, the findings in this study suggest that these women leaders use two equally dominant models or perspectives in making sense of their world. The interview data suggests they use the values, beliefs and assumptions associated with the Human Relations Model equally to those of the diagonally opposite (and therefore competing) Rational Goal Model to make sense of their work contexts. The Prism 1 data indicates that these same women use the values, beliefs and assumptions of the Human Relations Model and the adjacent Open System Model equally, and those of the Rational Goal Model and Internal Process Model to a slightly lesser extent. In fact, the Prism 1 scores indicate that these women leaders are remarkably diverse and balanced in their use of various cognitive perspectives or models in making sense of their world. Quinn (1988) described a "master leader" as someone who is able to transcend style, who has higher scores in all 200 eight roles of his model, who tends to be located at higher levels of management, and who has been in their organization longer. He also reported a higher proportion of women in his ”master category" (Quinn, 1988, p. 104). The results of the study data would indicate that these women were able to transcend style and to demonstrate an awareness and use of r the values, beliefs and practices of alternate perspectives. The Competing Values Model helped to clarify some of the ambiguous and conflicting results related to gender and leadership that may have resulted from studies designed E along more polarized or dichotomized concepts. Rather than having to answer "either-or" questions (i.e. are women more concerned with showing consideration behaviours than with initiating structure), this interpretive model made visible the "both/and" aspects of the behavioral enactment of leadership. Using the Competing Values Model, one could observe that although the women leaders in this study demonstrated a preference for the values, beliefs and behaviours associated with the Human Relations Model, they also demonstrated an awareness and use of those associated with leader roles in the other three cognitive models. In addition, the Competing Values Model also made visible leader roles and cognitive models that may be either neglected or overused by these women. The model does not address the issue of whether the neglected or overused leader role(s) or cognitive model(s) are related to gender 201 or to organizational context. Further research needs to be conducted to determine why certain roles and cognitive models are preferred over others. Another question that needs to be explored using a representative sample is the "master leader" category. If the finding of a higher proportion of women in the "master" category is consistent, what are the implications for women and leadership? Do only "superwomen" make it into leadership positions? Alternatively, are women simply more cognitively complex and hence better leaders as viewed through the interpretive framework of this model? Relationship between Gender-Ratioeein the Wohen Leader's Referent Groups and Her Leadership Behaviours In the interview, each women was asked: "Do you perceive a relationship between the work place gender compositions in your referent groups and your use of leader behaviours?” Sixteen of the 24 women reported that they perceived no impact of the gender ratio, in their referent groups, on their leadership behaviour. Several women noted that they were aware of modifying some of their behaviour as they moved into management positions and/or up the hierarchical level in the organization. These modifications Often related to skills in "getting and holding air time," and in "presenting an idea in a clear, concise, and direct manner.” A few said that they had modified their more 202 assertive, direct approach to a softer style that was perceived to be more acceptable to both male and female colleagues and subordinates. Some of the younger women indicated that their age was more problematic than their gender in terms of subordinate acceptance. However, these women as a group, did not feel that they had ”changed their spots" or had become masculine in their behaviour. Several described themselves as being more ambitious, aggressive and/or competitive than other men and women that they knew. Issues related to "token status“ appeared to be less prevalent in the current context, although some of these women mentioned harassment behaviours directed against them at earlier times in the colleges' history. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) conducted with the Prism 1 scores of the first line women leaders who were divided by gender ratio in their subordinate groups showed no areas of statistically significant differences among cognitive models or overall cognitive perspectives. However, the ANOVA done with the interview data indicated that the women leaders of the Male Skewed Groups (i.e., greater than 85% male) tended to choose behaviours associated with the Rational Goal Model more frequently (p<.05) than did the other two groups. Four other findings were interesting, if not statistically significant, and may reflect the impact of gender on a woman leader's behaviour. These related to 203 conflict resolution strategies, monitoring methods, influence patterns and the presentation of ideas. Women leaders of male dominated groups preferred compromise strategies over those directed at collaboration. As the number of women increased in the subordinate group (i.e., greater than 15%), the woman leader's use of "selling” strategies and monitoring by "walking around and visiting informally“ increased. Finally, women leaders of Female Skewed Groups reported using only written proposals in their efforts to secure needed resources for their units. Women leaders of Male Skewed Groups reported using both written and verbal modes. These findings may reflect the impact of gender on a woman leader's behaviour, but further studies utilizing representative samples are required to explore this issue more fully. Relationship of Level in the Organizational Hierarchy to Coghitive Models and Perspectives In order to determine if there was a relationship between level in the organizational hierarchy and these women's leadership behaviours, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out for the interview data scores and the Prism 1 scores. No differences of statistical significance were found among the women's scores for the different levels in the organizational hierarchy, on the Prism 1 instrument. The ANOVA conducted on the interview 204 data scores, however, indicated that the middle level women managers were more likely, at a statistically significant level, to select behaviours associated with the cognitive perspective of flexibility (Mean score=0.67) than did the first line women leaders (Means score=0.6l), or the senior women leaders (Mean score=0.44). In addition, the middle level group of women leaders chose behaviours associated with the Open System Model more frequently (Mean=0.64) than did those in the first line management (Mean=0.49), or those in the senior management group (Mean=0.54. During the interviews, the middle level group of women described their roles in ensuring that the curricula in their programs were current with the needs of business and/or industry, and about securing needed resources by forming partnerships with business or industry. These activities might account for the higher frequency of behaviours cited in the Open System Model which is encompassed within the cognitive view of the world that is oriented towards flexibility as described in the Competing Values Model. The ANOVA conducted on the interview scores also indicated that the first line women leaders chose behaviours associated with the Human Relations