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thesis entitled

An Exaination of the Selection and Training
of Police Co-issioners and Patrol Officer Recruits

of the Swedish National Police Force
presented by

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has been accepted towards fulfillment
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MSU leAn Affirm-1M Action/Emu! Opponmuy Inetltwon
W1

AN EXAMINATION OF THE SELECTION AND TRAINING
OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS AND PATROL OFFICER RECRUITS
OF THE SWEDISH NATIONAL POLICE FORCE

BY

Thomas H. Ackerman

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

School of Criminal Justice

1994

ABSTRACT
AN EXAMINATION OF THE SELECTION AND TRAINING

OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS AND PATROL OFFICER RECRUITS
OF THE SWEDISH NATIONAL POLICE FORCE

BY
Thomas H. Ackerman

This paper examines strategies employed in the selection
and training of police commissioners and patrol recruits in
Sweden, which differ substantially from those commonly
exercised in the United States. In addition, arguments are
presented which address whether the Swedish system offers
possible solutions to widely perceived deficiencies in police
personnel selection and training strategies implemented in the
United States. In Sweden, only practicing attorneys are
eligible to hold police commissioner positions, and prior
police experience is not required. Those selected complete a
32-month program which includes classroom and practical
training. Swedish patrol recruits receive over 5,000 hours of
basic training over a 33-month period, with considerable
emphasis on the social role of policing. While the Swedish
model may not be appropriate for implementation in the United

States, some facets are worthy of consideration.

Copyright by
THOMAS HAROLD ACKERMAN

1994

DEDICATION

In memory of my friend and mentor

PAUL S. EMBERT, JR.

whose dedication to law enforcement training

and public service I strive to emulate.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Those to whom I am indebted in this endeavor are
abundant. Particular gratitude is extended to the staff of
the Swedish National Police College, especially Anna-Lena
Randle, Peter Lundstrom, and Marie Torstensson, whose
unselfish cooperation and assistance made this study possible.
My appreciation is also owed to Hans Klette, Bertil Petersson,
Knut Sveri, Gunilla Cedermark-Hedberg, Karin Henrickson, Sten
Lindblod, Bertil Olafson, Bo Andersson, the Police College
trainees, and the officers of the Swedish Police Force, whose
insights added greatly to the success of this study.

An expression of sincere appreciation is extended to
Commissioner Carl Dalin and Kriminalinspector Terry Jones, of
the Falkenberg Police District, whose gracious assistance
provided indispensable insight into Swedish police operations.

Gratitude must also be expressed to members of my thesis
committee: David Carter, Kenneth Christian, Vincent Hoffman,
and Paul Embert, for their direction and academic guidance;
and to Brian Johnson, Larry Jackson, Bob Thomas, Tim Dodson,
and Andy LaFleur, for their advice and support.

Finally, sincere gratitude must be extended to my family.
As an inspirational force throughout my academic pursuits,

their contributions were, unquestionably, the greatest.of all.

V

LIST OF

LIST OF

CHAPTER

I.

II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
FIGURES I O O O O O 0 O O O O O I O O O 0
INTRODUCTION: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .

Selection and Training of
Police Recruits in the United States . .

Selection and Training of
Police Chiefs in the United States . . . .

Organization of the Study . . . . . . .
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . .

Selection and Training of
Police Recruits in the United States .

The Call for Reform . . . . . . .
Defining the Police Role . . . . . .

Recruit Training Curricula:
Conflict with the Police Role . . . .

Selection and Training of
Police Chiefs in the United States . . . .

Criticism of Selection, Promotion, and
Training Strategies: Past and Present

The Promotion Process . . . . . . . .
Management Training . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi

PAGE

13

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

CHAPTER

III.

IV.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . .
Research Design . . . . . . . .
The Descriptive Research Approach
Field Research in Sweden . . . . . . .
Police Operations . . . . . .

Falkenberg Police District .

Ullared Community Police Station

varmland Police District
Stockholm Police District . .
Arlanda International Airport
Special Forces Unit . . . . .
Swedish National Police Board
The Swedish National Police College
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BACKGROUND ON SWEDEN AND THE POLICE
Sweden in General . . . . . . .
The Swedish National Police Force
The Swedish National Police Board . .

The Swedish National Police College

SELECTION OF POLICE RECRUITS IN SWEDEN .

Basic Qualification Standards
Educational Requirements .
Physical Requirements . . . .

Application Process . . . . . .

vii

PAGE

19
19
20
21
22
23
23
23

24

25

29

31
33
35
35
36
36

TABLE 0

CHAPTER

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

Xe

LIST OF

F CONTENTS - Continued

TRAINING OF POLICE RECRUITS IN SWEDEN . . .
Phase I: Classroom Instruction . . . . . .
Phase II: Practical Experience .

Phase III: Classroom Instruction . . . . .
Theme Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem-Solving Scenarios . . . . . . . . .
Assignment and In-Service Training . . .
SELECTION OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS IN SWEDEN
Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . .
TRAINING OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS IN SWEDEN .
Phase I: Classroom Instruction . . . . . .
Phase II: Practical Experience . . . .
Phase III: Classroom Instruction . .
Assignment and In-Service Training . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . .

Selection and Training of
Police Recruits in Sweden . . . . . .

Selection and Training of
Police Chiefs in Sweden . . . . . . . . .
IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH . . . . . .

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

PAGE

67

TABLE

LIST OF TABLES

U.S. Police Recruit Training Curricula:

Mean Training Hours and Percentage Rankings

Summary of Swedish Police Recruit
Training Curriculum: Training Hours

General Outline of Swedish Police Recruit

Training Curriculum: Basic Course I .

General Outline of Psychology and
Psychiatry Curriculum: Basic Course I

General Outline of Swedish Police Recruit
Training Curriculum: Practical Experience .

General Outline of Swedish Police Recruit

Training Curriculum: Basic Course II

General Outline of Swedish
Police Commissioner Training Program .

ix

PAGE

12

38

41

43

45

48

60

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

4.1 Organization of the
Swedish National Police Force . . . . . . . . . 32

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Selection and Training of
Police Recruits in the United States

A review of the literature suggests that police
agencies in the United States have habitually established and
implemented police recruit selection and training standards
based on unrealistic interpretations of the police mission.
Many studies have shown that police officers spend the vast
majority of their time on human service and problem-solving
tasks, and very little on actual law enforcement. The
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration
of Justice (1967), the National Advisory Commission on Civil
Disorders (1968), and the National Commission on the Causes
and Prevention of Violence (1969) all pointed out that the
vast majority of calls for service are unrelated to law
enforcement. Many criminal justice scholars have observed
that the primary mission of the police is to maintain order
and provide needed government and social services (Klockars,
1985; Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, 1990).

Despite these realities, police agencies frequently

portray an inaccurate and unrealistic depiction of police work

2

and police departments in their attempts to attract qualified
candidates to police work. If “successful," such efforts
often limit the pool of applicants to those who behold an
unrealistic perception of the police role, and are likely to
become disenchanted and frustrated with police work (Roberg
and Kuykendall, 1990). Instead, an accurate assessment of
policing dictates that agencies should actively pursue
candidates who possess exceptional communication skills and a
sincere interest in community problem—solving (Radelet, 1986;
Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, 1990).

Basic recruit training programs have also been widely
criticized as having little relevance to the realities of
police ‘work, as basic recruit curricula have failed to
adequately train new police officers in methods for dealing
with the specific problems they' are expected ‘to handle
(Goldstein, 1990). In the United States, police recruit
training curricula devote nearly 90 percent of training hours
to law enforcement competency, and little attention to tasks
related to the so—called "social role“ of policing (Germann,
1969; Goldstein, 1990; Meadows, 1987).

Many criminal justice scholars have pointed out that
courses in sociology, psychology, human relations, and
communications better prepare police officers to perform the
delicate tasks of policing (Trojanowicz and Dixon, 1974);
allow them to perform more effectively, while increasing their
personal satisfaction and reducing tension in public

encounters (National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice

3
Standards and Goals, 1973); and are better able to handle
emotionally disturbed persons safely, with less probability of
injury to themselves and to others (Janus, et al., 1979).

The selection criteria for entry level police officers
in Sweden requires a record of high academic achievement in
the subjects of Swedish and English language, civics,
sociology, psychology, and human-relations coursework
completed in high school. The Swedish police recruit training
program is designed to prepare police recruits through a
curriculum which places emphasis on the performance of actual
job tasks, such as counseling and conflict resolution, by
devoting particular attention to the study of human behavior
and interpersonal communication concepts.

This thesis will examine the selection and training of
police recruits in Sweden, with particular emphasis on
preparation for the social role of policing, and whether
similar policies might be appropriate for implementation in

the United States.

Selection and Training of
Police Chiefs in the United States
In the United States, most police departments are
organized in a bottom-up hierarchy that requires all new
entrants to start at the lowest rank and move in a step-by-
step fashion up the organizational ladder. Potential
leadershipiqualities are rarely considered in the selection.of

new recruits, and the bottom-up hierarchy often places

4
officers in leadership positions who have demonstrated above
average skills and abilities as operating police officers -
not managers (Carter, Sapp, and Stephens, 1989).

Finally, once appointed to management positions, a
substantial percentage of police executives receive no
meaningful management training (Stahl and Staufenberger,
1974). Such policies frequently leave police executives ill-
prepared to handle the complexities of police administration
(Holden, 1986).

The selection and training of police commissioners in
Sweden differs significantly from the U.S. profile. Aspiring
police commissioner applicants must be law school graduates,
and prior law enforcement experience is not required. Once
selected, all candidates complete a 32-month training program
which includes classroom instruction and practical experience.

This thesis examines the question of whether effective
training may allow aspirants lacking any experience in law
enforcement to function effectively as police chiefs, and
whether such a policy is appropriate for implementation in the

United States.

Organization of the Studv

This study is organized in ten chapters, as follows:
Chapter I, INTRODUCTION: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM,
provides an overview of the problems associated with the

selection and training of police chiefs and patrol recruits in

5
the United States; a brief description of police selection and
training strategies utilized in Sweden; the need for the
study; and the organization for the study.

Chapter II, REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE, contains a review
of criticisms delineated by the Presidential Commission on Law
Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967); studies
which have examined the nature of policing and the role of
police officers in American Society; the«disparity that exists
between the police role and recruit training curricula; and
deficiencies that exist in police command officer selection,
promotion and training strategies in the United States.

Chapter III, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, examines the
research design used in conducting this study, as well as a
description of methods employed during the execution of field
research in Sweden.

Chapter IV, BACKGROUND ON SWEDEN AND THE POLICE,
provides a general introduction to the geography and
population of Sweden, the police organization, the National
Police Board, and the Police College.

Chapter V, SELECTION OF POLICE RECRUITS IN SWEDEN,
contains a summary of basic qualification standards,
educational requirements, physical requirements, and the
application process.

