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DEVELOPMENT OF A PHYSICAL SCIENCE

LABORATORY MANUAL FOR NON-SCIENCE MAJORS

presented by
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MSU I: An Nfirmnttvo Action/Equal Opportunity imtltuion
Wanna-a1

DEVELOPMENT OF A PHYSICAL SCIENCE LABORATORY
MANUAL FOR NON-SCIENCE MAJORS

By

Kendall Jay Sumerix

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Physical Science

1 994

ABSTRACT
DEVELOPMENT OF A PHYSICAL SCIENCE
LABORATORY MANUAL FOR NON-SCIENCE MAJORS
BY
KENDALL JAY SUMERIX

Students with a non-science background entering college often encounter
difficulty fulfilling their science requirement. These students, in particular, tend to
avoid the physical sciences. A general introductory course in physical science called
Introduction To Physical Science, meets the minimum science requirement for most
non-science programs. To provide a more complete ”hands-on" educational experience
for these students, a physical science laboratory manual was developed to promote
success in and understanding of the physical sciences.

A fifteen week, fifteen laboratory exercise manual was developed which would
coincide with topics being taught in lecture. During development of the laboratory,
emphasis was placed on students setting up equipment and performing selected tasks.
These labs would reinforce lecture topics and provide some real world applications.
Pre—testing and post-testing were done to assess the impact of five individual laboratory
exercises.

Analysis of the pretest and post test scores revealed that the laboratory exercises
did significantly improve student ability to understand basic scientific concepts. The
students, several of whom had always despised science-related classes, indicated that
the laboratory was their favorite part of the class. They were able to experience
science "hands-on", which they then internalized and were able to apply, as their

improved test scores indicate.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Body of Thesis

1 Introduction

4 Teaching Techniques and Strategies
8 laboratory Instruction

19 Evaluation

34 Reflections

Reference Pages

38
41
46
51
52

References Consulted

Appendix A: Testing Instruments
Appendix B: Test Score Data

Appendix C: Statistical Analysis (Sample)
Appendix D: Laboratory Exercises

ii

22
23
27
29

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1, Mean Scores

Table 2, T—Test, Student by Student

Table 3, Comparison of Student Grades

Table 4, Student Evaluation of laboratory Assignments

iii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1, Area of Study
Figure 2, Name of laboratory Exercise

INTRODUCTION

Physical science is a broad subject area encompassing physics,
chemistry, astronomy, and the earth sciences. When condensed into one
course offering at the college level, the study of physical science can easily
become a game of trivial pursuit. As teachers, our task is not to burden
students with the memorization of insignificant details, but rather to engage
them in meaningful thought. This can best be accomplished by students
experiencing the science laboratory in a way which has applications both in
everyday life and in the scientific community.

At Alpena Community College, students enter under the open door
policy with a wide range of interest and ability. Introduction To Physical
Science (PHS 113) is a course which meets the science requirement for
students seeking a non-science degree. This means that the majority of
students enrolled in this course would not be enrolled if it were not a
requirement for their degree. Almost all students in this course indicate
that they have never been successful in science related courses, nor do they
have any interest in the subject matter. It is essential for students to
understand how science is connected to their everyday lives. I have chosen
the science laboratory as the place in which to make that impact.

Creating laboratory exercises is never an easy task. Experiments

2

which are too easy are boring for students, while those that are too difficult
become frustrating. All of the exercises need to fit into a two hour time
slot each week. Fifteen weeks were split into three major sections. The
first five weeks would cover physics, the second chemistry, and the third
earth science and astronomy. Weekly laboratory exercises would relate to
the topics covered in lecture that same week. Usually, I tried to cover the
subject without " giving away" the result of the next experiment.

I was looking for simplicity and content in a laboratory manual. After
reviewing seven laboratory texts, I found none which met the goals I had
set. Most did not follow the material set forth in the lecture text and
therefore would have been considered irrelevant by students. Some of the
manuals contained laboratory exercises so remedial in nature that they were
better suited to third grade, rather than college. Therefore, a new manual
specific to this course would have to be developed.

This new manual was needed by the Fall, 1992 semester. At a
round table meeting held only four months before it was to be used, a
preliminary schedule of laboratory exercise topics was decided upon by the
department. At that time the math prerequisite for physical science
changed to include intermediate algebra. Discussion of data about student
ability indicated many would be unable to operate a scientific calculator.
My first observation of the physical science room revealed that a " real la "
would be difficult to perform. The room was really nothing more than a
lecture room with two sinks. Changes were necessary to accommodate the
new laboratory experience. All of the laboratory exercises could not be
carried out in the physical science laboratory. Therefore, while the first

five experiments (physics) would remain in the physical science laboratory

3

room, the second (chemistry) would have to be relocated to the adjacent
chemistry laboratory. The third section of the course (earth science) was
held in the physical science room. College course schedules were
rearranged to accommodate these changes. Other changes included the
development of a calculator exercise to familiarize students with the correct
use of the scientific calculator. This would prepare them for solving
problems in lecture as well as in the laboratory setting.

Although choosing the rooms and topics for new laboratory exercises
was cumbersome, developing a workable laboratory manual would prove
to be difficult. After pouring through dozens of textbooks and laboratory
manuals, I came to rely most heavily on my old laboratory assignments
from high school and college. For example, I felt that students would like
to prepare aspirin during organic chemistry. Everyone knows what aspirin
is, and producing it would be directly related to their everyday lives.
Other exercises were developed in a similar manner. Student interest and
participation were kept foremost in mind. To understand science, students
need to be engaged in meaningful scientific experiments.

While, perhaps we are unsure what constitutes a scientifically literate
citizen, we can state that society is in need of them. Those non-science
students enrolling in science classes must learn to appreciate the physics of
the world they live in, the chemistry of the bodies they occupy, and the
fragile environment of the Earth they populate. How can they achieve this
if they are unable to experience that which they have heard about? By
affording these students a science lab that is not only practical but
interesting and thought provoking, we enable them to become scientifically

literate.

TEACHING TECHNIQUES
AND STRATEGIES

Including laboratory exercises as part of a physical science class is
accepted by almost all of the publishers of physical science texts. Most of
the texts I reviewed offered an accompanying laboratory manual.
However, there were vast differences in the experiments included in these
manuals. Some manuals included unmodified physics and chemistry
experiments which were far too mathematical for a general physical science
course. Students would become bogged down in the details of the math
involved, and too often miss the general concept being conveyed. The
majority of the manuals, on the other hand, offered laboratory exercises
suitable to an elementary classroom. These manuals included such
elaborate equipment as flashlights and batteries. Students would surely
view such exercises as busywork and would be soon turned off by
laboratory work altogether. The only acceptable solution was to create
laboratory exercises which involved students interacting with scientific
materials, and apparatus in a professional laboratory setting.

Of the manuals reviewed, several contained good ideas and practical
science. The authors usually began with physics, progressed to chemistry,

and followed up with earth science and astronomy. Often it was quite

5

obvious that an author was not an expert in all of these areas. Moreover, it
was often evident that the author did not write all of the experiments. This
could be observed by examining the differences in writing styles between
the chemistry and physics sections of the same manual. These differences
usually resulted in a contradiction of quality between the exercises. Most
manuals did contain some good material. However, even these seemingly
good manuals lacked progression from detailed directions at first to
independent work later in the course. A good laboratory manual includes
direction, focus, use of related terminology, as well as the ability to
generate student interest. In addition, laboratory experiments designed to
be completed in an actual laboratory setting, such as a chemistry
laboratory, increase student involvement.

The laboratory setting is a very important part of teaching.
Surroundings can influence behavior. Students are naturally curious about
science, and most physical science students are also fearful of it as well.
Their fear had never occurred to me until one day I led a class of 16
students to the chemistry laboratory for the first time. They followed me to
the lab entrance and simply stopped, all 16 of them, at the doorway. After
walking into the laboratory facility, I realized they were no longer behind
me. I went back to the doorway and instructed them to enter the and view
what was being described. They then moved forward approximately eight
feet, and stopped again as one large mass of bodies. I had to tell them to
enter and spread out into the aisles. These students were scared. This type
of setting was completely foreign to them. From this point on, I knew that
the decision to take the students into a real laboratory setting was the right

one. How could I possibly teach chemistry to those who had never

6
touched the apparatus or even seen the chemicals? Once I had seen these
signs it was obvious that we needed both a physics laboratory for the
physics section and a chemistry laboratory for the chemistry section. From
this day forward the physical science classroom took on the appearance of

a physical science laboratory.

Figure 1

Area of Study

 

Undecided Liberal Arts
12% 8%
Social Science
13%
/ Education
34%
Pre-law
8%
Business T — #79 Criminal Justice
20%

Another piece of the teaching puzzle is to understand the audience.
To determine this, a survey was taken every semester for two years. A
total of 146 students were asked to describe their major area of study
(Figure 1). Results indicated that the largest group of students (34%) were
education majors. These future teachers, primarily elementary, would
someday be responsible for teaching the same concepts I was trying to

convey. It would undoubtedly be useful for them to have experience in the

7
areas that they will someday be asked to teach. Another group of students
(12%) were undecided about their educational goals.

Most students were fresh out of high-school, some were parents, and
a few were even grandparents. Ages ranged from 17 to 55. Their math
backgrounds extended from general math to calculus. Some had taken
high-school chemistry, though most often 9th grade science was their last
encounter. Popular topics usually include things students can either see or
eat. For this reason, laboratory exercises were designed using
predominantly common materials. Density of iron ore, horsepower
generated by climbing stairs, and the preparation of aspirin sparked the
interest of every student. The experiments were designed and also taught
with the idea that they could be understood and enjoyed by a variety of
students.

As a teacher, it is my desire that the student retain useful
information. Perhaps this class will cause them to be better citizens. Our
society desperately needs more individuals who understand the chemistry
of nutrition, the physics of their body, and the earth upon which they live.
It seems people remember best that which they have experienced for
themselves. It is also obvious that they will be better apt to recall that part

of science which they themselves have experienced.