Model more frequently, statistically, than did either of the middle or senior level managers. This might reflect the closer and more intimate relationships between the first line managers and the people 205 they work with than would be possible in middle or senior level ranks of the organizational hierarchy. Gender Differehcee in Leadership In the literature that was reviewed for this study, gender differences in behaviour and/or style of leadership were described. Several authors highlighted the centrality of relationships to women's leadership style (Caffarella & Barnett, 1993; Gevedon, 1992; Gilligan, 1982; Josselson, 1990; Loden, 1985; Noddings, 1984; Schaef, 1992; Shakeshaft, 1989). Data from this study also indicated a strong preference on the part of these women leaders for the use of behaviours that reflected concern for the development of others, and for creating cohesion, high morale, and commitment among followers. Loden (1985) described women leaders' preference for low control power or influence strategies. The women in this study expressed a preference for "selling" strategies over ”rational persuasion", for sharing information up- front, and for believing that directive, authoritative strategies were less effective in addition to being less well tolerated by followers when used by women leaders. Selling strategies refer to those approaches that consider the values, attitudes, meanings, and habits of the individuals to be affected. Strategies aimed at selling 206 require the change agent to focus on how people will react, what the change means to them, and whether their needs will be adequately met by the planned change. Macauley & Gonzales (1993) and Loden (1985) identified that women preferred conflict resolution strategies based on collaboration or accommodation. The women leaders in this study expressed a preference for conflict resolution strategies based on collaboration primarily followed by those based on compromise. Helgesen (1990) and Miller (1987) found that women leaders tend to structure relationships via communication, the use of meeting times, and the control of space and information. The majority of the women in this study expressed a preference for establishing clear expectations, goals, priorities, time lines and limits. They talked about the importance of clarifying the unit's purpose, clarifying roles, and sharing information up-front as strategies they used to get work done. In the interview discussions the researcher sensed that although these women believed in the importance of knowing and being known to the people they worked with, these relationships were not structured around close and intimate personal friendships. Rather the relationships were structured around both a respect for the dignity and worth of the individual and the individual's potential contribution to the unit's goals. 207 Gay (1993) and Helgesen (1990) described women leaders' preference for the good of the whole over that of parts. Eighteen of the 24 women in this study also expressed a preference for this value in decision making. Shavlik & Touchton (1988) found that women demonstrated an ability to promote group effectiveness through interaction, cooperation and attention to each person's unique contribution to the whole. Loden (1985) found that women demonstrated an appreciation of listening, sensing, the management of feelings, intimacy and the provision of feedback as skills used to facilitate task completion by others. The majority of the women in this study also expressed a preference for open, sharing environments, for participative decision-making, and for valuing the diverse views and opinions of others. The women leaders in this study spoke about the importance of recognizing others, listening, collaboration, seeking consensus, and "selling" as strategies utilized in facilitating task completion or goal achievement. These women leaders described a preference for behaviours that other researchers have indicated as being gender-related or normative to women. The findings of this study indicated that although these women demonstrated a preference for these behaviours, they also demonstrated an ability to engage in directive, more goal-oriented behaviours that are often associated with a male leadership 208 style (i.e., those of the Rational Goal Model). In addition, these women demonstrated behaviours associated with a boundary-spanning, inventive and risk-taking style (Open System Model) that tended not be particularly associated with either gender. Statham (1987) stated that women managers are equally effective in accomplishing desired ends, hence they look similar to men on specific behavioral indices. Yet, she identified that women appeared to use somewhat different styles to accomplish those ends (p.411). The data from this study would seem to indicate that these women leaders were able to draw on a number of different styles, each reflective of distinct cognitive values and associated beliefs and behaviours, in enacting their leadership role. Quinn (1988) argues that it is this level of cognitive complexity that contributes to leader effectiveness rather than one's gender. Recommendatione for Further Study This researcher found the Competing Values Model to be most useful and quite comprehensive as an interpretive framework in examining women's cognitive orientations to leadership. The integrated framework allowed for a more comprehensive, holistic and balanced view about how these women made sense of their work contexts and acted in them. 209 Because the model is based on the concept of competing values, it was able to make visible differing and Often competing values, beliefs and behaviours used by leaders to help others in the organization adjust to shifting internal and external stimuli. This framework allows the researcher to see "both/and” cognitive perspectives as Opposed to some frameworks that focus on "either/or,” perspectives i.e., more dichotomized orientations. The descriptors for each of the eight leader roles in Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model were fairly comprehensive in that the majority of the descriptors utilized by the women in this study could be easily categorized within them. Eleven additional behavioral descriptors were identified by the women leaders in this study and incorporated into the analysis of this study's data (see starred behaviours in Appendix F). One of the recommendations from this study, therefore, is that the Competing Values Model be utilized as the interpretive framework for a much larger study of women leaders to see if this study's findings are consistent with those in a representative population, and to see if the eleven additional behavioral descriptors are common in other women leaders' perceptions about how they enact leadership. A second area for further research concerns the need for a greater understanding about how women have come to hold the values, beliefs and assumptions that guide them in 210 making sense of their leadership contexts, and in how they choose to act in these roles. To this end, we need to know and understand more about the types of people and experiences that seem to be influential in shaping the values, beliefs, assumptions and behaviours women hold about leadership. Are the people, experiences and the lessons F- learned similar for men and women? If not, what are those E differences, and how do they affect both the learning about and the doing of leadership by men and women? Can educators and trainers use this knowledge to design educational opportunities, based on alternate ways of learning, to foster the development of desired competencies in future leaders? A third area that might be worthy of more intense study relates to some difficulties encountered by women in leadership with regards to other