£...«’.:.r¢..¥ :32»!!! a 1 1. ya flimuuwnfi «r .. .n” a... «winding ‘ , 3...» 5h . h... w. .. 1 .....z.... ”sun“. ‘ :u Isfarlvx: .540) :28: 2:} .- tibflcuu 919‘ um: aux»; f). .M ,L , s .5 51“” “n lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 31293 01026 2263 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Post-Shooting Incident Policies in Michigan Municipal Police Agencies presented by Patricia E. NOwak has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M. S. degree in Criminal Justice Major professor Date flair # Z Z//f75 0-7539 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 1 PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove We checked from your record. i TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE MSU Ie An Nflrmetlve ActIorVEqueI Opportunity Inetltuion Wane-m POST-SHOOTIN G INCIDENT POLICIES IN MICHIGAN MUNICIPAL POLICE AGENCIES by Patricia E. Nowak A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE College of Social Science School of Criminal Justice 1993 Dennis Payne, Advisor ABSTRACT POST-SHOOTIN G INCIDENT POLICIES IN MICHIGAN MUNICIPAL POLICE AGENCIES By Patricia E. N owak The primary purpose of this study was to investigate how many municipal police agencies in the state of Michigan had policy regarding post-shooting incidents. A secondary purpose of this study was to identify how close those policies followed the model policy proposed by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP). Data collection involved a mailed survey instrument which was administered to a sample of Michigan municipal police agencies. The findings indicate that the majority of agencies do have policy regarding post-shooting incidents; however, many of those agency’ 5 policies do not follow the model policy proposed by the IACP. For instance, many existing policies are related liability issues for the agency instead of factors related to the personal welfare of the officer. The researcher also found that approximately one-quarter of the responding agencies had a police officer involved shooting within the last five years. To My Parents Robert and Margie Wilcox who are my inspiration in life ”It’s not the critics who counts, not the man who points out the strong man stumbled or whether the deer of deeds could have done them better. The credit belongs to the man who is actually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and often comes up short again and again and who at worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly so that his soul shall never be with those cold and timid ones who know neither victory nor defeat” Theodore Roosevelt Police Commissioner, New York, New York ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many individuals who made this thesis possible that I would like to credit. I would like to first thank Dennis M. Payne, Ph.D., Robert C. Trojanowicz, PhD. and David Carter, Ph.D. for serving on my thesis committee and providing valuable assistance in the completion of this thesis. I also appreciate the assistance of the East Lansing Police Department, and the officers of that department for the support and fellowship provided as well as to James Johnson and our other fallen officers - you will never be forgotten. Most of all, I would like to express my gratitude towards my family and friends for the motivation they gave me in preparing this thesis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION Overview of the Research Problem ............................................................. 1 Primary Concerns for Research .................................................................... 1 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................... 2 Ethical Concerns ............................................................................................... 2 Community Concerns .................................................................................... 3 Legal Concerns .................................................................................................. 3 Labor Relations Concerns .............................................................................. 3 Basic Assumptions .......................................................................................... 4 Primary Research Questions ......................................................................... 4 Additional Research Questions .................................................................... 5 CHAPTER II - LITERATURE REVIEW Definition of Stress .......................................................................................... 6 Managerial Concerns ...................................................................................... 6 Stress Levels ...................................................................................................... 9 Types of Stress ................................................................................................... 10 External Stressors ................................................................................. 11 Internal Stressors ................................................................................. 11 Stressors Within Police Work ...................................................................... 12 Stressors Cofronting Individual Police Officers ........................................ 12 Physical Effects of Law Enforcement Stress ................................................ 15 Emotional Effects of Law Enforcement Stress ........................................... 16 Suicide .................................................................................................... 16 Divorce ................................................................................................... 17 Alcoholism ............................................................................................ 18 PostTraumatic Stress Disorder .......................................................... 18 Stress as a Responsibility of Management .................................................. 20 Programs to Prevent or Treat Stress - ................. 21 Psychological Counseling ................................................................... 21 Training Methods ................................................................................ 22 Policy and its Implications ............................................................................. 24 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 26 CHAPTER HI - METHODOLOGY Research Questions ......................................................................................... 28 Instrumentation28 Population ......................................................................................................... 29 Sampling Design .............................................................................................. 29 Sampling Frame ............................................................................................... 29 Rationale for Sampling .................................................................................. 30 iv Sampling Error ................................................................................................. 30 Sample Size ....................................................................................................... 31 Distribution of Survey Instrument .............................................................. 31 Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 32 CHAPTER IV - ANALYSIS OF DATA Demographic Findings ................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER V - CONCLUSION General Findings .............................................................................................. 57 Overall Findings .............................................................................................. 61 Directions for the Future ................................................................................ 62 APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................. 64 APPENDIX B .................................................................................................................. 72 APPENDD( C .................................................................................................................. 82 APPENDIX D .................................................................................................................. 83 APPENDIX E ................................................................................................................... 84 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 85 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 ............................................................................................................. 34 Chief’ 5 Total Years In Law Enforcement ......................................... 34 Table 2 ................................................................................................................. 35 Years As Chief ....................................................................................... 35 Table 3 ................................................................................................................. 36 Education of Chief ............................................................................... 36 Table 4 ................................................................................................................. 37 Department Size ................................................................................... 37 Table 5 ................................................................................................................. 38 Type of Agency ..................................................................................... 38 Table 6 ................................................................................................................. 38 Training in Occupational Stress ....................................................... 38 Table 7 ................................................................................................................. 39 Type of Training ................................................................................... 39 Table 8 ................................................................................................................. 39 Established Written Policies .............................................................. 39 Table 9 ................................................................................................................. 40 Source of Policy .................................................................................... 40 Table 10 ............................................................................................................... 41 Reasons for No Policy ......................................................................... 41 Table 11 ............................................................................................................... 42 Familiarity and Consideration of IACP Policy .............................. 42 Table 12 ............................................................................................................... 43 Structured Support Systems .............................................................. 43 Table13 ................................................................................................................ 44 Types of Structured Support Systems .............................................. 44 Table 14 ............................................................................................. 1': ................ 4 6 Total Officer Involved Shootings ..................................................... 