LABORATORY INSTRUCTION

The first mistake that an instructor can make in a general survey
course is to assume that the students have knowledge about the subject
matter. This was especially true in the physical science laboratory. Some
students could not use their scientific calculator to perform the most basic
of operations, while others couldn't measure liquids in a graduated
cylinder. Many had no recollection of ever using the metric system. I had
considered these skills to be basic knowledge, familiar to all students. My
initial plan had not taken into account the need for remedial instruction.
Successfully integrating a review of basic skills with modern science
would require significant transformation of my own theory. Laboratory
exercises would need to begin with fundamental principles, and progress to
a more sophisticated level. Directions would need to be explicit. Pre-
laboratory discussion would require a review of use of laboratory
equipment and problem solving strategies, along with the usual
introduction. In the development of these laboratory exercises,
modifications were made over a period of four semesters leading to the
final laboratory manual presented here. Figure 2 lists the laboratory
exercises which were developed and taught. Copies of these exercises are

included in the appendix.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2
WEEK NAME OF LABORATORY EXERCISE
1 CALCULATOR
2 DENSITY OF SOLIDS
3 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
4 PENDULUM
5 SIMPLE MACHINES
6 HORSEPOWER
7 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
8 DENSITY OF LIQUIDS
9 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
10 CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL CHANGES
11 ESTERS, THE FLAVORS OF LIFE
12 PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN
13 COMPUTER SPREADSHEETS
l4 VECTORS AND DEEDS
15 GEOLOGY OF MICHIGAN

 

 

The Calculator exercise was developed to prepare students both for
homework problems and for problem solving in subsequent exercises. This
was the first laboratory exercise of the semester and was scheduled for the
second class meeting. Required for this exercise was the purchase of a
Casio fx-57O scientific calculator which students used as part of the
exercise. First, students were made aware that their ability to use a
scientific calculator would determine successful completion of the course.
I demonstrated several functions of the Casio fx-570, including the

memory, function keys, and the different modes in which the calculator

10

could perform. Then it was time for the students to practice. Sample
problems were written on the board for the students to solve on their own.
After discussing the functions of about 10 additional keys, I pretended to
be ignorant of a particular key's function, providing me an example with
which to model problem solving. My silence forced the students to
determine how they could use the calculator to figure out a particular key's
function. In the remaining 90 minutes of the period, students were
instructed to form groups and solve the problems on their laboratory sheet.
This group work also caused the students to work together to accomplish a
task. Team skills would be a necessary factor in the successful completion
of future laboratory exercises.

This laboratory exercise was more successful than I had expected.
An average grade of 91.8% indicated that students were able to use the
calculator and its manual to solve mathematical problems. Solving
equations such as those used in determining projectile motion solutions
require the understanding of several calculator functions. The result of this
action was that the students were able to use their calculator effectively
throughout the semester.

The second laboratory exercise, Density of Solids, was a "real"
science exercise in that students measured, analyzed, and recorded their
own data. At that point directions needed to be very explicit. All of the
directions were detailed, formulas were provided, and the report sheet
indicated where all data were to be recorded. The objects used for
measurement were all familiar. This helped students relate to the formulas
involving rectangular boxes, cylinders, and spheres. Emphasis in this

exercise was placed on procedure, structure, and organization. All student

11

work had to be laid out in what has been termed the Alpena Community
College Problem Solving Format. This format included listing all known,
or measured values, as 'given'. Following the given, students had to list
what they were trying to solve for as 'find'. In this exercise, they were
solving for volume and density. The method then involved listing the
equations used, such as V = L X W X H . Students then show all steps
used to solve the problem, including units of measurement. Many students
said that this was the first time they had been asked to show their work
with all steps included. They resented having to follow a format and would
have preferred to simply "get" an answer. However, later in the course
several students stated that they appreciated this format when solving more
complicated mathematical problems. The final part of this laboratory
exercise involved students finding volume by displacement.

This was perhaps the most useful laboratory exercise of all to the
students. They appeared to better understand density when the exercise
was completed. Student work in later exercises clearly shows that they
used the ACC Problem Solving Format. Obviously, they realized that they
had been given a tool with which to do their work. Most students
continued to follow the method throughout the course even if they were not
asked to do so.

The third week's lecture topic coincided with the Acceleration Due
to Gravity laboratory exercise. In this exercise, students dropped objects
from a fixed height and measured the time it took them to fall. These data
were used to calculate 'g', the acceleration due to gravity. I also
incorporated the use of photogates for measuring time more accurately.

Students were asked to drop a variety of objects, and then propose why

12

these objects did not fall at the same rate. Measuring their own reaction
time also created interest in this assignment. Students really enjoyed the
acceleration activity, and seemed to gain additional understanding from
completing this exercise. They often asked questions pertaining to material
not yet covered in lecture. Also, this was to be by far the most
mathematical exercise that these students had completed in physical
science. At that point in the course, many students were still wondering
what they needed to memorize to understand the material. After the
gravity exercise, most recognized that their math and problem solving
skills needed additional honing. It always amazes me when, for many
students, gravity seems to fall in place during this exercise.

The Pendulum laboratory exercise was an investigation of the simple

pendulum. As in the previous exercise, the stated purpose was to calculate

g .
further develop their problem solving skills. Learning to collect the data,

As with most early exercises, another purpose was to have students

substitute it into a formula, and calculate an answer was critical. By that
time, the class atmosphere had relaxed. Often, I could sit back and
observe them rather than continually assisting students. They appeared to
have gained confidence in their own ability. Also, they had achieved an
appreciation for the fundamental units of length, time, and mass. Student
confidence was perhaps one of the best measures of success in this
laboratory setting. This exercise was basic enough that students felt
confident that they could complete it on their own. This was important
preparation for the more difficult labs to come.

The most confusing and unpopular laboratory exercise was working

with Simple Machines. It was merely a watered down version of a physics

13

laboratory exercise that I had done in school. The math involved wasn't
the problem. As one student put it, "There are just too many different
machines." Perhaps I had included too many machines in the same
exercise. Students were rushed to finish and often offended when hurried
from one machine to the next. However, this laboratory exercise was
fundamental. It was very important because it represented the only chance
students had to investigate and explore the various machines discussed in
lecture. For this reason, discarding a portion of this exercise would be like
indicating one machine is less important than another. Some students
described it as challenging, while others simply referred to it as confusing.
Most were successful in the completion of the activity, even though their
calculations had to be done outside of the period. Overall, this exercise
does serve the purpose of allowing students to explore the operations of
various simple machines.

The Horsepower laboratory exercise was popular with those students
who enjoy physically engaging exercises. The students were required to
time themselves climbing a flight of stairs and then calculate their own
horsepower. I used it as an exercise in tying together the concepts of
work, energy, and power, including their respective units. Students
calculated their horsepower using both the metric and English system,
comparing their answers in each system. Using their own personal data
such as weight and time to climb stairs placed a human value on their
answer. Student ownership of their data proved valuable as the grades for
this exercise were very high.

Electrical Conductivity serves as a bridge between the physics and

chemistry units. Students were given unknown (but common) objects,

14
which included predominantly minerals and household chemicals. They
were asked to determine their conductivity. This exercise connects the
physics of electricity with the chemistry of electrons and chemical
reactions. First, students built their own conductivity tester. They were
then allowed to choose 10 of the 20 available samples for testing. This
freedom allowed them to become investigators of the great unknown.

The Density of Liquids laboratory exercise was designed to be an
introduction to the chemistry laboratory. Students measured the mass and
volume of several common liquids and used this data to calculate density.
Samples of unknown liquids were then assigned. Students were asked to
determine the density of each unknown, and, by comparison, identify it by
name. One intentionally misleading part of this exercise was the use of
rubbing alcohol. The bottle was clearly labeled isopropyl alcohol.
However, since student results were usually 10% higher than those
published, they assumed that they had made an error in their
measurements. The following week, after reports were turned in, I
disclosed that rubbing alcohol contains 70% isopropyl alcohol and 30%
water. This reinforced the idea that even if their data were different, it
wasn't necessarily incorrect. I believe that the concept of absolute right or
absolute wrong answers are frequently overemphasized in the educational
setting.

The ninth laboratory exercise was titled Chemical Reactions. The
development of this exercise stemmed from the Science Olympiad
tournament. Students were asked to complete a series of chemical
reactions after they were given samples of unknown solutions (clear and

colorless). They had to determine the identity of the solutions based upon

15

information collected in the initial reactions. For both simplicity and waste
disposal purposes, chemical analysis was completed drop by drop on
acetate sheets. In this manner, the entire exercise could quickly and easily
be repeated if necessary for identification of unknowns. Also, students
saved their original reactions on one sheet for comparison to their unknown
samples. Frequently, determining the identity of the unknowns brought
about intense discussion between laboratory partners. Each group could
only submit one answer. For this reason, Chemical Reactions is an
excellent exercise involving team cooperation. Two years and over 150
students later, I have had only 3 teams of students incorrectly identify an
unknown. 9

Chemical and Physical Changes was an investigation of the nature of
chemistry. It included melting compounds, burning compounds, and the
traditional treatment of an iron and sulfur mixture. Throughout the
laboratory exercise, students were asked to perform tasks and then indicate
whether they observed a chemical or physical change. Evaluation was
based fifty percent on completion of the exercise and fifty percent on the
correct answer indicating physical or chemical change. Students indicated
that this was one of the three best labs of the semester. Without question,
the most exciting part of the exercise was when students conducted a
recrystallization. White crystals forming in solution and falling to the
bottom of the test tube caused their eyes to light up as if they were once
again six years old.

The eleventh week was titled Esters, the Flavors of Life, which gave
students a brief introduction to organic chemistry. Students enjoyed

preparing esters from carboxylic acids and alcohols. Ninety percent of the

16

students rated the laboratory exercise as " good". Learning how organic
compounds such as esters were prepared helped students make connections
with several of the other organic groups discussed in their text. The esters
they produced were common flavors such as Wintergreen, apple, pineapple,
rum, and banana. Preparing such commonly recognized compounds helped
connect organic chemistry to the world which surrounds them. To evaluate
their understanding of the exercise students were required to write a
chemical equation for each reaction showing the molecular structure of
each product and reactant. Once again, fifty percent of their grade came
from the completion of the exercise, and fifty percent was a direct result of
the correct chemical equations.

The chemistry unit ended with The Preparation of Aspirin. After
several attempts on my part, a simple procedure for the preparation of
aspirin was discovered. In my old organic chemistry text, Introduction to
Organic Chemistry (Streitwieser and Heathcock), I discovered that aspirin
could be safely and easily produced in a very short time. After reviewing
three texts which described the preparation of aspirin, I created a fast and
effective procedure. Students heated a mixture of salicylic acid and acetic
anhydride using phosphoric acid as a catalyst. They then cooled it and
collected the aspirin. Due to product purity, recrystallization was not
necessary to obtain a fairly accurate melting point.

To perform this particular experiment in micro scale would have
detracted from the outcome. Sometimes it is desirable to see the results on
a larger scale. This exercise was especially well suited for larger amounts
since the products, aspirin, water, acetic acid, and salicylic acid are not

extremely hazardous waste. Students completed the activity by collecting

17
their product through suction filtration, drying it, and obtaining a melting
point. Their product was submitted in a labeled vial to be graded. Grades
were based fifty percent on yield and purity, and fifty percent on the
accompanying report.

Laboratory exercise thirteen, titled Computer Spreadsheets, was held
in the newest college computer laboratory. Students created a spreadsheet
dealing with the economics of iron mining, and also an x-y graph which
showed the relative distance of the planets from the sun. The idea for the
iron mining exercise originated on a trip to the Empire Mine as part of a
class I attended called The Geology of Michigan. Students used a
spreadsheet on Microsoft Works 2.0 to analyze the profitability of mining
different types of iron ore. The examples used were discussed in the
lecture portion of the course. The graphing segment of this exercise was
covered during the astronomy unit.

