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Mans-9.1

A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF FAMILY LIFE
TO THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF STUDENTS

FROM SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES

By

Robert N. Skilling

AN ABSTRACT OF
A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration

1996

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ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF FAMILY LIFE
To THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF STUDENTS
FROM SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES
By

Robert N. Skilling

The researcher’s purposes in this study were to investigate the environment
of family life and culture among students from single-parent families who were
successful in school and to describe how the family as a dynamic social unit
influenced their decision to succeed academically. The students’ home settings,
family experiences, family members’ and students’ school experiences, and the
relationships between and among students, family members, and school personnel
were examined.

The researcher approached school administrators, counselors. social
workers, and teachers for guidance and help in identifying students who met the
criteria for inclusion in the study. With the assistance of these school personnel, the
researcher selected ten successful students and their custodial parents (in all cases,
the mothers) for the study. The families lived in suburban communities within a 20—
mile radius of a large metropolitan city in the Midwest. All of the students attended

public schools. An interview format was used to collect the data for this study. All

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Robert N. Skilling
of the family interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed for accuracy. The
transcriptions were then summarized and the data analyzed.

it was found that the family culture from previous generations promoted the
importance and value of education. The grandparents passed on a tradition of
emphasis on the importance of education. This emphasis became even stronger
with the successful students’ parents’ generation. All of the mothers were very
involved with their children’s education and had expectations for their Children to
attend college to prepare for rewarding and successful careers.

The families in this research had consistent structures for their Children,
including family rules, responsibilities, positive relationships with school personnel,
a high level of involvement in school activities, expectations for their Children to
attend college, and an active interest in their children’s academic progress. The
family culture was complementary to the school culture in many key ways, i.e.. high
expectations, student responsibility, rules. and student affirmation. These positive
interactions among the students, family, and school produced academic success.
The symmetry of family and school cultures promoted stability and achievement for

these successful students.

Be
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With my I
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This disse

Before I pursued by doctoral studies. my wife had never shoveied snow or
mowed the lawn at our home. Needless to say. my wife’s longsuffering and patience
with my pursuit of a doctoral degree stand in tribute to her servant’s heart and
unconditional love. It is with tremendous respect and appreciation that I dedicate

this dissertation to my lovely wife and best friend. Kay.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr. Louis Romano was a great inspiration and support in his role as my
committee chairperson. He was intimately involved with every decision pertaining
to the achievement of my doctorate. i appreciate his encouragement, interest, and
direction throughout my doctoral studies. He has been a tremendous mentor and
friend.

Special thanks to Dr. Lois Bader, Dr. Samuel Moore II, and Dr. Harvey
Clarizio, all of whom served on my doctoral committee. Their constructive criticism
and guidance were a great help in the preparation and completion of the
dissertation.

To my typist, Sue Miller, who put this work into proper dissertation format,
special thanks. To my mother-in-law, Connie Gray. thanks for her many hours of
transcription and editing. Her sacrificial time and support were a great boost in
helping me see the light at the end of the tunnel.

The greatest appreciation is expressed to my wonderful wife, Kay. and our
three children. Shay, Elizabeth. and Emily. WIthout their self-sacrifice. unconditional
love.and support, this dissertation would not have become a reality. My wife and
children are the greatest blessings. and I shall always be thankful for their putting up

with my absence so many days and nights to complete my doctoral program.

enCOl
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The QL

Special thanks to Dad. Mom, and brother Mike for their lifelong
encouragement and support. Thanks to my brother Bill for his valuable insights and
encouragement. drawing from his own personal experience while earning his Ph.D.

He served as a driving force to persevere.
I am grateful to the ten families who shared their homes and lives with me.
I appreciate their patience, courage, and openness. which made this study possible.

The quality time I spent with these families served to enrich my life.

vi

LlST C

Chapie

ill.

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................ xi
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ........................ 1

Introduction .......................................... 1

Statement of the Problem ............................... 4

Purpose ............................................. 5

Research Questions ................................... 6

Importance of the Study ................................ 9

The Population ...................................... 1O

Delimitations ........................................ 1 1

Definitions of Key Terms ............................... 11

Overview ........................................... 13

ll. RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH ................ 14

Introduction ......................................... 14

The influence of Family Background and Family-School
Interactions on the Success of Students From

v Single-Parent Families ............................... 14
Family Experiences and Students’ Resiliency ............. 14
Interactions of the Family and the School ................ 18
Teachers’ Attitudes ................................. 22

Family Attitudes Regarding the Importance of an
Education and Family as a Social Unit ................... 27
Family Attitudes Toward Education ..................... 27
The Family Social Unit ............................... 30

Chapter Summary .................................... 34

METHODOLOGY .................................... 36

Introduction ......................................... 36

The Study Design .................................... 36

Research Questions and Suppositions .................... 39

vii

IV.

Selection of the Sample ............................... 43

Setting for the Study .................................. 44
Research Methodology ................................ 46
Procedures Followed in Conducting the Study .............. 51
Data-Analysis Procedure .............................. 53
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ............... 54
Introduction ......................................... 54
Home Settings of the Families in the Study ................ 55
The Burton Family .................................. 56
The Cruise Family .................................. 56
The Baker Family ................................... 56
The Green Family .................................. 57
The Cusino Family .................................. 57
The Ferris Family ................................... 57
The Rose Family ................................... 58
The Stone Family ................................... 58
The Hobbs Family .................................. 59
The Benet Family ................................... 60
Analysis of the Findings .............................. 60
Family Composition and Educational History of the
Successful Students and Their Families ................. 63
The Burton Family .................................. 63
The Cruise Family .................................. 66
The Baker Family ................................... 71
The Green Family .................................. 75
The Cusino Family .................................. 78
The Ferris Family ................................... 82
The Rose Family ................................... 85
The Stone Family ................................... 89
The Hobbs Family .................................. 92
The Benet Family ................................... 96
Analysis of the Findings ............................. 100
Parenting Skills, Family Experiences, and Family Values ..... 102
The Burton Family ................................. 102
The Cruise Family ................................. 103
The Baker Family .................................. 104
The Green Family ................................. 106
The Cusino Family ................................. 107
The Ferris Family .................................. 107
The Rose Family .................................. 108
The Stone Family .................................. 110
The Hobbs Family ................................. 110

viii

The Benet Family .................................. 111

Analysis of the Findings ............................. 112
The Successful Students’ School and Home Experiences . . . . 112
Amelia Burton ..................................... 114
Jerry Cruise ...................................... 115
Collette Baker ..................................... 116
Karen Green ...................................... 119
Marvin Cusine .................................... 120
Jane Ferris ....................................... 123
Denise Rose ...................................... 127
David Stone ...................................... 130
Dan Hobbs ....................................... 131
Russ Benet ....................................... 133
Analysis of the Findings ............................. 135
Interactions Between and Among the Students, Family
Members, and School Personnel ...................... 138
Parents’ involvement in the School .................... 138
The lndividual’s Decision to Be a Success in School ....... 145
Analysis of the Findings ............................. 148
The impression Their Parents’ Divorce Made on Students . . . . 149
The Burton Family ................................. 149
The Cruise Family ................................. 150
The Baker Family .................................. 150
The Green Family ................................. 151
The Cusine Family ................................. 151
The Ferris Family .................................. 152
The Rose Family .................................. 152
The Stone Family .................................. 153
The Hobbs Family ................................. 154
The Benet Family .................................. 154
Analysis of the Findings ............................. 155
Chapter Summary ................................... 157
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS.
AND REFLECTIONS ................................. 159
Introduction ........................................ 159
Summary of the Major Findings ........................ 160
Findings Pertaining to the Research Questions ............ 163
Conclusions ........................................ 172
Comparison of the Findings With These From Jeites’s
Research ........................................ 173
Recommendations for Further Research ................. 178
Reﬂections ........................................ 179

ix

APPEN

E.

REFEREh

 

 

APPENDICES

A. The Family Characteristics Inventory .................... 182
B The Family History Survey ............................ 184
C. The Family Risk Factors Questionnaire .................. 186
D Letter of Approval From the University Committee
on Research Involving Human Subjects .................. 187
E. Consent Ferrn ...................................... 189
REFERENCES ................................................ 190

Pa

SI

LIST OF TABLES

Home Settings and Demographic Characteristics of Families

in the Study Population ..................................... 61
Educational Backgrounds of Successful Students’ Parents

and Grandparents ........................................ 101
Summary of Characteristics of Successful Students’ School

Experiences ............................................. 137
Parents’ involvement With the School ......................... 139
Summary of Family Facts/Risk Factors ........................ 156

xi

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

introduction

The make-up of American families is rapidly changing. According to a 1991
US. Census Bureau survey of 57,400 households-the number of single-parent
families has tripled since 1970,:and most single-parent families are headed by
women. According to the report, ”The tremendous increase in the number of single
parents has been one of the most profound Changes in family composition to have
occurred during the past quarter century‘ (Bianchi 8 MCArthur, 1991, p. 10).

The percentage of Children living with both parents is on the decline; it went
from 87.1% in 1970. to 78.5% in 1980, to 71.9% in 1990. The tremendous change
in the American family has implications for the educational system and the student
population. The effect of change regarding the student population needs to be
examined to be more widely understood. it is time to Challenge the previously held
assumptions. beliefs. and conclusions because they may no longer stand.
Speciﬁcally, this investigator was interested in exploring and examining the effect of
change on the single-parent families of successful students and in understanding the

commonalities among those families that contributed to the students’ academic

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For the purposes of this study. a single-parent family was deﬁned as
consisting of a child or children living with only one biological parent. By definition.
no other adults were living in the single-parent family. The parent present in the
home was the caregiver responsible for feeding. supervising, and supporting the
Child or children in the family. In contrast, a student living with both biological
parents. in theory. has both parents sharing these obligations and responsibilities.

The formation of single-parent families is brought on by a variety of factors,
ranging from death to divorce. In the past, the most common event precipitating a
single-parent family was death of a spouse. in the 1990s. the more prevalent
reasons are separation, divorce, and/or birth outside of marriage (Zill 8 Rogers.
1988). According to current population reports. the Climbing divorce rate and the
increase of births out of wedlock have dramatically increased the number of Children
living with only one parent (Bianchl 8 McArthur, 1991). “i.

Although the increase in the number of Children living in single-parent homes
recently has started to slow, there are no indicators predicting a rate of decline.
Recent estimates are that about half of today’s Children will experience living in a
single-parent home and that one-third of today’s Children will experience their
parents’ divorce (Zill 8 Rogers. 1988).

Many researchers have emphasized the role the family plays as an essential
part in children’s education. Continued research on children of single-parent families
is needed. Noller and Callan (1991) claimed. “Despite the increase[d] divorce [rate],

we know relatively little about how the breakup affects adolescents“ (p. 106).

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3
However. a factor that has been found to affect students’ success or failure is
whether or not both parents are present in the home. Concerning dropouts. Okay
(1990) found that:

in homes where only a female parent was present. the dropout rate was

found to be 66% greater than that of intact families. When the only parent

was a male, this rate soared to 78%. if a Child did not reside with either

parent, the rate was 2-1/2 times that of intact families. (p. 3)

The family is a critical aspect of a student’s success in school. as evidenced
by the research cited above. Childhood experiences have an important influence
on adolescents’ lives. Many of these experiences are controlled and shaped within
the family setting and structure. The researcher’s primary aim in this study was to
understand the family life of academically successful students from single-parent
families. The researcher was interested in the culture of single-parent families and
the common traits and characteristics of successful students from such households.
The secondary aim was to examine the relationship of the students’ family life with
the school culture and to understand how that inﬂuenced students’ success.

The task of understanding why some students of single-parent households
Ieam and why others do not is a challenging endeavor. In Okey’s (1990) study of
why students drop out of school, he described two common reasons. The first
reason he cited was the conﬂict and problems within the family. The second major
reason was the family’s relationships with the school. Okey’s study indicated that

students’ dropping out of school is directly related to the family life and relationships

as well as the communication and interaction of the family with the school.

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In 1992. Jeltes studied academically successful students of households in
which a mother and a father were present. His findings included a family culture
going back two generations that supported the school and that this was a key
element for success of the student in the present generation. His findings also
highlighted the factthat students who were successful were actively involved in
school-sponsored activities. The successful Students in Jeltes’s study were
rewarded for their achievements through leadership in clubs, participation on
academic and athletic teams. receiving many awards. obtaining college
scholarships, and receiving personal fulﬁllment as a result oftheir accomplishments.

Furthermore, students in Jeltes’s study experienced good rapport with their
parents and school personnel. The parents of these successful students were
actively involved in their Children's education. The families’ views on education were
inﬂuenced by the high degree of involvement and the communication received by
the families from the schools. The cultures of both the family and the school were
found to be similar, with the parents of these students being very involved in the

school events, which accounted for a major part of their social life.

