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31293

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Fodder Tree Establishment and Production in
Seasonally Dry Areas of Jamaica

presented by

Stephen Gerard Krecik

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

M. S . degree in W

 

Date //’/ '?.5

0-7639 MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

 

LIBRARY
Michigan State
University

 

 

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this chookout from your "card.
TO AVOID FINES Mum on or baton data duo.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MSU I. An Affirmative Midi/Emu Opportunity Instituion
mm:

 

PODDER.TREE ESEABLISHMENT AND PRODUCTION IN SEASONALLY DR!
AREAS OF JAMAICA

By

Stephen Gerard Krecik

.A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Forestry

1993

ABSTRACT

FODDER TREE ESTABLISHMENT AND PRODUCTION IN SEASONALLY DRY
AREAS OF JAMAICA

by

Stephen Gerard Krecik

Seven fodder tree species were established and grown at
five planting sites in Green Park, Trelawny Parish, Jamaica.
Five species, Caj anus $2.32? Calliandra , calothyrsus,
Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania sesban, and Gliricidia
sepium, grew above pasture grasses and survived acceptably
at some sites but require further study for possible use in
local silvopastoral systems. Alternative establishment
methods survived and grew better than direct-seeded

Calliandra and Gliricidia. Survival and height growth was

 

best at sites with deeper soils and protection from
excessive wind and sun exposure.

In a second experiment located at Moneague, St. Ann
Parish, previously established Leucaena was harvested at two

cutting frequencies, and Calliandra and Gliricidia were

 

harvested at two cutting frequencies and two heights.
Cutting treatments affected only the Calliandra plantation.
Calliandra production was approximately four times greater
than' either of the other tree species. The combination of
tree fodder with grass production increased total fodder
biomass production in the Leucaena and Gliricidia
plantations over Calliandra, which had no grass production

under its dense canOpy .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This thesis culminates nearly three years of education
iJ1 the principles of ferest research, in an international
context. Without the mentoring and support of many
individuals and organizations, this effort would not have
been possible. In guiding the design and completion of this
research, Dr. Douglas Lantagne and Dr. Michael Gold struck a
finely honed balance between academic discipline and
intellectual freedom. Their guidance has forged the
unrefined energies of a freshly returned Peace Corps
Volunteer into a novice scientist who possesses the skills
to systematically investigate research questions, and for
this I am very grateful.

Drs. Maureen McDonough and Michael Allen also served on
my committee and their efforts also warrant sincere
appreciation. Dr. McDonough helped refine the community
development dimension of the project design, while Dr. Allen
provided both advice and occasional sanCtuary from the
Natural Resources building. Drs. George Wilson, Lyndon
MacLaren and. the Jamaica Agricultural Research Programme
staff are sent heartfelt thanks for their support and for
the opportunity to conduct on-farm research. Through my
years of Jamaican residence, I came to love this island, and

am grateful for the opportunity to return some of what I

gained there. Interaction with Green Park farmers has made
the impact and meaning of this thesis much greater than
could have been realized through traditional experiment
station research. Special thanks is due to Mr. Rupert
Drown, whose intuitive skills as both an agriculturist and a
sociologist have propelled this project forward since its
inception more than three years ago.

Ultimate credit must be given to my parents, whose
ability to transfomn an infant into a responsible, caring
citizen has been demonstrated sevenfold with. my younger
brothers and sisters. I carry on this circle of life with
love for my wife Irwyna and our son James, whose presence
and reciprocal love have reaffirmed my conviction for the

reason we have all been placed on this earth.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES AND APPENDICES ............................... Vi
INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1

Chapter 1.

Chapter 2

EFFECT OF TWO CUTTING FREQUENCIES ON LEUCAENA
FODDER.PRODUCTION AND OF TWO CUTTING EEIGHTS AND
FREQUENCIES ON CALLIANDRA.AND GLIRICIDIA
FODDER.PRODUCTION IN.A SEASONALL! DR! AREA

OF JAMAICA ..................................... 3
Abstract ....................................... 3
Introduction ................................... 3
Literature Review .............................. 7
Materials and Methods .......................... 14
Results ........................................ 21
Discussion ..................................... 29
Conclusions .................................... 4l
Acknowledgments ............................... 42
Bibliography ................................... 43
FODDER.TREE ESTABLISHMENT IN’A.SEASONALL! DR!

AREA.OF’JAMAICA ................................ 49
Abstract ....................................... 49
Introduction ................................... 49
Literature Review .............................. 53
Materials and Methods .......................... 61
Results ........................................ 68
Discussion ..................................... 73
Conclusions .................................... 81

iii

Acknowledgments ...............................

81
Bibliography ................................... 83

SUMMAR! ....................................................... 87
DIRECTION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................. 89

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page
Chapter 1

Cutting height and frequency treatments used in fodder
production trials in St. Ann Parish, Jamaica ............. 17

Fresh weight biomass and dry matter fodder yields for
Calliandra, Gliricidia, and grass at two cutting heights

and frequencies, and Leucaena and grass at two cutting
frequencies .............................................. 23

 

 

Friedman two-way rank test for differences in Calliandra
dry matter production from two cutting heights and
frequency treatments ..................................... 24

 

Percent dry matter, usable fodder, and woody material
harvested at two cutting frequencies harvested from
Calliandra, Gliricidia, and Leucaena ........... . ......... 25

 

 

Friedman two-way rank test for differences in Gliricidia
and grass dry matter fodder production from two cutting
height and frequency treatments. ...... . .................. 26

Kruskall-Wallis one-way rank test for differences in
Leucaena and grass dry matter fodder production from two
cutting frequencies ...................................... 27

Chapter 2

1

Species, variety and establishment methods used in Green
Park, Jamaica ............................................ 64

Analysis of variance for survival of six direct-seeded
fodder tree species at the Jones farm, Green Park,
Jamaica ..... .. ........................................... 67

Average six-month survival for five direct-seeded fodder
tree species established at five farms in Green Park,
Jamaica ......................... .. ....................... 70

Average six-month height growth for five direct-seeded
fodder tree species established at five farms in Green
Park, Jamaica .............. . ......... ...... ........... ... 71

Average six month survival and height growth of two
alternative establishment methods for Calliandra and
Gliricidia at two farms in Green Park, Jamaica ........... 72

 

V

LIST OF FIGURES AND APPENDICES

 

 

Figure Page
Chapter 1
1 Experimental design layout used to test for the effects
of cutting height and frequency on fodder production of
Calliandra and Gliricidia ................................ l9
2 Randomized complete block experimental design layout
used to test the effect of cutting frequency on fodder
production of Leucaena cut at a 75 cm height ............. l9
3 Gliricidia and grass dry matter fodder production at
75 and 150 cm cutting heights within 12 and 18 week
cutting intervals ........................................ 28
Appendix
Chapter 1
A Experimental design used in Moneague establishment method
trials..... .............................................. 48

vi

INTRODUCTION

This thesis concerns itself with the precept that Jamaican
livestock production systems can be made more efficient and
self-sustaining through the input of fodder trees. With a
minimal capital input, fodder trees cxNi be incorporated. into
pastures so that they utilize unexploited resources, provide high
protein livestock feed especially during dry seasons, and enhance
the overall productivity of a farming system. This research
seeks to answer questions related to the needs of small-scale
farmers within the context of their economic constraints, through
on-farm research. (mi a wider scale, the overall efficiency of
Jamaica's agricultural sector can potentially be increased by
reducing foreign currency dependency on imported feed inputs.

The manuscript consists of two chapters. Chapter 1 examines
the effect of cutting height and frequency treatments on biomass
and fodder production on three fodder tree species established a:
Moneague, St. Ann Parish. Chapter 2 examines the establishment
of seven different fodder tree species, and planting stock
alternatives for two of those species in the Green Park projec:
area.

Data for the research were collected from September 1991 to
September 1992. This study is a continuation of a project
jointly administered by Michigan State University and Jamaica
Agricultural Research Programme. The project goal is to

l

integrate fodder tree growth and management knowledge with
current farming practices to develop alternative silvo-pastoral
systems for small-scale farms in the Green Park area. The
project has already compiled a survey of the project area's
indigenous knowledge (Morrison 1991) and social and economic
systems (Andreatta 1992), and gathered data on the impact of
various establishment methods and the nutritive values of
commonly used fodder trees (Roshetko 1991). Feeding trial and
fodder tree management research will continue until September

1993.

EFFECT OF TWO CUTTING FREQUENCIES ON LEUCAENA FODDER
PRODUCTION AND OF TWO CUTTING HEIGHTS AND FREQUENCIES ON
CALLIANDRA AND GLIRICIDIA FODDER PRODUCTION IN A SEASONALL!
DR! AREA OF JAMAICA.

Abstract. In 1990, plantations of Calliandra, Gliricidia,
and Leucaena were established in an improved pasture in St.
Ann Parish, Jamaica at a density of 4,444 trees/ha. Cutting
height treatments of 75 and 150 cm and harvest interval
treatments of 9, 12, and 18 weeks were evaluated over a 36
week period for Calliandra and Gliricidia fodder production.
Leucaena fodder production of trees out at 75 cm was
evaluated at 8 and 12 week harvest interval treatments over
a 24 week period. Co-incident grass production was also
measured if present in the plantations.

Calliandra harvested at 150 cm produced 8.7 t/ha/yr,
19% more dry matter fodder than at 75 cm. Twelve week
harvest intervals produced 9.1 t/ha/yr, 34% more dry matter
fodder than at nine weeks. Grass production increased 6.5
t/ha/yr when Leucaena and grass were harvested after 8 weeks
rather than 12 week intervals. Gliricidia fodder production
was not influenced by cutting height or interval treatments.

Calliandra production was approximately four times
greater than either of the other two tree species. The
combination of tree fodder and co-incident grass production
under Gliricidia and Leucaena increased total output 33% and
64%, respectively, over' Calliandra. There was no igrass
production under the Calliandra canopy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

Raising cattle for the production of meat and dairy
products is a significant agricultural endeavor in Jamaica.
Cattle rearing, the major economic activity for over twenty
percent of agricultural lands, is a stabilizing force in the
national economy and a consistent contributor to gross
domestic product. Farms which engage 1J1 production range

from large (>1000 ha) estates to small-scale (< 1 ha)

farmers (SIOJ 1979). Domestic production of meat and dairy

products is about 106 thousand metric tons/year (FAO 1988).
However, the country still imports large quantities of beef.
During the period of 1981-1985, nearly 12% of all domestic
consumption was imported (GOJ 1987).

' Under proper management, most of Jamaica’s agricultural
land area is suitable for pasture and livestock production
(GOJ 1987). Attempts to increase domestic livestock
production have been thwarted by high production costs, the
long-term nature of livestock production, and inconsistent
governmental policies (GOJ 1987, Bell 1989). Past research
and extension activities have also concentrated on improving
the production systems of larger (>10 ha) growers, which
make up less than 2% of all Jamaican farmers (Blustain and
Lefranc 1987, GOJ 1987).

In addition to economic and policy factors, there are
biological restrictions on the growth potential of Jamaica's
cattle industry. The most significant restriction is the
effect of seasonal rainfall patterns on forage quality and
its effect on ruminant nutrition (Paterson et al. 1987).
Most Jamaican cattle subsist primarily on pasture grasses
(Bell 1989, Rueggsegger 1992). During' the ibiannual dry
seasons in July-August and December-March (CRIBS 1982), the
availability and nutritive value of these grasses decrease
as they become desiccated (Pound and Cairo 1983). In

response, some farmers supplement the dietary requirements

of their livestock *with expensive imported feeds. Mbst
resource-limited farmers, however, must resort to local
forages including sugar cane tops and tree fodder when
pasture grass is scarce and of poor quality and imported
feed is too expensive (Morrison 1991). The well documented
potential of the purposeful inclusion of fodder trees into
agroecosystems (Von Carlowitz 1987) has not been extensively
studied in Jamaica (JAGRIST 1992).

Examples of fodder tree cultivation abound in Nepal
(Panday 1982), Australia (Torres 1983), Israel, Chile (NRC
1981), Indonesia (Devendra 1990) and the Dominican Republic
(Pound and Cairo 1983), where trees are grown and employed
as important components in ruminant nutrition. Some
examples of silvopastoral systems, which include the
incorporation and utilization in pastures of multipurpose
trees for fodder, exist in Jamaica. Farmers in Moneague,
St. Ann Parish, periodically supplement the diet of cattle

with the foliage of Gliricidia sepium planted as living

 

fence posts (Bell 1989). Dairy farmers near Black River,

St. Elizabeth. Parish, use Leucaena. and (Gliricidia fodder

 

banks to supplement the diets of their animals (Rueggsegger
1992). In general, Jamaican farmers use naturally occurring
trees for fodder (Morrison 1991), which have low nutrient

values compared with planted exotic species used elsewhere

in the world (Roshetko 1991).