The idea for a computer exercise in a physical science course is not
new. The college, especially the science department, is adamant that every
college course integrate the use of computers. At that point it was obvious
that having the students complete a separate computer exercise was best.
Incorporating extensive use of computers into an existing exercise would
have been futile. Many of the freshman enrolled in this course had never
used a spreadsheet before. Some indicated that they had never even used a
computer before. Students were graded on their ability to produce a
spreadsheet using the given data.

Due to differences in student ability, this exercise can be difficult to
teach. After the first semester I concluded that the best instructional

approach was for students to help one another. In spite of several

18
problems in this exercise, student rating has been very generous. Sixty-
nine percent said it was a " good" exercise. Additionally, since all math
and science classes have incorporated at least one computer exercise, the
incoming students to physical science were much better prepared for this
exercise in subsequent semesters.

The Vectors and Deeds laboratory exercise begins the unit on the
study of planet Earth. My introduction to this exercise began with the
globe, and included a discussion of longitude, latitude, and the discovery of
direction (i.e. magnetic north). This exercise was designed for use with
the local Alpena County Plat Book. Students were shown the importance
of direction in determining property descriptions. Since the majority of
students come from a geoponic background, property descriptions
presented a natural way to generate interest. A drawing of an irregularly
shaped piece of property using a compass and protractor to measure length
and angles concluded the activity. This exercise was graded on the correct
completion of their report and two scaled vector diagrams.

The final laboratory exercise, The Geology of Michigan, was
perhaps the most fun to teach. Although it was part lecture, I taught it as a
laboratory exercise. This exercise surveyed the geology of Michigan, and
was primarily the result of my participation in The Geology of Michigan.
A portion of this session involved students viewing a slide show. I
frequently interrupted the slide show to turn on the lights, and passed
around samples of the various rocks shown in the slides. Throughout the
presentation, students were encouraged to take notes. These notes were
then to be compiled into a one page report describing the geology of

Michigan.

EVALUATION

Evaluation is often a difficult task. One must choose a method
which best fits the material being tested. Multiple choice tests, although
very common, are difficult to prepare correctly. Essay questions and story
problems often produce a more accurate representation of student
knowledge. However, problems can arise when the time comes for
grading these evaluations. Multiple choice tests can be graded objectively
by an instructor with little or no variance between one test and the next.
Essay questions and story problems are much more subjective in nature.
These types of questions are almost always graded by allowing partial
credit for a partially correct answer. A problem arises when, after grading
fifty exams, an instructor begins to allow different amounts of credit for
almost identical answers. For these reasons the perfect method of
evaluation will probably never be developed. Other factors which should
be incorporated into the measurement of student performance include
laboratory skills and homework assignments. All of these evaluation
procedures added together can assess student performance better than a
single evaluation method. However, will evaluation of student
performance alone indicate the success or failure of a particular course or,

in this case, a laboratory manual?

19

20

Another part of the evaluation of this manual will include changes in
student attitude. Physical science is designed for non-science majors. This
means that the majority of students enrolled have either failed, or never
developed an interest in science. Many students indicate that it is their
intention to " just pass" this class. One of the most important goals of this
course is to further science literacy among those who are not part of the
scientific community. Therefore, for this particular course it would seem
that success could also be indicated by a change in student attitude
reflecting not only an understanding but also an interest in science. This
new interest in science could then perhaps be carried along into their future
role as conscious citizens.

As a major evaluation instrument to determine the success of this
new manual, I have chosen to evaluate five of the fifteen laboratory
exercises in the laboratory manual. The five were chosen primarily since
they would be easy to evaluate. A separate test was developed for each of
the five exercises to measure both the concepts and skills being taught.
Careful testing would be required to accurately assess learning. Some
students possessed knowledge before taking the class, while others learned
the material in the lecture portion of the course. Still another group of
students may have gained understanding of the material for the first time in
the laboratory. All of the laboratory test topics were, to varying degrees,
covered in lecture prior to being introduced in the laboratory.

Three testing times were required to assess learning that occurred
solely due to the laboratory. The entire class was given an initial pretest
hereby referred to as the initial test. For the physics portion of the course

this test was given during the first week of class. The initial test over the

21

chemistry unit was given five weeks later, just prior to the chemistry
portion of the course. Then these same tests were given again as pretest or
post test either before or after the laboratory exercises. Since there were
two different sections of laboratory students, one group was given a
pretest, and the other a post test. Tests given to students upon entering the
laboratory were considered pretests. If they were tested after the
completion of the laboratory exercise, it was considered a post test. The
three tests are therefore named initial test, pretest, and post test in further
discussions.

All of these tests were necessary to evaluate the effect of the
laboratory exercises on student comprehension. The initial test is useful as
a base line comparison. Pretests were given after a lecture but before the
laboratory session. Therefore, it was anticipated that some students who
learned the material in lecture would improve their scores on the pretest.
Any increase from the pretest to the post test could then be considered

attributable to the laboratory.

22

 

 

 

 

Table I
MEAN SCORES
Density Simple Horsepower Chemical Chemical
Machines Reactions Physical
Changes
Initial x=s.o 2:13 i=0 x=8.0 x=5.1
Test n :20 n :19 n =19 n =20 n =19
Pretest x = 7.5 x = 3.5 x = 2.8 x = 8.8 x = 4.6
n=12 n=8 n= n=8 n=10
Post it = 9.1 x = 4.0 x - 7.5 x = 10.0 x = 6.9
Test “=11 “=11 n=10 n=10 n=10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scale of table is 0 - 10.
Table includes all students who took the test.

The first laboratory exercise tested was Density. In the column titled
density (Table l), the average score on the density test increased steadily
(copies of these test are included in the appendix). Students were given a
ten for a correct answer and a zero for an incorrect answer with no partial
credit. A progression of the mean from 5.0 on the initial test to 7.5 on the
pretest and 9.1 on the post test indicates that substantial learning occurred

both in lecture and in the laboratory.

23

Table 2

T-TEST, STUDENT BY STUDENT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Density Simple Horse- Chemical C/ P
Machines power Reactions Changes
Initial N l l 8 9 8 9
vs Mean 1.818 2.250 2.778 0.000 0.444
increase
Pretest P-value 0. 083 0.021 O. 025 0.50 0.22
Initial N 9 10 10 9 10
vs _Mean 5.556 2.500 7.5 1.111 1.100
mcrease
Post test P-value 0.0067 0.011 0.000 O. 17 0.024

 

 

 

Table includes only students who took both tests.

A computer program called Minitab (IBM) was used for statistical
analysis. This program can be used to calculate several different statistical
values such as a T-test by utilizing a single command. Using a right-tailed
T-test on Minitab, results (Table 2) indicate that the amount of learning is
statistically significant. Data used for this analysis includes only those
students who completed both of the tests. Comparison of the individual
student scores of 9 students on the initial and post test resulted in a P value
of 0.0067. Since this P value is less than the significance level of 0.05 for
a 95% confidence level we must reject the null hypothesis. Thus, there is
significant evidence to support the claim that the post test scores are higher
than the initial scores. However, a comparison of 11 individual initial and
pretest scores is interesting. In this case, since the P value of 0.083 is
greater than the significance level of 0.05 for a 95% confidence level, we

must accept the null hypothesis. Therefore, these students performed no

24
better, statistically, the second time they took the test than they did the first
time. In conclusion, the scores of those students who completed the
laboratory exercise increased significantly while the scores of those who
did not complete the exercise did not increase significantly. The density
laboratory exercise was therefore successful in teaching students about
density.

The second laboratory exercise tested was Simple Machines. This
test was also objective in that students were asked to order the pulleys by
mechanical advantage. 'No partial credit was given, and eight points were
possible. Their scores increased from 1.8 on the initial test and 3.5 on the
pretest to 4.0 on the post test. The P value of 0.011 for the comparison of
the initial and post tests indicates that this exercise did significantly
increase the individual student scores. Analysis of the initial and pretest
scores shows that the lecture also significantly increased student scores,
with a P value of 0.021. Analysis of the means show an average individual
increase of 2.5 for students completing the exercise and an increase of 2.25
for those not having done it. Students did have a larger increase in their
score after the exercise, but it could not be shown to be statistically
significant. Therefore it cannot be said that this laboratory exercise alone
increased the scores on the simple machines test.

The third laboratory exercise was tested to demonstrate student
understanding of Horsepower. Surprisingly, not a single student could
calculate horsepower on the initial test, even when they were given the
equations and conversions. Students were assigned a score of zero for a
wrong answer, five points when the answer was correct but did not

include the weight of the crate, and ten points if the answer was entirely

25

correct. The five point partial credit was given because the students had
never before included any additional weight when solving problems in the
lecture or the laboratory. Also, the partial credit would help distinguish
between those who understood enough to repeat an exercise and those who
could apply their knowledge to other situations. The mean increase of
2.778 was significant on the initial and pretest results. Comparing the
initial versus the post test showed a mean increase of 7.5. This is
astounding and reflects a P value of 0.0000 (essentially zero). It can
therefore be stated that the horsepower exercise is very successful in
teaching students how to calculate horsepower. It could also be said that
these students had an understanding of horsepower. Also, a mean increase
of 7.5 (for the laboratory group) versus 2.778 (for the lecture only group)
is statistically solid evidence to support the use of this laboratory exercise
as a teaching tool.

The fourth laboratory exercise tested was Chemical Reactions.
Students received a zero for the wrong answer and a ten for the correct
answer. Unfortunately, the results are inconclusive since the chemical
reactions test is more of a puzzle than a chemistry test. The mean
progressed from 8.0 on the initial test to 8.8 on the pretest and 10.0 on the
post test. Results are so close on this small sample group that we cannot
state any difference in the test scores. Once again, although the mean
scores did increase, we cannot be certain that this was not simply due to
chance according to the T—test. It should be noted that students may have
learned something from the laboratory exercise that I did not test.

The fifth and final laboratory exercise tested was titled Physical and

Chemical Changes. In testing this exercise, students were given examples

26

of reactions and asked if they represented chemical or physical changes.
No partial credit was given and a score of 10 was possible. The examples
on this test were not covered either in lecture or in the laboratory. Mean
scores of 5.1 for the initial test, 4.6 for the pretest, and 6.9 for the post test
are confusing. The answer lies in the fact that the group of students given
the post test performed much better on the initial test than did those who
were given the pretest. Comparing individual scores on the initial and
pretest shows a mean increase of 0.444 and a P value of 0.22. Thus, the
students taking the pretest did, on average, increase their scores. But a P
value of 0.22 indicates that, statistically, we cannot be 95% sure that this is
not due to chance. Therefore, we must conclude that no significant
increase in these scores occurred. In contrast, students who completed the
initial and post test obtained a mean increase of 1.1. Since this P value of
0.024 is less than 0.05 we can therefore report a significant increase in the
scores of students completing this laboratory exercise. In summary, those
students who were only taught about physical and chemical changes in
lecture did not retain sufficient information to increase their scores.
Students who then experienced physical and chemical changes in the
laboratory obviously learned more and were able to apply their knowledge
to real world situations.