Chapter VI, TRAINING OF POLICE RECRUITS IN SWEDEN,
provides an detailed overview of the Police Recruit Training
Program curriculum, including classroom instruction, practical

experience, theme exercises, problem-solving scenarios,

6
assignment, and in-service training.

Chapter VII, SELECTION OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS IN
SWEDEN, provides a general overview of police commissioner
selection criteria, applicants, and appointees.

Chapter VIII, TRAINING OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS IN
SWEDEN, examines the Police Commissioner Training Program
curriculum, including classroom instruction, practical
experience, assignment, and in—service training.

Chapter IX, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS, contains a
synopsis of major findings of the study, and commentary on the
nature of conclusions drawn.

Chapter X, IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH, provides
recommendations concerning the direction of future research
which may provide additional insight into the issues explored

in this study.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Selection and Training of
Police Recruits in the United States

The purpose of this section is not to provide an
exhaustive review of police recruit selection and training
strategies employed in the United States, but rather to
examine: (1) The call for reform outlined by the Presidential
Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice in
1967; (2) Studies which have examined the nature of policing
and the role of police officers in American society; and, (3)
The disparity that exists between the police role and recruit

training curricula.

The Call for Reform

Many critics have argued that few meaningful changes
have been.implemented since the Presidential Commission.on Law
Enforcement and Administration of Justice issued a report,
entitled The Challenge of Crifime in a Free Societv (1967).
This comprehensive study examined the evolution of policing in
the United States, including techniques for police officer

selection, training, promotion and management. This historic

8
document characterized police agencies as failing to
adequately respond to the needs and concerns of the
communities and citizens whom they serve, and called for
reform of selection and training approaches. While the report
credited police agencies for their apparent attempt over the
previous 30 years to upgrade the processes for selection and
training of police personnel, it criticized the widespread
existence of a number of policies and standards which created
artificial barriers to employment. Arbitrary standards such
as height requirements, education, and credit history were
examples of “common sense“ selection criteria that did not
necessarily have a direct relationship to being a "good"
police officer. Rather, such standards excluded large
segments of society who, given effective training and
supervision, might otherwise have gone on to have successful

careers .

Defining the Police Role

Today, nearly' 30 years after the release of 'Thg
Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (1967), the debate
continues over the validity of current selection and training
methods. While many law enforcement agencies have attempted
to gear selection criteria to identify those who will perform
well in the police "role" (Benner, 1989), law enforcement
appears unable to reach a consensus in defining exactly what

the police role is in societyu Benner summarized the problem,

as follows:

The effort to develop "valid" selection
procedures is foundering in a quagmire of
technical psychometric complexities. These
complexities are exacerbated by a more
fundamental problem. That is the lack of
consensus over what constitutes a ”good“ police
officer. Without this consensus, technical

"validity" is irrelevant. The situation is

analogous to building something'before deciding

exactly what "something“ is supposed to do. In

terms of “building“ better police officers, the

problem is that it is difficult to obtain

consensus on what it (the police officer)

should and should not do or should and should

not be (1989: 74).

In an attempt to define the role of police officers,
many contemporary studies have examined the nature of calls
for service to police agencies. As a result, a profile has
repeatedly emerged which has characterized the primary police
role as one of social work, human service, or peace keeping,
as opposed to law enforcement (Banton, 1964; Bittner, 1971;
Cumming and Cumming, 1965; Lab, 1984; Meadows, 1987; Misner,
1967; Reiss, 1971; Wilson, 1968). Misner (1967) found that 75
percent of tasks performed by police officers are unrelated to
crime control or law enforcement. Lab (1984) studied calls
for service to the Charlotte Police Department, and determined
that over 80 percent were related to order maintenance or
human service. Analysis of calls police for service to the
Syracuse Police Department indicated that 68 percent of radio
calls were concerned with order maintenance and community

service, 22 percent involved information gathering and report

writing, and only about 10 percent were related to actual law

10

enforcement tasks (Wilson, 1968). An earlier study, the
Wickersham Commission Report on Police (National Commission on
Law Observance and Enforcement, 1931), declared that "The
policemen is no longer the suppressor of crime, but the social
worker of the community." Goldstein argued that police
officers spend the majority of their time on activities which
revolve around the social role of police work, and commented:

The studies report the large number of hours

devoted to handling accidents and illness,

injured animals, intoxicated persons, dealing

with family disturbances, fights among teenage

gangs, noisy gatherings and taking reports.

Tremendous significance has been attached to

these accounts of police activity because they

so directly challenge the stereotype of the

police function firmly established in the minds

of both the police and the public as consisting

primarily of preventing crime and apprehending
criminals (1977: 25).

Recruit Training Curricula:
Conflict with the Police Role

Police recruit training programs have been the subject
of criticism for placing too great an emphasis on law
enforcement skills training, and too littleron human relations
proficiency and peace keeping strategies. Despite an
abundance of studies that have depicted the police role as one
of social service or peace keeping rather than one of crime
fighting, police recruit academy curricula continue to
emphasize instruction in law enforcement over human relations
and problem-solving skills (Germann, 1969; Meadows, 1987).

Goldstein observed that recruit training programs emphasize

11
the teaching of law enforcement skills at the expense of
problem—solving strategies, and wrote:

Although the best current police training

programs (already include some ‘units in ‘the

curriculum 'that are problem-specific (e.g.,

sexual assault, spousal abuse, drunk driving),

most police training remains generic. It

teaches the law, department regulations, and

skills (e.g., interrogation, fingerprinting,
gathering evidence, conducting investigations,
defensive tactics) without much attention to

how these might apply to specific problems.

That is one major reason why recruit training

has so often. been criticized. as having no

relevance to the job. It does not deal

realistically with the specific problems police

are expected to handle and the methods for

dealing with them (1990: 167-168).

Germann (1969) observed that police officers spend
approximately 10 percent of their time on actual law
enforcement tasks, but receive 90 percent.of their training in
this area. Meadows (1987) examined state mandated recruit
training curricula in 46 states to determine how police entry
level training curricula compare‘with the research findings on
the police role, and found that basic recruit training
programs place an overwhelming emphasis on crime control, and
legal and technical skill instruction. According to Meadows,
the mean number of training hours devoted to human relations
subject.matter is 19, which amounts to only about 5 percent of
police recruit curricula. In contrast, training in patrol and
investigation, force and weaponry, and legal subjects

collectively consume approximately 83 percent of recruit

curricula instructions .A summary' of data collected, by

12

Meadows, which.depicts the number of training hours in each of

seven competency areas,

is shown in Table 2.1.

 

Table 2.1

U.S. POLICE RECRUIT TRAINING CURRICULA:
MEAN TRAINING HOURS AND PERCENTAGE RANKINGS

 

 

COMPETENCY AREA MEAN HOURS PERCENT OF TOTAL
Patrol and Investigation 185 50

Force and Weaponry 64 17

Legal Knowledge 61 16
Administration 20 5

Human Relations 19 5
Communications 14 4
Criminal Justice System 10 3
TOTALS: 100%

w
II x)
II o:

 

Selection and Training of
Police Chiefggin the United States
The purpose of this section is to provide a general
overview of deficiencies that exist in selection, promotion,
and training strategies commonly employed to fill the command

ranks of law enforcement agencies in the United States.

Criticism of Selection, Promotion,
and Training Strategie : Past and Present

 

Police chiefs are responsible for planning, organizing,
coordinating, and managing the agency's resources, including
its personnel. The police chief plays an important role in
American law enforcement, both as a sculptor of values and as
a creator of philosophy for police agencies. Police chief
selection and training strategies, as factors which
potentially influence police chiefs and those under their
command, have been a particular focus over the last fifty
years. The Wickersham Commission Report (1931), the
President;§7 Task Force Report (1967), and a number of
contemporary studies have concluded that selection, promotion
and training methods commonly employed to fill the command
ranks of American law enforcement agencies too often result in
the placement of administrators who lack the managerial,
administrative, and leadership skills necessary to perform
effectively. Goldstein summarized the problem concisely, in

stating:

13

14

There is no need to dig deeply for an

explanation of our failure to develop a

reservoir of competent leadership in the police

field. This country has tenaciously clung to

the concept that leadership of a police agency

should be drawn not only from within the police

field, but from within the agency, and yet no

provisions have been made to assure that police

agencies systematically produce people with the

requisite qualifications of leadership (1977:

231-232).

Holden (1986) cited.four.interrelated factors which may
be responsible, including the initial selection process, the
promotional process, the lack of training for managers, and

the reluctance to allow lateral entry of command personnel.

The Promotion Procegg

Most. police departments in the ‘United States are
organized in a "bottom-up“ hierarchy that requires all new
entrants to start at the lowest rank and move in step-by-step
fashion up the organizational ladder. Police departments have
a formal chain of command, both overall and within.the various
functional units. The chief of police functions as the chief
executive officer, followed by a descending scale of captains,
lieutenants, sergeants, and others. Promotion from within is
the cornerstone of most police policies (More, 1976). The
bottom-up structure endeavors to place officers who have
demonstrated above average skills and abilities, into
positions of leadership»as command.officers and police chiefs.
Skill.as an operating police officer does not, however, insure

skill in management (Carter, Sapp and Stephens, 1989; Leonard

15
and More, 1978; Wilson, 1963). Carter, Sapp and Stephens
recognized that skills required of police executives differ
from those needed for line positions, and noted:

It must be recognized that contemporary command

personnel are not police officers who also

command; they are executives in complex,

resource-intensive organizations (1989: 18).

Unfortunately, promotion policies, commonly
implemented, often result in the placement of police officers,
who lack managerial and administrative skills and abilities,
into positions of administration. Since nearly all police
administrators are selected from within the ranks of the
organization, leadership potential should be considered in the
hiring process (Holden, 1986). This factor is rarely
considered, however, and the quality of the pool, from which
future administrators may be selected, is often limited to
those who are expected to perform well as patrol officers -
not managers. In addition, the reluctance of police agencies
to allow lateral entry has virtually placed a lock on the
pool.

The promotion process often includes a combination of
factors, includingeritten and oral examinations (often based
on written texts and policy manuals), performance evaluations
and seniority. While these factors may be fair indicators of
one's ability to read and digest information, or to get along
with peers and supervisors, they may be poor measures of

managerial competence (Holden, 1986; More, 1976; Wilson, 1963)

Management Training

Management and supervisory training can be a major
factor in shaping the future of a given agency. Such training
can also provide a forum for discussion of issues important to
police agencies (Stahl and Staufenberger, 1974), as well as an
increased understanding of the various facets of workplace
psychology and personnel administration. Unfortunately, a
substantial percentage of police executives receive no
significant management training (Holden, 1986).