W
An abundance of research has been conducted on the topic of at-risk
students. and quantitative studies have substantiated why these students perferrn
poorly and some of them even drop out of school. Students from single-parent
families generally are put into the category of ”at risk.” Much of the qualitative

research has been focused on the negative effect on students’ success as a result

SUC

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5

of coming from a single-parent home. However. an important consideration has
been overlooked—that is. students who come from single-parent homes who are
thriving both academically and socially, despite the factors that led to their living in
a single-parent home.

To understand better why some students from single-parent homes are
academically successful. a Closer look needs to be taken in order to examine the
complex interactions that take place between the student and his or her family, the

student and the school, and the student’s family and the school.

Burmese

This qualitative study was undertaken to address the need for research on the
features and aspects of single-parent family life that lead to students’ success in
school. The researcher’s overall purpose in conducting this study was to investigate
the conditions of families in which there was only a single parent and the culture
among students who are successful in school. The intention was to gain a better
understanding of why certain students from single-parent homes are successful. by
examining the students’ family experiences, their family history. and family-school
interactions. This researcher was interested in understanding the behavior of
successful students from single-parent homes and the factors underlying students’
success in school.

A secondary purpose was to describe how the subjects’ involvement in their
families of origin as a dynamic social unit inﬂuenced their decision to work hard and

succeed in school. The researcher was interested in discovering whether the

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6
students’ perceptions of their families’ views regarding the importance of education

inﬂuenced those students’ decision to succeed in school.

Besearcbﬂuestiens

The questions posed in this research were similar to those Okey (1990) used
in his study of dropouts and Jeltes (1992) included in his study of academically
successful students from two-parent families. The questions were used as a
structure and framework in deciphering information on successful students from
single-parent homes and their families.

1. no.” r.‘ 0‘! IoII IO‘O-‘I .II: we Io.:.Ic
deﬁnejnaiuamﬂigsz This question pertained to family roles, norms. values. and
interactions, as well as the successful student’s role as a member of his or her
family. How do these students view themselves as an acting unit within their family
structure? Attention was given to the ways in which the students objectified or
symbolized their family experiences.

2. HI- I‘ o.‘ o-I -ll .. .00 Io .IoI-I. I. I
aﬂectedjhastudent’sanitunesl Understanding the family background contributes
to understanding the success of the student. Are there successful role models within
the student’s family, and has this contributed to the student’s being a success? How

have family risk factors contributed to the student’s aspirations to succeed?

 

WWW An effort was made to assess

the depth of communication, level of involvement, and overall exchange between

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7

school and family. Teachers’ attitudes and expectations due to familial configuration

also were considered-did they stereotype?

 

studentsﬁemslnglezparenﬂamﬂiesz To understand the successful student’s school

experience, the attitudes and school experiences of their family members must be

understood.

 

schooletstudentsﬁemsinglmanenﬂamiﬂasz The researcher was interested in the

students’ home environments, including family values. beliefs. parenting skills, and
how the family spent their leisure time together. This broad area of study was
undertaken to help explain what meaning success had for the individual within the

context of his or her family experiences.

 

.. A...” ..., .. - . .;. .I. I.-..-. ,II"'); The
researcher examined the ideas and thoughts pertaining to the importance of
education held by the successful students’ family members. What role did they see
their families playing in regard to school and education?

7, III. u‘.||ooo; o-'Io q: I. : 0 o:| I.“ 'II;
parennamiliesz An effort was made to understand what being successful meant to
the students within the context of the findings regarding the previous questions.
Consideration was given to why the students succeeded by examining the collective

experiences of the families and their relationships with the school.

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was interested in the students’ ability to make positive choices that are foundational
for success. These choices included resisting negative peer pressure. being
involved in extracurricular activities. striving to lead rather thanto follow. and
choosing a healthy group of friends.

9. la: n: I Oilk’ ‘ :IoI an“ : o I: 0.; I
W Did the fact that the students’
parents separated or divorced somehow favorably inﬂuence the students’ success?
is resiliency a factor that allowed the students to cope with the parental separation
or divorce? is there evidence that the students were members of families with a
history of success. and did this have an inﬂuence on the students that transcended
the trauma of experiencing their parents’ separation or divorce? Did the
psychological and social adjustments the students experienced as a result of their
parents’ separation or divorce contribute in any way to their drive to succeed?

The above-mentioned areas of inquiry provided the framework for the
interviews and observation conducted in this qualitative study. These questions
were developed to guide the researcher and to provide possible explanations and
generation of hypotheses later on; however. such hypotheses differed from statistical
hypotheses. which may be retained or rejected. As this study unfolded. many ideas
for other studies emerged that were not anticipated at the beginning of this study.

The researcher line of inquiry was intended to assess common traits and

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9

commonalities from the data that would provide new insights into the attributes of

successful students from single-parent households.

impedancuﬂbsﬁmdx

Undertaking this study was important because the researcher anticipated that
itwouid provide insight into why certain students from single-parent homes succeed.
American schools are barraged with criticism. and this study was undertaken to
gather data about students from single-parent families who are successful and. it is
hoped. to provide information to head off the criticism. The study was intended to
provide a better understanding of the single-parent family’s inﬂuence on the
education of the Child.

The findings from the research also will be helpful in producing insights into
why students from some single-parent homes are successful. Potentially. common
traits of some single-parent homes may contribute to students’ academic
achievement. it is anticipated that the findings from this study will lead to a better
understanding of the single-parent family’s inﬂuence on the education of the child.
This inﬂuence was analyzed with regard to the following issues (similar to the issues
examined by Jeltes in his 1992 study):

1. The interaction between successful students and their families. and the
families’ relationships with the people and groups constituting the school
organization.

2. The relationship of family members’ experience with schooling and the

student’s decision to do his or her best in school.

3.
whelher heir
4.

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10
3. The problems a successful student encounters in being successful and

whether being successful is worth the effort involved.

4. The perceptions successful students have of school.

5. The relationship between family experiences and being successful in
school and in life.

6. The resiliency of the student from a single-parent family related to his
or her parents’ divorce.

7. An examination of parenting skills. values. family experiences. and how

they spend leisure time as a family.

Winn

The study population included ten 'successful” students and the custodial
parent with whom they lived when they attended school grades K-12. Subjects were
considered from suburban school districts within a 50-mile radius of a large
metropolitan area in Michigan. Eighth graders through college students were
considered for the study. The population included both males and females and any A
student who fit the criteria of the study. regardless of ethnic background.

The researcher sought the help of school administrators and social workers!
counselors in selecting students for the study. Choices were made. based on the
administrators’ and social workers’ or counselors’ knowledge of students who were
successful both academic and socially and who were involved in school activities.

Successful students selected for the study had grades in the A and B range.

Success also was demonstrated by their active participation in school activities such

 

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11
as academic clubs. musical groups. and/or sports. The students selected for the
study were perceived to be positive role models. ones whom their peers looked up
to and whose example they followed. The researcher conducted personal interviews

with the selected students and the parents with whom they lived.

Delimitations

The study population was delimited to single-parent families comprising the
biological parent with whom the successful student lived. In this study. all ten
students lived with their biological mothers. Families with adopted Children were not
considered for the study. The sample comprised students from eighth grade to
those who had completed their first year of college. Only successful students who
had a grade point average (GPA) of 3.0 or better were selected for the study. The
unit of analysis was the student and the parent with whom he or she lived. Another
delimitation was that all students in the study were in single-parent families whose
parents were divorced. Intelligence test scores were not considered as a
determining factor regarding students’ academic success. A ﬁnal delimitation was
the structure of the interviews-equal numbers of female and male students were

selected.

D i] 'I' [II I
The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this
dissertation.
Behavior. Moral conduct. the way the student works. and how the student

reacts to his or her environment; the role the student plays in the family and at

12
school; the role the parents play in the life of the student; how the student interacts
with his or her parents and siblings; and the student’s actions at home.

Events. Occurrences regarded as having an Inﬂuence on the student’s
attitudes and actions.

Experiences. Interesting or remarkable events in a person’s life or something
suffered by a person; all that has happened to an individual throughout his or her life
or in a particular sphere of activity.

Interactions. The actions taking place between and among individuals.
especially between the student and members of his or her family and among family
members and school personnel.

Eemeptign. Awareness or interpretation of something. based on one’s
physical senses or intuition.

W. The evaluation of events or conditions according to a particular
way of looking at them. i.e.. the way the student sees his or her family’s view of the
importance of education.

W. A family consisting of a Child or Children living with only
one biological parent. By deﬁnition. no other adults are living in the single-parent
family.

W. A student who is active in extracurricular activities such
as Sports. music. clubs. and school-sponsored competitions; gets along well with

faculty members and other students; and earns A’s and B’s in school Classes.

13
mention

Chapter I consisted of an introduction. a statement of the problem and
purpose of the study. research questions. the importance of the study. a description
of the population. delimitations. and deﬁnitions of key terms.

Chapter ii contains a review and critique of the literature and research related
to the following topics: the inﬂuence of family background Characteristics on
students’ success. parents’ involvement in their children’s education. early childhood
inﬂuences. parents’ personality structure. the home environment. and characteristics
of successful families.

The methods. materials. and procedures used to conduct the study are
described in Chapter Hi. This Chapter includes the sampling procedure. the survey
instrument used in the study. and the data-collection and data-analysis techniques.

The ﬁndings from the surveys and interviews are presented in Chapter IV.
The Chapter includes a detailed summary of the data collected in the interviews with
the ten families Chosen for the study. identifying patterns within and among the
families are noted.

Chapter V contains a summary of the study. a review of the ﬁndings and

conclusions drawn from the ﬁndings. recommendations. and the writer’s reﬂections.

CHAPTER ll

RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH

lnlmduﬂinn

The researcher’s purpose in this study was to explore the conditions of family
life and culture of students from single-parent families who were successful in
school. The investigation of the successful students’ family background. family
experiences (including the impact of and adjustment to divorce). and family-school
interactions was intended to reveal the basis and/or motivation that prompted these
students to achieve. The inﬂuence of teachers’ attitudes also was considered.

The families’ attitudes and views regarding the importance of education and
the family as a social unit and the students’ involvement therein were examined. A
secondary purpose was to examine these topics in order to ﬁnd an explanation for
the students’ high achievement. Literature pertinent to the aforementioned topics

is reviewed in this Chapter.

E ilE l lSllI’B'i'

In their 1991 work. Zimiles and Lee measured the effects of divorce and

remarriage on students’ academic and educational perseverance. The researchers

14

15
compared the performance of children from single-parent families. intact families.
and families in which the custodial parent had remarried. Earlier researchers
(Chapman. 1988; Oshman 8 Manosevlts. 1976; Parish 8 Dostal. 1980; Parish 8
Taylor. 1979; Santrock. 1972) found that children from single-parent families scored
lower than those from intact families. However. according to Zimiles and Lee. "Mean
achievement test scores for intact families exceed those for either step or single
parent families by a comparatively small margin; the effect of family structure is
statistically signiﬁcant both before and after statistical adjustment (SES)" (p. 315).

Parish and Necessary (1994) compared 212 high school students from
different familial situations regarding their self-description. along with the students’
description of each of their parents. The researchers concluded that fathers’
evaluations by children of divorce were greatly jeopardized and that students’ self-
evaluation and that of their mothers did not vary regardless of familial conﬁgurations.
Other researchers (e.g.. Parish, 1987a. 1988; Raschke 8 Raschke. 1979) suggested
that most alternate family types may not be problematic for all involved.

Everett (1989) pointed out some good traits of Children from single-parent-
family situations. possibly occurring out of necessity because of their family situation.
There is evidence that Children from these families are good decision makers and
that they have unique strengths and maturities. Everett placed responsibility on
professionals 'to facilitate the cognitive reframing of parents and children in such a

way that hopefulness and a sense of assurance and control can be implemented

16
and sustained” (p. 5). Focusing on the positive can contribute to well being and
future success.

Everett suggested that Children’s adjustments due to their parents’ divorce
often relate to change in schools. neighborhoods. and peers. Responsibilities and
duties at home frequently are reorganized during the transition from two parents in
the household to one. and adjustment to seeing the noncustodial parent less.
Extended family relationships also undergo changes. frequently resulting in seeing
the paternal extended family much less. in custodial-mother homes. the children
often have to reconcile their mother’s entering the work force and her being less
available for guidance and supervision. Older children repeatedly have to assume
responsibility for younger siblings. or a substitute mother is employed. Some
children take jobs outside the home in order to contribute to the family income or to
support their own physical needs. They oﬁen ﬁnd it necessary to help with home
repairs. cooking. Cleaning. or shopping for food. Too often the battle switches from
interparental conﬂict to one of economics.