The results of these five tests clearly indicate that students do learn
concepts and applications from hands on experience in a laboratory setting.
They also understand and are better able to apply their knowledge. If
properly prepared to accompany lecture topics, students can learn
additional information from the laboratory to compliment what they learn

in lecture. Other, more subjective, factors may also support this theory.

27
Grades aren't always an accurate indicator of student learning. They
most generally reflect what a particular student knows and not what they
have learned in class. Also, the group of students and their ability level
changes from year to year. This makes comparing one year of grades with
the next almost impossible. Grades, grading curves, and grading scales are
rather subjective in nature. However, by looking at grades compiled over

the past three years (Table 3) it can be seen that grades are increasing.

Table 3
COMPARISON OF STUDENT GRADES

 

 

 

FALL '91 FALL '92 FALL '93

GRADE N % N % N %
A/A- 6 ll 8 20 11 22.4
B+/B/B- 14 27 18 45 11 22.4

 

C+/C/C- 18 34 9 23 13 26.5

D+/D/D- 5 9 1 2 4 8.3

 

 

E 2 4 2 5 2 4.1

 

W 8 15 2 5 8 16.3

TOTAL 53 100 40 100 49 100

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Motivating students to succeed seems to be the most difficult task of
all. I believe that laboratory exercises which are interesting provide
motivation for students to learn. Some students do not understand science

until they have experienced it. Student evaluations of the laboratory

28
assignments (T able 4) show how students felt about these exercises. This
data represent 162 students who completed these laboratory exercises over
the past four semesters. They enjoyed the laboratory assignments as
evidenced by their approval rating. Over 72% of those surveyed reported
them as being good. One can only assume that student approval indicates
student interest. Student interest is, in my opinion, prerequisite to student

learning. Interest level was very high in the laboratory setting.

29

Table 4

STUDENT EVALUATION

OF

LABORATORY ASSIGNMENTS

 

NAME OF LAB

GOOD

FAIR

POOR

 

CALCULATOR

47%

49%

4%

 

DENSITY OF SOLIDS

60%

39%

1%

 

ACCELERATION DUE TO
GRAVITY

79%

21%

 

PENDULUM

69%

30%

1%

 

SIMPLE MACHINES

63%

31%

6%

 

HORSEPOWER

67%

30%

3%

 

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

73%

27%

 

DENSITY OF LIQUIDS

77%

22%

1%

 

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

77%

21%

2%

 

CHEMICAL/ PHYSICAL
CHANGES

80%

19%

1%

 

ESTERS, THE FLAVORS OF LIFE

90%

10%

 

PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN

88%

9%

3%

 

COMPUTER SPREADSHEETS

69%

24%

7%

 

VECTORS AND DEEDS

69%

28%

3%

 

 

GEOLOGY OF MICHIGAN

 

76%

 

23%

 

1%

 

 

30

An additional source of subjective evidence is the Student Opinion of
Instruction survey which is given at Alpena Community College. This
survey is anonymous and students were told that instructors would not be
allowed to observe survey results until after the course had ended.
Therefore, the students opinions should be considered as being accurate.
Surveys were distributed in each individual laboratory section and a sample
of the results is reported below. Students were asked, "What do you like

most about the instruction of this course (lab)? Some responses were:

" Overall, I enjoyed the labs. Their design is beneficial to my
understanding of course material. Labs designed by instructor are
organized well and appreciated by students."

"The labs have a great variety to them, are for the most part
interesting, and almost always 'bring it all together' or help with
what the lectures bring out. "

"The labs are very exciting and fun. They go with the material that
we learn in lecture the day before. "

"It is interesting to learn in an active atmosphere - rather than just
listening to lectures."

"I always know and understand what it is the teacher wants done.
That was what worried me the most when I started. Now, it's no
problem."

31

The students were then asked, "What do you like least about the
instruction of this course (lab)?" Student responses indicated only one
major complaint, that the simple machines laboratory exercise was too long
and confusing. No other complaint was written about the other exercises
except the fact that they did not like having to wear goggles. This survey
information suggests that the students perceived the laboratory exercises as
being necessary to their understanding of material presented in lecture.
They also appreciated the fact that laboratory topics coincided with lecture
topics. Students valued the laboratory experience. Many of them indicated
that the laboratory was the best part of the class.

To improve existing laboratory exercises, I required another informal
survey. In this survey, students were asked questions about the laboratory
exercises. This is perhaps the ultimate evaluation of the success of a

laboratory. Some student responses to those questions are presented here.

1) Q: Did you find the lab demonstrations/instructions helpful?

A: "Lab demonstration/instruction is helpful. It helps get rid of

confusion. It clarifies the application of what is learned in lectures. "

2) Q: Did you find the format of the lab reports useful?

A: "The format is good, not just for purposes of conducting the
experiment, but for teaching the importance of organization. Many
of the students in this course are first semester freshmen and they

have learned an important point (thru) this format, I think."

32

3) Q: How did you feel about working with unknowns?

A: " Finding ( identifying ) the unknowns was great ! I may
never take another chemistry course, but when I determined what my

unknown was, I felt like I'd really done something! "

4.) Q: Do you think that the choice of labs was appropriate ?

A: "I think our labs are very appropriate. Because you design
lectures and labs, and you tie them in together and when you do
something after hearing about it, it is reinforced and really comes

across. "

5) Q: Do you feel that you understood the labs?

A: "I feel that the labs are done in a way so that everyone is able

to understan . "

6) Q: Did you enjoy science before taking PHS 113 ?

A: "I enjoyed science before this class, but not as much as I do
now. Taking this course has increased my interest and enjoyment of
it. I like classes which offer the 'hands on' approach rather than

reading. "

33

7) Q: How do you feel about science now?

A: "I enjoy lab, it helps me to learn and better understand the
material discussed during lecture. In fact, I'm going to further my

studies in science. "

Evaluation of this subjective information is always less exact than the
evaluation of the laboratory tests which were given. Laboratory test scores
indicate that the laboratory exercises helped students understand and apply
concepts and skills. Student opinions show that they value the laboratory
experience. Not all exercises are equal in their ability to help students
learn, nor in their ability to generate interest. Successful laboratory
exercises coincided with lecture topics and were simplistic in nature.
Designing laboratory work which teaches concepts is perceived by students
as lending purpose to the laboratory setting. Education is enhanced by

having students complete laboratory exercises.

REFLECTIONS

A new laboratory manual was developed which included fifteen
laboratory exercises. Most important to the success of these exercises was
the fact that they would teach students concepts and skills. Additional
factors taken into account during the development of these laboratory
exercises included: student ability, student interest, and relevance to
lecture topics. The first few exercises were very structured. This was
necessary at first to help teach the students organizational skills. Another
major goal of these beginning exercises was to teach problem solving
skills. Helping students to organize their work is a prerequisite to student
learning. As one of my colleagues impressed in my mind, "Students need
to be taught how to learn."

The problem solving technique which I have included in all
laboratory exercises has proven to be an invaluable tool to the students.
Organization provided by this type of structure has allowed me as an
instructor to grade their laboratory papers more objectively. Student ability
to solve problems is not the only benefit of the problem solving format.
With everyone using the same format, I spend considerably less time
grading papers and more time developing new laboratory exercises.

Updating laboratory exercises is a job which is never done. New

34

35

exercises are always in various stages of development. At first I kept
waiting for the day when this laboratory manual would be finished. Now,
the realization has set in that this manual will never be finished. As new
technology becomes available it must be incorporated into the classroom
whenever possible. Some exercises, such as the one covering simple
machines, are in need of immediate revision. Although students performed
well on the assignment they seem to dislike its complexity. At the present
time I am also developing an environmental laboratory exercise. In this
exercise, students will test their own water and soil samples for selected
impurities. This exercise will replace The Geology of Michigan activity
which will be henceforth covered in lecture.

Another part of what I learned during this process involves students.
Student opinion can sometimes, but not always, be used to indicate success
or failure of a laboratory exercise. Good students are usually able to
communicate the value of a particular exercise. However, student opinion
cannot be taken at face value. One student who completed a survey in my
class reported almost every exercise as being 'poor'. Students such as this
are most likely failing the course and are not a reliable source of
information. Just as a few students are always negative, a few are always
overly generous in their evaluation. For this reason, it is better to consider
a sample of students as a whole.

One problem with this study is sample size. Two groups of ten
students each represented a relatively small sample size. This, however,
can not always be controlled when people are involved. Humans are, at
best, unpredictable. A total of thirty students were enrolled at the

beginning of the class but an average attendance of twenty was normal.

36

Taking into account that only nineteen of them passed the course, perhaps
the sample size of twenty was quite good. I will not attempt to account for
those who did not complete the course successfully. It cannot even be
hoped that all enrolled students will succeed in, or even begin to like, a
particular subject. With this in mind, even if only a portion grasp that
which has been presented, it will have been worth the effort. It is for these
students that I continue to work developing materials.

The strength of these laboratory exercises lie in their ability to
capture the students attention, cause them to question, and motivate them to
find solutions. Most of these activities are tied to the real world and
include no black boxes. Black boxes can be defined as equipment which
students work with, but really have no understanding of. All of the
exercises are directed toward topics currently being addressed in lecture.
An especially effective activity was Preparation of Aspirin. Students
enjoyed creating a product which was common to their lives. They learned
many skills in the laboratory which would be difficult to measure on any
written test. Use of suction filtration, a hot plate, and a melting point
apparatus gave them an understanding of how other organic chemicals
could be synthesized and identified.

Test results were astonishing. Before beginning this project it
seemed improbable to me that there would be measurable gains in student
achievement. After all, two hours is not a very long period of time. In
spite of this, sizable gains can be recognized. Not included in these test
results is long term retention. While it would have been interesting to see
the results of a post test taken a month later, this would have been tainted

data as the students could have acquired the information during lecture.

37
Another change altering test results would be omitting the laboratory test
on Chemical Reactions. This test was far too elementary and students
were able to answer it without referring to any chemistry. I did feel that
this test was helpful in measuring their problem solving skills before
completion of the laboratory.

The results indicate that non-science majors are overwhelmingly
interested in science applications and that they can be taught to understand
and appreciate the concepts involved. The individual laboratory tests
evaluating gains in student knowledge and ability clearly show that these
laboratory exercises were successful in teaching scientific concepts in ways
which could not be accomplished through mere reading assignments or
lectures. This study provides evidence that laboratory exercises greatly

enhance and sometimes initiate scientific understanding.

REFERENCES CONSULTED

38

REFERENCES CONSULTED

Chang, Raymond

Chemistry
1991

McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, NY.

Dixen, Robert T.
Physical Science. A Dynamic Approach
1986

Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Garretson, James L.

laboratory Studies in the Physical Sciences
1992

Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA

Hewitt, Paul G.

Conceptual Physics
1 993

HarperCollins College Publishers, New York, NY.