The quality and quantity of locally produced cattle
forage can be greatly improved during dry periods by
incorporating tree forage. Freshly cut tree foliage
generally has a higher crude protein content and
digestibility when compared to dry pasture grasses (Paterson
et al. 1987, Pound and Cairo 1983, Devendra 1990). Tree
roots access soil water and nutrients unavailable to pasture
grasses (Sanchez et al. 1985) and maintain green foliage
during periods of drought (Pound and Cairo 1983). Nitrogen
fixing trees may also enhance site conditions over time by
raising soil nitrogen levels (Nair 1985, Pound and Cairo
1983).

Questions fundamental to tree fodder research include
proper species-site selection, and tree species management
(NFTA 1989a). Tree fodder management factors include: age
at first cutting, height of cutting, amount of leaf material
removed, harvest interval, plant density, and interactions
of these and other possible factors (Horne et al. 1985).
Site adaptability' and. management trials, coordinated. and
supported by various international research organizations,
continue to identify promising species and appropriate
management systems throughout the world. Particularly in
Jamaica, the knowledge of fodder tree production,

management, and utilization needs to increase if the

potential of this resource is to be realized (Roshetko
1991).
The objectives of this study were 1) to determine the

effect of cutting height and frequency on Calliandra and

 

Gliricidia production, and cutting frequency' on Leucaena

 

production: and 2) to determine the effect of coppiced trees

on grass production in St. Ann Parish, Jamaica.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Fodder production. Comparison of different tree fodder
production trials presents difficulty because definitions of
fodder vary among researchers (Horne et al. 1985). Several
authors examining Leucaena (Guevarna et a1. 1978, Evensen
1984) and other fodder tree species (Sumberg 1985, Ella et
al. 1991) use dry matter (DM) leaf production as a benchmark
for determining fodder yield” This method disregards the
considerable amount of biomass in petioles and small stems
that can be used for animal feed.

A variety of diverse factors influence the actual
portion of fodder tree biomass which animals consume. These
factors include growing interval between harvests, freshness
(age since harvest in cut-and-carry systems), mixture with
(in cut-and-carry) or availability of (in direct grazing
systems) other forages, and animal adaptation (NFTA 1989b).

The influence of these factors on consumption raises

difficulties in making a strict determination of the edible
portion.<xf fodder plant biomass. Range inventories often
employ proper-use factors to estimate the percent of a
particular plant species' biomass utilized by animals
(Stoddart en: a1. 1975). In fodder tree yield studies by
Guevarra et al. (1978) and Akkasaeng et al. (1989), the
authors attempt to define the palatable portion of tree
yield by separating out branches greater than. 5 mm in
diameter. While it is probably inaccurate to make a
,standard proper-use estimate for several tree species, the

authors attempt to make consistent and reasonable fodder
tree proper-use estimates by imposing this criterion.
Cutting height. The study of cutting height influence
on fodder tree production occurred as early as 1949
(Takahashi and Ripperton 1949). Most investigators
examining Leucaena have found that taller cutting heights
give greater yields. Krishnamurthy and Mune Gowda (1982)
found that DM yield was optimized at the tallest height in a
range of 60 to 150 cm, while Siregar (1983) found that DM
yield was highest at 100 cm within a range of 90-120 cm.
Evensen (1984) found no significant production differences

when Leucaena cutting height was varied from 42 to 84 cm.

 

There is less data on cutting height effects for other
tree fodder species. Siregar (1983) found both Flamengia

congesta and Calliandra calothyrsus performed best at a 100

 

 

 

cm height when out over a range of heights from 5 to 150 cm.
Lazier (1981) found higher leaf and Stem yield in taller

cuttings of Codariocalyx gyroides, 61 leguminous tropical

 

shrub, when cutting height was varied from 5 to 50 cm.

The positive effect of cutting height in most Leucaena
fodder production trials is linked to the number of
vegetative buds on residual stems. Alferez (1978) found
that non-structural carbohydrates stored in Leucaena were
not affected by cutting height and determined that new leaf
production was primarily influenced by the number of buds
arising from the stump. Perez and Melendez (1980) and
Alferez (1978) both demonstrated that the number of buds
emanating from Leucaena stumps was positively influenced by
cutting height.

Cutting frequency. As with cutting height, there are
highly variable results when different cutting frequencies
are applied to fodder tree production trials. The majority
of production studies which look at cutting frequency have
examined Leucaena» Differences in results between studies
can be related to the use of inconsistently-defined
terminology regarding the type of yield measured (Horne et
al. 1985). When studies that examine DM biomass are
examined, there is a trend of maximum production achieved
through less frequent cuttings. For total Lgugagga. DM

yield, Ozman (1981) found a cutting period of 90 days best

10

in a test of 30, 60, 90, and 120 day intervals, and Guevarra
et al. (1978) determined the longest of three intervals (76,
100, 126 days) optimized production when harvested over a 16
month period. Ella et al. (1989) found that longer (12 vs.
6 week) intervals produced greater total DM yield in

Calliandra, Gliricidia, and Leucaena when planting density

 

 

averaged 18,750 trees/ha.
When considering fodder yields as expressed by leaf DM
or proper-use estimate rather than total dry matter, the

effect of cutting frequency is not as consistent. Pathak et

al. (1980) found 40 day intervals gave higher Leucaena DM
leaf production than longer periods. Conversely, Guevarra
et al. (1978) found. that longer intervals produced zmore

Leucaena fodder DM. These experiments may have confounding
influences, including genotypic variations, seasonality, and
spacing, which modify or influence the results (Horne et al.
1985). A consistent relationship for the cases reported is
the increase in the amount of woody material (and hence
non-fodder) in collected biomass as time between harvests
increased. In instances where wood for building and
fuelwood, seeds for food, and other products are
considerations for the management of fodder trees, the
determination of the best cutting frequency will have to be

weighed by considering the need for these other products.

ll

Tree-grass interactions. In tree-grass mixtures, light
is often the most limiting factor to plant growth
(Santhirasegaram et al. 1966). While the yield of most
grasses decline when shading is imposed, the response of

individual species is variable. Panicum maximum yielded

 

greater production than three other grass species when grown
under shade (Ericksen and Whitney 1982). Under low moisture
conditions, however, water availability may limit grass
growth. In a tree-grass association with an average
planting' density' of 18,750 trees/ha, Ella. et al. (1991)
found that Panicum grass production increased during dry
season conditions under longer harvest regimes of

Calliandra, Gliricidia, and Sesbania. They concluded that

 

 

the shade from the fodder tree crop conserved soil moisture
and enhanced grass output during the dry season, while it
limited grass growth during the wet season when light was
the limiting factor.

Other factors. Considering the wide array of
management treatments, planting densities, tree species, and
varieties reported in the literature, it is difficult to
draw clear conclusions about many of the other factors that
influence tree fodder production. Several physiological
factors potentially influence tree fodder yield, including
varietal differences, flowering and. seed. production, and

response to competition (Horne et al. 1985).

...J
P.)

Varietal differences are often expressed. by varying
growth responses to different site conditions. Rosecrance
et al. (1989) found significant differences in fodder yield
when testing 21 varieties of Cajanus and concluded these
differences resulted from varietal reactions to site
conditions. With the considerable and well documented
genetic variation in tree fodder species such as Cajanus and
Leucaena, it is possible to test and select varieties for
particular site conditions and production systems (Ramanujam
1981)

Variations in flowering and seed production habits can
explain some inter-varietal differences found in fodder
production. Guevarra et al. (1978) observed a marked
difference in the total and leaf DM yield of two varieties
of Leucaena. He found that one variety, K341, flowered more
readily within any of the three cutting intervals and this
propensity to flower drew resources away from fodder biomass
production.

Plant spacing and subsequent competition also
influences fbdder tree yield. Recommended planting
densities for fodder tree banks range from 5,000 to 50,000
trees/ha (Paterson et a1. 1987). Horne et a1. (1985) report
maximum production efficiency is attained when the canopy
closes and before shading causes leaf loss. At high plant

densities of Leucaena harvested over a 16 month period,

l3

shorter intervals maximized yield (Guevarra et al. 1978,
Pathak et al. 1980). be low density plantings, potential
fodder production was lost because Leucaena was unable to
,close its canopy and offset greater spacing by producing
.more stems (Guevarra et a1. 1978).

In addition to physiological factors, a wide array of
abiotic factors influence fodder tree growth. Soil factors
which influence plant growth include soil texture and
structure, excessive soil acidity or alkalinity, nutrient
availability, drainage, water-holding capacity, and salt
levels. Some fodder tree species such as Leucaena have been
studied extensively for soil effects (NRC 1981), while
complete information for others is lacking (Von Carlowitz
1987). Other abiotic factors, including seasonal rainfall
variations, temperature changes, altitude differences, and
the presence of frequent, wind. and fire events .may' also
affect fodder tree productivity (Von Carlowitz 1987).
Guevarra et al. (1978) found a relationship between
temperature, solar radiation and fodder production in
irrigated Leucaena. Others have demonstrated that as
rainfall increases so too can cutting frequency in Lgugagna,

Calliandra, Gliricidia, and Sesbania grandiflora (Ella et

 

 

al. 1991, Evensen 1984).
fly. The management of fodder trees can greatly

influence the amount and quality of their total yield (Horne

14

et a1. 1985). Cutting height (Takahashi and Ripperton 1949,
Krishnamurthy and Mune Gowda 1982, Siregar 1983, Evensen
1984) and cutting frequency (Ozman 1981, Guevarra et al.
1978, Ella et al. 1991) are two important factors in
defining optimum management methods for fodder trees. By
determining optimum cutting heights :nd intervals for fodder
tree species in Jamaica, a clearer understanding of factors
related to fodder tree production can be realized for this

country.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Site. The study site was located in Unity Valley near

 

Moneague, St. Ann, Jamaica. Unity Valley is 500 m above sea
level and surrounded on three sides by steep, wooded
limestone hills. The soil, classified as a St. Ann clay
loam, is a well drained, medium deep red clay over limestone
with significant deposits of bauxite (Baker 1968). The soil
has a pH of 7.48 and available phosphorous and potassium
levels of 7 and 95 ppm (Roshetko 1991). Average annual
rainfall is 2000 mm, and daily temperatures typically range
fromHlS - 25° C (Baker 1968).

Plant Species. Three nitrogen-fixing fodder tree
species, Calliandra calothyrsus, Gliricidia sep'um, and

Leucaena leucocephala were used in the fodder yield trials.

They were previously established as part of another study to

15

investigate the effects of different planting techniques on
survival and growth (Roshetko 1991). These species were
originally selected because they are good sources of high
protein fodder (Panday 1982, Pound and Cairo 1983, NRC
1981). The predominant grass species growing at tflua site

was para grass (Brachiaria mutica) with some guinea grass

 

(Panicum maximum) also present. These grasses are
classified as "improved" grass species for Jamaican pastures
(JLA 1983).

Establishment. Calliandra, Leucaena, and Gliricidia

 

 

 

were established in May 1990, in three blocks of 17 by 17
trees in a single pasture. An exterior border row and
shared interior border rows were used to separate sixteen
measurement plots in each block, to minimize edge effects
(NFTA 1989a). The establishment sites did not differ
significantly in slope, soils or vegetation at the time of

establishment. Gliricidia was directly sown into cultivated

 

planting pits during May 1990, at 1.5 nfi spacing.

Calliandra and Leucaena were planted at the same spacing

 

with containerized seedlings in September 1990 after direct
seeding failed. Tree density averaged 4,444 trees/ha, which
is considered low for fodder bank plantings (Paterson et al.
1987). Monthly removal of grass competition occurred during
the first six months after planting to ensure establishment.

Grass continues to grow' in the 'Leucaena and Gliricidia

plantations but is no longer present in the Calliandra
plantation due to canopy closure.

Treatments. Cutting heights of 75 and 150 cm were used
to simulate the effects of a cut-and-carry management system
hand a direct grazing management system, respeCtively, in the

Gliricidia and Calliandra plantations. During the previous

 

 

escablishment trials, poor Leucaena survival resulted in a
stocking level inadequate for the implementation of cutting
experiments. As a result, Leucaena was only tested at the
75 cm height. To provide uniform stands for the measurement

of harvested regrowth, all Calliandra and Gliricidia were

 

 

cut at the designated. heights in ‘November 1991 and all
Leucaena were cut in February 1992.

Two harvest frequencies, as determined by regrowth
height, were originally planned to compare the effect of
short and long cutting interval extremes on fbdder
production. The first interval was to be initiated when
branch regrowth had reached between 30 and 50 cm, and the
second when crown closure started to cause shade—induced

leaf fall. Rapid Calliandra regrowth. permitted harvest

 

intervals to be applied to this species as planned.

