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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

The Role of Adult Learning in Helping

Domestic Violence Victims Make Personal Change
presented by

Paula E. Yensen

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D.

degree in Educat ional
Administration

 

 

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‘313101‘ professor

Date 10/21/94

MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

 

 

 

 

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TO AVOID FINES Mum on or More dd. duo.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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THE ROLE OF ADULT LEARNING IN HELPING
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE VICTIMS MAKE PERSONAL CHANGE

By

Paula E. Yensen

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Depaitment of Educational Administration

1994

ABSTRACT

THE ROLE OF ADULT LEARNING IN HELPING
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE VICTIMS MAKE PERSONAL CHANGE

By

Paula E. Yensen

The purpose of this study was to explore the role learning plays in helping domestic
violence victims cope with their problems. Domestic violence victims, like other adult
learners, use a variety of learning strategies to meet their learning needs. Very little
research has dealt specifically with the adult learning experiences of domestic violence

victims.

In this study, qualitative research methodology was used to select, describe, and interpret
data. The grounded theory was systematically obtained, analyzed, and grounded in the
data itself. The theory was derived from the data rather than being deduced from an
existing body of theory. The experiences of the __e__leven women interviewed were
different, but common categories describing their learning emerged, and those provided

the basis for the study.

The women interviewed indicated that their experiences contributed to their personal
growth. They also felt that helpeis (friends, family members or professionals) assisted in

their learning. The women said that they had previous experiences with domestic

violence in their lives and found it difficult to move away from those kinds of
relationships. The women said that they learned from each other, domestic violence
supportflgfroups, other counselors, and family and friends to facilitate this process. The
women were self-directed in their learning. They sought ways to learn more about
domestic violence. The women were pathfinders who took considerable risks to find new
directions for their lives. They also had a sense of vision and hope, which gave them the
impetus to move on to a new phase in their lives. The women made intentional changes
in their lives so that new learning could occur. The women identified triggering events
that propelled them into adult learning activities. The women said that they had to,_f:feel”

safe before they could learn. A process of reflection and action was yet another learning

strategy identified in the interviews.

The information included in the study can be helpful to professionals in a variety of
fields. This study suggests that the use of time, “contemplation and mutual learning

techniques helped domestic violence victims togain new understanding of their lives.

“My current view of the world is that
life is braided streams of light and darkness.
joy and pain, and I just accept them.
They both exist and I walk them both.
But now I know there is a choice about

what I do with them. ”

Arisika Razak

Interpretive Dancer

This study is dedicated to
my daughter Jamie,
my son Jason,

and my husband Michael.

Without them, I would not have had the motivation

and inspiration I needed to continue.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to many for their support and assistance with this research project. I would
like to thank my committee, the committed professionals at the domestic violence
program, the participants in my study, and my family — especially my husband. Without

all of them, this dissertation would not exist.

My program committee members at Michigan State University have been encouraging
and supportive. Dr. Joe Levine, the director of my dissertation, has contributed limitless
time and wise guidance in the dissertation phase of my program. Dr. Cas Heilman,
Chairperson of my Committee, provided me encouragement, good humor, a ready smile
and a pat on the back when I needed it. Dr. Joyce Ladenson has been with me since my
undergraduate program. Her contributions to feminist thought enriched my professional,
academic and personal life. Dr. James Snoddy taught me about the value of learning to
those who reach out. I am very grateful that I have had the benefits of all their viewpoints

to guide me. I am truly lucky to have a committee of professors I have known and

respected for many years.

I want to thank the professionals at the domestic violence program. They provided wise

counsel and educated me during their hectic workweek. Patty Ahting, the Assistant

Executive Director, was instrumental in the successful completion of this project.

Without her permission, the study would not have occurred.

Because of the limits of confidentiality, I cannot name the women who participated in the
study, but I do want to thank them. All of them gave freely of their time, were open and
honest in the sharing of their experiences and truly wanted to contribute to the research in

this field.

To my family, I also am indebted. My daughter Jamie and son Jason provided the
courage for me to continue my studies. They also listened to me when I needed to talk
about my project and encouraged me when I felt too tired to finish this process. I

appreciate their support.

Finally, I am eternally grateful for the support and editorial assistance of my husband,
Michael Bissett. He has the ability to prod and move me in directions that I thought I
never could. His encouragement and support was unwavering. He was with me every
step of the way during this process, from the initial stages of the research to final

proofreading and editing. I could not have completed this project without his help.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

List of Tables - - - -- ............ --..... xii

Chapter I _ - - - 1
Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
Purpose ................................................................................................... 1
Problem Area .......................................................................................... 2
Methodology ........................................................................................... 5
Definition of Terms ................................................................................ 7
Assumptions ........................................................................................... 8
Limitations of the Study ......................................................................... 9
Significance of the Study ........................................................................ 10
Organization of the Study ....................................................................... 10

Chapter II - -- -- -- - ...... 12
Review of Literature ............................................................................... 12
The Definition of Adult Learning ............................................................ 13
Ways Adults Learn ................................................................................. l3
Life’s Transitions .................................................................................... 20
Characteristics of Domestic Violence Victims ....................................... 23
The Cycle of Violence ............................................................................ 25

viii

Domestic Violence Programs ................................................................ . 26

 

 

Summary ................................................................................................ . 27
Chapter III - -- - -- - - - - _ _- ......... - _ 29
Methodology ........................................................................................... 29
Background to Grounded Theory ............................................................ 29
Broad Areas of Inquiry ........................................................................... 33
The General Population .......................................................................... 34
Selection of the Study Participants ......................................................... 34
Assumptions in Defining the Interview Sample ..................................... 35
Interview Process .................................................................................... 36
Administrative Aspects of Conducting the Interview ............................. 38
Description of Participants ...................................................................... 40
Time Frame ............................................................................................. 49
Chapter IV ........ -- - - - _ -- - - - 50
Description and Interpretation of Major Findings .................................. 50
Introduction ............................................................................................. 50
Confidentiality ........................................................................................ 50
Background of the Domestic Violence Shelter ....................................... 51
Research Questions ................................................................................. 52
Introduction to the Themes ..................................................................... 52
Theme 1 —- From Safety and Security to Belonging .............................. 56
Theme 2 — Triggering Events in the Lives of ....................................... 59
Theme 3 — The Praxis of Reflection and Action .................................. 61
Theme 4 — Breaking Old Habits ............................................................ 63

Theme 5 — Reliance on Others for Help in Learning ............................ 65

 

 

Theme 6 — Mutual Learning ................................................................ . 67
Theme 7 — Experiential Learning ......................................................... 70
Theme 8 —— Vision and Hope ................................................................ . 72
Theme 9 — Pathfinders .......................................................................... 74
Theme 10 —— Intentional Changes ........................................................... 77
Summary ................................................................................................ . 78
Chapter V . -- _- -- -- _ -- - - ..... - -_ ......... 81
Summary and Conclusions ..................................................................... 81
Summary of the Ten Categories ............................................................. 82
So What Does This Mean for Butler County? ........................................ 84
What Does This Mean For Women in Butler County? .......................... 85
The Importance of Time ......................................................................... 86
Thinking Women .................................................................................... 88
We Facilitate Learning For Each Other .................................................. 89
Future Areas of Inquiry .......................................................................... 91
Reflections of the Researcher ................................................................ . 93
Appendices - -- . - ..... -- - - 94
Appendix A Forward Information Form ............................................... 94
Appendix B Letter of Confirmation ....................................................... 95
Appendix C Consent Form .................................................................... 96
Appendix D Letter of Thanks ................................................................ 97
Appendix E Demographic Information Sheet ....................................... 98
Appendix F Interview Guide ................................................................ . 99

Appendix G General Observations Worksheet ...................................... 100
Appendix H Interview Schedule ............................................................ 101
Appendix I Interview Excerpt ................................................................ .102
Appendix J Approval Letter from the University Committee on

Research Involving Human Subjects ...................................................... 112

Bibliography - - -- ...... 113

 

LIST OF TABLES

 

1 Demographic Characteristim of the Study Participants

CHAPTERI

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE

Domestic violence victims, like other adult learners, use a variety of learning styles to
meet their learning needs. How domestic violence victims acquire knowledge while they
are in a state of crisis may better help professionals in establishing prevention and

intervention programs.

This study explored learning and the role of learning in assisting domestic violence
victims in dealing with their problems. In addition, the study examined whether domestic
violence victims have common learning styles and are willing to accept responsibility for

their learning.

This study included four broad areas of inquiry that helped guide the research areas so

that categories could emerge from the data. They were:

I. Do domestic violence victims believe learning can change their lives?

2. Does learning help domestic violence victims cope with their crisis?

I

3. Do domestic violence victims accept responsibility for their own Ieaming?
4. Do domestic violence victims have specific Ieaming styles in common with each
other?

In addition, this investigation attempted to contribute to the current body of research
about self-directed Ieaming and the problems associated with domestic violence. The
review of literature from previous studies was helpful in adding meaning to this study.
This review of literature and the four broad areas of inquiry assisted in the development

of categories while the data was collected.

The areas of inquiry were intended to be general so they would yield valuable insight into
the varied role of Ieaming with domestic violence victims, but specific enough to provide

direction for this study.

PROBLEM AREA

Studies focusing on self-directed Ieaming characteristics of the general population by
Knowles (1984), experiential Ieaming by Rogers (1979), and triggering events by
Aslanian and Brickell (1980), serve as “entree” to the identification of Ieaming

characteristics of the domestic violence victim.

Knowles (1984) developed an andragogical model for the adult learner which helps in
understanding the framework of adult learners in non-fonnal settings. Andragogy is the

art and science of helping adults learn. This model describes a process in which

3

individuals take the initiative in the formulation and development of strategies, learning
goals and outcomes of the adult learner that meet their needs. His framework about adult

Ieaming focused upon self-directed Ieaming.

Rogers (1979) looked at experiential learning in the shaping and movement of an adult to
being fully functioning. It was his view that through experiential learning an evolution
occurred within the internal being of the individual. This range of experiences is brought

to the learning environment.

Aslanian and Brickell (1980) investigated why and when people learn. Their study stated
that a person seeks a Ieaming experience because of a transition in life that can be pointed
to — a specific event — that is a trigger or signal for the learning. More than 50% of
these triggering events are family triggers, e. g. divorce, domestic violence, or loss of a job
(Aslanian and Brickell, 1980). This research suggested a cause and effect between how

adults spend their time and the life changes that cause them to learn (Aslanian, 1988).

Some research has focused upon barriers to learning. Cross (1987) explained why adults
do not learn. She concluded that there are three barriers prohibiting a person from
learning which are situational, institutional, and dispositional. The definition of a
situational barrier is a barrier where a learner may feel that the cost of tuition is
expensive, there is no child care or no transportation. An example of an institutional

barrier to learning is when no information is available about the Ieaming opportunity.

Dispositional barriers are based on attitudes and feelings. This could mean the person
may feel too old to learn and not feel confident based on prior experiences. Dispositional

barriers are internally focused within the adult learner. Learners may feel too old to learn

4

or they may feel they do not have enough energy. These are perceived barriers to

learning.

Alan Knox believed (1986) that adult learning ability and style changes throughout the
life process. He believes that intelligence, personality, age, formal education and
previous specialized experience all contribute to the great variety of learning styles within
the adult population (Knox, 1986). Knox states, “Adults tend to evolve from
unquestioning conformity, to recognition of multiple viewpoints, to deliberate
commitment to application of universal principles and appreciation of relationships, both

human and cognitive.”

Levinson’s research (1979) looked at the individual life structure, which he said was
divided into transitional periods, or “seasons,” that flow from one phase to the next.
These transitional periods are hierarchical, sequential, and linked to age. Each phase

provided a significant time for growth or renewal.

Gilligan (1982) indicated that developmental theories have been built upon the
observations of men’s lives. Women’s motives, moral commitment, their viewpoint and
psychological growth are different due to socialization differences. Women speak “In a

Different Voice” because of these differences.

Rotter (1972) and Phares (1965) studied locus of control as a concept for Ieaming. It is
derived from social Ieaming theory. This process attempted to integrate two modern
trends in American psychology. The stimulus-response or reinforcement and the
cognitive or field theories were combined into one theory called Social Learning Theory.
Rotter (1972) discovered that the learning situation occurred when the teacher arbitrarily

decides the right response regardless of the reason of the subject. The response of the

5

subject produced a different kind of Ieaming than one in which the subject believed the
behavior determined the outcome. The locus of control is based on internal and external

factors.

This theory included behavioral constructs and the internal or subjective constructs
(Rotter, 1982). This concept states that behavior is a function of expectations about the
effect of behavior. If a person believes that fate and chance will control the outcome,
they are external. When a person believes their behavior will control the outcome, the

locus of control is internal.

Many questions about the adult learning of domestic violence victims remain unasked.
First of all, how do domestic violence victims learn? It is of interest to see if they learn
from each other, counselors or others. What are the characteristics of Ieaming of the
domestic violence victim? They may have common characteristics in their Ieaming. This
could mean that needed time to think. Does the domestic violence victim accept
responsibility for her Ieaming? Knowles suggests that an adult learner accepts
responsibility for his/her learning. A woman may decide to read a book, or call a crisis
line. In what ways is learning used to cope or deal with their situations? Learning or new
information can facilitate new ways of c0ping. Do domestic violence victims see
Ieaming as a way to change their lives? Learning may be a way for the women to make

changes in their lives.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology of this study was based on the methodology of grounded theory
research as described by Strauss and Corbin(l990). This methodology is “one

6
deductively derived from the study it represents,” Strauss and Corbin (1990). This

methodology uses a constant comparative method for analyzing qualitative data and is a
general methodology for generating a theory. Grounded theory is systematically
obtained, analyzed and grounded in the data itself. The theory is derived from the data

rather than being deduced from an existing body of theory.

This method begins by coding each incident in the data into as many categories as
possible, as categories emerge or as data emerge that fit an existing category. While
coding, each incident is placed in the appropriate group to generate properties of the
category. As the coding continues, the comparative units change from comparison of

incidence to incidence of comparison with properties of a category.

Grounded theory methodology is well suited for descriptive studies such as this one,
which is a topic for which very little formal study or theory exists. Grounded theory
provides the data that is needed to develop initial hypotheses from which formal theory
can occur later. This study will result in a set of conclusions derived from the

information offered by the study participants.

A basic premise of grounded theory is that the hypothesis is evolving and not perfect.
Because this study’s conclusion is based on data rather than formal theory, it is unlikely
to be completely refuted or replaced by another theory (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Later

research will be able to add to, expand or refine these conclusions.

The end product of grounded theory research is a set of hypotheses that are grounded in
the data. Grounded theory methodology has been demonstrated by Glaser and Strauss
(1965); Strauss and Corbin( 1990); as effective for generating theory or hypothesis in

little-known areas of study. It is important to avoid over-generalizing these findings, as

7

this study did not test theories but only generated them. It is expected that the theory that

emerged will continue to be redefined, and refined through further studies.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The following definitions have been used in this study for the purposes of clarity and

consistency:

Learning: . .a change in human disposition or capability, which can be retained and
which is not ascribable to the process of growth.”

(Gagne, 1970, p. 3)

Learning Style: The characteristic and preferred way in which an adult engages in

Ieaming activities (Claxton & Ralston, 1978; Dunn & Dunn, 1972; Cross, 1981).

Self-Directed Learning: “. . .a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or
without the help of others, in diagnosing their needs, formulating Ieaming goals, choosing
and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating outcomes,” (Knowles,

1975. p. 18).

Domestic Violence: Attempts or actions used by a man to dominate or control a woman

with whom he is, or has been in an intimate relationship (Shattmaier, 1987).

Coding: The process of analyzing data. It is described as providing a link between data

and theory. The data is dissected in categories and properties. Coding is the process

8

(Strauss and Corbin, 1990) in which open coding, axial coding, and selective coding are

generated.

Open Coding: The process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing,

and categorizing data (Strauss and Corbin 1990).

Axial Coding: A set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after
open coding, by making connections between categories. This is done by utilizing a
coding paradigm involving conditions, context, action/interaction strategies and

consequences (Strauss and Corbin 1990).