Until very recently, managerial training for law
enforcement administrators was virtually non-existent (Holden,
1986). Only a handful of departments in the United States
have developed adequate programs to train supervisory and
management personnel (Stahl and Staufenberger, 1974). A
number of specialized programs have been developed to fulfill
command officers' needs, such as the California and Washington
Command Colleges, the Law Enforcement Executive Development
Seminar, The Texas Law Enforcement Executive Institute, the
Florida Department of Law Enforcement Executive Institute, the
Senior Management Institute for Police, the Southern Police
Institute, the Highway Traffic Institute, and the F.B.I.
National Academy (Bennett and Hess, 1992; Carter, Sapp and
Stephens, 1989). However, upon examining the number of
agencies in the United States that are in a position to take
advantage of such training, it appears relatively few are

trained through these programs. For example, the F.B.I.

l6

National Academy, perhaps the :most. prominent of command
training programs, trains only 800 middle and upper-level
managers per year (Gladis, 1985; Joseph and O'Conner, 1979).

Management training programs should not be viewed as a
panacea, however, as such programs in no way guarantee the
production.of effective leaders (Bock, 1990; More and Wegener,

1990).

Summary

The literature posits a lengthy history of police
recruit selection and training strategies geared toward
unrealistic interpretations of the police role in American
society. Task analysis studies have consistently
characterized the primary police role as one of social work,
human service, or peace keeping, as opposed to crime control.
Police recruit training curricula have invariably emphasized
instruction in law enforcement competence, with only minimal
attention directed toward human relations and problem-solving
skill development.

Deficiencies also exist in the selection, promotion,
and training of police command officers in the United States.
The bottom-up hierarchy often results in the promotion of
officers who have demonstrated particular skills and abilities
in non-management positions, often without regard to
leadership or management potential. In addition, policies

prohibiting lateral entry restrict agencies from.pursuing the

17

18
best and brightest. To compound the problem, few departments
in the United States haveideveloped adequate programs to train

supervisory and management personnel.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this chapter is to present the research
design used in conducting this study, as well as a description
of methods employed during the execution of field research in

Sweden.

Research Design

A veritable mountain of literature has been written by
criminal justice scholars concerning personnel selection and
training techniques employed by police agencies in the United
States. However, scholarly literature concerning police
personnel selection and training in Sweden is relatively
scarce (Cedermark—Hedberg, 1985), and literature published in
English is particularly uncommon. A review of literature
concerning the Swedish Police establishment, albeit limited,
provided background information on innovative approaches to
police jpersonnel selection. and ‘training (Ackerman, 1990;
Becker and Hjellemo, 1976; Knutsson, Kfihlhorn.and.Reiss, 1979;

Rikspolisstyrelsen, 1985; Terrill, 1984).

19

The Descriptive Research Approach

In consideration of the exploratory nature of this
study, the scarcity of literature, and the relative obscurity
of the subject matter, the methods and tools embodied in the
descriptive research. approach, coupled. with field study,
emerged as the most appropriate methodology.

The value of descriptive research is widely recognized
as an effective and productive tool (Babbie, 1989; Hagan,
1982). Descriptive research may be employed as a means for
solving a problem or charting a course of action. Best
observed the role of descriptive research in providing a
framework as the basis for future research, and wrote:

Descriptive research involves the description,

recording, analysis and interpretation of the present

nature, composition, or process of phenomenon. The
focus is on the prevailing conditions, or how a person,
group or thing behaves or functions in the present

(1959: 12).

The value of descriptive research as a starting point
was further advanced by Borg and Gall, as follows:

Descriptive studies serve many very important functions

within the field of education. Under certain

circumstances it is of tremendous value just to merely
know' what the current state of the activity is.

Descriptive research provides us with a starting point

and is, therefore, often carried out as a preliminary

step to be followed by more rigorous research (1967:

202).

The descriptive approach also appeared best suited for

this study in consideration of advantages cited by Van Dalen

20

21
(1962), who wrote that descriptive studies often: (1) Provide
practical and useful information for planning; (2) Alert
educators and trainers to trends and possible future events;
and, (3) Facilitate an understanding of what is taking place
in areas where processes and practices are continually
changing.

In.consideration.of the needs and.advantages heretofore
cited, the descriptive approach is utilized in the
presentation of the data collected in this study» Because the
data are predominately qualitative in nature, a statistical

treatment of the findings was not attempted.

Field Research in Sweden

As a means of attaining: insight unavailable through
literature review' and other sources of information, the
researcher conducted field research in Sweden over a period of
two months, during August and September 1989. In addition to
usual and customary preparation, the researcher completed
courses of study in Swedish language prior to performing field
research.

Field research has been utilized by social scientists
for centuries. This technique allows researchers to garner
qualitative data and. observations not easily reduced to
numbers. Babbie recognized the strengths of field research,

and wrote:

22

By going directly to the social phenomenon

under study and observing it as completely as

possible, you can develop a deeper and fuller

understanding of it. This mode of observation,

then, is especially, though not exclusively,

appropriate to research topics and social

studies that appear to defy simple

quantification (1989: 261-262).

Field observations provided the researcher with insight
into qualitative aspects of policing (i.e., patrol styles,
police—public interaction, attitudes toward training programs,
etc.), and police training programs (i.e., teaching methods
and styles, realism of field exercises, attention to detail,
attitudes toward training programs, etc.).

Field observations were supplemented by personal
interviews with police personnel, as well as police college
instructors, administrators, and trainees. Interviewees
provided the researcher with in-depth information and
perceptions unavailable through casual observation. A

description of field research techniques utilized is provided

in the following sections:

Police Operations

Prior to conducting field observations at the police
college, the researcher sought a point of reference, and a
"feel“ for the Swedish Police organization and the nature and
extent of police operations. In pursuit of this end, site
visits were conducted in various regions of the country to

observe police operations, including the following:

Falkenberg Policeg Digtrict (population 36,000).

 

Located in the southwestern region of Sweden, the
coastal city of Falkenberg is a popular resort area.
The police district is staffed by 45 sworn officers.
Field study in Falkenberg included interviews with
personnel and the observation of operations including
roll-call sessions, vehicular patrol, response to calls
for service, traffic enforcement, the detective
division, immigration refugee camp, jail facilities,

and administrative operations.

Ullared Community Police Station. Located in a remote
region on the outskirts of the Falkenberg Police
District, the Ullared area is known for a discount
shopping outlet which receives 3 million visitors per
year. The Ullared Community Police Station is staffed
by only two officers. Foot patrol and community
policing strategies are widely employed in this area.
Field study in Ullared included interviews with
personnel and the observation of vehicular and foot

patrol operations.

varmland Police Digtrict (population 125,000) . Located
in southwestern Sweden, the VHrmland Police District is
staffed by 164 sworn officers. Field study in this
district included interviews with personnel and the

observation of the detective division, commercial

23

24
vehicle inspection and enforcement, and.administrative

operations.

Stockholm Police District (population 670,000).
Located on the eastern coast in the south-central
region, Stockholm is the capital of Sweden. Police
personnel in Stockholm respond to an average of 600-700
calls for service per day. Field study in this
district included interviews with personnel and the
observation of operations including roll-call sessions,
vehicular patrol, foot patrol, response to calls for
service, vehicle check-lane functions, dispatch
operations, helicopter patrol, and administrative

operations.

Arlanda International Airport. Located on the
outskirts of Metropolitan Stockholm, Arlanda

International is the third busiest airport in Europe,
serving 14 ndllion passengers annually. Arlanda is
staffed by 275 police employees, including 120 sworn
officers and 155 support personnel, (e.g., passport
control, security, and clerical personnel). Sworn
police personnel receive an average of one week of
training for every five calendar weeks (approximately
20 percent of duty hours). Field study at Arlanda
included interviews with personnel and the observation

of operations including foot patrol, plainclothes

25
surveillance, security functions, passport control,
passenger/baggage inspection, and. administrative

operations.

Special Forces Unit. Headquartered in Stockholm, the
Swedish Police Special Forces Unit responds to
approximately 60 incidents per year, including
barricaded gunman situations, robberies in progress,
bomb threats, fugitive arrests, and other incidents
which call for the deployment of special weapons and
tactics. Special forces personnel receive
approximately eight hours of training per week. Field
study included interviews with personnel and the
observation of operations including vehicular patrol,
response to calls for service, rappelling and firearms

training, and administrative operations.

Swedish National Police Board. Field study at the
Swedish. National Police Board (SNPB) included
interviews with various SNPB administrators. Topics of
discussion included strategies concerning the
administration of daily operations, and planning,
budgeting and delivery of various police training
programs. (A description of SNPB functions is provided
in Chapter IV, Background on Sweden: The Swedish

National Police Board).

The Swedish National Police College

The majority of field study related to training
programs was conducted on-site at the Swedish National Police
College, allowing the researcher to observe a number of
classroom lectures and practical exercises. The majority of
classroom lectures attended were conducted in Swedish
language, although many were presented in English for the
benefit of the researcher.

Practical training exercises were observed in the areas
of domestic dispute resolution, customer/merchant dispute
resolution, encounters with mentally ill or intoxicated
persons, first-aid, vehicle driving techniques, airplane crash
response strategies, vehicle check—lane exercises, search and
arrest raid execution, building search techniques, physical
fitness and defensive tactics, interviewing and interrogation,
firearms training exercises, radio communications, arrest
techniques, and observation skills.

To complement field observations, a total of 73
interviews were conducted with Police College staff and
trainees, including members of the Police College
administrative staff (N=7), a Recruit Training Program Head
Teacher (N=1), full-time instructors (N=9), part-time
instructors (N=6) , a Police Commissioner Training Program Head
Teacher (N=1), trainees attending the Police Commissioner
Training Program (N=5), and trainees attending the Police

Recruit Training Program (N=44). The identities of those

26

27
interviewed shall remain confidential, with the exception of
Anna-Lena Randle, who provided an extensive quantity of
information in her official capacity as Public Information

Director for the Police College.

Summary

This chapter presented a discussion of the research
design used in conducting this study, as well as the methods
employed during the execution of field study in Sweden. The
descriptive research approach was selected, in consideration
of the exploratory nature of the study, the scarcity of
literature concerning the Swedish police organization, and the
relative obscurity of the subject matter.

As a means of attaining insight unavailable through
literature review and other sources of information, field
study was conducted within various police districts, at the
headquarters of the Swedish National Police Board, and on-site
at the police college. Site visits to police districts
provided the researcher with a frame of reference on the
nature and extent of police operations. The majority of field
study was carried out at the police college, where a variety
of training exercises were observed. Field observations were
augmented by personal interviews with police college
instructors, administrators and trainees, as well as field
personnel located within various police districts.

The descriptive approach was used to obtain, analyze,

28
and present the findings related to this study. A summary of
the data is presented in the Chapters IV through VIII. An
analysis of the data, and implications for future research,

are presented in Chapters IX and X, respectively.

CHAPTER IV

BACKGROUND ON SWEDEN AND THE POLICE

Sweden in General

Sweden is a sparsely populated country in northern
Europe, occupying the eastern portion of the Scandinavian
peninsula. In area, Sweden is the fourth largest country in
Europe, and is slightly larger than California. The Swedish
population numbers approximately 8.6 million, of whom 88
percent are of a homogeneous white ethnic origin.
Approximately 90 percent of the population resides in the
southern half of the country, of whom about one-third reside
in the metropolitan areas of Stockholm, G6teborg, and Malmd.