Gliricidia and Leucaena regrowth, however, did not achieve

 

crown closure by the midway point of their respective study
periods. It was decided to implement the second harvest

interval at this time so that comparisons could be made with

17

the first harvest interval. Table 1 summarizes the cutting

heights and intervals by species.

fTable 1: Cutting height and frequency treatments used in
fodder production trials in St. Ann Parish, Jamaica.

 

 

 

 

 

reatment Calliandra Gliricidia Leucaena
“Height (cm) 75 150 75 150 75
Interval A
(weeks) 9 9 12 12 8
Interval B
(weeks) i 12 12 18 18 12
otal time
.f study 36 36 36 36 24

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Design. Four treatments were applied to

both a Calliandra and a Gliricidia plantation. Two cutting

 

frequency treatments were nested within each of two cutting
heights (Table 1). To avoid confounding treatment impacts
on fodder production from establishment treatments, the
cutting height and frequency treatments were distributed
systematically (Appendix A) across the original treatment
plots (Roshetko 1991).

. Cutting height treatments were applied across half of

each Calliandra and Gliricidia plantation. Homogeneity

 

within plantations and throughout the site, and the use of

non-parametric analysis allowed for appropriate statistical

18

comparisons. Within each cutting height unit, cutting
frequency treatments were applied as two sets of paired
plots. Blocks for non-parametric analysis were designated
as shown in Figure 1. A total of four blocks were used for
'the analysis of cutting height and frequency on each
plantation. Plots within a given block with the same
cutting height or frequency treatments were summarized to
determine treatment means used for analysis.

Paired plots of two cutting frequencies were replicated
four times in the Leucaena plantation in a completely
randomized design (Figure 2). All trees were cut at a
height of 75 cm.

Measurements. Nine interior trees per plot were used
for all measurements and sampling. Border trees separating
plots were harvested but not included in the data
collection. Survival data was noted and biomass samples
collected to calculate fresh weight (FW) biomass production
and dry matter (DM) fodder production. Biomass sampling
removed. all growth. that. had. occurred since the previous
harvest. Leaves, petioles, and stems were weighed using a
hanging radial dial spring scale to determine FW biomass
production.

Fodder Production. To determine the percentage of
fodder production in the harvested biomass, complete branch

samples were collected for each cutting frequency within

19

FIGURE 1: Experimental design layout used to test for the eflects of cutting height
and frequency on fodder production at Calliandra and Gliricidia

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I , .-, { $333,,
4
u , 3 fl 8 A A
d
III 1 AA A B B 75 an
/4
N B / B A A

 

 

FITS-Y: A) Cad-nae: 9mm
mam-um

I) “Imminent“
WIIMM

BLOCKING:

1) Mmmmmdmuuedb
mote-mum.

a WMmmdmm
menu-Whammy”

 

 

 

FIGURE2: Randomized canpietebiockuperimmdeeignieyouusedtoteetm
efleadcimingfrequencyonuucaenecumencmheign

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

KEY: A) Imam
BI tzmekw

 

 

 

each species. Sampled branches were drawn from a composite
pile of harvested material. A total of four to eight
branches, comprising 250 to 450 g of PW material were
processed to determine DM content for the two cutting
'intervals of each species. Samples were chopped to a
maximum.length of 5 cm and oven-dried at 105° C for 24 to 48
hours to a constant weight. Measurement for the ratio of
"fodder" to "wood" biomass production was determined by
separating the dried samples into leaves and branches less
than 5 mm and branches greater than 5 mm and re-weighing.
Total DM fodder production in tons/ha/year was calculated
from the DM and FW biomass information.

Estimates of grass production in the Gliricidia and

 

Leucaena plots were determined by randomly locating three 1
m2 sample areas in each plot. Grass was concurrently
harvested with tree biomass. Grass was cut to a 5 cm.
height, and subsamples of the harvested material were
weighed, dried, and re-weighed. All grass remaining in the
harvested tree plot was subsequently out.

232 Analyses. Non-parametric statistical analyses
were, conducted on FW biomass and DM fodder production of
trees and grass, and DM content data. The impact of
treatments from the previous fodder tree establishment study

was also evaluated. Analysis of Calliandra and Gliricidia

production data was made using Friedman's test for related

21

samples. .All other analyses used the Kruskall-Wallis tes:
for independent samples. Assumptions for the independence
of samples (Kruskall-Wallis) and of blocks (Friedman) were
achieved with the use of border tree rows (Conover 1971,
NFTA 1989a). Non-parametric statistical methods were used
to overcome study design deficiencies related to the lack of

full treatment randomization.

RESULTS
Treatments significantly (P<.05) influenced fodder
production in Calliandra and. Leucaena plantations. All

 

three species responded well to management, as evidenced by
the 100% survival of trees included in the study. Dry
matter tree fodder production varied widely between species,

ranging from 1.5 t/ha/yr for Gliricidia harvested at 150 cm

 

to 9.1 t/ha/yr for Calliandra harvested at the same height.

 

Average Calliandra DM tree fodder production of 8.0 t/ha/yr

 

was approximately four times greater than that of Gliricidia
and Leucaena at 1.8 and 2.3 t/ha/yr, respectively. However,

when grass yield from the Gliricidia and Leucaena

 

plantations was added to tree fodder production, these
plantations had a greater total yield of 10.7 and 13.1
t/ha/yr, respectively (Table 2).

Fresh weight and dry weight biomass production of

Calliandra was affected by both cutting height and frequency

 

l")
1‘.)

(Tables 2 and 3). The 150 cm cutting height and the twelve
week cutting interval produced significantly' more usable
material than the alternative treatments. As would be
expected from a twelve week cutting interval, the percentage
.of woody material (branch diameter > 5 mm) within harvested
biomass increased significantly when compared 1x: the nine
week cutting intervals (Table 4).

Fresh weight and dry matter tree fodder production of

Gliricidia and Leucaena were not affected by cutting height

 

or frequency (Tables 2, 5 and 6). As with Calliandra,

 

shorter cutting intervals produced a higher percentage of
fodder and a lower percentage of woody material in the
harvested biomass (Table 4).

Grass production was unaffected by cutting height or

frequency under Gliricidia, but was significantly greater

 

under Leucaena with an eight week interval (Tables 2, 5 and
6). Although differences were not statistically significant
for grass production under Gliricidia, they were
substantial. Dry matter grass production was 10.1 t/ha/yr
under a 12 week harvest interval, 2.4 t/ha/yr greater than
the 7.7 t/ha/yr average for the 18 week harvest interval.
Height x interval interactions could not be tested for

Calliandra and Gliricidia within the experimental design.

 

 

Graphs of height x cutting interval for these species showed

.8.vaiieiile3¢eefllig .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.Eloeeegflifiitelllgl'a e?
.iagctaralgsuloau ...-II a
filing..." v gaziiatiais .
I... I832: e5 85. 183°... ...-83 u
u. . «in as
e . eN. egg an id
0 0.. .. .e on.
a. mi 9.3 N on
a s. 0.8 e.
.. ..o. v.3 ...: int-O
e? . e). e? 0.8 8.
on. e? e? o . .0“ as
He e? e? «.8 a.
enfi 0). e05 0)- and“ O I;
515 515 i 53.5 5.3.5 3 his .5? excel.
292 1.5.5
SIB ooh I SID one SIB eon 0:330 9.30
58332.. 81.3. ...-.153
.83 8222 In]... re s}! to... 22.8.» 188
clues-Goa 9530 on: 1 lab use

 

 

Iglljnlsnaillfifgear'bzgailiiifuagéit”~39:

 

TABLE 3: Friedman two-way rank test for differences in Calli-
andra dry matter fodder production (1) from two cutting
height and frequency treatments.

(Chi-square approximation with 1 df)

 

 

 

Cutting Cutting Rank Sum Friedman
intervai height Test
Statistic
-weeks~ -cm-
9 . 4 4 '
12 8
75 4 4 '
150 8

 

 

1.0rymethrproduotionofleeveeendbrenohee<5nwnduneur.
' WWmmmmmPcm

TABLE 4: Percent dry matter. usable fodder. and woody material har-
hervested at two cutting frequencies from Calliandra. Giiricidia. md

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Leucaena.
(Sp‘ecies Crafting Percent Usable Woody
interval dry fodder mmeriai
(weeks) matter portion(1) portion(2)
__ (DM) of GM of DM
Caiiiandra 9 32.3 78.7' 21 .3'
12 31.4 72.3 27.7
Gliricidia 12 25.4 79.1' 20.9'
18 25.3 74.3 25.7
Leucaena 8 31.3 88.9 13.1
12 31.4 822 17.8

 

1.demMMdmwm<5ma-mhn

zmammmmawumm.

' WWmmmmchm

 

f‘)
0\

TABLE 5: Friedman two-way mi: test for differences in Gliricidia and grass
dry matterfodderproductionfromtwocuttinghelgmwfrequenq
tremments.

(Chi-square approximxion with 1 d!)

 

 

 

Type of Cutting Cutting Rank Sum Friedman
fodder: interval height Test
Stdstic
__ «reeks. -crn-
Gliricidiam 12 ' 8 0 n.s.
18 8
75 6 O n.s.
150 8
grass (2) 12 7 1 n.s.
18 5
75 7 1 n.s.
150 5

 

 

 

 

1.07mumamume5mm.

ammwmmmm.wm
mum.

n.s. mWMmmmmchn

TABLE 5: KruskaII-Wallis one-way rank test for differences in
Leucaena md grass dry mxterfodder (1) productionfromtwo
cutting frequency treatments.

(Chi-squue approximation with 1 df)

 

 

 

 

(T3. of c' uning""'"""'""nank_—Sum Knrslrail-
fodder. interval Wallis
Test
weeks. Smistic

Laucaena(2) 8 21 1 1
12 15

grass(3) 8 26 16'
12 1o

 

 

 

 

1.0rympreduoionef'eeieuaamdmdmm.
immunan
3.Q.Mmmw.wmwmnetoddan
' WWW-mammareca.

FIGURE 3: Gliricidia and grass dry matter fodder production (1)
at 75 and 150 cm cutting heights within 12 and 18 week intervals.

 

 

;.»\y(wf\ w. 4,.

tonnesth

.- ), «vwmw

 

 

 

 

//

 

75 150 75 150
cmmgntem)

 

[-W-o’m I

 

1. Drymattcrprodwiouoficevamdbnncba<5mdiemctcn

29

no evidence of interaction as illustrated using Gliricidia

 

in Figure 3.

DISCUSSION

Species comparisons. Below-normal precipitation
levels, less than 50% of the normal average, were recorded
over the study period. Low rainfall may have limited

Gliricidia and Leucaena from occupying sites quickly after

 

harvest. Under‘ normal rainfall conditions, higher
production of tree fodder would be expected as has been
demonstrated in other studies (Ella et al. 1991, Horne et
al. 1985).

While statistical comparisons between species are not

possible due to the experimental design, average Calliandra

 

A

production yielded four times more DM tree fodder (8.o
tons/ha/yr) than the other two species on this site. This
quantity is comparable to yields of DM leaf material

reported by Ella et al. (1989), for Calliandra harvested at

 

nearly the same age, planting density, cutting interval, and
height. Even when planted at the comparatively low density
of 4,444 trees/ha, Calliandra produced superior fodder

yields compared to Gliricidia and Leucaena. Calliandra

 

shaded out pasture grasses at the tested cutting heights and
intervals. This species fully closed its canopy within

twelve weeks of harvest, and allowed virtually no grass and

30

broadleaf' weed. growth. even. within. the nine week Zharvest
interval. In contrast, the canopies of Leucaena and

Gliricidia plantations did not completely shade out grasses

 

after establishment periods of 14 and 18 months, and did not
reach crown closure between harvests. Based on the results
of this trial, it appears that these species cannot form
pure fodder tree banks at the tested planting density and
harvest intervals.

The average of 1.8 t/ha/yr for Gliricidia production

 

was the lowest of the three tested species. In other
. Jamaican production trials under drier conditions, this
species yielded similar results (Rueggsegger 1992). Under

similar rainfall patterns in Indonesia, Gliricidia DM leaf

 

production yielded more than three times the output reported
in this study (Ella et al. 1989). Tree fertilization,
better soils, and higher planting densities in the
Indonesian trial may have contributed to the higher yields.
Higher yields of tree leaf material are potentially
attainable at higher planting densities. Increasing

Gliricidia density in Indonesia (Ella et al. 1991) and in

 

the Ivory Coast (Budelman 1987) from 1,200 to 40,000
trees/ha increased DM leaf production by as much as 44% on a
12 week harvest schedule. Grass production was not

significantly affected by Gliricidia planting density except

 

-.C

‘ .
n a

u-‘

:u
v.

bef
yie

9 e
‘0(

S .

 

s.“

5“

31

during tjue dry season, when grass production increased at
higher densities (Ella et al. 1991).