Selective Coding: The process of selecting the core category, systematically relating it to
other categories, validating those relationships, and filling in categories that need further

refinement and development (Strauss and Corbin 1990).

Theoretical Saturation: No new or relevant data seems to emerge regarding a category
with further data collection (Strauss and Corbin 1990). This means that data becomes
consistent in its themes and it is not necessary to engage in the collection of data as no

new information would be learned.

ASSUMPTIONS

There were three assumptions that impacted on the design of this study. The first
assumption was that domestic violence victims are active adult learners and that they will
discuss the nature of their Ieaming in this study. The second assumption was that the

domestic violence victims were able to remember the types of learning that they have

9
experienced and that they will be able to describe these learning experiences. A third

assumption was that one extensive and probing interview with each domestic violence
victim would be adequate to gather the vital information related to the selected areas of
inquiry. These assumptions were necessary to identify study participants and have served

as a basis for gathering data.

It should be stated that domestic violence is only one variable that has affected the
learning experience of the women interviewed. The women may differ as to the
conditions or situations of their lives. No attempt was made to control other variables

(intelligence, personality type, etc.).

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The self-reporting nature of the interview used in this study was an inherent limitation.
Interviews are subject to concerns of reliability and validity. Attempts were made to
manage reliability by using the researcher as the only interviewer. This study attempted
to manage validity by tape recording the sessions along with using notes to maintain the
accuracy of the conclusions of the study. To increase reliability, the study included four
trial interviews with domestic violence victims to refine the interview process and perfect

the recording of the responses.

Another limitation of this study was that domestic violence victims were reporting their
thoughts and feelings about learning, possibly affecting their willingness and ability to

talk. The study sample size was limited to eleven interviews.

10

The issue of trust of the domestic violence victims was another inherent limitation. The
domestic violence victims may have felt that they could not disclose information, because
their safety might have been jeopardized. However, this was dealt with by conducting all
interviews at the domestic violence shelter or another location agreeable to the subjects,
and stressing to the subjects the confidentiality of the interview. The domestic violence

shelter is located in a confidential location to insure the safety of the women and children.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this study lies in four areas of adult learning. First, this study sought
to identify the types of Ieaming experiences of the domestic violence victim. Secondly,
this study attempted to contribute to the current body of research on self-directed
learning. Thirdly, this study investigated the characteristics of adult learners who are
domestic violence victims. Finally, this study attempted to show how descriptive data
may allow hypotheses to emerge that are grounded in qualitative data. Very little
quantitative data was used in order that this could occur. The findings of this study were

not meant to be conclusive but to provide a basis for further research on adult learning.

ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

Chapter I of this study provides an introduction to the basic problem with which this
study is concerned. Chapter 11 reviews the literature with the intent of establishing
background information and support for the assumptions made in this study. An outline
of the grounded theory methodology and the specific implementation of the study is

presented in Chapter Ill. Chapter IV presents the major findings of this study and a

ll

discussion of the findings and methodology. The conclusions, implications and

recommendations for further study are outlined in Chapter V.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Since there is very little literature that specifically deals with domestic violence victims as

learners, and research surrounding adult learning strategies, other related literature has

been reviewed for relevance and impact on this topic. The purpose of this study was to

explore the Ieaming characteristics of domestic violence victims. The review of the

literature was drawn from six primary sources.

The literature review included the following areas:

1)
2)
3)

4)

an understanding of the definition of adult Ieaming,

ways that adults learn,

adult developmental stages or phases and the relationships of life transitions to
learning events,

the characteristics of domestic violence victims,

the cycle of violence,

domestic violence programs’ response to victims.

12

13

THE DEFINITION OF ADULT LEARNING

Eduard Lindeman, I924, popularized the word andragogy, which is the art and science of
helping adults learn (Knowles, 1970, p. 38). His views about adult education were
heavily influenced by the Danish volkshochschulen (folk school for adults), which he
studied while living in Denmark. Lindeman (1924) proposed that adults are self-directed.
their learning needs change as they age and Ieaming is a lifelong process. (1926, p.
xviii). It is a process that is based upon the experiences that a person brings to the
Ieaming environment. Lindeman witnessed educational opportunities brought to adults
while they were working the farmlands. These people were from all ages and walks of
life who wanted to learn. Lindeman brought some of these ideas such as life-long

learning to the United States.

Malcolm Knowles (1984) developed the andragogical model for adult learning. He
believed the adult learners need to know why they need to learn. His premise was that
adults believe they are responsible for their own decisions. The adult learner comes to
the learning setting with a set of experiences, a readiness and orientation to learning and

motivated to learn. The learner initiates or is well directed in learning?"

WAYS ADULTS LEARN

Knowles (1975, p. 18) defines self-directed learning as “a process in which individuals
take the initiative, with or without the help of others in diagnosing their Ieaming needs.
formulating Ieaming goals, identifying human and material resources for learning.

choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies. and evaluating Ieaming

l4

outcomes.“ There are other labels that are used to describe this process such as “self-
study,” “self-pace,” or “independent Ieaming.” The learner is self directed in defining
their learning needs. Adults ask for help many times. This could mean asking for
directions when lost or asking someone to explain a concept that is not understood.

Adults help each other as part of the Ieaming process.

Knowles (1975, p. 19) states, “Self-directed Ieaming usually takes place in association
with various kinds of helpers.” Helping is a mutual process between learner and helper.

It is a relationship that is forged with the following attitudinal qualities.

Knowles (1984) identifies three attitudinal qualities of a helper:
l. Realness of the helper.
2. Non-possessive caring, trust or respect.

3. Empathetic, understanding and sensitive and accurate listening.

These attitudinal qualities of the helper are important so the learner can be free to express

his/her concerns.

Knowles (1984) describes the guidelines for a helper. There are ten characteristics in

establishing an environment in which learning can be fostered.

l. The helper establishes the initial mood or setting of the learning experience.
2. The helper asks and clarifies the purposes of the learner.
3. The helper relies upon the desire of the learner to implement the strategies that

have the most motivational force behind the significant experience.
4. The helper works at creating many possible resources for Ieaming.

5. The helper is a flexible resource to be used by the learner.

15

6. The helper accepts the responsibility for the intellectual content and emotional

attitudes and gives respect to each learner with the appropriate emphasis.

7. The helper becomes a learner when the climate for Ieaming is obtained.

8. The helper takes the initiative in sharing their experiences with the learner.

9. The helper is alert to the expressions of the learner that are deep and with
emotion.

10. The helper endeavors to recognize and accept their limitations.

Rogers’ (1979) research focused upon experiential learning. This experiential Ieaming
model is comprised of five elements. The elements are: a high quality of personal
involvement by the adult learner, it is self initiated, it is pervasive, it is evaluated by the
learner and its essence is meaning. It is through experiential learning that a fully
functioning person can evolve from their experiential Ieaming. Rogers believed a fully

functioning person was an individual who was whole and not mentally ill.

The focus of experiential learning is the dynamic, process-based continuum of

experiences. Rogers says:

“We see persons moving in this direction from the best of experiences in education, from
the best of experiences in therapy, from the best of family and group relationships. But

what we observe is the person moving toward this goal.” (1979, p 295)

The main purpose of education is to develop skills of inquiry (Knowles, 1975). With the
skills of inquiry, and a problem-solving orientation, adults can engage in the process of
Ieaming. Knowles, along with Maslow and Rogers, views the process as a dynamic

process of adult action and motivation.

16

Domestic violence victims may face barriers to accessing information and services.
These barriers may inhibit a woman from learning and freeing herself from a dangerous
situation. Cross (1987) identified barriers to Ieaming for adult learners. Her study
explains that there are three factors that can prevent Ieaming. Disposition is the first
barrier to learning. An example of a dispositional barrier is when a person may feel too

old to learn or lack confidence to try. This is an internally focused barrier for a learner.

The second barrier to learning is situational. For example, day care may be too expensive
or the learner may not have the time to go to school. The third barrier to learning is
institutional. The learner may see high tuition, inconvenient class scheduling, or lack of

parking on campus as barriers for participating at a school or program.

Cross (1987) states that lifelong Ieaming is a necessity for everyone due to the escalating
rate of change in the world. Cross (1987) estimates that as many as 40 million Americans
are in a state of transition with their jobs and their careers. The barriers to participation in
learning activities that Cross (1987) identified prevents some from accessing Ieaming

opportunities and makes them less competitive in the job market.

Paulo Friere (1970, p. 13) defines praxis as reflection and action. He refers to praxis as
“an action upon an object that must be critically analyzed in order to understand both the
object and the understanding one has of it. The act of knowing involves a dialectical
movement which goes from action to reflection and from action to new action.” This
means reflection and action are important for individuals so that they can have a greater
understanding of themselves. This process is a dynamic one that moves from reflection
to action, action to reflection. Friere (1982) believes that in order for empowerment to

occur, the praxis of reflection and action are integral.

17

Allen Tough (1980) says an intentional change must have two characteristics. First, the
change must be definitely chosen and intended. Second, an individual then takes one or
more steps to achieve the change. A person chooses the change and then takes the steps

to follow the change.

The change as Tough (1980) describes must be highly intentional. That means a person
makes a decision that is specific. A person must choose and strive for this change in their

life. It is a conscious choice and an intended one of which the person is aware.

Tough also states that these choices are voluntary. These choices are not forced on a
person or required by circumstances. Important intentional changes are common in four
areas: 1) job, career, and training; 2) human relationships, emotions, and self perception;
3) enjoyable activities; and 4) residence location. These four areas account for 75% of all
intentional changes. All the subjects interviewed made intentional changes based upon

human relationships, emotions, and self perception.

Viktor Frankl’s, Man ’5 Search for Meaning, (p. 77) states, “Life ultimately means taking
the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and fulfill the tasks which it
constantly sets for the individual.” Frankl observed this while in one of Germany’s

concentration camps during World War II.

In the concentration camp, cigarettes were used as money. They were traded for extra
food, clothing or privileges. The suicide rate was very high in the camp. Frankl would
notice some men smoking all their cigarettes within a very short period of time. The next
morning Frankl would find them dead from suicide. From his observations, he
discovered that the people who committed suicide were the ones who no longer had a

sense of vision and hope for themselves.

18
Gilligan (1982) believes that developmental theories have been built only on the

observations of men's lives. Women's motives, their moral commitments, their
psychological growth and their view of what is important have been misunderstood

(Gilligan, 1982, p 164) states:

“Since women, however, define their identity through relationships of intimacy and care,
the problems they encounter pertain to issues of a different sort. When relationships are
secured by masking desire, and conflict is avoided by equivocation. then confusion arises

about the locus of responsibility and truth.”

Gilligan (1982) believes that the transition from adolescence to adulthood is the same for
both sexes — conflict between integrity and care. But the two sexes approach the

conflict differently, which means they have difference moral ideologies.

Morality of rights and the ethic of rights are the two different ideologies. Gilligan (1982)
says the morality of rights is based on equality and fairness. The ethic of rights is
fostered from equal respect, balancing the claims of other and self, compromise,
compassion and care. Gilligan (1982) maintains life’s transitions are different for males
and females. They speak a different language but they think it is the same. Due to
differences in socialization males and females speak in different voices through life

transitions.

Locus of Control is a concept of learning derived from of social Ieaming theory. Social
learning theory uses a historical approach to the study of personality (Rotter, 1972). It
was an attempt to integrate the two modern trends in American psychology. The
stimulus-response or reinforcement theories and the cognitive or field theories were

combined into one theory.

19

This theory included both behavioral constructs and internal or subjective constructs
(Rotter, 1982). The locus of control concept maintains that behavior is a function of
expectations about the effect of behavior on the behavior itself (Lefcourt, 1965). If for
example, a person believes their behavior will decide the outcome, the locus of control is

considered to be internal.

If the person believes that they have no control over the consequences of their actions, the
locus of control is external. People who attribute the outcome of personal actions to

factors beyond their control. such as fate or chance are externally controlled.

Rotter (1972) was interested in the variable that might correct or refine prediction of how
reinforcement change expectancies. The basic hypothesis is that if a person perceives a
reinforcement as contingent upon their own behavior, then the occurrence of either a
positive or negative reinforcement will strengthen or weaken potential for that behavior to
recur in the same or similar interaction. If the person sees the reinforcement as being
outside their control, that is, depending upon chance or fate, than the preceding behavior

is less likely to be strengthened or weakened.

A learning situation would occur where the teacher arbitrarily decides the right response
regardless of the response of the subject. The response of the subject will produce a
different kind of learning than one where the subject believes the behavior determines
whether or not the reinforcement will occur, learning under is skill conditions is different

from learning under choice conditions.

A series of studies provides strong support for the hypothesis that the learner who has a
strong belief that she can control her own. destiny, takes steps to improve her

environmental condition, places greater value on skill or achievement, and has more

20

concern for her ability and failures, can be resistant to subtle attempts to be influenced.
Phares (1965) concluded that subjects who feel they have control of the situation are
likely to exhibit perceptual behavior that will better enable them to cope with potentially
threatening situations than subjects who feel chance or other uncontrollable forces

determine whether or not their behavior will be successful.

LIFE’S TRANSITIONS

Adult learning is process or journey that is based upon experiences that are dynamic and
maturing (Dewey, 1917, 1938, 1969). Adult Ieaming takes place in a powerful
environment whereby adult development is evolving actions that grow in depth and
richness based upon respect and support for others and support for other and in support of

the social environment.

Maslow’s (1970, p. 80) Theory of Human Motivation may be called a holistic-dynamic
theory. Maslow said that basic human needs must be met before focusing on higher
goals. Physiological needs, i.e. the air, food and water that are essential to survival, must
be met first. If the physiological needs are met, the need for safety and security then
becomes most important. Some examples of this second level need include feeling safe

from criminal assault, murder, attacks by wild animals. etc.

After the physiological and the safety needs are fairly well met, the person’s need for
affiliation will emerge. A person at this third level has the need to belong to a group or

have relationships with friends or family.

21

Maslow (1970, p. 90) states that the fourth level, which is self-esteem, means “that all
people in society have a desire for a stable, firmly based, usually high evaluation of
themselves.” The final or fifth need is self-actualization, or achieving what a person can

and must be to be at peace with herself.

Aslanian & Brickell (1980) investigated why and when people learn. Most adults learn
because they want to use the knowledge. There are transitions when Ieaming occurs for
the use of this knowledge. These Ieaming transitions are uneven. Every adult who learns
because of a transition can point to a specific event in their life that signaled or triggered
the Ieaming to occur at that time. Triggering events occur. unevenly in several parts of an
adult's life. More than half of these triggering events are family triggers, such as divorce
or loss of a loved one. While the topic an adult chooses to learn is always related to the
life transition requiring that Ieaming, the topic is not always related to the triggering

event

More than 90 percent of the events triggering adult learning occur in career or family
lives (Aslanian and Brickell, 1980). This suggests a cause and effect between how adults
spend their time and the life changes that cause them to learn. Transitions create the
reasons for learning, while triggers set the limit for that Ieaming (Aslanian, 1984). Life
transitions are the times of learning, and specific events trigger the decisions to learn at

particular points of time.

Knox (1986) indicates that learning ability and style change throughout life. The shift in
learning style also reflects developmental trends in personality during adulthood. Adults
tend to evolve from unquestioning conformity to recognition of universal principles and
appreciation of relationships both human and cognitive (Knox, 1986). Learners tend to

choose educational settings that fit their preferred Ieaming styles. This praxis is a process

22

where learners alternate between current proficiencies and search for increase levels of

understanding and mastery.

Daniel Levinson (1979) focused upon the concept of the individual life structure. The
transitional periods are within the life structure. These transitional periods are sources of
stagnation or renewal for learning. The combined perspective of eras and periods is a
means of exploring the total life and the process of development at specific times. A
season is the metaphor for a period, and “the continuum of life’s specific transitions are
eras. Life structure evolves through a sequence of alternating periods. A stable structure
building period is followed by transitional, structurally changing period. Structural
building is defined as making crucial choices, creating a structure, and enriching the

structure and pursuing the learner's goals within the framework.