46 Table 15 ............................................................................................................... 48 Comparison to IACP Guidelines ...................................................... 48 Table 16 ............................................................................................................... 52 Years As Chief ....................................................................................... 52 Table 17 ............................................................................................................... 53 Education of Chief .......................................................................... _.....53 Table 18 ............................................................................................................... 54 Agency Type and Size ......................................................................... 54 Table 19 ............................................................................................................... 55 Relationship of Training to Existence of Written Policy ............. 55 Table 20 ............................................................................................................... 55 Relationship of Training to Existence of Written Policy ............. 55 vi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Overview of the Research Problem This research is undertaken to assist Michigan municipal police agencies in recognizing the importance of having effective post-shooting incident policies, and to assist those agencies by reducing stress among members or employees of those agencies. Primary Concerns for Research For many years mental health professionals have recognized the emotional and psychological ramifications which can result in the aftermath of life-threatening, catastrophic events. In the past decades, this phenomenon has been sensitized to the public's attention by the significant number of Viet Nam Veterans who have suffered adverse and sometimes severe emotional reactions to their wartime experiences. In many cases, these problems surfaced years after they returned from combat (IACP, 1989). These and other factors have increased the understanding and appreciation for the psychological and emotional effects on survivors of traumatic violence or death in a variety of contexts. In the past, little attention has been placed on policies regarding post-shooting incidents. In May 1990, the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), supported by funding by the United States Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Assistance, developed a "Model Policy for Post-Shooting Incident Procedures". The purpose of the policy was to provide guidelines which could be uniformly applied to any officer-involved shooting incident that had 2 resulted in death or serious bodily harm. It's purpose was to minimize the chances of involved personnel developing or suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). P_urpose of the Stud; The survey research is designed to investigate police agencies in the State of Michigan in order to determine if policies regarding post-shooting stress are being used by Michigan municipal law enforcement agencies. A secondary purpose is to explore if any, or to what degree those policies by the agencies follow the IACP's Psychological Services Administrative Guidelines regarding officers involved in on-duty shooting situations. Ethical Concerns There are ethical reasons to institute such policies. Some police administrators have failed to recognize the levels of stress that can occur when officers are involved in shooting incidents. Furthermore, some police administrators have inadvertently added considerable stress related to police shootings through organizational aspects which are under their direct managerial control. Management can compound the problems an officer experiences in recovering psychologically from an on-duty shooting incident because of inappropriate departmental policy of simply the lack of policy. It is important for police administrators or managers to recognize their moral and ethical responsibilities to assure the mental well-being of the individuals under their command. The human resource is the most important resource of the police organization. It is the responsibility of management to use all organizational resources to the fullest extent possible. Community Concerns A police department's ability to respond to its community's needs is dependent upon the effectiveness of the law enforcement officers since the overall well-being of the officers affects their performance of their duties. Administrators need to provide citizens with high-quality police services and protection from officers that are psychologically impaired. Legal Concerns There are also legal justifications for such policy. Recent legal decisions have held police organizations responsible for employee behaviors and the psychological fitness of officers. Under the heading "negligent retention", police agencies and their supervisors can be held liable for the action of their employees if there were indications that the employee was not functioning adequately, but did not take any action to provide assistance (Stratton 1980). Even in departments that have never faced charges of this nature, the potential for civil liability provides a strong incentive to institute programs and policies that assist employees who are experiencing stress-related difficulties. Training in the area of stress is also important and may take on legal ramifications. Recently, the United States Supreme Court held that a city can be held civilly liable for failing to properly train its officers, if this failure demonstrates that the city was deliberately indifferent to the deprivation of an individuals constitutional rights Canton v. Harris 109 S. Ct. 1197, (1989).. Labor Relations Concerns Discipline is of key interest to union officials and management. A supervisor is hard pressed to ensure proper accountability unless there is 4 written policy governing the actions of those employees involved in a shooting incident. Without written policy, the union would undoubtedly grieve the discipline inflicted upon the member(s) as it would be construed as ambiguous to what was required from the employees involved (Payne, 1989). Basic Assumptions An underlying assumption of this research is that the IACP guidelines do assist in minimizing stress in shooting incidents. Paramount to the officer involved in a shooting incident is the stress that builds from "not knong what will happen" administratively. In a time where the officer is experiencing emotional and possible physical pain, inadequate or no policy at all will only increase their symptoms of stress. The IACP Model Policy defines the purpose of the policy (see Appendix A), the policy itself, specific definitions, procedures at the scene, post-incident procedures, as well as stress recognition. The Model Policy also contains and requires training pertaining to post-traumatic stress disorders while requiring supervisors to be responsible for making available to it's members information on counseling and mental health services (See Appendix A). Primary Research Questions 1. Is there significant differences between Michigan municipal police agencies post-shooting policies and the IACP's policy? 2. Is there a significant difference between the type and size of Michigan municipal police agency that follows the IACP Model Policy and those agencies that do not. 5 3. Is there a significant difference between age, length of service, and amount of education of a Michigan Police Chief regarding whether their department has a policy and/ or follows a policy similar to the IACP guidelines. Additional Research Questions In addition to the primary questions being addressed, other broad questions can be explored. The answers to these questions may have an impact on improving knowledge about post-shooting procedures by identifying additional subject matter. 1. Does the type of stress training the chief has had impact on whether the department has a written policy ? 2. Is there a written policy, and who initiated it? 3. If the department does not have a written policy, what reason do they give? 4. How many chiefs are familiar with the IACP Post-Shooting Incident Model Policy? 5. How many chiefs would consider using the Model Policy if they were aware of it? 6. How many chiefs feel that their officers need a structured support system after an officer-involved shooting? 7. What kind of structured support system is offered to the officers? 8. Is the support person responsible for fitness to return to duty evaluations? CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Definition of Stress The pioneer of stress research, Hans Selye (1974), defined stress as the "non-specific response of the body to any demand". It is non-specific because it can be produced by almost any agent. Selye describes the defensive reaction to a stressor in terms of the "general adaptation syndrome"(GAS), which refers to a group of symptoms and signs which appear together. The three stages of this response consist of 1) the alarm reaction, wherein the body initially reacts to the first exposure to the stressor; 2) the stage of resistance, where the characteristic signs of the alarm response subside and resistance occurs if continued exposure to a stressor is compatible with adaptation; and, 3) the stage of exhaustion, where continued exposure to a stressor exhausts the energy used for adaptation, and where the signs of the alarm reaction reappear and become irreversible. Managerial Concerns The topic of stress has been studied and applied to many fields of study. Although researchers differ on the amount of stress leading to ineffectiveness, many effects of stress can be observed. Initial studies on occupational stress were spurred by a concern in the private sector that uncontrolled stress affected morale, efficiency, productivity and job turnover. One result of the observations was the development of the concept called burnout. A symptom of burnout was the turnover of public sector employees in mid-career. 