In Sweden, conscious sociopolitical efforts aimed at
achieving a comparatively even distribution of wealth have led
to a vast social welfare system. As elsewhere, variations of
wealth, income, and social status do exist, however, the
variations appear narrower than in many other countries.
While living conditions in Sweden are among the best in the
world, social problems such as alcoholism, drug abuse,
suicide, and criminality are not remarkably better or worse
than countries with comparable standards of living (Swedish

Institute, 1989).

29.

The Swedish National Polics,Force

The Swedish police force has been a national agency
since 1965. Unlike the fragmented nature of American law
enforcement, there are no separate police agencies in Sweden,
but rather a unitary and comprehensive police department with
duties that, in the United States, have been assigned to
state, county and municipal police departments, as well as
federal agencies such as the Immigration and Naturalization
Service, US Customs Service, Drug Enforcement Administration,
Postal Inspection Service, Federal Aviation Administration
Security, and US Secret Service. Prior to the implementation
of reform efforts in 1965, there were 554 police departments
in Sweden, of which 70 percent had fewer than ten officers.

The Swedish police establishment is divided into 24
regional organizations, at the county level, which have
administrative jurisdiction over traffic enforcement, police
canine operations, narcotics investigations, and other police
functions of regional concern” ‘Within each region, the County
Administrative Board is responsible for the planning,
coordination, and distribution of resources. Resources for
large-scale operations are allocated through a process of
joint consultation between the County Administrative Board and
local police district authorities.

The police force is further divided into 118 local
police districts, which vary in geographic size and

population. While districts located in Stockholm (population

30

31

670,000), G6teborg (pop. 430,000), and Malmo (pop. 230,000)
are staffed by more than 1,000 officers, a large number of
districts have fewer than 40 officers. In addition to central
police stations located in each district, 367 "Community
Police Stations" are also staffed nationwide. The total
number of sworn personnel is approximately 16,500, with a
ratio of approximately 1.9 per 1,000 population.

The international reputation of the Swedish National
Police Force is well established, particularly for providing
realistic approaches to the problem of maintaining a high
level of public satisfaction combined. with social order
(Becker and Hjellemo, 1976). The Swedish National Police
Board, the Police College, and police stations throughout
Sweden frequently receive visiting police officials from
around the world, and articles appear in foreign journals in
praise of the Swedish Police organization (Becker and
Hjellemo, 1976).

A description of the organization of the Swedish

National Police Force is displayed in Figure 4.1.

The Swedish National Police Board

The governing body of the Swedish police establishment
is the Rikspolisstyrelsen (Swedish National Police Board),
which operates under the direction of the Swedish Ministry of
Justice. The SNPB, located in Stockholm, is responsible for

central police administration, planning, research, training,

 

Figure 4.1

ORGANIZATION OF THE SWEDISH NATIONAL POLICE FORCE

 

Ministry of Justice

 

 

 

 

 

National Police Board

 

 

 

 

 

County Police Administration

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Large Police Districts: Other Police Districts:
Stockholm, G6teborg 115
and Malmb Local Districts

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

County Traffic Operations

 

 

 

 

and other support functions. The SNPB has long been noted for
its attempts at improving the quality of recruitment and

training for its personnel (Terrill, 1984).

32

33

The SNPB is governed by a body of eight members,
appointed by the federal government, all of whom are members
of the Swedish Parliament. The chairman of the SNPB holds the
position of National Police Commissioner. Regional and local
operations are supervised. by county' and. district police
commissions, with each headed by a police commissioner.
District police commissioners are charged with the day-to-day

operation of local police districts.

The Swedish National Police College

Both the Police Commissioner Training Program and
Police Recruit Training Program are administered by the
Polishogskolan (Swedish National Police College), a central
training facility which also administers approximately 100 in—
service training programs for officers at all levels of the
police organization. Regional and local police training is
also conducted off-site, at various locations throughout the
country.

The Police College is located in ‘Ulriksdal, near
Stockholm. The layout of the facility resembles a small
college campus, with over 40 buildings situated in a wooded
area. Among the facilities are an administration building,
three classroom buildings, a library, indoor and outdoor
firearms facilities, two gymnasiums, a paved.area and skid—pan
for vehicle and traffic training, a central stores facility,

an assembly hall, a building for communications and computer

34
training, and.a:mock city square which is often used for role—
playing exercises.

The full-time faculty consists of police officers
serving ‘temporar ’assignments (not to exceed five years), and
various specialists in their respective disciplines, such as
psychologists, psychiatrists, and. jphysical fitness

instructors.

CHAPTER V

SELECTION OF POLICE RECRUITS IN SWEDEN

The following is a summary of basic qualification
standards, educational requirements, physical requirements,
and the application process for entry level police officers in
Sweden.(An L. Randle, personal communicationq August 31, 1989;

Rikspolisstyrelsen, 1985, 1988, 1989c; Terrill, 1984):

Basic Qualification Standards

Qualification standards are determined by the SNPB, and
are similar to those common among municipal police agencies in
the United States. Basic requirements include Swedish
citizenship, possession of a valid drivers license, no more
than a minimal record of traffic violations, and no
convictions for any serious criminal offenses. Applicants
must have reached their 20th.birthday during the year in which
they begin recruit training, demonstrate ability to type at
least 300 characters in three minutes (without errors), and
must have gained at least one year of meaningful employment

experience.

35

Educational Reguirements

Educational requirements include graduation from an
upper secondary school, with above average standing; (In
addition to basic curricula, Swedish upper secondary schools
provide vocational concentrations with specialized courses
related to various occupational fields.) In addition,
applicants must have a record of high academic achievement in
the subjects of Swedish and English language, civics,
sociology, psychology, and human—relations coursework to be
considered for employment. Academically, these requirements
are essentially the same as those required for admission to

Swedish universities.

Physical Requirements

Physical requirements include a "build suitable for
police work" (loosely defined as height proportionate to body
weight), visual acuity (minor correction to 20/20 is
acceptable), normal color vision, normal hearing, and the

ability to swim at least 200 meters.

Application Process

The application process is also similar to those
commonly exercised in the United States . To begin the
process, aspirants submit written applications to local

district police commissioners. Applications are then

36

37

forwarded to the SNPB for review, to ensure that applicants
meet minimum standards required for advancement to the next
stage. The remainder of the process includes a written
examination, background investigations, oral interviews, a
medical examination including diagnostic tests, and physical
fitness evaluations. Patrol officer recruits are appointed
from eligibility lists maintained by the SNPB.

The SNPB normally receives approximately 3,000
applications annually. Typically, fewer than one-half of
applicants meet formal criteria. In recent years,
approximately 600 candidates per year have been selected to
enter recruit training. Positions have been open to female
applicants since 1971. Since approximately 1975, the
appointment of female recruits has ranged from 25 to 30
percent of total appointments (Cedermark-Hedberg, 1985; A. L.

Randle, personal communication, August 31, 1989).

CHAPTER VI

TRAINING OF POLICE RECRUITS IN SWEDEN

The Swedish Police Recruit Training Program is
administered by the Swedish National Police College, and
provides a total of over 5,000 hours of classroom instruction,
theme exercises, and practical experience. The program is
presented in three phases over a 33-month period
(Rikspolisstyrelsen, 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, 1989c).

A summary of training contact hours is shown in Table 6.1.

 

Table 6.1

SUMMARY OF SWEDISH POLICE RECRUIT
TRAINING CURRICULUM: TRAINING HOURS

CLASSROOM PRACTICAL TOTAL

 

 

COURSE HOURS HOURS HOURS
BASIC COURSE I 1,108 492 1,600
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE 0 2,730 2,730
BASIC COURSE II 342 365 707
TOTALS: ‘ 1,450 3,587 5,037

 

38

Phase I: Classroom Inssruction (40 weeks)

The initial phase involves ten months of coursework at

the police college. The course, entitled Grundkurs I (Basic

Course I), includes instruction in five general subject areas,

as follows:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Polics Skills, including topics such as uniformed
patrol techniques, traffic law and enforcement, motor
vehicle accident investigation, vehicle operation and
technology, radio communications, mechanics of arrest,
computer operation, ethics, police supervision,
weapons, criminal investigation, illegal. drugs,
surveillance, evidence, forensic medicine, crime
prevention, Swedish language, English language, and

emergency medical treatment;

General Law, including topics such as legal principles,
criminal law, criminal procedure, civil law, and the

court system;

Physical Skills, including topics such as physical
fitness and conditioning, defensive tactics, swimming

and life—saving, and personal health care;

Social and Behavioral Sciences, including topics such
as sociology, psychology, psychiatry, interaction.with
mentally ill or retarded persons, homosexuality, death

notification, crisis intervention, conflict resolution,

39

40

group behavior, and stress management; and,

(5) Human Relations, including topics such as conflict
resolution, group behavior, social problems, morality

development, witness psychology, and youth culture.

Basic Course I provides 1,600 hours of classroom and
practical training, amounting to nearly one—third of the 33-
month curriculuntoverallu A general outline of the curriculum
presented in Basic Course I is shown in Table 6.2.

Entering recruits are divided into classes of
approximately 20 students, and are assigned to a
Polissuperintendent (Head Teacher) who coordinates the
training provided in this phase. The head teacher also
delivers the majority of the lecture material, although
lecturers such as police commissioners, psychologists,
college/university professors, physicians, prosecuting
attorneys, defensive tactics experts, immigration inspectors,
and journalists are called upon to present material in their
respective disciplines.

The majority of instruction is conducted in a typical
classroom environment. Recruits are seated at several
conference style tables, and stow their course materials in
individual lockers located within each classroom. Lectures
are sometimes supplemented with field trips to facilities
which may offer additional insight into criminal justice
operations, such as the National Police Board headquarters,

police stations, and court facilities.

 

Table 6.2
GENERAL OUTLINE OF SWEDISH POLICE RECRUIT
TRAINING CURRICULUM: BASIC COURSE I

CLASSROOM PRACTICAL TOTAL
SUBJECT AREA HOURS HOURS HOURS

 

 

GENERAL INFORMATION AND RULES: 31 Q 35
POLICE SKILLS: 744 173 917
Uniform Duty (140) (32) (172)
Weapons (48) (12) (60)
Communications/Computers (42) (12) (54)
Traffic (212) (53) (265)
First-Aid (36) (10) (46)
Criminal Investigation (140) (32) (172)
Forensic Medicine (52) (16) (68)
English Language (26) (0) (26)
Swedish Language (48) (6) (54)
LEGAL SUBJECTS: 154 gs 2 0
Legal Principles (34) (10) (44)
Criminal Law (90) (24) (114)
Civil Law (30) (12) (42)
PHYSICAL FITNESS & SELF DEFENSE: lg 13 146
SOCIAL SCIENCES: 132 ss 168
Sociology (66) (18) (84)
Psychology and Psychiatry (66) (18) (84)
HUMANITIES: gs _ 18
THEME EXERCISES: Q 21 21
TOTALS: 1,108 492 ,600

 

41

42
Of the 1,600 hours of instruction presented in Basic
Course I, more than 10 percent (168 hours) is allocated to the
subjects of psychology, psychiatry and sociology. A summary
of instruction presented in psychology and psychiatry is shown
in Table 6.3.