Differences noted 1J1 the Gliricidia fodder production

 

results of this study and those in the literature may be due

to tree management. In other Gliricidia production trials,

 

it has been shown that the initiation of harvesting 4 to 6
months before the onset of the dry season results in
increased fodder production (Ella et al. 1987, NFTA 1989b).
In Jamaica, unmanaged trees drop their leaves and flower
during the dry season. This study, which discarded the
initially harvested material, was initiated 2 tx>13 months
before the onset of the dry season. The Gliricidia biomass
yield data for the second and third measured harvests showed
six-fold increases in yield over the first measured harvest
despite the below-average rainfall which occurred over the
study period. Excluding the first measured harvest,

Gliricidia production yield was closer to production levels

 

cited by other authors (Ella et. al 1991, Budelman 1987).

Leucaena DM fodder production averaged 2.3 t/ha/yr.

 

This level compares favorably with fodder bank production
reported for Jamaica (Rueggsegger 1992), but considerably
less than the production level reported for other countries.
Horne et al. (1985) surveyed seven studies and found DM leaf
yields ranging from 4.0 to 15.2 t/ha/yr, with the lowest

still producing nearly twice that of the Leucaena in this

study. In four of these trials, however, planting densities
ranged from 15,000 to 60,000 trees/ha compared to 4,444
trees/ha 1J1 this study; Higher planting density would be
expected to increase DM tree leaf yields. Ella et al.
_(l989) found that increasing Leucaena density from 5,000 to
40,000 trees/ha increased yields by nearly 200%. In
addition to density, other Leucaena varieties should be
evaluated. Differences in growth and DM leaf yield have
been noted between Leucaena varieties both in Jamaica and
Hawaii (Thompson 1985, Guevarra et al. 1978). Despite low
fodder tree production levels, the quality of fodder
produced by the Leucaena plantation is greater than grass
pastures alone. This plantation, when properly managed,
could support more than twice the livestock number as nearby
grass pastures (JLA 1983).

Grass constituted approximately 80% of DM fodder yield

in Gliricidia and Leucaena plantations. Combining grass

 

yields with tree production increased DM fodder yield in
those plantations by 2.7 and 5.1 t/ha/yr, respectively, over

Calliandra. The high nutritive quality of Calliandra when

 

compared to grasses, however, gives pure fodder tree
plantations greater value for dry season feed than mixed
grass and fodder tree plantations. During the dry season,
tropical grass crude protein levels often decrease below

critical levels while those of Calliandra, Gliricidia, and

33

Leucaena remain constant. under dry season conditions,
protein levels in fodder tree species can often exceed
grasses by 500 percent or greater (Paterson et al. 1987).
Besides protein content, other considerations important
in tropical dry season fodder quality include digestibility,
palatability and antinutrient levels (Akkasaeng et al.
1989). Fiber content, as measured by acid detergent fiber
(ADE), is a negative index of feed quality. High ADE levels
in feed can cause reduced digestibility and voluntary intake
(Owen et al. 1989). The tested fodder tree species often
have low fiber levels when compared to many grass species.

In one trial, ADE levels in Gliricidia and Leucaena were

 

lower when compared to two grass species and three
agricultural by-products (cassava tops, and corn, banana,
and papaya leaves) commonly used for feed (Cheeke and
Roharjo 1987). Some fodder tree species, including

Gliricidia, are often initially rejected by livestock

 

because they find the taste unpalatable. These feeding
patterns can be changed by mixing tree fodder with grass
until cattle become acquainted with its taste (NFTA 1989b).
Antinutrient compounds, such as mimosine, tannins, and
saponins occur in some tree fodder species and can limit
their effectiveness as feed sources (NRC 1981). Their
effects, however, can be lessened through proper management.

Deleterious mimosine effects have been eliminated through

34

the metabolic activity of rumen microbes which occur in
cattle where Leucaena is native, and these organisms can be
introduced into other livestock populations (NRC 1981).
Negative effects of other antinutrient compounds can be
reduced by limiting tree fodder intake to safe levels
(Panday 1982, NRC 1981). When managed properly in animal
production systems, species tested in this trial have
performed well elsewhere in the world for supplementing the
protein needs of livestock (Panday 1982, Torres 1983, NRC
1981, Devendra 1990).

Cutting interval. Manipulating cutting interval is an
effective management tool for some of the fodder tree
plantations tested in this trial. Longer harvest intervals
produced proportionately more wood and less fodder within
harvested biomass. After removing the woody portion,

however, Calliandra DM fodder production increased from 7.3

 

to 8.7 tJha/year when cutting interval was increased from
nine to twelve weeks. Similar increases were made in
another trial when harvesr intervals were increased from six
to twelve weeks (Ella. et. al. 1989). Conversely, grass
production under Leucaena decreased from 14.2 to 7.7 t/ha/yr
when. cutting interval was increased from eight to twelve
weeks. It is suspected that competition with Leucaena for
light limited grass yield when longer cutting intervals were

used.

35

Cutting interval treatments did not significantly
impact other fodder tree and grass production levels.

Production increases from 7.7 to 10.1 t/ha/yr for grass

 

production in Gliricidia plantations, however, were

Substantial. In other mixed tree/grass Gliricidia and

 

Leucaena plantations, twelve week cutting intervals have
produced significantly more DM tree fodder and less grass
when compared to six week intervals (Ella et al. 1991).
These results, however, were highly influenced by
precipitation variations during the different harvest
periods. Results of this study may become similar as
additional harvests are conducted in higher rainfall periods
and continuing management stabilizes production.

Cutting height. Calliandra DM fodder production was

 

significantly greater at the 150 cm cutting height when
compared to the 75 cm height, increasing from 6.8 to 9.1
t/ha/yr. Similarly, Siregar (1983) found that this species
produced the greatest biomass at 100 cm when cutting heights
were varied from 5 to 150 cm. Increased DM leaf yields for
Leucaena have been shown to result chiefly from an increased
number of buds in taller residual stems, and it is
speculated this may also be true for Calliandra (Alferez
1978).

Differences in cutting height had no effect on

Gliricidia tree fodder production, and were not tested on

 

36

Leucaena. Although the effect of cutting height was not
tested on Leucaena, other research has shown that increased
height leads to greater biomass and fodder production. For
this reason, cutting height treatments should be considered
(in future Leucaena trials (Alferez 1978, Perez and Melendez
1980). Other studies concerning the effect of cutting

height on Gliricidia are lacking. The use of this species

 

as a living fencepost, where cutting height does not vary
greatly, may be partly responsible for the lack of research
data. The author speculates that morphological differences

between Gliricidia and Calliandra may be partly responsible

 

 

for the lack of yield differences in the tested cutting

height treatments. Individual Gliricidia trees have fewer

 

and larger branches, petioles, and leaves than similar sized

Calliandra, and may differ in its ability to respond to

 

differences in the tested cutting height treatments
Dry matter grass production increased from 8.3 to 9.5

t/ha/yr in Gliricidia plantations cut at 75 and 150 cm,

 

respectively. Other cutting height studies on mixed

Gliricidia and grass production are lacking, however,

 

numerous tree/crop interface studies have indicated
increased cutting height increases shade and reduces
interplanted crop production (Attah—Krah and Sumberg 1987,

Ella et.a1. 1991).

37

Grass did not grow in the Calliandra plantation. The

author speculates that the dense shade of the Calliandra

 

canopy was responsible for limiting the growth of grass and
other vegetation. Harvested plantations regrew quickly and
.were able to create heavy’ shade within twelve weeks of
harvest.

In tree and grass associations, the relative growth
rates of component species are affected by a variety of
factors, including temperature, precipitation, shading, root
competition, allelopathy, and soil moisture and nutrient
levels (Ella et al. 1991, Ludlow et al. 1974). Regulation
of planting density, cutting interval, and height can alter
solar radiation and soil moisture levels in the plantation
and influence the relative growth rates of grass to trees.
During dry season conditions, grass grown under twelve week
cutting intervals have produced greater yields than six week
intervals, and it was suspected that soil moisture level,
rather than light, was the most limiting factor (Ella et al.
1991). Conversely, when soil moisture and nutrients were
adequate for good grass growth, competition for light has
been, shown to be the limiting growth factor (Ericksen and
Whitney 1982). If precipitation levels remain low, cutting
intervals could be increased so that shading from fodder

trees conserves soil moisture and increases grass yield.

The implementation of longer cutting intervals must be

 

38

viewed with caution, as the feed quality of grasses has been
shown to diminish with longer harvest intervals (Stoddart et
al. 1975).

Applications. Fodder tree banks, similar 1x) the ones
.employed in this experiment, can increase livestock carrying
capacity by providing high protein dry season fodder.
According to Paterson et al. (1987), between 24 and 32
percent of the diet of adult cattle (450 kg. live weight)
should consist of legumes to satisfy dietary protein
requirements when grass protein content is severely limited
because of low rainfall. This translates into an adult
animal consuming about 3 kg/day of tree fodder. Based on

this trial's production, the highest producing Calliandra

 

stand could provide the protein needs of approximately ten
450 kg animals/ha/year. Further efficiency could be
realized by' providing tree fodder supplements only' when
grass no longer provides adequate protein, drying and
storing leaf meal for future use, and targeting animals in
mOSt need (Paterson et al. 1987).

3:32 production in fodder 22 plantations. Eight
week cutting intervals increased grass production in

Leucaena from 7.7 to 14.2 t/ha/yr when compared to the

 

twelve week interval. This result differs from other

Leucaena studies using interplanted Guinea grass, which

 

found greater grass production in twelve week cutting

 

 

 

39

intervals when compared to six week intervals (Ella et al.
1991). Some of the production variation could be related to
difference ix: grass species physiology. Para grass, the
dominant graminous species in this trial, has been shown to
be less shade-tolerant than Guinea grass (Ericksen and
Whitney 1982).

In applying the results of these experiments to
Jamaican animal production systems, the types of animal
management systems must be defined. Management system
considerations include the fodder tree planting
configuration, harvest method, and the season and frequency
required of tree fodder inputs. Once these parameters are
defined, appropriate fodder tree species, planting
densities, and harvest heights and intervals may be
recommended. When tree fodder is used in conjunction with
well managed grass pastures, about ten percent of farm land
area should be planted in fodder trees (Paterson et al.
1987).

There are a variety of configurations in which fodder
trees can be placed, including fencelines, as scattered
trees in pastures, and as banks of either pure fodder trees
or mixed trees and grass. If pure Gliricidia and Egugagga
fodder banks are to be established, closer tree spacing than
1.5 nfi/tree will be required. Conversely, mixed grass and

Calliandra stands will require wider spacings than those

 

   

 

 

 

40

tested. Fodder tree banks should be fenced to control
animal access and situated where several paddocks meet. By
centrally placing tree fodder banks to grass paddocks, labor
needed for either cutting and carrying tree fodder to
animals or moving animals to browse tree fodder is
minimized.

In mixed tree and grass fodder banks, the relative need
for either product could be used to determine the cutting
interval. Prior to the dry season, tree harvest would be
delayed until regrowth produced higher proportions of tree
fodder relative to grass. Closer spacings can also be used
to influence the balance of tree fodder production in mixed
tree and grass plantations (Ella et al. 1991).

Fodder trees can be harvested by either direct grazing
or by cutting and carrying to livestock. Cutting and
carrying tree fodder has been shown to require a greater
labor input than direct grazing (Paterson et al. 1987). Cut
material, however, can be dried and stored for later use,
thereby allowing farmers to harvest tree fodder when time is
available (NRC 1981, Paterson 1987). Cutting makes more
efficient use of tree fodder than direct grazing, since less
is lost from trampling and wastage (Paterson et al. 1987).
In direct grazing systems, livestock tend to ride down
fodder tree stems and bite off the tops and small branches,

leaving a tall residual stem (NRC 1981, Paterson et al.

41

1987). In directly-grazed fodder banks, tree management is
limited to regulating tree height to within the reach of
grazing animals.

A. balance between the production of planted fodder
'trees and livestock tree fodder requirements must be
maintained, as would grass production in a properly managed
pasture grass system» Animal browsing and cutting
activities must be regulated so that a constant supply of
tree fodder is available. Directly browsed fodder banks
need to be fenced into sections so that previously browsed
trees can adequately grow back before being used again. An
alternate method of regulating fodder bank grazing pressure
for resource limited farmers is to tie animals in fodder
banks and. move them. periodically, thus reducing fencing

COSCS .

CONCLUSIONS

This research has demonstrated that the production of
fodder trees and fodder tree/grass associations can be
managed. in] manipulating cutting heights and cutting
intervals. The incorporation and proper management of
fodder trees is vital if the limitations imposed on feed
quality by dry season conditions are to be overcome in
Jamaican livestock systems. This technology can be

incorporated with less capital and labor investment when

compared 1x) other feed alternatives, making it especially
applicable to small producers.