Pathfinders are those who face a treacherous transition. They find a detour that usually
turns out constructively. Sheehy (1981) says that life crises are a certainty for everyone.
The life crises are stressful but an individual finds the internal energy to move forward
and to grow in new ways. The willingness to risk is the master quality of path finding. It

is the cornerstone.

The pathfinders that Sheehy describes are those who took action that resulted in some
outer change to their environment. The pathfinder who willingly risked began with an

inner change that propelled the person to risk a different direction in their life.

The people Sheehy identifies as pathfinders are those who gave up self-limiting
behaviors, have the spunk to risk changing roles, or shift emphasis within their value

systems. The willingness to risk can challenge the basic belief system and values of an

23
individual. The willingness to risk means change, growth and Ieaming for those who

decide to do this.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE VICTIMS

There are several definitions of domestic violence. Ganley defines domestic violence as
assaultive behavior between adults in an intimate, sexual, theoretically peer and usually
cohabiting relationship. Assaultive behavior includes verbal threats of assault and
behavioral threats. Gelles and Straum (1979) define domestic violence as an act that is
carried out with intention or perceived intention of causing physical pain or injury to
another person. Shattmaier (1987) refers to domestic violence as to attempts or actions
used by a man to dominate or control a woman with whom he is, or has been, in an
intimate relationship. This includes such behavior as physical attacks, threats of physical
attacks, and psychological attacks. This includes repeated derogatory remarks, deliberate

destruction of a woman's property, confining her to limited area, or stalking her.

A feminist perspective views domestic violence as a result of and reflection of a male-
dominated society (Fleming, 1979; Schecter, 1982; Stark and Flitcrait, 1983). As long as
the institutional structures; e.g. government, religion and family; systematically oppress
and devalue women economically, sexually, and socially, violence against women will

continue.

Primary prevention and intervention is through education. This is coupled with
enactment and enforcement of laws that help protect women. Prevention programs in
schools, social service agencies, in the home and church are now in place. Intervention

programs such as support groups, police awareness programs which advocate for victims,

24
all help in solving this societal problem. Studies by (Gardner & Reisman, 1982;

Peterrnan, 1981; Schwartz, 1975; Spiegel, 1979) claim that information from these
programs increase the participants coping skills and problem solving skills (Gottlieb,

1981; McGuire & Gottlieb, 1979; Powell, 1975; Tietzen, 1980).

Inequality between women and men affects upon the perception of violent behavior for
the woman so that they are unable to develop adequate skills to escape from the
relationship (Walker, 1984). Walker’s research discovered that a domestic violence
victim will not attempt to escape when the victim believes her situation is hopeless. The
common characteristics of domestic violence victims are low self esteem, belief in
traditional roles of males and females, acceptance of responsibility for the batterer's
behavior, feelings of guilt, denial of the terror and anger she feels, presenting a passive
face to the world, use of sex to establish intimacy, belief that no one can help her, and
severe stress reactions (Walker, 1979). She becomes helpless and defenseless due to the

continuous cycle of violence.

Learned helplessness behavior is another characteristic of a domestic violence victim.
This theory (Walker 1978) maintains that when a domestic violence victim’s attempt to
escape from a threatening situation is blocked, she will stop trying to escape.

Consequently. she remains in the relationship and the learned helplessness is reinforced.

The Shube and Barbour (1984) study examined the influence of social support. Women
who ultimately left battering relationships were more likely to have filed assault charges
and obtained restraining orders. Women who had exhausted resources were more likely
than those seeking outside help to leave the relationship. The results of their research
also indicated that women who stayed in battering relationships were more likely to be

Caucasian. married and raising children at home.

THE CYCLE OF VIOLENCE

The first time that the three-phase cycle of violence was described was in 1978 by
Walker. Phase 1 is the period of tension building, where the woman attempts to please
the man with the hope of avoiding an attack. This phase culminates with a battering
incident, which marks the beginning of the next phase. In Phase II the man is totally out
of control. Phase III is commonly called the “honeymoon period.” In Phase III the
batterer is repentant, loving, and often declares his need for his partner. The batterer begs
for forgiveness and promises that the abuse will never happen again. At this stage, the
domestic violence victim wants to believe her batterer because during this phase
everything in the relationship is the way she imagines it should be. The domestic
violence victim hopes that this time she can prevent the cycle from repeating itself by
trying harder to meet the batterer's needs. As the domestic violence victim continues to
try to meet the batterer's needs, the tension building Phase 1 starts in motion again. The

cycle of violence is sequential and continuous.

Power and control tactics are used by batterers, including psychological abuse, verbal
threats, involving the children in spousal power struggles, sexual abuse, intimidation,
humiliation, isolation and economic deprivation. Walker's research (1978) found that
psychological humiliation and isolation were the worst forms of abuse that women
reported experiencing, whether or not they had been physically abused. Even when they

had never been physically abused. all reported they feared for their lives.

Gelles (1976) research discovered that the less frequent and less severe the violence, the
more likely a domestic violence victim is to remain with the batterer. Domestic violence

victims who were victimized as children are more likely to stay in battering relationships

26
than women who had not been exposed to violent role models. Domestic violence victim

with fewer resources are more likely to remain with the batterer.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE PROGRAMS

Today experts believe that over 1000 domestic violence shelters exist in the United States
(Gelles, 1986). Domestic violence shelters provide a safe refuge for a domestic violence
victim and her children. It is here that the domestic violence victim can take advantage of

an educational experience that will help her understand her situation.

Many women who call the shelter are not necessarily seeking housing (Loseke and Berk
1982). Many desire information, advice or referral. Loseke and Berk concluded that
shelters provide a great many services that may be overlooked when attention is directed

solely at shelters for refuge.

Another study by Gelles (1985) revealed the best predictor of a domestic violence victim
going to a social service agency is how much violence the woman experienced as a child.
The less violence she experienced, the more likely she is to seek a social worker's help. It
appears that victimization as a child raises the domestic violence victim's tolerance for
violence. Women who do not seek out intervention are less likely to have completed high

school and more likely to be unemployed.

Berk, Newton, Fensterrnaker, Berk (1986) predicted that domestic violence shelters will
have beneficial effects for domestic violence victims who already taking control of their

lives. This study focused on the role of domestic violence shelters in aiding domestic

27

violence victims in breaking the cycle of violence. The beneficial effects of the shelter

stay depended upon whether the victim had begun to take control of her life.

Another study by Labell (1979) collected data from domestic violence victims. The
research found that few of the women admitted to the domestic violence shelter had
sought professional assistance. Relatives and friends were more likely to be sources of
assistance. No data were reported about the domestic violence victim's responses to the

professional assistance they received.

Hughes (1990) examined 47 shelter programs in California to determine what
components are essential to a domestic violence shelter's effectiveness in facilitating
lasting change in learned helplessness behavior. Hughes discovered there appeared to be
no standardization of shelter stay timelines or programs among long term and short term
shelters. The shelters reported offering specific interventions, but there appeared to be no

method of measuring outcomes and no criteria for measuring the effectiveness of shelter

programs.

SUMMARY

The assumptions upon which the methodology of this study rested were adequately
supported in this study. The literature referring to adult learning cites the significance of
adult learning in transitional periods. It may have significant effect on the acquisition of

knowledge for domestic violence victims.

The literature reviewed the locus of control within a Ieaming environment. The locus of

control is a concept of learning derived from social learning theory. This theory argues

28

that pe0ple who attribute the outcome of personal actions to factors beyond their control.
such as fate or chance. are externally controlled. If a person believes their behavior will

decide the outcome. the locus of control is considered to be internal.

A series of studies indicates strong support for the hypothesis that the learner who has a
strong belief that she can control her own destiny takes steps to improve her condition,
places an increased value on achievement, and her ability and failures, can be resistant to
be influenced. This can be a convincing methodology in understanding how domestic

violence victims learn.

The domestic violence literature included background information about domestic
violence and the effectiveness of domestic violence programs. The research defined
domestic violence, the characteristics of domestic violence victims, and power and

control issues, The cycle of violence was briefly discussed.

Very little research about the effectiveness of domestic violence programs has been
initiated. Hughes (1990) discovered there appeared to be no method of measuring

outcomes and no criteria for measuring the effectiveness of shelter programs.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The methodology for this study was based on the grounded theory methodology
described by Strauss and Corbin (1990). This methodology is “one deductively derived
from the study 'of the phenomenon it represents,” Strauss and Corbin (1990). Grounded
Theory methodology has four central criteria for judging the application of the theory to a
situation: fit, understanding, generality, and control. The reason for using the grounded

theory approach was to shed new light on this area of inquiry.

BACKGROUND TO GROUNDED THEORY

Grounded theory is especially suited for descriptive studies such as this one, which is on a
topic for which very little formal study or theories exist. This methodology can be used
in a multidisciplinary study with each researcher bringing their expertise to a research

problem.

This methodology uses concepts. These concepts are related by statements of

relationships, and may be organized by themes. These themes may be summaries of

30

words taken from the data (Strauss and Corbin). There is little interpretation of data. The

several themes are not interpreted into a more general conceptual theme.

There are several steps in conducting a grounded research study. The researcher needs to
identify and define the problem and develop the research question. Strauss and Corbin
(1990, p 38) state “the research question in a grounded theory study is a statement that
identifies the phenomenon to be studied. Questions in grounded theory studies also tend

to be oriented toward action and process.”

There are ten steps that Strauss and Corbin (1990) identify in the process of organizing

the research project.

1) Identify a general research area.
2) Review the literature in areas related to the area study.
3) Collect research data.

4) At the same time, with collecting of data, code and analyze the data.
5) Generate memos with as much theoretical saturation as possible.

6) Decide what data to collect next.

7) Continue data collection, analysis, coding and memoing —- focus on emerging
core theory.

8) Write memos on data. memos on memos until theoretical saturation is achieved.

9) Sort memos to develop a theoretical framework.

10) Write and rewrite the report.

Theoretical sensitivity refers to the personal quality the researcher brings to the research
problem (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). This theoretical sensitivity can come from the

literature review. personal and professional experience, and the analytic process. This

31

sensitivity to meaning is important because the researcher can interweave data selection
with data analysis. This is a dynamic process in which a praxis is forged between the
data selection and data analysis. Each gives insight and parameters to the evolving

theory.

This study used theoretical sampling. 1n grounded research methodology, the aim of
theoretical sampling is to sample events —— incidents that are indicative of their properties
and dimensions — so that a relationship is built between the categories. This theoretical
sampling must have proven theoretical relevance because certain concepts are noticeably
present or absent when comparisons are made. Through the coding procedure the
concepts earn the status of categories. Questions and comparisons evolve during the
analysis. This process helps to discover and relate appropriate categories, their properties

and dimensions.

Theoretical sampling is cumulative. The concepts and their relationships accumulate
through the praxis of the data collection and analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1990).
Sampling creates depth of focus due to concentration on the development, density and
saturation of categories. A systematic approach to gathering data on each category will
ensure consistency (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). This procedure must be planned, while
being flexible to enhance theory generation. Sampling and analysis must occur at the
same time with data analysis giving guidance to the data collection. The sampling
process is based on the evolving theoretical relevance of concepts (Strauss and Corbin,

1990). It is not planned like quantitative studies.

In grounded theory methodology, theoretical sampling continues until there is theoretical

saturation. This means there is no new or relevant data to emerge, the category

32

development is dense and the relationships between categories are well established

(Strauss and Corbin, 1990).

Data analysis is implemented through open coding which examines and compares,
conceptualizes and places data into categories. These new categories and their
relationship provide a basis for expanded inquiry. Axial coding is the secondary
procedure, where the data is put together making connections. Subcategories evolve and
are placed into a system related to the other categories. At this point the study begins to
focus on the missing areas of categories where refinement and development is needed.

This is selective coding.

As the problem is being explored, certain concepts are present or absent in the sampling.
The praxis of questioning and analysis, the relationship and interconnectedness of the
concepts become apparent. Data analysis is initially approached through selective
coding. The goal of selective coding is to integrate the categories along the dimensional
level to form a theory (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). It is also to validate the integrative
statements of relationships and fill in any categories that need more development. The
selective coding process is directive and deliberate. It is made with conscious choices
about who and what to sample in order to obtain the needed data. The sites, persons, and
documents are chosen to increase the opportunity to verify the story line, relationship
between categories, and for filling in any category that needs filling (Strauss and Corbin,

1990).

The process of selection of sites, persons, and documents that will maximize opportunity
for verifying the storyline, relationships between categories and filling in poorly
developed categories is called the process of discriminate sampling. This may mean

returning to old sites, or going to new sites where data can be obtained. This is not a

33

random process but a planned process of selection based on some knowledge. The final

step was to write the research findings.

BROAD AREAS OF INQUIRY

This grounded theory methodology study focused on the role adult Ieaming plays in the
lives of domestic violence victims while receiving services from shelters. The
investigation attempted to discover what learning styles domestic violence victims use.
These four broad areas of inquiry helped guide the research areas so that categories could

emerge from the data.

1. Do domestic violence victims see Ieaming as a way to change their lives?

2. In what ways is Ieaming used by domestic violence victims to cope or deal with

their life’s crisis?

3. Do domestic violence victims accept responsibility for their learning?

4. Do domestic violence victims have specific Ieaming styles in common with each

other?

THE GENERAL POPULATION

This study focused on women who were receiving services from domestic violence
shelter programs. For the purpose of this study the participants were called domestic

violence victims.

There are over 1,000 domestic violence shelter programs throughout the United States.
One purpose of domestic violence shelter programs is to provide a safe refuge for victims
in time of crisis. The services include emergency shelter for the domestic violence victim
and her children, 24 hour crisis lines, support groups, court advocacy, confidential
counseling, and non-formal education programs about the problem of domestic violence

in families.

SELECTION OF THE STUDY PARTICIPANTS

The study’s interview participants were selected from a domestic violence shelter
program in southwestern Ohio. The domestic violence victims were receiving residential
services or attending the support groups, or were identified by other social service agency
personnel. A haphazard selection of participants was chosen by the shelter staff to insure
the confidentiality and safety of the subjects. None of the subjects were selected by the
researcher. Eleven subjects were selected and interviewed for the study. The
professional staff at the domestic violence shelter continued to select participants until
theoretical saturation was achieved. Once theoretical saturation was achieved, the

domestic violence program staff were notified to discontinue the selection process.

35

The professional staff of the domestic violence program discussed the research project
with potential research subjects. If the potential subjects were interested in being
interviewed, a staff member of the domestic violence program would call to arrange an
appointment. The researcher attended the domestic violence support group to briefly
discuss the research project. A sign-up sheet was circulated with dates, times and phone

numbers to arrange the interviews.

ASSUMPTIONS IN DEFINING THE INTERVIEW SAMPLE

Strauss and Corbin (1990) state the more interviews, observations, and documentation
obtained, then the more evidence will accumulate, the more variations will be found, and

the greater diversity will be achieved.

Categories and their properties were derived solely from the domestic violence victims
who were receiving services from the domestic violence shelter program. Whatever
potential existed for theoretical saturation within categories of learning approaches of
domestic violence victims was examined. This research studied domestic violence
victims’ Ieaming styles and behavior, and asked the subjects to reflect on their Ieaming
behavior prior to the program. In this context each individual’s set of experiences
became a special sample group. This research tried to discover categories of the Ieaming
activities that domestic violence victims have used and properties associated with the

categories.

The main data gathering was through the interviews of subjects and depended on an
evolving process whereby an emerging theory determined areas and focus for exploration

through further interview and further literature review to complement field data.

36

An additional source for data was a literature review prior to conducting the research to
gain theoretical sensitivity. and to build a foundational knowledge on the Ieaming process

and the adult learner, the issue of domestic violence, and domestic violence programs.

The literature review included the following areas:
1) an understanding of the definition of adult Ieaming,

2) ways that adults learn,

3) adult developmental stages or phases and the relationships of life transitions to
learning events,

4) the characteristics of domestic violence victims,

5) the cycle of violence,

6) domestic violence programs’ response to victims.