7 In the police organization, a main concern of administrators is the potential of stress leading to dysfunctions in the organization or its members. Some stress is necessary for an individual to function normally. Stress, however, that is too intense or prolonged can have destructive physiological and psychological effects upon officers that may lead to the the inability of an individual officer to function optimally. Important to any organization interested in increasing their effectiveness is exploring what managerial behavior will induce employees to act in a way consistent with the expectation and demands of the organization. The recurring theme is recognition on the part of management that subordinates have needs, abilities, and opinions that are crucial to the effectiveness of the organization (Kalinich, Klofas, 8: Stojkovic, 1987). This deals directly with the necessity of recognizing the stress of the employees and/ or assisting in resolutions of it to gain maximum effectiveness of the organization. Of primary interest to a police administrator is the recognition that a police officer will determine how a policy will be implemented, not their superiors, (Lipsky 1980). Therefore a concentrated effort should be made to deal with the stress of the line officer. Looking at the stress in the organization, one must consider multiple stressors occurring simultaneously, the duration of the stress situation, and the magnitude of the stress, in order to ease dysfunctional stress (Kalinich, 1984). Three basic reactions to stress have been defined and include, depression, anger and anxiety. All three have an impact on the personality, health, and job performance of the individual. Symptoms of stress that are directly related to the job include a high absentee rate, alcoholism, accidents, serious errors in judgement, and slow reactions (Kalinich, 1984). Relating to errors in judgement, psychological research has also suggested that under 8 stress conditions, the likelihood of erroneous perception increases (Brunner, 1958 & Buckhout, 1975). What have previously been defined are symptoms of stress; however, the underlying causes of stress must also be understood. In order to address this issue, it is important to see how the individual is affected by the job and the organization. Many people would argue that one of the major stresses of police work would deal with the actual "job" police perform; however, the research in criminal justice has indicated that organizational factors have been identified as the major causes of stress and burnout. Relating stress to job satisfaction, Albert Camus once said, when work is soulless, life Istifles and dies (Kroes, 1976). It is the negative pressures and stressors of the job that lead to worker dissatisfaction. According to Kroes (1976), policing is one of the most difficult jobs in America today. He reports that workers are experiencing unbelievably high amounts of negative work pressures and job stress. Kroes (1976), defines stress as the occupational pressure or burdens which adversely affect workers. What is troublesome, overwhelming, or uncomfortable about a job can be labeled the stressors of the job. Kroes also feels that in the police profession, job stress not only exists, but it may be the paramount problem facing policeman today. Kroes feels that the first step should be to identify the individual job stressors within an occupation and determine their potential harm to the individual worker. Some researchers feel that there is an optimum level of stress, and that too little as well as. too much stress is bad. Kroes argues that to assume that job stress is essential to maintaining an optimum level of arousal is going too far, believing that there are enough stimuli in the world to keep us aroused. He believes what some call the need for "stress" to enjoy his/ her job should be properly labeled 9 "challenge", which a more scientific researcher would feel is an intrinsic job motivator. According to Kroes (1976) a worker who is subject to job stressors produces a strain to his/ her person. In essence, the stress of the job interacts with the worker to disrupt their psychological and physiological homeostasis, resulting in a strain effect. The nature, extent and duration of the strain effects will lead to reduced efficiency at work, personality change, and medical conditions such as ulcers, heart attacks, asthma, and obesity. Stress Levels Stratton (1978) explains stress at four levels. In the first level, the individual is nervous and experiences increased tension, the emotions betray the arousal of aggressive impulses; overabundance of emotionalism; worry is often accompanied by minor bodily and sexual dysfunction. If ignored, level one can deteriorate into the individual experiencing a growing discomfort, anomie, and feeling of uselessness. In this second level, guilt and fears intensify and there may be a steadily increasing inability to perform work or relate with others. This may be covered up at great costs by the individual. The individual often copes by displaying bravado and recklessness, or utilizing defense mechanisms such as blocking or fantasies. The stress agent is not attacked; rather the aggression is diverted to more socially accepted forms of activity such as gambling, reckless driving, physical violence, or becoming overly generous, friendly, or enthusiastic, but with frequent mood changes. At the third level of dysfunction, aggression is no longer inward, but is directed outwardly. There may be violent acts towards animals and the individual may have a need to destroy "evil" in whatever form it is perceived. There will also be suspiciousness, hyper-sensitivity, and 10 overactivity. Responses will be speeded up to much activity, talking too fast, and sleeping too little. Impaired judgement will become apparent to everyone, including the individual. In the fourth level, controls are no longer effective. This level is characterized by severe blowups and temper tantrums. No longer is any attempt made to live up to expectations. The individual may become manic, depressed, schizophrenic, or paranoid. The facade disintegrates, and suicide may be the result. Types of Stress Burgin (1978) defines two types of stressors: uncontrollable and controllable. Uncontrollable stress includes withdrawal of friends and negative reactions from non-police persons in both occupational and social settings. It may include specific job situations, shift-work, court procedures and decisions, and the possibility of danger. This may lead to a condition necessitating the officer to continuously exhibit behavior beyond reproach on and off duty. These uncontrollable stressors are a fundamental part of the police occupation, according to Burgin (1978). In discussing controllable stressors, Burgin (1978) stated that unfortunately, many police organizations have not only failed to recognize uncontrollable stressors, but they have added considerable sources of stress through aspects of the organization which are under managerial control. Some of these controllable stressors include, inappropriate personnel policies and procedures (particularly disciplinary procedures), poor supervision practices, a lack of opportunities for officers who need help, and inadequate training. Burgin (1978) also stated that the impact of stress on police officers manifests itself in physiological problems, such as heart disease, diabetes, alcoholism and other stress-related disorders. 11 Psychological disorders and emotional instability are also outcomes of stress, as are broken marriages, and overt verbal or physical hostility toward the public. In the extreme, suicide by the officer is possible. Burgin (1978) explains the impact of stress on the police organization as a loss of police officer efficiency, complaints from the public, lawsuits arising from police malpractice, workmen's compensation claims and disability retirements. He also includes "burned out" personnel in supervisory and management positions, who create still more stress in their subordinates, peers, and commanding officers. Stratton (1978) stated that authors such as Kroes (1976), Eisenberg (1975), and Reiser (1976), and leading authorities such as Roberts (1975) have tried to categorize the various stressors impinging on law enforcement into 4 areas. These areas include 1) stressors external to law enforcement 2) stressors internal to the organization 3) stressors in police work itself, and, 4) stressors confronting the individual officer. External Stressors External stressors include frustration with the criminal justice system, court leniency, inconsiderate scheduling of judicial proceedings, negative or distorted media presentations, unfavorable attitudes of some minority communities, attitudes of administrative bodies who have the power to restrict law enforcement and funding. Also included are lack of community resources, and the ineffectiveness of the rehabilitation programs. Internal Stressors Internal stressors are found within the agencies themselves. They may include poor training, supervision, equipment, pay, inadequate career 12 development opportunities and poor reward systems. Other stressors include policies which are viewed as offensive, excessive paperwork, failure of administration and the citizens to appreciate the police officer's effort and performance, and the political implications that often enter into everyday decisions. Stressors Within Police Work Among the stressors within police work are shift work, court time and holdover time, role-conflict, ongoing interplay between fear and danger, the fragmented nature of the job, and the constant exposure to other human beings in distress. The job may also include boredom contrasted to peak alertness, the responsibility for other people's safety, work overloads, and the need to present the "superman" image in all situations. Stressors Confronting Individual Police Officers A police officer lives and performs under more stress than any member of any other profession said Somodeville (1978). Any sign of anxiety, fear, or uncertainty becomes a highly undesirable trait for those officers who feel that they must be a "superman", or always in control. Because a police officer is expected to deal with all situations in the same methodological manner, the officer develops a "mask" that serves to maintain an image as well as defend himself/ herself from the horrors to which he/ she is exposed. This mask becomes so ingrained that the officers may incorporate it into their personality at work and at home. According to Somodeville (1978), a protective device becomes a liability. It can create emotional and physical problems that, in many cases, the officer in question is the last one to recognize. 13 Many research findings have indicated that organizational factors were the major causes of stress and burnout, Kalinich (1987). Whitehead 8: Lindquist (1986) argue that chronic intense stress may lead to burnout. Chronic burnout has been defined as a ”syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism” by Maslach 8: Jackson (1981). Both stress and burnout refer to physical and psychological reactions to the work environment. In studies of correctional officers in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Washington, Cheek and Miller (1982, 1983) found that "administrative sources" were the primary source of stress on the job. The administrative sources included such concerns as lack of communication from management, lack of clear guidelines on the job, and lax or inconsistent administrative practices. In their study of correction officer burnout, Whitehead 8: Lindquist (1986) concluded that administrative policies and procedures were sources of stress. This study also supports the view that managerial control efforts may conflict with officer's desire for autonomy and discretion. Joseph Terlizzise (1978), believes that stress is a symptom characterized by maladjustment of roles, failure of organizational functions, conflict within one's reference group, and rapid social change(s). Whitehead (1985) examined stress due to the nature of the job in his study of burnout among probation and parole officers. In studying the causes, Whitehead argues that his data does not support theories that link burnout to emotionally charged contact with clients. Rather, burnout was tied to the officer's need for efficacy and a sense of providing competent service to clients. Gary Cherniss (1980) has suggested that burnout may arise from boredom, excessive job demands, job design problems such as role-conflict, and role ambiguity or lack of participation in decision making. All of the above are stresses, not from the job performed, but from the organization. 