Hewitt, Suchocki, Hewitt

Conceptual Physigal Science

1994

HarperCollins College Publishers, New York, NY.

Hewitt, Suchocki, Hewitt

lamratory Manual to Accompany Conceptual Physical Science
1994

HarperCollins College Publishers, New York, NY.

 

Nolan, Peter J.

Fundamentals of College Physics

1993

Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA

39

Payne, Falls, Whidden

Physicfl Xience Principles and Applications
1992

Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA.

 

Robinson, Paul

Congptual Physics Labogatorgy Mgrpal
1993 '

HarperCollins College Publishers, New York, NY.

Samec, Gundlach, Boschmann, Wells, Youngman

Physical Science Laboratory Manna] to Accompgy The Physical Univorse
1991

McGraw-Hill Inc. New York, NY.

Serway, Faughn

College Physics

1985

Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, PA.

Wallace, King, Sanders

Biology, Ths Science of Life

1981

Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc. Santa Monica, CA.

Shipman, Adams, Baker, Wilson

An Introduction to Physical Science

1971

DC Heath and Company, lexington, MA

Shipman, Wilson

Fundamentals of PhySiCfl Science

1992

DC. Heath and Company, Lexington, MA

40

Wilson, Jerry D.

Technical College Physics

1987

Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, PA.

Strietwieser, Heathcock
Intrtfiuction to Orggic Chemistry
1981

Macmillian Publishing Company, New York, NY.

Wagner, Maxine

Lamgatory Mapgl for Chemistry

1983

Cebco Standard Publishing, Faiffield, NJ.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
TESTING INSTRUMENTS

41

Density

You have obtained a block of material which is 10 cm long, 8 cm wide, and
5 cm high and is shaped like a rectangular box. The mass of the object is 3560 grams
and it is made entirely from only one of the metals listed below. Which of the
following elements (listed below) is this object made from? (Use the information
below to choose one of the 10 elements.)

Answer

 

1) Iron

2) Silver

3) Copper

4) Aluminum
5) Zinc

6) Gold

7) Nickel

8) Lead

9) Magnesium
10) Sodium

42

Simple Machines

From the following diagrams of pulleys, answer the questions below.

1. Which would be the most useful to multiply force (greatest mechanical advantage)?

2. Which would be the least helpful?

3. Now, rank the pulley systems from lowest to highest mechanical advantage?

lowest

highest

llllll

43
Horsepower
Calculate the horsepower generated when a 175 pound person carries a 100
pound crate up a flight of stairs in 4 seconds which has a vertical distance of 10 feet.

(Use the following information.)

fiibs w=de,P=¥

 

lhp = 746W, lhp = 550

44
Chemical Reactions

You are examining the results of a laboratory test of an unknown substance.
Assuming that the unknown substance is one of the 10 known substances below,
determine the identity of the unknown. (Choose one letter( a through j) as your answer
from below.)
Answer

dissolves in turns black dissolves in fizzes w/ changes red

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

water in Iodine alcohol NaOH litmus blue
a x x o o o
b x o x o x
c x o x o o
d o o x o o
e o x x o x
f x x o x x
g x x x o x
h o x x x x
l x o x x x
j x o o o x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x indicates reaction
0 indicates no reaction

The unknown substance dissolves in both water and alcohol and changes red litmus
blue. It doesn't fizz with NaOH but it turns black in Iodine.

45

Chemical and Physical Change
Write P for physical change or C for chemical change to indicate the type of change
occurring. Write P or C in the spaces provided beside each example.
1. burning wood
2. melting iron
3. boiling water
4. dissolving sugar in water
5. baking clay
6. using a natural gas heater
7. mixing gold and silver to make an alloy
8. cooking meat (well done)
9. using a candle for light

10. burning gasoline

APPENDIX B
TEST SCORE DATA

46

DENSITY (RAW DATA)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LAB GROUP I
INITIAL TEST
(10 POSSIBLE)
SCORE RECEIVED BY
"0" 6 STUDENTS
"10" 3 STUDENTS
POST TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY
"0" l STUDENT
" 10" 10 STUDENTS

 

 

LAB GROUP 11

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INITIAL TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY
”0" 4 STUDENTS
” 10" 7 STUDENTS
PRE TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY
"0" 3 STUDENTS
"10" 9 STUDENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

47
SINIPLE MACHINES
LAB GROUP I

(8 POSSIBLE)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INITIAL TEST POST TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY SCORE RECEIVED BY
”0" 4 STUDENTS " l " l STUDENT
"2" 4 STUDENTS "2" 1 STUDENT
"3" 1 STUDENT "3" 4 STUDENTS
"5" 1 STUDENT "4" 1 STUDENT
"8" 1 STUDENT ”5" l STUDENT

”6" 2 STUDENTS
”8" l STUDENT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LAB GROUP II
INITIAL TEST PRETEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY SCORE RECEIVED BY
"0" 5 STUDENTS ”1" 2 STUDENTS
"2" 1 STUDENT ”3" 4 STUDENTS
”3" l STUDENT ”6" l STUDENT
"5" 1 STUDENT "8" l STUDENT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

48

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HORSEPOWER
LAB GROUP I
INITIAL TEST
(10 POSSIBLE)
SCORE RECEIVED BY
"0" 9 STUDENTS
PRE TEST
SCORE RECEEIV ED
BY
"0" 5 STUDENTS
"5" 3 STUDENTS
" 10" 1 STUDENT
LAB GROUP 11
INITIAL TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY
"0" 10 STUDENTS
POST TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY
"5" 5 STUDENTS
"10" 5 STUDENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

49
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
LAB GROUP I

INITIAL TEST
(10 POSSIBLE)

 

SCORE

RECEIVED BY

 

HO"

1 STUDENT

 

 

”10"

 

9 STUDENTS

 

POST TEST

 

SCORE

RECEIVED BY

 

 

”10"

 

10 STUDENTS

 

LAB GROUP 11

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INITIAL TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY
”0" 3 STUDENTS
" 10" 7 STUDENTS
PRE TEST
SCORE RECEIVED BY
"0" 1 STUDENT
"10" 7 STUDENTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

50

CHEMICAL PHYSICAL CHANGES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LAB GROUP 1
INITIAL TEST PRE TEST
(10 POSSIBLE)

SCORE RECEIVED BY SCORE RECEIVED BY
"2" 1 STUDENT "3" 3 STUDENTS
"3" 2 STUDENTS "4" 4 STUDENTS
"4" l STUDENT "6" 2 STUDENTS
”5" 3 STUDENTS "9" 1 STUDENT
”6" 3 STUDENTS

 

 

 

LAB GROUP II

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INITIAL TEST POST TEST
(10 POSSIBLE)

SCORE RECEIVED BY SCORE RECEIVED BY
"4" 1 STUDENT "5" 1 STUDENT
”5" 3 STUDENTS "6" 3 STUDENTS
”6" 4 STUDENTS ”7" 2 STUDENTS
"7" 1 STUDENT "8" 4 STUDENTS
"8" l STUDENT

 

 

 

APPENDIX C
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS (SAMPLE)

 

File
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)
DATA)

1
"TB )

51

Minitab

Edit Calc Stat Graph

NU‘ONNOONOU
QUGU‘bOUNI-‘U

END
0 ROWS READ
LET C9-C8-C7

HTB > TTEST HU=O C9:

SUBC)

ALTERNATIVE-+1.

TEST OF MU - 0.000 VS MU G.T. 0.000

C9

m?

b .
n

N MEAN
10 2.500

STDEV

2.838 0.898 2.79

SE HEAN T

P VALUE

0.011

|F1=Help 1

ad

APPENDIX D
LABORATORY EXERCISES

Purpose:

52
CALCULATORS

The mathematical theory of this lab is covered in your textbook.

The purpose of this lab is to help you teach yourself how to utilize
more of your calculators power through the use of the manual.
For reference in this class, the two books that came with your

calculator will be numbered by you and called:

Book 1: This book is the small booklet that came with the
calculator. It is specific to your model of the calculator.

Book 2: Computing with the Scientific Calculator will be supplied.
This book is a general manual which covers the basic and

more advanced features of all Casio fx scientific calculators.

1. Record the number of your Casio fx-570 calculator.

2. Complete the table by using the index of each book to find the
page containing the explanation of the required function. Use this
explaination to perform the problem. Using the exact method
given in the text. (Note: failing to follow this procedure exactly

will affect your result.)

53

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CALCULATORS
Model number of your Casio calculator fx
Task Book Page Calculator Problem to be Solved Your Answer
1 or 2 Wuction
1- Addition using 6.36 + 1.03 + 18 +700 =
Mode 9
2. Subtraction 345 — 6 - .14 -278 =
3- Multiplication 6 x 445 =
4. Mult & Add 34 x 4.1 + 22 {x & I done before - &
+1
5. Mult, Add, & 45 x (2 + 1.7) = [unless changed by 0]
0
6. Mult, Add, & (45 x 2) +1.7 =
O
7. Constant (K) To 2056 add 11.125 four times (by
Memory putting 11.125 into the constant memory)
8. +/- key Add_(-3l) to 21 =
9. Percentage Take 15% of 43.45 [shift = key is %]
10. Percentage Sales increased from 130 units to 323
units calculate the perceLtage increase
11. Usingm Add: 295 + 128 + 128 + 128 +128 =
M
12. Using My; Subtract 24.7 from 191.9 and add this
M-, m result to 223.72
13. Using 1r key Find 1 to 6 decimal places (round it off
to six)
14. Using Fix 3 a; 4.2345 + 5.9871 = [change back to
L [Mode 7 3] normal mode when done Mode 9]
Is. Using xy key (2.8203
16. Using x2 key 1562/ 12 =
1 7. mil; W=

 

 

54

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CALCULATORS
Task Book Page Operation Problem to be Solved Your Answer
1 or 2

18. . 3 3

Usrng \lkcl \I49.567 =
. . 1
l9. Usrng llx key Find 8.126
20. Using x! key Find 9 factorial (9!) [9x8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1]
. 2 84

21. Usrng ab/c 813 + 4 —
key

22. Using a We Reduce 2333-:
key

23. Using a b/c Write 14% as an improper fraction
key

24. Set mode 8 & 2.24x10‘8 / 3.34x102 = [leave in Mode 81
Usipgngey (Write Lour answers in scientific notation)

25. Using an key 5.64x10’6 x 4.23x 103:

26. Using ran key 3.78x10’14 + 2.89x10'5 =

27. Using m key 1.54x10’4 - 2.83x10‘6 =

28. Using an & \/4.37x103 =
\Ikey

29. Find page only To do loan calculations

30. Find page only To do amortization calculations

31. Find page only To do depreciation calculations

32. Find page only To do quadratic equation calculations

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

55

 

 

 

 

 

DENSITY OF SOLIDS

Purpose: The purpose of this laboratory is to learn how to use metric

devices and also to calculate the density of various materials.

