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thesis entitled

USING DRAMA IN AN INSTRUCTIONAL
VIDEO:
IS IT EFFECTIVE?

presented by
Kelly Lynn Grieve

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M. A. degree in Telecommunication

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USING DRAMA IN AN INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO:
IS IT EFFECTIVE?

By

Kelly Lynn Grieve

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Telecommunication

1994

ABSTRACT

USING DRAMA IN AN INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO:
IS IT EFFECTIVE?

By

Kelly Lynn Grieve

- The videotape program Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life was
the catalyst and case study for this thesis. Although very little audience
analysis was done, the program was designed using actors portraying
characters similar to the audience who follow a nutritionist as she shows
them how to choose healthy foods. As the characters learn about healthy
eating, it was thought that the audience would also learn.

This thesis examines the past uses of drama in educational settings,
the advantages and disadvantages of using drama, and the advantages and
disadvantages of a videotape program. The program was shown to a non-
random sample of the target audience and feedback was obtained through
questionnaires. The results showed that the focus group did learn from the
program and that the focus group found the acting and story believable. The
thesis makes several recommendations for future use of drama in

instructional videotape programs.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Figures
Introduction
1. Definition of Terms

2. Drama as an Instructional Tool
Introduction
Drama as an Instructional Tool
Summary

3. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Dramatic Format
Introduction
Advantages of Using the Dramatic Format
Disadvantages of Using the Dramatic Format
Summary

4. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Video Format
Introduction
Advantages of Using the Video Format
Disadvantages of Using the Video Format
Summary

5. Dramatic Instructional Video: A Case Study
Description of Video
Content
Drama
Modules
Acting
Animation
Graphics
The Video-Within-the Video
Location
Summary

6. The Focus Group
Description of the Focus Group
Description of the Pretest
Description of the Posttest
Description of the Video Questionnaire

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Description of Discussion

Results of the Pretest

Results of the Posttest

Results of the Video Questionnaire
Results of the Discussion
Summary

Conclusion

Appendix A
Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life Script

Appendix B
Feedback from the American Soybean Association
and the Focus Group

Appendix C
Pre-Test Questionnaire

Appendix D
Post-Test Questionnaire

Appendix E
Video Questionnaire

Bibliography

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Module Title

Figure 2: Borrowed Animation

Figure 3: Original Computer Generated Animation
Figure 4: DVE Animation — Fat Content on Label
Figure 5: DVE Animation — Fat Content Zoomed Out
Figure 6: Chyron Generated Graphic

Figure 7: Keyed Graphic — Complicated Calculation
Figure 8: Keyed Graphic - Simple Calculation
Figure 9: Keyed Graphic — Statistic

Figure 10: Keyed Graphic — Title

Figure 11: Host of the Video-Within-the Video
Figure 12: The Couple’s Den

Figure 13: The Grocery Store

Figure 14: The Restaurant

Figure 15: The Direct-Address Room

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INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the form and content
decisions and their underlying assumptions present in the instructional video
Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life. The original purpose of the video
was to instruct viewers on the benefits of following a low-fat diet including
practical advice on how to choose low fat foods. During the production of
Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life, the production staff made
decisions concerning the video without much audience analysis or research.
One such decision was to put the important information and lessons within
the constructs of a story. The viewer would watch a character learn about
healthy eating and thus, would learn from the character’s decisions.

The idea to put the lessons in story form came from a desire to do
something out of the ordinary. There tends to be a feeling that educational
programs lack entertainment value and that entertainment programs lack
educational value.1 In deciding the form of the program, the production staff
had watched videotapes with similar topics, and most of these tapes used an
interview style to relate the necessary information. The production staff was
interested in creating a video that would be more entertaining and watchable
than the other available videotapes. They felt that if the tape was more

entertaining and watchable, then it would be more effective than those

 

1Lynn Hinds, “Using Entertainment Television to Educate: A Case Study,” The
lonmalnflfionnlarflmm 25 (1991): 118.

1

2
programs currently available. They were interested in making an
entertaining educational tape.

Since the idea of framing lessons inside a story seems to be very
different from the available tapes marketed on this topic, this thesis will
examine the assumption of the program production stafi‘ that drama, in an
instructional video, is an effective means of imparting information,
specifically, to teach the viewer a skill.

There are many media used for instruction. Filmstrips, slides, posters,
lectures and videotape are just a few examples. Because the production staff
was asked to create a videotape program, this thesis will review the
advantages and disadvantages of using videotape as the medium to carry the
message.

Once the decision has been made to use videotape as the medium to
carry the message, how the information will be structured becomes
important. How will the producer relay the information to the viewer? He or
she may decide to use an interviewer asking questions of a learned guest to
tell the viewer the information. He or she may have a host demonstrate the
skills to be learned by the viewer. He or she may create a story through
which the viewer would learn from watching the characters in the story. The
production staff of the case study videotape chose to divulge the information
in a story. This thesis, then, will discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of the dramatic format.

Although perhaps a challenging choice for an instructional video,
significant use of drama has been made in classroom settings. This thesis,
then, will also investigate how drama has been used as an instructional tool
by educators in the classroom with live performances and with television

programs.

3

As mentioned above, the purpose of this thesis is to examine the
decisions and their underlying assumptions of the production staff of an
instructional videotape program. By reviewing the uses of drama as an
instructional tool and the advantages and disadvantages of video and drama,
this thesis will attempt to determine if the assumption that drama is effective
for an instructional videotape program is accurate and perhaps create
guidelines for producing instructional videotape programs that use drama.
After determining the criteria for a successful dramatic instructional
videotape program, this thesis will then apply them to the videotape
Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life (the program mentioned as the
catalyst for this thesis) to see if the production is successful. To test these
criteria a focus group will be used. The results of the focus group will be the
basis for determining if the assumptions behind the creative decisions of

Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life are correct.

1. DEFINITION OF TERMS

The introduction contained the terms video, instructional video and
drama. All of these terms have more than one meaning. To avoid confusion,
proper definitions of these terms are necessary.

For the purposes of this thesis, the definition of video comes from
Stuart DeLuca. In his book, Instructional Video, he offers two definitions:

“...first, the electronic technology used to record, transmit, and
recreate visual images and usually the associated sounds;
second, the uses of that technology, especially the nontelevision
uses.”2

Thus, video can mean both the finished tape and the equipment used to
create that tape. As the interest of this thesis is in the content of the
videotape program and not the underlying technology, the second definition is
more germane to current purposes, i.e., the nontelevision uses of that
technology.

DeLuca also makes a distinction between instruction and education:

“Instruction is the process of imparting a specific piece of
knowledge or a specific skill to a particular person or group.
Education is the larger enterprise of which instruction is a
single instance.”3

DeLuca then defines instructional video by its purpose: ”The purpose of an
instructional video is to communicate a specific piece of knowledge or a
specific skill to a particular person or group.“ The purpose of the videotape
program, Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life, is to teach viewers how

 

2Stuart DeLuca, W, (Boston: Focal Press, 1991) xii.
3DeLuca xii.
4DeLuca xii.

5
to choose low-fat foods. Since the program is trying to teach a specific skill, it
would then be an instructional program, as defined by DeLuca.
In his book, Drama and Intelligence: A Cognitive Theory, Richard
Courtney breaks drama into two distinct kinds: processes which are

impromptu activities and forms which are theatrical productions.5 Courtney

then defines drama as:

“ a processual activity in concrete form -- a direct experience
that players live through. It is characterized by acting ‘as if,
either in role, or as themselves in fictionalized situations.”6

In this definition, drama includes more than just plays in the theater.
Courtney includes the everyday role-playing that happens in life, such as
rehearsing for an interview, as drama.7

Because this thesis is examining a videotape program and not personal
activities, Courtney’s second kind of drama (a theatrical production) will be
used as the definition of drama. However, as will be seen later, it is this
relationship between a theatrical production and the experience of the
characters that is important to this thesis. Therefore, what this thesis will
discuss is whether using a theatrical representation to teach a specific skill

via videotape is effective.

 

5Richard Courtney. WWW (Montreal:
McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990) 4.

6Courtney 4.
7Courtney 4.

2. DRAMA AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL TOOL

Intmlnsztion

Drama is traditionally thought of as a means of entertainment.
However, drama has also been used to teach. As will be seen, several
education experts recommend using drama to gain insights into literature,
history and social situations. A few suggest using established videotape
programs for the same purposes. Thus, this chapter will examine how drama

is used for the purposes of instruction.

W

In her article in The Journal of Reading, Sandra Bidwell discusses
using drama to increase comprehension of literature. She has found that
students enjoy the activity and that enjoyment seems to help them better
understand the story. Bidwell has the students act out scenes from a book.
By becoming the characters, the students must look beyond the text in order
to understand what motivates their character’s behavior.8 The students
acting out the story are not the only ones who benefit from the dramatic
interpretation. The audience (which may include other students) will learn
fi'om the action as well. Because drama is an audio-visual medium, the
viewer can see the actors’ facial expressions, their gestures and poses, and
hear the tone of their voices. This non-verbal communication helps the

viewer understand the context of the drama. Marjorie Vargas, in her study of

 

8Sandra Bidwell, “Using Drama to Increase Motivation, Comprehension, and

Fluency,” W 34.1 (1990): 38-41.

6

7

creative dramatics, found as much as 65 percent of a social message is
communicated without words.9

In England, Yorkshire Television offers schools a program called How
We Used to Live. The program is designed around the national history
curriculum and uses dramatization to show students what life was like in the
past. The program shows not only the basic historical events but also the
social realities that led to the events and the ramifications of those events.
This program combines original dramatic elements and historical footage
which give the students a platform to understand and to make judgments on
given historical evidence. The program’s success (it has completed six series)
lies in the fact that students can see the social and historical changes.10
“...Children can...consider the factors which made particular characters act
the way they did.” 11 The program encourages teachers and students to
discuss the social issues of those time periods and come to conclusions about
how the issues effect the modern world.12

In their article in Social Education, Richard Luker and Jerome
Johnston suggest using television programs to discuss social roles with
adolescents. They propose that the television programs provide the
adolescents a blueprint to work from in social situations. The authors make
the case that adolescents need a forum to practice new social skills. They
liken the action of asking someone out on a date to that of putting a model
airplane together — without instructions it can be pretty difficult. The

authors suggest using modern over-the-air broadcast situation comedies or

 

9Ma1jorie Fink Vargas, “Studying Nonverbal Communication Through Creative
Dramatics,” IhaEnzhshJonmal 73. 6 (1984): 84-85

10Brian Morton, “The Fiction of Fact, W 29 Nov.
1991. 8.

11Morton 8.
12Morton 8.

8

dramas as examples of behavior. After watching the programs, the students
then discuss the behaviors that are exhibited by the characters, what
influenced the characters’ decisions and if the students agree with the
characters’ actions. The authors suggest that this is a non-threatening way
to start adolescents thinking about their behavior and how it affects others.13

Stephen Brookfield also suggests using established broadcast programs
to teach. He specifically suggests using the drama thirtysomething to teach
adults how to think critically. 14 He feels the program “depicts adult life more
accurately, naturalistically, and realistically than any other show on TV.”15
The program portrays characters in real situations using real dialogue in
which, Brookfield feels, viewers immediately recognize elements of their own
lives.

Another feature of thirtysomething that Brookfield finds useful in
teaching adult learners is the convention of showing how two people can
interpret a situation differently.16 As Brookfield says, this dual portrayal is

useful when

“trying to encourage...leamers to stand outside of their habitual
and comfortable frameworks of interpretation, and come to a
more informed awareness” 17.

Brookfield feels that critical thinking starts with being able to reflect
on personal behavior and assumptions. He feels that thirtysomething, with
its realistic portrayal of adult life, is a good catalyst for discussion of behavior
and choices for beginning critical thinkers. Beginning learners can use the

 

13Richard Luker & Jerome Johnston, “TV and Teens: Television in Adolescent
Social Development,” Wm 52 (1988): 350-353.

14Stephen Brookfield, “Using Tv Drama to Teach Adults: Realness, Recognition and
Critical Thinking in Thirtysomething,” Adi-111W 2.1 (1990): 20.

15Brookfield 20.

1“Brookfield 21-22.

17Brooltfield 22.