Everett discussed seven variables that have a positive effect on the Child’s
ability to adjust: (a) parents’ ability to cope with and resolve anger and conﬂict. (b)
the custodial parent’s ability to resume her or his role as a parent. (C) the
noncustodial parent’s ability to sustain a satisfactory relationship with the Children.
(d) the resiliency and personality of the Child to adjust to Change. (e) the child’s
ability to seek and use outside support. (f) the Child’s ability to control or diminish

anger. and (g) the gender and age of the child. Children who view consequences

17

as being within their place of control and who understand interpersonal relationships
are more frequently those who adjust well. Making a study of these two critical
points available could be beneﬁcial to these Children. Six points about parents’
characteristics can cause a child to adjust positively: (a) a positive relationship
between divorced parents. (b) agreement on how to raise the children. (C) effective
use of support systems and positive adjustment by the custodial parent resulting in
reduced stress. (d) a good management system by the custodial parent. (6)
availability of the noncustodial parent. and (f) good parent-Child communication.

According to Kurdak and Siesky (cited in Everett. 1989). ”Research indicates
that divorce can lead to ’different’ but not necessarily ’disturbed’ patterns of
development” (p. 89). Some researchers have found that the Child’s stress during
the parents’ divorce is not necessarily attributable to the actual break-up but instead
to the turmoil and conﬂict experienced. Removal of this tension and fear from the
home may help in healthy Child development. A positive social network of the
custodial parent. family. and friends can also encourage positive child development.

Conﬁrming the preceding research. Wailerstein and Kelly (1980) Claimed that
two elements contribute to children’s healthy adjustment to a divorce situation: (a)
parents’ ability to transform their conﬂict as a married couple to a cooperative co-
parenting arrangement and (b) the Children’s abilityto have contact with both parents
at their will.

Garanzlni (1995) contended that a child will have an entirely different impact

of being in a single-parent family as a result of divorce versus death. When death

18

is a factor. there is much outside support from family. friends. and even the school.
However. a divorce is often not discussed. and consequently there is often a smaller
support system.

Adams. Miller. and Reavis (1989) hypothesized that Children from divorce
Situations would be signiﬁcantly different from Children from intact families in terms
of academic achievement. behavior. and school attendance. Two groups of seventh
graders from a North Carolina middle school were randomly selected for the study-
30 children from divorced families and 30 from intact families. The only independent
variable was the family structure. Academic achievement was measured by means
of achievement tests. school attendance was measured by the Student information
Management System. and behavior was measured by disciplinary infractions
compiled by the teachers. The results indicated that there was no signiﬁcant
difference between the two groups in the areas of achievement and attendance.
However. a signiﬁcant difference was found in the area of behavior. implying that

teachers and other school personnel should be aware of the needs of these children.

II I' [IIE 'I IIISII
Hunsaker et ai. (1995) related that:

in lieu of studying status and process variables. more recent studies have
begun to investigate the impact of contexts on family processes that affect
academic achievement. In this context research. it is recognized that families
do not operate in isolation to inﬂuence achievement. but that communities
and schools also have importance. Schools can be particularly helpful when
they teach in ways that are congruent to the culture of the family and ﬁnd
ways of involving the family in the school culture. (p. 1)

19

Decker et al. (1994) wrote that research has proven many times that when
parents are involved. Children respond better and become more successful students.
in the 1980s. during the school effectiveness movement. site-based management
in some schools. school choice. and more and more research. it was found that
parental involvement had a signiﬁcant inﬂuence on student achievement. Decker
et al. quoted Barton and Coley of the Educational Testing Service’s Policy Center:

There is an intuitive level at which most of us recognize that the basic

socializing and nurturing institution is the family—America’s smallest school.

When we take the time to think about it. it is common sense that the love and

attention babies and Children receive. the security they feel. the

encouragement they get to learn, the intellectual richness of their home
environment and the attention given to their health are all critical in the

development of Children who are able and motivated to learn.'(p. 2)

in a 1994 US. Department of Education report entitled W
Stmngjchmls. it was revealed after 30 years of research that 'there is a strong
correlation between Children’s learning and family involvement" (Decker et al.. 1994.
p. 2). Edumtion Secretary Richard Riley was quoted as saying. “The American
family is the rock on which a solid education can and must be built" (Decker et al..
1994. p. 2).

Decker et al. went on to say that students who have high achievement scores
have parents who respond to and interact with them. have high expectations of
them. and see themselves as partners in teaching their children. Training of parents.

especially those of lower socioeconomic status (S ES). has encouraged them to work

with their children. resulting in better school behavior. better use of language skills.

20
and better test performance on the part of the children. Evidence has shown that.
when parents are involved. children do better and go to better schools.

Susan McAilister Swap (cited in Decker et al.. 1994). Director ofthe University
of Michigan’s Wheelock Center on Families. Communities. Schools. and Children’s
Learning. wrote:

The positive effects of parent involvement on student achievement are

sustained across grade levels (preschool through high school). in programs

that are home- or school-based. and from programs in low and middle income
settings. However. parent involvement in low income settings. while effective
in improving student achievement when compared to matched controls. still

did not appear to bring achievement scores up to the national level. (p. 3)
It is widely agreed that the amount parents talk about school and Choose to be active
in their children’s school matters is directly correlated to students’ achievement.

Decker et al. (1994) shared a framework describing the beneﬁts of strong
home-school partnerships based on the research and practice of Oliver Moles and
Diane D’Angelo of the US. Department of Education. According to this framework.

teachers beneﬁt through:

(1) Schoolwide training concerning families from diverse backgrounds; (2)
Support from the principal for their efforts to work with families; (3) Tapping
the knowledge. skills and resources of colleagues; (4) Maximizing limited
resources and time through the cooperative development of grade—level
homework and home learning activities; (5) A better understanding of parent
expectations and closer communication with parents; (6) Attaining a higher
rate of return on homework and greater involvement of families in home
ieaming activities; and (7) increased parental support and cooperation.

Administrators beneﬁt through:
(1) Better communications between school and home; (2) Fewer parent

complaints about inconsistent and inappropriate homework; (3) Better use of
limited resources to address the critical need of linking home and school; and

21

(4) improved school climate where children see parents and teachers as
partners.

Parents beneﬁt through:

(1) Opportunities to become partners with teachers and to shape important

decisions that enhance their Children’s Chances for success in school; (2)

Consistent expectations. practices. and messages about homework and

home ieaming activities; (3) increased opportunities to engage in home

ieaming activities with their children; (4) Access to schoolwide resources such
as parent learning centers. homework hotline. homework center. parent
workshops and home visits.

Students beneﬁt through:

(1) More positive attitudes toward school; (2) Higher achievement in reading;

(3) Higher quality and more grade-appropriate homework; (4) Completion of

more homework on weekends; and (5) Observing more similarity between

family and school. (pp. 20-21)

Christensen. Conoley. and Close (1992) stated that a quotation is worth a
thousand words and went on to support the essence of this entire section by stating.
"Trying to educate Children without the involvement of their family is like trying to play
a basketball game without all the players on the court” (p. 19). They contended that
schools cannot possibly meet all their students’ needs and that Children learn. grow.
and develop both at school and at home.

According to a survey done by Tyree and Grymes (1994). parents thought
that positive relationships and interactions with teachers and school were important
to a child’s cognitive development. Parents also believed that their attitudes toward
school personnel might be inﬂuenced by their own past school experiences. They

would like to see school administrators recognize the parents as the most

instrumental advocates and strengths in their children’s education. This positive

22
attitude should also be reﬂected in the verbal interactions between teachers and
parents. These same parents viewed on-site involvement by parents. such as in
parent-teacher conferences and planned school functions and events. as another
key to Increasing their children’s academic development.

A document entitled WW
Barents (National Commission on Children. 1991) contained tables indicating that
there is less parental involvement as children grew older. both at home and in school
interaction. Another interesting corollary is that parents from single-parent families
attended more events involving their Children than did those from step-parent
families. but both were far below the level of participation of parents from intact
families. However. the contact with their children’s-teachers was equal in all three
types of families. and attending other school meetings was only slightly lower in
step- and single-parent families than in intact families. it is possible that the fact that
there is only one Signiﬁcant parent in the family to meet all the obligations of the
household makes it difﬁcult or even impossible to attend all functions involving their

Children.

I l . Ell'l |

Kim (1994) surveyed 14 teachers concerning their attitudes and involvement
in the lives of the ”at-risk“ students in their Classrooms. Thirty-three ﬁfth-grade
students also were surveyed concemIng their attitudes about teachers’ involvement.
Kirn stated that teachers must be aware of the Children who make up their

Classrooms as coming from problems of sexual and/or physical abuse. Single-parent

23
families. alcoholic parents. or having experienced divorce or death in their families.
She stated. “The divorce of parents can cause dramatic effects on children and often
lead to confusion" (p. 8). A result could be Children’s getting involved in ﬁghting or.
in a more passive way. by withdrawing. These children believed that lftheirteachers
were aware of their students’ home situations. the children would be able to cope
better and improve their study habits in school. Teachers. being consistent in their
students’ lives. can give them the emotional support necessary. understand their
misbehavior. and make the Children understand that the problem is not their fault.
They can be the child’s friend as well as a good listener. in the case of divorce. the
child who has to go from one parent to another may experience immense instability.
Kim quoted Allers as saying that ”Children need education. not only about math.
science and spelling. but also about life and death. and how to survive trouble” (p.
12).
Children from single-parent families are not a new phenomenon in our
classrooms. Although this population seems to have grown over the past ten
to twenty years. the number of children from single-parent families is similar
to that found in our parents’ classrooms. However. while the cause for single-
parent families many years ago was the death of one parent. today the main
cause for single—parent families is divorce. (Fredericks. Rasinski. 8 Ritty.
1991. p. 604)
The preceding quotation offers an interesting slant that was not considered in other
research reviewed for this study. The authors went onto state that. whereas death
is natural and divorce is considered unnatural. teachers. parents. and children more

often encounter difficulties related to the divorce than to the single-parent

experience. F redericks et al. were concerned with teachers’ attitudes about divorce

24

and how those attitudes are transmitted to their students. as well as the inﬂuence
this can have on students’ actual achievement. "Too many times what we expect
of children happens" (p. 605). Sometimes problems are not related to the single—
parent situation but rather can be "Child oriented." Students do not become "good"
or "bad" simply because of their family conﬁguration. They do not come to school
expecting to argue with teachers; however. they could just be having a bad day. The
school may be the only source of stability and familiarity for many children when
facing a divorce situation. and teachers should not hesitate to refer Children to the
school guidance counselor. school psychologist. or school social worker ifthey feel
inadequate to handle the situation.

Obiakor (1992) addressed the problem of possible failure in school faced by
young people today and offered methods of helping these young people succeed in
educational programs. He wrote. "Education. historically. has been called to
effectively respond to social. economic. cultural and political problems" (p. 1).
Obiakor believed that at-risk youngsters are often misidentified. misassessed.
misdiagnosed. and misinstructed. Included in his list of at-risk students were those
from single-parent families. Baer (1991) explained:

We need to understand who these kids are. They have potential; however.

they don’t know it. They need what we all have to offer. but they won’t

believe it. in a way. they may want to fail because there is a kind of comfort
in that. After all. it’s what they know best. Failure is a restful place to be.

Nobody bothers them much because they can’t be expected to give or

participate. . . . The crucial point to remember is that in spite of all these
obstacles. these kids have all the potential that other kids have. (p. 25)

25

in today’s society. students from at-risk situations face certain global
problems. According to Shoaf (1990). "Many children today struggle to cope with
a world more uncertain and more frightening than ever before" (p. 13). School-
related problems that Challenge at-risk Children include the theory that "worth can be
assigned to individuals and groups by measuring intelligence as a single quantity"
(Gould. 1981. p. 20) and that these students have low or negative self-esteem
because of failures in school. Another school-related problem is that there are not
enough realistic role models or teachers who understand their cultural values and
learning styles. and educators are failing to encourage cultural acceptance and
diversity. The misconception of relating a low SES with poor culture. values. morals.
behaviors. and intelligence is also a great social obstacle to these young students.

Obiakor (1992) offered the following ingredients for solving this social
problem:

1. Teachers must play a major role to maximize the potential of at—risk
students. They should reward and encourage self-responsibility when possible.
being the students’ advocates when parents fail.

2. A developmental model (not a deﬁcit model) should be instilled in all
stages of identiﬁcation. appraisal. training. evaluation. and placement.