Tree forage represents only part of the solution to dry
season pressures on Jamaican cattle. Herd size has to be
matched.tx> the pasture carrying capacity, and supplemental
feeding in the form of concentrates, sugar cane tops and
urea/molasses blocks may be necessary when grass and tree

fodder is limited in supply.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the Jamaican Agricultural
Development Foundation for financial and logistical
assistance and Hampden Estates Ltd., Alcan (Jamaica) Ltd.,
and Fachoy Foods Ltd. for resources made available to the

research.

43

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alferez, AiC. l9fl3. Management of ipil-ipil for forage.
pp. 51-56. In: International Consultation on Ipil-Ipil
Research: Papers and Proceedings. Philippines Council for

Agriculture and Resources Research,_Los Banos, Philippines.

Akkasaeng, R., R.C. Gutteridge and M. Wanapat. 1989.
Evaluation of trees and shrubs for forage in northeast
Thailand. The International Tree Crops Journal 5:209-220.

Attah-Krah, A.N§ and. J.E. Sumberg. 1987. Studies 'with
Gliricidia sepium for crop/livestock production systems in
West Africa. pp. 31-43. In: Withington, D, N. Glover and
J.L. Brewbaker (eds.) Gliricidia sepium. management and
improvement: Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by the
Nitrogen Fixing' Tree Association” June .21-27, Turrialba,

Costa Rica. 255 p.

 

 

Baker, G.H. 1968. Soil and Land Use Survey No. 24:
Jamaica, Parish of St. Ann. Regional Research Centre
(RRC), Department of Soil Science, University of the West
Indies, Trinidad and Tobago.

Bell, E. 1989. Moneague District Forester, Jamaica
Department of Forestry and Soil Conservation. Personal
communication.

Blustain. H and E. Lefranc. 1987. Strategies for

Organization. of Small Farm. .Agriculture in Jamaica.
University of the West Indies Centre for Economic and Social
Research, Kingston.

Budelman, A. 1987. Gliricidia sepium in the Southern Ivory
Coast: Production, composition and decomposition of the leaf
biomass. pp. 74-81. In: Withington, D, N. Glover and J.L.
Brewbaker (eds.) Gliricidia sepiuni management and
improvement: Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by the
Nitrogen. Fixing' Tree Association, June 21-27, Turrialba,
Costa Rica. 255 p.

Cheeke, P.R. and Y.C. Raharjo. 1987. Evaluation of
Gliricidia sepium forage and leaf meal as foodstuffs for
rabbits and chickens. pp. 193-198. In: Withington, D, N.
Glover and J.L. Brewbaker (eds.) Gliricidia sep um
management and improvement: Proceedings of a workshop
sponsored. by the Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, June

21-27, Turrialba, Costa Rica. 255 p.

 

 

44

Conover, WpJfl 1971. Practical Nonparametric Statistics.
John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York. 462 p.

CRIES. 1982. Jamaica Resource Assessment. Comprehensive
Resource Inventory and Evaluation System Project (CRIES).
Michigan State University, Ohio State University, U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 75 p.

Devendra, C. (ed). 1990. Shrubs and tree fodders for farm
animals. Proceedings of a workshop in Denpasar, Indonesia,
24-29 July 1989. International Development Research Centre,
Ottawa, Canada. 349p.

Ella, A., W.W. Stur, G.J. Blair and C.N. Jacobsen. 1989.
Effect of plant density and cutting frequency on the yield
of four tree legumes. Tropical Grasslands 23:28-34.

Ella, A., W.W. Stur, G.J. Blair and C.N. Jacobsen. 1991.
Effect of plant density and cutting frequency on the yield
of four tree legumes and interplanted Panicum maximum cv.
Riversdale. Tropical Grasslands 25:281-286.

 

Evensen, C.L.I. 1984. Seasonal yield variation, green leaf
manuring and eradication of Leucaena leucocephala. Master's
Thesis. University of Hawaii, Manoa, Hawaii.

 

Ericksen, F.I., and A.S. Whitney. 1982. Growth and N
fixation of some tropical forage legumes as influenced by
solar radiation regimes. Agronomy Journal 74:703-709.

FAO. 1988. Production Yearbook 1987 vol. 41. FAQ. Rome.

GOJ (Government of Jamaica). 1987. Jamaica: Country
Environmental Profile. Government of Jamaica, Kingston.
362 p.

Guevarra, ANB., Whitney, ANS. and Thompson, J.R. 1978.
Influence of intra-row spacing and cutting regimes on the
growth and yield of Leucaena. Agronomy Journal
70:1033-1037.

Horne, P.M., D.W. Catchpoole and A. Ella. 1985. Cutting
management of tree and shrub legumes. pp. 164-169. In:
Blair, G.J., D.A. Ivory and T.R. Evans (eds.) Forages in
Southeast Asian and South Pacific Agriculture. Australian
Center for International Agricultural Research (ICIAR),
Proceedings No. 12. ACIAR: Canberra.

45

JAGRISTH 1992. Int Annotated. Bibliography' Relating to
Agriculture in Jamaica. Jamaica Society for Agricultural
Sciences (JSAS), Kingston, Jamaica. 275 p.

JLA. 1983. Livestock Manual for the Tropics. The Jamaica
Livestock Association. Kingston, Jamaica. 406 p.
Krishnamurthy, K. and M.K. Munegowda. 1982. Effect of
cutting frequency regimes on the herbage yield of Leucaena.
Leucaena Research Reports 3:31-32.

Lazier, J.R. 1981. Effect of cutting height and interval
on dry matter production of Codariocalyx gyroides (syn.
Desmodimm gyroides) in Belize, Central America. Tropical
Grasslands 15:10-16. -

 

 

Little, T.E. and F. J. Hills. 1978. Agriculture
Experimentation: Design and Analysis. John Wiley and Sons
Inc. New York. 350 p.

Ludlow, M., G.L. Wilson and M.R. Heselhurst. 1974. Studies
on the productivity of tropical pasture plants. Effect of
shading on growth, photosynthesis and respiration of two
grasses and two legumes. Australian Journal of Agricultural
Research 25:198-201.

Morrison, B.J. 1991. Indigenous knowledge relating' to
fodder trees and silvo-pastoral management of small scale
farmers in Jamaica. Master's Thesis. Department of

Forestry, Michigan State University.

NRC (National Research Council). 1981. Leucaena: Promising
Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics (2nd ed.). National
Academy Press. Washington D.C. 115 p.

Nair, P.K.R. 1985. Classifications of agroforestry
systems. Agroforestry Systems 2:97-128.

NFTA. 1989a. Cooperative Planting Program: Establishment
Guide. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Waimanolo, Hawaii.
36 p.

NFTA. 1989b. Gliricidia Production and Use. Nitrogen
Fixing Tree Association, Waimanolo, Hawaii. 44 p.

 

Owen, F.G., B Anderson, R Rasby and T. Madder. 1989.
Testing livestock feeds for beef cattle, dairy cattle,
sheep, and horses. NebGuide G89-915. Cooperative Extension
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University
of Nebraska. 4p.

46

Ozman, A.M. 1981. Effects of cutting interval on the
relative dry matter of four cultivars of Leucaena. Leucaena
Research Reports 2:33-34.

Panday, K.K. 1982. Fodder Trees and Tree Fodder. Swiss
Development Cooperation. Berne, Switzerland. 107 p.
Pathak, P.S., P. Rai, and Roy R.D. 1980. Forage production
.from koo babool (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit): (1)
effect of plant density cutting intensity and interval.
Forage Research 6(1):83-90.

 

Paterson, R.T., G.A. Proverbs and J.M. Keoghan. 1987.
The Management and Use of Fodder Banks. Caribbean
Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), St.
Augustine, Trinidad. 21 p.

Perez, P. and P. Melendez. 1980. The effect of height and
frequency of defoliation on formation of bud of Leucaena
leucocephala in the state of Tabasco, Mexico. Tropical
Animal Production 5(3):280.

 

Pound, B. and L.M. Cairo. 1983. Leucaena: its Cultivation

and Uses. Overseas Development Administration, London.
287p.
Ramanujam, S. 1981. Varietal adaption to production

systems. In: Proceeding of the International Workshop on
Pigeonpeas, Vol 2. ICRISAT, India.

Rosecrance, R., W. Dominick and B. Macklin. 1989. Cajanus
cajan accession evaluation for green leaf manure production
and coppicing ability. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Report
7:81-83.

Roshetko, J.M. 1991. Establishment and Nutritive Value of
Native and Exotic Fodder Tree Species in Jamaican Pasture
Systems. Master's Thesis. Department of Forestry, Michigan
State University, E. Lansing, MI. 90 p.

Rueggsegger, CL. 1992. University of Florida. Personal
communication.

Sanchez, P.A., C.A. Palm, C.B. Davey, L.T. Scott and C.E.
Russell. 1985 Tree crops as soil improvers in the humid
tropics. pp. 327-358. In: M.G.R. Cannell and J.E. Jackson
(eds.) Attributes of Trees as CrOp Plants. Institute of
Terrestrial Ecology. Natural Environment Research Council.
592 p.

47

Santhirasegaram, K., J.E. Coaldrake and M.H.M. Salih. 1966.
Yields of a mixed subtropical pasture in relation to
frequency and height of cutting and leaf area index. pp.
125-129. In: Proceedings of the )( International Grassland
Congress. Helsinki.

SIOJ. 1979. Census of Agriculture 1978-1979: Preliminary
Report. Statistical Institute of Jamaica.

Siregar, PLEL 1983. Effect of cutting management on the
yield and quality of tropical forage species. pp. 613-614.
In: Proceedings, 5th World Animal Production Conference,
Tokyo, Japan.

Stoddart, L.A., A.D. Smith and T.W. Box. 1975. Range
Management (3rd ed.) McGraw-Hill, New York. 532 p.

Sumberg, J.E. 1985. Note on estimating the foliage yield
of two tropical browse species. Tropical Agriculture
(Trinidad) 62(1):15-16.

Thompson, D.A. 1986. Leucaena leucocephala trials in
Jamaica. Leucaena Research Reports 6:60-62.

Takahishi, M. and J.C. Ripperton. 1949. Koa haole
(Leucaena glauca): its establishment, culture and

utilization as a forage crop. p. 56. In: Bulletin 100,
Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station.

Torres, F. 1983. Role of woody perennials in animal
agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems 1:131-163.

Von Carlowitz, P.G. 1987. Multipurpose tree yield data:
their relevance to agroforestry research and development and
the current state of knowledge. Agroforestry Systems

4:29-314.

 

 

APPENDIX.A:

48

 

I
No Fert. ' Fert.
l

l

1

i -
l— ‘

l .

No Fert. Fert.

 

—- ”...—AL- -.-

 

 

 

Figure 13. Main block layout of
fertilizer and weed control levels.

 

 

A B A. 40x40x40 cm
8. 20x20x20 cm

0 D C. 10x10x10 cm
D. OxOxO cm

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1b. Main block layout of
planting pit size levels.

Experimental design used in Moneague establishment
method trials (Roshetko 1991).

FODDER TREE ESTABLISHMENT IN A SEASONALLY
DR! AREA OF JAMAICA

ABSTRACT. Seven fodder tree species were established and
grown at five planting sites in Green Park, Jamaica. Six
species, Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium,

 

 

Calliandra calothyrsus, Erythrina poepiggiana, Cajanus
cajan, and Sesbania sesban, were established by direCt
seeding and one species, Brosimum alicastrum, by seedlings.

Additional Calliandra and Gliricidia plots were established

 

 

 

 

 

 

with seedlings and vegetative cuttings. Trees were planted
at 1 at spacing in 25 (5 x 5) tree plots.
Data were taken over a six month period. Survival of

Gliricidia cuttings and Cajanus was similar at 84 and 82
percent, respectively. The two next highest survival rates
were 66 and 56 percent for Calliandra seedlings and directly

 

 

 

sown Gliricidia, respectively. Total height growth of
Cajanus averaged 113 cm, more than twice that of any other
tested species. Directly sown Gliricidia, Leucaena, and

 

 

Sesbania reached a total height of approximately 45 cm.
Survival and height growth ranged widely between planting
sites.

 

INTRODUCTION

Raising cattle for the production of meat and dairy
products is a significant agricultural endeavor in Jamaica.
Cattle rearing, the major economic activity for over twenty
percent of agricultural lands, is a stabilizing force in the
national economy and a consistent contributor to gross
domestic product. Farms which engage in production range
from, large estates to small-scale farmers (SIOJ 1979).
Domestic production of meat and dairy products is about 106
thousand metric tons/year, however, the country still

imports large quantities of beef. During the period

49

1981-1985, nearly 12% of all domestic consumption was
imported (GOJ 1987).

Under proper management, most of Jamaica's agricultural
land area is suitable for pasture and livestock production
(GOJ 1987). Attempts to increase domestic livestock
production have been thwarted by high production costs, the
long-term nature of livestock production, and inconsistent
governmental policies (GOJ 1987, Bell 1989). Past research
and extension activities have also concentrated on improving
the production systems of larger (>10 ha) growers, which
make up less than 2% of all Jamaican farmers (Blustain and
Lefranc 1987, GOJ 1987).