9
characters in the stories to discuss their assumptions of why the characters
act the way they do. From there, the beginning learners can turn a critical
eye to their own lives and the world around them.18

Another example of using dramatics to make education engaging is
Maureen Robinson’s suggestion for a grammar unit called Alice Adjective.
The teacher dresses up in funny clothes that have index cards with adjectives
describing the clothes attached to the respective article of clothing. The
teacher assumes the persona of Alice Adjective to show the students how
adjectives are used.19 In this unit, “the teacher performs center stage to
motivate students to achieve specific learning outcomes.”20

In England, Christine and J. Richard Eiser developed an instructional
video program designed to teach students about the dangers of drugs. They
created two programs which used a drama as the means of instruction. The
first program was designed for students ages 12 through 15. The story
involves a teenager from a rural area who comes to London and visits a friend
and a relative who ofi'er the teen several illegal substances. This video
stresses coping skills when drugs are offered rather than the facts about
specific drugs.

The second video is less dramatized than the first. This program visits
an imaginary museum, a party and a school. The program stresses the
effects of drugs and the similarities between legal addictive substances and
illegal addictive substances.

The Eisers found that the second, less dramatic, video program was
more successful in teaching students about the real dangers of drugs.

 

18Brookfield 22.

19Maureen Robinson & Tammi Jean Bennett, “Alice Adjective,” W
W 45 (1992): 556-557.

20Robinson, & Bennett 557.

10
However, the students tended to see all drugs as equally addictive and
harmful. The Eisers found that students’ perceptions of why people take
drugs difi'ered depending on which video they saw. The Eisers thought this
difference was based on the different approaches that the videotape programs
used. They felt the students were more comfortable with the fact-based
approach (as used in the second video tape program) than the life-skills
approach (as used in the first video tape program) since most schools used the
fact-based approach more than the life-skills approach in teaching students.
However, the students’ notions as to why people take drugs was one of only a
few differences in attitudes between students who saw the programs.

The Eisers felt the videos were successful in teaching students about
the dangers of drugs. Both videos seemed to make a marked change in
attitude of the students who watched them. The Eisers did not however
make any distinction as to which approach they felt worked more effectively.
They felt both approaches were viable means of teaching and that it should
be left up to the instructor as to which approach he or she feels is appropriate
for their classroom.21

In an effort to reach many people in Mexico at one time, Miguel Sibado
devised an educational formula that would work for the telenovela. A
telenovela is a television serial, much like the United States’ soap operas.
However, Sibado’s telenovela would run for only one year with the story
evolving over the entire year. His formula for using telenovelas as a means to
promote socially desirable behaviors and change the attitudes of the audience

included keeping the basic constructs of the telenovela — the melodrama, the

 

21Christine Eiser & J Richard Eiser DmaEdncatinnmfirhmlaanlnafinnnf
Wakes: (New York: Springer-Verbs, 1988).

11
primary and secondary plot structure, and characters to whom the viewers
could relate.22
Sibado’s challenge, then, became incorporating the social messages into
the story without being patronizing or preaching. The guidelines Sibado
determined for this step included:

“1). the determination of a central educational value which all
involved parties could agree on.

2). an integrated multi-disciplinary theoretical framework...
3). a well-defined telenovela production system.”23

Sibado’s telenovelas were a success. They were very popular with the
people of Mexico as shown by the high ratings the programs received. The
educational topics in the telenovelas ranged from adult literacy to family
planning. Success in the educational realm was measured by the increase in
interest and enrollment at adult literacy classes and family planning

clinics.“

Summary
Even though drama is traditionally thought of as entertainment,

several teaching experts recommend using drama as a means of teaching
students. By using drama in a literature class, the students must look for
deeper meaning than what the page offers to better understand their
character’s behavior and how that behavior affects the events in the story.
Because communication is more than 65 percent non-verbal cues, the other
students watching the scenes also learn what effects the characters’

behaviors have on the story. Drama in the form of television programs is also

 

22Arvind Singhal, Evrett M. Rogers & William J. Brown, “Harnessing the Potential
of Entertainment-Education Telenovelas,” Gazette 51.1 (1993): 1-3.

23Singhal, et. al. p. 3.

24Singhal, et. al. p. 6.

12
used by educators. For example, How We Used to Live is a successfiil history
program in England which uses archive footage and re-creations to show
students how people lived in the past and how past social situations affect the
present. Some educators have suggested using television programs as a
means for adolescents to learn social behaviors. The Eisers have even tested
a videotape program created expressly for teaching students about the
dangers of drugs. They found that student knowledge of the harmful effects
of drugs did increase after viewing the program.

The research seems to indicate that all of these uses met their
educational goals and are, therefore, equally successful. The educators think
that using drama as an instructional tool not only increases knowledge but
also can keep students interested in the material being taught or discussed.
This would seem to validate the assumption of the producing group of
Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life that drama would keep viewers
interested while still teaching them a skill. However, only one example was
given of a videotape program with circumstances similar to Soybeans: Food
for Thought, Food for Life. The next chapter will focus on the dramatic

format itself and what experts seem to view as its strengths.

3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF THE DRAMATIC FORMAT

magnum

In their discussions regarding the creation of Soybeans: Food for
Thought, Food for Life, the production staff felt that by dramatizing the skill
they wanted to teach viewers, they would make said teaching less obvious
and more entertaining. This chapter will discuss what kinds of messages are
conveyed most effectively by drama and what should be avoided, as well as,

what considerations must be discussed when deciding to use drama.

 

Drama can be a very effective means of relating information. In his
book, Intelligence and Drama: A Cognitive Theory, Richard Courtney states
“... dramatic acts provide us with an explanation of the external world that

we can then check against reality.”25 He explains this relationship:

“We both believe in the dramatic action and, paradoxically, we
know that it is merely fiction; we unconsciously compare it with
life. We can also alternate our experience with thinking about
the performance, that is, by distancing ourselves we may
distinguish between actor and character, actual and fictional,
and so on. Then the kind of meaning we obtain from the
performance can be more significant than the meaning obtained
from a mundane event.”26

According to Courtney, viewers accept the dramatic scenes in front of them as
real although they do know it is only fiction. By accepting the drama as real,
viewers can identify with a character and see what that character does in the

given situation. This acceptance leads to a change in knowledge.

 

2ficourtney 14.
26Courtney 23.

13

14

“We have described this (in play, theatre, or education) as a
movement towards knowing or believing — from what is not
known, to what is believed to be the case; from doubt to
acceptance. The transformation is given power by its human
context: It is accepted by ourselves (in the case of children
playing mother and father or of teacher and student interacting)
or by the actor/character (in theatre). Thus the issues become
deeply imbedded in us.”27

“But the change is as likely to be one of thought structure
as of content — as much part of how we think as of what we
think. Dramatic activity mostly produces a change in how we
understand the deep rather than the surface level of
meaning...”28

In other words, as one transforms something new into something he or she
already understands (such as drama — creating characters to play out an
unknown situation), one sees the relationship between the unknown and
known and begins to identify with the unknown.

The dramatic structure can be used in almost any format. It can be
used for entertaining, educating, or enlightening viewers.29 Drama can be
used to address complicated topics that need a medium that can handle the
depth and contradictions.30

In Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life, the characters discuss
all the reasons many viewers would give as to why following a low-fat diet is
difficult. By raising these issues and giving sound reasons against them, it
was hoped that the program would be able to break down the defenses of the

viewer. In this case, using drama as the structure of the program was a

 

2'7Courtney 25-26.
28Courtney 26.
29Carl Hausman, .: ' ' ' ' =

W (Belmont, CA. Wadsworth Publishing, 1991) 50.

30Willy Russell, As interviewed by Sean Coughlin, “Steeling the Scene, W

EducationaLSnnplement 24 July 1992: 28

 

15
simple way to address several issues that might be dreadfully boring in
another format.
Even though drama can be used for creating those messages which
need a medium that can convey complicated information, it is not a structure

which should be decided upon carelessly. Drama does have its drawbacks, as

will be seen in the next section.

 

If the writing and acting are not adequate, the use of drama can

become a liability. The acting must be good.

“Bad acting can be horrifidngly bad. A great deal of craft is
necessary to create the illusion of assuming another character.
The task is made easier when people play themselves, but that
is still no guarantee that they will turn in a credible
performance.”31

The created characters must seem real and the instructional element in the

video must be part of the plot.

“...the instructional component cannot be ‘plugged in’ but must
be integral to the script. It must be germane to the plot, to the
characters and to the ambiance of the program.”32

The story cannot stop while characters discuss whatever the producer wants

the viewer to learn.

Summary
Drama can be an effective teaching tool in that viewers identify with

the characters and the stories that are presented. As the characters work
through problems, so does the audience. However, if the acting and writing

 

31Hausman 50.

32Kenneth G- O’Bryan. Walkman (Washington. DC:
Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 1981) 119.

16
are not up to the expectations of the audience, or if the message is not an
integral part of the story, then the drama will not teach viewers. The viewers
will focus instead on the bad acting and writing and not the information
being presented. These expectations of the viewer will be discussed in the
next chapter.

The focus group test will be used to determine if the viewer would
believe the story and acting in Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life. As
will be seen later, the production stafi' was particularly concerned with
finding good actors to make the story believable. They understood the need
for believable writing and acting.

4. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF THE VIDEO FORMAT

Intmdnetinn

The production staff was asked to create a videotape program to teach
viewers how to make healthy food choices. Was videotape even the right
medium to use for creating this message? Would money have been better
spent by creating a series of booklets outlining the information? What makes
videotape a better choice than print? Very little discussion took place as to
whether the basic idea of doing a videotape program on this subject would be
appropriate. What was discussed however, was content. How would one bit
of information be explained on the videotape program? Would it even be
feasible to show this bit of information? As will be seen, most experts see
videotape as a useful training or teaching tool — it just depends on what is
being taught. Because the staff was asked to create a videotape program,
this chapter will only examine expert Opinion on the use of videotape and
what one should be concerned with when deciding to use videotape. There
are other media that the client and the production staff could have chosen for
their message. However, this thesis reflects the fact that videotape was the

chosen medium and how that decision then afi’ected their content decisions.

3 l | E . ll . l E |
When deciding how to impart information, one must consider a number

of delivery options. One must consider whether videotape is the most

effective means of reaching people. According to Michael Greelis and Betsy

Haarmann, video can be a very potent tool in teaching:

17

18

“Educators and therapists can create television programming
that accelerates learning and improves behavior through the use
of similar [to broadcast television] production techniques and
careful content selection for a particular audience — our
students.”33

Because video uses both visual images and audio it can keep the learners’
attention better than other audio-visual techniques or teaching techniques.34
According to Stuart DeLuca:

“...any method of instruction that engages the learners’ visual
and auditory senses simultaneously, and that maintains the
learners’ attention and interest, is more effective than a lecture.
A picture may be worth a thousand words, but a picture
accompanied by appropriate words and other sounds is worth at
least a thousand silent images. Furthermore, all else being
equal, a moving image maintains interest and attention far
longer than a still image.”35

According to Keith Kinney, there are two hypotheses that are used to
explain how people remember words and pictures. The dual coding theory
hypothesizes that people store information as they receive it, that is, visual
information is stored in the memory visually. The single coding theory states
that people store all information in the same way. Kinney relates an
anecdote as told by Tom Grimes that demonstrates how the single and dual
coding methods can affect the viewer’s memory of a program: a Detroit
housewife was shown walking down a street during a program about

prostitution.36

“Shortly before Mrs. Clark appeared on the screen, the narration
asserted that most of the prostitutes in the neighborhood were
black. Seconds after she left the screen, the narration stated

 

33Michael Greelis & Betsy Haarmann, W (N ovato, CA:
Academy Therapy Publications, 1980) 1-2.

34DeLuca 3.

35DeLuca 3.

36Keith Kinney, “Memory and Comprehension of Tv News Visuals,” .Ngym

lemma-mm August 1992: 52.

19

that almost any woman who was black and who was on the
street was considered to be a prostitute, and was treated like
one.”37

Stating that the relationship between the video and the narration
depicted her as a prostitute, Mrs. Clark sued the program’s producers. The
defense argued that Mrs. Clark was not linked with prostitution in the script
and therefore most viewers would not confuse what the narration said with
what the pictures showed. This argument is the basis of the dual code
hypothesis — that verbal and visual information is stored differently. The
prosecutors, however, argued that Mrs. Clark had become tied to the idea of
prostitution (and had been defamed) which is an example of the single coding
hypothesis. Grimes argues that words and pictures are not remembered as
separated entities and that words can be remembered as pictures and vice
versa. Grimes calls this transference “translation phenomenon.” This
phenomenon occurs even more often 48 hours after viewing a story, which
supports the single coding theory. However, Grimes also found that after 48
hours people remember video fi'eeze frames which supports the dual coding
method. According to Grimes, television producers should assume that single
coding is more prevalent and that viewers will remember words as pictures
and vice versa.33 However, the pictures give the viewer tangible information
about a story which is easier to remember than the abstract narration.39

One advantage that Carl Hausman points out is that videotape can be
re-played over and over again with the learner at the controls. The videotape
does not mind repeating the same segment over and over again until the

viewer has learned the task. The learner then can learn at his or her own

 

37Kinney 52.
33Kinney 52-53.
39Kinney 52.