INTERVIEW PROCESS

Interviewing and data analysis proceeded through a preparatory stage and three phases.
The preparatory stage provided an opportunity to become comfortable with the interview
setting and to learn about the subjects of the study. Four women were interviewed during
this preparatory stage. The establishment of this preparatory stage enabled the refinement
and adjustment of the interview process during the preparatory stage. The actual

collection of data began with Phase 1.

Phase 1 consisted of open coding with some axial coding and initial selective coding.
This phase of the interview procedure was refined and defined, with increased skill in the
facilitating of the interview and managing the analysis process. In Phase 1, four subjects

were interviewed.

37

In Phase 2 open coding continued and there was a shift away from new category
formation toward the uncovering and validating of relationships between categories.
Axial coding was the focus of the analysis of data in Phase 2. In Phase 2, four subjects

were interviewed.

Phase 3 shifted the focus toward integrating the conceptualization of the central theme of
the study. Three subjects were interviewed to achieve theoretical saturation, and the

interviews became more focused and deliberate. By Phase 3, categories were established
with their properties, dimensions and relationships understood. Information continued to

be gathered to develop richness and density to proceed with coding.

During the Preparatory Phase, the first four interviews were conducted in two weeks.
Time was allowed to reflect immediately following each interview, to become
comfortable with the interview setting, and to develop a frame of reference to interact

with the subjects.

During Phases 1, 2, and 3 of the research project, 11 subjects, which were enough to
achieve theoretical saturation at each phase, participated in interviews during a two month
period. Time was allowed between each interview to reflect on the previous interview,
do analysis and consider strategies for the following interview. The writing of notes, the

use of memos and analysis of data was ongoing as the interviews proceeded.

Following Phase 1 of interviewing, more analysis occurred to incorporate literature
exploration to enhance theoretical sensitivity in preparation for the second interviewing

and analysis phase.

38

Data analysis for Phase 1 provided the information and experience to engage in open
coding and axial coding. More selective analysis to close Phase I approached selective

coding.

The interview process allowed the subjects latitude in their response. The role of the
researcher was to maintain the focus of the interview on the topic of learning. In advance
of the interview, general open—ended questions were developed around the research
questions. (See Appendix E.) There was no structured interview format. The interview
process was allowed to evolve. Initial questioning encouraged the interview participant

to reflect on learning.

ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS OF CONDUCTING THE INTERVIEW

Two steps were taken to develop trust with the subjects, in order to overcome the subjects

fear and distrust of strangers:

1. Volunteer training was mandatory for those who wanted to participate in the
program as volunteers. The volunteers learned about domestic violence, the law,
and domestic violence policies and procedures. This ensured consistency in the
implementation of the program, and sensitivity to the needs of those who used the

services. The volunteer training was held on two Saturdays and one weeknight.

2~ The researcher attended the weekly domestic violence support group to discuss
the research project and be a visible and familiar face to potential subjects so that

trust could be fostered. Potential subjects also spoke to others about the project.

39

Thus they recruited others to be interviewed. The attendance at the weekly

domestic violence support group started in October and ended in January.

Communications for the purpose of identifying subjects was accomplished by phone and
by attending the domestic violence support group. Court advocates and counselors
affiliated with the domestic violence program identified subjects for the study. These
communications clarified the intent of the study and secured permission from the shelter
coordinator and other staff of the domestic violence shelter program. These
communications, e.g. phone calls and meetings, were coordinated via the shelter. At the
initial meeting with the subject, a commitment was made with a scheduled appointment
for interview date, time and location. A phone call to the participant was made to
confirm the interview. This ensured the safety and confidentiality of the client. A note of

thanks was sent after the interview to an address stipulated by the subject.

Written field notes, diagrams and memos, and tapes were used in conjunction with the
data gathering. Field notes were used in combination with a tape recording of each
interview. Field notes were used to make observations, to note reactions, thoughts and
anything relevant to the interview for information gathering and analysis. These records

were a reference point for sample coding.

Strauss and Corbin (1990) define memos as a general term for written records of analysis
that support the theory. Code notes are used for coding purposes. Theoretical notes
record inductive and deductive analysis in establishing relevant categories. Operational

notes are memos used for future direction.

DESCRIPTION OF PARTICIPANTS

The names of the women have been changed to protect their identities and confidentiality.
Eleven women were interviewed for this study. One subject was Hispanic, one was
African-American, and the remaining nine were non-Hispanic white. The women’s ages
ranged from 19 to 50. Six of the women were receiving some form of government
assistance. Five of the women had fewer than 12 years of education. The women had
contact with the domestic violence program either through the court advocacy program,
the residential facility, domestic violence support group, or the volunteer program. The
sample was haphazard but was representative of the population. Following is a brief

biography of each subject.

Annie

The rural location where Annie grew up did not provide her an easy childhood. She lived
with her grandparents, who taught her the value of hard work. Her grandfather died when
Annie was still quite young. Her grandmother took the loss very hard, becoming so
emotionally distraught that she was unable to manage the household. Eventually her

grandmother was forced to sell the property and move to a large urban area.

Annie adapted well to the new surroundings. A pretty, outgoing teenager, she naturally
attracted the attention of young men, and Annie felt ready for marriage. Among young
women in the Appalachian community, it was not unusual to have several children before

the age of 18. She married her boyfriend when she was only 16.

41

Annie’s dream of building a new life with her husband soon turned out to be a nightmare.
She discovered that he was a drug addict; eventually she realized that the only way out

was to file for divorce.

Annie moved into an apartment and tried to put her life back together. She began a new
relationship, but that soon failed. She was at an emotional low point when she meta man
named Wyatt. He was kind and generous. He helped her pay her bills when she was in
financial difficulty.

Annie and Wyatt married three years ago and began a family. But after Wyatt lost his
job, his personality soured. He became emotionally and physically abusive toward her.
Annie knew she needed help, and called the domestic violence shelter. At the age of 38,

with four children to raise, Annie is once again facing the prospect of starting over.

Corrine

A driving snowstorm did not stop Corrine from walking away from an abusive
relationship with her boyfriend. She bundled up her three small children and trudged
through snowdrifts to get to the safety of the domestic violence shelter. They took what
few possessions they could carry and left the rest behind. The biggest threat they faced
on their journey was not the cold, but that her boyfriend might discover them before they

made it to the shelter.

Thirty-six-year-old Corrine is once-divorced. The boyfriend from whom she once had to
escape has become more violent. He has isolated Corrine from her family. He moved

her and her children to a city far away from her mother and other family members. The

42

only income Corrine has is ADC. Her attitude is positive and she looks forward to

completing nurses training when her life is less traumatic.

Darcy

In spite of the violence Darcy endured during her six-year marriage, she can still laugh.
Forty-two year old Darcy is a chain smoker, extremely bright and speaks in a strong
voice. She can still remember how the cycle of violence began. It started out as a slap
across the cheek. Within a few years, her husband grew accustomed to using his fists.

The physical bruises have healed, but the emotional scars remain.

On weekends her husband would rip the phone out of the wall, effectively cutting Darcy
off from the outside support she needed. One of the few people she was allowed to have
contact with was the landlord. Her mother-in-law provided no help for Darcy,
explaining, “You made your bed, you lie in it.” Darcy has had five children, but her

daughter died after a long illness.

Even though she suffered much tragedy and financial adversity, Darcy decided to leave
her husband and start a new life. Since then Darcy has contributed much of her time and

energy to the domestic violence movement in the community.

Edie

Soft-spoken Edie, 41, says she was rebellious in high school. Perhaps that was in
response to her strict upbringing — her mother believed strongly in corporal punishment
— or the incidents of sexual abuse she suffered as a child. When Edie was five years old

she was sexually abused by a 16-year-old neighbor; at seven her grandfather abused her.

43

Those early experiences may also help explain why she feels so dependent on men for her

sense of self-worth.

Since then Edie has been in three abusive marriages. Now Edie is living with her
boyfriend. Sometimes he doesn’t speak to her for days. Edie is very bright, and has
completed two years of college. She realizes that her back injury is making it difficult for

her to make significant changes in her life.

Frannie
To the outside observer, it looked like Frannie had it all. She was a corporate executive’s
wife who helped her husband restore a beautiful Victorian home. Frannie was college

educated, intelligent, and the mother of two children.

The deeper truth was that she spent 18 years of marriage enduring economic and
emotional abuse. The cycle of violence actually began with the temper tantrums her
future husband threw while Frannie and he were dating in college. During her marriage,

the police responded twice to domestic violence complaints at her home.

Now 47 years old, Frannie looks back on her marriage with intellect and objectivity of
her life. College educated, she is now making decisions in her life on her terms. She has
one child living at home and another in college. Frannie works part time and writes in

her spare time.

Heidi

Her two-year relationship with a violent boyfriend has left deep wounds in Heidi’s
emotions. Her boyfriend hit and beat Heidi for two years. Then, after accusing her of
sleeping with his best friend, her boyfriend pulled a gun on Heidi and put it in her mouth.
The fact that he didn’t pull the trigger did little to mitigate the damage done to Heidi’s
psyche. Although she puts up a brave front, she finds it difficult to cope and has suffered

two mental breakdowns. Her two children are in foster care while she is recovering.

At 26, Heidi wants to create a new life for herself and her children. She speaks with deep
conviction that she wants her children to have peace in their lives. Heidi has tried hard to
become a better parent by participating in special programs that are tailored to meet her

\

needs.

Janice

Janice says she has been immersed in domestic violence since she was a child. Her
parents divorced when Janice was 12 years old. Her mother’s next relationship was
abusive. When Janice was 15 she met a man and had a baby within a year. By the age of
21, Janice had four children. At 23, she met the man who would become her current
husband. A whirlwind courtship led to broken promises, which led in turn to cruelty and
abuse. The night before their first Christmas together Janice’ husband burned her with a
cigarette lighter. The domestic violence continued for five years. Now 28 years old,
Janice is trying to piece together an existence for herself and her children that is stable,

quiet, and violence-free.

45
Katie
Her second husband’s alcoholism figures prominently in the domestic violence Katie has
endured. At the time she began dating her second husband, Katie was raising two
children from her first marriage. She became pregnant, and since she believed that her
children needed a male role model, she agreed to marriage, even though she knew he had

a drinking problem. Katie felt the influence of her values would “change” him.

But the domestic violence escalated as the drinking became more severe. The marriage
lasted 14 years, through numerous separations and reconciliations. She finally divorced
him in 1993. Even after the divorce, he continued to harass and intimidate Katie, leading

her to file a Civil Protection Order in 1994.

Now 50 years old, Katie is thinking of leaving the state. She plans to request a transfer
within the company that currently employs her so that she can once again be near her

family and friends.

Mona
Mona’s ex-husband said he sold his own blood because that’s the only “work” he could
get. His frustrated need for control led him to terrorize Mona through economic

deprivation and rape.

It was not until a neighbor called police that Mona became aware of the protection
available at the domestic violence shelter. She was able to escape the immediate threat of

injury or death, and eventually saw her ex-husband convicted of aggravated assault.

46

Although Mona says she did not experience violence while growing up, she had been in
three abusive relationships prior to her marriage. These past years have been difficult as

she is receiving government assistance while trying to feed two children.

Nanette

On the same day that Nanette learned her father had been murdered, her husband told her
he was having an affair. There had been past infidelities, but Nanette’s father had always
covered for her husband. Ironically, her husband later became a bom-again Christian,

and began accusing Nanette of fooling around.

The day after their 15th wedding anniversary, Nanette’s husband severely beat her. The
violence took its toll; at 43, Nanette’s health deteriorated to the point of being
hospitalized on several occasions. There is still a sadness in Nanette’s eyes that reveals
the loss she feels toward the end of her marriage. Nanette has three children and two of
them are still living at home. Nanette believes it has been her children and the people she

works with that helped her to survive this nightmare.

Rachel
If her husband decided the bread wrapper was not tied properly, or the roast wasn’t done
the way he liked, Rachel knew she was going to be beaten. If she tried to defend herself,

he would push her down the stairs and call her vile names.

Rachel dropped out of school after the seventh grade. Formal education never seemed
important to her. Being part of a family was what mattered. She was just 16 when she

met her husband — he was 40. After two years of marriage she divorced him, but then

47

she lived with her ex-husband for another year. When she finally did make a permanent
break, she was forced to leave her only child behind with her ex-husband. Now 19,
Rachel plans to move in with her parents while she gets her life back on the right track.
She is very sad she had to leave her child behind, but she knows that her ex-husband will

never give up custody.

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TIME FRAME

The research was conducted from October 1993 to January 1994. The interviews were
completed in January 1994. Writing was completed in August 1994. Formal

presentation of the findings took place in August 1994.

CHAPTERIV

DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF MAJOR FINDINGS

INTRODUCTION

The findings and interpretations presented in this chapter are based on interviews with
eleven female domestic violence victims about their adult learning experiences. The
data-gathering process was designed to illuminate the ways female domestic violence
victims learn to deal with their problems. The interview process also sought to identify a
number of Ieaming themes. or categories, common to women struggling to cope with
domestic violence. The study also attempted to define the degree to which domestic
violence victims are able to accept responsibility for their own Ieaming. The learning
themes are identified and explained in this chapter, and are illustrated with excerpts from

the interviews.

CONFIDENTIALITY

The text describing the shelter uses actual names and locations, with the permission of the

administration of the shelter. It was felt that revealing the name of the facility did not

5'1
violate any issue of confidentiality. However, the names of all 11 women interviewed for

this study have been changed to guarantee their privacy.

BACKGROUND OF THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE SHELTER

In 1979, the Hamilton-Fairfield YWCA’s Crisis Shelter for Battered Women and
Children opened its doors. Located in Hamilton, Ohio, the shelter remained at its original
quarters until moving to its current location in 1989. The new facility can house between

15 and 19 people at a time. The shelter was renamed Dove House in 1992.

Dove House provides a full range of services to domestic violence victims. Its exact
location is kept secret to protect the women and children who use the shelter. Dove
House works in cooperation with the courts to help women who need advocates to guide
them through the legal system. The shelter also coordinates a weekly domestic violence
victims support group for the community. Finally, the residential facility provides a safe
and secret refuge for women and their children. The Hamilton-Fairfield YWCA provides

the oversight and economic funding for Dove House.

The Hamilton, Ohio YWCA was organized in 1900 by Julia Goodman. At that time,
Hamilton had 23,914 residents; today Butler County is home to 291,479 persons, making
it the eighth most populous and fourth fastest growing county in the state of Ohio. The
YWCA and Dove House are meeting the challenges of the problem of domestic violence
in the community by providing vital and life-saving services. The Butler County
Sheriff’s Office recorded 351 cases of domestic violence in 1992, and 323 cases in 1993.
Previous research has shown that domestic violence is under-reported, thus the magnitude

of the need for services in the county is actually larger than indicated by the figures.

52

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study focused on four broad areas of inquiry about learning behavior of domestic

violence victims. They were:

1. Do domestic violence victims believe Ieaming can change their lives?

2. How do domestic violence victims learn to cope with their crisis situation?

3. Do domestic violence victims accept responsibility for their own learning?

4. Do domestic violence victims have specific Ieaming styles in common with each
other?

These four broad areas of inquiry were used to guide the interviews. As the study

progressed, ten themes evolved.

Each of these themes is presented in this chapter in full detail and is supported by

reference to the data gathered during the interviews.

INTRODUCTION TO THE THEMES

The first theme, From Safety and Security to Belonging, turned out to be the most
significant one identified in the study. The women interviewed described the fear they

felt while in their domestic violence relationship. They said that they had to feel safe

53

before they could begin to interact with other people. Clearly, before learning could

occur, safety needs had to be met for these women.

The second theme, Triggering Events , posits that domestic violence victims will
typically recall a crystallizing event that enabled them to take decisive action to end the
abusive relationship. Aslanian and Brickell’s (1988) research indicates that adults learn
in order to cope with change in their lives. Regardless of the demographics, almost all
adults point to their own changing circumstances to explain why they continue to learn.

Adults learn what they need to know to cope or be successful in a new situation.