14 One common form of conflict is "role conflict", which occurs when the individual within an organization is not able to comprehend and/ or accomplish the tasks expected of them (Kalinich, 1987). The source of this role conflict may be a communication problem between officer and supervisor or a disagreement between a subordinate and a supervisor regarding tasks. As a result, role conflict deals with inconsistent messages and pressures from superiors regarding their expectations. Role conflicts may lead to high turnover, absenteeism, and low morale (Alpert 8: Dunham 1988). Role conflict can also be traced to much of the stress found in organizations. Vertical conflict also leads to stress. This conflict exists between those individuals who are in differing positions of authority within an organizational hierarchy (Kalinich,1988). This may be perceived as stressful to the subordinate who views the supervisor as attempting to "control" their behavior. An example of this may be the officer viewing a program like "Management by Objectives" as an encroachment into his/ her areas of expertise (Shanahan, 1985). They see an administrator taking the officer's discretion away or limiting it, which may give the officers the perception that the program is responsible for making them lose "control" over their job. Role and vertical conflict are also forms of intraorganizational stress. Kalinich (1988) identifies four types of conflict in organizations. These include personal conflict, group conflict, intraorganizational conflict, and interorganizational conflict. Effective stress exists within the individual and usually involves some form of goal conflict or cognitive conflict. Typically, this form of conflict is a function of not meeting one's expectations within some type of context. Festinger (1957) refers to this as "cognitive dissonance" in that 8/ he cannot reconcile their personal expectations of the police role with those expectations of the police organization. 15 Whatever decision the officer makes on dealing with the conflict, it will have an impact on the officer's future behaviors. Group conflict occurs in organizations when individual members of a group disagree on some point of common interest. The resolution of the conflict is essential to the survival of the group and may even enhance the effectiveness of the group in the long run. Interorganizational conflict typically refers to the problems generated by the structural makeup of an organization. It is concerned with the issues of formal authority in the organization and how it is delegated. Interorganizational conflict occurs when there is a common purpose among many disparate organizational units but there is disagreement as to how that purpose will be addressed. This type of conflict arises when separate organizational units perceive their goals and objectives in conflict with each other and who operate in the same task environment. Physical Effects of Law Enforcement Stress Job stress can affect a person's health, personality, and job performance. Research has identified psychological stress as an important causal agent in such health problems as coronary health disease, gastrointestinal malfunctions, dermatological problems, severe nervous conditions, neurosis, and a number of other physical and mental disorders. The presence of thirty- five physiological effects of job stressors have been shown. These include "virtually every ailment from headaches and sinus attacks to shrinking thalamus', spastic colons, and grinding teeth" (Terry, 1981). . Several studies on stress have been conducted concerning its effects on police officers. Interviews with one-hundred male Cincinnati police officers revealed that the officers believed their jobs had adversely affected their family lives. Furthermore, 32% of those officers reported digestive disorders 1 6 and 24% reported headaches. These figures compared with only 14% of the civilian population, (Kroes, Margolis, and Hurrell, 1974). A 1972 to 1974 study in Tennessee, which included police and other occupational groups, examined hospital and mental health center records. This study revealed that the police had more digestive and circulatory disorders than other occupations (Richard 8: Fell, 1975). Another study of police officers found that the onset of strain occurs early in an officer's career. 15% of the officers in the study had cholesterol levels which rendered them twice as prone to coronary heart disease as persons with normal levels; 27% showed elevated triglycerides; 56% were from 6 to 20 pounds overweight, with 28% more than 21 pounds overweight. In addition, twenty-seven percent had a medium high or high risk of coronary heart disease, (Grencik 8: Pitchess, 1973). Emotional Effects of Law Enforcement Stress The few systematic studies that attempt to relate stress and emotional problems experienced by police officers have primarily looked at rates of suicide, divorce, alcoholism, as well as the psychological distress of officers involved in shooting incidents. m Kroes (1976) contends that police suicides are underreported. Since the victim's colleagues are typically the first to arrive at a suicide scene, he asserts that the incident may be reported as an "accidental death" to shield the I officer's family or to protect their right to insurance benefits. Nevertheless, Davidson and Veno (1978) reported that in the state of Wyoming, from 1960 to 1968, the suicide rate for police was almost twice the rate for physicians. 17 Some investigators argue that there is considerable discrepancy between myth and fact when considering the prevalence of police suicide (Fabriacatore 8: Dash, 1977). In fact, the available literature on police suicide rates does not always confirm the assertion that police are a high risk population. Dash and Reiser (1977), for example, found the suicide rate for police in Los Angeles during the period 1970 to 1976 was well below the average rate for Los Angeles County. Divorce Most investigators who have examined the effects of job-related stress on the officer's home lives have reported unusually high rates of divorce. For example, Stratton (1976) stated that law enforcement marriages as a group, have one of the highest divorce rates in the country. While there is a general trend in society toward less stable marriages, law enforcement marriages have stressors inherent in them which can create specialized difficulties that do not exist in other marriages. Later, however, Stratton (1982) concluded that the incidence of divorce among police officers has been overestimated. Kroes, Hurrell, and Margolis (1974) did find that a majority of married officers report that their work has an adverse effect on their home lives. Some of the reasons discussed included the possibility that the profession inhibits non-police friendships; it makes them less able to plan social events, and generates a negative public image for their family. In addition, officers are more likely to take job pressures homes and their spouses often worry about their safety. 18 Alcoholism Hurrell and Kroes (1975) have suggested that those in policing are especially vulnerable to alcoholism. They contend that some police administrators have informally reported that as many as 25 % of the officers in their departments have alcohol abuse problems. However, systematic studies are lacking to confirm the widely held belief that police suffer unusually high rates of alcoholism. Although research has established a relationship between high job stress and excessive drinking, (Singleton 8: Teahan, 1978), evidence for high rates of alcoholism among police remains questionable. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association recognized a new syndrome called the "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder ", or P.T.S.D. (D.S.M. III, 1980). This syndrome is said to be the result of exposure to traumatizing life events leading to an extreme emotional response (Van Fleet, 1990). This disorder can occur in either an acute or chronic phase. Not all officers involved in shootings will experience P.T.S.D. Officers who learn that their unexpected and uncontrollable reactions during and after a shooting are shared by other officers are better able to accept their own feelings and thoughts. The emotional impact of a shooting incident has been recognized as the most traumatic experience a law enforcement officer can face. In discussions of post-shooting trauma reactions, one should keep in mind that the same range of reactions is applicable to other traumatic situations. Even in the absence of physical injury, the psychological stress caused by such experiences can be profound. Goolkasian, Geddes, and Deong (1985), stated 19 that some of the frequently-cited reactions include guilt, anxiety, fear, nightmares, flashbacks, social withdrawal, insomnia, and impaired memory concentration. Officers involved in shooting incidents, as well as their families, supervisors, and fellow officers, are generally unprepared to cope with the traumatic aftermath of such incidents. In a study consisting of 86 officers attending post-shooting seminars, Solomon and Mom (1986) found eighteen different reactions reactions that expressly experienced by the officers. Those reactions included a heightened sense of danger, anger, nightmares, isolation, withdrawal, fear and anxiety about future situations, sleep difficulties, flashbacks, intruding thoughts, emotional numbing, depression, alienation, guilt, sorrow, remorse, the "Mark of Cain"(an assumption that others blame them or shame them), problems with authority figures/ rules/ regulations, family problems, feelings of insecurity/ loss of control, sexual difficulties, alcohol/ drug abuse, and suicidal thoughts. Further research from Solomon and Horn’s (1986) pilot study suggest that more support will decrease post-shooting trauma, particularly in terms of alienation and problems with the system. Although Solomon and Horn (1986) admitted that they had no actual data, their observations suggested that following procedures which are sensitive to the officer's needs could go a long way toward reducing a stressful aftermath that would too often compound the stress of the incident itself. Solomon and Horn provide the following checklist of ideas and actions which warrant consideration when shooting incidents occur: 1) Give compassionate response to involved officers at the scene. 2) Avoid judgmental remarks. 3) Provide physical and mental first aid. 4) Remove the officer from the crime scene (body). 20 5) Replace the officer's revolver. 6) Arrange contact with officer's family and provide support. 7) Provide a psychological break for the officer before a detailed interview. 8) Place the officer on administrative leave, not suspension. 9) Provide mandatory counseling within 1-2 days. 10) Screen incoming telephone calls to the officer. 11) Advise employees of the basic facts of the incident. 12) Screen vicarious thrill seekers. 13) Provide independent legal counsel for the officer. 14) Allow for a paced return to duty. 15) Consider the officer's interests in media releases. 