women. Six (N=6) women in this study initiated some discussion with the researcher concerning perceptions of other women (subordinates, colleagues and bosses) being among their worst critics. This perceived criticism and lack of support was confusing and stressful to them. They talked about their anticipation for dealing with negative biases that might be expressed by men in the work place. They had not anticipated finding similar negative biases based on gender stereotypes among women. Hence, they described some disillusionment when they did encounter these biases. They also seemed to be confused 211 about how to deal effectively with this type of behaviour. Edson's (1988) women leader aspirants also cited this concern as being problematic for them. Edson (1988) attributed the possible causes of this behaviour to jealously and/or perceptual bias based on negative gender stereotypes. How prevalent is this type of experience among - women leaders? If prevalent, to what causes can it be [— attributed? How can women leaders more effectively deal with these types of behaviour? Conclgeione This study sought to answer the question: "Is there a woman's cognitive perspective, style or approach to leadership that is normative to women, valued by them and reflective of their lived experience as women?" The answer, based on the data in this study as interpreted within the framework of the Competing Values Model, is yes. It is a cognitively complex style or approach that reflects a preference for a way of viewing the world that is oriented towards flexibility and adaptability over one oriented towards control, order and stability. The women leaders, in this study, draw on cognitively complex approaches to leadership that balance the action, results-oriented values, beliefs and practices of the Rational Goal Model with the use of interpretive strategies that address the human 212 resource development, cohesion, morale, and commitment values, beliefs and practices of the Human Relations Model. In addition, these women leaders utilize the adaptation, growth, resource acquisition values, beliefs and practices associated with the Open System Model in their approach to leadership enactment. This style also reflects an awareness - of women's constrained access to power together with the development of alternate strategies that these women simply believe to be more effective in motivating others to achieve desired organizational outcomes. Quinn, et al. (1990) asked: "What differentiates a master from others?" He concluded that ”the answer may have to do with how leaders view their world” (p. 320). Someone who thought about the organization as a static mechanism that is designed to accomplish a single or limited purpose might have a very different perspective than someone who conceived of the world/organization as a dynamic, evolving, adaptive entity. This latter conception of the organization required, according to Quinn, et al. (1990), the ability to recognize, understand and work within a context characterized by paradox, puzzles, polarities and competing values. According to Quinn, et al. (1990): The people who come to be masters of management do not see their work environment only in structured, analytic ways. Instead, they also have the capacity to see it as a complex, dynamic system that is constantly evolving. In order to interact effectively with it, they employ a variety of different perspectives or models. As one set of conditions arises, they focus on certain cues that 213 lead them to apply a very analytic and structured approach. As these cues fade, they focus on new cues of emerging importance and apply another frame, perhaps being very intuitive and flexible. At another time they may emphasize the overall task, and still another they may focus on the welfare of a single individual. (p. 320) Quinn (1988) argued that it is this level of cognitive complexity that contributes to leader effectiveness. The Competing Values Model interpretive framework provides a vantage point that makes visible this level of complexity. Implications for Theory Development This study makes three theoretical contributions. First it helps to clarify contradictory results and theories in previous research on women and leadership that tended to use more polarized or dichotomized perspectives in examining the impact of gender on leadership. Use of more comprehensive theories or interpretive frameworks such as the Competing Values Model make visible competing perspectives and responses that one might fail to see using frameworks based on a dichotomized perspective. Secondly, the study demonstrates the usefulness of Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model as an interpretive framework for understanding and making visible how a leader's values, beliefs and attitudes shape her/his construction of meaning and choice Of strategies used to adapt to the competing realities in leadership. Finally, this study extends work 214 on the importance of cognition as a factor that affects how individuals come to see, understand and act in the context of leadership. Implications for Practice Data from this study would indicate that there is already a group of women leaders in place in the Ontario community college system who possess those essential cognitive abilities required to provide effective leadership now and into the future. The results of this study should help to contribute to the elimination of barriers that may be based on old stereotypes and perceptual biases about women's fitness to lead. Secondly, the Competing Values Model provides an interpretive framework that may assist researchers to identify those leader roles that tend to be favoured, neglected or ignored. Reasons for the use of some roles rather than others can be explored within the context of differing organizational cultures and contexts. In addition, the identification of essential leader roles may allow researchers to identify those knowledge, skills and behaviours associated with the effective implementation of these roles. This will allow educators and management trainers to develop, plan and offer educational experiences that may better assist in the development of future leaders. 215 Swoboda & Vanderbash (1983) hypothesized that a woman centred paradigm or cognitive perspective could replace the dilemma women had faced of "fitting in" or "not fitting in" by creating a new or alternate code of behaviour. This new code of behaviour would be in keeping with the appropriateness of women's own needs and experiences, the requirements of the task, and the means available to her for completing that task. In the mid-1990's there now appears to be a ”critical mass" of women leaders in Ontario's community colleges. In addition, major external forces are having an impact on academic institutions affecting the ways they compete, manage, and do business (Epstein, 1988: Morrison, 1992; Webber, 1993). Webber (1993) argued that these forces required not just changes in the programs, but changes in mind sets. These changes in the ways organizations must do business seem to favour the inclusion of leadership orientations or models that have previously been associated with undervalued feminine characteristics. The women leaders in this study bring to their leadership roles a level of cognitive complexity that enables them to recognize, value and work within the competing demands of leadership. They would appear to have developed their cognitive approaches to leadership by drawing on a wide range of diverse experiences not traditionally associated with the grooming process for leadership. These alternate paths to leadership have 216 contributed to the development of particular strengths that will continue to be required of leaders well into the foreseeable future. APPENDIX A An Investigation