3. The emphasis should be on measurable. quantiﬁable. and describabie
variables. and perceptions and categorizations should decrease.

4. Life-skills training programs should be developed and implemented.

26

Hamburg (1991) added that "there is much that can be achieved if we think
of our entire population as a very large extended family—tied by history to a shared
destiny and therefore requiring a strong ethic of mutual aid" (p. 19). He pointed out:

We have to move beyond the easy and pervasive recourse of passing the

buck. it is our responsibility—each individual. each institution and

organization. every business. all levels of government. We cannot lose sight
of the fact that wise investment in human capital is the most fundamental and
productive investment any society can make. Constructive development of
our Children is more important than oil or minerals. ofﬁce buildings or
factories. roads or weapons. The central fact is that all of these and much
more depend in the long run on the quality of human resources and the

decency of human relations. lfthese deteriorate. all else declines. (p. 20)

Everett (1989) supported the preceding conclusions. saying that children
spend more time in school than anywhere else outside the family and that schools
can provide supportive services in order to alleviate stress among families
experiencing divorce by recognizing their special needs (for both parents and
students). Recognizing that divorce is a major disruptive experience for all family
members and often requires adjustment for which they are not prepared.
professionals (teachers. school staff. counselors. practitioners. doctors) must
broaden their understanding in order to facilitate intervention. In a survey of 76
teachers. Everett found that the teachers had a tendency to stereotype at-risk
children as not able to function academically. socially. and emotionally as well as
those from intact situations. However. teachers expected the same from students

from divorced families as these from remarried families. The concern is the effect

of these stereotypes on the teacher-student interaction.

27

Clark (1983) stated that most high achievers had impressive experiences in
early school years with their teachers. They recalled special teachers who had given
them individual attention and who had taken time to work with them and provide
opportunities to play responsible leadership roles in their classrooms.

Werner and Smith (Cited in Benard. 1995) conﬁrmed the preceding
contention. After a 40-year study. they found that "among the most frequently
encountered positive role models in the lives of resilient children. outside of the
family circle. was a favorite teacher" (p. 1). This teacher was a conﬁdant and a
positive role model. as well as an instructor. Noddings (Cited in Benard. 1995)
articulated that youths who have a caring relationship with a teacher have a
motivation to want to succeed. It is a given that anyone. especially Children. will do

things and work harder for those people who have earned their trust and love.

WWW—“El l' IE 'I S 'lil'l

E ii EII'II I IEI l'

MCGrath and Repetti (1995) presented a paper in which they examined
parents’ satisfaction with their children’s school achievement and the value they
placed on their Children’s academic success or failure. A survey of 240 parents
along with 179 children conﬁrmed the belief that "parents’ attitudes toward their
children’s academic performance may directly, or indirectly. shape children’s
perceptions of their academic competence" (p. 2). Children may perceive

themselves to be academically competent even though their actual school

28

performance might be less than perfect when their parents’ level of satisfaction with
their performance correlates with their perception of academic competence. Most
often. parents who valued academic success had children who believed they were
competent academically.

Clark (1983) wrote:

A mother who directs her Children toward moral values in society. while

strenuously curtailing their contact with potentially negative or "bad"

community inﬂuences. can usually obtain the children’s respect. As this
respect is attained. it is possible for the mother to effect a strong education
orientation in her child. it is particulariy important that the child ieam the
appropriate values at an early age so that the child’s value orientation may

become a way of life. (p. 62)

Mrs. Hayes. a single parent who had worked continuously since her teen
years. migrated to a large midwestern City with her parents and was initially positive
about the move. As a teenager. she had quit school to be married. which she now
regretted. Her mother’s encouragement to complete her education had never left
her thoughts and was a major reason she continued to encourage her own children
to graduate. reﬂecting that it had not seemed as important when she was a teenager
to get a diploma as it did today. She stressed the importance of family unity and
expected the older siblings to care for the younger ones. a responsibility they
accepted. While in the early grades. her children were expected to study and to do
as well as they could. She did not hesitate to credit them for their accomplishments
and reinforced acceptable behavior. The responsibility given at home was reﬂected

in school at an early age. with more responsibility given as they were able to handle

it. The children grew up with an air of emotional control and self-awareness. with a

29

clear idea of their goals for the future. willing to work and compete to reach them.
This family had familial communication and interaction In which the parent was
dominant but not domineering. All knew who was in authority; however. the child
was allowed free expression.

Mrs. Hayes’s youngest son excelled in mathematics. resulting in much praise
and reinforcement based on his accomplishments in that subject. However. his
eighth-grade reading level was below the national norm. and because he was
tentatively admitted to a selective technical school based on his high mathematics
score. he worked during his freshman year to improve his reading skills. Due to his
success. most of his aspirations new grew out of school-oriented activities. After
having encouraged educational attainment. his mother was very happy with his
value system and his strong sense of direction.

Mrs. Hayes showed involvement in her son’s schooling by visiting teachers
periodically during regular school days as well as during formal open houses. She
did not believe education was all up to the teacher but was always interested in what
her children were doing and how things were going at school. Another important
aspect of their family life was their regular parent-Child talks to assess the
importance of schooling. giving the child a better understanding of the purposes
behind his parent’s expectations. which might account for the child’s high valuation
of schooling.

Bloom (1964) discovered that the parents’ reinforcement of children’s

activities in school and the value they placed on education directly correlated with

30

the children’s academic development. Before then. it was almost unanimously

believed that the responsibility for education belonged to the schools.

IbiEamIILSQQlaLUnil

in his research. Clark (1983) found that "no matter whether the family unit
consisted of one or two parents. speciﬁc psychosocial orientations and home activity
patterns were seen clearly time and again in the high achievers’ homes" (p. 111).
Parent-Child interpersonal communication was warm and nurturing. parents strongly
encouraged educational pursuits. behavior limits were clear and consistent. and how
the children used their time was continually monitored. Parents who used these
techniques were most often drawing from their own upbringing. The Children. as a
result. felt a deep. consoling loyalty to the parents’ wishes and desires and to their
own reﬁnement through achievement-related activities. When parents were asked
to describe their early home relationships with their own parents. the picture often
was the same. thereby supporting the theory of intergenerational transmission of
behavior patterns. As a result of moving their residence and having limited
educational and economic opportunity. the parents could not reach their own
potential; however. they were able to maintain the values. psychosocial patterns.
and organization in order to pass them on to their own Children. These parents were
aware that their own parents had been diligent and direct in supervision. had clearly
deﬁned role boundaries. and had come to understand that the economic survival
needs of the family would come ﬁrst. The ﬁrst generation of parents had not attained

a high level of education and had not necessarily pushed their daughters into higher

31

education. Their main focus had been on organizing the family for economic self-
sufﬁciency and personal survival. but at the same time passing on a deep
appreciation of the need for education for the children. These families
ceremoniously helped their Children with homework. and the elders routinely met to
discuss family circumstances and to make plans for the future. These children (the
mothers in the research group) grew up wishing they could have furthered their own
education and. because they were economically unable to do so. were working to
provide an opportunity for their own children to achieve higher education.

Benson and Rochikepartain (1993) reported on risk and resiliency of youths
in single-parent families. They contended that it is tough to be a single parent. and
children who live in such a family structure are not in an ideal situation. However.
the families can be supportive and healthy with special effort by the family and with
the support of the community. individuals. and Institutions. The authors maintained
that:

Youth who thrive in single-parent families are almost twice as likely as those

who do not. to report feeling support from their family. turning to a parent for

social support. having a parent involved in schooling. and having explicit
parental standards. (p. 9)

In WWW. the National
Commission on Children (1991) indicated that most parents and children from both
married and single-parent families. reported close and satisfactory relationships with
each other. Surprisingly. this relationship in single-parent families was only a few
percentage points lower than that in intact families with happy marriages. but it was

higher than that in intact families with unhappy marriages and in both happy and

32

unhappy step-family situations. However. most parents (especially single parents)
reported much stress related to serious economic concerns. From this survey. it
was established that marriage or the presence of two adults in the household is often
a buffer against poverty. Moreover. the children who seemed most in need of
guidance indicated a much lower level of parental daily involvement in their activities
and had little communication concerning issues important to young people.
According to the Commission.

While children in single parent families indicated as much closeness with their

custodial parent as children in two parent families reported with both of the

parents. the absence of one parent clearly takes its toll on Children and

custodial parents. On average. the ﬁnancial and emotional aspects of daily

life tend to be more difficult for single parent families. (p. 20)
The Commission also reported that single parents were two or more times as likely
to worry about their children’s physical safety and long-term outcome (i.e..
completing school and job outlook) as their counterparts from intact families.

Senander and Kantor (1990) examined the effects of parental divorce on the
social development of college-age individuals. The researchers studied ﬁve areas.
including parent-child relationships in both intact and divorced families. Both groups
rated their relationship with their mothers higher than that with theirfathers. although
the difference in divorced families was more pronounced. When the father had
custody. however. this pattern was reversed. In that arrangement the relationship
between the custodial father and the child was rated higher.

Many researchers have indicated that a key family Characteristic that can

affect a student’s success in social Class. However. Greene (1986) pointed out that

33
more than the family’s SES can cause a student to succeed or fail. He wrote that
family interpersonal relationships have a great effect on children. The home has to
provide the love. affection. understanding. and emotional security important to
children’s normal development. When these characteristics are absent. failure is
often the result. When low SES is a factor. often a lower level of purpose or mission
is present in both the parent and the student. T

Clark (1983) indicated that when successful students were very young. their
family social units taught them the difference between right and wrong and what
social behavior was acceptable at a particular time but perhaps inappropriate at
another time.

Parents managed to inculcate a positive educational attitude in these young

children by buttressing their moral teachings with displays of love during

home activities. expectations for responsible independence. and trust toward

the child. (p. 113)

Clark stated that. through the above-mentioned experiences. parents gave their
Children the belief that they had a positive effect on what happened in the home and
that they were helping to improve themselves as well as the well-being of the family.
Parents reinforced this belief with liberal praise and special attention.

Clark continued by saying that early home activities such as singing.
conversation. reading aloud. family discussions including extended family. creative
art activities. writing exercises. and emphasis on verbal articulation give children the
basic student-related skills (communication and listening skills; self-appraisal; and

verbal. observational. and analytical skills). Adolescent achievers most often stick

to the learned family norms and standards but retain the right to have a "mind of their

34

own." Parents must offer reassurance and consolation if students fail in a task. in
order to avoid self-blame and to put failure in the proper perspective. By reassuring
the students’ self-regard and sense of adequacy. parents help their children avoid
using scapegoats but rather instill a quality of self-esteem, which allows them to
practice and work until they have taught themselves. From these families come
students with a sense of independence and autonomy and a willingness to take

responsibility.

ChanteLSIImmarx

Much of the research concoming single-parent families has dwelled on the
negative factors involved in families with only one parent in the household and the
failures their children experience. Consequently. much of the research reviewed for
this study had a fatalistic slant concerning students found in this at-risk family
structure. The researcher reviewed literature on social Changes. the correlation of
family and school culture. scheois’lteachers’ involvement with students. family
history. family attitudes and experiences. family-school interaction. intemai dynamics
of family relationships. and the resiliency of students from single-parent homes and
the dynamics and demographics of the above-mentioned considerations that
encourage academic success. Repeatedly. the statistical information on students
who are products of single-parent families has not taken into consideration the
constructive interpersonal relationships between parent and child and between these
families and the educational institution. Positive interpersonal relationships between

school and family. i.e.. school-family partnerships. and between parents and

35

Children. consistency of family and school cultures. and family support of student
activities have produced the desired result for children in single-parent families in
order for them to achieve academically.

in this review of literature. however. the researcher endeavored to call
attention to the positive qualities of single-parent homes and the resulting predictable
and healthy development of children in these familial conﬁgurations. Consideration
also was given to what researchers have said about the negative aspects of children

who are classiﬁed as at-risk. with emphasis on single-parent families.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Immune
The methods and procedures used in carrying out this study are explained
in this Chapter. The study design. the research questions. selection of the sample.
and the setting for the study are presented. The methods of analyzing and
interpreting the data are described. and a narrative of actual ﬁeld procedures is

provided.

W

The processes used in this qualitative study. which is descriptive in nature.
are much like those used by both Okey (1990) in his research. "The Family
Perspective on the lndividual’s Decision to Drop Out of High School." and Jeltes
(1992) in his dissertation. "A Study of the Relationship of Family Life to the Academic
Success of Students." Clark (1983) described his conception of similar studies,
stating that both studies treat the individual family as a "unity of interacting persons,
each occupying a position(s) within the family to which a number of roles are
assigned. i.e.. the individual perceives norms or role expectations held individually

or collectively by other family members for his attributes and behavior" (p. 16).