Phase one is designed to provide a general theoretical
framework to the many facets of police duty, the criminal
justice system, legal principles, human behavior and social
problems, and to prepare recruits for the second phase of

training.

Phase II: Practical Experience (18 months)

The second phase, known as Praktik (Practical
Experience), begins immediately after the completion of Basic
Course I, and continues for a period of 18 months. Recruits
enter this phase with full law enforcement authority,
including the authority to carry firearms. This phase allows
recruits to apply what they have learned in classroom
instruction; provides them.iwith “hands-on" experience in
patrol duty, criminal investigation, and social work; and
provides a foundation for the coursework encountered in phase
III. A general outline of the practical phase is shown in

Table 6.4.

 

(A)
(B)
(C)

II.

III.

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
(G)

IV.

(A)
(B)

(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
(G)

Table 6.3

GENERAL OUTLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
PSYCHIATRY CURRICULUM: BASIC COURSE I

GENERAL ETHICS IN THE POLICE ROLE

Introduction to the Police Role
Human Attitudes, Morals, Ethics and Values
Men and Women in Police Work

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY

Group Processes

Roles, Norms, and Role Conflict
Leadership

Feed-Back

Self Awareness

CRISIS INTERVENTION

Characteristics of Psychiatric Disturbances/Crisis
Events Which Trigger Psychiatric Crisis

Death Notification

s of Psychiatric Crisis

Defense Mechanisms

The Police Crisis Support Function

Family Disturbances, Spouse Assault, Child Abuse,
Rape, Incest, Child Sexual Abuse

STRESS IN POLICE WORK

Stress Awareness

Hazards of Stress in Police Work: Selected
Problems

Police Officers as Victims

Coping Mechanisms: The John Wayne Syndrome
Families of Police Officers

Over-Building Police Support Groups
Alcoholism

(Table Continues)

43

VI.

VII.

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
(F)
(G)
(H)
(1)

VIII.

(A)
(B)
(C)

IX.

Table 6.3 (Continued)

PSYCHIATRY

Significance of Early Life Events upon Development
Neurosis

Treatment Referrals to Outside Agencies

Stress Experienced by Immigrants

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERCEPTIONS AND WITNESS PSYCHOLOGY

Witness Statements

Perception of the World Around Us
Personal Misconceptions

Prejudice and Discrimination
Police Contact With Immigrants

INTERVIEWING WITNESSES

Interviewing as a Team

Witness Misconceptions

Factors Which Influence Interpretations
Stress, Memory and Forgetfulness
Defense Mechanisms During Interrogation
Expectations and Prejudices

Formulation of Questions

Interviewing Children

False Admissions and Confessions

SPECIAL SUBJECTS

Handicapper Information
Mentally Retarded Persons
Homosexuality

COMMUNICATION, CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Group Behavior

Aggressiveness and Violence

Conflict Resolution

Police Role in Conflict Resolution
Communication: Verbal, Non-Verbal and Symbolic
Listening

 

44

 

Table 6.4

GENERAL OUTLINE OF SWEDISH POLICE RECRUIT
TRAINING CURRICULUM: PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE

CLASSROOM PRACTICAL TOTAL
SUBJECT AREA HOURS HOURS HOURS

 

 

UNIFORMED PATROL DUTY Q 910 910
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION Q 910 910
SOCIAL WORK Q 91 9 0
TOTALS: 0 2,730 2,730

 

To begin.the practical.phase, recruits normally return to
their respective home districts (subject to availability) to
perform uniformed patrol duty for a period of six months.
During this segment, recruits patrol their police districts in
marked police vehicles under the guidance of experienced
patrol officers and supervisors. Recruits perform a wide
range of tasks, such as responding to calls for service,
investigating incidents, preparing written reports, and
traffic enforcement. The patrol duty segment provides
recruits with their first taste of uniformed police duty, as
well as a frame of reference for their approaching tours of

duty' in the investigations division, and ‘the coursework

45

46
encountered during Phase III.

After completing the patrol duty segment, recruits are
assigned to the detective division, where they perform
investigative tasks in a plain-clothes capacity over a period
of six months. Tasks carried out are equally divided among
three Ibranches of the detective idivision, including ‘the
general investigations section, crime squad, and the youth
squad. This segment allows recruits to observe and assist
investigators as they conduct investigations, process
evidence, prepare cases for prosecution, testify in court, and
coordinate activities with other divisions of the police
force.

During the final segment of the practical phase, recruits
perform ”social work” for a period of six months. At this
stage, recruits participate in a variety of assignments with
public service agencies, such as geriatric nursing homes,
psychiatric care facilities, alcohol and drug treatment
programs, ambulance operations, hospital emergency room
facilities, youth gang programs, suicide prevention centers,
and unemployment programs. This experience combines both
observation and participation, and exposes recruits to a
variety of social problems and crisis situations. The social
work segment is designed to provide a heightened awareness of
those struggling with difficult situations and environments,
and is believed to aid in the development of problem-solving
skills.

To avoid placing recruits in compromising positions,

47
which could easily be encountered during the social work
segment of Phase II, recruits are required to surrender their
weapons and police credentials at the beginning of this
segment, and are forbidden to take law enforcement action or
disclose information to the police force concerning criminal
activity either observed or discussed. Not surprisingly, many
recruits find it difficult to withhold action or information
under these circumstances, especially when in close contact

with drug abusers and youth gangs.

Phase III: Classroom Instruction (20 weeks)

Having completed the practical phase, recruits return to
the police college for Phase III, known as Grundkurs II (Basic
Course II) for a period of five months. During this phase,
recruits are expected.to.apply knowledge and experiencelgained
in Phases I & II. Subjects studied in this phase are
essentially the same as those encountered in Basic Course I,
although in greater depth. In addition, subject matter
concerning management principles and civil rights issues are
introduced. Recruits will also explore issues related to
youth culture, such as drug and alcohol abuse, peer pressure,
youth gangs, and teen violence. The emphasis during this
phase shifts from classroom to practical training, which
amounts to more than one-half of the Basic Course II
curriculum. A general outline of the curriculum presented in

Basic Course II is shown in Table 6.5.

 

Table 6.5
GENERAL OUTLINE OF SWEDISH POLICE RECRUIT
TRAINING CURRICULUM: BASIC COURSE II

CLASSROOM PRACTICAL TOTAL
SUBJECT AREA HOURS HOURS HOURS

 

GENERAL INFORMATION AND RULES: 3

4:.
C
It»
.5

POLICE SKILLS:

H
\l
N
\l
O
N
.p
N

 

 

 

Uniform Duty (10) (4) (14)
Weapons (8) (22) (30)
Communications/Computers (30) (6) (36)
Traffic (9) (25) (34)
Criminal Investigation (40) (4) (44)
English Language (20) (0) (20)
Swedish Language (25) (0) (25)
Management Principles (30) (9) (39)
LEGAL SUBJECTS: ss 18 ss
Criminal Law (48) (10) (58)
Civil Law (20) (8) (28)
PHYSICAL FITNESS & SELF DEFENSE: s 29 gs

SOCIAL SCIENCES: p; 15 pp

Sociology (18) (4) (22)
Psychology and Psychiatry (20) (6) (26)
Youth Culture (15) (5) (20)
THEME EXERCISES: Q 42 2 2

INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION: 8 8 16

TOTALS: 342 365 707

 

48

Theme Exercises

Theme exercises normally consist of detailed reenactments
of criminal incidents or emergency situations. These
exercises require extensive planning and preparation, and last
anywhere from several hours to five days. In addition to
providing recruits with the opportunity to practice law
enforcement and emergency response skills, theme exercises are
designed to condition recruits to manage stress during
critical incidents, and provide a heightened awareness of
supervision and leadership strategies, physical and mental
perceptions, and interpersonal communication competence.

In Basic Course I, theme exercises are held in three
scenarios, consuming a total of 97 hours. Recruits receive
classroom instruction in the subject areas to be addressed
prior to participating in theme exercises. Both the
preliminary instruction and the execution of the exercises are
coordinated by staff psychologists, physical education
instructors, and police commanders.

One particular theme exercise allows patrol officer
recruits and command officers to work jointly to solve an
organizational problem. Commanders participating in such
exercises do so in conjunction with command officer training
programs operating concurrently at the Police College. These
segments provide recruits and commanders with the opportunity
to exchange ideas on problem-solving strategies related to

issues such as job stress, management techniques, training

49

50
methods, and disciplinary measures.

During Basic Course II, theme exercises take on
additional emphasis, amounting to approximately one third (242
hours) of the 20-week course. These exercises emphasize
incident response strategies, allowing recruits to experience
the stress associated with.difficult.decisions under less than
ideal circumstances. In addition, theme exercises presented
during Basic Course II are designed to provide an awareness of
the rationale behind strategies and orders implemented by
command officers in difficult situations, where a wide variety
of variables may be taken into consideration.

For example, during an exercise which is based on an
actual incident, recruits encounter armed subjects barricaded
in a vacant house following a bank robbery. This exercise is
carried out over a period of five days, during which the
scenario is explained, response strategies are debated and
determined, the house is approached, suspects are encountered,
written reports are submitted, and the exercise is evaluated.
The essential elements of the exercise occur in the following

sequence:

1. Instructors provide participants with parameters of

the exercise, and details of the incident.

2. The participants meet to discuss strategies for
approaching the house and apprehending the

suspects.

3.

10.

51
A team of “observers" approach the house in an
attempt to identify the number and location of
suspects, and relay their findings to a response

team nearby.

Officers on the response team carefully approach
the house, armed with automatic weapons and wearing

body armor and gas masks.

Officers make unsuccessful attempts to talk the
suspects out of the house, then fire several rounds

of authentic tear gas through windows.

As officers make entry, one officer sustains
"gunshot wounds," and oozes blood (which is
simulated with professional props). Only the

wounded officer is aware of the impending shooting.

An ambulance is summoned, then arrives on the scene
with emergency lights and siren activated. The

injured officer is rushed away from the scene.

A commander at the scene later reports that the
injured officer is in critical condition, and is

expected to die.

A minister arrives at the scene and counsels the

officers.

A large contingent from the media arrives at the

52
scene, fully equipped with cameras and recording

devices, seeking interviews.

11. The suspects are captured and transported to a

police station.

12. A press conference is held at the scene for members

of the media.

13. A debriefing is held at the scene for the response

team .