20
pace}0 rewinding and moving forward until the explanation becomes clear.
Because it is on videotape, each explanation is the same. It does not change
or make mistakes in the showing of the skill.“'1

Another advantage that Hausman mentions in conjunction with the
repeatability of videotape is the fact that videotape is a linear medium.
Knowledge is based on prior knowledge. The videotape will give the
information necessary before proceeding to the next level. A viewer can go
back for previous explanations when necessary“:2 One point Hausman does
not make is that in a group viewing of a videotape, a single individual cannot
control the tape at his or her own speed. The viewers must learn at the pace
of the group.

Videotape can show the details of a skill that a live-demonstration in a
large room cannot. The videotape allows the viewer to see only what is
important for that step of the skill. For example, in sewing, videotape can
capture the needle tracing a pattern on the fabric that would be hard to show
to many people in a large demonstration.43

Like drama, videotape is an audio-visual medium. The viewer can
understand the context of the given information through the non-verbal cues
of the on-screen characters, hosts, guests, instructors, etc. Because videotape
is made up of audio and visual components, it can be very effective in
touching emotionsfl'4 Videotape is also useful in teaching psychomotor skills
because of its use of motion. The viewer can see the skill performed

accurately on tape before he or she attempts the skill.‘15

 

4°Hausman 8.
41Hausman 8.
42Hausman 52.
43Hausman 8.
“Hausman 39.
45Hausman 58.

21

 

Video, however, cannot accommodate all needs. Sometimes printed
material will be a more efficient way to dispense information. “More
information can be packed onto a printed page that takes one minute to read
than into a minute’s worth of video....”“*6 This would seem to contradict the
idea that video is worth a thousand silent pictures. However, this
contradiction may be explained by distinguishing between types of
information. According to Hausman, video is not good for conveying lists of
facts and figures. Video is a more visual medium and demands compelling
pictures to be effective in keeping the attention of the viewer. Lists of facts
and figures may be more suited for print mediums.“

Also, video cannot adapt to an individuals’ needs“:8 A viewer cannot
ask the videotape questions for clarification. There is no immediate feedback
to let the producer or instructor know if the tape is effective or if the viewer is
keeping up .49 The producer must predict the questions that viewers will have
and incorporate them into the video.

Other disadvantages of video are that it is not easily accessible. The
learner cannot pop the video in a player at any time to refresh his or her
memory of the information contained in the video.50 A viewer needs access to
a video cassette player to watch the video which can be inconvenient,
especially when compared to keeping a booklet in a handy desk drawer for

easy consultation.

 

46Hausman 39.
47Hausman 39.
48Hausman 8.

49Hausman 57.
5(’Hausman 57.

 

22

Secondly, viewers have high expectations of the production values of a
video. They may expect it to be on par with broadcast programming, such as
the quick cuts, multi-locations and computer images in an “MTV News”
broadcast or the acting ability of network stars. As discussed earlier, story
and acting believability can make or break a dramatic videotape. These
expectations may mean higher costs to produce a video to meet this

demand.51

Summm

With the viewer expectation and the inconvenience of watching a tape,
why would anyone use video as a means of instruction? As Hausman says,
“Because [video] uses sight, sound and motion, it is an effective tool for
tapping emotions... However, watching does not always translate into
learning...”52 Even with these disadvantages, video is an effective way to
demonstrate skills and show details to the audience. Videotape can hold a
viewer’s attention better than other media. Furthermore, the viewer can
learn at his or her own pace while using a video cassette. Ifthe hazards of
the medium can be avoided, video offers great promise for instructional

messages.

 

51Hausman 8.
52Hausman 57.

5. DRAMATIC INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO:
A CASE STUDY
D . |° E . l

The video, Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life, used as a case
study for this thesis, was designed to teach viewers about the leading risk
factors of heart disease and how to eat healthier to lower the risk of heart
disease. The main point of the videotape is to show viewers how to make low-
fat choices when grocery shopping and ordering meals in restaurants.53 The
program is segmented into three modules with introductory and closing
pieces.

The videotape program opens with a nutritionist talking to the viewer
explaining why the viewer should pay attention to the video. She recites
several statistics including heart disease being the number one killer of
adults in the United States and that it does not take much to change bad
eating habits into healthy habits. The nutritionist then takes the viewer to
meet her neighbors.

The first module takes place in the basement den of the couple’s home,
where the nutritionist talks to the couple about changing their eating habits.
The nutritionist then plays a tape, created with the help of her professor,
which discusses heart disease, cholesterol and heart attacks. The nutritionist
and the couple discuss how they can change their eating habits and that
small changes can make big differences, such as substituting pretzels for
potato chips as a snack food. The main point of this vignette is to show the
viewer the connection between saturated fat and cholesterol and heart

disease.

 

53See Appendix A for script
23

24

In the second module, after the couple learns about heart disease, the
nutritionist takes them to a grocery store and to a restaurant to show them
how to make healthy choices. The nutritionist shows the couple that it is
easy to choose healthy foods by reading labels. In this vignette the couple
learns how many calories are in a gram of fat, how to calculate how many
grams of fat they should have per day, and the foods that are likely to be high
in saturated fat. The couple also learns that they do not have to give up their
favorite types of foods. They learn that there are low-fat substitutes for most
of their favorite foods such as eating low-fat yogurt instead of ice cream.

A restaurant is the setting for the third module. Here, the couple
learns how to make low-fat choices without having labels to read. The
nutritionist explains which types of food and sauces are usually high in
saturated fat. She then relates which foods are lower in fat. The nutritionist
instructs the couple to ask the server how food is prepared to be sure that
they are not getting any unwanted fat. The nutritionist and the couple
discuss desserts that are low in fat.

The video ends with the nutritionist talking directly to the viewer
again. She reiterates the points made in the video about saturated fat and
heart disease; how to calculate fat grams per day; and how little changes in
eating habits can make big differences.

The video was shot on location using non-professional actors to add to
the realism of the video. The video is divided into segments described above
with titles identifying the segments.

The video was originally conceived by Dr. Jim Eichmeier and John
MacPhail, M.A. They envisioned a videotape that would explain to the
viewer in simple terms why eating less fat is important. They saw the tape

as a tool for doctors to use to inform their patients, who were at risk for heart

25

disease, of simple changes they could make to reduce their risk. The patient
would either view the tape in the doctor’s ofiice or view the tape at home with
a follow-up session with the doctor to answer any questions. Both men were
aware of similar tapes that were already available, but they did not think the
tapes kept the viewer’s attention and the tapes were not easy to understand.
Dr. Eichmeier and Mr. MacPhail wanted a video that showed the viewer how
to choose the right food, not just talk about choosing the right foods.

The video was eventually funded by the American Soybean Association
who was interested in the tape for their cooperative extension services. They
have volunteers who give presentations on the healthy aspects of soybeans to
local organizations. As will be seen later, this partnership would be the cause
of much consternation.

The script for Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life took two
years to produce and went through several writings and several personnel
changes, both in the production staff and in the American Soybean
Association.“ Consequently, the video was produced by committee with very
little audience analysis or research prior to script writing.55 As such, several
production decisions in the video bear further discussion. These decisions
encompass the areas of content, drama, modules, acting, animation, graphics,

video-within-the video and locations.

 

54The American Soybean Association changed directors during the production of the
video program.

550ne member of the production staff was involved with a project on a similar topic.
The member moderated several focus groups for this other project. The production
staff listened to six of these focus group tapes and determined that the concerns
imparted on the tapes had already been discussed and dealt with.

26
Content

The content was determined by the medical consultants Dr. Jim
Eichmeier and Mr. John MacPhail. They are interested in heart disease and
fat both professionally and personally and had several concerns to address in
the video. They wanted to stress the fact that heart disease is the deadliest
disease in the United States. Dr. Eichmeier was especially interested in
showing the relationship between saturated fat, cholesterol and heart
disease. He felt that the average consumer was being confused by the claims
of “cholesterol fi-ee” and “lite” foods. Dr. Eichmeier wanted to show the
viewer that the cholesterol levels in his or her blood are determined by how
much saturated fat he or she eats and not how much cholesterol the viewer
eats. After showing the viewer why he or she needed to change his or her
diet, Dr. Eichmeier felt that the video needed to teach viewers how to read
food labels in order to compare brands of food. He also wanted to show the
viewer how to calculate his or her daily fat intake. Dr. Eichmeier and Mr.
MacPhail also wanted to show the viewer how easy it was to make
substitutions in his or her diet to avoid eating excess fat and that these
substitutions are easily available and just as pleasing to the palette as the
viewer’s usual choices.

Of course, with a video like this there is much information that is not
used in the video for a variety of reasons. The production staff debated
whether to include information on the differences between poly-unsaturated
fat, monounsaturated fat and saturated fat. The staff felt that a lot of
detailed information might be confusing to the viewer and decided not to
include it. Dr. Eichmeier wanted to include more references to red meat,
dairy products and eggs as being high in saturated fat. However, the
American Soybean Association does business with the dairy and beef

27

industries and did not want to have any references in the video that might
upset these industries. Dr. Eichmeier wanted to add hydrogenated vegetable
oils to the list of saturated fats but, again, the American Soybean Association
thought it would be in their best interest not to make that distinction. Dr.
Eichmeier wanted a fourth module that would allow the viewer to add up his
or her daily fat intake by choosing items 013' a menu. The rest of the
production staff felt that video was not the best medium for this activity and
therefore did not include it.56 During the time frame of this production, the
Food and Drug Administration presented a new food labeling system. The
production staff and medical consultants debated whether to include this new
information in the video. It was decided not to include the information
because the new labels would not be in place for two more years. The staff
felt that to include information on the new labels might clutter the video and
confuse the viewer.

One other content expert was consulted for the video project — Esther
Parks, a nutritionist. She agreed with the content presented in the script and

even made suggestions for illustrating a few points.57

Drama

The decision to use drama came from the desire of the research and
medical consultants to do something different. The production staff viewed
several video tape programs addressing similar subjects. In most of these

programs, the information came from a nutritionist who was either standing

 

56The production staff felt that a more interactive medium such as a hyperstack or
CD-ROM program might be the better choice for this activity where the viewer could
click on an item and the computer would automatically add the fat content to the
rest of the meal the viewer chose.

57Ms. Parks made the suggestion to use a paper clip to illustrate what 1 gram would
equal and how one gram of fat differs from one gram of carbohydrate.

28
in a grocery store or sitting in his or her office with cutaways to specific foods
or labels as the nutritionist talked about them. The medical consultants were
particularly interested in presenting their information in a new and different
way so that the viewer would be more inclined to watch the tape. It was
hoped that by using drama or telling a story the video tape would be more
interesting; and that by being more interesting it would be more watchable.
The medical consultants also thought that by having actors make healthy
choices, calculate their fat intake, read labels, etc., the viewer would better
understand the concepts. The producing body agreed with this assumption.
The drama was the way to get people to watch, to keep them watching and
teach them something in the meantime.

In the first draft of the script, however, the viewer learns about fat and
healthy eating as part of a story one character is telling to a group. The
character husband has been to the doctor and is at risk for heart disease.
The character then relates to the group what she and her husband have done
to reduce his risk of heart disease. However, even though the viewer would
see the action of reading labels, the character described the action in voice-
over. The production staff decided on this design in order to show many
people following the healthy guidelines with hopes that the video would
appeal to a diverse group of people. The staff also made this decision in order
to avoid the necessity of finding qualified actors that would be needed for on-
screen speaking parts.

After much deliberation and discussion, it was decided by the
production staff that the first draft of the script was ineffective. They felt
that the first script was not able to capture the viewer’s attention and in fact,
might be confusing to the viewer. A second draft of the script, based on

vignettes, was written. The viewer would see the characters as they

29
discussed healthy foods and reading labels in the grocery store. The viewer
would learn along with the characters as they went to a grocery store and
restaurant with a nutritionist as their guide. The decision to use this script
instead of the first version was based on a desire to finish the project as
quickly as possible and a feeling that this script was easier to understand and
perhaps more entertaining.