In addition to economic and policy factors, there are
biological restrictions on the growth potential of Jamaica's
cattle industry. The most significant restriction is the
effect of seasonal rainfall patterns on forage quality and
its effect on ruminant nutrition (Paterson et al. 1987).
Most Jamaican cattle subsist primarily on pasture grasses
(Bell 1989, Rueggsegger 1992). During the biannual dry
seasons in July-August and December-March (CRIES 1982), the
availability and nutritive value of these grasses decrease
as they become desiccated (Pound and Cairo 1983). In
response, some farmers supplement the dietary requirements
of their livestock with expensive imported feeds. Most

resource-limited farmers, however, must resort to local

Sl

forages including sugar cane tops and tree fodder when
pasture grass is scarce and of poor quality and imported
feed is too expensive (Morrison 1991). The well documented
potential of the purposeful inclusion of fodder trees into
agroecosystems (Von Carlowitz 1989) has not been studied
extensively in Jamaica (JAGRIST 1992).

Examples of fodder tree cultivation abound in Nepal
(Panday 1982), Australia (Torres 1983), Israel, Chile (NRC
1981), Indonesia (Davendra 1990), and the Dominican Republic
(Pound and Cairo 1983), where trees are grown and employed
as important components in ruminant nutrition. Some
examples of silvopastoral systems, the planting and
utilization of multipurpose trees for fodder, exist in
Jamaica. Farmers in Moneague, St. Ann Parish periodically

supplement the diet of cattle with the foliage of Gliricidia

 

sepium planted as living fence posts (Bell 1989). Dairy

farmers near Black River, St. Elizabeth Parish, use Leucaena

 

and Gliricidia fodder banks to supplement the diets of their

 

animals (Rueggsegger 1992). In general, Jamaican farmers
chiefly use naturally occurring trees for fodder (Morrison
1991), which have low nutrient values compared with planted
exotic species used elsewhere in the world (Roshetko 1991).
The quality and quantity of locally produced cattle

forage can be greatly improved during dry periods by

incorporating tree forage. Freshly cut tree foliage
generally has a higher crude protein content and
digestibility when compared to dry pasture grasses (Paterson
et al. 1987, Pound and Cairo 1983, Davendra 1990). In
addition, tree root systems access soil water and nutrients
unavailable to pasture grasses (Sanchez et al. 1985) and
maintain green foliage during periods of drought (Pound and
Cairo 1983). NUttogen fixing trees may also enhance site
conditions over time by recycling nitrogen and raising soil
nitrogen levels (Nair 1985, Pound and Cairo 1983).

Questions fundamental to tree fodder research include
species-site selection, and tree species management (NFTA
1989a). Tree fodder :management factors include: age at
first cutting, height of cutting, amount of leaf material
removed, interval between harvests, plant density, and
interactions of these and other possible factors (Horne et
al. 1985). Site adaptability and management trials,
coordinated and supported by various international research
organizations, continue 1x3 identify promising species and
appropriate management systems throughout the world.
Particularly in Jamaica, the knowledge of fodder tree
production, management, and utilization needs to increase if
the potential of this resource is to be realized (Roshetko

1991).

S3

The study objectives were to 1) demonstrate the
biological feasibility of establishing six selected exotic
fodder tree species by direct seeding in the seasonally dry
‘area of Green Park, Jamaica, 2) demonstrate alternative
Iestablishment methods for two of those species, and 3)
demonstrate establishment of an indigenous fodder tree

species by seedlings.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Fodder 5522 species. Small-scale farmers in seasonally
dry areas of Jamaica traditionally use tree fodder for dry
season livestock feed (Rueggsegger 1992, Bell 1989, Morrison
1991). In Green Park, 85% of cattle farmers harvest tree
fodder during some time of the year, and nearly 30% spend
four or more hours per day to harvest tree and grass fodder
during the biannual dry seasons (Morrison 1991). Tree
species commonly harvested include Breadnut (Brosimum

alicastrum), Gliricidia sepium, and Ieucaena leucocephala.

 

 

 

 

Species naturalized to Jamaica (Adams 1972) and used
successfully' in other seasonally dry areas include

Calliandra calothyrsus, Erythrina ppepiggiana, Cajanus

 

cajan, and Sesbania sesban (Panday 1982, Little and
Wadsworth 1989).
Breadnut is a large tree of the Moraceae family,

growing to 30 m or greater. It is found from Mexico to

V.

Izmj‘j

54

Ecuador, as well as in Cuba and Jamaica (Adams 1972), and is
used throughout its range for dry season livestock feed (NAS
1975). In Jamaica, it is preferred for charcoal-making and
its seeds are eaten by both people and livestock (NAS 1975,
Morrison 1991). Research concerning this species has
centered. on its role 1J1 forest ecosystems (Peters 1987,
Bongers and Popma 1990) and use in ruminant nutrition
(Roshetko 1991). It produces highly palatable fodder that
is classified as a good dairy feed, based on crude protein
levels of 13% and acid detergent fiber levels of 31%
(Roshetko 1991).

Gliricidia sepium is a small (maximum 10 m) tree of the

 

Papilionaceae family native to Central America. It has
infrequently produced seeds in Jamaica (Rueggsegger 1992),
and has been propagated throughout its range using large
stem cuttings (NFTA 1989b). Cuttings develop shallow
fibrous root systems, in contrast to the central taproot of
seedlings. There is concern that a shallow, fibrous root
system may limit the long-term viability of cutting-

established Gliricidia by limiting access to soil nutrients

 

and moisture, and by increasing susceptibility to windthrow

(NFTA 1989b). Gliricidia cuttings are used in Jamaica to

 

establish living fences (Adams 1972, Little and Wadsworth
1989), and to provide dry season fodder (Bell 1989, Morrison

1991). Direct-seeded Gliricidia have averaged 151 cm of

 

U1
U1

height growth over ten months in an establishment trial in
Jamaica (Roshetko 1991). Classified as an excellent feed
source with low initial palatability, its average crude
protein level ranges between 22% and 27% and digestibility
between 50% to 75% (NFTA 1989b). When mixed with grass and
molasses, animals become used to its taste and readily
accept it (NFTA 1989b).

Leucaena leucocephala (Mimosaceae) is a tree genus

 

native to Central America and the West Indies. In Jamaica
it grows in pastures and along roadsides into a shrub or
small tree to a maximum height of 6 m (Adams 1972). Other
previously described Leucaena varieties are morphologically
different and may have greater growth rates than those found
in Jamaica (NRC 1981). Leucaena is an acceptable fodder
tree species in Jamaica because of its high average crude
protein levels (25%), digestibility (55% to 70%) and
palatability (NFTA 1990a, Morrison 1991). Mimosine, a toxic
amino acid present in Leucaena, causes hair loss and thyroid
injury in livestock when consumed in large quantities. A.
rumen bacterium found in many cattle populations can break
down mimosine and eliminate the toxic side effects
associated with its consumption» The lack of reported
mimosine toxicity in Jamaican livestock probably indicates
that this bacterium is already present in Jamaica (NRC 1981,

Rueggsegger 1992). Jamaican establishment trials using

lr-'_.'_"T“‘"'

S6

direct-seeded trees have produced ten-month growth averaging
183 cm (Roshetko 1991).

Calliandra calothyrsus (Mimosaceae) is a shrub or small

 

tree (maximum 10 m) native to northern South America.
Originally introduced to Jamaica as an ornamental species,
it has been planted extensively for erosion control and
rehabilitation of degraded sites (Adams 1972, Bell 1989).
Optimal annual rainfall for this species is reported to be
between 2000 and 4000 rmn. Its natural range, however,
includes areas with only 700 mm (NFTA 1989c). Jamaican
establishment trials have reached an average six-month
height of 233 cm in an area that receives 2000 mm average
annual precipitation (Roshetko 1991). The fodder potential

of Calliandra is reported to be limited by foliage tannin

 

levels that limit digestibility to around 40 percent (NFTA
1989c).

Erythrina poepiggiana (Papilionaceae) is as large tree
(maximum 30 m) native to Central and South America. In its
natural range, annual precipitation ranges between 1500-4000
1mm and can include dry seasons as long as 6 nwnths (Adams
1972, NFTA 1986). In Jamaica and elsewhere, it has long
been employed. to shade coffee and as living fenceposts
(Little and. Wadsworth 1989). Cattle also will consume

Erythrina foliage, which averages 25% crude protein and a

 

50% to 80% level of digestibility (NFTA 1986).

 

 

57

Cajanus £3122 (Papilionaceae) is a short-lived
leguminous shrub (maximum 5 m) that has been grown
throughout the tropics for human food and livestock fodder
(Adams 1972). ‘Wide genetic variability exists within this
.species, and research has concentrated on identifying and
developing higher yielding, disease-resistant perennial
varieties (Daniel and Ong 1990). Its relatively high crude
protein content (15% to 24%), palatability, digestibility
and non-toxicity (NFTA 1988), coupled with rapid growth in
Jamaica and elsewhere have shown this shrub to be a good
short-term fodder source while longer-lived species become
established (Roshetko 1991, Daniel and Ong 1990). In Green
Park, Jamaica, it has been grown for food and windbreaks,

but has not regularly been used for fodder (Morrison 1991).

Sesbania sesban (Papilionaceae) is a shrub or small

 

tree (maximum 6 m) native to Africa and Asia, and sparingly
found in Jamaica (Adams 1972). Establishment trials in
Jamaica have averaged height growth of 468 cm in ten months
(Roshetko 1991). JIt has been widely used for fbdder, and
has produced crude protein levels ranging from 17% to 30%
and digestibility exceeding 60% (NFTA 1990b). Tannins and
saponins present in Sesbania may affect ruminant
utilization, but have not been fully studied (NFTA 1990b).
Direct-seeding. All the previously discussed species,

except Breadnut, are suitable for direct seeding

58

establishment into pastures (NRC 1979, Paterson et al.
1987). Establishment trials ix: Moneague, Jamaica, have

shown Leucaena, Calliandra, Gliricidia, and Sesbania to be

 

highly productive when established by direct seeding in
Vimproved grass pastures at 500 m elevation above sea level
and 2000 mm average annual precipitation (Roshetko 1991).
Direct seeding has been shown to be inherently less
expensive than seedling or cutting establishment methods
because less labor and equipment are used per established
tree (Smith 1986). Other advantages of direct seeding when
compared to seedling or cutting establishment include: large
areas planted with minimum preparation time, natural root
system development, elimination of transplanting mortality,
reduction of windthrow and root rot, and potentially dense
stocking rates (Smith 1986, NFTA 1989).

Site condition variations hold greater influence over
direct-seeding than seedling or cutting establishment
methods. When fodder trees are sown directly into pastures,
rainfall patterns, sowing depth, exposure of ndneral soil,
and seed pretreatment all heavily influence germination.
The greatest limiting factor to direct seeding, however, is
the need for frequent rain after sowing (Smith 1986).
Uniform germination in Leucaena, Calliandra, and Sesbania
can be enhanced by pretreatment to increase seed coat

permeability but such seed is more susceptible to drought

59

(NFTA 1989a). The species tested in this trial (except
Breadnut) are nitrogen-fixing and require inoculation with

appropriate Rhizobium species to successfully establish in

 

many areas (NFTA 1989a). When direct-seeded trees begin to
establish strong taproots, the influence of rainfall
variation diminishes and the influence of grass and
broadleaf weed competition increases. Grass and weed
competition. become less important as seedlings establish
dominance over pasture vegetation (Smith 1986). The rapid
growth of competing vegetation, especially tropical pasture
grasses, has made frequent early weeding treatments
necessary for successful establishment of direct-seeded
fodder trees (Roshetko 1991).

Seedlings. The most effective and guaranteed way to
establish trees is to plant viable, sturdy seedlings (Smith
1986). Seedling establishment methods have a less
restricted planting season and efficiently use limited
quantities of genetically superior seed. They also require
less weeding when compared to direct seeding establishment
methods (Smith 1986). Seedlings and cuttings also require
more labor and capital than direct seeding, due to the cost
of nursery operations and transportation (Evans 1982).

When. wild seedlings are used. for fodder tree
establishment, they can eliminate nursery establishment

costs. Such seedlings, however, particularly from species

60

with strong taproots, often cannot be reliably transplanted

(Smith 1986). Both Calliandra and Breadnut produce large

 

numbers of seedlings in their understory, and can supply
planting stock for fodder tree establishment (Bell 1989).

vegetative cuttings. Cuttings, like seedlings, are a
more reliable way to establish individual trees when
compared to direct seeding. Vegetative cuttings also
produce plants that are genetically identical, increasing
stand productivity when superior planting stock is used
(NFTA 1989b). Lack of genetic variation, however, may
predispose entire plant populations to biotic and abiotic
problems (Evans 1982). Nursery establishment costs can be
reduced by using cuttings, but trees from which sufficient
numbers of cuttings can be produced take much longer to
establish than nursery seedlings (NFTA 1989).