36

37

The researcher’s purpose in this study was to describe and explain the
relationship of family life to the academic success of students from Single-parent
families. To achieve this purpose. two premises were central. The ﬁrst premise was
that family perspective is best understood by examining the interactions between
and among the family and the individual. the family and the school. and the
individual as a family member and student in school. The second premise was that
the family is a signiﬁcant reference group for understanding the behaviors of the
academically successful student

it is challenging to make sweeping generalizations from a small number of
families. as in the case of this study in which ten families were interviewed.
However. commonalities and Characteristics of the families who were interviewed
can be organized and social processes can be determined. The data referring to the
similarities and generalization and behavioral Characteristics of these selected
families can be analyzed.

The researcher selected families for this study from samples of single-parent
family units living in suburban communities. This analysis focused on the structures.
processes. and interactions of family members with each other. as well as with
school personnel. The speciﬁc categories of family stnIcture and processes were
similar to those used by Jeltes (1992) in his study. The analysis of data was
organized around the accumulation. interpretations. and conclusions based on the

following themes:

38

1. Eamllxdata. Speciﬁcally addressed under this topic were the names.
ages. ordinal position of each family member. and church aﬂ’iiiation. Home settings
and physical description of students and the prominent parent were considered. as
well.

Examined here were the rules and consequences of both home and school for the
student. Custodial parents’ beliefs and ideas conceming parenting skills. along with
family activities shared. were considered.

3. W A brief history of the educational
experiences of the students’ parents and grandparents was discussed. The
attitudes toward and values the generations placed on education were deﬁned. as
were the students’ study habits. goals. and aspirations. Parents’ expectations of
their children were examined. as well.

4. Want This category concerned
the parent-school relationship and parents’ involvement in the students’ activities.
Also included were the students' and family members’ relationships with teachers
and other school personnel. their extracurricular activities. and their perceptions of
schools.

5. Imnagmtnivome. Another focus was the determination of the effects
of the parents’ separation or divorce on the students. The resilience of the students

academically. socially, and emotionally was appraised.

39
E | i l' | 5 il'

in this study. the researcher attempted to understand the unique interactions
among the successful students and their families and between family members and
school personnel. and thereby to comprehend how these interactions inﬂuenced
students’ academic success. The inspiration for this emphasis was derived from
Clark’s (1983) study of school achievement. Okey’s (1990) research on dropouts
and family culture. and Jeltes’s (1992) research on academic success and family
culture. These researchers found that family culture is a more powerful determinant
of school success than family demographics. In this study. the researcher
established and relied on categories of family structures and processes to assist in
the collection. analysis. and interpretation of data. in addition to these categories of
family structures and processes. nine research questions were posed to guide the
study.

As Okey (1990) stated. "The nature of this study was a search for. rather than
a testing of. a given explanation or theory. requiring that these questions represent
broad and ﬂexible areas of inquiry. not rigid categories" (p. 69). As the sample was
developed and the interviews progressed. the research questions were reﬁned for
each area.

The research questions presented below are similar to those Jeltes (1992)
used in his study of academically successful students. The research questions for
this study were developed speciﬁcally to construct the steps of inquiry to examine

the interactions of successful students from single-parent families. Following the

.I/_. ‘

40

questions are the tentative. yet expected. ﬁndings regarding each of the research
questions.

1. How do successful students define their single-parent families?
The researcher expected to ﬁnd that the students thought they came from home
environments in which love. support. and high expectations existed. Also expected
was a signiﬁcant relationship between students’ success and how students deﬁned
their families.

2. What is the students’ family background? The researcher expected
to see a correlation across the generations of success with school and learning. it
was expected that there would be a signiﬁcant relationship between students’
success and the single-parent-famiiy interactions with school personnel.

3. What are family members’lstudents’ experiences and communi-
cation with school personnel? it was anticipated that students’ custodial parents
would have positive relationships with school personnel in their experiences both as
previous students and as parents. Further, it was expected that the quality of family
members’ current relationships with school personnel would reﬂect their past
relationships. The background of family members’ relationships with school
personnel was believed to have an inﬂuence on how school personnel viewed the
student. The researcher expected to ﬁnd a signiﬁcant relationship between a
student’s success and the school experiences of his or her family members.

4. What were the school experiences of successful students’ family

members? The researcher anticipated that the positive relationships and

41
experiences with school had been evident in the students’ families for several
generations. He also expected that the students had experienced and were
currently experiencing the same positive experiences. The researcher expected to
ﬁnd a signiﬁcant relationship between students’ success in school and their family
members’ experiences.

5. Is there a relationship between the family experiences of the
successful students and how they are succeeding in school? Experiences of
students within their families were expected to have a dramatic effect on the
students’ level of success. The researcher anticipated that the families’ values.
stnIcture. stability. emphasis on education. beliefs. faith. and morals were major
factors contributing to the students’ success.

6. How do successful students’ custodial parents and extended
family view the importance of education? The researcher anticipated that the
successful students’ custodial parents and extended family members would provide
a high level of support and create a Climate in the home that would parallel the
Climate of the school. The researcher also expected to ﬁnd that both the students’
family members and school personnel had high expectations for the students to
achieve and work up to their ability level. Further, it was expected that family
members would place strong emphasis and value on the importance and necessity
of education and that the successful students would be fully aware of the family’s

support of education and its importance. The researcher also expected to ﬁnd a

42
signiﬁcant relationship between students’ success and how their custodial parents
and extended family members viewed the Importance of education.

7. What meaning does being successful have for successful
students from single-parent families? The researcher expected that the students
would have an understanding of what It takes to be successful. as well as the will
and determination to be successful. It was also anticipated that the students would
see themselves as the key players in terms of accomplishing their success or
making it a reality in their experience. The researcher expected that there would be
a signiﬁcant relationship between students’ success and the meaning that success
had for those students.

8. How do successful students from single-parent families succeed?
The researcher expected that the successful students were able to resist negative
peer pressure. strive to be leaders and not followers. and Choose to be active in
extracurricular activities. The researcher expected to ﬁnd a signiﬁcant relationship
between students’ success and their Choice to use their innate abilities to achieve
their goals and expectations.

9. How do successful students from single-parent families cope with
and process their parents’ separation or divorce? The researcher expected that
successful students who lived with one biological parent had the resolve and
resiliency to overcome the effects of such traumatic situations as separation and
divorce. The researcher also expected to see a signiﬁcant relationship between

students’ success and their ability to cope with major stresses in their lives.

43
W

To acquire information to develop a list of potential candidates for this study.
area administrators and school counselors were contacted for their input and
expertise. The researcher shared the intention of the study with these school
personnel and requested their participation in identifying successful students from
single—parent families. With the assistance and support ofthese personnel. students
were identiﬁed who fulﬁlled the criteria of the study and whose cumulative school
records (CA-60) were examined to verify the minimal academic standard of a grade
point average (GPA) of 3.0 or better. The researcher was able to work from a pool
of 30 possible candidates. from whom ten families were selected who ﬁt the criteria
most completely. The researcher contacted school personnel from the students’
earlier years to verify their social and academic success. These individuals included
former principals. school secretaries. school counselors. and teachers.

The scope of the study was limited to students and their families from
suburban populations. Urban and nIral populations were excluded because the
researcher had no previous experience working with either of these two populations.
Furthermore. the nature of this qualitative investigation required some parameters
on the length and scope of the study.

Single-parent families with a student who was high achieving were the
participants in this study. in the study. all single parents with whom the children lived
were their biological mothers. This was not by design. but it happened to be the

arrangement in each of the units of study. There was a diversity of socioeconomic

44

status (SES) among those interviewed. The mothers’ occupations ranged from
being on disability or doing factory work to being an independent business woman.
In eight of the ten families in this study. the fathers provided no ﬁnancial support.
Family size ranged from one child to three living in the household with the single
parent.

Although the researcher interviewed the biological mothers and the high-
achieving successful students only. he did ask questions about the siblings’
performance and success in school. The students who were interviewed ranged in
age from 13 to 19 years. This age range included students in eighth grade through
college sophomores. The researcher believed this would allow for an adequate
span of time to critique students’ success over a sustained period of living in a
single-parent family. Students who had lived in a single-parent family for a minimum
of four years were interviewed for the study; these students had lived in a single-

parent home from 4 to 17 years.

W
The study was conducted in suburban communities located near a large
metropolitan area in the Midwest. it is one of the fastest growing areas within that
particular state. The suburban communities where the interviews took place
consisted primarily of working-class populations. The families in these communities
were extremely supportive and proud of their schools, as evidenced by the fact that
the local millages had been defeated only once in the past 20 years. The schools

were seen as a hub for family and social activities. it was not unusual to have

45
children attending the schools whose ancestors for a number of generations had
attended the same schools. There was a high level of loyalty to the schools in those
communities.

This particular part of the Midwest was considered a Bible-belt area. and the
large metropolitan city had been nicknamed The Little Jerusalem. Churches were
located on practically every corner. The study population was not overly religious.
however. as reﬂected in the interviews. Many families had religious background and
denominational preferences. but they were not presently pursuing active church
involvement.

The largest employer in the area was the furniture industry. and the area also
has been referred to as the furniture capital of the world. The suburban communities
that were the setting for the study were. for the most part. land locked. The entire
surrounding areas had been developed. for the most part. WIthin the particular area
of study. there were many fast-food restaurants and automobile plants. The
suburban communities that were the setting for the study were located
approximately 15 miles from the large city.

Although the areas were primarily land locked. the number of students
attending the area school had been steadily rising over the past decade. Many of
the local school districts had either added onto existing buildings or had built new
schools to accommodate the increasing enrollment.

The communities overall were predominantly white. with about a 15% minority

population. The minority population has been steadily increasing in recent years.

46

The ten families who participated in the study were diverse in their ethnic
composition.

The size of the school system varied from 2.000 to 8.000 students
districtwide. The high school student population ranged from 450 to 2.000 students.
Students who attended these schools were primarily white and were primarily from
lower- to middle-class families. Their interests. attitudes. and lifestyles reﬂected

great diversity.

Beseambmmnedelegx

The research methods included interviewing ten successful students and the
single parents with whom they lived. The researcher used a tape-recorded-interview
format so that he could interpret the data accurately. The primary document was the
tape-recorded interview. and the transcription was a written secondary document.

Before conducting the interviews. the researcher distributed three surveys to
the selected families. Participants were asked to complete the Family
Characteristics Inventory. the Family Risk Factors Questionnaire. and the Family
History Survey. The surveys were distributed in advance of the interviews to allow
students and their parents to acquaint themselves with subjects that would be
discussed during the interviews so that they would be better prepared to respond
and answer the questions. The researcher’s intention was to have no surprises
during the interview process. and all responses were recorded with no judgmental

response on the part of the interviewer.

47

The researcher began with approximately 30 single-parent families suggested
by school administrators and/or social workers/counselors. From these 30
suggested families. ten were selected. The data for each family were collected by
using semi-structured interviews and observation. The interviews were conducted
using a specially developed outline that allowed for "unencumbered" inquiry into the
functioning of the family unit. The interviews were not rigidly structured. and
additional questions were formulated to follow up on or Clarify answers to previous
questions. The interviews focused on eliciting the following types of information:
background information. home living patterns. educational orientation. and school
experiences.

To allow for precise recording of information from students and their custodial
parents. the researcher Chose to use a taped-interview format. This allowed for
optimal listening to and observing of students and parents. The researcher did not
want to risk losing the ability to observe the physical surroundings and the nonverbal
communications of the person being interviewed by having to focus on taking notes
throughout the interviews. This also provided the opportunity for excellent eye
contact and the ability to afﬁrm and to able to respond to the interviewees’ responses
with follow-up questions to Clarify and to probe more deeply for a complete
explanation of their thoughts and ideas.

The interviewing process for research has been a widely used format of study
and a well-accepted method of research. Gorden (1969. 1980. 1987) spelled out the

precise structure and appropriate methods for the tape-recorded-interview format.

48
In his 1969 publication. Gordan identiﬁed ﬁve major beneﬁts of the interview format
versus the questionnaire method. The ﬁve advantages he identiﬁed are as follows:

1. The interview provides more opportunity to motivate the respondent
to supply accurate and complete information immediately.

2. The interview provides more opportunity to guide the respondent in his
or her interpretation of the questions.

3. The interview allows a greater ﬂexibility in questioning the respondent.

4. The interview allows greater control over the interview situation.

5. The interview provides a greater opportunity to evaluate the validity of
the information by observing the respondent’s nonverbal manifestation of his or her
attitude toward supplying the information.