into Women's Cognitive Orientations to Leadership Interview Guide 217 Appendix A An Investigation into Women's Cognitive Orientations to Leadership Ingerview Guidelines Introductionl Climate Setting, Permission to Tape Introduce self to respondent and thank for willingness to participate. Request permission to set up tape recorder and to audio tape the interview. Ask if they have any questions or concerns prior to beginning the interview? Did they receive my letter outlining the topics of the interview? Briefly, identify the purpose of the study and the topic areas that will be covered. Clarify that the interview questions have been developed as a guide to exploring, clarifying and illuminating, for me, how she constructs her meaning of her work context and leader role. I will be probing at times for her thoughts on the where, when, who, what and why's of some answers in order to try and grasp her understanding and sense making processes. The interview will cover five major topic areas: a. Implicitly Held Beliefs about Leadership; b. Cognitive Perspectives about Leadership and the Leader Roles she plays: c. Perceived Relationship of the Gender-Ratio Composition in her Referent Groups on her Leader Behaviours; d. Moral Orientation(s) in situations that involve conflict within context of work; e. Family Background, Education, Career Path, Personal Lifestyle. 218 gegtion A - Implicit Beliefs about Leadership I. What does being a leader mean to you? 2. How did you come to hold these beliefs? Can you tell me about this? (Probe for personal theories, beliefs, values, assumptions, experiences, role models [good and bad] that may have influenced her beliefs.) 3. Academic institutions differ in some significant ways from business organizations. When you think about a good academic leader, what would you describe as the essential characteristics that person should possess? 4. Once again, can you tell me how you have come to hold these beliefs? 5. When you think about an ineffective academic leader, or a poor leader, what characteristics/behaviours come to mind? (Probe for what makes these characteristics/behaviours ineffective to her way of thinking.) §eption B — CoghTtive Framesl Perspectives and Leader Roles 6. What motivates you, personally, to be a good leader? 7. What criteria do you use to judge your own performance as a leader/manager? 8. What are the primary satisfiers for you in your role as an academic leader? 9. What are the primary dissatisfiers for you in your role as an academic leader? 10. How would you describe your preferred mode of operating or getting things done? (Try to focus attention more on how she constructs/understands or makes sense of her work place reality rather than on tasks.) 11. How do you organize your unit/division to get work done? Does your way of organizing your unit differ from that of your colleagues? If so, can you tell me about these differences as you understand them? 219 12. Can you tell me about the strategies you use to get others to do what you believe needs to be done? Do you use these strategies predominantly? What other strategies do you use and in what contexts? Can you tell me more about this? 13. What effect do these sources of legitimacy or influence over others have on your practice of leadership? (Probe for perceived constraints on the ways they would prefer to influence others.) 14. How do you negotiate for, and secure, needed resources for your unit/division/organization? (Probe for level of satisfaction/dissatisfaction with this process.) 15. In enacting your position effectively, what roles do you see yourself performing? Which of these roles do you believe are most important? Why? What roles do you believe your supervisor believes are most important? Why? What roles do you believe your subordinates believe are most important? Why? Are there conflicts for you in these situations? What do you see as the sources of conflict? How do you sort these situations out and make decisions about what to do? How do you know if you handled the conflict inherent in the situation well? Section C - Perceived Relationship of Gender-Ratio Compgsitione in her Reference Gropps at Work and Her Leader Behaviour. 16. How easy is it for you to "be yourself”, to be the kind of leader you want to be, and to participate as an equal, among your present peer group given the mix of men to women in this group? 17. How you ever worked with a subordinate group that contained a different gender-ratio composition than your present group? What influence, if any, do you perceive the various gender-ratio compositions in your subordinate groups, have on your behaviour as a leader? 220 Sechion D - Moral Orientation(s) 18. Would you describe for me a critical incident from your role as chair/dean/vice-president/president, that you believe illustrates the type(s) of conflict situations you frequently must deal with? Can you describe the situation? F- What were the conflicts for you in the situation? What did you do? Do you think it was the right thing to do? How do you know this? In retrospect, is there another way to think about this problem or to go about resolving it? Section E - Family Background, Education. Career Path ‘: 19. Family Background Country and place of birth/upbringing. Brothers and/or sisters. Effects of place in family on own upbringing. Information about parents i.e. jobs, lifestyles, etc.. Type of person you were when you were young--extrovert? introvert? competitive? ambitious? Ages and gender of childhood friends? Hobbies and interests when young? In what way, if any, would your upbringing have been different if you had been a boy? Did you see yourself or were you regarded as being conventional or unconventional when young? Did you see mother or father (or someone else) as a role model? How protected/independent were you in the family? Did you have specific chores for which you were responsible at home? Did you travel much outside the community in which you lived? Were religion/politics important to you or your family? 20. Educational Background What is the highest level of formal education that you have achieved? How would you describe your overall academic performance at school? 221 21. Career Path What were your thoughts about a career choice at the end of your high school years? Were these influenced by your gender? If so, how? Can you tell me about your career path to date? Were there mentors/role models who influenced your career? What higher education and/or training have you undertaken to date? Have there been breaks in your career? Why? What impact, if any, might these breaks have had on your career path? What are your future career plans? 