After the video tape program was produced, the producing body
presented the program to the American Soybean Association and a focus
group for feedback. The focus group found the tape to be slow-moving and
tedious. The focus group wanted quicker cuts and more graphics to explain
the points being made in the video. The focus group also found fault with one
of the actresses. The American Soybean Association also did not like this
actress. Their other concern was that they wanted more references to soy
products in the video and to include the word “soybean” in the title.53

With this feedback and some fine-tuning of his own, the producer re-
wrote the script to its final form. The producer added the direct-address of
the nutritionist in an effort to explain the purpose of the tape and what the
viewer would be learning fiom it. The producer added more graphics as the
focus group suggested. The producing body found a new actress and made
the other changes suggested by the American Soybean Association in an
effort to make the video tape as entertaining, accessible and understandable

as possible.

 

53$ee Appendix B for focus group and American Soybean Association feedback.

30
Mailings

The producing body made the decision early on in the project
development to use a modular form in the video program. The original idea
was to make the modules self-contained and able to stand alone. However, in
the final script the modules are not self-contained but could be used
separately.

The producing body decided to use a modular form so the viewer would
have some control of the information flow. It was thought that by putting the
information in stand alone modules, the viewer could then watch just the
modules he or she needed to see and not have to view the whole tape. The
producing body divided the program into three modules: a segment about
heart disease and the related risks and causes; a segment about making
healthy choices while grocery shopping and reading labels; and a segment
about making healthy choices while dining in a restaurant.59

In the original concept of the video, the modules made it possible for
the viewer to watch just those segments needed to re-fresh his or her
memory. When the American Soybean Association became the funders for
the video, the modules were seen as a way to make their cooperative
extension presentations easier. For example, if the ASA volunteer were doing
a demonstration in a grocery store, the volunteer could show just the grocery
segment of the video. Each module has a title so it would be easier to find in
the video and so the viewer would understand the action of the video has

moved to another location (see Figure 1).

 

59As discussed earlier, there had been plans for a fourth module that was eventually
dropped.

"I".

‘ -._,-.. . V
(

a!"
i}!!-

\
3..

Hihfiff "hvf’th":

 

Figure 1: Module Title

Acting

As mentioned earlier, in the first draft, most of the information was
told to the viewer in voice-over. There were a few small on-screen speaking
parts. The production staff was concerned with the cost of hiring professional
actors and wanted to avoid the cost if possible.60 As the script went through
changes, the production staff found non-professional actors to play the on-
screen characters.61 Again, this decision was mostly cost-related. The
production would not have to pay them as much as professional actors. By
not using professional actors, the production staff ran the risk of creating a
video program with good information that no one would take seriously
because of bad acting.62

Early in pre-production, the production staff made the decision to
make the nutritionist a minority female. There was some debate as to
whether a minority female would be seen by the viewer as an authority
figure. However, this concern was out-weighed by the view that having a

minority in an authoritarian position would make the video more accessible

 

60The budget for the videotape program was $17,000.

61The actor who was replaced did not have any acting experience, a fact which was
not discovered until shooting for the video began.

62As discussed in the literature review, acting can make or break a video which the
production staff discovered with the first attempt at the video program.

32
to minority groups who have higher incidences of heart disease. The
production staff was very conscious of creating a video that would not offend

or put off anyone.

i . |'

Three varieties of animation are present in Soybeans: Food for
Thought, Food for Life — Digital Video Effects (DVE), original computer
generated animation and borrowed animation.

The production staff did not have a means of creating their own
animation to illustrate the effects of heart disease. This animation would
have been beyond the budget of the video. Fortunately, the American Heart
Association allowed the producing body to use their animation from a video
they made about heart attacks and heart surgery. The animation shows the
blood flow to the heart and what happens to the heart when the blood supply
is cut off in the arteries. The borrowed footage also shows plaque building up
on the sides of the artery walls restricting blood flow (see Figure 2).63

 

Figure 2: Borrowed Animation

 

63This animation is part of the video-within-the video that the nutritionist plays for
the couple.

33

The second type of animation is original computer generated
animation. Dr. Eichmeier was especially keen on showing the viewer the
relationship between saturated fat and cholesterol in the body. He wanted
the viewer to see the increase in the output of cholesterol from the liver as the
intake of saturated fat was increased. There was no animated footage of this
phenomenon available so the production staff had the animation created for
them.

Another concept that Dr. Eichmeier thought would be better
illustrated with animation was the relationship between High-density
lipoproteins (HDL), Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and the arteries. Dr.
Eichmeier presented the idea of illustrating this relationship by showing the
lipoproteins as dump trucks. In the animation, the HDL dump truck picks up
the cholesterol in the artery and removes it. The LDL dump truck deposits
the cholesterol in the artery. It was hoped that this animation would show
the viewer why HDL is considered the good cholesterol and LDL is the bad
cholesterol (see Figure 3).

 

Figure 3: Original Computer Generated Animation

The third type of animation used in this video is the Digital Video
Effect. This animation was not used in the first produced video. The

production staff decided to spend the money on the DVE after the focus group

34
suggested the video needed more graphics to illustrate points. The DVE were
used to highlight the labels on the boxes and jars as the characters discuss
them. The fat content is highlighted on the label then it moves out toward
the viewer (it seems to get bigger). This allowed the viewer to see the
labeling on the products more clearly (see Figures 4 and 5).

 

Figure 4: DVE Animation — Figure 5: DVE Animation —
Fat Content on Label Fat Content Zoomed Out
Graphics

There are two types of graphics used in Soybeans: Food for Thought,
Food for Life — chyron generated graphics and keyed graphics.

In the video-within-the video, the narrator of that video mentions lists
of risks for heart disease. To illustrate these lists, the new producer chose
chyron generated titles. The lists are very conservative with white letters on
a blue background with a red line separating the headline of the list from the
list itself. These graphics (see Figure 6) follow the feel of the video-within-the

video which will be discussed in greater detail later.

 

Figure 6: Chyron Generated Graphics

The second type of graphic used was a keyed graphic. The producer
felt the chyron generated fonts were limiting. He wanted to put titles and
graphics in positions on the screen that were not possible with the chyron
generator. The titles and most of the graphics were long and would be keyed
over the American Soybean Association logo. The producer needed to design
the titles and graphics so they would fit in the logo. He decided to write the
graphics and titles and key them over the video. The producer thought the
hand-drawn look to the graphics and titles would complement the uniqueness
of the rest of the video. He also thought hand-drawn graphics would look
better in the grocery segments on calculating fat intake. The production staff
had been trying to decide how to show the viewer the calculation needed to
figure the fat gram daily intake. Ideas ranged from having the nutritionist
write on a tablet of paper that she has with her to writing on a daily specials
board in the deli section of the grocery store. The producer suggested having
the calculation appear as though someone were writing out the equation on
the screen. There are two calculations that appear. The first is a very
complicated way to calculate fat grams. The producer thought it would be
interesting visually to show this complicated calculation with all the numbers
over the picture on the screen (see Figure 7). Then the second simpler

calculation would seem even easier to use and maybe easier to remember (see

36
Figure 8). White lettering was chosen because the producer thought it would

be easiest to read.

   

Figure 7: Keyed Graphic — Figure 8: Keyed Graphic ——
Complicated Calculation Simple Calculation

These hand-drawn keyed graphics were also used to illustrate other
statistics in the video (see Figure 9). These graphics, however, were keyed
over the American Soybean Association (ASA) logo. The focus group wanted
more graphics to illustrate the statistics. The ASA was interested in having
their logo appear in the video. The same idea was used for the title and the

module titles (see Figure 10).

 

Figure 9: Keyed Graphic —

Statistic

 

Figure 10: Keyed Graphic —
Title

T] I“ -ldl'|l' _” If l
The decision to create the video the nutritionist shows to the couple
came from a need to explain heart attacks, cholesterol and HDL and LDL’s in
an interesting and visual way that would not slow the action of the video.
The production staff also saw the video-within-the video as a way of
surreptitiously showing the uniqueness of the video they created. The video-
within—the video is similar to other video programs on this subject. The host
of the video is standing in front of a blue curtain (see Figure 11) rattling ofi‘
statistics that are illustrated by animation and graphics. The viewer does not

leave the little room where the host is located.

 

Figure 11: Host of the Video-Within-the Video

38
The graphics and animation used in this video were discussed above (see
Figures 2, 3, and 6). The whole video-within—the video has a stodgy, bland
feel to it. It was hoped by the producing body that the segments of that video
would only reinforce the rest of the video as a new and innovative way to

discuss this information.

Imatian

The first draft of the script did not call for much location shooting. It
was felt that a restaurant could be simulated in the studio.64 However, the
production staff knew that it did not have the facilities to recreate a grocery
store which meant that segment of the video would be taped on location.

As the script progressed, the production staff decided to tape all of the
scenes on location. In many ways, it was easier to locate sets to use for the
location shooting than to try to recreate a realistic restaurant and den in the
studio. It was hoped that the location shooting would add to the realism of
the video, making it more believable and enjoyable to the viewer because he
or she moves to different locations with the characters. There are four
locations used in the video program: the couple’s den (see Figure 12), a
grocery store (see Figure 13), a restaurant (see Figure 14) and the direct-
address room (see Figure 15).

 

64The first draft of the script called for a reunion scene that was taped in the studio.
The first draft did not show the couple in their den.

39

 

Figure 12: The Couple’s Den Figure 13: The Grocery Store

   

Figure 14: The Restaurant Figure 15: The Direct-Address
Room
The location shooting lent itself to film-style shooting -— using one
camera from many angles by shooting scenes in short segments. The
producer would tape a master shot of the scene and then tape close-ups and
two-shots. While requiring more editing time, the film-style taping did allow
the producer to fine-tune shots and use interesting backgrounds to create a

visually interesting video.

Snmmm

The video used as a case study for this thesis was designed to instruct
viewers on how to make healthy, low-fat eating choices. In the video, the
viewer learns what causes a heart attack, who is at risk for heart disease, the

relationship between saturated fat and cholesterol, what types of food are

40
lower in saturated fat, how to calculated daily fat gram intake and how to
make substitutions for favorite fatty foods. In creating this video, the content
was determined by medical experts and other decisions such as acting,
graphics, animation, location, etc. were decided by the production staff for

various reasons, such as expediency, cost, and presumed effectiveness.

6. THE FOCUS GROUP

A focus group65 was used to test the video Soybeans: Food for Thought,
Food for Life. The impact of the testing was tvvo-fold — to see if viewers

learned from the video and if the video was believable.

D . l' E ll E
The focus group consisted of eight adults, seven women and one man,
who are all elementary school teachers. The age range was from 35 to 45
years old. All eight participants were Caucasian. All eight participants have
Master’s degrees in education. All eight participants live and teach in a rural
area.66 The participants were volunteers who were recruited through posters
asking for participants for a focus group session on a video. The focus group
did not know what the video was about before viewing the video. The focus
group session took place after school in an elementary school library where
the participants teach. The focus group was moderated by the author. The
participants were briefed on the nature of the video and the reason for the
focus group, took a pretest, viewed the video tape, took a posttest, filled out a

questionnaire about the video and then discussed the video.

 

65Roger D. Wimmer & Joseph R. Dominick, W
3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1983) 145-147,

66As with all homogeneous focus groups, there is probably some bias in the testing.
For example, since the focus group participants are all well-educated, they might be
more inclined to understand the conventions of video or be more critical of the
production values in a videotape program.

41

42

D . I. E ll E | |

The pretest was divided into two sections.67 The first section covered
the general health-consciousness of the group. It asked the participants to
rate themselves on how healthy they thought they were. It also asked the
participants to rate how important their health was to them. It asked the
participants how much they exercised and if they knew their cholesterol level.

The second section asked questions that are discussed in the video.
The questions relate to specific points the production staff hoped the viewer
would learn from the video. Included in the questions were inquiries about
types of cholesterol, how to calculate daily fat intake, how many calories are
in a gram of fat, etc. This information had been present in other videotapes
and literature that the production staff had reviewed. Even though the
questions were specific to Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life, they
also represented information that was already available to the focus group
participants through other means. The moderator used these questions as a

gauge to know how much prior knowledge the participants already had.