16) Expedite the completion of administrative and criminal investigations and advisement of the outcomes to the officer. Stress as a Responsibility of Management According to Sandford (1977), it is believed that organizations are structured processes which exist to help individuals satisfy their needs. As such, they are integrative, social processes. The human resource is the most important element of organizations. Management is the process by which individual and group effort are coordinated toward group goals. The responsibility of management is to use all organizational resources to the fullest extent possible. Sanford believes that human behavior is caused, rather than occurring by chance. He feels that work is the primary means by which individuals satisfy most of their needs. ' Stratton (1978), discussed how law enforcement agencies have traditionally dealt with stress. Some of these traditional methods included ignoring the officer, hiding or transferring the officer, firing the officer, 21 allowing a disability retirement, or rehabilitating the officer. Stratton recommends rehabilitating the officer because this approach is effective and more importantly, the humanness of this approach results in increased productivity and morale. Programs to Prevent or Treat Stress Psychological Counseling The most common approach for dealing with police stress is to identify officers who are exhibiting signs of physical or psychological distress. Remedial actions to deal with this distress could include individual or small group counseling and other forms of psychotherapy. For instance, many of the larger police departments in the United States have established psychological service units to locate officers in distress (Jacobi, 1975; Bennette- Sandler 8: Ubell, 1977; and, Schilling, 1978). Such units provide counseling for the officers as well as members of their families. Additionally, these programs can be mandatory or voluntary. According to Somodville (1978), in a profession where stress is rampant, where accurate selection and effective maintenance of personnel is a key in the perpetuating of the smooth functioning of the department, and where unpredictability is the only thing predictable, a psychologist can provide services in a multitude of areas to improve the human dimension of police work. Some of the services a psychologist can provide to a police department is that of a diagnostician. They can perform behavioral cause investigations when an officer is behaving in a way that suggests emotional problems as the source of his / her poor performance. They may also conduct psychodiagnostic evaluations on officers seeking counseling. Sandford (1977) 22 also states that the role of counseling is to improve performance through the solutions of problems. Some other specific functions carried out by police agencies can be illustrated by the Los Angeles Police Department. Stratton (1978), discussed how the Los Angeles Police Department, in its delivery of psychological services, provides confidential counseling, special training programs for spouses to reduce stress in law enforcement marriages, as well as special courses on stress and coping mechanisms. Training Methods Training may be used as an attempt to reduce stress in organizations. Burgin (1978) states that because of the potential cost to both officers and the police organization, stress management is an important aspect of police administration. Burgin feels that stress programs should focus on: equipping officers to cope with the uncontrollable stressors, reducing controllable stressors, and providing easy access to treatment for officers with stress related problems. A well-developed stress management program should include: 1) Training - dealing with uncontrollable stressors associated with policing, all police personnel should receive training on stress and the management of stress on a personal basis. 2) Reviewing Policy and Procedures - to determine if they give use to unnecessary stress. 3) A Counseling and Referral Program - where counseling can be originated on both voluntary or directed basis. 4) Seminars for Police Spouses - which focus on stresses involved; problems in families, methods for managing stress. 23 One program used by Somodevilla (1978), in training supervisors exposes them to some of the many signs of stress-related problems which may be exhibited by their subordinates. In this program, supervisors are taught how to deal with the individual, while relating to them in a meaningful, helpful, and supportive manner. Supervisors are also taught to refer individuals for counseling, if the problem requires the involvement of a professional therapist. Sensitivity training may also be a means of giving group members an insight into their own behavior and how this affects group efforts (Terlizzise,1978). This approach involves human relations indoctrination. Besides sensitivity training, other training methods for stress reduction include the use of physical exercise, proper diet and self-awareness or relaxation techniques. Biofeedback, transcendental meditation and self- hypnosis allows officers to become more related, get a feeling of what is happening to their body, and through this awareness, understand themselves more fully, Stratton (1978). Bartollas, Miller 8: Wice (1983), also stated that stress management has become an important issue because of the serious problems it poses to police officers. Some of the techniques reviewed by the authors included the development of technical skills that will support the police officer in critical incident situations. Included in their discussion was human relations training programs and experiments with encounter and sensitivity training. Police identity workshops utilizing role-playing techniques, cognitive inputs, simulation of critical incidents, and personality measurement feedback were also examined. The team-building format that trains a unit of police officers to counter the tension and stresses and to provide group support is important. Crisis intervention training, and interpersonal conflict 24 management training, participative management the team policing model and biofeedback techniques are all emphasized in the stress management training, Reiser (1975). Policy and its Implications Policy is defined as the principles and values which guide the performance of a departmental activity (Carter 8: Barker, 1991). A policy is not a statement of what must be done in a particular situation. Rather, it is a statement of guiding principles that should be followed in activities which are directed toward the attainment of departmental objectives. Policy is formulated by analyzing objectives and is based upon police ethics and experience, desires of the community, and mandates of the law. Policy is articulated to inform the public and department employees of the principles which will be adhered to in the performance of the law enforcement function, Los Angeles Police Department (1982). According to Wells, Getman, and Blau (1988), each law enforcement department must develop its own standardized procedures for responding to traumatic events. Stratton (1978) stated that stress arises not only from the very nature of police work and the individual personal problems of an officer, but also from frustration in dealing externally with other agencies and institutions and in coping with policies and practices in the department. Having a policy demonstrates to the employee that the agency understands the importance of recognizing their needs in a shooting incident. Captain Tom Pierson, Department of Police, Borough of Fort Lee, New Jersey (1989) states that agencies that develop procedures to assist officers after fatal shootings acknowledge that post-shooting trauma occurs and that involved officers must be assisted. Dr. Fred Van Fleet (1991) also stated that in spite of 25 the snowpiling evidence of the realities of post-traumatic stress and the enormous benefits of debriefings, he was amazed at how few organizations are prepared to deal with the aftermath of many of the tragedies which occur, almost daily, in the prison environments. Few departments have guidelines for dealing with such events, let alone policies. According to Van Fleet, only a handful of todays major police departments have post-shooting policies. He states that it would be well advised for all departments involved with the Criminal Justice System to initiate working guidelines, so when a tragedy does strike within their organization, their members are prepared for it. Carter and Barker (1991) feel that a formal directive system in both verbal and written media is essential for the administrative control and guidance of police officer behavior. Also, Barker and Wells (1982), in a survey of police agencies found that 24% had no written rules and regulations covering 16 patterns of police deviance. Even those agencies with written policies, procedures, rules, and regulations may not have had a properly formulated system which was communicated to, and understood by the members of the department. The IACP in 1975 found several deficiencies in many departments with a written directive system. Many departments written directives were not current, and most had never been updated since originally issued. Many were not usable, and did not accurately reflect the current position of the chief administrator. The IACP also found that the directives were not clearly written, and in many instances, they were in conflict with other existing policies, procedures, rules and regulations, resulting in and creating A confusion at upper and lower levels. It was also found that the written directives were not distributed to operations-level personnel and in many cases, not even to supervisory or management personnel. Other findings 26 included that only one copy was in existence, the directives many times were not compiled or enforced, and sometimes the directives attempted to include too much, while policies, procedures, rules and regulations were grouped together under one general heading, IACP (1975). Conclusion The review of the literature indicates the obvious impact stress has on the individual and the organization. When a shooting occurs, not only will the officer have to deal with the "uncontrollable stressor", but also with the "controllable" stressor, which may include lack of policy or inappropriate policy dealing with post traumatic shooting situations. The stress of the officer is also the responsibility of management. Many of the programs designed to prevent or treat stress are person-centered and do not take into account any of the organizational problems that may induce stress. Officers involved in shooting incidents would be pleased and comforted if they knew they were valued by the organization. Ayres (1990) states that supervisors who give the impression that they don't care about their people can substantially contribute to employees psychological stress. Ellison and Genz (1983), also suggest that good supervision itself is the best stress management tool. Good supervisory techniques not only increase efficiency, but they also help officers withstand outside pressures. In contrast, inappropriate supervision can be one of the worst sources of pressure. Effective supervision encompasses the formulation of policies to guide and direct employee behavior, while at the same time showing the employee the police position on this major issue. By developing appropriate policy for post-shooting incidents, the employee can look at the policy elements which may reflect concern for the employees and their needs. For the employee 27 who is involved in a shooting incident, familiarity with the department policy will allow the employee to know the chain of events that will occur. They will feel that no matter who is involved, if the policy in place is followed, they will be treated equitably. They will know what is expected of them as well as knowing what to expect from their supervisors and administrators. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Research Questions The research questions of this thesis examined the policies used by Michigan municipal law enforcement agencies for dealing with post-shooting stress. This thesis will examine how the type of stress training the chief has had will impact on whether the department has a written policy or follows the International Association of Chief‘s of Police (IACP) model policy regarding post shooting stress. Subtopics will determine if a policy exists, and if one does, the conditions under which it was initiated will be examined. In regard to agencies that do not have a written policy for post-shooting stress, this thesis will examine the department's reasons or justifications for the lack of policies related to this area. Familiarization of chiefs to the IACP Post-Shooting Incident Model Policy will also be explored. Questions will also be asked to determine a chief’ s willingness to consider adoption of such a model. Other relevant findings related to police officer involved shootings and stress will also be presented for the reader. It is anticipated that this additional information will provide a comprehensive understanding of the issues related to police officer involved shootings and the subsequent degrees of stress involved. Instrumentation The survey design in this study is crosss-sectional, as it was administered at one time without any pre-test or post -test alternatives. The 28 29 survey design is intended to produce a list of relevant factors that will have practical applications in the field of law enforcement. Specifically, it will examine issues involving police stress related to on-duty shooting incidents. Population The population in this study consisted of all law enforcement chiefs of municipal police agencies in the State of Michigan. Police municipality is defined as any city, town, township, village or university. County Sheriff's Departments were not included in the sample population. Sampling Desigp Simple random sampling was implemented for the selection of the sample. A complete list of all municipal police departments was constructed from a list provided from the Michigan Police Chiefs and a computerized data base. Each department was then numerically listed and from that list departments were selected from a computerized list of random numbers. Each police agency had an equal and independent chance of being selected from the population for the sample without bias from the researcher, while reflecting the variations that exist in the population of municipal police agencies. Sampling Frame The sampling frame was obtained from the July/ August 1990 publication of the Michigan Police Chiefs, which was the most current listing of all police agencies in the State of Michigan at the initiation of the research. This publication listed 470 agencies by type of agency, current chief, current address and telephone number. In order to assure that all police agencies 30 were included or represented in the list, the list from the Michigan Police Chiefs was compared to the existing data base of police agencies held by Michigan State University, School of Criminal Justice. Rationale for SW The implementation of simple random sampling was the most appropriate method for this thesis. According to Babbie (1986), random sampling assists in cancelling out biases while providing a statistical means for estimating sampling errors. In order to enhance the timeliness of the study and to keep research costs controllable, it was to the best interest of the researcher to maintain a sample which would produce valid and reliable findings without undue time and cost constraints. Sampling Error This survey was primarily confined to the subject of the existence of policies and the variability among existing policies related to officer-involved shootings. To avoid sampling errors, the following procedures were adopted. The survey instrument was pre-tested. Departments selected in the pre-test were from a convenience sample and were not included in the actual sample. Suggestions and comments on the survey were received and considered. After revisions, the final draft of the questionnaire was developed and transmittal letters and letters of explanation were prepared for dissemination with the questionnaires (see Appendix B). Final approval for the study by the Michigan State University Committee on Research A Involving Human Subjects on June 16, 1992 (see Appendix C) A prepared letter of introduction explaining the purpose and instructions for completion was also included. In order to improve the 31 response rate, reminders were placed in the monthly publication of the Michigan Police Chiefs N ewaletter , an official publication of the Michigan Association of Chiefs of Police (See Appendix D). It was determined that this would be the most beneficial means of re-notification, as all police agencies receive this newsletter. The Executive Director of the Michigan Association of Chiefs of Police provided his full cooperation and support of this venture. Follow-up letters were also sent to those agencies that failed to return their questionnaire in a timely manner to again increase or maximize the response rate (see Appendix E). Sample Size Assuming that the pr0portion p would be .05, the following formula was used to estimate the sample size n = N = 470 = 216 (N-l) 3+] (469) .0025 + 1 Where N is the total population, 11 is the sample size, and B is the bound of error estimated. An assumption was made that there would be a normal distribution, and the bound of error was estimated to be .05. Proportion is the primary population parameter of interest. Distribution of Survey Instrument Questionnaires were mailed to 216 Michigan municipal police agencies on July 31, 1992. Included with the questionnaires were letters of introduction explaining the study, instructions for completion, and a self- addressed stamped envelope. A stamped post card was also included, which 32 was to be mailed back separately from the questionnaire. The purpose of the post card was to identify those that had responded to the questionnaire and to identify non-respondent's, so a follow up or reminder letter could be sent to those agencies. The initial dissemination resulted in the collection of 101 complete and useable questionnaires, comprising a 46.7% response rate. A follow-up mailing of the questionnaire was conducted in September 1992. Again, letters of explanation, instructions for completion, and a self- addressed stamped envelopes were sent to the remaining 115 agencies that failed to respond in the first series of mailings. Follow-up mailings and reminders resulted in the collection of an additional 44 complete and useable questionnaires. The two series of mailings resulted in the collection of 145 completed and useable questionnaires. The final response rate for this research was 67.1%. Data Analysis Items 1-54 in the questionnaire consist of nominal level data. By scaling the data at the nominal level, all categories were homogeneous while also being mutually exclusive and exhaustive. All items were edge coded to simplify the data entry stage of the research. Thus, codesheets were not necessary. A codebook was constructed to provide for the location of variables, code assignments and for later interpretation during data analysis. Data was examined with univariate analysis techniques to obtain descriptive statistics or summaries of the variables. Also included in the ' univariate analysis were frequency distributions as well as relationships between the variables. Measures of central tendency were also used on some 33 of the variables to establish summary statistics. Crosstabulations of key or interesting variables was also conducted on relevant data. Additionally, this thesis will determine how many agencies and those chiefs of the agencies are familiar with the IACP Post-Shooting Incident Model Policy, and how many chiefs, if made aware of the policy, would actually consider the adoption of the policy. This thesis will also examine the need for support mechanisms, such as emotional and psychological services for the officers involved in a shooting incident. Also examined is whether the agency-designated support person is responsible for fitness to duty evaluations of officers involved in shoofings CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA Demoggaphic Findings Demographic characteristics were analyzed to determine the significance of these characteristics on policy related to officer-involved shootings. This category of variables was constructed of personal and organizational characteristics of the responding agencies. Variables analyzed in this category consisted of the respondent's gender, age, race, years in law enforcement, years as Chief, education of Chief and the type of department. These variables were organized in categorical fashion to obtain more meaningful findings. Descriptive statistics such as the mean, median and mode were not applied to the variables. Many meaningful findings regarding police officer involved shootings and stress have been discovered. Chief’s Total Years in Law Enforcement Table 1 II 34 3 5 As indicated by Table 1, the majority of respondent's have had a number of years in law enforcement. Data was collapsed into ordinal level or . categorical data to better determine the amount of years in law enforcement the respondents had. The data indicates a skew to the categories 21 - 25 and 26 + years of service, with the the majority of chief’s having had 26 or more years of experience in law enforcement. This however, is not a significant finding. Generally, chiefs of police have begun their law enforcement career in an entry level position and advanced through the ranks. It may also indicate that chiefs of police should be cognizant of the needs and concerns of the street level officers, since they once also held that position. I Table 2 Years As Ch_ef 11-15 1 21-25 26 + Missin The results from Table 2, Years as Chief, indicate that the majority of the respondent's have worked in the capacity for chief for a period between one and ten years. This suggests that the majority of respondent's are rather new to the the position of chief. This, however, may not be a significant 3 6 finding. Many of the chief’ 5 may have worked their way up through the ranks, and as a result, have not spent a great majority of their career as chiefs. me te Ba or Master's Doctorate The results presented in Table 3 indicate that the majority of responding chief’s do not have associate or bachelor degrees, but simply indicated that they have taken some college courses. The data also indicated that 26.9% had a bachelor’ 5 degree. Advanced degrees, however, are minimal among the responding chiefs. 37 T __ _ . _g _ g g Deartmnet Size 7 3 _ l 11- 36-60 1 86-110 111-135 136-160 161-1 186-210 1 or more HPQNP‘S’IPWPE‘ 1 % Table 4 addresses the size of the department, including civilians. The majority of the responding agencies are small, consisting of ten or less employees. Almost three-quarters of the sample (76.6%) have less than 36 employees, while few large departments responded. This can be attributed to the fact that the majority of police agencies in the State of Michigan do not serve a large metropolitan city; rather, they are encompassed in the smaller towns, villages and cities. - 38 Tables . 7 TkeofAen : City Township Village University Combined Police 8: Fire Other Total Table 5 addresses the type of department that responded to the questionnaire. The majority of respondent's come from city police departments, followed closely by villages and then townships. Training N Y 1. Yes 105 72.4 2. N o 38 26.2 ‘ Missing 2 _ 1.4 -0} A 45100% Another point of interest was if the chiefs have had any training regarding police stress related to officer-involved shootings. The results 39 presented in Table 6 indicate that the majority of the responding chiefs have had training which addressed occupational stress. Table7 f g TA-efTrarmn, g 7 Training N % 1. Formal Training 85 58.6 Programs 8: Seminars 2. In-Service 6 4.1 3. College/ University 5 3.4 Courses 4. Speeches/ 21 14.5 Presentations 5. Reading Articles 8: 18 16.9 Books Total 145 100.0 The data presented in Table 7 indicates that the majority of the respondent's obtained their knowledge of occupational stress at Formal Training Programs and Seminars. Of interest in this table is the fact that very few police chiefs have recieved training in stress at the university or college level. 