This format of study allowed the researcher to have ﬂexibility in gathering the
information and to focus on predominant patterns while gathering data. There is no
standard method for studying single-parent families. The researcher used the ﬁeld
methods of interview and observation with the families interviewed in this study.
These procedures allow for a wide latitude of methods while conducting exploratory
research and provide the opportunity to realize dominant pattems in small groups
in the process of gathering data.

The data for each family in the study were collected over six months during
spring through fall of 1996. after the 160 interview questions used in the study were
approved by the researcher’s doctoral committee. Approximately 100 questions

were asked of the students. and 60 were addressed to the biological. custodial

49

parents. The specially developed questions were largely extrapolated from Jeltes’s
(1992) study. as a basis for continuity and replication for comparison of the two
studies. The interview format was not tightly structured. and unique follow-up
questions were posed within each individual interview for clariﬁcation and more
complete responses to initial questions. The interviews were designed to gather
information on the following themes. which were the same as those Jeltes used in
his study.

Backgmundmtcmaﬂm: General background of parents. including theirwork
history; attitude about present environment and life circumstances; social experience
of the student as a Child; early Childhood functioning; early parental inﬂuence (moral
training and values); Church participation; and past. present. and future ambitions of
students.

Warns: Parents’ concept of child rearing; family decision-
making process; parental expectations in terms of children’s behavior; role
responsibilities in the home; sibling relationships; interaction with kin. neighbors. and
friends; method of parental control; parental handling of students’ time and space;
students’ attitudes toward parents and other adults; family outdoor activities and
travel; and daily routines.

Winn: School plans and goals of parents and students;
career plans of parents and students; parental aspirations for Children; parental
expectations of children; ieaming customs in the home—for example. reading.

hobbies. games. and other activities; and students’ self-concept.

50
Manges; Students’. parents’. and grandparents’ school
experiences; parental involvement in school activities; contact with school-for
example. exchange of information. quality of interaction. level of involvement. and

communication process; and parents’ expectations of the school.

 

Students’ attitudes about their parents’ separation or divorce; their personal sense
of the impact of the separation or divorce on their educational endeavors; and their
views about their present relationship with their mothers and fathers.

After selecting the candidates for the interviews. the researcher called each
participant to discuss more fully the structure of the interviews. explain the protocol.
and answer any questions the interviewees had. The researcher explained the
consent form (approved by the Michigan State University Committee on Research
involving Human Subjects-UCRIHS) to the families and discussed the three surveys
each of the participating families would be asked to complete. The surveys were an
introduction of the topics and ideas that would be covered in the interview process.
which allowed the participants to have time to formulate their thoughts. ideas. and
perceptions of personal experiences.

The ﬁrst of the three surveys was the Family Characteristics inventory
(Appendix A). This survey contained 20 items to which each student and custodial
parent responded together. using a ﬁve-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Does
not ﬁt our family at all) to 5 (Fits our family very well). The Family History Survey

(Appendix B) was designed to gather demographic information related to each of the

51
family units interviewed. The Family Risk Factors Questionnaire (Appendix C)
consisted of 12 items. This questionnaire was used to discover possible
characteristics about the family that might indicate dysfunctions such as alcoholism.
substance abuse. unemployment. physical abuse. and mental abuse. The
interviewer endeavored to be nonjudgmental while recording the interviewees’
responses.

The researcher notiﬁed the interviewees that their conﬁdentiality would be
protected and that they could refuse to respond to any question they did not want to
answer. Every attempt was made to communicate all aspects of the interview
process to the interviewees so that. ideally. there would be no unpredictable

viewpoint during the interviewing.

E l Ell I'CII'IISII

Following the UCRIHS procedures. the researcher sought and obtained the
committee’s permission to conduct the study (see Appendix D for the letter of
approval). Once the requirements were met and UCRIHS had granted permission.
the researcher followed a procedure of maintaining the anonymity of the potential
subjects. Area administrators sent letters (composed by the researcher) to the
potenﬁal subjects. who had been identiﬁed with the assistance of the school
counselors and social workers. asking them to consider participating in the study.
If they were interested and willing. these individuals mailed a response card to the
researcher home. inviting him to call them to discuss the nature of the study in

detail. Once the researcher received response cards. he called the potential

52
respondents. informed them about all aspects of the study. and assured them that
their answers would remain conﬁdential and that pseudonyms would be used in the
research report to protect their identity. Once the student and custodial parent
agreed to participate In the study. they were given a consent form (Appendix E) to
sign. All participants agreed to sign the consent forms.

Eight of the ten interviews were conducted in the families’ homes; two of the
interviews were administered in the researcher home. The interviews lasted from
one-half hour to two and one-half hours. Only one interview was needed with each
family. However. the researcher asked the participants’ permission to call them after
the interviews to Clarify their responses. if necessary. Calls were made to follow up
on information from some of the respondents when the researcher was transcribing
the interviews.

The structure of the interview was to interview the successful student ﬁrst and
then his or her custodial parent. The researcher invited the custodial parent to be
present while her Child was being interviewed. In seven of the ten interviews. the
custodial parent elected to sit in the room while her Child was being interviewed. In
all cases. when the parent was being interviewed after the child. the Child Chose to
leave the room. The researcher reminded the respondents that they could refuse
to answer any question. but none of the students or parents refused to answer any
of the questions. Respondents were informed that the interview would be tape

recorded. and all of them consented to that method.

53
WSW
After each interview was comMeted. the researcher transcribed the data to
provide an accurate and precise analysis. Using the more than 300 pages of
transcription derived from the tape recordings. the researcher categorized. charted.
and summarized the responses. He then was able to begin to determine common

traits and characteristics evidenced in the interview responses.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Introduction

This researcher works in a school district where many of the students come
from single-parent families. Therefore. he has a strong interest in the surroundings.
family life and support. and culture and any other elements or different environment
these students experience that might encourage or cause them to accomplish
above-average participation and grades during their elementary. secondary. and/or
college years. Another purpose in this study was to discover how the subjects’
interrelationships with their peers. families. and school personnel could inﬂuence
their decision to work hard in order to achieve success. Does the subjects’
perceptions of their families’ view of education inﬂuence their decision to succeed
in school and their social lives? To gain this information. the researcher investigated
the family experiences. family history and demographics. and family-school
interactions of selected successful students.

To introduce the successful students and their families. the ﬁrst section of this
Chapter contains a description of their home settings and family composition. The
next section contains demographic information on the successful students and their

families. which includes the parents’ statistics. Speciﬁcally. age. occupation. religious

54

55

afﬁliation. educational level. and other background characteristics that may have
influenced the parents’ and children’s accomplishments. Presented also are the
students’ school experiences and the interactions between and among the students.
family members. and school personnel. Outside support from community members.
other adult relatives. and/or friends; social involvement; and family discipline are
discussed in order to better understand these successful students and their families.
Another section deals with the parenting skills. family experiences. and family values
that they believed promoted success. The last section of the Chapter concerns the
impression the parents’ divorce had made on the students.

Each of the preceding elements is considered through the eyes of the
student. as well as those of the prominent single parent, along with the researcher’s
observations. To protect the families’ anonymity. pseudonyms are used throughout

this dissertation.

ll SII' [II E 'I' .” ﬁll

The ten families involved in this study varied in terms of home setting and
whether they owned or rented the home in which they lived. The geographic
location and physical features of each family’s home setting are described in the
following pages. based on their own opinion and in some cases on what the writer

Observed. Other pertinent demographic data also are included.

56

IbeBIInemEamily

The Burtons lived in a cream-colored bungalow with green shutters in a good
neighborhood that. they agreed. ﬁt their family very well. They rated their school
district 4 on a scale of 1 to 5. The house was neat and functional; it contained seven
rooms and a basement. with the upstairs ﬁnished as a third bedroom. The large
backyard appeared functional as a gathering place for neighborhood Children while
they were growing up. Amelia felt very safe in this home. which she had lived in all

of her life. as well as in the school and the neighborhood.

WI!

The Cruises described their home as a wood-framed. sand-colored. two-story
home with three bedrooms. located in a suburban area. They considered their home
to be located in a good neighborhood (rated 4 on a scale of 1 to 5) that ﬁt their family
well. They rated the school district 3 on the same scale. although Jerry felt safe

there. as well as at home and in his neighborhood.

mm

The Bakers lived in an aqua-colored mobile home in a nice neighborhood.
They owned their home. which had two large bedrooms and seven rooms in total.
They were in the same school district as others in the survey. and they rated it the
highest (5). Collette took full advantage of the teachers’ time and advice and
listening ears and felt very comfortable doing so; she thought this was a great

advantage of a smaller school. The writer thinks that certainly must have inﬂuenced

57
the family’s rating of the school district. Collette also felt very safe in her

neighborhood. home. and school.

Ibaﬁreeniamily

This family lived in what they considered a good neighborhood in a white one-
and-one-half story. seven-room bungalow. which they owned. The family had lived
in this suburban area for 21 years. They rated both the school district and
neighborhood 4 on a scale of 1 to 5. Karen considered herself safe in her home.

school. and neighborhood.

ThemsincEamilv

Marvin Cusine and his sister. along with their mother. lived in a two-story
townhouse. There were many townhobse units in the suburban area in which this
one was located. with its brick and wood exterior. The three-bedroom interior was
very Clean. neat. and tidy. They rated their school district 4 on a scale of 1 to 5. and
they rated their neighborhood 3 on the same scale. Marvin did not feel really safe
at home because there were gangs who had guns and who might shoot into the front

door. but at school he felt very safe.

II E . E 'I

This family of four females had lived in the same ﬁve-room apartment for the
past 14 years; however. because the mother thought it was no longer in a good
neighborhood. she would like to move. Jane loved her school so much that she had

suggested she could live with a friend ifthey chose to move. Because Jane was so

58
involved in school and community activities. she did not know her neighbors well and

did not feel a closeness to any of them. The apartment was very clean. neat. and
attractively decorated in a country theme. but they rated their neighborhood 2 on a
scale of 1 to 5 and rated the school district the same by a composite opinion of all
members of the family. Jane felt very safe in her school. and although she said her

neighborhood was not the best. nothing serious had happened there.

IthQSLEamIIx

Denise Rose had lived with her mother and stepfather and younger sister for
the past two years. Before that. she had lived in a single-parent family for about six
years with only her mother and sister. The three-bedroom. suburban. nine-room
home where they were currently living was very nicely landscaped and was owned
by her mother and stepfather. The interior theme was country. with a scattering of
antique oak pieces and appeared very well kept. They rated their neighborhood 4
on a ﬁve-point scale and gave the school district a rating of 5 on the same scale.
When asked how safe she felt in her neighborhood. Denise replied. '"Yeah. very
safe. and sometimes i might feel more safe than I should. We live next door to the
park. but a lot of things happen there. but iwouldn’t be scared to go there in the

dark."

Ibe_Stena_Eamilx

David Stone had no siblings and lived with his mother. Ginger. in a ﬁve-year-

old brown bi-level home with nine rooms. including three bedrooms. They had

59
purchased the house new in that suburban neighborhood. where they felt very safe.
in the backyard there was a large swimming pool. which lent itself to his mother’s
strong interest in swimming. The yard was landscaped in good taste. and David and
Ginger were adding more shrubs and lava rock. The interior of the house was done
in neutral colors with modern decor. however. they were replacing the neutral-
Colored carpeting with green carpet. David’s bedroom was furnished with a stereo
system, a television. and a video-cassette recorder. A room in the basement was
rented to a special education teacher. Their basement also housed a large studio
in which David could explore his hobby of drawing. Overall. in this writer's eyes. the
home was extremely clean. very bright and cheery. and inviting. Mrs. Stone also
appeared very pleased to Show the researcher her fur coat collection. The Stones
rated their neighborhood and school district 4 and 3. respectively. on a scale of 1 to

5. and David felt safe in all three areas-home. neighborhood. and school.

W
Dan Hobbs lived with his mother and two beautiful. healthy-looking cats In a

rented six-room, two-bedroom home in a suburban area that they agreed ﬁt their
family very well. This white aluminum-sided house with black shutters had a full
ﬁnished basement and a fenced-in backyard. The interior was decorated with
attractive pictures that Mrs. Hobbs had snapped with her own camera. The new
couch with several throw pillows. new desk. and rocking Chair rendered the living

room very adequate. They rated the neighborhood 5 on a ﬁve—point scale; Dan felt

 

 

60

very safe there. He was somewhat apprehensive about his safety at school;

however. he gave a rating of 5 to his district as a whole.