Many of the women interviewed could point to a specific event that triggered the
transition to a learning-receptive state. One woman said something “clicked.” For these

women in transition, this triggering event set the stage for Ieaming.

The third theme, The Praxis of Reflection and Action, says that women developed a
greater understanding of their lives by first examining their situation and then acting on
that analysis. Friere (1979) wrote that the praxis of reflection and action is a way to

humanize the world. It is a process of transformation to personal growth.

The Praxis of Reflection and Action creates new freedom for the individual. The praxis
is based upon the person being conscious of their own effort. This action anticipates
results. The women made statements such as, “I thought about it,” or “I needed time to
think.” Then they recalled the actions that they took as a result: “This is what happened.”

or “1 did this.” This two part process was part of the women’s strategy to gain greater

understanding of themselves and their situation.

54
The fourth theme, Breaking 01d Habits , reveals that prior learning was hard to put aside

and that entrenched lifestyles are extremely difficult to break away from. Maslow (1975)
wrote that habits are roadblocks to Ieaming. Most people find it easier to continue as they
have in the past. Habits can also get in the way of solving problems or considering new
choices. Maslow stated, “There are many habits which release the mind for other
activities. At the same time, other habits formed early in life and never re-examined,
limit the individual’s development.” Most of the women interviewed had suffered some
prior family or sexual violence in their lives. This violence included being in repeated
relationships that were abusive, growing up in a abusive home, or being abused sexually.

physically or emotionally as children.

Theme five, Reliance on Others for Help in Learning, details how the women relied on

others to help them learn about domestic violence issues.

An environment conducive to Ieaming has several characteristics, which include physical
comfort, mutual trust, respect. mutual helpfulness, freedom of expression and acceptance
of differences. This environment must be nurtured by the learner and the helper. The
helper assists the learner in discovering new possibilities and clarifying the leamer’s
goals. Each woman interviewed could identify their helpers. Helpers could be relatives,
counselors, court advocates. clergy, police officers, domestic support group members. or

friends.

Mutual Learning was the sixth theme identified by the interviews. Knowledge sharing
among equals replaces the more traditional teacher/student environment. An identifying
aspect of this paradigm is the helper, who takes the initiative in sharing their experiences

with the learner. The guidelines that Knowles (1984) described for a helper include

55

mutuality and respect between helper and learner. Not only did the women learn from

their helpers, but the helpers learned from the women.

Experiential Learning was the seventh theme that evolved from the data. Prior life
experiences served as Ieaming stimuli for the women. Learning based on experience is

self-initiated, and it makes a difference in attitudes, behavior and personality.

Vision and Hope, the eighth theme, demonstrates that in order for the women to
accomplish their life’s tasks or goals, they must first have a sense of vision and hope.
Frankl (1959) said that a person first needs to take responsibility to find their own right
answers. Identification of their life’s tasks would then follow. These life tasks differ
from person to person. All the women interviewed had developed a sense of vision and

hope toward the completion of their life’s tasks.

Pathfinders, the ninth theme, reveals that the women interviewed faced a treacherous
transition in their lives, and in response, found novel ways to meet those challenges. The
pathfinders that Sheehy (1981) described are those who took action to change their
environment. The pathfinder risked making internal changes to create a new direction in
their life. Each woman identified the ways in which she took novel action to change her

life.

The Intentional Changes category was the tenth and final theme identified by the study.
It describes how change occurred for the women and the purposeful steps they took to
achieve change. Allen Tough (1980) says there are two characteristics of intentional
change. It must be chosen and intended, and the person must take one or more steps to
achieve the change. All the women interviewed made intentional changes based upon

human relationships. emotions and self-perception.

56

THEME l -— FROM SAFETY AND SECURITY TO BELONGING

Maslow’s (1970. p. 80) Theory ofHuman Motivation may be called a holistic-dynamic
theory. Maslow said that basic human needs must be met before focusing on higher
goals. Physiological needs, i.e. the air, food and water essential to survival, must be met
first. If the physiological needs are met, the need for safety and security then becomes
most important. Some examples of this second-level need include feeling safe from

criminal assault, murder, and attacks by wild animals.

After the physiological and the safety needs are fairly well met, the person’s need for
affiliation, or a sense of belonging, will emerge. A person at this third level has the need

to belong to a group or have relationships with friends or family.

Maslow (1970, p. 90) states that the fourth level is that “all people in society have a desire
for a stable, firmly based, usually high evaluation of themselves.” The final or fifth need
is self-actualization, or achieving what a person can and must be to be at peace with

herself.

All the subjects interviewed spoke of their need to feel safe and secure. the second level
in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Many of the women also stated that they had to feel

safe before they could move on in their lives.

The next hierarchical level identified by Maslow, the need for affiliation or belonging,
could only be reached when the women felt they had achieved an adequate level of safety
and security. As Maslow (Goble, 1975, p. 60) indicated in his research, “There is the
strong negative influence of the lower needs for safety and security. The growth process

requires constant willingness to take chances, to make mistakes, to break habits.”

57

“Anything that increases fear or anxiety tips the dynamic balance between regression and
growth toward regression and away from growth.” said Maslow. The women could only

move forward when safety needs were met.

An example of a woman moving from being concerned with safety needs toward
satisfying the need to belong was Janice, who called 911 for help because she was afraid
of her husband. It was the only thing she could think of to do that might provide her with
some sense of safety and security. After her husband moved out of their home, she felt
safe enough to file a restraining order against him, which further increased her sense of
security. She said, “I was petrified with fear. It wasn’t until I got a restraining order that

I could start living again. Then I started visiting my family and friends.”

Heidi also confirmed the need to progress from Maslow’s level of safety to belonging.
Once at the domestic violence shelter, Heidi began to feel safe. She said, “The
surroundings were important in making me feel safe.” Heidi lived in the shelter’s
residential facility, the location of which is confidential. Her boyfriend could not find
her. Once Heidi’s safety needs were met, she started attending the domestic violence

support group so she could interact and feel connected to other women.

Darcy articulated the same theme. Meeting her safety needs was a primary factor in
Darcy’s ability to move toward the level of belonging. After three days at the shelter,
Darcy started feeling safe and could start to think again. Darcy said, “Until then, I felt

numb and I couldn’t think.”

Similarly, Edie said she was in a constant state of fear until the police rescued her and

took her to the domestic violence shelter. After two days at the shelter she started to feel

58
safe. She said. “After I Started feeling safe. I could do other things, like attending support

group.”

Annie said that after she started feeling safe, she started taking the initiative to make
decisions for herself. Once she came to the shelter, she made a number of phone calls to
her friends, schools, and her daughter’s employer. This was an indication of her
emerging sense of safety, and her movement toward satisfying Maslow’s third level, the
need to belong. Annie described how she talked with the counselors and how they began
to help her feel safe. At the beginning, she said, “I felt afraid and unable to move beyond
my fear. Once I arrived here and started feeling safe, then I could connect with my

family.”

Corrine was very frightened while walking to safety during one of the year’s worst snow
storms. She said She was afraid her boyfriend would find her walking with her children.
Corrine said, “We were afraid we might pass him on the road and he would get us.”
Once she arrived at the domestic violence Shelter it took her some time to adjust to the
peace and quiet. Consistent with the movement from meeting safety needs to satisfying
the need to belong that Maslow predicts, Corrine is now renewing her contact with her

family and friends.

Katie, who is now involved in the court advocacy program, also followed the pattern of
first meeting her safety needs and then moving to fulfill her need for affiliation. Katie
filed a protective restraining order against her ex-husband because his violent behavior
started to escalate and she became frightened. She said that her ex-husband came to her
front door in a rage and tried to forcibly remove her from her home. Katie said that the
incident prompted her to file legal action and work with a court advocate to ensure her

safety. After this she said. “1 can now have friends and move on in my life.”

59

Maslow described how an increase in fear or anxiety can tip the balance towards
regression and away from growth. Mona’s situation fits this description very well. The
police were called to her home often because her husband frequently choked her and
ripped her clothes. She was paralyzed with fear of her husband, which kept her from
seeking safe shelter. Finally the police brought her to the domestic violence shelter after
a very violent altercation with her husband. Mona said, “Once I got there (shelter) and

started feeling safe, I could start being with other people. I started making decisions.”

The need for safety and the need to belong are two levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs. The women interviewed said that once they met their safety and belonging needs
they were able to move towards personal growth. All Stated that they needed to feel safe

before they could expand their experiences.

THEME 2 — TRIGGERING EVENTS IN THE LIVES OF
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE VICTIMS

Aslanian and Brickell (1980) investigated why and when people learn. Their study
revealed that a person learns because of a transition that can be pointed to, a specific
event, that is a trigger for the transition. More than 90% of these triggering events are
family triggers, e.g. divorce, domestic violence, or loss of a job (Aslanian and Brickell,
1980). This research suggested a cause and effect between how adults Spend their time

and the life changes that cause them to learn (Aslanian, 1988).

There are transitions that follow the triggering event. While Ieaming occurs because of
the triggering event, the subject of this Ieaming may not appear to be related to the

triggering event. That is true for the women interviewed for this Study. The women

60

could identify the triggering event and the resulting transition that occurred. Each woman

could also discuss what they learned during their transition.

Frannie identified the event that Spurred her into a new plan for her life. When she
noticed how her husband snarled at her, she thought, “I don’t want to spend the rest of my
life with this person who snarls, with that kind of soul.” This realization triggered her to
learn by seeking legal help and reading books about domestic violence. After seeking out

new information, Frannie started planning a new direction in her life.

Katie could recall exactly what event propelled her into action. She said that while
working as a volunteer at a domestic violence shelter, and listening to the stories told by
the victims, “it clicked” when she realized she was also a domestic violence victim. Soon
after, she asked her husband to leave their home so she could move on in her life. Katie
is now making plans to move back to her home state and live in the house that she always

considered her home.

“I gotta get out of here. No more.” said Corrine, as she described the final straw. Corrine
pointed to her chin and said, “My eyes were black to here. You know I am a light—
skinned woman, but my face was purple and blue. You know it was really bad.” After
that final beating, the event that finally made her say, “no more,” Corrine left her

boyfriend and went to the domestic violence shelter.

Darcy spoke in a strong voice describing the event that moved her to action. When Darcy
was taken to the hospital after a beating from her husband, she knew that she would never
go back to him. She said, “I thought I was going to die. It took this to put me in the
hospital. I was grateful for that last beating. I knew it would be the last time.” It was

this experience that forced Darcy to seek alternatives in her life. Darcy went to the

61

domestic violence shelter after her hospitalization. Thereafter she started making plans so
she would never have to go back to her husband. She rented an apartment, became a
volunteer at the shelter. and learned more about domestic violence by reading books.

Aslanian and Brickell state that the learning activities occur during the transition.

Another example of a triggering event was Annie’s vivid description of that Situation that
propelled her into action. Annie described a dark and cold evening when she was forced
to go on a Short trip with her husband. He started complaining about the dirty windows in.
their truck as they made their way down a lonely dirt road. Her husband started yelling
and calling her names. Right then and there, Annie realized that she could no longer take
his threats of shooting her, the yelling and the physical abuse. Annie said, “When he
started complaining about the windows in the truck, that was the last straw.” After this

incident Annie decided to make some plans for her life that did not include her husband.

THEME 3 — THE PRAXIS OF REFLECTION AND ACTION

Paulo Friere (1970, p. 13) defines the praxis of reflection and action as, “an action upon
an object that must be critically analyzed in order to understand both the object and the
understanding one has of it. The act of knowing involves a dialectical movement which
goes from action to reflection and from action to new action.” This means reflection and
action are important for individuals so that they can have a greater understanding of
themselves. This process is a dynamic one that moves from reflection to action, action to

reflection. This praxis is a way to humanize life’s events.

62

Friere (1982) believes that in order for empowerment to occur, the praxis of reflection
and action is integral. It is a way to develop power within the human psyche. This power
of reflection is extended into action. The women interviewed expressed the importance
of having time to think and look back at their experiences. They stated that this process
helped them to make decisions and to create a better understanding of themselves and

their lives.

“What do I want to do about it?” was a question all the women interviewed had asked
themselves at some point. The women could also point to specific situations that resulted
in their taking a new direction. This could have been anything from writing poetry, to
calling an attorney. Whatever the action, they learned, grew and reached beyond

themselves to a larger world.

Annie said that she looked at the past and asked the question, “What do I want to do
about it?” She said that she looked at her mother’s life and realized that she didn’t want
to be like her mother. Through this reflection she came to terms with her mother’s
strengths and weaknesses. Annie said, “I saw the family history and could see my life
played out the same way.” Annie, through the praxis of reflection and action, is now

living independently.

Edie reaffirmed the importance of contemplation. Edie said that after she came to the
shelter, she had time to think about her experiences. Edie said, “This started triggering
memories and helped me understand everything.” Edie began to write poetry, talked to
other women. and realized that she was not alone. After the time spent just thinking, she
said, “This process helped me regain my self-esteem so 1 could do something with my

life.”

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Frannie was thoughtful in reviewing her past relationship with her ex-husband. Frannie
said that while married, she took a step back and looked at her marriage. She said it was
this thinking process that helped her realize the level of inequality in her life. She said

that because of taking the time out to think she could start making connections in her life.

Similarly, Darcy said. “It was like watching a movie. I knew it wasn’t me. Watching that
movie in my head was like gaining a new understanding. I was thinking about that

movie.” Darcy believed this process helped her to move forward in her life.

Janice saw “patterns” in her mind when thinking of her past experiences. Her husband
left their home for a while. When he came back home for two days the same pattern of
violence began again. Janice said, “I think a lot. I ask the question, ‘What happened in

the past? What is it I want to do?’ ‘Why is this happening again?”’

THEME 4 — BREAKING OLD HABITS

There was a strong tendency for the subjects to “stay the course.” It was not easy for
them to break away from entrenched lifestyles, because prior Ieaming was hard to put
aside. The subjects either were in repeated abusive relationships, or there was a family
history of domestic violence. Malcolm Knowles (1980) states there is no inherent pattern
for adult Ieaming. Adults have to shape their own frameworks. Since old habits are
difficult to break, it is much easier to Stay entrenched in current lifestyles. Maslow wrote
that habits can be roadblocks to learning. These habits can get in the way of solving
problems or creating new choices. Maslow states, “There are many habits which release
the mind for other activities. At the same time, other habits formed sometime early in life

and never re-examined limit the individual’s development.” Most of the women talked

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about having some prior contact with domestic violence in their lives. The following
descriptions demonstrate how easy it is to stay within familiar territory and how difficult

it is to learn new behavior. Old habits do indeed die hard.

Rachel talked about the difficulty of ending a relationship. She married her husband
when she was 16 and he was 40 years old. They were married for 2 years and then they
divorced. But then they decided to live together. Rachel continued to stay within the

relationship because it felt comfortable.

Edie was very aware of her tendency to become involved in relationships that were
abusive. She seemed at a loss as to how to stop the repetitive cycle of being attracted to
men who are abusive. Edie stated, “1 wish I would have come to the shelter in 1979 when
the abuse initially occurred. Maybe that would have helped me to not get in this situation

again.” Revealingly, she has been in three abusive relationships since then.

Mona realized that she also finds herself in relationships with men who are abusive. She
talked at length about this pattern in her interview. Mona said that she has had three
relationships that were abusive, even though she was conscious of domestic violence
issues. “I knew about domestic violence when 1 was in my second relationship.” Mona
said that she continues to be involved in relationships that are abusive but some how she

thinks this pattern is difficult to break.

Another woman whose situation illustrated how difficult old Ieaming is to unleam was
Katie. Katie met her husband in 1980, married him in 1983, separated in 1988, reconciled
in 1989, separated in 1991, and divorced in 1993. The old habits were indeed difficult to
break.

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Heidi had a long and repeated history of domestic violence in her relationships with men.
She said all of her boyfriends were abusive to her. Heidi admitted that she keeps getting
into abusive relationships and it is difficult to break that cycle. Heidi continues to

question this pattern and is trying to find ways to break her old habits.