7 7 Table 8 3 Established Written Policies Wrrtten Policies 40 It is of interest to determine how many agencies in the State of Michigan have written policies and procedures to deal with police officer involved shootings. As indicated by Table 8, 58.6% of the responding agencies had some type of written policy regarding officer shootings. Although the majority of the department's do have some type of policy, it is also important to note that approximately 40% of the responding agencies do not have policies or procedures regarding officer shootings. Tabm_ 7”" f“ C T ‘ 7 7 , 7 7 3 g SourceoPoli g , A Source N % 1. Gov't 2 1 4 Administration 2. Police 83 57 2 Administration 3. Police Officers 2 1. 4. Labor Union 1 7 Missing 57 39 3 Total 145 100 Pursuant to Table 9, when policies do exist, the majority of those initiated are by the actual agency rather than by an external organization. This may indicate that those department's have recognized the need for such policies and procedures on their own initiative, rather than by an external change agent. There appears to be a lack of input by the actual individuals (the police officers) that the policy impacts as well as the fact that labor unions have failed to pursue issues regarding officer-invovled shootings. 41 » 7 7 * Table 10 ’ ‘ _ Reasons for No Poli Source 1. Too Expensive 1 1.6 2. Not Enough 19 31.6 Time to Pro are ‘ 3. Do Not Feel. it's Necessary Due to Lack of Incidents 16 26.6 4. Officers Capable 0 0 of Handling Stress 5. Unaware of Need 17 28.3 6. Stress is not an 0 0 Issue 7. Do Nfielieve 0 0 in Written Policies 8. Missing 7 11.6 Total 60 100 Table 10 investigates why those agencies do not have written policies regarding officer involved shootings. Three variables are of importance. One of the primary reasons for failing to have established policies is simply because the chief feels that they do not have adequate time to prepare suitable policies regarding officer involved shootings. Secondly, the agencies admitted that they were unaware that a need existed for the establishment of policies related to officer involved shootings. Another fundamental reason why policies were not established was the fact that such policies were not . needed because of a lack of officer involved shootings in their particular agencies. 42 Table 11 _ Familiari and Consideration of IACP Poli '— Familiarity N % 1. Yes 1'50 34.5 2. N o 95 65.5 Total 145 100% ITEM 2 Consideration of IACP Policy N % 1. Yes 112 7772 2. N o 10 6j.9 Missing 23 15.9 Total 14?; 100% Table 11 examines if the respondent's are familiar with the International Association of Chief's of Police (IACP) Post Shooting Incident Model Policy (Item 1), and if they were made aware of the IACP Model policy would they consider adopting it (Item 2). According to the data, the majority of the respondent's were not familiar with the IACP Policy and the majority of respondent's would consider adopting the policy if they were made aware of it. The majority of respondents indicated that they are not familiar with the Model Policies created by the IACP regarding officer involved shootings. However, when asked if the agencies would consider the adoption of the _ IACP guidelines, the majority (77.2%) indicated that they would consider adoption of the policies. 43 '1 Table 12 - f , 7 StructuredSu -ortS stem _ Support Systems N % 1. Yes 122 84.1 2. N o 2 1.4 3. Depends on 18 12.4 Circumstances 4. Don't Know 3 2.1 Total 145 100 Table 12 examines if the respondent's feel that officers need a structured support system after an officer involved shooting incident. The majority of respondents felt that a structured support system is necessary. However, it is also of interest that some of the respondent’ 5 indicated some skepticism toward a structured support system, via their indication that a support system would be contingent upon the actual circumstances of the incident. 44 7 7 7 "I 7 Table 13 , 7 7 TA- es of Structured Su- . rt S stems g 1. . Support Systems In-House Psychologist LCounselor Contracted Psychologist / Counselor Chaplain In House Support Group Contracted/ Voluntary Support 23 84.1 Mental Health Professional 38 26.2 107 73.8 None 29 20.0 116 80.0 * Agencies could I have indicated multiple forms of structured support offered ‘ Return to Duty Evaluation Yes No Don't Support System Have Missing g Total 45 Table 13, Item 1 examines the types of structured support mechanisms offered at the responding agencies.‘ Meanwhile, Item 2 is subcomponent of the existing support system; for there could be a support system without a return to duty evaluation in the agency . As illustrated by Item 1, the most frequent structured support system was a contracted psychologist/ counselor. This may be on account of the fact that few police agencies could afford a full-time in-house counselor. The next widely used structured support system is the use of a chaplain or religious figure. This usage could be based on many reasons. These could include financial reasons, as well as the support system figure being known to the officer and family involved. Furthermore, the geographical proximity to the police department would make the chaplain easily accessible, while the chaplains presence would be less stigmatizing on the officer and others involved than the use of more formal structures. Item 2 is associated with the use of structural support. Although 36 agencies indicated that they do not have a support system, it is of interest to note that 44.8% of the agencies support systems were responsible for the return to duty evaluation. 46 ! Table 14 , - g g Total Officer Involved Shootm :45 g . 01' more Total 145 100% Table 14 examines how many officer involved shootings the agency had experienced in the last five years. The results presented in Table 14 indicate that the majority of respondent's have not had any officer involved shootings in the last five years. It is of significance to note, however, that 35 or 24.1% of the responding agencies did have officer-involved shootings in the last five years, indicating a need for policies regarding officer-involved shoofings Table 15 is a direct comparison of the IACP Guidelines on officer involved shootings to those policies that currently exist in the sampled municipal police agencies in the State of Michigan. This Table will compare the IACP policy to those agencies which have policies related to officer involved shootings in order to determine the extent to which existing departmental policies adhere to the established IACP guidelines. Three categories were artificially constructed. These categories consisted of low (less 47 than 50%), moderate adoption of IACP guidelines (50.5 to 74.5), and high adoption of the ICAP guidelines (more than 75%). 7 i I Table 15 I ‘ -3- fl 7 g ,3 ,, C-arrsoomntoIACPGuidelines ,, g g f f 48 ‘ High Adoption Supervisor Required to be at Scene 71 94.7 Supervisor to make medical arrangements for the Officer 57 76.0 Removing Officer from the Body and/ or distance from Scene ASAP 75.7 Officer allowed recovery time prior to interview 90.4 Supervisor to meet with involved officer(s) when possible 86.7 Are Officers advised of upcoming detailed debriefing 87.8 Officers advised not to discuss incident 62 83.8 Officers weapon taken as evidence 97.3 Policy considers the return or replacement of weapon 61 85.9 Notification of family / transportation when officer is injured 97.3 Removal of involved personnel from line duties pending investigation 57 78.1 Investigate the shooting as soon as possible 74 100 Consider officers personal interest in media releases 76.7 49 Item 1 analyzes those items contained in the IACP Policy which police agencies have highly adopted (more than 75% of the responding agencies) into their own policies and procedures. All responding agencies that have have a policy also indicated that that policy contains a specification that an immediate investigation of the shooting should take place as soon as possible. 50 ITEM 2 Moderate Ado tion N % 1. After preliminary investigation, policy provides for friend, 48 64.9 relative, peer 513) port 2. Are questions by the supervisor limited to preliminary 53 70.7 facts of incident 3. Policy specifies upcoming admin. procedures 47 64.4 4. Inform supervisor to recognize stress involved 49 66.2 5. Involve support personnel/ encourage to contact specialists 50 67.6 6. Make family counseling available 43 58.1 7. Provide briefing to reduce rumors 41 55.4 8. Policy recommends agency members to show concern for 39 53.4 involved officer(s) 9. Supervisors to monitor officer(s) behavior for P.T.S.D. 44 59.5 10. Allow supervisor to order officer(s) to seek mental health 48 64.9 assistance 11. Provide information to employees regarding mental health services 43 58.1 12. Recommendation for limited or light dug 37 53.6 13. Recommendation for continued course of counseling 40 57.1 14. Recommendation for relief and return of du wea n 35 50.7 51 Item 2 contains moderate adoption (50.5 to 74.5) of the recommended IACP guidelines, by those agencies that reported having post-shooting policies. This category containeed both issues concerning the officiers well being and their significant others, as well as the department’s specific issues regarding liability. Low doption 1. Drug administration limited to medical personnel Policy advises officer to consider retention of attorney Policy provides for immediate contact of family if officer is not injured Policy provides protection of officer(s) from crank calls Officer(s) involved required to requalify with weapon Department provide training P.T.S.D. Time specification for limited or li ht du Item 3 contains low adoption (less than 50%) of the recommended IACP guidelines, by those agencies that reported having post-shooting policies. 5 2 It is of particular interest in this constructed category that there appears to be a pattern involved in the adoption of policies by departments. Specifically, it appears that if the department itself is affected, there is a liability concern, and the department has a policy related to it. However, when the issue involves the actual officer's well-being or their significant others, fewer agendas have policies related to this. Thus, it appears that policy exists when the department is in jeopardy. However, the personal needs of the officer are not a high priority. Rather, the needs of the actual officer are a low or moderate priority for police administrators. Table 16 Years As Chief 8: Existence of Policy The majority of responding agencies indicated that their chiefs have less than 6 years of experience. Of interest, however, is the fact that many of the new chiefs have established policies. At the same time however, 26 agencies also reported that they do not have policies related to officer involved shootings. 53 Table 17 Education of Chief Related to Poli Education Y % N % 1. High 6 .07 6 10.2 School , 2. Some 31 36.5 22 37.3 College 3. Associate 9 10.6 11 18.7 Degree 4. Bachelor 25 29.4 14 23.7 Degree 5. Master's 12 14.1 5 .08 , Degree 6. Doctorate 2 .02 1 1.7 Missing (1) Total 85 100 59 100 Table 17 examines the relationship of the education of the chief compared to the existence of policy regarding officer-involved shootings. It can be assumed that the higher the educational level of the chief, the more probable it would be that they recognize a need for policies regarding officer- involved shootings. However, 36.47% or 31 of the respondents who have policy only have received some college education. This is followed by those chiefs that have a bachelor's degree (29.4%). As a result, it can be inferred that education of the chief, may have little bearing on the existence of policy. 