14. The entire exercise is evaluated in the classroom.

The realism of this exercise may be most appreciated upon
examining the faces of the participants, where the stress,
fear, and exhaustion of the 10-hour ordeal is clearly visible.
Many recruits stated the exercise was so well staged that, at
times, they lost sight of reality. As a result of the
physical and emotional demands placed on participants,
trainees and instructors commonly have difficulty sleeping on
the evening 'the exercise is completed” Many instructors
commented that this scenario continues to be an emotional
experience, despite having participated in it many times.
According to one instructor, this scenario is intended to
provide a lesson in psychology, and is designed to pose
questions to the recruits, such as, "Who will you go home
to?," and "How will you deal with the stress?"

Another interesting theme exercise involves the

53
simulation of a plane crash in a residential neighborhood.
This exercise requires participants to perform the roles of
radio dispatchers, patrol officers, detectives, commanders,
helicopter' pilots, K-9 units, firefighters and. ambulance
technicians.

Unlike the bank robbery scenario, which takes place
outdoors, this exercise is implemented entirely indoors.
"Building #16,” the site of this exercise, is equipped with
sophisticated communications and video equipment, a mock
police station, a television studio, and fifteen classrooms.
Recruits are distributed throughout the building depending
upon their respective roles. Instructors monitor and
coordinate the exercise from a command center, which is
equipped with closed circuit television. To provide feedback
and aid in evaluation, the exercise is recorded on video tape.
To assure technical accuracy, classroom instruction and
assistance in coordination of the exercise is provided by fire
department personnel.

Communication between participants is achieved. with
portable police radios. To add a dimension of realism,
communication equipment is augmented with background sound
effects provided on audio cassette tape (e.g., police vehicle
sirens, helicopter noise, dogs barking in K-9 vehicles). The
exercise is followed by a short debriefing and several hours
of in—depth evaluation. Participants are evaluated on their
response strategies, communication proficiency, application of

laws, and coordination of services with fire department,

54
emergency medical personnel, and utility crews. The main
thrust of this exercise centers around the development of

teamwork concepts.

ProblemeSolvinq Scenarios

Much of the practical training, designed to prepare
recruits for the social role of policing, is carried out in
the.Lagtorget (“Law Square“) facility; Law Square is situated
on a few acres of the Police College campus, and consists of
a group of seven buildings resembling a small commerce center.
The buildings are fully furnished, and include a post office,
liquor store, restaurant, grocery store, newsstand, bank, and
apartments. The pavement is marked with standard traffic
lanes, crosswalks and sidewalks, which also aids in the
execution of traffic training exercises such as vehicle stops
and check-lane scenarios.

A wide variety of exercises are performed in Law Square,
although a common theme involves dispatching police recruits
to settle disputes or provide assistance. Examples of mock
scenarios include incidents involving intoxicated individuals,
disputes between customers and merchants, noise complaints,
domestic or neighborhood disputes, motorist assists, or
teenage gatherings. The roles of private citizens (e.g.,
customers, combatants, bystanders, etc.) are nearly always
performed by the trainees, who alternate between character

roles and responding' officers. Role players are often

55
outfitted with appropriate costumes, makeup, and props such as
ragged clothing, alcoholic beverage containers, simulated
wounds and blood, weapons, and medical information cards.

Instructors of problem-solving scenario exercises are
normally veteran patrol officers who take a temporary leave of
absence (one or two days at a time) from regular police duty.
These instructors are often assisted by permanent staff, such
as psychologists or nurses, who may offer their particular
expertise depending upon the nature of the scenarios.

The purpose of these exercises commonly revolves around
handling uncooperative persons and difficult situations,
applying' knowledge and 'techniques learned in ‘theoretical
coursework concerning interpersonal communications and
psychology, the application and enforcement of the law, and an
appreciation for the :motivations behind ‘the creation of
applicable laws. The emphasis of these exercises is on
problem solving, as opposed to law enforcement, whenever

feasible.

Assignment and In-Service Traininq

Recruits must successfully complete each of the basic
training phases to be guaranteed permanent employment.
Assignment locations are dependent upon prevailing manpower
levels. New officers are normally assigned to uniformed
patrol duty, after which they may apply for assignments to

specialized units, such as the traffic section, neighborhood

56
policing, canine unit, investigations division, or special
forces. Competition for special assignments is rigorous and
promotion is largely based on seniority (Cedermark—Hedberg,
1985; Becker and Hjellemo, 1976).

Officers attend in-service training courses on a sporadic
basis. In-service training is most often conducted at the
local or regional level, and addresses subjects such.as marine
patrol, defensive tactics, firearms, investigative techniques,
surveillance, interviewing techniques, social work, and.motor
vehicle accident investigation” IPromotions are normally
followed by 15 weeks of training at the National Police
College, where subject matter is geared to the particular

position obtained.

CHAPTER VII

SELECTION OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS IN SWEDEN

Selection Criteria

The selection process for Swedish police commissioners
differs substantially from the U.S. profile. Rather than
seeking candidates who have demonstrated above average skills
and abilities as operating police officers, the Swedish
National Police Force recruits candidates with exceptional
legal knowledge and leadership skills, and then provides them
with substantial classroom and practical training
(Rikspolisstyrelsen, 1988, 1989b, 1989c).

In addition to basic qualifications (e.g., Swedish
citizenship, a valid drivers license, good moral character),
aspiring police commissioner applicants must be law school
graduates. An exceptional academic record and distinguished
service to the legal profession are essential prerequisites.

As a result of these selection criteria, the majority of
appointees have been selected from outside of the police
organization. In recent years, however, the number of police
officers who have completed law school and applied for police
commissioner posts has been increasing. The number and

frequency of candidates selected to staff the (approximately)

57

58
300 police commissioner posts varies depending upon
retirement, manpower levels, financial and other
considerations. In recent years, approximately 70 percent of

appointees have had no prior law enforcement experience.

CHAPTER VIII

TRAINING OF POLICE COMMISSIONERS IN SWEDEN

The Police Commissioner Training Program is administered
by the Swedish National Police College. The basic format of
the program has changed little since its inception in 1971.
The course content, however, is constantly updated to reflect
contemporary needs. A general outline of the Swedish Police
Commissioner Training Program, which is offered in three

phases over a 32-month period, is illustrated in Table 8.1.

Phase I: Classroom Instruction (8 weeks)

The initial phase involves two months of coursework at
the Swedish National Police College. The course, entitled
“Polischefskurs I" (Police Commissioner Course I), includes
instruction in six general subject areas: Fundamentals of
Police Duty, Police Administration, Physical Fitness and
Defensive Tactics, Immigration Law and Investigations, Work-
place Psychology, and Planning, Research & Analysis of Police
Operations.

Entering candidates are divided into classes of
approximately 20 students, and are assigned to a

Polissuperintendent (Head Teacher) who coordinates the

59

 

PHASE I:

PHASE II:

PHASE III:

Table 8.1

GENERAL OUTLINE OF SWEDISH POLICE

COMMISSIONER TRAINING PROGRAM

POLICE COMMISSIONER COURSE I (8 Weeks)
Fundamentals of Police Duty
Fundamentals of Police Administration

Planning, Research, and Analysis of Police
Operations

Physical Fitness and Defensive Tactics
Immigration Law and Investigations
Workplace Psychology

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE AND TRAINING’ (26 Months)
Local Police District: 8 Months

County Police Commission: 1 Month

County Court: 1 Month

District Court: 12 Months

Prosecutor's Office: 4 Months

POLICE COMMISSIONER COURSE II (16 Weeks)
Fundamentals of Police Duty
Fundamentals of Police Administration

Planning, Research, and Analysis of Police
Operations

Physical Fitness and Defensive Tactics
Immigration Law and Investigations
Workplace Psychology

Management Development

Financial Administration

First-Aid

 

60

61
classroom phases of the training program. Normally, the head
teacher takes a leave of absence from regular duty as a

Kommissarie (Precinct Commander) while serving at the police

college. At the completion of the initial coursework phase,
the head.teacher returns to regular dutyu Once the candidates
have completed the practical phase, the head teacher returns
to the police college for Police Commissioner Course II. The
head teacher delivers the majority of the lecture material,
although additional lecturers, such as police commissioners,
psychologists, professors, physicians, prosecuting attorneys,
defensive tactics experts, and immigration inspectors are
called upon to present material in their respective fields of
expertise.

The majority of instruction is conducted in a single
classroom, which candidates report to each weekday.
Candidates are seated in a "U" shaped formation so as to
promote free face-to—face exchange of ideas and comments.
Classroom training is sometimes supplemented with field trips
to facilities which may offer additional insight to criminal
justice operations, such as the SNPB Headquarters, various
police stations, refugee camps, and court facilities. The
purpose of Course I is to provide a general introduction to
the many facets of police duty and administration, and to

prepare the candidates for the second phase of training.

Phase II: Practical Experience (26 months)

The second. phase, known as .Praktik (Practical
Experience), begins immediately after the completion of Course
I, and continues for a period of 26 months. During this phase
of the program, the candidates receive significant ”hands-on"
experience 'within the criminal justice system, which is
designed to prepare them for the day-to-day responsibilities
of a police commissioner. Phase II also provides a
foundation for the coursework encountered in Phase III
(Police Commissioner Course II).

To begin the practical phase, the candidates return to
their respective home districts (subject to availability)
where they spend eight months at a local district police
station assisting the police commissioner with administrative
responsibilities. The candidates will be exposed to many
facets of the daily operation of the police district, and
perform many of the duties of the police commissioner, under
the commissioner's direction. This segment of the training
program comprises nearly one-third.of the practical phase, and
fully one-quarter of the training program overall.

Immediately following the practical phase, the candidates
are assigned to each of 24 County Police Commissioners'
Offices for a period of one month. These organizations are
operated by the County Police Commissioner and the County
Administrative Board. County police officials have

supervisory control over a variety of operations conducted by

62

63
the local districts.

Among the functions carried out at the county level are
planning, the allocation of resources between police districts
located within the county (including police personnel), the
coordination of operations conducted jointly by local police
districts, and the implementation of regional activities
including traffic enforcement, narcotics investigations,
marine patrol, and police dog services. The purpose of
training administered.at this level is to provide insight into
the variety of functions and challenges faced by the regional
police operative.

The remainder of the practical phase involves hands-on
experience and training within the court system. The
candidates spend a total of 17 months in this segment of the
program, which includes one month at the county court, one
year at the district court, and four months in the
prosecutor's office. During this segment, the candidates are
exposed to many facets of court system operations, as they
assist administrative personnel, prosecuting attorneys, and
judges with their daily work. During their assignment to the
Office of the Public Prosecutor, the candidates perform the
duties of an assistant prosecuting attorney. This assignment
allows the candidates to review criminal cases and make
decisions concerning the issuance of arrest warrants, filing
applications for detention orders, prosecuting those charged

with criminal offenses, or initiating diversion programs.

Phase III: Classroom Instruction (16 weeks)

Upon completing the practical phase, the candidates
return to the police college for Polischefskurs II (Police
Commissioner Course II), where they receive additional
classroom training over a period of four months. In addition
to supplemental coursework in subjects introduced in Police
Commissioner Course I, instruction in management development,
financial administration, and first—aid are also introduced.