Gliricidia, Erythrina, and. Breadnut have been. grown

 

 

from cuttings under field conditions (NFTA 1989b, NFTA 1986,
NAS 1975). Trials conducted to establish treated and
untreated Breadnut cuttings were unsuccessful in this trial.

Gliricidia and Erythrina cuttings l to 2 m long, 2 to 6 cm

 

 

in basal diameter and planted 20 to 50 cm deep are typically
used to establish fence line plantings (NFTA 1989b, NFTA
1986). Erythrina .pgepiggiana, however, is not found in

Green Park and only Gliricidia was available to use for

 

vegetative establishment (Morrison 1991).

61

METHODS AND MATERIALS

§_it_e_. Green Park is located in the Trelawny Parish,
Jamaica, 8 km south of the coastal town of Falmouth. Green
Park is a former sugar estate purchased in 1959 by Kaiser
[Jamaica Bauxite Company Ltd. for the relocation of
landowners displaced by bauxite mining in St. Ann parish
near Alexandria (Andreatta 1992).

Green Park is a seasonally dry area, with 8 months of
the year receiving less than 100 mm of rain. Rainfall
averages 1140 mm/yr and is bimodally distributed. A long
wet season lasts from September to December and a shorter
one occurs from May through June. Mean daily temperatures
range from ZT’ C to 28’ C, with minimum and maximum
temperatures of 18° C and 33° C. Most of Green Park lands
(95%) are dominated by two slightly acid to alkaline clay
loams, Lucky Hill and Bonnygate (RRC/UWI 1970). Bonnygate
soils are generally found. on hillsides greater than 10
degrees and are shallow, highly erodible, and excessively
well drained with poor nutrient- and moisture-holding
capacity. Lucky Hill soils are generally found on valley
bottom sites with slopes less than 10 degrees. Their
average soil depth is 12 cm greater than the Bonnygate soil
type, and they are slightly erodible, with poor nutrient-
but moderate water-holding capacity (CRIES 1982). Bonnygate

soils are the most common Green Park soil, representing 70

62

percent while Lucky Hill soils comprise most of the
remaining 30 percent of agricultural lands.

Five establishment trial sites were located on farms in
the Green Park area. Each site was previously used for

pasture. Seymour grass (Andrgpogon pertusus) dominated four

 

sites while Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) was the main

 

grass species at one site. Guinea grass is considered to be
an improved pasture grass in Jamaica, and with another
improved. grass, Star' grass (Cynodon. plechtostachyus), is
favored by Green Park farmers (Morrison 1991, JLA 1983).
Seymour grass is typically found on degraded, overgrazed
pastures and is the dominant grass on most Green Park
pastures (JLA 1983, Morrison 1991). Planting sites varied
considerably in soil depth, slope, aspect, and represented a
wide range of potential places in which silvopastoral
management can be introduced into Green Park.

Species and planting 25225. Based on previous Jamaican
establishment trials (Roshetko 1991), a report of indigenous
Jamaican knowledge relating' to tree fodder which listed
preferred fodder tree species (Morrison 1991), a search of
the literature, and communications with the Nitrogen Fixing
Tree Association (NFTA)5 the Oxford Forestry Institute

(OFI)2, and the International Crops Research Institute for

 

' Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, 1010 Holomua Rd.,

Paia, Hawaii.

Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Rd., Oxford,U.K.

63

the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISATlfit six exotic leguminous,
nitrogen-fixing fodder tree species likely to perform well
under direct-seeding and frequent fodder harvesting in the
Green Park environment were selected. The selected fodder

tree species were: Cajanus cajan, Calliandra calothyrsus,

 

Erythrina poepiggiana, Gliricidia sep um, Leucaena

 

 

 

leucocephala, and Sesbania sesban. .A seventh indigenous,

 

 

non-nitrogen fixing species, Breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum,

 

family Moraceae), was chosen because it is a preferred dry
season fodder in Green Park (Morrison 1991).

There were seven species, with planting method
combinations used in the study (Table 1). All species, with
the exception of Breadnut were established by direct

seeding. Breadnut. and. Calliandra were established. with

 

seedlings, and Gliricidia were established with cuttings.

 

These establishment methods were employed based on
indigenous planting practices, the species' biological
potential, and planting stock availability.

Tree seed was secured from the Nitrogen Fixing Tree

Association, Oxford Forestry Institute, and the

 

3 International Crops Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Tropics, P.O. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra
Pradesh, India.

Table 1: Species, varieties, and establishment methods used
in Green Park, Jamaica.

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SPECIES VARIETY Establishment Number of
Method1 plots
established2
Leucaena NFTA? K636 direCt seeding 24 fl
Sesbania NFTA 874 direct seeding 19
Cajanus ICP‘ 88040 direct seeding 18
.Erythrina BLSF‘5 2510 direct seeding ll
Brosimum local6 seedling
Calliandra NFTA 896 direct seeding
Calliandra local seedling 14
Gliricidia NFTA 1 direct seeding 23
Gliricidia local cutting 7

1) All establishment methods planted in 20 cu? cultivated
planting pits and weeded three times at six week
intervals.

2) Number planted over five sites.

3) Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association.

4) ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Topics) Cajanus Provenance.

5) Banco Latino Americano de Semillas Forestales (obtained
through NFTA).

6) Planting stock obtained in the Green Park area.

65

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid

 

Tropics. The balance of pflanting materials were acquired
through local sources. Gliricidia cuttings were selected
from Green Park trees. Calliandra and Breadnut seedlings

 

were transplanted from a nearby plantation and woodlands,
respectively.

Establishment. Plots of 25 trees, planted at a 1 by 1
m spacing (10,000 trees/ha), were established on five farms
in October 1990. Planting sites were chosen by the
participant farmers. Prior to planting, on-farm sites were
fenced, sprayed. with paraquat (750 g (concentrate/ha) to
reduce grass competition, and 20 cm3 planting holes were
excavated and refilled as planting sites. Calliandra,

Leucaena and Sesbania seed were pretreated with hot water

 

 

(approximately 76°<3) at 5 times seed volume, and allowed to
cool to room temperature (NFTA 1989a). All seed was
inoculated with Rhizobium and planted 1 to 2 cm deep (NFTA
1989a). Multiple seeds were sown in each planting pit at 2
to 3 times the expected germination rate. Both Breadnut and

Calliandra seedlings were graded to a 20 mm root collar

 

diameter and 10 cm taproot minimum, and transplanted under a
grass mulch with foliage intact. Gliricidia cuttings
between 75 and 120 cm long, and 3 to 6 cm diameter were

planted between 20 and 30 cm deep, after foliage was

66

removed” Both seedlings and cuttings were planted at one
stem per planting pit.

Weeding treatments were conducted three times following
establishment, at approximately 6 week intervals. weeding
removed grass and broad-leaved weeds within a 30 cm radius
circle around each seedling. Pasture vegetation was
undisturbed outside the circle weeded area.

Planting: Desigg. Locations of planting plots for
species and planting stock combinations were selected
randomly at each site. The number of replications per

species was based on the amount of planting material

 

available. Three species, Cajanus, Gliricidia, and
Calliandra were replicated at all five sites. Although

 

sites differed greatly in soils, aspect and other features,
individual sites were homogeneous.

Measurements. Tree height (cm) and survival (planting

 

pit occupancy) were recorded at six week intervals over 24

weeks. The nine interior trees of each 25 tree plot were
measured. Border rows acted as a safeguard against edge
effects (NFTA 1989a). Height growth of vegetatively-

 

propagated Gliricidia was recorded as the length of the
longest shoot on each cutting. The height above ground of

emergent shoots on Gliricidia cuttings was observed but not

 

recorded. Height of ‘undisturbed. pasture vegetation was

measured and recorded at each site.

67

In addition to collecting tree growth data, man-hours
required for the establishment and maintenance of each site
were noted. Labor activities included herbicide
application, plot and planting pit location, pit
establishment, seed pretreatment and sowing, and the
acquisition, movement, and planting of seedlings and

cuttings.

Table 2:. Analysis of variance for survival of six direct-
seeded fodder tree species at the Jones farm, Green Park,
Jamaica.

 

Source Degrees of’ Mean square F
freedom1 for error

species 5 1684.03 7.90**

error 16 213.18

1. Other sites had fewer species, resulting in fewer species degrees
of freedom. The number of replications for each species varied at
different sites.

*' Survival of species were significantly different at P < 0.01.

Analysis. Analysis of variance for a completely
randomized design was used to test for differences among the
direct-seeded species at each site (e.g. Table 2). Height
growth data was normally distributed and conformed to the
assumptions of analysis of variance. Arcsine transformation
of survival percentages was completed before the analysis of
variance (Little and Hills 1978). Tukey's multiple range
test was used to compare survival and height growth means of

direct-seeded species at each site. Survival and growth of

68

Calliandra and Cuiticidia planting stock alternatives were

 

analyzed at two sites using T tests.

RESULTS

Survival. Significant survival differences were found
for direct-seeded species at all sites but the Brown farm

(Table 3). Erythrina and transplanted Breadnut did not

 

survive on any study plot and were omitted from all
analyses. Direct-seeded Calliandra did not grow after
germination at the Henry farm, and was not included in the
analysis at that site.

Direct-seeded Cajanus survival was consistently higher
than other direct-seeded species at each site.

Direct-seeded Gliricidia was the next best species, with a

 

survival level of 81 percent at the Sterling farm and a
range of 44 to 53 percent survival at the other four sites.
At three sites where four or more direct-seeded species were

tested, Gliricidia was significantly better than other

 

species at only one location. Leucaena germinated and
survived poorly at three of the four sites tested, averaging
53 percent survival at the Sterling farm and 36 percent
across the other sitesq Sesbania survived. well at the
Sterling farm, averaging 72 percent, but averaged only 6 and

20 percent at two other sites where it was tested.

Height growth. Direct-seeded species differed
significantly in six-month height growth at all sites (Table
4). During the six to ten months following planting, trees
were damaged by animal trespass in approximately 50 percent

of Leucaena plots and 10 percent of Gliricidia plots.

 

Comprehensive height measurements were not taken in these
plots because of animal damage, but growth of undamaged
trees was observed to ten months.

Cajanus height growth averaged 113 (an and was
significantly greater than other direct-seeded species at

four of five sites. Direct-seeded Gliricidia and Leucaena

 

were the next tallest species at sites 'where they' were
planted. Gliricidia grew 63 and 78 cm at the Sterling and
Brown farms, but only ranged from 20 to 39 cm in height at
three other sites. Average Leucaena height growth ranged
from 30 to 65 cm across the four sites where it was planted.
Average Sesbania height varied widely, ranging from 11 to 92
cm at three sites. Sesbania grew as tall as Cajanus at the
Sterling farm but grew the least at the Jones farm. Guinea
grass height averaged 110 cm, and Seymour grass height
averaged 40 cm after six months.

Planting 53335 differences. Survival of Calliandra
seedlings was greater than those established by
direct-seeding at the two sites where both planting stocks

were established. Height growth differences were

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73

substantial at only one site. Gliricidia cuttings had a

 

higher level of survival as compared to direct-seeded

Gliricidia (Table 5). Dominant emergent shoots from

 

Gliricidia cuttings averaged 14 cm as compared to 32 cm for
direct seeded trees. The emergent shoots, however,
originated 45 to 100 cm above the ground line. Seedlings
and cuttings required .67 and .70 man-days, respectively, to
establish a single 25 tree plot. Direct-seeding to
establish these same species required only .24 man-days per

25 tree plot.

DISCUSSION

Demonstrating the biological as well as the economic
feasibility of fodder tree establishment is important for
the long-term viability and success of fodder tree
introduction in Green Park farming systems (Morrison 1991).
Limited labor and capital resources constrain farmer's
ability to establish and cultivate fodder trees, to move
cumbersome planting stock or harvested fodder, or to provide
barriers necessary for protecting young plants from
livestock (Morrison 1991, Andreatta 1992). These
restrictions dictate that suitable fodder tree species must
be able to establish and grow quickly. Besides survival and

growth, factors including site conditions and planting stock

74

differences are important to consider when selecting fodder

tree species for Green Park farms.