Annie kept getting into the same kind of relationships over and over again. “I was
married at 16. My first husband was into drugs and was mean,” said Annie. “1 later
divorced him and married a biker. We had been married 3 years when he lost his job.”
She said that he would go crazy when the bills came in. Now Annie is at the shelter
trying to sort out her life and trying to figure out why she continues to get herself into

similar situations.

THEME 5 — RELIANCE ON OTHERS FOR HELP IN LEARNING

The women interviewed demonstrated a reliance on others to assist them in establishing a
plan for Ieaming. However, this may be a self-fulfilling finding since only women from
the domestic violence program were interviewed. The subjects were involved with the
shelter’s programs, e.g. residential program, legal advocacy, domestic violence support

group, etc.. so they were already getting help to facilitate their Ieaming.

Knowles (1984) describes the ideal learning environment as characterized by physical
comfort, mutual trust, respect, mutual helpfulness, freedom of expression and acceptance
of differences. The learning process is facilitated by both the learner and the “helper.”
The helper may assist the learner in discovering new possibilities. The helper also helps

the learner to clarify her own goals.

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Knowles (1984) also states that the learner accepts a share of the responsibility for
planning and conducting a Ieaming experience. The helper shares in the formulation of
the learning strategies in which the needs of the learner are considered. The helper works

with the learner to organize a process of inquiry.

Frannie was one of the women who relied on others for Ieaming. She was a paid staff
person in the shelter working with domestic violence victims. While in this professional
role, she gained increased awareness of the problems in her marriage by helping other
women at the domestic violence shelter come to terms with their problems. The other
women were her helpers in identifying the domestic violence in her marriage. Frannie
says, “I realized 1 could have also used these services and I was a victim of domestic
violence.” As a paid staff person she demonstrated a reliance on others in helping her

develop a plan for her own Ieaming.

Darcy described the counselor who helped her to identify a strategy for learning. Darcy
said the counselor asked her, “What are you going to do?” She said that the counselor
helped her understand the problem and suggested ways for Darcy to learn more about

domestic violence.

Similarly, Annie confirms that shelter counselors helped her learn about her abusive
relationship. Annie said after she arrived at the domestic violence shelter the counselors
helped her make connections between her husband’s family history and how it had
affected her husband and their marriage. A counselor encouraged Annie to ask new
questions and find the answers so she could make the connections between her husband’s
past and the impact it had on her life. Annie was reliant on the counselors in helping her

gain new information and Ieaming.

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Heidi felt that the help she received from the counselors to learn about her life was some
of the most important help she received. Heidi came to the domestic violence program
via the residential facility. She believed very strongly that the counselors and the other
women were very helpful in helping her learn about domestic violence. “The counselors
helped most,” said Heidi. “They helped me see things and put a label on it. I am thankful

for them helping me understand things.”

Nanette was reliant on her court advocate to help her place a label on the problems in her
relationship with her husband. Nanette worked with the court advocate in getting a Civil
Protection Order. While involved in this legal process, the court advocate helped Annie
gain new knowledge about her situation. Since then Nanette has sought out ways to learn
more about domestic violence. She said the court advocate was influential in helping her

understand that mental battery was a form of domestic violence.

THEME 6 — MUTUAL LEARNING

Knowles (1975, p. 19) states, “Self-directed learning usually takes place in association

with various kinds of helpers.”

Knowles (1984) identifies three attitudinal qualities of a helper:
l. Realness of the helper.
2. Non-possessive caring, trust or respect.

3. Empathetic, understanding and sensitive and accurate listening.

These attitudinal qualities of the helper are important so the learner can be free to express

their concerns.

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Knowles (1984) describes the guidelines for a helper. There are ten characteristics in

establishing an environment in which Ieaming can be fostered.

1. The helper establishes the initial mood or setting of the Ieaming experience.
2. The helper asks and clarifies the purposes of the learner.
3. The helper relies upon the desire of the learner to implement the Strategies that

have the most motivational force behind the Significant experience.

4. The helper works at creating many possible resources for Ieaming.
5. The helper is a flexible resource to be used by the learner.
6. The helper accepts the responsibility for the intellectual content and emotional

attitudes and gives respect to each learner with the appropriate emphasis.

7. The helper becomes a learner when the climate for Ieaming is obtained.

8. The helper takes the initiative in sharing their experiences with the learner.

9. The helper is alert to the expressions of the learner that are deep and with
emotion.

10. The helper endeavors to recognize and accept their limitations.

Mutual learning played a key Ieaming role in the lives of the women interviewed for this
study. All the subjects interviewed stated that they learned from others, whether it was
another domestic violence victim, domestic violence support group members, a court
advocate, family members, counselor, minister, police, or friends. The “helpers” lives
were also enriched and expanded by Ieaming and gaining new insights about domestic

violence in the lives of these women.

As a professional staff member, Frannie said, “I learned from the other women while
working at the shelter. Frannie shared her time and energy in creating a better world for
the women and herself. Janice believed she was helped by friends and the support group.

The support group members also gained increased awareness or a different view of

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others‘ problems. Just as Janice learned from others. It is a relationship of Ieaming based
on mutuality. Janice says now she speaks her mind so others can learn from her as well.
Darcy said, “After two weeks at the shelter 1 could put a name (domestic violence) on
what it is. This is because the counselors and the women helped me while I was at the
shelter. After I left, it was the support group.” She then decided to help other women as

they had helped her. She soon was volunteering at the shelter.

Conine believed reading books, looking at her kids, and talking with the counselors
helped her make decisions. Mutual Ieaming was also used. Corrine talked with the other
women so she could learn from them while they learned from her. Edie agreed. She said
that the atmosphere of the shelter empowered and helped her regain her self esteem. She
said, “Talking to others helped me realize that others were in the same situation." The
other women were also helped by Edie’s willingness to share her experiences and listen

to others in their time of need.

Annie's aunt learned about domestic violence and shared this information with Annie.
Annie’s aunt helped her understand that she was a domestic violence victim. Annie’s
aunt told Annie about the shelter. While at the shelter, the counselors provided

information that would help Annie better understand her husband’s behavior. Annie’s
aunt also learned more about domestic violence and then shared this information with

Annie. They were Ieaming together and helping each other come to terms with this crisis.

All the subjects interviewed learned from others. Each learned from family, friends,
professionals or other helpers. It can also be said that the helpers learned from the

women. The learning relationship was clearly based on mutuality.

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THEME 7 — EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

The women interviewed for this study learned from prior experiences, but not at the time
of those experiences. Their prior experiences served as a learning stimulus. Rogers
(1979) states that humans live in an environment that is constantly changing. The goal of
education is to facilitate the change and the Ieaming. Learning is the involvement of the
whole person in both the feeling and cognitive aspects of their being. The essence of

their experience is its meaning in their life.

Experiential learning is self-initiated, it makes a difference in the leamer’s attitudes,
behavior and personality, and is evaluated by the learner. The learner seeks new
knowledge based on the experiences and gives a basis for security of knowing in their

lives.

Experiences are what the women shared in the interviews. It is the experiences that gave
them their “person” in life. Katie said that the experiences of past years in her marriage
had Shaped her attitudes. She said, “It took seeing occurrences of the past and seeing the
pattern occur again. It made me do things differently now.” These experiences were

evaluated by Katie and gave her a sense of security in her decision making.

Mona used what she learned from her childhood experiences to help her change as an
adult. Mona, who came from a family with no history of domestic violence, said that
when she looked at her experiences growing up in a home that was happy and violence-
free, she realized that her abusive relationship was wrong. She knew relationships weren’t
supposed to be that way because of her past experiences when growing up in a happy

family.

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The meshing of the past and present experiences has given Mona the impetus to start

attending the domestic violence support group.

Learning from past experience was important to Janice. She said, “I learned by
experience. 1 observed the cycle of violence with my husband. When I lost my job, I
didn’t have money to pay the bills and needed help. My husband was not supportive.
When he came back again for two days I saw the pattern occur again. He started doing

the same things all over again.” After that happened, Janice ended the marriage.

Rachel described her experiences as a child and how those experiences influenced the
judgments she made as a married adult. Rachel said, “Back then I knew it (her marriage)
was bad because of what I saw growing up. My mom and dad didn’t beat each other that
way. It was the comparison of a bad marriage and a good marriage that helped me know
that somehow I have to change this. Now I’m going to check a guy’s background. Not
date divorced guys is another thing I’m going to do.” Rachel’s expectations were shaped
by her experiences growing up in a violence-free home. That set of expectations has

shaped how She reacts to current situations.

The focus of experiential Ieaming is the dynamic process-based continuum of
experiences. Rogers (1979) indicated that the experiential learning model is composed of
five elements. The elements are: personal involvement by the learner, it is initiated by the
learner. it affects the learner pervasively, it is evaluated by the learner, and its essence is
its meaning to the learner. The women interviewed came to their situation based upon
prior experiences. They took these prior experiences and learned from them at a later

time in their lives, just as Rogers defined in his observations.

THEME 8 — VISION AND HOPE

Viktor Frankl’s. Man '3 Search for Meaning, (p. 77, 1959) states, “Life ultimately means
taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and fulfill the tasks
which it constantly sets for the individual.” Frankl came to this conclusion while in one of

Germany’s concentration camps during World War 11.

In the concentration camp, cigarettes were used as money. They were traded for extra
food, clothing or privileges. Frankl would sometimes notice a man smoking all his
cigarettes within a very short period of time. Invariably, the next morning Frankl would
learn the man had committed suicide. From his observations, he concluded that the
people who committed suicide were the ones who no longer had a sense of vision and

hope for themselves.

Frankl believed that a person is able to live and even die for the sake of ideals or values.
He conducted a poll of public opinion in France. The results indicated that 89% of the
people believed that people need “something” to live for. Another 61% admitted there
was something or someone they would give their own lives for. Frankl argued that these

results supported his belief that vision and hope give meaning to a person’s life.

Women who are in a domestic violence crisis must take responsibility to find the right
answers to their problems and to complete the tasks which they set for themselves. In

order for them to complete these tasks a sense of vision and hope is essential.

Although these tasks differ from person to person, all the women interviewed had
developed a sense of vision and hope that allowed them to accept responsibility for the

completion of their life’s tasks.

 

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Even though Heidi had lost custody of her children, She had a sense of vision and hope of
what her new life could be. The loss of custody gave her an impetus to actualize a new
life with her children. Heidi stated, “The reason I am involved in this program is so I can
have more control in relationships and to get my children back.” She said, “I want to
teach my kids how to live and not be dependent.” Heidi expects to get her children back
by completing the program and finding ways to be a better parent. That is her sense of

vision and hope for herself and her children.

Darcy identified a Significant event that she witnessed with her children. This experience
helped her view her life a new way — with vision and hope — so she could move
forward in her life with a new outlook. Darcy said, “My son opened my eyes when I saw
him praying, thanking God for having a home, while I was looking around the apartment
thinking we had nothing.” Later in the interview She said that watching her son be
thankful for what they did have helped her put everything in perspective. She then found

the energy and strength to go forward in her life with a renewed vision and hope.

Being hopeful is difficult in time of crisis when one’s health is not the best. Somehow
Nanette found a way, through vision and hope, to resolve her difficulties. Nanette’s
chronic health problems were exacerbated by her husband’s psychological abuse. Facing
this problem and taking responsibility for finding its solution, she discovered hope and a
vision that peace could be part of her life. After She filed for divorce and obtained a

restraining order, Nanette saw her health problems begin to diminish.

Frannie also had a sense of what her future would hold for her. She planned a way to
gain control over her life by seeking out new information. She had faith in what was
possible in her life. Frannie saw the connections between inequality and domestic

violence through her reading. She said making these connections gave her the courage to

 

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think about the future. Frannie took the initiative and started planning for a future when
She could come to an inner understanding of herself and her problems. She now has a
sense of vision, a future for her life’s work. Frannie has established a path that has given

her life greater meaning.

Viktor Frankl (1962) said that in taking responsibility to find the right answers, the
person defines their life. Vision and hope are needed to accomplish life’s tasks. All the
subjects interviewed differed in their hopes, visions, and life’s tasks, but each woman

took responsibility to find their own answers.

THENIE 9 — PATHFINDERS

Pathfinders are those who face a treacherous transition. They find a detour that usually

turns out constructively. Sheehy (1981) says that life crises are a certainty for everyone.
The life crises are stressful but a person finds the internal energy to move forward and to
grow in new ways. The willingness to risk is the master quality of path finding. It is the

COI’IICI'SIOIIC.

The pathfinders that Sheehy describes are those who took action that resulted in some
outer change to their environment. The pathfinder who willingly risked began with an

inner change that propelled the person to risk a different direction in their life.

The people Sheehy identifies as pathfinders are those who gave up self-limiting
behaviors, have the spunk to risk changing roles, or shift emphasis within their value
systems. The willingness to risk can challenge the basic belief system and values of an

individual. The willingness to risk means change, growth and learning for those who

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decide to do this. Sheehy states, “We are most likely to become pathfinders during one of
the predictable crises in our own lives, or as a result of an unexpected life accident that

acts as a springboard for a developmental leap.”

Path finding is a process. It is a movement toward emotional well-being that requires a
certain measure of risk for the individual. Path finding also takes courage and conviction

for the people who choose to make a difference in their lives.

The women interviewed were risk-takers. They chose to challenge themselves and others
in the decisions that were at times contrary to their basic belief and value systems. The
women took considerable risks to protect their physiCal and emotional security for
themselves and their children. The transitions they made were at times treacherous and
stressful. The women found the strength to change because they knew that was necessary

for survival.

One example is Corrine. She faced seemingly insurmountable obstacles in leaving her
boyfriend after years of abuse. She escaped suddenly during a snow storm, on foot, with
her two children, to seek safe shelter. The fear of being discovered by her boyfriend
while walking the streets was outweighed by the fear of what would happen if she stayed.
The decision was “now or never” for her. Corrine now says it was all worth it. Leaving
all of her possessions behind was an acceptable sacrifice for Corrine. because material
possessions can be replaced. It was this one unpredictable turn of events that gave
Corrine the courage to change directions in her life. From this experience Corrine found

an opportunity to grow, to learn.

Rachel also took considerable risk in leaving her ex-husband. The shelters in her area

were all full. Rachel had no money to pay for transportation to an out of town Shelter.

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She raised the money by telephoning agencies in the area and asking them to help.
During her moment of desperation, Rachel gave up her self-limiting behavior and found a
new way to solve her problem. In ending an old pattern of helplessness, she gained an

increased awareness of herself.

Darcy identified the risk taking and the path finding that occurred in her life. The
incident that Darcy described in her interview was one of great courage and growth.
Darcy was so severely beaten by her husband that she was hospitalized. While
recovering from her injuries in the hospital, she decided she would not go back to her
husband. Darcy said, “It was anger. I decided this will never happen again.” The
internal spiritual change that Darcy experienced led her onto a different path. Before she
could accept the risk of leaving, she changed some of her values and beliefs, which in

turn created for Darcy an opportunity for growth and learning.

Pathfinders can be found in all walks of life. Frannie appeared to have it all: a successful
husband, a beautiful home and the other trappings that conveyed a “Leave it to Beaver”
life. Nothing could be further from the truth. Her life was rife with economic and
emotional abuse. Frannie decided to take a chance. She left that facade of happiness to
find her own real peace of mind. She said, “Education changes the issues. I now enjoy
relationships that are based on equality.” As a pathfinder, Frannie challenged her basic

belief system by reading, talking to friends and starting to make changes in her life.

All the women interviewed described situations that required risk-taking that endangered
them physically, emotionally, or economically. They took responsibility for their
situations and found ways to create new paths in their lives so Ieaming could occur.
Their life’s paths were all different but each found a willingness to challenge their basic

belief systems and values.

T7

THEME 10 — INTENTIONAL CHANGES

Allen Tough (1980) says an intentional change has two characteristics. First, the change
must be explicitly chosen and intended. Second, an individual then takes one or more

tangible steps to achieve the change.

The change as Tough (1980) describes must be highly intentional. That means a person
makes a decision that is specific. A person must consciously choose and strive for this

change in their life.