Police Commissioner Course II is designed to reinforce
what was learned in the previous coursework and practical
phases, and to introduce more advanced subject matter. The
introduction. of :management. development and financial
administration instruction is withheld until Course II, to
allow candidates to become familiar with related concepts and

tasks during the practical phase.

Assignment and In-Service Training:

Upon successfully completing the 32—month training
program, candidates are assigned to one of 118 local police
districts, where they serve as Polis Intendent (Assistant
Police Commissioner). This position is third in command in
the rank structure at the district level. Exceptional
performance may later qualify individuals for promotion to
Poliséverintendent (Deputy Police Commissioner), and finally

to Polismastare (Police Commissioner). The promotion process

64

65
may also require the commissioners to relocate to other
districts.

Throughout the course of their careers, police
commissioners have the opportunity to attend various in—
service training courses and conferences, which may last
anywhere from a few hours to several weeks. These programs
are offered at the National Police College, or at regional or
local facilities. More than three-quarters of in-service
training is offered at the local level.

Approximately six years after completing Police
Commissioner Course II, the commissioners return to the
National Police College for a three-month training program,
entitled.Polischefskurs III (Police Commissioner Course III).
This course is essentially an advanced version of Courses I
and II, with greater emphasis on management principles.

After completing Course III, commissioners complete one
month of practical training and service at the SNPB
headquarters, in Stockholm. During this segment,
commissioners are introduced to the functions of the SNPB,
such as the overall administration of the police force,
personnel. administration, coordination. of .information. and
activities with Interpol, or acquiring police equipment such
as vehicles, police radios, weapons, uniforms, and traffic-
control equipment. Commissioners may also assist in the
establishment of police policies, procedures, or regulations
concerning police operations. This experience provides

exposure to police operations at the national level, thereby

66
providing the final link in their training and involvement in

the police organization as a whole.

CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Selection and Training of

Police Rscruits in Sweden
Entry-level qualification standards, physical
requirements, and application procedures utilized in Sweden
are similar to those commonly found in the United States
(Gaines, Southerland, & Angell, 1991; Sheehan & Cordner, 1989;
Swanson, Territo & Taylor, 1988). The Swedish standard
requiring high school completion is similar to policies in
effect.in.approximately'86 percent.of.American.police agencies
(Carter, Sappi& Stephens, 1989). The Swedish.policy requiring
a record of high academic achievement in the subjects of
Swedish and English language, civics, sociology, psychology,
and human-relations coursework to be considered for employment
is, perhaps, more purposeful. According to police college
personnel, this criteria was formulated in recognition of the
role of police officers as peace keepers and problem solvers,
and requiring high academic achievement in these subjects is
thought to increase the probability of selecting recruits who
will understand and apply interpersonal communication and

human relations concepts when interacting with the public

67

68
(A.L. Randle, personal communication; August 31, 1989). In
recognition of this policy, it appears the Swedish Police
establishment may have a more realistic interpretation of the
police role.

With this in mind, requiring a record of high academic
achievement in language arts, social science, psychology, and
human behavior appears worthy of serious consideration. When
combined with psychological screening, which is common in the
United States (Hargrave & Brewer, 1986; Hooker, 1988) and
curiously absent in the Swedish system, this approach may
provide a more meaningful assessment of applicants and their
likelihood of success in policing. Conversely, such a policy
may exclude applicants who lack sufficient grades in these
subjects, but might have gone on to perform well as police
officers anyway. To evaluate the validity of this
requirement, additional research to examine possible
relationships between grades earned and job performance should
be undertaken.

Training presented in Basic Courses I and II provides
over 2,300 hours of classroom and practical training, which
amounts to nearly one-half of the program overall. In
addition to usual instruction in areas such as police skills,
criminal law, physical fitness and self defense, Swedish
recruits receive 274 hours of instruction in social science
and human relations subjects, including 110 hours in
psychology and psychiatry. In comparison, American recruits

are required to complete an average of only 19 hours of human

69
relations training (Meadows, 1989).

Courses in the social and behavioral sciences, such as
those presented in the Swedish recruit training program, are
believed to better prepare police officers to perform the
delicate tasks of policing. This argument was advanced by
Earle, who wrote:

Preparation of the police force today and tomorrow

necessitates both training and education; ability

to read and write, physical health, skill in self-

defense, authority to subdue and shoot, no matter

how diligently executed are not enough to protect

the community against the hazards of crime and

delinquency. Police need knowledge of themselves

and others they deal with (1967: 78).

Training to promote understanding of the emotional needs
of those who summon police to intervene in conflict situations
is an important aspect of the Swedish program. A study by
Janus, Bess, Cadden & Greenwald (1979) concluded that police
officers benefit from.courses in psychology and.psychiatry, as
officers trained in these areas are more able to handle
disturbed persons safely, with less probability of injury to
themselves and private citizens. An argument advanced by
Janus, et al, that officers benefit from a .heightened
awareness of mental illness is summarized, as follows:

"Police officers, by developing awareness of mental

illness seem to develop empathy with, and can

relate more comfortably to mental patients and

citizens who are in stress situations (1979: 31).

Training police officers to deal with persons suffering

from emotional illnesses is of vital importance, as police

70

officers are often the first to come in contact with and
observe acute emotional distress, long before patients are
seen by psychologists, psychiatrists, or hospital staff.
Training in behavioral sciences often allows officers to
furnish treatment providers with accurate assessments of
bizarre behavior, which has often subsided by the time
patients have arrived for treatment (Janus, et al., 1979).

The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice
Standards and Goals also recognized the benefits of
instruction in these areas, and remarked:

“New police officers take courses in sociology,

psychology, and related subjects in order to gain

understanding of human values and problems. This
knowledge makes the policeman more effective,
increases his personal satisfaction, and reduces

tension in public encounters (1973: 394).

Of particular interest in the Swedish program is the 18-
month practical phase, particularly the segment which includes
910 hours of exposure to social welfare and service agencies.
In this segment, exposure to social problems and crisis
situations is designed to prepare recruits for encounters with
citizens in difficult or emotionally charged situations, to
familiarize recruits with the functions and limitations of
these agencies, and to aid in the development of problem-
solving skills through a more intimate understanding of social
problems. This approach has also been recognized by the

National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and

Goals, in citing a similar program operating on a smaller

71
scale in Oakland, California:

Oakland conducts many of its community awareness

programs at community locations with public

representatives. Each recruit learns the problems
involved in seeking help from government and
community organizations by seeking help himself and

by working 1 day with a local social service agency

(1973: 395).

While techniques similar to those introduced in the
Swedish program have been utilized in the United States for at
least twenty years, the 910 hour commitment integrated into
the Swedish curriculum sets it apart from American programs.
The National Advisory Commission (1973) remarked, however,
that such approaches are “often.expensive, time-consuming, and
fraught with administrative headaches.“

Problem-solving scenarios conducted in Swedish recruit
training are also geared to prepare officers for encounters
with citizens in difficult or emotionally charged situations.
These exercises are carried.out‘with.much attention to detail,
and are very realistic. Similar scenarios conducted in
Minneapolis received favorable reviews from. the INational
Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals
(1973). In Minneapolis, recruits were placed in controlled
confrontations in the community with selected representatives.
The results were positive, both from the standpoint of the

police department as well as from members of the community, as

reported by the Commission:

72

The local community has accepted the agency's

sincerity in its attempt to develop new police

officers rather than indoctrinate them. Many
trainees said the experiences prepared them for
their tasks better than any lecture. None of the

100 men from these classes receiving this training

has had any public complaint alleging improper

treatment lodged against him (1973: 395).

Placing trainees in the roles of private citizens during
problem-solving scenarios appears to be an effective method of
increasing awareness. Many recruits stated they gained a
fresh. perspective on how it feels to be involved in incidents
requiring police intervention. Nearly all those interviewed
expected their experiences in problem-solving scenarios to be
helpful when responding to disputes and assistance calls in
the field.

Among the most interesting aspects of the Swedish police
recruit training program are the elaborate theme exercises.
The realism and attention to detail of the reenactments of
criminal incidents and emergency situations is quite
impressive. The focus on stress management and the
appreciation for supervision and leadership strategies should
allow recruits to better understand and respond to critical
incidents in the field. Of particular interest is the
exercise which allows recruits and command officers to work
jointly to solve an organizational problem. Recruits and
commanders alike have given overwhelmingly positive
evaluations of this exercise, frequently citing the benefits

of a free exchange of opinions without inherent pressures

often associated with on-the-job interactions. Recruits, in

73
particular, favor this approach, as many find it easier to
offer criticism of their commanders in a training environment
than during encounters in the field.

In summary, police recruit selection and training
strategies implemented by the Swedish Police appear to be
based on realistic interpretations of the police role. The
basic recruit training program has been carefully designed to
prepare recruits for the human service role of law
enforcement, as well as the law enforcement function. While
it appears likely that virtually all of the social role
training strategies implemented in the Swedish program have
been executed by police agencies in the United States at one
time or another, the difference lies in the emphasis on these
strategies. Simply stated, the Swedish program allocates
1,284 hours to the study of social and behavioral sciences,
which amounts to 25 percent of the curriculum overall. In
comparison, American recruit training programs merely dabble
in these disciplines, requiring a mean of only 19 hours in
human relations training, which amounts to 5 percent overall.

To suggest the importation. of the Swedish training
program to the United States would be unrealistic, however.
First, and perhaps foremost, any training program lasting 33
months and consuming over 5,000 hours would be enormously
expensive, and beyond. the means of practically' all law
enforcement agencies in the United States. Unlike Sweden, the
United States has neither a national police force nor the

proportionate tax base created by a social welfare state. In

74

addition, it is highly unlikely that American law enforcement
agencies would be willing' to make such a lengthy time
commitment to the training of police personnel. On the other
hand, in consideration of court judgements levied in lawsuits
against police for employing excessive force or failing to
provide adequate training, American police agencies must
decide whether to pay now - or to pay later. In the Rodney
King case, for example, the direct judgement amounted to $3.8
million, and indirect costs to the City of Los Angeles may
have reached the tens of millions of dollars. These funds
could have paid for a great deal of training. Proactive
approaches, including training programs designed to better
equip officers to respond to emotionally charged incidents,
are likely to reduce the frequency of injuries to the police
and public, while also curtailing exposure to civil liability.

Many aspects of the Swedish system are worthy of
implementation. For example, role playing scenarios, which
stress dispute resolution, should be given particular
attention in police recruit training programs, as should
training related to the subjects of psychology, psychiatry,
human relations, and crisis intervention. While one could
argue that instruction in these subjects is available to
American criminal justice students in college prior to
employment, research by Carter, Sapp & Stephens (1989) found
that only about 14 percent of police departments in the United
States require educational achievement beyond high school.

Recognition of these facts, however, also tends to support the

75

argument that police officers should be college educated.