IbeBenetEamily

Russ Benet and his mother and younger sister lived In a suburban townhouse
development where there were six units in one building; several townhouses nearby
had the same wood and brick exterior. The seven-room. three-bed room interior may
have had a colonial theme. but due to the family’s low income level they were unable
to have a speciﬁc decor. Russ’s mother took pride in what she Claimed was the not
so up—to—date computer she had on a desk in the corner. The Bonets thought their
neighborhood was average. and Russ said he felt safe there. although at times there
were some not-so-perfect neighbors; he Cited the neighbors who had just moved in
across the street about a month ago who had already been evicted. They
considered their school district to be a 4 on a scale of 1 to 5 and several times
mentioned the advantage he had being from a smaller district rather than a much
larger one he had experienced in earlier years. largely because it could be more
personal. more one on one. Russ also stated that he felt safe in his school

environment.

Analysiseﬂbcﬂndings
A compilation of the home settings of the families who were interviewed is
shown in Table 1. Two families rented townhouses. one family rented a house. one

family rented an apartment. one family owned their own mobile home. and the ﬁve

 

61

remaining families owned their own homes. On a Likert scale rating of 1 to 5. the

families’ average assessment of their schools was a 4. a strong indication of

satisfaction with the academic quality and educational opportunities of their schools.

Table 1: Home settings and demographic characteristics of families in the study

 

 

 

 

 

population.
, Geographical
Family Family Composition pm” L?“ Employment Setting/Home
of Education
Ownership
Burton Parents divorced Father and Beth factory Suburban-1412
Mother mother— workers story bungalow.
Male. 20 College one own
"Female. 16 year
Female. 14
Cruise Parents divorced Father—high Father-technical Suburban-two-
Mother school grad. worker story weed. own
"Male. 15 Mother- Mother-preschool
Female. 10 college grad. teacher
Baker Parents divorced Father and Fatherutruck Own mobile
Mother mother-high driver home
"Female. 19 school grads. Mother—volunteer
Male. 28 work
Male. 21-net with
mother
Green Parents divorced Father—high Fatherutruck-body Suburban—1412 I
Mother school grad. repairman story bungalow. l
Female. 19 Mother~ Mother-account own
"Female. 17 college 1-1/2 consultant. ﬁnance
Male. 15 years services
Cusine Parents divorced FathernGED. Fatherutemporary Suburban.-
Mother some college services three-bedroom
"Male. 15 Mother- Mother—factory townhouse. rent
Female. 5 college grad. worker

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1: Continued.

62

 

 

 

 

 

, Geographical
Family Family Composition Parents Level Employment Setting/Home
: Of Education ,
l Ownership
: Ferris Parents divorced Father—8.8.. Father—unknown Suburban—ﬁve-
Mother master’s. work Mother-disabled room apartment.
Female. 28 on Ph.D. rent
Female. 26 Mother-
"Female. 17 business
school. 1 year
Rose Parents divorced Father-college Father- Suburban-mine-
Mother grad. unemployed room home. own
Stepfather Mother- Mother-surgical
"Female. 17 technical technician
Female. 16 training
Stone Parents divorced Father—college Father—unknown Suburban—nine-
Mother grad. Mother—realtor. room bi-levei
Male. 15 Motheruthree supervisor of home. own
years college retirement home
Hobbs Parents not married Father-9th- Father-unknown Suburban-six-
Mother grade Mother—factory room home with
Male, 30 education worker ﬁnished
Female, 28 Mother—high basement. rent
Male. 27 school l
"Male. 13 education '
Benet Parents divorced Father-GED+ Father—unknown Suburban—-
Mother Mother—three Mother-credit seven-room
"Male. 18 years of union teller townhouse. rent

 

   

 

Female. 17

 

college

 

 

*lndicates successful student who was interviewed.

 

63
Nine of the ten students who were interviewed felt safe in their schools. and

eight of the ten indicated secure feelings relating to their homes and neighborhoods.
Overall. this could be interpreted as meaning that the issue of safety and security did
not present itself as a barrier to the students’ success. Due to the variations in the
living arrangements of these students. it was obvious to the researcher that the
students’ accomplishments did not hinge on their home settings.

WWW [ISI ll III 'E 'l'

The students and their parents are introduced in this section. which includes
background information such as names. ages. siblings. ordinal position in the family.
and educational history of previous generations. A description and history of the
families. as well as their religious persuasions. also are included. This composite
of the researcher’s observations and the responses of the students and their parents

follows. with emphasis on the student interviews.

Warmly

Amelia. an attractive. tanned. dark-haired young woman. was going to be 17
and a senior in high school in the fall. She described herself as an outgoing. fun-
loving girl with many friends. Her bubbly personality was obvious to the researcher.
She had grown up in a family with a brother who was three years older and had
been a popular and successful athlete in high school. He now was working as a
security guard and also was with United Parcel Service. He was single and had no

current plans for college. Her younger sister, 14 years old. would be a freshman in

 

54
high school in the fall. having improved her academic standing greatly in the past
year. working to overcome a ieaming disability.

Amelia had a belief in God and. until a few years ago. had taken an active
part in her church: she said she had very little free time now. She loved her mother
very much and considered her to be her best friend. Therefore. the inﬂuence from
her mother had been very positive for her self-esteem. accomplishments. and pursuit
of higher education. She also felt a high level of support from her friends’ parents.
her mother’s relatives. and the community. Even with all this support. however.
Amelia thought it was her own decision to be successful as she always liked the
attention from being positive. saying she had seen what negative actions had done
for some of her friends. Her description of success was "Going somewhere. Don’t
take the easy road; you have to work for it." Because she had a ﬂair for
mathematics. she planned to go onto college to become an engineer. She was
excited to think about her future but considered it "a long way out there."

Jack Burton. age 46 and Amelia’s father. had been a factory worker for the
past four years but had not lived with the family for approximately ﬁve years. He had
remained single since the divorce. Amelia described him as a man who had a
problem with alcohol and. perhaps as a result of that. seemed to be a very negative
person and not a good provider for his family. His support of his Children’s activities
came by way of putting them down for what they did not accomplish rather than
pointing out the things they did well. Amelia had tumed that negative approach into

a positive experience by determining to prove his statements wrong. She saw her

65

father occasionally. but not on a regular basis. Amelia said she did not really know
her dad. even though during the ﬁrst few years of her life "he was around but not
really there." Jack had a Lutheran background. He had participated in football and
basketball while in public high school. maintaining a low B orhigh C average. His
mother (Amelia’s grandmother) had graduated from high school and worked in
factories for a number of years; she was currently working at a school. Amelia’s
patemai grandfather had dropped out of school while in elementary school. A victim
of abuse. he had been on his own from age nine or ten.

Sandra Burton. age 43 and Amelia’s mother. told the researcher that both she
and her husband had a year of college. but during those years college had not
seemed as important to her as getting married and having a family. and to Jack it
had seemed most important to get a job rather than ﬁnish college. Sandra’s
stepmother had strongly encouraged her and her older brother to get an education;
however. as both of them had dropped out of college. she believed that her younger
sister may have suffered from that fact. in that she had not been pushed as much
as the older two children to attend college. Sandra and Jack were married when she
was barely 19 and he was nearly 22. Both Jack and Sandra were smokers.

it was obvious that Amelia received her mother’s outgoing. bubbly personality.
Sandra had been a factory worker for the past two years. in order to improve her
income and leave the stress from such jobs as ofﬁce worker. ofﬁce manager, and
bank teller. "I can handle the physical stress [of the factory job]. but the mental

stress was getting too much." she stated.

66

Sandra came from a broken home also. but was raised by her father and
stepmother. which she agreed was the best situation. She did not have contact with
her biological mother until she was engaged to be married. "Jack and i looked her
up and invited her to our wedding." Apparently she had had a nervous breakdown
and asked the father to care for the family until she was able. However. Sandra’s
stepmother would not agree to giving up the Children after raising them for a year or
so; therefore. they stayed with their father and stepmother. Sandra’s birth mother
had a high school education. and her father dropped out of school in the eighth
grade. which Sandra thought was normal in her father‘s era. Her stepmother.
however. had a year of college and was a very successful woman. She believed her
stepmother was the major driving force in her life. encouraging college. Sandra
attended Catholic grade school and public high school. where she participated in the
student council and Future Teachers organizations. She maintained only a low B
or high C average. saying she believed she could have done better. After attending
one year of community college. she dropped out in order to be married. Her

religious afﬁliation was Roman Catholic.

IbeQmisaEamilx

Jerry Cruise. 15. was a neat-appearing. well-groomed. slender young man
with red hair; he was of average height. Jerry was going to be a sophomore in high
school in the fall and had a grade point average of 3.7 to 3.8. He had attended
preschool and had attended the same school system since kindergarten. When

asked to describe himself. he replied.

67

i am into Star Wars and Star Trek. and i am a Christian and I am an avid

believer that there’s a government conspiracy to hide their ﬁndings in Roswell

in 1947 when they discovered a crashed alien ship. So really our country is

run by military dictators. and I’m just trying to bring that to light to anybody I

can.

Jerry lived in a single-parent family with a younger sister. Rena. age ten. Rena was
entering ﬁfth grade and also did well in school. She was currently involved in ballet
and computer classes as well.

Jerry and his family regularly attended a local Baptist church. For the most
part. Jerry said. his family background was solid; he described his mother as caring
and well meaning. However. "Sometimes she is not very open to accepting my
views or liking what i do ’cause like I watch a lot of TV." he stated. The primary
person who expected him to succeed was his mother. who loved him but. he
thought. did not give him a high level of support. When asked what part his parents
played in building his self-conﬁdence. he replied. "None; It came from within."

Jerry thought that the communication between him and his mother was not
all that positive. "i get her advice. but not all the time am i seeking it." he stated.
Jerry felt support from two other nonparent adults. his Uncle Doug and Denny. a
friend of his mother’s.

There were clear rules and consequences at home and at school. and Jerry
thought that his neighbors would probably report any of his wrongdoings if there
were any. He believed that his mother and teachers had high expectations of him.

and he spent three or more hours per week in school sports. clubs. and

organizations. His religious activity exceeded one or more hours per week. and he

68
placed a high value on helping other people. Jerry said he was always truthful and
believed it was important not to be involved in sex. alcohol. or drugs.

Jerry was Optimistic about his future. had high self-esteem. accepted others
of different races. could plan ahead and make good choices. and was able to resist
negative peer pressure. He resolved conﬂict nonviolently and believed he had
empathy. sensitivity. and friendship skills; he deﬁnitely believed there was a purpose
for his life.

Mr. Cruise. Jerry's father. was described as highly intelligent; however. he
had given in to drugs. alcohol. and nicotine and therefore had not been a stable
ﬁgure in his family’s life. He had been a victim of physical and mental abuse as a
child. His disease had caused him to jump from job tojob; as a result. he had been
unable to support his family ﬁnancially for the six years since the divorce. He
recently acquired a job at C-Tech and. for the ﬁrst time. had regularly been paying
support for his Children. Also. he had spent some time with his Children recently. but
he declared that a regular schedule of visits would be impossible due to his job. Mr.
Cruise had received only a high school diploma. having had a grade point average
of little more than 2.0. which Martha. Jerry’s mother. thought was due to lack of any
support from his parents and lack of initiative on his part. She also thought that
possibly the reason he had not gone further even with such high ability was that it
would have taken some effort on his part and. up to that time. things had been very
easy for him and hence he lacked perseverance. In his family. they had been

allowed to quit rather than being encouraged to put forth more time and effort.

69

Martha Cruise. Jerry's mother. presented herself as an honest. kind. and very
dedicated. patient person. She considered her family to be middle Class. She
worked two jobs in order to support her family and still found time to take a very
active interest in her children’s education. Perhaps her interest was enhanced by
the fact that she. herself. worked in the education ﬁeld. She was a petite. 40-year-
old brunette.

Martha’s higher education consisted of two years ofjunior college and two
years at Grand Valley State University. majoring in psychology and sociology. where
she earned teacher certiﬁcation in early childhood education. She had a high level
of support from her parents to get a college degree; because they had not had an
opportunity to attend college themselves. they wanted to see their children do better.
Martha stated. "l’m the youngest of ﬁve children. and they [her parents] said they
would put all ﬁve of us through college as long as we remained single and as long
as we did well and it was our own will to go."

Her parents put Martha through the ﬁrst two years of junior college. but at that
time Martha decided to get married; therefore. it was up to her husband and her to
ﬁnance the next two years. While in high school. Martha had been involved in
gymnastics. bowling. and Future Teachers of America. She regretted that she did
not get into the National Honor Society as. in her senior year. She had been more
involved in having fun rather than concentrating on the books. However. she proved
herself in college. being on the dean’s list and graduating with better than a 3.5

grade point average.