22. Lifestyle Would you tell me about your personal lifestyle? What is your age group ( ask by decade) Are you married? Do you have children? How many? Ages? Do you have commitments to your extended family (i.e. elderly/ill relatives)? What are your sports, hobbies, interests outside of work? Are you involved in community work? How do you manage these non- work commitments? Are you happy with the balance in your life? Do you ever feel under stress? If so, how do you cape? Conclusion 23. Before we conclude, is there anything additional you believe I should be aware of that we have omitted about how you, as a women academic leader, come to know, understand and make sense of your world? Do you have any final thoughts about this interview that you would like to share with me? Request return of the Prism 1 instrument at this time. Thank interviewee for her time and her thoughtfulness and trust in sharing this part of herself with me. APPENDIX B Prism 1 Self-Assessment Instrument by Quinn (1992) 222 Reprinted with permission of the publishers. Copyright 1992 Jossey-Bass Inc. , Publishers, 350 Sansone Street, San Francisco, CA 94104 (415) 433-1767. For dissertation use by M.K. Brown. All rights reserved. % PRISM I COMPETING VALUES SELF -A$$E$5MEN T ROBERT E. QUINN This guide has two pmposcs: it allows you to assess yourself and it provides you withapersonal gludeandreferenoemanualtouseonanongoingbasis. Name: Date: Company Name: Work Group: I I lesser-sass measures I 1 350 Sansome Street San Francisco, California 94104 Assessment Instructions Aresponsefonnisprovidedinsidethefront cover of this guide for you to use to mark yourresponses. Turn now tothe frontcover andremovethisresponse formtorecord your answers to the questions. There are no ”right answers" to the ques- tions. Please respond to every question honestly. There are two pans to this questionnaire. The Part 1: NOW section yields information about how you currently perform. The Part 2: SHOULD section describes how you believe you ideally should perform in your current position. Starting with the Part 1: NOW section, refer to the list of managerial behaviors that appears on the facing page. Write the number corresponding to the frequency with which you currently engage in each ofthe behaviors. Write a 1 if you almost never 223 engageinthebehavior: writea7ifyou almost always engage in the behavior: write a2. 3, 4,5.or6 ifyourassessment lies somewhere between the extrernes. Markyourresponsesontheremovable rerponseform. Useabnllpointpenand presshard,asyourresponsesarebeing recordedonaseoringform. Once you have completed the NOW part. complete the section entitled Part 2: SHOULD. Gobackoverthesame listof behaviors and write the number correspond- ing to the frequency with which you believe that you ideally should engage in each behavior in your current position. Some of‘the statements may not seem to applytoyourparticularworksetting. Ifthat isthecase.respondasifyouweredealing with asimilar behaviorin anothersetting. w 224 Please use the following scale: I. Almost Never 2. Very Seldom As a manager. I would describe myself as someone who: 1. Comes up with inventive ideas )7. 2. Exensupwardinflueneeintheorganization 18. 3. Creates a climate Of productive accomplishment 19. in the work unit 20. 4. Clarifies the unit’s purpose 5. Aids unit members in resolving coordination 21 issues 22. 6. Holdsregularreviews of progressonprojects 23 7. cmilitatesconsensusbuildingindreworkmtit 8. liners-carefully to subordinates 24. 9. Experimentswithnewconceptsandideas 7.5. l0. Influences decisions made at higher levels 26. ll. Develops a productive “can-do” attitude among 27. "mph: 28. ll. Develops and communicates strategic plans for the unit 29' 13. Bringsasenseoforderintotheunit 30 I4. Develops checkpoints for reviewing assignments l5. Surfaceskeydifferences amonggrouprnernbers. 3|. then works participatively to resolve them In. Shows empathy and «new in dealing with 32. subordinates CWQIMItyJury-Ba-W Allrlghisream'ved. J.Seldorn 4.0M 5W £wa . Anticipates workflow problems. avoids crisis LAhrnsthays Does problem solving in creative. clever ways Getsaoaesstopeopleathigherlevels Getspeopletowaltproductively I— Communicates the unit's vision in a meaningful way Keepsu'acltofwhatisgoingonintheunit E Helpspeopleexpressdifferentopinionsandthen cornetoanagreement Treats each individual in a sensitive. caring way Searches for innovations and improvements Persuasively sells new ideas to higher-ups Develops an achievement orientation in Others Clarifies the unit's priorities and directions Helps people plan. schedule. organize. and coordinate efforts Monitorsprogressonassignedtasksandobjec- tives Develops oorrsenstml resolution to openly expressed differences Shows concern for the needs of subordinates 225 CompetingValuesAssessmentRespormeFom leemarkyoraresponsesusingtbefollowingscale: LAhnesstver 1.qu 3.8eldnrn (Order-If 5.3M 0.qu AWN-aye Part I: NOW 3 I I 4 I I 7 I I )0 1 1 l8 l8 16 7I lI 77 7I lI I 81 as II Onoeyouhaveoornpmdallnquestlonsforthel’artl: NOWsecdomgoback-throughthequesdons. huthhdmeindlatethehequencydntywbdleveymshouldengagehudrbehavior. Part 2: SHOULD ‘7 1I II as 81 as II WYonhsvenowoornpletedtheCompedngValuesSdf-Ammmnmu. Tosooreyonrresnlts. Mowfiemthnedou-fmmthRMlmtbpagefoflowhgfiequmfloutbflymbnjun WMMIMMWW”mYmM”mpHmm ‘ APPENDIX C Letter Requesting Consent to Participate in Study 226 Mary K. Brown 76 Carnegie Place Ancaster, Ontario, L9G 4T9 "Addresses" "Date" 'An Investigation into Women's Cognitive Orientations to Leadership” Dear "Addressee": F— My name is Mary Brown and I am currently a Ph.D. candidate in Educational Administration at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan. I am also a faculty member at Mohawk College in Hamilton, Ontario. The purpose of my letter is to request your participation in a research project that is required as partial fulfilment of @— this degree requirement. The study will be concerned with how academic women administrators make sense of leadership roles given ways of perceiving that may be influenced by values, beliefs, skills and experiences that tend to be gender-related, or normative, among women. The time commitment on your part would be approximately 2 hours during the months of June-July 1994. The data collection process will consist of a single interview that will last approximately 2 hours, plus the completion of a short assessment instrument that will take about 15 minutes to complete. All data will be reported in collapsed categories so that individual identities and the identity of the respondent's college will be protected. Could you please complete and return the attached form. If you agree to be interviewed, I will contact your office to set up an interview data and will then send you details about the topics to be covered. The study instrument will also be sent to you at this time. I will collect the instrument at the time of the interview and can interpret it for you if you so desire. Please contact me if you wish more information before committing yourself. Your participation is entirely voluntary on your part. Thank you for you consideration and assistance in this matter. Yours truly, Mary K. Brown, Ph.D. Candidate Michigan State University 22? "An Investigation into Women's Cognitive Orientations to Leadership" I agree to be interviewed and to complete the Prism 1 study instrument. SIGNATURE: NAME: ADDRESS: JOB TITLE: TELEPHONE NUMBER: (BUSINESS) (HOME) The literature indicates that the following factors may influence a women's cognitive orientation to her leadership role. Therefore, I must consider these factors in the selection criteria for my sample. Your assistance in answering these questions would greatly assist this process. 1. LENGTH OF TIME YOU HAVE BEEN IN YOUR CURRENT POSITION? 2. WHAT IS THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN TO MEN IN YOUR PEER GROUP AT YOUR COLLEGE? (Peer group is defined as all other Chair positions if your position title is that of Chair; all other Dean positions if your position title is that of Dean; etcetera.) 3. WHAT IS THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN TO MEN IN YOUR SUBORDINATE GROUP AT YOUR COLLEGE? (Subordinate group is defined as all those individuals who report DIRECTLY to your position.) Please note that your participation in this study is voluntary. You may withdraw from this study at any time without penalty. Please return to: Mary K. Brown 76 Carnegie Place Ancaster, Ontario, L9G 4T9 (Telephone) 1-905-648-4491 APPENDIX D Letters of Permission 1. Respondent Consent to Participate 2. Consent to use Prism 1 Instrument 3. U.C.R.I.H.S. Permission 228 "An Investigation into Wamen's Cognitive Orientations to Leadership" I agree to be interviewed and to complete the Prism 1 study instrument. SIGNATURE: NAME: ADDRESS: JOB TITLE: TELEPHONE NUMBER: (BUSINESS) (HOME) The literature indicates that the following factors may influence a women's cognitive orientation to her leadership role. Therefore, I must consider these factors in the selection criteria for my sample. Your assistance in answering these questions would greatly assist this process. 