Tough also states that these choices are voluntary. These choices are not forced on a
person or required by circumstances. Important intentional changes are common in four
areas: 1) job, career, and training; 2) human relationships, emotions, and self perception;
3) enjoyable activities; and 4) residence location. These four areas account for 75% of all
intentional changes. All the women interviewed made intentional changes based upon

human relationships, emotions, and self perception.

One example of this is Frannie, who described intentional changes in her life. She then
identified the steps she took to accomplish the change. Frannie said that She saw an
attorney to find out her legal rights, because she knew divorce was inevitable. To get
more of an understanding of her situation, she started watching television talk shows and
reading books. Frannie later divorced her husband. Frannie was not forced by anyone to
make this decision. She was conscious of her choice, with the intention of ending a bad

marriage.

Similarly, Katie discussed the intentional change in her life. Katie consciously made a

decision to change a domestic situation that was unsafe into one that was safe and

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peaceful. Katie separated. divorced, and obtained a civil protection order against her ex -
husband. During that time she took the necessary steps to change her life. She saw a
lawyer, talked to a court advocate, and found resolution to her problems through these

changes.

Darcy made intentional changes in her life after she arrived at the domestic violence
shelter. Darcy chose to leave her husband after he beat her. It was a conscious decision.
She said, “I was not going back to him.” After about one or two weeks at the shelter, she
took steps to act on her decision. She made phone calls to attorneys, talked to potential
landlords, and got involved with domestic violence support groups. Darcy left the
shelter, divorced her husband, and became a volunteer at the shelter. She made
conscious, intended, free-will changes in her life so there would be peace for herself and
her children. After making conscious decisions to change, she took one or more steps to

achieve lasting change.

All the women interviewed made intentional changes in their lives. The changes were
chosen and intended. They took steps to achieve these changes, whether it was to go to

shelter, see an attorney or obtain civil protection.

SUMMARY

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is an important paradigm to use in understanding the
Ieaming behavior of domestic violence victims. because the women interviewed said they
needed to feel safe before they could move on to the next tier of the hierarchy, the need

for affiliation or belonging. It is at that level that the subjects could initiate Ieaming.

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Aslanian and Brickell (1980) state that more than 90 percent of the events triggering adult
Ieaming occur in career or family lives. These specific events trigger the decision to
learn at particular points of time. The women interviewed all could identify triggers that

propelled them to new Ieaming.

Paulo Friere’s concept of a praxis of reflection and action can be used to explain how the

women gained increased awareness of their lives and moved their lives in new directions.

The subjects interviewed demonstrated a reliance on others to assist them in establishing
a plan for Ieaming. However, this may be a self-fulfilling finding since the women
interviewed were all active in the domestic violence programs, where they interacted with

others in the facilitation of their Ieaming.

Five elements comprise the experiential or self-directed learning that Rogers (1979)
defines. The elements are: personal involvement by the learner, it is self-initiated, it is
pervasive, it is evaluated by the learner, and it essence is its meaning to the learner. The
subjects interviewed brought an understanding to their situations based upon what they

had learned from prior experiences.

Self-directed learning usually takes place with others who assume the role of helpers. All
the subjects interviewed stated that they learned with help from others. These helpers

included friends, family members, court advocates, other clients. etc.

Viktor Frankl (1962) wrote that in taking responsibility to find the right answers to their
problems and in choosing their life’s tasks, the person defines their life. Vision and hope

are needed to accomplish these tasks. All the women interviewed had different hopes and

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visions. and had chosen unique goals for their lives. and each woman took responsibility

for these life’s tasks.

All the subjects interviewed were the kind of risk-takers that Sheehy describes in
Pathfinders. All the subjects interviewed described situations that required taking risks
that could have endangered them physically, emotionally, and economically. They took

responsibility for their situations and found ways to create new paths in their lives.

Allen Tough (1980) wrote that intentional change must have two characteristics. First,
the change must be definitely chosen and intended. Second, an individual must then take
one or more steps to achieve the change. All the subjects interviewed chose to be
involved with the domestic violence programs. Because the sample was selected from

that population, the subjects were already making intentional changes.

CHAPTERV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Eleven women who had been identified as domestic violence victims because they used
services of the domestic violence program were interviewed for this study. All the
women were involved in the domestic violence program through the domestic violence
support group, residential program, or court advocacy. The experiences they related
described their emotional reactions and their perceptions of their Ieaming while in a
domestic violence relationship. They also revealed how they dealt with their problems

during this traumatic time and the outcomes that resulted.

At first glance there does not seem to be anything unusual about these 11 women. They
represent every socio-economic status, race, and age group. Domestic violence does not
exempt. What distinguishes these women from others is that they have been victims of
domestic violence. Although each of the women had unique stories to tell, their learning
strategies all followed a strikingly Similar pattern. Examination of the pattern led to the
identification of ten Ieaming themes or categories that describe the learning methods used

by domestic violence victims when they are trying to resolve their crisis situation.

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SUMMARY OF THE TEN CATEGORIES

These eleven women represent a wide range of experiences and educational levels. At
one end, Rachel had seven years of education. At the other end of the educational
spectrum was Frannie, who had an undergraduate degree. The selection of these women

was haphazard, but believed to be representative of the population of Shelter users.

A total of ten learning themes emerged throughout the course of the interviews. The
themes evolved as the interviews progressed, and the interview structure evolved as the

data presented new categories.

The first theme, From Safety and Security to Belonging, was the most significant theme
identified by the study. This theme indicates that women must first satisfy their need to
feel safe and secure before they can consider their need to belong. And it is only at that

stage or later that learning can occur.

The women repeatedly described the fear they felt while in their domestic violence
relationships. They said that they had to “feel” safe before they could interact with other
people. This category documents that before learning can occur, safety needs have to be

H161.

The second theme, Triggering Events in the Lives of Domestic Violence Victims , Shows
that domestic violence victims typically recall an event that enabled them to take decisive
action. The women interviewed could typically point to a specific event that triggered the
action. The action led to a transition in attitudes, values or beliefs, which in turn set the

stage for new learning.

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Contemplation played an important role in the lives of the women interviewed. The
Praxis of Reflection and Action theme describes how the women developed greater
understanding of their lives via the praxis of reflection and action. The praxis helps
identify the problem by looking reflectively within oneself, which leads to decision and
action. Reflection and action is a process of transformation that creates new freedom for
the individual. This praxis is part of a domestic violence victim’s efforts to gain insight

into themselves and the world around them.

The theme Breaking 01d Habits explains why prior Ieaming was hard to unleam and that
entrenched lifestyles are extremely difficult to break away from. Habits can be
roadblocks to Ieaming. Most people find it easier to continue to do as they have in the
past. Many of the women interviewed had some contact with domestic violence early in
their lives. The women tended as adults to repeat the pattern of violence they learned

while growing up in an abusive home, or in early adulthood.

Reliance on Others for Help in Learning reveals how the women were helped by others
to learn about domestic violence. The helper assists the learner in discovering new

possibilities and in clarifying the leamer’s goals. This helper could be a counselor, court
advocate, minister, police officer, domestic violence support group members, friends. or

family.

The women and the helpers also spoke of how they learned from each other. The Mutual

Learning theme shows that while the women learned, they also helped others to learn.

People are shaped by their experiences, and experience is integral to Ieaming. The theme
of Experiential Learning implies that prior life experiences served as Ieaming stimuli for

the women.

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Another theme that emerged from the interviews was Vision and Hope. This theme
demonstrates that in order for the women to accomplish their life’s tasks, a sense of
vision and hope is needed. A learner must also take responsibility to find the answers that
are right for them. All the women interviewed developed a sense of vision and hope for

the completion of their life’s tasks.

As the interviews progressed, the Pathfinders theme emerged to describe how the women
interviewed faced a treacherous transition in their lives and in response, found novel ways
to meet those challenges. Pathfinders take action to change their environment, risking
both internal and external changes that lead to different directions in their lives. Each

woman interviewed identified new paths that She took to change her life.

The final theme, Intentional Changes , describes how change occurred for the women
and the purposeful steps they took to achieve change. There are two characteristics of
intentional changes. It must be chosen and intended, and the person must take one or
more steps to achieve the change. All the women interviewed made intentional changes

based upon human relationships, emotions and self perception.

SO WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR BUTLER COUNTY?

This study can shed some new light upon the problem of domestic violence in Butler
County. Butler County’s population in 1990 (US. Census) was 291,479, making it the
eighth most populous and fourth fastest growing county in the state of Ohio. It is
estimated that one out of four women will become victims of domestic violence in their
lifetime, which means there are currently over 37.000 victims or potential victims within

Butler County. The problem should escalate as the population increases. Professionals

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see the problems of domestic violence first hand. It is not a “secret” behavior to them.
Domestic violence cuts through every socio-economic layer, from the inner city to the
most affluent suburbs of Butler County. In 1992, the Butler County Sheriff‘s Office
reported 351 cases of domestic violence. In 1993, 323 cases were reported. These
numbers probably do not reflect the true magnitude of the problem within the community

because this crime is known to be under-reported.

WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR WOMEN IN BUTLER COUNTY?

Domestic violence is seldom reported to police. The reasons that it is unreported are
many. A woman may fear for her life or feel ashamed. She may have no one that She
trusts to talk to about the domestic violence. There may be a perception by the victim
that it is a family matter. Or the police may be slow in responding to domestic
disturbances which sends a message to the victim that she will not be protected by law
enforcement. The message it sends to the batterer is that the community does not care

about his behavior.

This study is important because it shows us the similarities in the stories of the women’s
lives. Similar threads are woven into a common fabric that conveys an all-too-familiar
pattern. Understanding this pattern iS the key to seeing how these women learned about

their situations, came to terms with them and made changes in their lives.

Their Ieaming experiences are important to examine because they can help practitioners,
professionals, family and others to gain new insight about how to help domestic violence

victims.

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There are three conclusions that can be made based on the interviews of these 1 1 women
and the results of this study. First, allowing adequate time is important, if not crucial to
the Ieaming process. Each woman had a different concept of and need for time in their

struggle to c0pe with domestic violence.

Secondly. contemplation or self-awareness plays an important part in giving domestic
violence victims control over their lives. The interviews were replete with quotes such

as, “I thought about it and then I did what I had to do.”

The final conclusion is that domestic violence victims facilitate Ieaming with each other.
This may seem like common sense, but for some professionals, family members and
others this may be a revelation. The interviews made it clear that not only did the

subjects learn from their helpers, but their helpers learned from them as well.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TIME

Time is important in the lives of the women who were interviewed for this study. A
person may think of “time” Simply as an external fact: what time is it? Another person

may see time as a internal mechanism or feeling.

These two competing viewpoints can complicate the process of helping the domestic
violence victim. A professional may by necessity and habit see time as external. while
the learner feels time internally. Neither party would ever expect that there could be two

completely different perspectives.

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Time is important for the learners because they learn only when their internal clocks
makes them receptive to learning. Maslow mentioned this in his research. He believed
this internal clock moves the person to new learning or awareness of themselves. This
internal clock cannot be ignored or hum'ed. A woman’s internal clock should set the
schedule for learning and should take precedence over agency rules or governmental
standards. On the other hand, a professional may have to adhere to standards or rules that
limit time. For example, there may be a limit to the length of time a woman may stay at
the shelter. Or a counseling requirement may state that a woman has to start working on
personal goals within three days of beginning her stay. These rules may interfere with the
woman’s need for time for Ieaming. Externally focused rules like these may be
necessary, but it is important for Shelter professionals to understand that these rules may

in fact undermine their efforts to help victims.

Since battered women learn on an internal time schedule that may well be in conflict with
the organizational goals of the program, shelters need to review how “time” is defined.
Rules that use time as a measure of progress should be re-evaluated to be sensitive to the

internal time clock of the women who use these services.

Reflection and action is part of time, too. It is the internal clock that sets the time for
reflection and action. As Paulo Friere believes, it is a sense of spiritual, existential time
that moves a person to reflect and then act. It is “time” that is required to promote that

reflection and action.

Staff members at an agency, family members and other professionals may have a limited
amount of time to facilitate this process. An agency must limit the time a counselor can

spend with a victim. There may also be competing demands for the professional staff

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member’s time. Family members’ time may be divided between work and children,

severely limiting the time available to work on the important issues.

The time for reflection and action was important in the lives of the women. This process

enabled the women to explore new possibilities in their lives.

Professionals, family and friends need to understand and be attuned to the internal timing
of Ieaming. Rules within shelters that provide timelines need to be re-evaluated. This
means reviewing house rules, the intake process, and the policy and procedural manuals
that define such issues as maximum allowable length of shelter stay, to time allowed to
process clients through the shelter system. The staff needs to be sensitive to the

individual time needs that each client requires to promote learning.

Family and friends may not understand the important role of time in the life of the
domestic violence victim. They may see “time” from a traditional sense. For example, a
family member or friend may say, “It’s been Six months, don’t you think it is time to
move on?” Being supportive and attuned to the timetable of their loved one may be the

greatest gift of all.

THINKING WOMEN

In our society there is much emphasis placed on producing and creating. even during
times of relaxation or recreation. We do not foster opportunities for contemplation. It’s
hard to imagine a paid employee telling their supervisor they were taking time in their
work schedule just to think? Even leisure activities place a priority on creating tangible

products. Games have winners and losers. a craft project has as its goal a finished

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product. and a vacation must produce photo albums and souvenirs. Merely thinking is

not a valued or respected activity in our society.

Time must be allowed for thinking. lntrospection is important for domestic violence
victims. This process helps them shape their decisions so they can move forward in their
lives. Thinking, after all, is part of the Ieaming process. Silent, solitary and invisible, it

is nonetheless necessary and real.

Domestic violence programs must create strategies so opportunities for thinking will
occur. These strategies could mean developing quiet time within the domestic violence
support group time. Another way to “design in” thinking time is to allow time during
one-on-one counseling for a moment to think. Day care for children may provide time

for busy moms who are in a state of crisis.

Adult Ieaming activities need to incorporate thinking time for the women. This thinking
time helps the women gain new ways of doing. Contemplation is integral to women

defining who they are and what they want to be.

WE FACILITATE LEARNING FOR EACH OTHER

Many people do not consider themselves as helpers for each other in Ieaming. A more
traditional view is that a teacher and student relationship is necessary for Ieaming. This
traditional idea even flows into other professional spheres. There is the client, counselor
relationship. In business it is the customer and clerk transaction. There is the child and

parent relationship. These examples reinforce the old ideas that Ieaming is for the student

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only. It is often felt that the teacher knows everything. In other words, what can the

teacher learn from the student anyway?

This is clearly not supported by this study. As Malcolm Knowles, the adult educator,
points out. the learner and the helper both learn from each other. All the women in the
study could identify ways they learned from people in their lives. They also identified

ways that these people learned from them, as well.

This study did not try to determine the optimum length of shelter stay for adult Ieaming.
Domestic violence shelters establish their own guidelines which vary from community to

community, and state to state.

This study could not generalize adult Ieaming in other domestic violence shelters because
it was a qualitative study with a small sample. In the future, it would be appropriate to

conduct a quantitative study that would focus on the ten themes developed in this study.

Institutions need to recognize and understand this process in order to better meet the adult
Ieaming needs of battered women. This mutuality of Ieaming is a positive model. This

learning process is based on equality and demonstrates to the women that they have a say
in defining and growing in their lives. The helper from this interaction learns more about
themselves and the world around them. Each can feel better about themselves, build self -

esteem and meet new challenges.

 

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FUTURE AREAS or INQUIRY

Some future studies should try to discover how formal education might help domestic
violence victims make positive personal changes in their lives. These Studies should look
at the differences in adult Ieaming styles based upon the amount of prior formal education
the victims received before using the shelter services. This information could help
domestic violence professionals develop adult Ieaming strategies that best meet the
individual educational needs of the women who use the shelter services. This is
important because such factors as literacy or formal education backgrounds are not often

considered when professionals are trying to share information with the victims.