Apparatus: metric ruler 3 regularly shaped objects
vemirer caliper (rectangular box, cylinder, sphere)
micrometer single pan balance
graduated cylinder (to hold rock sample)

3 objects (A,B,C) of different length
piece of rock or mineral (5cm-300m in length)

Procedure: Measure the length of each of your objects using both a metric ruler
and a standard length ruler and record on table 1.1. Use different
parts of your ruler each time.

Table 1.1

OBJECT A OBJECT B OBJECT C
cm in cm in cm in
lst
2nd
3rd
Avg

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Are all of your measurements of object A exactly the same? Why or why not?

Why is it necessary to take more than one measurement?

Why should you use different parts of your ruler to measure the same object?

56
DENSITY OF SOLIDS

Part 11

Using the single pan balance mass each of your regularly shaped objects and
record in Table 1.2. From the following equations calculate the volume of each
of these objects and record in Table 1.2.

Rectangle v = (length) x (width) x (height) or
V: l x w x h

Cylinder v = (1r) x (radius)2 x (height) or
v = it x r2 x h

Sphere v = (g) x (1r) x (radius)3 or
_ a ,.
v — 3 x it x

Show all calculations using the ACC problem solving format.

Rectangle:Given: 1:
w:
h=
Find: v=
BPR: v=1 x w x h

Cylinder:

Sphere:

57

 

 

 

 

 

DENSITY OF SOLIDS
Table 1.2
Mass Dimension in cm Volume in cm3
Rectangular
box
Cylinder
Sphere

 

 

 

 

Note: Use a vemier caliper where possible.

Density (D) is defined as mass per unit volume as follows:

_ mass _ m
volume V

Calculate the density of each regularly shaped object and record in Table 1.3
(Use the ACC problem solving format.)

 

 

 

Rectangular Box Cylinder Sphere
Table 1.3
Calculated density Actual density
in g/cm3 in g/cm3 from the CRC

 

Rectangular box

 

Cylinder

 

 

 

 

Sphere

 

 

58
DENSITY OF SOLIDS

Part 111

You will now determine the density of a rock/mineral specimen. After
observing this oddly shaped specimen, it should be obvious that a formula for
finding it's volume probably doesn't exist. Since calculation of density depends
on volume, you will need an indirect method to find this value. We will use
volume by displacement. Use a large graduated cylinder and tap water to find
the volume of your sample. Record all measurements taken. Use the ACC
problem solving format to help organize your work.

Purpose:

Apparatus:

Procedure:

Table l. 1

59

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

AND YOUR REACTION TIME

The purpose of this exercise is to investigate the acceleration due
to gravity of various objects and calculate this value. Also,

you will calculate your reaction time based upon the known
value of gravity.

meter stick metal ball
Stopwatch cork ball
photogate (w/ timer) paper ball

From a measured height of two meters(200cm), drop each of the
three objects and record how long it takes them to fall. Repeat
this at least three times for each object. Calculate each objects'
average time. Record your results in Table l.(Note: You will
want to practice dropping the objects a few times to become
accustom to operating the stopwatch. Warm-ups are encouraged
before you start recording times.

 

Time of fall

 

mass

height 1 st 2nd 3rd Avg.

 

metal ball

200 cm

 

cork ball

200 cm

 

 

paper ball

 

200 cm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

60
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
AND YOUR REACTION TIME

Calculation: Using the equation d=vit - égtz, where [d] is the distance, [g] is gravity

and [t] is time, calculate the acceleration due to gravity for each of your
objects. When the initial velocity is 0, (from rest) the equation

becomes d= - %gt2. Solved for g, we will get g=-T:-l, the value of [g]

will be negative, which is good, since the objects are falling downward.

Metal ball Cork ball Paper ball

How do your values of [g] compare for the 3 objects ?
How could the size of an object affect your results ? Why?
Did the objects with a greater mass fall faster ? Why?

What can you say about the density of a free-falling object?

PartII

61
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
AND YOUR REACTION TIME

Now that you have solved for each objects gravity you can use this value to
Calculate your percent error for each case using g= - 9800-51- as your

accepted value.

- 9802—?l - your value
% Error = ( cm ) x 100
'98“;

 

% Error (metal) =

 

% Error (cork) =

 

% Error (paper) =

 

Have your lab partner hold a meter stick vertically above your hand with the
end of the meter stick marked "0" at the top of your hand. The person holding
the meter stick will drop the stick without warning to their partner who will
catch it. As soon as the meter stick is dropped, try to grab it . Read on the
meter stick how far it fell and calculate reaction time using a form of the

equation (I = v,t - %gt2. When vi = 0, = - %gt2. Solved for t (reaction

time) this becomes t = V? where g = -980 98% when the distance that the

meter stick fell is measured in centimeters.

62
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
AND YOUR REACTION TIME

If you were driving a car at 50 £31 (which is the same as 73% )how many feet

would you have traveled before you could have reacted by putting your foot on
the brake ?

What is likely to happen if you follow cars closer than 1 car length?(15 feet)
Why?

Electronic measure of time using a photogate apparatus.

In this exercise, you will measure the amount of time that it takes for an object
to fall using a electronic timing device called a photogate. Set up this device
according to your instructor. Measure the distance between the centers of the
photogates using a meterstick. Now, drop the object (usually a solid ball) and
record the time it takes to fall from one gate to the other.

As before, calculate g (the acceleration due to gravity) using the proper
equation.

63
PENDULUM

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to discover that a pendulum can be used as a
very simple device which measures the acceleration of gravity at any
particular location. First you measure the length of the pendulum and set
the pendulum into motion. Then using a stopwatch, time the period of
one swing and determine the acceleration of gravity from the equation

1
Tp —21r \/';-

Example 1 : Find the period of a pendulum which is 1.5m long

1
T :2 \/:
p r g
1.50m
TP “‘2" \/9.80m/s2

Tp =2.46 3

Example 2 : Find the acceleration of gravity as determined by a pendulum with a
length of 1.50m and a period of 2.465.

412
g = filength

472
g ‘ (2.46s)2 “'50"?

g = 9.78 m/s2

Theory: Now that you have an understanding of the relationships between a
pendulums period, the length of its string and their effect on the acceleration due to

gravity, you are ready to conduct an experimental procedure to prove these
theories. You will need:

A simple pendulum Stopwatch
Meterstick A ball of string
Photogate apparatus

Part1

PartII

PartIII

64
PENDULUM

1. Attach a string with a length of at least two meters to your pendulum.

2. Suspend the pendulum a distance of 1 meter from the support rod.
(One meter from the center of the pendulum to the pivot point.)

3. Pull the pendulum back 30 cm and release it. Let it swing back and
forth a couple of times. Then, using a stopwatch, measure the amount
of time it takes to swing from one side to the other and then back to the
same initial position where you started timing. This amount of time is
the ”period” of this particular pendulum. Record your measurement.

4. Record how long you think it will take for 10 swings.(Your guess)
5. Now time the pendulum through 10 swings and record.
6. Calculate the average swing. (The period)

7. Record how long you think it would take for 10 swings if you only
pulled it back 10 cm. Record.

8. With the length of the string (1) at 100 cm, pull the pendulum back
10 cm and record how long it takes for 10 swings. Calculate the time
for one swing.

9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 for 10 swings each at 20, 40, 60, and 80 cm
lengths of string and calculate the period for each.

10. Record how long you think it would take for 10 swings of a
pendulum if the length of the string was changed to 50 cm.

11. Now change the length of your pendulum to 50 cm and using the
photogate apparatus record the actual amount of time for 10 swings and
calculate the time for one swing. (Each time pull the pendulum back
about 25 cm.)

12. Using the stopwatch, repeat steps 10 and 11 for string lengths of 50,
100, 150, and 200 cm. (The 200 cm pendulum will be set up for you.)

13. Calculate g for all of Part III.

 

 

 

PART 1

65

PENDULUM

 

Table 1.1

PERIOD

 

STEP 3

 

 

 

 

Table 1.2

GUESS

TILIE

PERIOD

 

STEPS 4-6

 

 

 

 

 

PART 2

 

Table 1.3

GUESS

TIME

PERIOD

 

10 CM

 

20 CM

 

40CM

 

60CM

 

.80CM

 

 

 

 

 

 

PART 3

 

Table 1.4

GUESS

TIME

PERIOD

GRAVITY

 

50 CM

 

100 CM

 

150 CM

 

 

200 CM

 

 

 

 

 

 

E= Effort

R = Resistance
AMA = Actual Mechanical Advantage

Lever

Inclined Plane

Wheel and axle

Screw

Pulley — Fixed

Pulley -Mobile

Pulley -System

Pulley -System

66

Physical Science Lab
Simple Machines

Di = Distance in
D0 = Distance out
IMA =ldea1 Mechanical Advantage

 

%
Efficeint

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

67

I.M.A. : Di/Uo
A.H.A. : R/E

I.M.A. : length/height (l/h)
A.H.A. : R/E

I.H.A. : D/d
A.M.A. : R/E

1.1M. : (distance inVldistonce out)
: (2 ri/(l thread)

(r : POdlUSl

(where l tlTeod is the height of 1
very snail)

A.M.A. : R/E

68

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l\
l)
IMA. : [ll/DO
A.M.A. : R/E I.M.A. : [ii/Do
A.M.A. : R/E
q (I
> i
g x
p 1) Q 3
a
~ l
l | j
w i J
j ,/
5 .i
l.M.A. :Di/Do \i J
A.H.A. : M 3T
I.M.A. : [ii/Do

A.M.A. : R/E

69
HORSEPOWER

Purpose: To study the ways that work, energy, and power are related.
Apparatus: Meter stick,20 ft tape measure,Stopwatch and a Bathroom scale

Theory: Work, which is equal to force times distance (W = F x d), is the
same as potential energy (PE = mgh). Since F = mg, we see that
as an object is raised to a height (h) it gains potential energy. The
amount of this potential energy is exactly equal to the work it took
to place it at that height. Power is the rate at which work is done,
and since work and energy are nearly the same, we can say that power
is also the time rate change of potential energy. In this lab, you will
calculate your power output as you change your potential energy by
climbing some stairs. Your own weight will be the force and the height
of the stairs will be the distance traveled. The time will be the amount
of time it takes you to climb the stairs.

work force x distance weight x height
Power = . — . — .
time time time

 

W_de_wxh
t t t

 

P:

Your Power output will be your weight [w] in Newtons, times the height
[h] of the stairs in meters, divided by the time [t] it takes you to climb
them.

Procedure:Using a stop watch, read the time it takes you to climb to the top of
the stairs. You try to get up the stairs as fast as possible any way that
you can without endangering yourself. Do this three times to get your
best effort. Measure the height, in meters of the total vertical distance
you climbed. Record your times in Table 1.

Table 1

Time (t)

 

1 st
2nd
3rd

 

 

 

 

 

70
HORSEPOWER

Vertical distance of stairs (feet) =

 

Vertical distance of stairs (meters) =

 

Force (your weight) moved (Newtons) =

 

Force (your weight) moved (pounds) =

 

Calculate your power output using the metric system:

 

 

 

 

You have just calculated your power in Nm/s. A Nm is also called a joule (J),
and a J/s is defined as a watt. Therefore, your power output in Nm/s is the same
as watts.