1. 'LENGTN OF TIME YOU HAVE BEEN IN YOUR CURRENT POSITION? 2. WHAT IS THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN TO MEN IN YOUR PEER GROUP AT YOUR COLLEGE? (Peer group is defined as all other Chair positions if your position title is that of Chair: all other Dean positions if your position title is that of Dean; etcetera.) 3. WHAT IS THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN TO MEN IN YOUR SUBORDINATE GROUP AT YOUR COLLEGE? (Subordinate group is defined as all those individuals who report DIRECTLY to your position.) Please note that your participation in this study is voluntary. You may withdraw from.this study at any time without penalty. Please return to: Mary K. Brown 76 Carnegie Place Ancaster, Ontario, L9G 4T9 (Telephone) 1-905-648-4491 [ES 229 JOSSEY—BASS s PERMISSIONS W Invoice! 2346 To: Mary R. Brown March 11, 1994i 76 Carnegie Place Ancestor , Ontario Canada L96 4T9 Permission has been granted on behalf of Jossey-Bass Inc. for your use of the following: 1. ouinn. Robert a. W: Aegeagnent. Cbpyright 1992 by JOssey-Bass Inc., Publishers. 2. Quinn. Robert P.- W e; '- .ee|"_' ..e .11).; e :‘u. e; e , a. ’; 11-, _ Figure 9 (p. 70), Table 1 (p. 83), Figure 10 (p. 86): Copyright 1988 by Jossey-Bass Inc. , Publishers. This permission is subject to the following conditions: I Credit line to be used on man material: Reprinted with ~permission of the publishers. Copyright I! 1992 Jossey- Bass Inc. , Publishers, 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104 (415) 433-1767. For dissertation use by 14.x. Brown. All rights reserved. I This permission is non-exclusive and nontransferable. I No changes ‘in the text shall be made without prior written permission from Jossey-Buss Inc. I This permission does not extend to any copyrighted material from other sources which may be incorporated in the above-cited text . I Permission is granted for your use of the above-cited material in your dissertation. If you should later publish your dissertation in another form, additional permission will be required. I NO permissions fee required for dissertations. Please sign and return a copy of this agreement to indicate your acceptance of its terms . MONA-i 3 q 0|“ Permissions Coordinator sIgnahtEan Dge 350 SANSOME STREET SAN FRANCISCO. CALIFORNIA 94104 415 433.1740 FAX 415 433.04 SflWEGQflD FAX: 517/136-1171 230 MICHIGAN STATE u N I v E R s I T Y Ma)’ 2. 1994 TO: Ms. Mary Karen Brown 76 Carnegie Place Ancestor. Ontario L9G 4T9 CANADA RE: IRB #: 94-186 TITLE: AN INVESTIGATION INTO WOMEN’S COGNITIVE ORIENTATIONS TO LEADERSHIP REVISION REQUESTED: NIA CATEGORY: 2-I APPROVAL DATE: 04/28/1994 The University Committee on Research Involving Human Suhjects‘ (UCRIIIS) review of this project iscomplete. Iampleasedtoadvisethattherightsandwelfare ofthehuman subjectsappeartobe adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. Therefore. the UCRIHS approved this project. However, Reviewer #4 runinrk you tlnt you must indude in the consent form the statement indicating thatsubjects may withdraw at any timewithout penalty. Tocornpleteourfiles,pluseserldtoth'noffieeacopyoftherevisedcomentformshowingyou haveincludedthis. » Ratewal: UCRIHSapmvalisvalidforonecalmdaryur,beginnhgwithtbeappmval dateshownabove. Invewgators planningtocontinuea project beyondone year mstusethegreenrmalformhnclosedwiththeoriginalapprovalletterorwhen aprojectisrenewed)toceekupdatedcertification. ‘I'hereisamaainnunoft'our such eitpedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a project beyondthattimeneedtombmititagainforcompletereview. UCRIHS mun review any changes in procedures involving human subjects. prior toinitiationofthechange. Ifthiaisdooeatthetimeofrenewal, pleaaeusethe green renewal form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the year. send your written request to the UCRIHS Chair. requesting revised approval and referencing the project's [RE 4' and title. Include in your request a description ofthechangeandany revised instruments. consentformsoradvertiaementsthatare applicable. ' Should either of the following arise during the course of the work, investigators mun notify UCRIHS promptly: (1) problems (unexpected side effects. complaints, etc.) involving human subjects or (2) changes in the research environment or new informhonindicaunggreaterfiskmthehumansubjectsthanexistedwhenthe protocol was previously reviewed and approved. Ifwe can be of any future help. please do not hesitate to contact us at (517) 355-2180 or FAX (517) 336-ll7l. S'mcerely. UCRII-IS Chair David E. Wright. Ph.D. 7 cc: Dr. Kathryn M. Moore APPENDIX E University Committee on Research involving Human Subjects Application Form 231 APPLICATION FOR REVIEW OF A PROJECT INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS UCRIHS - Michigan State University David E. Wright. Ph.D.. Chair 225 Administration Building East Lamina. MI 48824-1046 I517) 355-2180 l517l 336-1171 - FAX Office Hours: M-F (8:00 A.M.-Noon & 1:005:00 P.M.i l. RESPONSIBLE PROJECT INVESTIGATDRISI ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATDRISI (Faculty or staff supervised 5§J\’“‘J me MEW‘ ' J Faculty nor? Fae/5%. 10:: A up; on- r: 04 (Social Security ll FacJStu. lDl: (Signaturel FacJStu. nor: 2. ADDRESS . ADDRESS (tor comments/approval letter) (for comments/approval Ietterl I . 0° ‘3 9 mm? 35 fiflnéd . $13 ‘fijsgsgfi 3;ng _ DH Qgfigfifil‘g Egg; ' ' ..J ' rd it. ’A :e t. 0- hi 1'" E I. NOS" ‘ ML H ‘ Phone at: ’ - - Phone I: m“ ~ Ari-IN FAX l: 56‘! -‘n"‘> 4.301 FAX r: -— 3. 111-Leos moms“. ‘ rub.) no 0 we ~ ’ .-+ .1. u Oktgu‘t’minn’) 4%.? 4. PROPOS. FUNDING AGENCY lit anyI «an: 5. DOES THIS PROJ UTILIZE AN INVESTIGATION“. DRUG. DEVICE OR PROCEDURE? YesII NOI "vealed'lereenlNDO? Yell] __ NOII a. DOES nus PROJECT mvows me use OF HUMAN BLOOD on nssua Yes i 1 No tvt’ 7. DOES mus PROPOSAL HAVE AN usu otm nuances? Yes I I at No In/ a. wuss WOULD YOU m m seem DATA couecnom mm. new» 9. CATEGORYlClrcleA.Bchbelow. Seeinsmicdonsl a. 111isproposalrerniireereviewbyehillsub-eenunittee. b. Thisproposaliseliglbieiorespeditedreview. Speciiycetegorvorcetegoriee A- ‘ c. Tl'hisproposaiisesernptedtromhrllsub-eonnnitteereview. Speciiycetegoryor categories FOROPFICEUSEONLY Subcomittee - Agenda 231 APPLICATION FOR REVIBN OF A PROJECT INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS UCRIHS - Michigan State University David E. Wright. Ph.D.. Chair 225 Administration Building East Lansing. MI 48824-1048 (517i 355-2180 (517) 336-1171 - FAX Office Hours: M—F (8:00 A.M.-Noon & 1:00-5:00 P.M.I DIRECTIONS: Please complete questions on this application using the instructions and definitions found on the salmon sheets (revised October 1992). 1. RESPONSIBLE PROJECT INVESTIGATORISI ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATORISI (Faculty or staff supervisorl _\<_2J\«i?,u M. “W W‘s-a; Faculty ID : FacJS . (or: m»- {104 (Social Security II FacJStu. IDI: (Signaturel FacJStu. (or: 2. ADDRESS . ADDRESS (for commentslapproval IetterI (for comments/approval letterl ' . M f 9 W gjg ’5'.5.§59& 334;. _ " ' e -’ ' ' ..J ‘ to n. — : ~qu L‘? bMSe TM: *4 . Phone I: ’ - - Phone r: m-tQ - MOI FAX P: it'.-I - ‘55“; L FAX l: — 3. marmoposm. as! :gflsx‘tggr,w “41o nutmeg; gnggm'.u OLIEHTfliafi’h :2 higngk‘h.f 4. PROPOSED FUNDING AGENCY (if all” I“; 5. DOES THIS PROJ UTILIZE AN INVESTIGATIONAL DRUG. DEVICE OR PRD-URE? Yes [I No( Ifyes.isthereaniND#7 Yes (I __ Null 8. DOES THIS PROJECT INVOLVE THE USE OF HUMAN BLOOD 0R TISSUE? Yes I I No M’ 7. DO“ THIS PROPOSALHAVEANMSUORD NUMBER? Yesill NOM/ a. wuss WOULD vou PREFER TD seam DATA couscnom m... mq+ 9. car-scour (Circle A. a or c below. 