The potential benefits of exposure to social service
agencies, albeit.on.a smaller scale than those in operation in
Sweden, should also be explored. Observations of the Swedish
approach, as well as similar programs in the United States,
suggest that both.police officers and members of the citizenry
can realize substantial benefit from these programs. In
consideration.of the relative scarcity of such.programs in the
United States, agencies should be encouraged to experiment
with similar strategies and, ideally, criminal justice
researchers should respond by providing their resources to

evaluate the effectiveness of such programs.

Selection and Training of
of Police Commissioners in Sweden

The selection process endeavors to identify bright
individuals who possess leadership and management skills. In
having the option of selecting the candidates externally, the
organization widens the pool of potential candidates
substantially. This policy enables the SNPB to select
promising prospects who have already established themselves as
legal professionals, and have demonstrated leadership
abilities. A possible benefit to selecting candidates
externally is that these individuals may offer fresh and,
perhaps, innovative approaches to the organization and its
complexities.

Providing the coursework at a central facility allows

76
candidates from districts nationwide to meet, exchange ideas
and socialize with one another. Such an arrangement is
believed.to result in camaraderie and future cooperation (A.L.
Randle, personal communication; September 18, 1989).

The initial coursework at the Police College provides a
general introduction to police duty and administration, much
of which is similar to basic police management programs
offered in the United States. The addition, however, of the
segment concerning the fundamentals of police operations is
necessary to provide inexperienced candidates with an
understanding of the elements of police patrol and responses
to calls for service.

The practical phase of the Swedish training program
endeavors to provide a wide range of practical knowledge and
experience. The initial eight-month segment, during which
candidates perform.managerial tasks under the watchful eye of
local police commissioners, is not unlike methods employed in
the United States, albeit under different circumstances. In
similar fashion, command officers in the United States, such
as police captains, precinct commanders and deputy chiefs,
perform managerial duties under the direction of superior
officers during daily operations, although not in the context
of formal training programs. A more formal approach is
necessary in the Swedish system as the majority of police
commissioner candidates have no police supervisory experience.

The remaining 17 months of the practical phase bears no

resemblance to command officer training programs offered in

77

the United States. This segment introduces candidates to the
inner workings of the court system by firsthand involvement as
a fundamental cog in the machineryu Of particular interest is
the four-month assignment to the position of assistant
prosecuting attorney. Such experience is likely to provide a
unique perspective of the manners in which criminal cases
proceed through the court system, including the variety of
decisions which must be reached in the process. When coupled
with the instruction obtained in law school, this training
should be of great value, particularly as it relates to the
formation of police policies, procedures, rules and orders.
This experience should also result in a number of personal
contacts throughout the court system, which may later prove
advantageous in forging working relationships.

The practice of candidates returning to the Police
College for Police Commissioner Course II following the
practical phase allows for the exchange of information
concerning their respective experiences and challenges, and
for the reinforcement of concepts learned in both the
practical phase and.Course I. In.addition, the candidates are
more likely to understand and place into context the advanced
subjects offered in Course II, in particular the management
development and financial administration courses, having been
exposed to these matters in actual practice.

During the course of this study, interviews were
conducted with dozens of Swedish police officers, of all

ranks. While many officers voiced freely their complaints

78
about police work and the police organization, very few
expressed opinions that requiring a law degree of police
commissioner applicants was inappropriate, and nearly all
characterized police commissioners as hard working, competent
and effective.

For example, in Falkenberg, where approximately one-half
of the officers were interviewed, the police commissioner
received a unanimous approval rating. These officers spoke of
their district as having a high level of morale, and many
described their commissioner (who had no police experience
prior to entry into the police commissioner training program)
as an effective and innovative leader. Officers assigned to
patrol duty in the Stockholm district were not quite as
favorable, although the vast majority of those interviewed
supported commissioner selection criteria and characterized
their commissioners as good performers. Nationwide, the
majority of officers interviewed believed that the ideal
combination of schooling and experience is a law school
education and several years of police experience prior to
entry into the police commissioner training program. While
the results of these informal inquiries suggest that the SNPB
policy of appointing only law school graduates and providing
substantial training appears to have served Sweden well,
empirical research would be necessary to measure the
performance of police commissioners more reliably.

One cannot ignore, however, that inherent disadvantages

may be present in the Swedish model. First, in requiring

79

prospective candidates to possess a law degree, the
organization automatically excludes those who have performed
well as operating police officers, and might have gone on to
succeed as police commissioners. Such a policy may also have
a negative impact on morale, as officers may be disheartened
in knowing that without a law degree, they cannot progress
beyond the rank of Kommissarie [Precinct Commander]. After
reaching this rank, the “carrot in front of the donkey” may
disappear, and along with it the motivation to perform at
maximum capability.

Another issue which deserves closer examination is the
validity of the law degree requirement. In other words, is
there any evidence which suggests that lawyers make better
police commissioners? Do those who have completed a law
school education necessarily perfonm better than those who
have studied other disciplines, such as business
administration, public administration, or the social sciences?
To evaluate the law degree standard, task analysis studies
should be performed to identify the nature and extent of
activities performed by police commissioners, and empirical
research which.measures relationships between legal education
and job performance should be undertaken.

The policy of requiring police chiefs to complete a law
school education is unusual by U.S. standards. While the
public is likely to support the concept of police chiefs
sending themselves through law school, it is less likely that

taxpayers will be willing to pay for it. To require police

80

chiefs to have law degrees would raise another interesting
question: Are we willing to turn over yet another government
entity to attorneys? This concept is almost certainly more
palatable to Swedes than Americans, as Sweden has not
experienced the civil litigation crisis which has plagued the
United States in recent years, and Swedes have a relatively
favorable opinion of attorneys and. the legal profession
(Becker and Hjellemo, 1976).

In addition, questions of whether individuals with no
background in law enforcement possess sufficient knowledge of
the police organization cannot be ignored. While it is clear
that the Police College provides a strong theoretical
background and practical training, the saying, "There is no
substitute for experience,” is worthy of consideration. The
ability of the Swedish training' program to address and
compensate for lack of experience may be critical to the
success of aspiring police commissioners, and it appears that
the substantial practical phase was designed with this in
mind.

To suggest that the Swedish model be implemented in the
United states would be unrealistic. The fragmented nature of
American law enforcement, with thousands of federal, state and
municipal agencies of various sizes, needs and resources,
would make such an expensive and time consuming program
impractical. Some of the concepts embodied in the Swedish
model are worthy of consideration, however.

Selecting command officers externally, including those

81
with no law enforcement experience, is an intriguing concept.
Advocates of the Swedish model might suggest that, given
proper training and practical experience, those who have
succeeded as leaders in the professional arena may also
provide effective leadership in a law enforcement environment.
Such an argument would contradict conventional wisdom that
administrative and supervisory police experience is the key to
successful police management, as suggested by Parker, who

stated:

It is mandatory that the chief administrative

officer of the police department be a person with

an extensive administrative and supervisory

background. The chief will be ultimately

responsible for the preparation of the police
department budget and the overall direction that

the department takes. Such responsibility demands

significant administrative experience. The chief

must be able to call on a vast storehouse of

supervisory skills (1982: 42).

Mandatory training and retraining for police executives
is also worthy of consideration. While a number of command
colleges and institutes in the United States currently provide
executive development programs, the practice of requiring law
enforcement executives to attend is unusual. As a result,
relatively few are fortunate enough to reap the benefits of
these programs. While the fragmented nature of American law
enforcement would make a national policy on executive
development impractical, individual agencies should

periodically evaluate their training policies and priorities,

weigh the potential benefits of management training, and give

82
prime consideration to training programs which enhance the

professionalism of chief executives.

CHAPTER X

IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The objective of this study is: (1) To identify specific
problems related to the selection and training of law
enforcement personnel in the United States; (2) To provide a
basic description and analysis of Swedish police personnel
selection and training models; (3) To assess the applicability
of policies implemented in the Swedish system to law
enforcement agencies in the United States; and, (4) To serve
as a preliminary step to be followed. by’ more rigorous
research.

The absence of empirical research related to the Swedish
model would appear to weaken proclamations surrounding the
apparent successes of Swedish strategies, or those calling for
the implementation of such policies in the United States. In
addition, the vast differences in the sociopolitical systems,
as well as considerations related.to racial and ethnic make-up
of the two nations should not be ignored. In other words, in
addition to arguments cited in Chapter IX, Sweden and the
United States are worlds apart, and generalizations based upon
approaches which have been successful in Sweden may have no

relevance or applicability in the United States.

83

84

This, however, should not preclude further research on
the Swedish model. Empirical research to measure
relationships Ibetween. Swedish selection. and 'training
strategies, and variables such as citizen satisfaction with
the police, fear of crime, victimization rates, police
personnel performance ratings, the application of force, the
nature and frequency of citizen complaints, or job task
analysis, should be undertaken in an attempt to assess the
effectiveness of Swedish police personnel selection and
training programs.

In the United States, studies which have examined the
nature of calls for police service have made it abundantly
clear that police officers devote far more effort to social
service than to all other functions. Additional research
should attempt to identify and evaluate entry level selection
and training strategies which place an emphasis on human
relations skills and training, or other approaches which have
been specifically tailored to enhance the abilities of police
officers to exercise proficiency in the social role of
policing. Such research findings could be directed toward the
implementation.of policies designed to reduce or eliminate the
disparity that exists between training curricula and the true
nature of policing, and to staff American police agencies with
personnel who will serve their communities in a more safe,
effective, and professional manner.

The issues surrounding police executive selection and

training strategies have, unfortunately, received far less

85

attention than those concerning line personnel. As a starting
point, task analysis studies could provide useful data which
could assist in the identification and development of
particular skills which are beneficial to police managers.
Such data should also prove particularly valuable in the
formation of training programs tailored to the development of
police management skills, while also providing a foundation
for further research.

Is it possible, or likely, that those who have
established proven track records of proficiency in leadership,
management, financial administration, social service, or
public affairs, although lacking' experience in law
enforcement, may' also (demonstrate jproficiency in leading
American law enforcement agencies if provided with sufficient
training and organizational support? This question shall
remain unanswered unless police agencies are willing to assume
the risks associated with such innovative, uncharted
undertakings.

Police personnel selection and training strategies, as
factors which will have a direct influence on the future of
American law enforcement agencies, should continue to be a.
particular focus as law enforcement heads into the twenty-
first century. To take full advantage of opportunities to
produce meaningful change, however, law enforcement
practitioners and. researchers :must acknowledge that. many
solutions to problems facing law enforcement agencies are

likely to be discovered beyond American borders. In addition,

86
police agencies must recognize that the future of American law
enforcement will present unforseen challenges to which the
application of "traditional" strategies may be ineffective.
In response, police agencies must be encouraged: (1) To
explore non-traditional approaches to embrace the dynamics of
these challenges; (2) To reward those who succeed in the
application of innovative strategies; and, (3) To provide
encouragement - not discouragement - those who fail in their

endeavors to produce positive change.

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REFERENCES - Continued

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REFERENCES — Continued

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91

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