54 Table 18 Agency Size Related to Policy Implementation 01‘ more It is also of interest to determine the size of the police agency in relation to the existence of policies for officer-involved shootings. Table 18 reports that 88% of the departments with less than 35 employees did not have policies for officer-involved shootings. 55 Table 19 Relationship of Training to Written Policy No Training 1. Yes 72 13 2. N o 33 25 38 Table 19 examines if the chiefs have had occupational training and if they have a written policy regarding officer-involved shootings. The table indicates that the ratio of trained to non-trained police chiefs who do not have policy is quite low. Meanwhile, the table also indicates that for those chiefs that have had training, there is a five fold difference that they will have policy if they have had training. This suggests that training in occupational stress may make police chiefs more cognizant of the need for such policy in their agency. Table 20 Officer-Involved Shootings Compared to A encles that Have No Policy l Shootings 56 As indicated in Table 20, the majority of agencies that do not have policies related to officer-involved shootings, have not had any such incidents in the last five years. However, 11.6% of the responding agencies that do not have policies indicated that they have had one or more officer- involved shootings. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION The purpose of this research was to look at the municipal agencies in the State of Michigan to examine the extent to which policies exist in police officer post-shooting incidents. General Findinga It was of primary interest to determine summary characteristics of the respondent which in this case was directed to the chief. According to the findings, the majority of police chief’ s have had more than 21 years of law enforcement experience. However, their tenure as chief was generally less than 5 years. It also appears that the educational level of the chiefs includes those who have had some college education, with few having advanced degrees. Demographic features for the agency indicated that most of the responding agencies have less than 36 employees. Although the survey covered all municipal agencies the majority of those agencies that responded were city police agencies. Most of the respondent’s did have training in occupational stress. Most of this training or knowledge in occupational stress was obtained at formal training programs and seminars, followed by speeches and presentations. It does not appear that the type of stress training has impacted whether the department had a written policy; however, those chiefs that did have some training were more more likely to have policy. 57 58 Most of the police agencies that responded have some type of written policy regarding officer involved shootings. However, a large percentage of department’ 5 do not have policies for officer-involved shootings. The origin of policy for those agencies that do have them came mainly from the police administration. Few of those departments had officer- initiated policy or that they weren’t allowed to formulate policy. This finding may indicate that few officers recognize the need for such policies. Likewise, very few agencies had their policy come from governmental administrative units outside of the police agency. This could be attributed to the fact that outside agencies or organizations may not have a full understanding of the needs and concerns of a police department. Furthermore, it could also suggest that many police agencies could be resistant to policy recommendations from outside the organization or external change agent. In examining why agencies do not have written policies regarding officer involved shootings, the most prevalent reason given was that the chief indicated that the department did not have adequate time to prepare suitable policies. Given the IACP Model on officer involved shootings, this may enable agencies to establish policy without taking the time to prepare their own. Secondly, many agencies indicated that they were unaware that a need existed for the establishment of policies related to officer-invovled shootings. Policies may not have been established due to lack of officer-involved shootings. Unfortunately, police departments are historically reactive in nature. That is, they would rather wait for particular incidents to occur, and then formulate a solution. By not looking at the officer’ 3 individual and personal needs, the department’s own liability and stress brought on by a lack 59 of or inadequate policy should certainly alert those agencies of the importance of policy whether they have had police officer involved shootings or not. Most of the respondent’s also indicated that they were not familiar with the IACP Post-Shooting Incident Model Policy. However, they indicated that if they were made aware of such a policy, they would consider adopting it. This may indicate that police agencies are eager to examine existing policies in order to expedite the creation of policy because of the ease of the adoption of a policy already determined by experts in the field. Structural support systems were another topic of interest. The majority of the respondent’s felt that a structured support system was necessary. It also appeared that some of the respondents were looking at the need for support as a ranking system of severity when 12.4% of the sample indicated that it ”depends on the circumstances”, or whether a structured support system was necessary. The research data also examined the types of structured support mechanisms offered at the responding agencies. The most frequent structured support system was a contracted psychologist. This would appear to be the most beneficial mechanism for the agency. The agency would have rapid access to a professional while keeping costs down. The second most widely used was the chaplain. This again does not seem surprising as a chaplain is free of charge, easily accessible, possibly known to department members and carries little stigma to the officers as opposed to seeing a psychologist. The data also reflected that the support person was responsible for fitness to return to duty. 1 Most of the respondents agencies have not had any officer-involved shootings in the last five years. Of interest, however, is that over one-quarter of the respondents have experienced one or more officer-invovled shootings 60 in the last five years. One would think that if you weren’t going to waste your time and energy into developing a policy because of the lack of officer involved shootings that you are running a one in four risk. Of particular importance was comparing the IACP policy to those agencies which have policies related to officer involved shootings in order to determine the extent to which existing departmental policies adhere to the established IACP guidelines. There appeared to be a pattern involved in the adoption of policies for departments. If the department itself had the potential of being affected by a officer-involved shooting, it had a policy related to it. Obviously, the reason for this was the fact that the department could be held liable. However, when the issue involved the actual officer’s well-being as well as significant others, fewer agencies had policies related to this. If would appear that the personal needs of the officer are not considered a high priority by these police agencies. Rather, the needs of the actual officer are a low or moderate priority for police administrators. The data reflects that there is a significant difference between Michigan municipal police agencies post-shooting policies and the IACP’s policy. When examining the relationship between years as Chief and the existence of policy, the majority of responding agencies indicated that their chiefs have had less than six years of experience and that many of the new chiefs have established policies. However, in the manner the question was asked it is difficult to determine if the new chiefs had developed the policies or whether the policy is an artifact of prior administrations. Examining the educational level and age of the chief related to the existence of policy, it appears that the amount of education and the age of the chief had little to do with whether the responding department had a policy or 61 not. Again, in the manner the question was constructed, it cannot be determined if the policy pre-existed the chief. The research data also examined how the responding agencies type and size related to policy implementation. Those agencies that were least likely to have policies were city policy departments. Those agencies that had less than 36 employees were also least likely to have policies regarding post-shooting incidents. It was not surprising that smaller agencies would least likely have policy as they would have fewer shootings than larger police departments and may be less likely to need policy based on this information. One interesting finding was the relationship between training and written policy. The majority of the police chiefs that indicated that they had policy also indicated that thy have had training in occupational stress. This conclusion appears plausible as the police chiefs are made aware of occupational stress, the more likely they may be in formulating policy to assist the officer in reducing stress caused by no policy or inappropriate policy. Most of the responding agencies in this survey that did not have policies related to officer-involved shootings have not had any shootings in the last five years. Again, those agencies may not be as likely to perceive the need for policy since they have not had any recent shooting incidents. However, to have a officer-involved shooting incident is catastrophic and is certainly not the time to start formulating a policy. The data also demonstrated that 11.6% of the responding agencies that didn’t have a policy indicated that they have had one or more officer-involved shootings. Overall Findings Research concerning policy formulation on post-incident shootings is limited in its scope and nature. As a result, the purpose of this research was 62 to look at the municipal police agencies in the State of Michigan to examine the extent to which policies exist in post-shooting incidents. This study was important for many reasons. In order to determine whether an existing policy can compound the problems an officer experiences in recovering psychologically from an on-duty shooting incident, one needs to examine if there is a policy as well as the policy’s contents. This study provided many interesting findings. As with all research, these findings should be interpreted with caution for several reasons. One must take into account that the questionnaire method was to be directed to the office of the chief and to be completed by the chief or his / her designee. Depending on who actually completed the questionnaire may have affected the quality and accuracy of responses. Additionally, one must consider the issue of social desirability. The respondent may have wanted their agency to appear in a more positive light and subsequently tailored their responses in that manner. Hence, the respondent may have made socially desirable responses to impress the public and other law enforcement organizations. Directions for the Future While there are practical implications regarding this research which is valuable to law enforcement agencies, there are also some future research implications for individuals desiring to investigate post-shooting stress and policy related to it. Although this study has provided meaningful data, it was restricted to municipal police agencies. A recommendation would be to include Sheriff Departments as well. This may produce further insight into the findings generated in this research. Here, similar surveys could be replicated to ~