Calculate your power output using the standard English system:

 

 

P:wxh= : I l

 

You have just calculated your power in ft.lbs/s. A ft.lb/s is not commonly used
to measure power. Another way to measure power is in horsepower (hp) . Using
the fact that one hp equals 746 Watts, convert your power output in Nm/s to
horsepower.

Using the fact that 550 ft.lbs./s equals one horsepower, convert your foot
pounds per second to hp.

What factors could affect your power output?

71
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to study the wiring of batteries,
bulbs, and switches, and to discover the most efficient arrangement,
by measuring the bulb intensity. Also to learn how electricity moves
from one place to another via conductors.

Theory: Many everyday devices are run on electricity, the electricity is
transported thru circuitry. Some electrical circuitry is very complex,
your job is to build a simple circuit, then use the arrangement with
various substances to discover their conductivity, or lack of it.

Materials:

6v battery power supply unit 2 sm. connector wires
12v light bulb ammeter 4 med. connector wires
bulb base digital multimeter 2 lg. connector wires
on/off switch 10 ( of 20 possible ) unknown substances

Discussion: In this exercise you will be asked to sketch a diagram of simple
circuitry, diagrams 7a and 7b are examples of simple circuitry.

|' HP
if Ell

simple series simple parallel
circuit circuit

 

72
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

. Wire a 6v battery to a 12v light bulb in a base till the bulb lights.
Sketch your wiring job.

. Add an on/off switch to your circuit. Check to see that the switch breaks
the current. Sketch.

. Replace the battery with a power supply. Sketch.

. Note the intensity of light.

. Connect the ammeter and record current flow.

. With the bulb at its brightest ( power supply at maximum) read current flow
from ammeter.

. Use the digital multimeter to measure the voltage difference.

. Using the equation P=IV calculate the power (rate of energy usage) in
Watts for the bulb.

. Use this apparatus to determine the relative conductivity of ten of the twenty
unknown substances provided by your instructor. First make a guess as to
whether or not you think the substance will conduct electrical current, write
yes or no on the guess column of table 1.1. Test, and rate the conductivity
for each unknown you've chosen. Watch the ammeter, not the light bulb!
Rate each unknown as either non-conducting (no measurable change on the
ammeter), semi-conducting (the ammeter shows current flow, even if the
bulb does not light), or conducting (the bulb lights). Record the results as a
reading in amperes.

73
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Table l. l

 

non- semi-
gyess conducting conducting conducting_

8!:

 

p—n

 

 

UN

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

11

 

12

 

13

 

14

 

15

 

16

 

l7

 

18

 

19

 

20

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

74
DENSITY OF LIQUIDS

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to learn how to determine the density
of various liquids.

Materials pan balance with masses
graduated cylinder
Rubbing alcohol Isopropyl alcohol or 2—propanol)
unknown liquids
saltwater
Distilled water

Procedure:

1) Obtain and wash a graduated cylinder with soap and warm water. Rinse well.

2) Shake out excess water carefully and dry with an air valve.

3) When the cylinder is completely dry, mass it on the balance to the nearest 0.1 gram
and record in table 1.1.

4) Fill the graduated cylinder with 10 m1 of the first liquid and re-mass. Record.

5) Repeat step 4 with each liquid.

6) To obtain the mass of a liquid subtract the mass of the empty cylinder from the
mass of the full cylinder and record.

7) To calculate the density of a liquid use the formula, where Drg.

8) Find the textbook density for water and rubbing alcohol using the CRC.

75

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DENSITY OF LIQUIDS
DO NOT TASTE
OR SMELL
UNKNOWNS
Table 1.1 Mass of Mass of Mass of Volume Density Textbook
Empty Full Liquid of Liquid Density
Cylinder Cylinder
Water

Rubbing

Alcohol

Saltwater
Unknown
#
Unknown

#

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

76
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Purpose: To distinguish how chemicals react with each other.

Materials: acetate sheets, waste bottle, pipettes filled with solutions below:

0.1M Fe(N03)3 0.1M Ba(NO3)2 6M H2S04
0.1M K2Cr207 0.1M Cu(N03)2 6M NaOH
0.1M A12(SO4)3 0.1M AgNO3 6M HCl
0.1M K2Cr04 0.1M Ca(NO3)2 6M NI-I40H

0. 1M Zn(NO3)2

Procedure:
1) Wash and dry an acetate sheet.

2) Locate the various chemical solutions needed as above.

3) By following the table, use one drop of Fe(NO3)3 and one drop of H2804

in the first space on the sheet. Note: Using more than one drop can result in
incorrect conclusions.

4) Note whether or not a reaction occurred, by filling in your table, based upon
the following criteria:

A) color change

B) heat is produced

C) change in state (gas, liquid, solid precipitate)

D) fizzes, bubbles (gas production) note any smell

E) cloudy or clear
If none of these observations are noted, state (No RXN) in the correct box. If a
reaction did occurr, note all changes in the box. (A-E)

5) Follow this procedure for each of the chemicals as shown in the table.

6) Unknowns: You have been assigned 2 unknown solutions by your instructor
(be sure to record your unknown numbers).

7) Test these unknowns as you've done for the other 9 known solutions and
record your observations.

8) From looking at the reactions of the known solutions, you should be able to
identify your unknown solutions. Write the names of these solutions in the
unknown box at this time.

Table 1. l

77

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 

H2804
(dilute)

HCI
(dilute)

NaOH
(dilute)

NH4OH
(dilute)

 

Fe(NO3) 3

 

Ba(NO3)2

 

K2CrO4

 

K2Cr207

 

Cu(NO3)2

 

Ca(NO3)2

 

A12(SO4) 3

 

AgNO3

 

Zn(NO3)2

 

Unknown #

 

 

Unknown #

 

 

 

 

 

 

78
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHANGES

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to distinguish the difference between
physical and chemical changes.

Materials:

candle paper bunsen burner
iron filings sulfur electron balance
magnet scoopula potassium nitrate
watch glass test tubes test tube tongs

Procedure: 1) Place a small piece of candle wax in a test tube and,using a test

tube tongs, heat gently over a burner flame until the wax melts
completely. Let the sample cool. Record your observations.

2) Light the candle and attach it to a watch glass. Allow the
candle to burn until it extinguishes itself. Continue with the rest
of the experiments while the candle burns. Record your
observations when the candle is finished burning.

3) Tear a piece of paper into pieces. Record your observations.

4) Place the paper in a metal burn pan and ignite the paper with
a match, allow the paper to burn completely. Record your
observations.

5) Measure out the following using an electron balance. 0.50g of
iron filings and 0.50g of powdered sulfur. Test each substance
with a magnet then mix the two samples in a test tube and run a
magnet along the bottom and sides of the test tube. Record.

6) Using a bunsen burner heat the Iron and Sulfur mixture until

it glows red (about 2-3 minutes), and continue to heat for an
additional 2 minutes. Allow this to cool. Break the teast tube and
examine this substance, perform the magnet test again. Record
your observations.

7) In a test tube combine 4.0g KNO3 (potassium nitrate) and

5ml of water. Combine the two in that order. Using your burner
heat the sample slowly for several minutes. Heat until dissolved.
After this mixture has dissolved allow it to cool. Watch 3331
closely while it cools for 4 minutes. Record your observations.

PROCEDURE

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL

79

CHANGES

OBSERVATIONS

CONCLUSION

 

Melting
candle wax

 

Burning
a candle

 

Tearing
paper

 

Burning
paper

 

Fe

Magnet test

 

Magnet test

 

Mixing
Fe and S

Magnet test

 

Heating a
mixture of Fe
and S

Magnet test

 

 

Heating a
mixture
of KNO3 and

H20

 

 

 

 

80
ESTERS, THE FLAVORS OF LIFE

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is for students to follow given formulas and
create chemical compounds called esters,which resemble in scent, and taste
some naturally occuring substances, such as Wintergreen.

Theory: Esters comprise one of the eleven Major groups in organic chemistry.
They are responsible for many of the "fruity" and "minty" smells and tastes in
food products they are produced naturally by plants and incorporated into the
plant product. Esters are what make pears smell and taste like pears. Also
included are strawberry, raspberry, rum, roses, banana, Spearmint, and
Wintergreen to name a few. Esters are prepared synthetically in laboratories.
They are the artificial flavors listed on the labels of many products we purchase
Most esters are very simple to prepare in the laboratory. The simple esters we
will consider are derived from an alcohol combining with a carboxylic acid as
follows:

0 0

ll H2504 ll

R-OH + HO-C-R' ———— R-O-C-R'

Where R stands for any hydrocarbon and R' stands for any other hydrocarbon
(Although unlikely - R and R' could be the same.) as an example, consider the
preparation of the ester you know as being "pear” which is made from
propanol and acetic acid.

0

I I | 112504

I l l
-c-c-c-on+no-c-c- ------
| l l l 1

Note that one molecule of water is produced for every one molecule of ester
produced. In the reaction, as indicated above by the lines drawn under the
elements H and O, the water molecule is produced from the OH group on the
alcohol and from the H atom on the carboxylic acid. It has been determined
that the oxygen atom does not come from the carboxylic acid to produce the
water molecule. This process of synthesizing an ester is called esterfication.

Your instructor will demonstrate the preparation of artificial pineapple due

to the obnoxious odor of the carboxylic acid used to make the ester. This acid,
butyric acid, smells like spoiled butter or cheese and the odor tends to stay
around for quite some time. The reaction for producing the ester is written for
you in the appropriate place. you will then go to the laboratory and prepare the
other four esters as indicated in the procedure and write the reaction for each
esterfication.

81
ESTERS, THE FLAVORS OF LIFE

Materials: test tubes
water bath apparatus
glass rod (for stirring)
H2SO4 (concentrated)

Also the following chemicals

Alcohols
Methyl alcohol

I
-C-OH
I

Ethyl alcohol

I I
-C-C-OH
I I

Isobutyl alcohol
(2 - (methyl) 1 propanol)

I
-C-
I I I
--C C- C-OH
I I I

Isopentyl alcohol
(130 — Amyl alcohol)
(3 -(methyl) - 1 butanol)

I
-C-
llii
”-CICC-C-OH
II

Carbox lic acids

Acetic acid

0

I II
-C-C-OH
I

Propanoic acid
0

l |

--C C- C- OH

1 l

Butyric acid
(for instructor use only)

0
II

I l l
--C C- C- C - OH
I I | 1
Salicylic acid

0

ll
-C-OH

82
ESTERS, THE FLAVORS OF LIFE

Procedure:

1) Prepare banana by placing 3.0 ml of isopentyl alcohol (130 - Amyl
alcohol) into a test tube and adding 3.8 ml of glacial acetic acid. Only then,
add 10 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2804). Heat the test tube in a hot

water bath for 5 minutes. Observe. (Smell carefully!) Stir if necessary to
reveal the desired scent. Record your observations and write the reaction.