 

Carol Gilligan’s concepts of moral development and gender-based Ieaming differences
could also be explored. If women think, learn and make decisions differently than men,
then the proper adult learning construct may be in conflict with the usually patriarchal
management culture of domestic violence shelters. Some Shelters have become a part of
larger, more “mainstream” organizations, and their management has tended to adopt a
hierarchical structure. Other domestic violence shelters have remained free-standing, and
tend to retain the flat, power-sharing management structures typical of “grassroots”
organizations. Research should be done in this area to give new insights into the kind of
management culture that can best create an environment conducive to Ieaming and

empowerment for women.

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REFLECTIONS OF THE RESEARCHER

Domestic violence is rooted in the power imbalance in the relationship of two people.
This inequality can also apply to society as a whole. For it is the inequality of power
within all Strata of society, class, gender and race that promotes domestic violence. As
Carol Gilligan states in In a Different Voice,
. .the ethic of justice proceeds from the premise of equality — that everyone
should be treated the same — an ethic of care rests on the premise of nonviolence
— that no one should be hurt. In the representation, both perspectives converge in
the realization that just as inequality adversely affects both parties in an unequal
relationship, so too violence is destructive for everyone.”

In a just society that is based upon equality, domestic violence would be a rare problem.

The Greeks defined democracy as a government by the peOple. In that definition,
everyone is an equal partner in society. Everyone has a stake in redefining how adult
learning strategies can be implemented into programs in industry and the not-for-profit

sector. A democratic society Should work toward the ideal of a community of equals.

In order to reach this goal, we must create a Ieaming environment that accommodates the
internal sense of time that determines when a woman is receptive to Ieaming. A woman’s
internal clock should set the Ieaming schedule, taking precedence over agency rules and

government standards.

We must also begin to value the role of thinking. Reflection is important for domestic
violence victims. It helps shape their decisions. and is an integral part of the Ieaming

process.

93

Equally important, we must understand the relationship of equality forged between the
learner and the helper. If we begin to see this as the ideal Ieaming framework, the roles
played by family members, friends and professionals will be based upon giving and
receiving in the Ieaming experience side by side with the learner. This restructuring of
the learning model can change the expectations of relationships into ones based upon

equality. The internal structure of relationships will be forever changed.

For democracy to work, there must be a common base of education. Education, through
empowerment, can create a just, moral society where power is Shared. Education is
essential to reducing the prevalence of domestic violence in society, because education

reduces the inequality that, in the final analysis, is the root cause of domestic violence.

APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A FORWARD INFORMATION FORM

Please provide your address so that I can send you information about the study.

Name Address

95

APPENDIX B LETTER OF CONFIRMATION

 

Thank you for agreeing to talk about your Ieaming activities at the domestic violence

shelter. This confirms our interview for (date) at (time) at the shelter.

The interview will cover three areas: 1) types of learning you pursued, 2) types of
Ieaming you preferred and 3) the types of support you received from the shelter. 1 will be
taping our interview as well as taking notes. Once again, I want to rerrrind you that you
will not be identified by name in the study. and the interview will remain confidential.
The results will be shared with all the study participants who wish to see it upon

conclusion of the research project.

Thank you for your help in this project. 1 look forward to talking with you on

 

Sincerely,

Paula Yensen

 

APPENDIX C CONSENT FORM

The purpose of this interview is to learn of your experiences with domestic violence and

how you have dealt with it. Your signature on this page shows that you:

0 understand that the information that you give will be used for a research study as
part of Paula Yensen’s doctoral program at Michigan State University;

0 are volunteering your time (1 to 1.5 hours) to take part in the study;

0 may withdraw or decline to participate at any time with no penalty attached to

such action;

0 understand that your name will not be connected to this information;
0 grant permission to audio tape the interview; and
0 understand that the tape recording of the interview will be erased when it is no

longer needed, approximately on month after the interview.

Signed

 

Date

 

 

97

APPENDIX D LETTER OF THANKS

 

Thank you so much for allowing me to interview you regarding the learning activities of
domestic violence victims. 1 know how very busy you are and I appreciate you taking a

half-day of your schedule to talk with me.

This study is really very interesting and becomes more so with each additional interview.

I’ll be happy to Share a summary of the findings as soon as it is completed.

Again. thank you for your time and your willingness to participate.

Sincerely,

Paula Yensen

 

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APPENDIX E DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SHEET

Identification #

1. Age __

2. Highest level of education achieved _
3. Total number of children __

4. Number of children at home __

5. Personal income __

6. Family income __

 

APPENDIX F INTERVIEW GUIDE

Identification #

1. (Discuss the background of the research study and the issue of confidentiality
before the interview.)

Tell me why you are here or involved with this program.

Tell me something about your domestic violence relationships.

What people were important to you in coming to terms with your situation?
How did you learn about domestic violence?

What services were important to you, and why?

Was there a history of domestic violence in your family?

Did you have other domestic violence relationships?

pWNQMPWN

What kinds of things did you do to better acquaint yourself with this problem?

100

APPENDIX G GENERAL OBSERVATIONS WORKSHEET

Identification #

Observations — key words and phrases

101

APPENDIX H INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

PARTICIPANT
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4

l. Darcy
2. Edie

3. Frannie
4 Katie

5. Janice
6. Rachel
7. Nanette
8. Mona
9. Heidi
10. Annie
ll. Conine

TIME

10:00 am. — 11:00 am.

7:00 pm. — 8:00 pm.
8:00 pm. — 9:00 pm.
noon — 1:00 pm.
noon — 1:00 pm.
5:30 pm. — 6:30 pm.
noon — 1:00 pm.
noon — 1:30 pm.
6:00 pm. — 7:00 pm.
6:00 pm. — 7:00 pm.

11:00 a.m.— 12:30 pm.

INTERVIEW DATE

Oct. 16, 1993

Oct. 18
Oct. 19
Oct. 23
Dec. 4

Dec. 14

Jan. 5, 1994

Jan. 8

Jan. 10
Jan. 10
Jan. 15
Jan. 16
Jan. 18
Jan. 19
Jan. 21

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APPENDIX I INTERVIEW EXCERPT

Identification #

Corrine

Corrine is identified as C

Interviewer is identified as I

 

re
C ...You start thinking about things that were good.
I Is that when you started thinking, when you came to the shelter?
C After the first week you start thinking. The bad memories start to fade and you're

just thinking of the good times. In some relationships there's the good stuff and it

starts to surface. Then the next thing you know you start thinking about calling.

I Is that what's happening to you now?

C When I first came here I started this note. It said, “I love you, but you have such a

 

bad attitude. and I can not live here with you.” Well, my daughter doesn’t know.
She’s sixteen. She doesn’t know morn. He went to Middletown to get a vehicle
and we were afraid, because we didn’t know what time he was coming back. We
might pass him in the road. What would we say then, walking down the street

with these little tote bags? So she said no. because we decided we would have to

103

lie and say we were walking to Middletown, because that’s where all my people

live. We made it here without seeing him. We were careful.

Can you give me a little background of your situation? Did he emotionally and
physically abuse you? It is my understanding that he called you names and hit

you. Is that right?

Yes, that’s right. I have had two or three black eyes. He hit me in my face and I

was black and blue from my eyes to here. (She points to her jawline) You know I

am not a real light skinned woman, but my face got to be purple and blue. You

know it got to be so bad that when I went to the doctor she was so upset. I told

her a lie because he was right there with me. He always goes everywhere with

HR.

He watches everything you say?

Yes.

How long have you been in this relationship?

Three years.

Is this your first relationship that was violent?

No. 1 was manied. l was with my husband for almost twenty years. He was

abusive.

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How did you come to the shelter? Did you call the crisis line? The police?

I started thinking to myself that I’ve got to get out of here. 1 have nowhere to go.

and I don’t know what to do about my situation.

So what did you do?

So I called my mom on time because I live in a different city. I called her and

asked her if she would look up these numbers to find domestic abuse shelters to

get all the information. Better yet, call the people herself so she could tell me.

And she did. That’s how I ended up here.

How did you put a name on it — domestic violence?

I saw posters.

Where did you see the posters?

Well, I would go to the welfare office and saw them there and different places.

Even looking in the telephone book.

Did you know in your first relationship that it was domestic violence?

He was an alcoholic. I knew he had something. He was sick.

So when you got into the second relationship, you Started putting it together?

105

Yes. This was the same thing, only worse. I was going from fire to frying pan.

So you started comparing the two?

Yes, I did. Well, my husband. If a person is to be overly protective it seems to
me it should be my husband, not my boyfriend. After I got the divorce, this
boyfriend began to act like he owned me, like he was married to me, like I was a
piece of property to him. He would take me and make me take my clothes off. If
I didn’t take them off fast enough, he would tear them off. I found out that it was
his way to have control over me, so that I wouldn’t leave the house. It got to be
where I would be in the living room and he would just get mad about something.
When I would start to rebel, that’s when he would say, “Okay, honey, let’s just go
to bed.” And before I could even think about it he would start taking my clothes

off.

Were friends helpful to you during this time?

I was isolated. My mom was the only one.

Really, your mom was your lifeline. Then what happened after she gave you the

numbers?

She was going to come and get me to get out of the house with my clothes. We
cooked up this story to say we were doing the dirty laundry. But she really would
have come and transported me, but she went out to get in the car, but because of
the weather, the car was frozen. Then the only thought I had was that I had this

friend from St. Francis school. We grew up as friends. We were not next door

106

neighbors or anything like that. She could live in Milwaukee, but our hearts are
so close together. She loves me and I love her. We’re so close. She could always
call me or I could call her for anything. Nothing was secret. So I asked my mom
to see if she could call her. Maybe she could come and get me and my kids.

What ended up happening is that my friend’s car was in the shop. So my mom
got her on the line. My mom’s got three-way calling. She got on the line, and
told me to hold on. Then She told my friend about my Situation. She switched
back over to me, but my friend didn’t tell her what she had in mind to do. I
thought afterward when she found out she couldn’t get her car, it would probably
be dropped. Because all you could do, you do. After I got her, I called my mom

to let her know I made it. Me and my kids walked here.

How did you get your clothes here?

We carried what we could. We unpacked our things five or Six times to figure out

what we wanted to take.

How far did you have to walk?

We walked from Front Street. It was cold, you know. The snow was deep. There
was ice under the snow. Looking back, it was like a light bulb that turned on,
remembering something my mom said to me. The last thing she said was that if
you can’t do anything else, just walk. My daughter said that we couldn’t take
these clothes. We just took one set of clothes. I went through the entire house
and figured out what we needed. I had these pictures that were my life 20 years
ago when my kids were babies. I wanted to separate the pictures before we left. I

have these drapes I want.

 

107

It is interesting what a person places a value on.

I can never go back and get those pictures again. But you know, I can carry those
pictures. One day we will probably get to those pictures. I am not in a hurry to
go back there.

Does God play a role in your life?

I Started praying about two weeks ago. I used to do the things that were right to
do. Telling lies, you know that’s not what you are supposed to be doing. It sends
a mixed message to the kids. But I did what I had to do. God helped me to go. I

don’t know where I am going from here. I am not that afraid of coming here.

It sounds like that when you decided to come to the shelter, you thought through

about your life. It was a place for peace.

I cannot lay down on that couch. I could not leave. I was in prison. To be able to

go to that telephone was a big, big deal.

So he isolated you?

Yes. He was the king. That’s where it was at!

Since you have been at the shelter you have made lots of decisions.

I wanted to make a strong statement to him: “I mean what I say.” I analyzed it,

evaluated it, went over it. tossed and turned in my sleep before I ever came here. I

108

don’t think anyone deserves to be treated like he treated me. What gives him the
right to take away what I have given him? I guess by my saying nothing I thought

1 was doing right. But it was not doing right at all.

What makes you think you were doing right?

Because, my ex-husband cheated on me all the time. He was a whore. He had to
have other women. I thought that was the worst thing in life. Now I see it's not.
He did hit me a few times, but never like this person. And I was married to that

man. And this man, if he died, I would not get a thing.

So you came to the shelter. What has been good for you while you have been

here?

They have given me this book, Free To Be Me. I started reading it and asked for a
notebook. I need to remind myself and sort it out. This book talks about how to
get a protection order. I found it beneficial to me. I thought 1 was crazy. I found
out I wasn’t crazy at all. I found out that I am not the only one. This is happening

to a lot of other women.

Do you realize that it iS his problem, and not your problem?

Yes. Maybe if I could have done something different. . .but now I know it’s not

my insecurity, it’s his.

So all of this is helping you make major decisions — reading books, talking to the

counselors?

 

109

Really right now my kids are beginning to get on my nerves. Probably right now
1 want some time of my own. Total quiet. The counselor explained to me that
they are unwinding and they are under stress. Like I told you, knowing how he is,
like a walking volcano. The kids are now responding to a new place. You don’t

have to walk on eggshells here. I find myself doing that.

So it is easy to go back to that habit?

Yes. Little by little I unleam it. I look back and realize how dangerous it was, to

what extreme he would go to get to me!

Are you thinking about leaving the city?

I worked for 15 years in a plant. 1 have been a clerk, a stocker, in control, and on
an assembly line. 1 had to make sure all these pieces were right. I worked in

bonding.

Two cities in Michigan that may need workers are Grand Rapids and Lansing.

1 used to have it in my heart to help others, like what you are doing. I started
nursing school but had to quit because I got married. Then I started again at the
end of my marriage, but had to quit. This time I am Ieaming that 1 can’t let
anything stop me. My brother was murdered and I had to quit. I just got over that
and got to the top of my class. Then I found out my brother had been murdered. I
want to be a counselor. All these things that have happened to me, I could use to
help others. I think I lost me in my marriage and my relationship with my

boyfriend.

110

It sounds like you are taking responsibility for this.

Yes. My biggest thing is, where are we going to go? I told my daughter. I talk to
my daughter. I have put this weight on her. She was there for me. I told her that
I want her to take time in choosing a man. I talk to her about what happened in
my life so she can learn from it. She is seeing this boyfriend. She was really
happy. When my husband left me, I felt humiliated. He was a minister. He beat
me up and then went to church. Pe0ple didn’t believe me because he was the
minister. The single women in the church thought he was gorgeous. They said,
“You’ve got a good looking man. The kids’ father is gorgeous.” Outside

appearance means nothing. It is the inside that counts.

It sounds like you are making some comparison of your life experiences.

The one was so nice looking. The other wasn’t that good looking but he had the
gift of gab. He used his head when he talked. The police were called nine times.
Every time the police were called he snowed them.

Did the police ever tell you about the domestic violence shelter?

No. l was too scared to talk. All they saw was me crying. They didn’t see the
physical signs. He used to work in the factory. so a lot of the police knew his
family. So the police didn’t do anything. He could gab on about it to disguise

everything. He could talk his way out of a ticket.

Are you thinking about moving to another area?

 

111

Yes. This woman he had a relationship with moved to another city to get away
from him. They had an adopted child. They had a gorgeous house. She left
everything to be rid of him.

Do you think this is the same situation?

Yes. Only he has a spouse in another city. Everybody has been so wonderful.
We Stay up and talk at night. lam Ieaming so much.. I am looking forward to the
future. The fear paralyzes you or you do something. I feel better when I do
something. My father never spanked. I learned to hug and say “I love you.” to
my children. It is good to talk! Being here, I have learned that if the door is

locked, I am going on to the next door.

112

APPENDIX J APPROVAL LETTER FROM THE UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE
ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS

MICHIGAN STATE

UNIVERSITY
Scptembor 22, 1993

 

TO: Ms. Paula Yensen
500 Fillcy Street
Lansing. MI 48906

RE: [RB 3: 93-433
TITLE: LEARNING AS RELATED TO DOMESTIC
VIOLENCE VICTIMS
REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: l-C
APPROVAL DATE: 09/21/1993

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjecs' (U CRIBS) review of this project
is complete. 1 am pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be
adequately pietected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. Therefore, the
UCRIHS approved this project including any revision listed above.

 

Renewal: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval
date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a project beyond one year
must use the enclosed form to seek updated certification. There is a unairnurn of
four such expedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a project
beyond that time need to submit it again for complete review.

Rev'uiom: UCRIHS must reView any changes in procedures involving human subjects, prior
to initiation of the change. If this is done at the time of manual, please use the
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