5.. instructionsJ a. fltisproposalrequireereviewbvehllsub-contrnittee. b. Thlsproposaliseligihlefereapeditedreview. Specifyceteoowprcetegories __-3¢I c. Tl'hisproposalisesentptedfrornfullsub-contrnltteereview. Specifycetegoryor categories FOROFFICEUSEONLY Subcomittee . Agenda 1232 10. PROJECT DESCRIPTION (ABSTRACT) The purpose of this study will be to identify, using Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model, the cognitive orientations and underlying value systems espoused by selected women leaders in Ontario's community college system. The study will attempt to describe, compare and contrast how these women developed their cognitive models from their own perspectives. Within the framework of the Competing Values MOdel, the study will attempt to describe what contributes to these women's cognitive complexity. The study will also examine selected factors, identified in the reviewed literature, that may explain some of the variability in cognitive orientations (i.e. socialization patterns, educational and work experience. gender mix in referent groups, and level in the organization). Finally, this study will examine these women's perceptions about the amount of stress they experience in their position as a result of negotiating among competing values. The design of this study will use a combination of both qualitative and quantitative elements. Data will be analyzed using an interpretive framework derived from Quinn's (1988) Competing Values Model. It is anticipated that an analysis of the similarities and differences in the cognitive orientations of these women leaders will help in the identification, description, and valuing of a cognitive, woman-centred paradigm to leadership. A woman-centred perspective to leadership would provide an alternative way of examining and responding to issues related to the study and practice of effective leadership. 11. IHflDCEIHHMES The Vice-President, Academic position will be contacted by phone at each of the 23 colleges to obtain the names and position titles of all female administrators at the presidential, vice-presidential, full-time program academic dean level, and full-time program academic chair level at their respective college. An introductory letter will then be sent to each identified women administrator at each college. This letter will provide a brief summary of the purpose of study and a review of the data collection methods. The respondents will be assured that neither their name, nor that of their institution will be used in the reporting process. Agreement to participate in this study will then be asked for in this letter. If the respondent agrees to participate in the study, she will be asked to return an enclosed form, so indicating, in the enclosed stamped and addressed envelope. On this response form, the women leader will be asked to respond to the following questions: length of time in position, gender-ratio of her peer referent group, and gender-ratio 1233 composition of those people who report directly to her position. This data will be used to select the actual 20-25 respondents who will be interviewed and to whom the study tools will be given. A thank you letter will be sent to each respondent who agreed to participate in the study but who will not form the study population. These women leaders who are selected to participate in the study will then be contacted by the researcher by phone to set up an interview date and time. They will then receive. by mail, a confirmation of the interview data and time, and an outline of the topics to be covered during the l -l.5 hour single interview. The Prism 1 study instrument will be enclosed in this package of information also and the respondent will be asked to complete these and return them to the interviewer at the time of the interview. This instrument takes approximately 15 minutes to complete. At the time of the interview, permission will be sought to audio tape the process. If the respondent is uncomfortable with audio-taping, hand written notes will be taken by the researcher. The researcher has also agreed to interpret the results of the completed Prism 1 instrument to the respondent if she so desires at the end of the interview. A thank you letter will be sent to all respondents after the interview. 12. SUBJECT POPULATION a. The study population may include (check each category where subjects may be included by design or incidentally): Minors Pregnant Women Human of Childbearing Age Institutionalized Persons Students Low Income Persons Minorities Incompetent Persons (or those with diminished capacity) [ ] / / r—tr—er—nr-IHr-er-s HD—‘HHHHH b. Number of subjects (including controls) ,25’ c. If you are associated with the subjects (e.g., they are your students, employees, patients), please explain the nature of the association. I am a faculty member in one of the 23 community colleges. The Chair position that I report to in my college will not be included in this population. She will be asked to assist me in pilot testing the interview format for this study solely. 234: d. How will the subjects be recruited? The Vice-President, Academic's office will be contacted by phone to obtain a current list of all women administrators and their position title at the president, vice-president, full-time program academic dean and full-time program academic chair levels. Each identified women administrator will then be contacted by letter outlining the purposes of the study and the requirements on their time. They will be invited to participate in this study in this letter. If the respondent decides to participate, she is asked to return the enclosed consent form in the stamped and addressed envelope. e. If someone will receive payment for recruiting the subjects. please explain the amount of payment, who pays it and who receives it. (not applicable) f. Will the research subjects be compensated? [Vi/No [ ] Yes. If yes, details concerning payment, including the amount and schedule of payments, must be set forth in the informed consent. (not applicable) h. Will the subjects incur additional financial costs, as a result of their participation in this study? [yf’No [ ] Yes. If yes, please explain. (not applicable) g. Will you be advertising for research participants? [VJ/No [ ] Yes. If yes, attach a copy of the advertisement you will use. (not applicable) 13. ANONYMITY/CONFIDENTIALITY A letter of agreement to participate in the study will be obtained from each study respondent. All data will be reported in collapsed categories so that individual identities and the identities of their colleges will be protected. The interview tapes will be transcribed solely by the researcher and coded by her in terms of the respondent's level in the organization, length of time in her current position, proportion of women to men in her peer group at work, and proportion of 2235 women to men in the subordinate group which reports directly to this position. Once coding is completed, all tapes and information that might identify the respondent's name or college affiliation will be secured by the researcher in a locked file. Only coded, typed transcripts will be used in data analysis. Copyright permission has been sought and received for use of the Quinn (1992) instrument (see Appendix C). 14 RISK/BENEFIT RATIO The degree of risk to the individual study respondent is minimal. Consent to participate will be sought. Their own identity and that of their work place will be known only to one investigator. All reporting will be done in collapsed categories so that individual identities and that of their college will be protected. The individual's have control over what information they choose to reveal in both the interview situation and in completing the study instruments. In terms of benefits, it is anticipated that an analysis of the similarities and differences in the cognitive orientations of these women leaders will help in the identification, description, and valuing of a cognitive, women-centred paradigm to leadership. A woman-centred perspective to leadership would provide an alternative way of examining and responding to issues related to the study and practice of effective leadership. 