D . I. [I] E I I I
After they viewed the tape, the focus group took another test. This test
asked them to answer health questions discussed in the video.68 This test
included the video questions from the pretest. It also included more
questions based on points discussed in the video such as naming heart
disease risk factors, what produces cholesterol in the body, what to look for on
food labels, etc. The posttest would be used to determine if any new learning

took place.

 

67See Appendix C for Pretest Questionnaire
68See Appendix D for Posttest Questionnaire

43

D '|' El] 1“ Q I. .

The video questionnaire was designed to find out the Opinions of the
focus group participants on the video.69 The video questionnaire was divided
into two parts. The first part asks the participants about any learning that
took place. It includes questions on what the participants learned, if they
thought the video was effective, etc. This section was created to see if the
information in the video was new to them or if they had heard it all before.

The second section dealt with the production values of the video. The
participants were asked to rate the acting and story for believability. This
section asked the participants for suggestions for improving the video.
Essentially, this section was created to see how the acting and story affected
the participants perception of the video.70

D . I. [D .
After finishing all the questionnaires, the moderator then asked the

participants to discuss the video. This session was audio taped for later
review. The discussion was designed to complement the video questionnaire.
The moderator asked about the believability of the acting and the story, the
pace of the video, the information in the video, etc. It was hoped that this
discussion would allow the participants to fully express their opinions to the

moderator to add depth to the comments made on the video questionnaire.

 

6QSee Appendix E for Video Questionnaire
70As discussed earlier, acting and story are two of the most important elements of
successful drama.

44
W

In the first section of the pretest, five out of eight people said they
considered themselves healthy (question 1). Three out of eight felt that their
eating habits were healthy (question 2). On a scale of 1 to 7 with 7 being very
important, seven out of eight participants rated their health at 4 or higher
(question 3). However, only two out of eight people knew their cholesterol
level (question 4). Seven out of eight participants exercised at least three
times a week (question 5). In general, the participants seemed to think they
were health-conscious.

In the second section of the pretest, no participant attempted to answer
all of the questions. Each of the participants left most of the questions blank.
Each participant answered only one or two questions, sometimes incorrectly.
The most frequently answered questions were about the different types of
cholesterol.

Four out of eight participants answered question 6. Of those four
answers three were correct. Question 7 was answered by three out of eight
people but none of the given answers were correct. Six out of eight
participants answered question 8. Again, none of the answers given were
correct. 'IVvo out of eight pe0ple answered question 9 but neither given
answer was correct. Question 10 was answered by six out of eight people. Of

those six given answers, four were correct.

Besultufthaflosttest
The results of the posttest are quite different from the pretest. Most of
the participants answered every question. However, only two participants

answered every question correctly. The question answered incorrectly most

45
frequently related to the two types of cholesterol and which one was
considered “good”.

Eight out of eight participants answered question 1 correctly.
Question 2 was answered by eight out of eight people with all eight people
giving correct answers. Eight out of eight people responded to question 3
with the correct answer. Again, eight out of eight participants answered
question 4 correctly. On question 5, seven out of eight participants
responded. Six of those seven given answers were correct. Question 6 was
answered by seven out of eight participants. However, only two out of those
seven answers were correct. Eight out of eight people gave correct responses
to question 7. Question 8 was answered by eight out of eight participants
with all participants responding correctly. Eight out of eight participants
responded correctly to question 9. Again, questions 10, 11 and 12 were

answered correctly by eight out of eight participants.

B ll Ell I“ Q I. .
In the first section of the questionnaire, each participant rated the

video as informative (question 1) and seven people felt they learned

something new (question 2). The one participant who did not agree with the

others made the comment that even though the information was not new to

him or her, it was information he or she had a hard time remembering.

Seven participants felt the video tape program was effective (question 3). The

comments on the effectiveness included:

“[The program] walked you through the weight, fat, shopping
and dining to help visualize”

“Good info in a short time”

“Not too corny. Humorous at spots. Believable characters”

“It is informational. Most people look at calories not at fat
content”

“The main ideas are straight forward and repetitive”

46

“It is kind of funny but very informative”
“Easy format to understand — but left a feeling that our diet is
left with few choices”

The one participant who did not agree with the effectiveness made this

comment:

“Presents good material but is almost too much, too fast”

In the second section of the questionnaire the participants rated the
acting on a scale of 1 to 7 with seven being very believable (question 7). The
average score for acting was 4.5 with 7 being the high score and 3 being the
low score.

The story was also rated for believability on a scale of 1 to 7 with seven
being very believable (question 8). The average score for the story was 5 with
7 being the high score and 3 being the low score.

Two participants answered all of the post-test questions correctly.
However, one rated the acting and story believability at 5 and the other rated
them at 4. Four participants answered 11 of the 12 post-test questions
correctly. Of these four participants, one rated acting and story believability
at 6. One participant rated acting and story at 4. Another of these four
participants rated the acting at 3 and story at 7. The fourth participant rated
the acting and story at 3. Two participants answered 10 of the 12 post-test
questions correctly. Of these two participants, one rated the story and acting
at 7 while the other rated the acting at 5 and the story at 4.

When asked what would improve the video (question 9) the comments

included:

“more illustrations on the cause and effect.”
“review the HDL [good cholesterol] and LDL [bad cholesterol]
more than once”

47
“the background music is distracting”

“shot of Jim 1 month later with lower cholesterol level”

“humor”

“the nutritionist needs to loosen up and not be so clinical”

“drama works better than cold facts — more of a humor slant to

it”
B ll [I] D. .

In the discussion after viewing the tape the focus group was asked to
comment on the production values of the video and how they compared with
other videos/television. All participants commented favorably on the
production values. They especially liked the graphics that were used to
demonstrate the fat gram calculation. These calculations were hand-drawn
over the action as the characters figured their fat gram limits. The group was
asked about other information sources and how the other sources of health

information compared to the video. The group again commented favorably on

the video. Comments included:

“the storyline helps keep it in memory”

“had read a lot of the information before but didn’t
remember it”

“the tape wasn’t too long”

“the tape could be used at all levels, not just adults”

All persons said they felt they learned something new from the tape and that

it was effective.

Sum

The purpose of this case study was to see if this video was an effective
instructional tool. Because few questions were answered on the pretest and
all the questions were answered on the posttest (with most of the answers
correct), the group did learn from the tape. As is evident in the differences in

the pre- and post-test performance, the viewers learned what the producers

48
considered essential skills for healthy eating. The exception to this is the
HDL and LDL distinction which most participants failed to answer correctly,
and which the producers considered essential.

In the discussion with the focus group, most of the comments made by
the viewers were favorable. They felt they learned something new and were
entertained by what they saw as a suitably professional work. Most
participants agreed that the program looked to be of the same quality as the
programs on television.

While none of the participants performed poorly on the post-test, those
who correctly answered all of the questions gave the program average and
slightly above average ratings for believability. However, one of the
participants, who did not correctly answer all of the post—test questions, gave
the program excellent ratings for believability. One participant, who gave
only one incorrect answer, rated the program slightly below average. When
the rating scores are averaged together the mean score is 4.5 for acting and 5
for story. This would suggest that, even though overall the focus group found
the believability of the program to be average, learning was still taking place.

The suggestions for improving the video may be the most helpful
responses the focus group gave in this study. The responses show that even
though the participants felt they learned something from the program,
thought the program looked good and even liked the program, most
participants did feel that something was lacking in the program. Most of the
responses seem to indicate a problem with the structure of the program
rather than a problem with the content or the use of drama. There is an
indication that even though some of the information is repeated in the
program, not all of the crucial information is repeated in a way that the

viewer will remember. The participants themselves pointed out two areas

49
which they felt the program is lacking: 1). repeat more of the information

and use more illustrations and 2). use more humor.

CONCLUSION

The videotape Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life seems to
carry out the mission that it was designed for — an instructional tape on
making healthy choices.

The advantages of using video as an instructional tool are it is
compelling and viewers can learn at their own pace. However, as discussed
above, today’s video audience is media savvy and may expect an instructional
video to have production values that compare to network programs.

As noted above drama can also be a very effective teaching tool.
Viewers identify with the characters in the story and learn from watching
them. However, the stories and characters must be believable. The message
or skill to be learned must be an integral part of the plot.

Many instructors have used drama successfully to teach their students.
However, if drama is used, it is usually the class that is doing the dramatic
enactment. Two examples of video tape as the medium for the dramatization
are in England. One example is a television program for history class that
uses re-enactments to show students what life was like in the past. The other
is a drug education package that has a dramatic video as one of its tools to
teach students about the dangers of drugs. Mexico has had much success
using telenovelas as a means of educating large numbers of pe0ple about
social programs.

So, for a dramatic instructional video tape to be effective, that is to
have viewers learn a skill, the acting and story must be believable and the
production values must be of network quality.

The video, Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life, represents a
successful use of the medium. The focus group found the acting and story to

50

51

be believable. They also found the production values to be comparable to
network quality — that is, the participants felt the program could air on
television with no further shooting or editing. The participants felt the look
of the program compared favorably with the look of the programs on the
networks. Given the results of the pre- and post-test, it is clear that the
viewers have learned the intended skills. If the acting, story and production
values are the critical factors in creating effective dramatic instructional
video, then perhaps they contribute to the measured success of this video.

This thesis does much of the early research that would have been
beneficial to the Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life producers.
However, this thesis does not want to imply that the production staff “got
lucky” - so to speak. The staff was made up of experts from the academic,
medical and video production fields. This group was working from past
experiences with similar projects. The concern of this thesis is the lack of
analysis. The one area the producing group spent little time with was in
evaluating the program. Most of the evaluation of the ideas, scripts and
video tape came from the group itself. Even though, ultimately, the client
liked the program and used it extensively, and this evaluation of the program
was positive; the producing group may have been able to save time (and
money) with a more comprehensive production plan.

Drawing upon the expertise of various authors and experts in the field
of video production, here is what the author feels are the essential steps,
discussions, considerations in creating an entertaining instructional video

program that uses a dramatic structure to relate necessary information.

52
Step one: Choose Topic

This may seem like an obvious place to start and in many ways it is.
One can not create a video without having something to say. It is deciding
this something that is important. The producers must decide here what it is
they want to accomplish with the program — what they want the audience to
learn and how that learning will manifest itself, that is, at the end of the
program will the audience be able to build a bookshelf, read a book, know the
difference between historical novels and fiction, or read historical novels
because they provide glimpses of history. Is the audience expected to learn
how to do something or are they expected to change their behavior or
attitude? Answering this question will narrow the focus of the topic and can
be used as a guide for creating a script. Everything in the program needs to
reflect the task, idea or behavior the audience is expected to emulate.

This step combines two of David Smith’s program needs analysis
questions. The first question Smith suggests producers ask themselves is
“what is the purpose? Why make this program?”1 to create a purpose
statement for the video. Smith feels that the answer to these questions
should express the needs of the audience rather than the needs of the
producer.72 The other Smith question combined in the above first step is
“what is the communication objective?”73 The answer to this question should
state what the audience is to learn from the program or what the audience
should be able to do once they have seen the program.“

The producer should be able to articulate the program topic and what

the audience will learn in a concise sentence or two. These sentences then

 

71David L. Smith, Won (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1991) 144.
72Smith 144-145.

73Smith 146.

74Smith 146-147.

53
become the framework upon which the rest of the production plan and the
program itself is built. It is here that the producer should start to surround
himself or herself with the necessary experts if he or she is not an expert in
the topic. This group will help the producer narrow the topic and content,
determine the learning to take place and the audience, provide internal
evaluation of the program, etc.

Step 2: Choose Media

The discussion of what the producer is creating assumed the producer
would use a videotape program as the means to get the message to his or her
audience. However, after deciding the topic, the producer should investigate
whether this topic will transfer well to video. The producer should ask
himself or herself if video is the best or most appropriate means of
disseminating this information. If the topic is instructions for building a
bookcase, a booklet with color pictures may be more effective. As discussed
above, videotape can be very effective for certain types of information. Video
tape programs are very adept at showing the details of a skill to be learned
but are not suited for showing lists of facts and figures.

A producer must keep in mind that one of the disadvantages of video
tape production is cost. If a producer feels that he or she will not be able to
receive enough money to create a high quality tape, then choosing a different
medium may be in order. A poorly produced program will only draw the
viewer’s attention to the tape itself and distract him or her hour the content

in the program.