 

Site differences. Growth and survival varied
considerably' between. planting sites. Only one species,

~Cajanus, survived and dominated the sites at all five
planting locations. Planting site differences in soil
depth, and sun and wind exposure appeared to influence
growth differences between sites. Overall tree growth was
greatest at the Sterling and Brown sites where Lucky Hill
soils, with a 30 to 45 cm clay loam layer which increased in
stoniness with depth, were found. The Sterling site is
exposed to prevailing area winds. The Brown site is
protected. from. wind and excessive solar radiation, by a
fencerow and a coconut plantation. The poorest overall
growth was found at the Jones farm. This site was located
in the middle of a large pasture were fodder trees were
exposed to winds and direct, full day solar radiation. In
addition, the Bonnygate soils at this site are heavily
eroded and are only 20 to 30 cm over solid limestone.
Because Bonnygate soils comprise the majority of Green
Park land, low’ moisture and nutrient levels will limit
plantings of fodder trees at most sites. Planting sites
that afford some protection from wind and direct sunlight

appear to be favored for enhanced establishment results.

Fun-n.- .5... um

75

Survival 222 Height Growth. Survival and height growth
in this trial was less than reported for two other Jamaican
establishment trials. When planted in eni area receiving
nearly twice the average annual precipitation of Green Park,

Gliricidia, Leucaena, Sesbania, and Calliandra grew 2 to 7

 

times taller in six months (Roshetko 1991). Leucaena
growing under similar rainfall conditions as found in Green
Park averaged only 20 cm taller after six months of growth
(Thompson 1985).

Cajanus grew aggressively in both Guinea and Seymour
grass pastures, and generally formed closed canopies after
six month's growth. Unfortunately, Cajanus suffers from a
variety of insect and disease problems that limit its
long-term viability (Daniel and Ong 1990, Roshetko 1991).

Seed borer (Helicoverpa armigera) was observed through all

 

plots four months after establishment. Mortality of 20
percent from an unidentified stem wilt was noted ten months
following establishment at one site. Although short-lived,
Cajanus's aggressive establishment, human and animal food
value, and fast growth make it a useful multiple purpose
tree for short-term fodder production while long-lived
species become established (Morrison 1991).

Direct-seeded Gliricidia were free to grow above

 

Seymour grass pastures 6 months after planting at all but

the two poorest sites. In another Jamaican study,

O\

direct-seeded Gliricidia grew above Para grass (Brachiaria

 

 

mutica) within six months of planting (Roshetko 1991). At

some planting sites, direct-seeded Gliricidia may require

 

additional weeding treatments to establish when planted in

Guinea grass. Gliricidia produces seed sporadically in

 

Jamaica, and without locally' produced seed, it will be
difficult to find seed for direct-seeded establishment.

Gliricidia cuttings established above pasture grasses

 

at all sites because shoots emerged 45 to 100 cm above
ground level. Although sources report vegetatively-

propagated Gliricidia to have limited long-term viability

 

(NFTA 1989b), established Gliricidia cuttings in Green Park

 

are vigorous and healthy 5 to 7 years after planting. The

use of Gliricidia cuttings to establish living fenceposts is

 

an increasingly accepted practice in Green Park (Morrison
1991). For these reasons, vegetatively-propagated

Gliricidia is recommended for continued planting as living

 

fenceposts and for further study as a fodder tree in Green
Park pastures.

Despite seed pretreatment and planting depth
regulation, poor germination of Leucaena occurred. Seed lot
tests indicated an expected germination rate of 88 percent
germination but field trials registered much lower rates of
germination. The author speculates that seed pretreatment

made this species more susceptible to dehydration during a

post-planting drought. Survival of sown seed planted
without pretreatment was 27 percent greater than pretreated
seed, even when sown during a period of lower precipitation.
Leucaena height growth matched or outgrew pasture
grasses at two sites in 6 months. rees which escaped
animal damage grew from 75 to 200 cm tall at all farms but
Scott, ten months following planting. Thompson (1985) also
noted slow initial height growth for Leucaena when planted
on dry, limestone-derived soils in Jamaica. Other authors
have reported that Leucaena shoot growth accelerates after
root systems become established (NAS 1981).
Previous research and suggestions from some Green
Park farmers indicate that fodder trees could be integrated
with present pasture improvement activities (Morrison 1991,
Brown 1992). The introduction of Leucaena to pasture
improvement practice is particularly suitable because many
Green Park farmers presently maintain the naturally-seeded
local variety of Leucaena in their pastures (Adams 1972).
Further testing of the K636 variety and other arboreal
varieties are recommended because of their high fodder
yields and long growth interval prior to seeding compared to
spreading varieties (Guevarra et al. 1978). Future

direct-seed plantings should include both non-treated and

pretreated Leucaena seed.

 

78

Introducing Calliandra seedlings into Green Park

 

silvopastoral systems is constrained by the lack of local
planting stock sources, and Green Park farmers'
unfamiliarity with this species (Morrison 1991, Andreatta

1992). Although Calliandra seedlings grew well at three of

 

the five sites, additional weeding treatments were necessary
to establish it in the Guinea grass pasture. Seedlings grew
vigorously for the ten months following establishment, but
approximately 25 percent had foliage die-back on at least
one branch by the tenth month. In addition, direct-seeded

Calliandra performed poorly in Green Park pastures. Further

 

planting trials and continued observation of established
trees are advised before this species can be recommended for
Green Park.

Sesbania grew and survived well on one site with
deep soils and limited wind exposure, and poorly on two
other exposed sites with poor soil. The potential of this
species on selected sites should be studied. However, a
lack of local seed sources and unfamiliarity of farmers with
the species will limit its immediate use in Green Park.

Direct—seeded Erythrina and Breadnut were omitted from

 

the analysis because they failed to survive in Green Park
pastures. Direct-seeding does not appear to be a viable

strategy for establishing Erythrina under the low rainfall

 

conditions found in Green Park. A single attempt to

 

79

transplant wild Breadnut seedlings into the study sites was
also unsuccessful. Breadnut is widely used in Green Park as
a fodder tree. Further attempts to establish Breadnut are
warranted. based (N) the importance given this species by
‘local farmers (Morrison 1991), euui are currently underway
(Morikawa 1993).

Establith method. Three different establishment
methods (direct seeding, cuttings, and seedlings) were
tested for two species in this trial. Two establishment

methods for Calliandra and Gliricidia were tested at each of

 

 

two planting sites. Marked differences in survival, growth
and labor inputs required for each method were noted.
Direct-seeding required approximately 1/3 of the labor
input of seedlings and cuttings. The larger labor
investment for seedling establishment has been noted by
forest managers throughout the world (Smith 1986). Other
advantages of direct seeding include the ability to rapidly
plant large areas of land and establish extensive fodder
tree plantings. Commonly discussed disadvantages include
the need for larger seed quantities, more weeding treatments
than needed for seedlings or cuttings, (Smith 1986) and
seasonally related activities that constrain farm. labor
(Andreatta 1992). The selection of species to directly seed
will probably depend on growth habit and seeding frequency.

Leucaena and Cajanus are particularly suitable for direct

80

seeding because they are currently found in Green Park and
produce large quantities of easily~collected seed.

Cutting' and seedling survival exceeded direct-seeded
trees by 30 to 42 percent in trials where direct-seeded
plants survived. Because of increased survival, seedling
establishment is recommended over direct seeding when high
value germplasm is to be established or when low density
plantings are desired. Fewer weeding inputs are required
for seedlings and cuttings when compared.tx> direct-seeding
(Evans 1982). For this reason, cuttings and seedlings are a
good choice for fodder tree establishment, especially in
tall, fast-growing tropical grasses such as Guinea grass,
when labor for weeding is unavailable at later periods
(Andreatta 1992).

Fodder tree establishment has potential to be
integrated into current farming practices. One such example
is the practice of establishing short-term crops with Star
grass (Morrison 1991). CrOps and grass could be planted
with fodder trees, and resources used to weed and protect
plants from. livestock could. be combined to establish a
tree/grass pasture. The combination of these activities
could possibly make more efficient use of resources when
compared to planting the components separately (Morrison

1991), and should be investigated.

 

 

81

CONCLUSIONS

From this study, it appears that Cajanus, Calliandra

 

seedlings, vegetatively—propagated Gliricidia, Leucaena, and

 

Sesbania require further study for possible use in Green
'Park pasture systems. Observations made after establishment
indicate that Cajanus should be used for short-term fodder
production while slower-growing but longer-lived species
become established. Future plantings should be concentrated
on sites with deeper soils and protection from excessive sun
and wind exposure.

Direct-seeded Erythrina and Calliandra were

 

 

unsuccessful due to low survival or slow, inconsistent

growth. Direct-seeding of Gliricidia is not practical

 

without locally produced seed, These species might have
application for fodder tree use elsewhere in Jamaica, but
are not recommended for further study in Green Park.
Breadnut seedlings were not successful, but further study of
alternative establishment methods is recommended because of
the popularity of this species for dry season fodder

(Morrison 1992).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank the Jamaican Agricultural
Development Foundation (JADF) and the United States Agency

for International Development (USAID) for financial and

82

logistical assistance; Fachoy Foods Ltd. and Orange Valley
Estate Ltd. for the resources they made available to the
research; the *Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Oxford
Forestry Institute, and the International Crops Research
Institute for the Semi-Arid. Tropics for seeds, and the
participation and encouragement given by the community of

Green Park.

 

 

83

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85

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(eds.) Attributes of Trees as Crop Plants. Institute of
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592p.

SIOJ: 1979. Census of Agriculture 1978-1979: Preliminary
Report. Statistical Institute of Jamaica.

Smith, D.M. 1986. The Practice of Silviculture. John
Wiley and Sons. New York. 527p.

Thompson, D.An 1985. Leucaena leucocephala trials in
Jamaica. Leucaena Research Reports 6:60-62.

 

Torres, F. 1983. Role of woody perennials in animal
agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems 1:131-163.

Von Carlowitz, P.G. 1987. Multipurpose tree yield data:
their relevance to agroforestry research and development and
the current state of knowledge. Agroforestry Systems
4:29-314.

87

SUMMER!

This research has shown that fodder trees and fodder
tree/grass associations can be managed by manipulating

cutting intervals and heights. Calliandra produced

 

approximately four times more tree fodder than the

Gliricidia and Leucaena plantations. The combination of

 

tree fodder and grass production under the Gliricidia and

 

Leucaena increased total fodder production over the

Calliandra plantation.

 

The incorporation and proper management of tree fodder
is vital if dry season conditions are to be overcome in
small-scale Jamaican livestock systems. 'Tree forage is
intended to compliment pasture grass, and grass should
continue to provide the larger volume of feed. Tree forage
represents only part of the solution to dry season
pressures, however. Herd size has to be matched to pasture
carrying capacity, and other supplemental feeds may still be
necessary when grass and tree fodder supply is limited.

From establishment trials in Green Park, it appears

that Cajanus, Calliandra, Leucaena, Sesbania, and

 

vegetatively-propagated Gliricidia show promise for

 

inclusion in Green Park farming systems. Observations made
to ten months after establishment indicate Cajanus should be

used for short-term fodder production while slower-growing

88

species become established. Further study is needed to
determine the long-term growth habits of all these species.
Fodder tree survival. and. growth. were highly' variable at
different planting locations, and future plantings should be
concentrated on sites with deeper soils and protection from

excessive sun and wind exposure.

89

DIRECTION OF FUTURE RESEARCH

This study has produced many useful results that may be
used to guide the future establishment and management of
fodder trees SUI Jamaican farming systems. If the project
goal to integrate fodder tree establishment and management
data with current farming systems is to be realized,
however, more research questions need to be addressed. This
study examined the establishment of seven different fodder
tree species in Green Park, but observations were limited to
the ten months following establishment. The growth habits
of established trees need to be further noted so the
long-term suitability of these species can be established.

Past development experience has demonstrated that tree
planting arrangements which conform to current agricultural
land uses and labor constraints are more likely’ to be
adopted into a given farming system. Fodder trees in this
study were established in fenced forage banks which were
placed in the corners of pasture paddocks. The suitability
of this and alternative planting arrangements with current
agricultural practices needs to be examined. Continued
exchange of ideas with Green Park farmers should be used to
aid in the design of future establishment experiments.

Fodder tree ‘management studies were carried. out in

Moneague over nine months, and should be continued to

9O

determine the longsterm. effects of repeated harvest and
rainfall variations. Management studies of established
trees in Green Park should be implemented to determine
harvest strategies specific to the environmental conditions
which occur there. Feeding trials should also be initiated
in Green Park both to determine the effect of tree fodder on
animal performance and to demonstrate the use of this
technology to Green Park farmers.

Finally, economic analyses should be performed to
compare the viability of silvo-pastoral alternatives to
traditional livestock management systems. Care should be
taken so that fair values are assigned to all inputs and
outputs, especially those which are not normally assigned
market values.

Integrating and expanding the role of tree fodder into
Jamaican livestock production systems has great potential,
repeatedly demonstrated in other tropical countries, to
increase overall productivity. The knowledge of appropriate
species and management regimes should continue to be
expanded in Jamaica. If the potential of this resource is
to be realized, however, research needs to be accompanied by
the 'participation of Jamaican producers so that the
technology can be extended into and refined by the audience

it is aimed at benefiting.

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