2) Prepare apple by adding 3 ml of ethyl alcohol to3 m1 of glacial acetic acid.
Then add the H2SO4 as in step 1 , heat, and report the results.

3) Prepare Wintergreen by adding 6.1 ml of methanol to 1.4 grams of salicylic
acid. Then add the H2SO4 as in step 1, heat, and report the results. Be careful

when heating the Wintergreen - hgt vegy slowly at first!

4) Prepare rum by adding 3 ml of isobuyl alcohol to 3 ml of propanoic acid
(propionic acid). Then add the H2804 as in step 1, heat, and report the results.

83
ESTERS, THE FLAVORS OF LIFE

Report:

EXAMPLE: pineapple

ethanol + butryic acid pineapple
O
l I ll 1 l l l I ll 1 l l
-C-C-OH+HO-C-C-C-C- ------- C-C-O-C-C-C-C-+H20
l l I l l l

Smells like pineapple, yellow - brown color, 2 phases present.

1) banana

2) apple

3) Wintergreen

4) rum

84
PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is gain understanding into the chemical
structure and properties of aspirin. You will determine the formula
for aspirin and then, using this reaction formula you will prepare a
sample of this product (aspirin).

Apparatus: hot sand bath large beaker for ice bath
Buchner funnel 25ml Erlynmeyer flask
filters and vial thermometer and ring stand

Theory: Probably the most commonly used drug worldwide is the carboxylic
acid (and ester) acetysalicylic acid known also as aspirin. As you
discovered in the previous lab exercise on esters, esterfication is
the term used for the combining of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid.
Acetylation is the combining of an acetic anhydride and a carboxylic
acid. In this procedure you will prepare approximately 1 gram of
aspirin. NOTE: Aspirin is not as harmless as you may believe it to be.
While the average dosage is 0.3-1.0 g, single doses of 10—30g can be
fatal. DO NOT INGEST ANY OF YOUR PRODUCT.

Procedure:

1) Obtain a hot sand bath, turn the heat setting to low. This will
serve as your heat source.

2) Wash a 25ml Erlynmeyer flask and dry it using acetone and the
air valve.

3) Obtain 1.0g of salicylic acid and place in the clean flask.

4) Measure out 2.5m] of acetic anhydride and add to the flask. Be
sure to rinse down any salicylic acid that may be clinging to the
sides of your flask. CAUTION ACETIC ANHYDRIDE IS
DANGEROUS WEAR AN APRON DO NOT TOUCH !

5) Add eight (8) drops of phosphoric acid to the flask, this will
act as a catalyst.

6) Place the flask into the sand bath. If the sand is hot do this
carefully.

7) Clamp a thermometer into the sand bath using a ring stand and
a cork holder.

8)

9)

10)

ll)

12)

13)

14)

15)

16)

17)

18)

85
PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN

Heat mixture to 75°. Do not allow the temperature to exceed
80° closely watch over it.

Make up an ice bath by placing one to two inches of ice in a
large beaker and fill to the two inch line with cold tap water.

When the temperature approaches 75°, turn off the hot plate
and leave the reaction undisturbed for 15 minutes. Make sure
that the temperature remains above 70°.

Remove the flask from the heat source. CAREFULLY !
Do not breathe over the flask. Add 2ml of deionized water to
the flask. Wait 1-2 minutes before handling.

After 2 minutes have elapsed add 20ml of deionized water.

Allow the flask to cool. Crystals should form in a few minutes.
This is aspirin.

Place the flask in the ice bath for at least 5 minutes. NOTE
Do not place your flask in the ice bath until crystals have
started to form, also the longer you cool your flask the more
aspirin you will produce.

Collect the crystals in a Buchner funnel and a filter system.

Pour 5-10ml of ice water (from your ice bath) over the crystals
you may use the rest of this water to rinse the remaining
crystals from the flask.

Remove excess water from your product by pressing the
crystals between filter papers. You may need to repeat this
procedure several times.

This should be aspirin. Check the melting point and submit
your product to your instructor.

Note: On your vial list your product, the students who made it,

and the melting point.

86
PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN

Results: Submit your labled vial to your instructor.

1) Write the formula for the reaction between acetic anhydride and
salicylic acid to form aspirin and acetic acid.

2) What is the melting point of salicylic acid?

3) What is the melting point of aspirin?

4) Why is acetic anhydride better to use than acetic acid in this reaction?

5) What is a catalyst, and why is one used in this laboratory exercise?

87
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WORKS -
SPREADSHEETS

1) Format your disk. (See your instructor for directions on how to format a

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

disc in this computer lab.) Write directions on how to format a disc in the
space below.

Enter the works program, create a new file, and then spreadsheet.

In cell D1 type ["lron Mining] and press enter. (The (") is necessary only
as a code that this is a word.)

Iron mining doesn't fit in this cell so we need to make the cell longer. Do
this by first making sure that D1 is highlighted and then selecting Format
(press alt key then the highlighted letter in the word format at the top of the
screen then select column width. This should display a 10 for 10 spaces.
Type 11 to indicate that you need 11 spaces in column D.

Type your last name in F1 (up to 9 letters), type PHS and your lab hour
in F2 and type todays date in F3.

You will now need to place the title [ORE] in C4 (press alt key then format
then style then right). Type [COMPARISON] in D4.

Type [Gross] in D6 and [Income] in E6.

Change the column width of A9 to 9 spaces and enter [Hematite]. Enter
A9-Al3 as shown.

88
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WORKS-
SPREADSHEETS

9) Change column B8 to 9 spaces and enter [% Iron]. Enter the correct % in
B9-Bl3 as shown (do not use (") when you are entering numbers with which
you want to do a calculation).

10) Leave column C as 10 spaces and enter the given information.

11) In D8 enter [Fe/tons] and move to D9.
You will use the computer to do calculations in column D. To complete this
task, (while in cell D9), type [= sum (b9*c9)] and press enter. The number
450 should appear in D9 as the computer multiplied b9 by c9.
To calculate the remainder of column D, highlight D9-D13 (hold down shift
key while pressing the down arrow) and select edit and then fill down. The
correct number should appear in D10 - D13.

12) Move to cell E8 and change the column width to 11 spaces. Place the
correct heading and then enter[ = sum (D9*90)] in cell E9. The correct
answer (40500) should appear in E9.

13) To complete E10 - E13, repeat as before using ”fill down”.

14) Change column F to a width of 9 spaces. Then complete the calculations by
using [= sum (E9/1000)] and fill down. Column F gives you the value per
ton of the various ores.

15) Now save this file on your own disk. (See Instructor) Also, you must print
a copy of your work to hand in for a grade. Note! Handing in a copy of
someone else's work will be looked upon as cheating. You may now close
this file and proceed to the next part of the assignment.

Hint: If your printout is on 2 pages, check your column width.

89
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WORKS-
SPREADSHEETS

On your own, you must reproduce a file on MS Works which is similar to the
attached sheet titled Production Cost. Be sure to use the commands to make the
computer do the calculations and do not simply enter the information. To earn
credit you must hand in printed copies of both spreadsheets and a disc containing
your work. In addition, you must write at least one paragraph which describes
the profitability of iron mining based on the information available on these
spreadsheets. As discussed in class, center your writing on which ore('s) would
be profitable to mine.

l )
2)
3)

4)

5)
6)

7)

8)

9)

90
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WORKS-
GRAPHING

Enter MS Works.

Create a new file.

Select SPREADSHEET.

It is assumed at this point that you have two sets of information. One which
you will graph on the x-axis and one which you will graph on the Y axis
Enter one set of information (data) in column A (usually from smallest to
largest since this is the order in which they will appear on the graph).

Enter the other set of data in column B.

Highlight all of the data that you want to be on the graph.

Now select CHART WIZARD from the toolbar. ( This will allow you to
make a graph.)

Select a line graph from the toolbar.

Now instruct the computer as to which data you want graphed on which axis
by selecting EDIT and SERIES.

10) Enter A1:A8 and the X-series ( to put the data from column A on the X

axis).

11) Enter Bl:B8 to the 1st Y series line to place the data from column B on the

Y axis.

12) To put a title on your graph select EDIT and then TITLES.

13) Enter the chart title Kepler‘s Third Law. Enter your name as the subtitle.

14) Enter Distance from Sun-Au on the X axis line.

15) Now, on the y-axis, enter the title Period of Rev.-Years.

16) Save your data on your disk and then print your graph to hand in.

91
VECTORS AND PROPERTY DEEDS

Purpose: This lab is designed to teach you how to use a Plat Book. Due to
availability, an Alpena County Plat Book is used for this course.

Procedure: Attend the lab lecture and then fill out the attached tables as you
are instructed. Fill in the first table using the accompanying
Michigan map. Use the Plat Book for the others.

 

Table 1 Township Range
Cheboygan
Charlevoix

Saginaw
Oakland
Gennesee

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fill in the boxes of table 1.2 with numbers which indicate how a Survey
Township is ordered. '

Table 1.2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Why weren't Survey Townships numbered left to right top to bottom?

92
VECTORS AND PROPERTY DEEDS

Refer to the Alpena County Plat Book to fill in the missing information in
Table 1.3.

 

Number Location Section Township Range
9 Beaver lake
33 Long Rapids
34 Muskrat Lake
23 Sulphur Island
25 Golf Course Rd
Table 1.3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Complete Table 1.4 using the Index to Owners in the Plat Book.

 

Property Section Township Range

 

Alpena Cycle Club

 

Deer Lane Hunting Club

 

Indian Acres Club

 

Alpena Power Co.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Allen S. MacArthur

 

Table 1.4

PART 2

93
VECTORS AND PROPERTY DEEDS

Thus far, you have learned to identify the section, township, and
range of a parcel of land. But what if the section has been further
divided into smaller parcels? In the next exercise you will learn
to identify and write the property descriptions for two different
pieces of land within the same section. You will describe these
parcels the same way as their description would appear on a deed
or a tax bill.

Both parcels are in: Section 27
T 30 N.
R 5 E.
Green Township
Alpena County
State of Michigan

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Property description A Property description B

Part3

94
VECTORS AND PROPERTY DEEDS

Now that you can describe a small parcel of land, let's see if you
can match the parcel with it's description. There are nine parcels
of land lettered in the figure below. However, there are only seven
property descriptions. Match the lettered parcel to it's numbered
description. Note: Some descriptions don't match any lettered parcel.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Section 1 l

. The Northwest comer of the Southeast half of Section 11
. The West half of the Northwest quarter of Section 11

. The North half of the Northeast quarter of the Southwest quarter

of Section 1 1.

. The East half of the Northwest quarter of the Northeast quarter

of Section 1 l.

. The South half of the South half of the Southeast quarter of

Section 1 l.

. The left side of the upper corner of Section 1 1.

. The Southeast quarter of the Southeast quarter of the Northeast

quarter of Section 11.

"Illllllllllllllllllf