54

Step 3: Choose Audience75

Who are the people that need this information? This question can be
answered demographically (age, nationality, gender, education, etc.) and it
can be answered psychographically (what do these people think, feel, etc.).
Using both sets of descriptors may prove useful. The producers should keep
in mind that the more detailed and narrow the audience parameters are the
easier it will be to design a program specifically for that audience. Even if
the audience is large, defining a typical user will help in visualizing the
program being used. In designing Soybeans: Food for Thought, Food for Life,
the production staff originally started with the audience defined as middle-
aged adults with heart disease. This is a very broad description of the
intended audience and the group came to feel that the typical user would be a
male in his mid-forties who had been told by his doctor that he needs to eat
healthier foods. The audience member would be reluctant to change his
eating habits thinking that all the healthy food would be bad tasting and that
it would mean a huge change in his behavior. From this description, the
production staff worked from the approach that little changes in dietary
habits can make big differences in one’s health. When the American Soybean
Association came on board, the audience changed. The audience would now
be adults who are associated with the American Soybean Association’s co-
operative extension services. Again, this audience description was vague.
However, the producing body decided to keep its description of the typical
user and the approach it led to because they felt the American Soybean
Associations co-operative extension volunteers would encounter this type of

audience member.

 

75Most books on creating a videotape program have a chapter or section on choosing
audiences. This author suggests Smith's Video Communication, chapter 7.

55

Step 4: Outline Script

This is where the producers would start to create a treatment and a
script. The script at this step would basically be an outline of those points
the producers and consultants felt must be in the video. The content of the
program should relate directly to what the producers want the audience to
learn. The producers should also look at the background information that
might be needed by the audience to understand the content.

The producers should also choose a format to use. The format should
reflect the audience for whom the program is intended and the learning that
is to take place. Drama seems to be best suited for attitude or behavior
change. The audience will model its behavior after the positive role models
on the screen. When choosing drama as a format for an instructional video,
special consideration must be given to the script and to the actors. As
discussed above, the story and the acting must be believable. It can be very
hard to create a realistic story and dialogue. If the producers do not have the
necessary background for writing a dramatic script, they should hire someone
who has this experience. “Cheesy” or stilted dialogue will distract the
audience fi'om the content of the program, as will a convoluted plot. The
audience will focus more on the bad writing than on the good information on
the screen. Just as amateur writing can destroy a program so can amateur
acting. The producers may be able to find amateur actors with enough
experience to create believable characters, but they may need to ruthlessly
screen applicants. Producers may also need to ruthlessly screen professional
actors to find just the right pe0ple to bring their script to life. Hiring a
professional script writer and professional actors will increase the cost of the

production. Again, if the producer does not feel he or she will be able to

56
sufficiently fund the program, then the producer should consider another
format other than drama.

Once the format is decided, the producers will be able to make
decisions regarding location, props, actors, studios, etc. Those decision will
then determine much of the budget. At this point the producers can create a
formalized production plan with a budget. The time-frame of the production
will become clear as the amount of time spent on script writing, shooting,
editing, etc. gets determined. A dramatic structure that is shot on location
film-style with a single camera will probably take much more editing than
one produced in a studio. Again, decisions about locations, actors, props, etc.
will be affected by the amount of money it will take to create a quality
program. The budget and time frame should also reflect the points at which
the program is evaluated, both internally amongst the producing group and

externally with audience evaluation.

Step 5: First Audience Evaluation

At this point, before the script is fleshed out, the producers should do
some research to find out what the intended audience already knows about
the topic."6 This will help the scriptwriter determine where to start the
script. The audience may not know very much about the topic so the
scriptwriter may need to relate a great amount of background information to
bring the audience to where they can start learning. However, if the
audience evaluation indicates the audience knows quite a bit about the topic,
the scriptwriter will be able to jettison much of the background information
and maybe go into greater detail on the important points in the content. The

 

76How to do the evaluation is up to the producer who should consult with staff
experts or research books as to which evaluation method would work the best.

57
audience evaluation may even lead to a way to structure the content or what
story to tell. This step is mainly to determine what the audience already
knows so they won’t be bored or feel patronized by the information in the

program.

Step 6: Write Script

After the first audience evaluation, the scriptwriter is in a much better
position to create an entertaining and educational story. As discussed above,
finding out what the audience already knows will determine what content is
kept in the script. It is beyond the scope of this thesis and author to discuss
how to write a believable script. There are several books available on the
subject including The Elements of Screenwriting by Irwin R. Blacker and
Screenplay by Syd Field.

The script will determine where the program is shot, how many actors
are needed, what props will be needed, etc. The producer can finalize actor
auditions, choosing locales, building sets, etc. Where the program is
videotaped will determine how the program will be videotaped, for example, a
studio shoot can use a multiple-camera, live-on-tape set up. Special post-
production needs, such as computer graphics, will be decided by the script as
well. At this point, these needs should be reflected in the budget. Writing the
script puts the ideas of the producer into a concrete form that can be
evaluated. It also solidifies the production plan and budget. The producers
will now be able to see exactly what they will need to create their program.

Step 7: Second Audience Evaluation
Once the script is completed, this author suggests testing a bit of it
with outside judges before completely finishing the shooting just to make sure

58

that the content is coherent and the story is believable. There are several
ways to test this with a small, select, representative audience". One is to
shoot a short scene and show it. Another technique would be to have the
actors read through the script or act out a scene for the small group. A third
way to test the script is to have the audience read a scene hour the script or
have them read the treatment. This last option does not give the audience
the full sense of what the scene will look like on the screen and may not be as
useful. The best option, if time and money allow, is to shoot a short scene.

This step is critical in discovering early enough in the process if the
script and actors are going to be believable. Even though shooting and
editing a scene will take some time and money at this stage, it may save time
and money later on. The producers do not want to get into a situation where
they discover after the tape is finished that the audience finds the program
tedious. There is still time at this stage to make changes to the script.

Step 8: Shoot Script

By now the producer should have a good idea of how he or she wants to
shoot the script and has all the necessary elements in place. Again, there are
several books on the subject of videotaping a program including: Herbert
Zettl’s Television Production Handbook, ENG: Television News and the New
Technology by Yoakam and Cremer, Compesi and Sherrifl's’ Small Format
Television Production and Directing Television and Film by Alan Armer. All
of these books give tips on lighting, sound, camera placement and shot
composition to create a professional, network quality video. The books also

have their own specialty, be it studio shooting or remote location shooting.

 

77See footnote 76

59
All the books give advice on how to keep organized while shooting the script
from using a three-ring binder to separate scenes to recording the scene
numbers with their timecode placement on a tapelog sheet. Herbert Zettl’s
Sight, Sound, Motion: Applied Media Aesthetics is an advanced look at the
meanings created through shot composition, music and color.

The producer, of course, will have hired all crew members before
shooting. If the producer does not have the necessary experience to direct a
shoot, then he or she needs to hire someone who does. The director should
probably be hired when the script is being written, if not earlier, so he or she
will know the background of the project and what the producers feel is crucial
to the program. This will help keep continuity in the design, look and feel of
the program.

Step 9: Edit Footage

As this step implies, it is now time for the producer to step into the
editing bay. This step may include all post-production needs, such as
computer graphics and music. Or, it may just be a rough, off-line edit to be
used for evaluation. The books mentioned in Step 8 also have sections on
editing. As discussed in Step 8, if the producers do not have the editing
experience needed to produce a network quality program, then they should
hire someone who does. They would have obviously contracted out for any
special post-production requirements, such as animation, earlier in the

production to guarantee the special requirements were ready for editing.

60
Step 10: Third Audience Evaluation

This is the time for a large scale evaluation by an outside group".
What form that evaluation takes is up to the producers, but it should test the
learning objectives set up by the producers and possibly the production values
of the program. The more important consideration, of course, is did the
audience meet the learning criteria of the producers which were set up in the
beginning.

As mentioned in Step 9, a rough cut can be used for this evaluation if
the producers feel the need to test the final version of the script before
committing full editing resources to the final videotape program. This does
allow for a few last minute changes, extra shooting, etc. if the program does
not test well. However, if the evaluations of the program are too negative,
anything short of a complete re-write may not be able to save it. On the other
hand, a producer using a final cut for evaluation should not rule out minor

tweaking if it will make a good program even better.

Step 11: Package Program

Once the producers know the program meets the objectives set up at
the beginning they can package the tape. Packaging includes making copies
of the program, designing tape jackets or labels, marketing the program, etc.
This is the last step in creating a professional quality videotape program.

Summary

As stated above, these steps are the author’s recommendations in

designing a dramatic educational program. The books mentioned in Steps 1,

 

788ee footnote 76

61
3 and 8 give much greater detail on creating a videotape program; but not
using the dramatic structure specifically. These steps are given as a guide to
creating an educational videotape program that uses a dramatic structure as
the teaching device. The most crucial steps, as discussed, are choosing a
topic, choosing the audience, and evaluation of the program during the
production of the program and after the program is completed. Using a
dramatic structure to teach people has unique characteristics that a producer
must be aware of and consider. Because the audience is television savvy, the
producer is forced to create a program that meets the standards to which the
audience is accustomed. To this end, the producer must be sure that the
story and the characters that are created are believable. Having many
opportunities to evaluate the program as it is created will only help to ensure
that the story and acting are up to the audience’s expectations and will not

distract the audience from the information presented in the program.

APPENDICES

APPENDDC A

APPENDIX A

SOYBEANS: FOOD FOR THOUGHT, FOOD FOR LH'E SCRIPT

INTRODUCTION

FS zoom to MS in
kitchen

Diss. to Donna walking
MODULE ONE
Diss. to F8 — Fleisher’s

doorway. Int.

DONNA: Hi there. My name is Donna
Thompson. Many people are unaware of a major
health hazard. A dangerous problem which is
the number one killer of Americans heart
disease. Fortunately, it only takes some small
changes, and some common sense, to greatly
reduce your, chances of becoming a statistic.
Today, I'm going to put my masters degree in
nutrition to work for you. It may take a couple
minutes of your time, but you will live longer
because of it. My neighbors, the Fleishers, have
offered to let me use them as an example, so let's
get to work.

(MUSIC)

(Door opens)

CATHY: Hi Donna. Come on in. Let me have
your coat. Jim is downstairs watching TV - I'll

get him.

62

WS follow to include Jim

Cathy crosses and they
both sit down

CU Cathy

CU Jim

63

DONNA: Actually, I brought this videotape I
want you both to see. Why don't we join him
downstairs?

CATHY: Alright, follow me.

JIM: Hi there, Donna. How's the family?
DONNA: Just fine, Jim. My dad says he hasn't
felt better in ages, now that I've got him eating
right. His doctor says that his cholesterol level is
down over 40 points, and that lowers his chances
of a heart attack by over a third.

CATHY: That's great. I wish Jim here would
change his diet before he has problems.

JIM: Come on now, I'm in great health.

CATHY: Look, you are a bit overweight, heart
disease runs in your family, and just what did
the doctor say about your cholesterol level?

JIM: I'm not that overweight, and my cholesterol
level is only 236. I'll live for a while.

3-shot

CU Donna

3-shot

Donna gets up, moves to

CU Jim
MS TV

64

DONNA: Jim, we'll all live "for a while," but
your health affects the quality of your life. With
everything your wife told me on the phone
yesterday, you may be well on your way to
becoming one of the three to four hundred
thousand people who die of diet related disease
every year. Just being a male makes you more
likely to have heart trouble, and with your family
history of heart problems, your weight and
cholesterol level should be watched even more
closely.

JIM: Donna, I know you mean well, but I’m still
not sure that changing my lifestyle is worth it.
DONNA: The changes I will suggest are quite
painless. You don't need to change your entire
lifestyle. For instance, you could be eating
pretzels instead of those potato chips. Let me
show you this tape I helped one of my professors
put together. I think it may make things a bit
clearer.

JIM: Alright, but I'm still not sure about this.
TV: There are a number of risk factors related to
heart disease. Some are beyond your control,
such as being male, a family history of heart
problems, a previous history of heart problems
yourself, or a previous history of strokes or other

blood vessel disease. These are...

3-shot

Video
text graphic

3-shot

Graphic — chart of
cholesterol levels

3-shot

65

JIM: I've got two strikes against me already, and
they're things I can't do anything about.
DONNA: True Jim, but there are things you can
control, keep listening.

TV: things you can work on. These are
smoking, diabetes, hypertension, being
significantly overweight, lack of exercise, and
high cholesterol levels. These are all.

JIM: See, I'm not that bad off. I don't smoke. I
don’t have diabetes. I'm not hypertensive and
I'm not that overweight. Could you explain that
bit about cholesterol though?