115. (XMNSEDRP PTKXEEDWHUES The identified women administrators will he asked to participate via a written letter that will be sent to them. If they agree to participate, they are asked to return the competed consent form in the enclosed stamped and addressed envelope. In addition, written permission to use the Prism 1 instrument has been sought and received from Jossey-Bass, Inc.. APPENDIX F Data Analysis Tool for Content Analysis of Leader Roles, Cognitive Models, & Perspectives 236 Amalia: Data Analysis Tool for Content Analysis of Leader Roles, nggitive Models, and nggitive Perspectives The Director Role 1. Is decisive. 2. Provides structure (i.e. clarifies expectations, provides clear directions, sets limits, time lines, boundaries, guidelines and priorities). 3. Clarifies the unit/organization's purpose. 4. Communicates the plan/vision in a meaningful way to all stakeholders. The Producer Role 1. Is task-oriented. 2. Influences by the achievement of outcomes/results. 3. Seeks change through rational persuasion. 4. Establishes a climate of productive accomplishment (i.e. a "can do" attitude that serves to motivate others: personal enthusiasm and commitment to goal accomplishment). e 5. Willingness to get "hands dirty", or to actually do part of the work. a 6. A desire to get on with what needs to be done and to not personalize issues. 237 The Coordinator Role Ensures that work flows smoothly by: 1. Ensuring that information systems are in place, and by ensuring that the necessary tools, space, time, and people are in place. 2. Brings a sense of order to the unit/organization (i.e. helps others to plan, schedule, organize and coordinate efforts. The Monitor Role Knows what is going on in the work unit and keeps tracks of facts through: 1. one-to-one meetings. 2. regular meetings with work group members. a 3. feedback from trusted others. a 4. informal assessment by walking around, observing and talking with others in their offices, the lounges and in the corridors. The Facilitator Role Fosters collective action and team building through: 1. the identification of decisions and clarification of roles and expectations. 2. encouraging structures to increase the effectiveness of meetings (i.e. use of agendas, taking of minutes, expectations about participation, etc.). 3. seeks consensus in decision making by encouraging others to express their points of view and by helping to resolve areas of disagreement. u...’ 238 Seeks to resolve conflict through: 4. collaborative strategies. 5. compromise strategies. 6. accommodation strategies. 7. avoidance strategies. * 8. In decision making, values the good of the whole (i.e. student learning, organizational outcomes) over the good of parts). e 9. Shares information clearly and in an up-front, honest manner. The Mggtg; Role 1. Fundamentally believes that participative decision making contributes to better outcomes and improved commitment. Develops and values others by: 2. selecting the best peOple for a project or task, and delegating both task and responsibility to these individuals. 3. the empowerment of others. 4. seeking diversity of input/opinions 5. giving recognition to others. 6. Demonstrates good interpersonal relationship skills. 7. Shows a tolerance for and understanding of diversity. 8. Listens carefully. e 9. Helps others to make journey by modelling, teaching, coaching, working with them. 239 a 10. Creates an environment that encourages and values risk taking, ideas sharing, diversity of opinion, multiple perspectives and multiple solutions. a 11. Is open (i.e. knows others and is known to them). a 12. Seeks to influence by "selling" (i.e. influence strategies based on what the change means, or could mean, to the individual. Selling requires an understanding of the needs of the individual to be influenced). 13. Shows concern for others. The Innovator Role 1. Envisions change. 2. Accepts change as a part of life. 3. Likes to identify new trends and opportunities. 4. Tends to trust one's hunches and intuition. * 5. Uses the metaphor of "planting seeds and nurturing their growth". The Broker Role Builds a support or power base through: 1. networks established and maintained within the organization. 2. networks established and maintained outside the unit. Present ideas well: 3. in writing. 4. verbally. 240 5. Is resource oriented. 6. Is politically astute (i.e. likes to negotiate with and to influence power figures. Direction of influence is upward in the organizational hierarchy, and/or external to the organization. (Developed by M.K. Brown, 1994) Note: e'd items were added to those described by Quinn (1988, 1990, 1992) because these items were named by more than 50% of the women leaders interviewed, but were not clearly captured in descriptors of leader roles in the CVM. APPENDIX G Data Tabulation Tables 241 p 1 1 he (Prism 1 Instrument N=24) Resp Innov Brok Prod Dir Coord Monit Fac Rent 4 Is 5.75 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.75 5.25 5.0 4 23 6.0 6.25 5.75 6.25 6.5 5.25 6.75 7.0 4 38 5.75 6.5 4.75 4.5 4.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 4 48 5.5 6.0 5.5 5.75 4.5 5.25 4.25 5.5 4 53 6.25 5.5 5.75 6.0 6.0 6.25 4.5 7.0 J 4 6a 6.5 6.0 6.75 6.25 5.5 5.75 6.5 6.75- 4 7s 5.5 6.0 5.5 5.25 5.0 4.75 5.0 ' 5.251 4 Ga 5.25 7.0 6.0 5.5 5.5 5.25 5.5 5.0 I 4 lm 6.25 6.25 6.25 5.25 6.25 6.25 6.75 7.0 4 Zn 6.0 5.5 5.5 4.75 4.75 5.25 6.5 5.5 4 3m 6.25 6.75 6.75 6.5 6.25 7.0 6.75 7.0 4 4m ‘5.75 5.5 5.25 4.5 4.0 5.25 4.5 6.0 4 5m 6.75 6.5 6.25 5.25 4.25 4.5 7.0 5.75 4 6m 5.5 5.0 5.5 5.0 5.25 5.75 4.5 5.0 4 7m 5.25 5.5 5.0 5.25 6.0 4.75 6.0 6.75 4 it 5.25 5.25 5.75 4.5 6.0 5.25 5.25 6.0 4 2r 6.25 6.25 6.25 5.75 5.75 5.5 5.75 6.25 4 3: 7.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 5.25 6.0 7.0 4 4: 5.25 4.25 6.0 5.5 5.75 5.25 5.25 6.5 4 5: 4.75 4.75 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 4.0 6.5 4 6f 6.0 4.0 5.0 5.5 6.25 5.5 5.5 6.0- 4 7: 5.5 5.0 5.75 4.75 5.75 5.0 6.25 6.5 4 8: 4.75 5.0 5.75 5.5 6.5 5.0 4.5 5.0 4 9: 6.25 6.25 6.0 5.0 5.5 4.5 5.0 5.0 Mean 5.80 5.73 5.73 5.35 5.51 5.23 5.51 6.05 p 3.0. 0.53 0.78 0.56 0.61 0.83 0.64 0.90 0.75 O 8: 833811 0: 8V8 , m=tn f f e 3V8 , = rs 8V8 242 Total Population Roles Means (Interview Date Means N=24) :Resp Innov Brok Prod Dir Coord Monit Pac Ment ; i 4 13 0.2 0.33 0.5 0.25 0 0.25 0.67 0.54; 4 23 0 0.67 0.2 0.75 1.0 0.25 0.67 0.54} 4 33 0 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.44 0.54fi 4 43 0 0.33 0.67 0.5 0 0.5 0.33 0.69l 4 53 0 0.83 0.67 1.0 0.5 0.75 0.44 0.33; 4 63 . 0.2 0.5 0.75 0 0.5 0.33 0.62. 4 73 0.2 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 0.44 0.77I 4 83 . 1.0 0.83 0.75 0 0.25 0.67 0.69; 4 13 . 0.67 0.2 1.0 0 0.25 0.67 0.923 4 23 1.0 0.83 0.75 0 0.5 0.67 0.77? 4 33 0 .67 0.2 0 0 0.25 0.67 0.62! 4 43 . 0.67 0.67 1.0 0 0.5 0.78 0.924 4 53 . 0.83 0.83 1.0 0 0.25 0.44 0.381 4 6m . 0.83 0.5 1.0 0 0.5 0.67 0.85 4 73 . 0.67 0.67 1.0 0 0.25 0.67 0.69 4 1r . 0.83 0.33 1.0 0 0.25 0.67 0.85i\ 4 2f . 0.5 0.83 1.0 0 0.75 0.56 0.69I' 4 3: 0.83 0.83 1.0 0 0.5 0.67 0.771 4 4: 0.67 0 0.5 0 0.75 0.56 1.0 i 4 5r . 0.83 0.2 0.75 0 0.5 0.56 0.77; 4 6f . 0.67 0 1.0 0 0.5 0.56 1.0-; 4 7r . 0.67 0.67 1.0 0 0.25 0.67 0.92i 4 8f . 0.67 0.67 0.75 1.0 0.5 0.67 0.62 4 9: 0.33 0.67 0.75 0 0.5 0.78 0.85’ M333 0.31 0.66 0.53 0.77 0.13 0.43 0.59 0.72; 3.0. 0.28 0.23 0.27 0.28 0.3 0.17 0.13 0.18% ‘ O 3: 838911 or eve ' m3“! 0 0 e eve , = rs eve REFERENCES It 243 References Astin, H.S. & Leland, C. 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