DONNA: The cholesterol level is actually much
more important than most of the others, what did
you say yours was?

JIM: 236, but the doctor said that was only
borderline.

DONNA: This booklet that accompanies the
program shows the degree of risk at different
cholesterol levels. A 240 or above would be the
high risk category, is that all your doctor said
about it?

JIM: Well, no. He also said that I should lower
it, and that it concerned him.

CATHY: Why didn't you tell me that?

JIM: I didn't want to worry you. I feel fine,
really.

CU Donna

MSTV

video

Graphic — liver

Graphic — HDL/LDL

Graphic — Dump trucks

66

DONNA: High cholesterol has no obvious
symptoms. It's not something you would feel
until it's too late. To answer your original
question, there are two different types of
cholesterol produced by your liver. One type
leaves fatty deposits in the artery walls, and the
other removes them. Here, let my professor
explain...

TV: ...Some cholesterol, fat and oil is needed for
your body to properly use certain key vitamins
and for body maintenance. However, it is not
usually the amount of cholesterol in the food you
eat that determines the cholesterol level in your
blood. That is because the liver produces
cholesterol and determines how much to send to
the blood supply. The more saturated fat you
eat, the more cholesterol your liver produces,
which increases the level of cholesterol in your
blood. Cholesterol is carried through the blood
stream by HDL's, or high density lipoproteins,
and LDL's, low density lipoproteins. The LDL
carriers take the cholesterol out to the arteries
and deposit it in the walls, while HDL carriers
take the cholesterol hour the artery walls and
then back to the liver to be eliminated. These

types...

3-shot

CU Donna

Graphics — food

Graphics — food

CU Cathy

CU Donna

67

JIM: So those "HDL's" and "LDL's" are what we
hear about as "good" and "bad" cholesterol?
DONNA: Right. You need to keep the level of
LDL's down to keep cholesterol fi'om collecting in
your arteries. To do this, you need to limit your
intake of saturated fats.

CATHY: How can you tell saturated and
unsaturated fats apart?

DONNA: Any oil which is solid at room
temperature, like the fat in meat, butter, or lard
is saturated fat. Margarine, which is made from
vegetable oil is partially saturated and is not as
bad for you. There is also a lot of hidden
saturated fat in foods like whole milk, candy,
cookies, most potato chips and other baked goods.
When you're cooking you can avoid saturated fats
by using a cooking oil with a lower level of
saturated fat like vegetable oil, which is made
from soybeans instead of tropical oils or animal
fat.

CATHY: We've been buying foods labeled "lite"
and "low-fat," so why is Jim's cholesterol level so
high?

DONNA: Foods labeled "lite" are not necessarily
low in fat. In addition, you said Jim eats out a
lot and he's probably not as careful as you are at

home.

3-shot

MS TV
Video
Graphic — heart

Graphic — artery

Graphic — heart attack

3-shot

CU Donna
Graphic — chart

3-shot

68

JIM: I suppose I do eat greasy foods, but how
can that cause a heart attack?

DONNA: I think my professor is just about to
explain that...

TV: in the blood. The heart is a muscle, and
like all other muscles, it needs the oxygen and
nutrients carried by blood. The blood is carried
to the heart muscle by the coronary or heart
arteries. When the blood cholesterol level
becomes too high the excess cholesterol gets
stuck in the walls of the arteries. This build up
slows the blood flow and eventually closes the
artery. This is what happens when a heart
attack occurs. Now, while this...

JIM: So I can avoid a heart attack just by
changing my diet?

DONNm You can at least lower your chances.
In fact, for every one percent you lower your
cholesterol level, you reduce your risk of a heart
attack by two percent. So if you can bring your
cholesterol level down to 200, you will cut your
chances of a heart attack by over a third.
CATHY: Well, we're going to get your cholesterol
level below 200 as soon as possible. You need to
eat less fiied fast food, and avoid fatty snacks

while you watch television.

CU Donna

CU Cathy

3—shot

They walk out of shot
MODULE TWO
Cookie aisle

3-shot

CU label
DVE zoom in

3-shot

69

DONNA: Actually, you can cut your cholesterol
level significantly just by making wise choices
about what you eat. You don't have to
completely avoid fast food and snacks, but you do
have to make some decisions about what you
snack on, and what you order when you eat out.
Some minor changes can have a major impact on
your quality of life.

CATHY: What about when I'm shopping? I
thought I was buying the right things, but now
I'm not so sure.

DONNA: Let's go to the store and I'll show you
what to look for.

CATHY: Alright. Come on, Jim.

JIM: Let's see, I love these cookies. I suppose
they're bad for me too?
DONNA: Take a look at the label. You tell us.

How many grams of fat are there in one cookie?

JIM: According to this chart there's only five.
DONNA: Alright, but just two of those cookies
make up about one eighth of your daily fat
intake.

JIM: You're kidding.

DONNA: Well, what do you weigh?

JIM: Uh, about 195.

Graphic — start math
calcs

Remove calcs.

Graphic — new calc.

70

DONNA: For a man your height, your ideal
weight actually around 170. That's the number
you should use. So, if you are very active you can
multiply 170 by 15 to find the number of calories
you need to consume in order to maintain your
ideal weight.

JIM: Well, that's

DONNA: You got 2250, right? Now, take thirty
percent of that to represent the calories which
should be from fat.

JIM: Um...

DONNA: Right, you got 765. And since there
are nine calories per gram of fat, you need to
divide 765 by nine to find the number of grams of
fat you should consume each day. What did you
get?

JIM: Um... well...

DONNA: That's a bit messy, but you don't need
all that complex math. Just divide your weight
by two, it'll give you the same result.

JIM: Oh, that's easy. Half of 170 is 85.

DONNA: Right.

CATHY: Wasn't that based on him being
physically active?

DONNA: Well, if he's not active at all that would

be twenty percent less, or about 68.

Graphic — complex
math

Graphic — New calc.

CU paper clip

71

CATHY: He is somewhat active. Perhaps we'll
compromise on 75.

DONNA: You should also remember that only a
third of those fat grams, or 25, should come from
saturated fat.

JIM: This means I shouldn't eat any of those
cookies, doesn't it?

DONNA: Here try these instead. You still
shouldn't eat too many of them, but they contain
oil from soybeans and are lower in saturated fat.
CATHY: Will that fat gram calculation work for
women like me too?

DONNA: Sure. While you could do all that
complicated math, it's a lot easier to divide your
weight by two to find the number of grams of fat
you should consume.

CATHY: So if I weigh 120 pounds, and I'm
active, I could eat half that number of grams of
fat, or 60 grams. But since I'm not that
physically active that should be twenty percent
less, or about 48 grams. And about one third of
that, or 16, could come from saturated fat.
DONNA: You got it.

JIM: So, how much is a gram?

DONNk Well, a paper clip, like this one, weighs
about a gram. If it were made of fat it would

have nine calories.

Pull to meat aisle
3-shot

Graphic — food shots

Pull to pasta aisle
3—shot

Graphic — comparison

Pull to cooking oil aisle

72

 

DONNA: The saturated fat from meat is a major
cause of high levels of cholesterol in your blood.
While beef and pork are not bad for you
themselves, you do need to be selective.

CATHY: I don't think that's a good choice.

JIM: What? You always buy this, it's just steak.
CATHY: Yes, but I buy a leaner cut.

JIM: What do you mean?

DONNA Meat comes in many different cuts.
And better cuts of meat with less fat can be less
expensive, and they are also better for you.

Here, this has much less fat in it.

 

JIM: Here, how about this macaroni and
cheese?

DONNA: What's in that box is not all that bad
for you, but remember, the instructions tell you
to add four tablespoons of butter or margarine.
That would be about 44 grams of fat just from

the butter or margarine.

 

JIM: I know what you're going to tell me here. It

should be a vegetable oil like soybean oil.
CATHY: He's definitely catching on.

Label
DVE CU
DVE includes

ingredients

Pull to ice cream freezer

CU Label
DVE CU

3-shot

Pull to checkout
3-shot

73

DONNA: When you shop for the family, make
sure you read the labels. When you look at the
list of ingredients, try to avoid foods with too
much saturated fat. Foods that use palm or
coconut oil have large amounts of saturated fat in
them. Foods that use soybean oil have much less.

Read your labels carefully.

 

JIM: There's nothing in this freezer we can
choose is there?

DONNA: Of course there is. Here, take a look at
this low-fat frozen yogurt. Read the label.

JIM: Whoa. There’s only one gram of fat per
serving.

DONNA; Right, and that's a small fraction of the
fat content of regular ice cream. Now, if you
check the labels on sherbet, sorbet and ice milk

you will see similar low fat contents.

 

JIM: All this food shopping has made me
hungry. Perhaps we could go out to dinner.
CATHY: We already planned to go to that new
place down the street. I thought I mentioned
that.

JIM: Oh yeah.

CATHY: So, Jim did you learn anything today?

CU Jim

CU label

Food shots

3-shot

MODULE THREE

Pull to restaurant
3-shot

Food shots

More food shots

3-shot

74

JIM: Yeah. I learned that if I were really active,
I could divide my ideal weight by two to find the
number of grams of fat I should have each day,
but that I will use a slightly lower number
because I'm not all that active. So, I'm down to
about 75 grams of fat each day. Now I know
what the labels mean when they list grams of fat.
I'll also watch out for saturated fats especially in
baked goods, meats and dairy products.

CATHY: Not bad, you pass with flying colors.
DONNA: You might even live longer too.

 

CATHY: It's very easy to control your eating and
fat intake at home, but what can we do when we
eat out?

DONNA: Well, you can look for chicken, fish or
pasta entrees. Also, lean meat such as pork
medallions would be a good choice. Be careful of
the way these dishes are prepared, though. The
chicken won't be healthy for you if it is breaded
and fi'ied or covered in a cream sauce. Look for
broiled and baked items. Ask for fish or chicken
baked dry.

JIM: So we should special order everything?

CU Donna

WS table & Maggie

CU Donna

3-shot

75

DONNA' You don't have to go that far, but you
should ask your server how a meal you're
considering is prepared. Also, ask the server
what the cook uses to fry the food. Don't be
afraid to ask for an entree cooked the way you
want it. If you want your chicken baked or
broiled, most restaurants will prepare it this way
upon request. If the restaurant won't do this for
you, then maybe you shouldn't patronize that
restaurant.

WAITRESS: Good afternoon. I'm Maggie, I'm
your server today. May I take your order?

JIM: I'll have the prime rib, baked potato with
butter and sour cream...

CATHY: Jim! Haven't you been listening to
Donna at all?

JIM: Can we look over the menu a bit more?
WAITRESS: Sure, no problem. I'll be back in
just a moment.

JIM: What do you mean? I didn't order anything
fried.

DONNA: The prime rib has a lot of saturated
fat, and the baked potato was fine until you
mentioned sour cream and butter.

JIM: You said chicken, fish and pasta, right?
DONNA: Yes, and be careful of the way they're

prepared.

CU Donna

WS table & Maggie

CU Maggie

WS table & Maggie

76

CATHY: I think I'll have the chicken divan.
DONNA: I'm not so sure that's a good idea
either.

CATHY: Because of the sauce?

DONNA: Yes, the hollandaise sauce on that is
usually about half butter.

CATHY: Wow. That's a lot of saturated fat, isn't
it. How about the baked chicken?

DONNA: Not a bad choice. In fact, try the rice
pilaf. I've heard it's really good here.

JIM: How about the planked fresh Whitefish?
DONNA: A good choice. Ask them to saute the
vegetables in soybean oil or other vegetable
based oil that is low in saturated fat instead of
butter. In fact, most vegetable oil is made fiom
soybeans.

WAITRESS: Have you decided, sir?

JIM: Sure. I'll have the planked Whitefish... And
could you have them not use butter on the
vegetables?

WAITRESS: No problem, sir. Would you like
rice, french fries, or baked potato with that?
JIM: Potatoes are good for you. I'll have the
fries, please.

DONNA: Actually, Jim, those fries are loaded
with as much as 25 grams of fat.

JIM: I'll have the rice.

CU Donna

CU Maggie

Pull to later
3-shot

CU/VO Donna
Food shots

CU Cathy

3-shot

77

WAITRESS: And what dressing would you like
on your salad?

JIM: How about vinegar and oil on the side?
I'll just use a little.

WAITRESS: Yes, sir. And you ma'am?
CATHY: I'll have the herb baked chicken, rice
pilaf and lite italian dressing on the salad.
DONNA: And I'll have the seafood pasta. I'd
like that with marinara sauce instead of alfredo.
WAITRESS: No problem. What kind of dressing
on your salad?

DONNA: I'll have your house, the honey
mustard.

 

CATHY: That was pretty good. Now the hard
part, dessert. '

DONNA: Yes, fats especially like to hide out in
desserts. Try to stay away from things like
cheesecake and ice cream. Most of the fat in a
piece of pie is in the crust.

JIM: So, what can we order?

DONNA: Look for low-fat yogurt desserts,
icemilk, sherbets, fresh fruit or desserts that are
listed as being low-fat or fat-free.

CATHY: Jim, you really liked that ice cream we
had a couple days ago at home didn't you?

JIM: Yeah, that was good.

CU Donna

3-shot

CU BK diet chart w/
burger and BK broiler

78

CATHY: Well, that was fi'ozen yogurt. Why
don't we go home and eat that for dessert.

JIM: That sounds good. We have to pick up
some food for the kids first. Donna, how would
you avoid eating a lot of saturated fat at a fast
food restaurant?

DONNA: They have salads, and that's always a
safe choice. Just be careful about the type of
dressing you put on the salad. Blue cheese or
ranch dressings may ruin all your good
intentions of eating less fat.

JIM: I don't suppose I could have a hamburger,
could I.

DONNA: Possibly, but you need to make your
choices carefully. A quarter pound hamburger
can have twenty grams of fat in the meat alone
and over half of that is saturated fat. They have
a nutritional guide for all the food they sell.
You'll find that the chicken is much better for
you.

CATHY: But what if the chicken is deep fried?

CU Donna

3-shot

CONCLUSION
Pull to Donna’s kitchen
MCU zoom out to FS

Graphic — math lower
third

J im/Cathy reach for
foods

CU label
highlight fat

79

DONNA: Ask what kind of oil they use for
frying. If they don’t lmow, ask if the frying oil is
thick or solid when they start the day. If it is,
there is a lot of saturated fat in it. Also, try to
find other food options and perhaps go to
restaurants that cook with less saturated fats,
choosing items with less highly saturated fat,
such as soybean oil. You can also share small
portions of the fiied foods.

CATHY: Thanks, Donna. I've learned a lot, and
I'm sure we'll both be more careful about the
foods we buy.

JIM: We sure will. Now if only she'd bring the
check, we could be headed toward a wonderful,

low-fat dessert.

 

DONNA: Everything I told Jim and Cathy can
work for you as well. Start by finding out what
you should weigh. Divide that by two. The
result is the maximum number of grams of fat
you should have each day. Less if you're not
physically active. Keep that number in your head
as you go through the day. When you reach for
foods, whether you're in a store or rummaging

through the refi'igerator, check the label.

Cathy w/ toast

Jim w/ frozen yogurt

80

Keep fat content in your mind when ordering at a
restaurant as well. You will find that things
don't taste bad just because they're good for you.
Many options can taste better than the original.
Try a fruit spread on toast instead of butter, or
on your frozen yogurt instead of chocolate syrup.
You have a lot to say about the number one killer
in America, heart disease. Instead of highly
saturated fat oils, you will find more and more,
that healthy, low-fat products contain soybean
oil. It truly is food for thought, and food for life.

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B :

FEEDBACK FROM THE AMERICAN SOYBEAN ASSOCIATION

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

DEPARTMENT OI: TELECOMMUNICATION EAST LANSING ° MICHIGAN 0 48824-12”

(H7) I‘D-85‘

2

FAX (5|?) 553.1292

January 21, 1993

Memorandum

To: Gail Frahm, Bonnie Bolan
. .. (13:

From: Lisa WhltlflgL’

Re: Soybean Educational Video

Following is my understanding of the changes which you have
requested in the Soybean Educational video project:

1.

The actress playing the wife will be replaced with a more
experienced actress. The other two performers will be
retained.

The title will be changed to Soybeans: Food for Thought,
Food for Life.

Several graphics will be added to enhance information
comprehension.

Archway cookies will not be used as a "bad fat" example, as
they use soybean oil.

The introductory information will be left up a bit longer to
enhance comprehension. The information regarding the
transmittal letter will be removed.

More distinction between the modules will be made by
including subtitles (example: Shopping for life). Less
football footage will be used during module transitions.
Voiceover directions may be used as well, if necessary.

Module three needs two content changes.
a. Add a sentence. "Also, lean meat such as pork
medallions would be a good choice."

b. Either delete the line about bacon bits or rewrite to
suggest Bac'os.

81

82

Gail Frahm, Bonnie Bolan
January 19, 1993
Page Two

8. The final screen before credits should read: This resource
video was provided to you with funds from the United Soybean
Board investing Checkoff Dollars.

9. We will provide a credit list to you which you can approve.

If there are further changes which need to be made, please contact
me as soon as possible. If I do not hear from you by Wednesday,
February 3, we will reshoot the video incorporating these changes.

Thank you for your valuable feedback.

cc: Dr. Jim Eichmeyer
John McPhail
Dr. Tom Muth
Kelly Grieve
Dr. Gilbert Williams

FEEDBACK FROM THE FOCUS GROUP

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

Department of Telecommunication East Lansing, MI 48824 USA.
Thomas A. Muth. Ph.D., J.D., Professor Pho (517) 353 6412; Fax 355 1292

MEMORANDUM

RE: Prolect Media Mentor; MM-1b-92 (The Soy video project)
TO: Research 8: Production Team

DATE: 8 Feb 1993

SUBJECT: Focus Group Review of Nov. 1992 videotape.

Participants were secured though Interview of parents at Okemos High School and East Lansing schools.
1 1 men and 4 women participated in two sessions. lmerviev'Is were conducted after each completed viewing
the 18 min video.

Summary comments follow the videotape from beginning to end:

*Beginning very slow and uncertain of purpose of intro. Photographer said intro needs tighter editing to
eliminate slow action between participants - even children at beginning. Agreement that program drags;
needs “more punch‘ in lines; more emphatic statements. Younger people (3 about 15-18yrs) said program
shodd ‘iook at MTV...‘

*Audio and sound 'need a lot of work...‘ '...requires amplification. clearer annunciatlon by actors.’ Actors
all speaking too fast Appear reading from prompt cards too often. A number asked why there was so much
'echo' throughout the entire tape.

*Actors “...ali too stiff...shouid be more relaxed & life-like..." Actors 'seem to be preaching...‘
“Intro is slow; music fails to enhance message - too strident; march-like.
'Ughting in much of the program was poor...looked like a home video tape'

“Action needed. Too much speaking in beginning. Needs shorter or 'punchier' statements. Intro has trouble
getting to the point of the video. There is a delay from beginning of video to start of dialogue that seems
very long. The premise of the video needs to be established right away.

'When actors begin dialogue on couch there is too much talking; too many talking heads. The nutrition
expert is very good. The man needs to assert himself more in his lines. The wife seems to read all lines;
does not look at camera; seems distracted.

*The “video in video" to present the professors message is ok. but this part needs to have the graphics
remain on the screen longer. People were unable to determine the purpose of various graphics and all
thought this section needed to be reinforced by more graphics - numbers, words on the screen. drawings.
a “crawl that expands what the professor is saying...‘ The general point here is that graphics needed to back
up what is said throughout. Some had difficulty understanding the speech of the 'professor"

‘Two people noted something wrong with background for nutritionist -- upon questioning. the combination
of wall, open door and light switch was identified. Several noted switching from one head to another:
although the dialogue is good. it needs relief by graphics. wider shots. more 'syntax of the room the people
are in...‘

‘As Module 1 was ending, some peOpie through lighting was bright; others thought color was too strong
( this was due to a tv monitor used @ Okemos HS.)

83

84

‘Dlscussants unable to discern distinction between module 1 and later modules. Questions asked I they are
meant to "stand alone or be part of a whole program..." Most felt shorter pieces would get to point and make
message better.

WW - poor lighting and color quality noted by most participants. Need to show
more labels and show them as clearly as possible. Discussion of fat content not clear due to noise; "...actors
were almost shouting..." "...rnachlnery noise muffled voices:

"Show motion pictures of difference between solid oils. fatty oils. soybean oils. thin oils..."

K‘rtghm 5th -"...very dark and difficult to Mar actors because of echo..." {Muth note — a photographer
commented on the need for a filter to reduce glare from the blue woodwork and need to reduce shadows
throughout}

Throughout seems to be a lot of focus on individual faces One comment "...need relief from talking heads."

Oral explanation of all calcuation "...needs visual..." counterpart; "...wife's explanation needs drawing..." (sic -
graphic). Common comment is that where calcuatlon. numbers or points are made in dialogue. they need
emphasis with graphics.

Several asked why exercise is not mentioned in dialogue or put in a scene.

Moa like store scene but could not understand speakers due to ambient noise. One suggested mixing still
pictures of products in store to set items discussed apart from action.

‘The restaurant scene is too long. seems to drag out. "A lot of noise in background in restaurant makes
hearing actors difficult"

*The ending - "coming from the store (sic - restaurant) to home and leaving....had clumsy wording...seed
like it was not finished"

Photographer comment — "coordinate actors clothing colors with scenes..."

"What (the man) learned from the tape needs to be shown in some sort of a picture or (graphic) as a
summary at the end of the tape"

{Muth note - - almost everyone interviewed was able to divide average weight by 2 to derive daily fat. which
suggest the video is successful cognition!)

Student assistants from MSU. Okemos and E. Lansing H.S. ltad the following comments:
- why not use studio shots more to control for lighting. color. noise and echo problems.
- The audio is "trebleY' throughout. with echoes and It is hard to hear actors.
- More enthusiasm by actors is needed; perhaps reconfiguring actors will address this.
- Static shots too brief to be understood
- More liberal use of more graphics is needed
- Voce over would help some scenes such as in the restaurant and store
- Consider having one of the actors narrate part of the action while all are on screen. for
example. why not have an actor - the wife - explain that they all went to the supermarket
to get a lessor in shopping. This is intended to reinforce dialogue spoken in the program.
- Sports short are on screen too long. Just use them very briefly for reference.
- The program is generally too long. Breaking it into the modules discussed with more
graphics. repetition of key points and graphic reinforcement will help.

APPENDDC C

APPENDIX C

FEE-QUESTIONNAIRE
1). Do you consider yourself healthy? yes no
2). Do you feel your eating habits are healthy? yes no
3). How important is your health relative to other areas of your life?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not very
important important

4). Do you know your cholesterol level?

5). How often do you exercise?

6). The two types of cholesterol are

 

7).Of the two types of cholesterol, which is considered to be "good
cholesterol"?

8). How many grams of fat should you (personally) limit yourself to each
day?

9). How many of these fat grams can be saturated fat?

10). How many calories is one gram of fat?

9.0".”
coon:-

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D

POST- QUESTIONNAIRE
1). Name one heart disease risk factor you can't control.
2). Name two heart disease risk factors you can control.
3). The produces cholesterol in the body.

4). The amount of cholesterol produced is controlled by how much
you eat.

 

5). The two types of cholesterol are

 

6). Of the two types of cholesterol, which is considered to be "good
cholesterol"?

7 ). How many grams of fat should you (personally) limit yourself to each
day?

8). How many of these fat grams can be saturated fat?

9). How many calories is one gram of fat?
a. 4 b. 6 c. 9

10). When grocery shopping, you should read labels. What are you looking
for on those labels?

11). When dining out, what entrees should you look for?

12). When dining out, what desserts should you look for?

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX E

VIDEO QUESTIONNAIRE

1). Did you find this tape informational?

2). Did you learn anything new?

3). If yes, what?

4). Do think this video is effective?

5). If yes, why?

6). If no, why?

Please rate the following on believability:

7). ACTING

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not very
believable believable
8). STORY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not very
believable believable

9).What do you think would improve the video?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Courtney. Richard W Montreal:
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DeLuca, Stuart. W Boston: Focal Press, 1991.

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Hinds, Lynn. “Using Entertainment Television to Educate: A Case Study.”
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Kinney, Keith. “Memory and Comprehension of Tv News Visuals.” News
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Luker, Richard & Johnston, Jerome. “TV and Teens: Television in

Adolescent Social Development.” mm 52 (1988): 350-
353.

Morton, Brian. “The Fiction of Fact.” Wm 29
Nov. 1991: 8.

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Russell, Willy. As interviewed by Sean Coughlin. “Steeling the Scene.” The
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Smith, David L. W. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1991.

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"ltlttttttltttr