70

Martha had been a preschool teacher for 18 years. and for the past four years
she had worked for J. C. Penney as a telemarketer in addition to her teaching job.
She loved to bowl. swim. and snow ski. but she had very little time for these
interests. She had lived in the same house for the past 17 years and had been a
single parent for six years. I

Jerry’s maternal grandmother had completed only tenth grade because. as
the oldest child. she had been required to quit school to care for her younger
siblings. Also. because she came from an impoverished family. she had been
embarrassed to wear the same outﬁt to school every day. Martha’s father had been
able to complete eight grades before being forced to curtail his education in order
to help his father in the trash business. They also made buttons from the shells of
Clams they dug out of the Grand River. Martha thought that Jerry’s patemai
grandfather had not graduated from high school; he had died when Jerry’s father
was only a year old. Because she had no contact with her former husband’s family.
she was not sure of their educational level.

"Oh yes. deﬁnitely." Martha replied when asked whether educating one’s child
is a basic function of a parent. A lot of her time was spent with educating the
children outside of school and getting them into programs to supplement their own
school program. For instance. she had Jerry enrolled in a world history class the
summer the interviews were conducted because their school did not offer that
course by itself. That. along with American history. is important for those who plan

to attend college. Martha believed. and their school district offered only group social

71
studies. When Jerry was attending his history class. his sister Rena was attending
ballet and. later in the day. a computer class that was offered by their own school.
When asked what expectations she had for her children. Martha replied.
. . . Not only that they are successful in school but that they are happy with
themselves. that they grow up. not that they choose a career that is all
powerful. but they choose a career that they will be happy with and won’t be
stuck in a dead-end job. They will enjoy their lives. and they need a good
education to have those Choices.
Martha said that her son did not talk about his schooling much with her
because he was a private-type person. However. he did talk about his debate team

as that was one of his major interests. Martha’s communication with her daughter

was much easier because she was more of a social person.

IMaKcLEamji!

Collette. 19 years old and a college sophomore in the fall. was an extremely
poised. articulate. responsible. and active young woman. Her dark hair and beautiful
brown eyes were part of her natural beauty. The researcher observed a friendly.
outgoing person who loved life and worked to get the most out of it. Collette said of
herself. "i’m just a normal kid who likes to go out and wants to have fun with my
friends. who worries about school and worries about homework and likes to go out
for movies and pool." Her friends might describe her as the mom of the group.
outrageous. or the dare-devil. but some might not know what to think.

During high school. Collette had worked at Old Country Buffet. and during her
freshman year in college. she had had two or three jobs on campus for a few hours

here and there. The summer she was interviewed . Collette was working at a bank

72
and hoped to continue there during her college years. Collette was the youngest of
three children. Her brother Dan was 28 years old and just recently graduated from
college. He had an interest in being a lawyer. He was a natural academically and
did very well in school. He had graduated from high school somewhere in Georgia
while living with his father. Her 21-year-oid brother was currently in the Marines.
going to Ofﬁcer's Training School. He had been very athletic in high school.
reaching the state level in wrestling competition. Collette said he had done very well
in high school. but "he’s not a brain surgeon." Both boys had lived with each parent
after the split; however. most of the time it was just Collette and her mother. When
asked what her family meant to her. Collette replied.
I love my family; I love my mom. I love my Dad. i mean. what else is there
besides family? Think about it! My mom had to learn to speak English. and
she’s still working on it. My dad. I’m proud of him, he’s getting back on his
feet after a lot of hardship.
Besides her mother. Collette considered her teachers to be her role models.
Collette described her mother as very outgoing. very relaxed. a people person.
sometimes a little too outgoing. and she could cook you up anything. She did not
work and was very good with kids. Collette described her father as stubborn. fun-
Ioving. and knowing what he wanted to do and going after it. He was very
educationally minded but had run into a problem with alcohol. He was new a
recovering alcoholic. starting over again. Both her parents expected her to succeed.
Collette was a very strong and self-conﬁdent person. and as a result she did not

seek her parents’ advice very often. perhaps because she saw them at their weakest

times.

73

The adults in the community where Collette lived supported the young people.
she thought. They provided parks and other activities for them. She also believed
these same adults had conﬁdence in youths by providing opportunities for them to
volunteer in community projects. She participated in therapeutic recreation. odds-
and-ends cleaning. and working on various fund-raisers on a voluntary basis.

Collette was just expected to be responsible; therefore. she set her own
boundaries most of the time. Her parents passed on strong values. and she knew
her mother generally worried about her. so she tried to let her know where she would
be and whom she was with. Collette did not have a speciﬁc curfew. but she just
knew what time to get in. especially if there was school the next day. She also
believed her neighbors would report to her mother anything they thought she was
doing that was in bad taste. She had conﬁdence in her choice of friends and
believed her best friend was very responsible. College did not take music lessons
or theater and did not attend church. but she was involved in organizations at school
and in the community.

Collette placed a high value on doing for others in order to help reduce
hunger and poverty. She stood up for what she believed and tried to tell the truth no
matter what. unless she thought it might hurt someone. She had no problem with
racial differences and believed she had empathy. sensitivity. and friendship skills.
This young woman was optimistic about her future.

Emily. Collette’s mother. was 51 years old and had been born in Amsterdam.

Holland. She had completed high school (with a B average) in America. but she had

74

not become too involved in extracurricular activities because of the language barrier
—only about a quarter of her daughter’s activity level. she said. She had spent 800
hours training in cosmetology and was sorry she had not completed that study. She
was Jewish but was sympathetic to other religions. saying. "i’m very interested in
any religion." Emily did not attend any church or synagogue. however. The
researcher noticed how well-groomed. cute. kind. warm. friendly. and outgoing she
was. She was a very positive and encouraging person. as well. Emily did not have
a job at the time of the interview but spent much time volunteering at a local hospital.
She had been a single parent almost seven years and had lived in her present home
for six years. She had received almost no support. either ﬁnancial or caregiving.
from her children’s father.

Emily’s mother (Collette's maternal grandmother) had had 12 years of
education in Europe. which Emily thought was higher than high school here. She
spoke four languages and was very brilliant. according to Emily. Emily’s father had
had 15 years of education and was an accountant who valued education greatly and
encouraged his Children to learn as much as possible.

Collette’s father. born in Detroit, Michigan. had completed a high school
education. had earned about a B average. and had participated in many sports while
in school. He took a few college classes but did not complete a course. He was a
truck driver. Coilette’s patemai grandparents had graduated from high school and

deﬁnitely placed a high value on education. These grandparents were the ﬁrst

75

couple of this generation. from the families interviewed thus far. who had ﬁnished

high school.

Ibeﬁraaniamilv

This kind. gentle. soft-spoken. tall. blue-eyed blonde had a sweet smile.
Karen was 17 years old and would be a high school senior in the fall. She described
herself as a hard worker who liked to Ieam and was interested in many things. She
believed her friends would characterize her as a good listener and trustworthy. To
support the fact that she was a hard worker. She was currently working two jobs.
The summer of the interview. she was working in the mail room in a bank and was
also working at a pharmacy. where she continued to work during the school year.
Even with all this activity. she maintained a 3.75 grade point average.

Karen was the middle Child in this Single-parent family; she had a 19-year-old
sister and a 15-year-old brother. Her parents had separated when Karen was 11
years old. which may have made the two sisters Closer. Her family meant a lotto
her. especially her mother and sister ("I can talk to her about everything"); she
claimed her brother was young and immature. Karen did not see her dad very often
(only about every two or three months) and said she did not like him much.
However. the researcher detected a bit of pride when she told of her father's earning
his high school diploma just a few years earlier. She was proud of her mother as
she was a hard worker and had passed that trait onto her daughter. Karen said she
would like to have a family some day but would like to raise her children in a two-

parent home. with the ability to stay home with them for a while. but she did think

76

she had a solid family background through her mother. whom she described as
follows: "She is caring. she gives up a lot for us. especially a lot of her free time.
She is always reading. everything. She cares a lot about us and worries about us.
and she is a good listener and she’s a good person." Karen said she would willingly
seek her mother’s advice or counsel. feeling a high level of support and love from
her.

"Childish" is how Karen described her father. She claimed that he was not
very good with a lot of things like kids. especially teenagerso-or adults. for that
matter. He was also very critical. according to Karen.

Karen said she received support from several nonfamily adults. as well as
from neighbors; however. she would not accept support from her father. She also
sensed usefulness as a young person in her community. Karen did have clear rules
and consequences at home. as well as at school. and always tried to communicate
to her mother where she planned to be. She also thought her neighbors would
report to her mom anything undesirable with which she might be involved. Karen
was encouraged by the high expectations she thought her mother and teachers had
for her.

in a typical week during the school year. Karen was involved in at least three
hours of band practice. as well as track and other organizations at school. She also
attended the Christian Reformed Church each week with her family. did no reading
for pleasure. and had very little homework. She placed a high value on helping other

peeple if she saw a need and stood up for what she believed most of the time. She

77
accepted and took personal responsibility for herself and did not get involved with
sex. angs. or alcohol. She tried to plan ahead and make good Choices for herself
and possessed empathy. sensitivity. and friendship skills. Karen felt comfortable
with people of different racial backgrounds and resisted negative peer pressure.
She believed her life had a purpose. although she had not ﬁgured it out yet; she was
optimistic about her future.

Mrs. Green. 50 years old. appeared relaxed and supportive. was kind. and.
unlike her daughter. had brown hair. Katy had worked several years in data entry.
but for the past seven years she had been an account consultant in ﬁnancial
services at a local bank. She loved to read almost anything and enjoyed
needlework. She had lived in the same seven-room home for 21 years and had
been a single parent for six years.

Katy’s father had a high school education and worked as a plasterer. Her
mother also had graduated from high school and was a stay-at-home mom. Her
parents emphasized being consistent and responsible for what was given her. They
encouraged education and realized its value; as a result. Katy had attended college
for one and one-half years. However. she had found a job that supplied what she
thought was a good income and consequently Chose to leave college. In addition
to her regular studies. Katy had participated in Choir. band. and 4-H while in high
school. Her grade point average was 2.7.

Karen’s father worked as a truck-body repairman. Because he had quit

school after eighth grade. he had not participated in any extracurricular activities in

78
high school. Katy said he had not been a very good student. However. he obviously
valued education as he had earned his high school diploma at about age 40. After
the separation, he met his child-support obligations. unlike many of the other fathers
in this study. Perhaps the fact that alcoholism or substance abuse was not a factor
here contributed to the fact that he was able to support his family ﬁnancially. it is
unknown what level of education Mr. Green’s father had completed as he had been
disabled for a number of years. However. his mother had graduated from high

school.

II C . E 1

Marvin. a 15-year-old African American male. was a very energetic. outgoing,
nice-looking young man with much Charisma. He was short and had an athletic
build. it was obvious to this researcher that this student had social skills well beyond
his years. He was often responsible forthe care of his ﬁve-year-old sister. Myra. and
still was able to maintain his busy schedule of playing football. basketball. and track.
as well as excelling academically. He had been chosen to participate in AAU. a
basketball team made up of the best in the area; they played other higher-level
teams from allover Michigan.

Marvin described himself as having a sense of humor. kind of low key. and
one who could be serious. He always wanted to do the best he was capable of
doing and thought he was fun to "hang around." He set fairly high goals for himself
and thought everyone should always want to do their best. never just mediocre. He

was taking drivers training and therefore had no job-just before beginning his

79
sophomore year in high school. Marvin’s little sister. Myra. would begin kindergarten
in the fail; he described her as not really shy but only appearing that way when she
was trying to be cute.

Marvin had compassion for his father. even though he was not a good role
model for his son. In fact. be rather covered for his father. saying he had made a
few bad decisions but that he was trying. Mr. Cusine had a general education
diploma (GED) and had taken a few college courses. He had been involved in
substance abuse and as a result had been in and out of prison. Currently. Marvin
saw his father almost every other week. although it had not always been that often.
Marvin saw his family as a supporter. someone who provided for him. and was very
proud of his mother. He had bonded with many of his teammates and considered
them his best friends. He thought they would describe him as fun to be around and
said some who did not know him as well might call him a Showoff.

Marvin felt solid family support. especially when his mother brought all of his
cousins to cheer him on in sports. "it’s like I had my own Cheering section." he said.
Sometimes his mother had to leave a game early. but she always supported him.
Marvin also considered his mother to be hardworking. stating, "We have our
conﬂicts. but i think it’s male-female differences." in describing his father. Marvin
said.

He works hard. but he kind of does things wrong. He has bad judgment.

lacks commitment. He grew up basically by himself because he didn’t get

along with his stepdad. so he works hard but [has] bad judgment. Like he’d

miss so much work. he’d get ﬁred. . . . He smokes marijuana and wastes a
lot of money on it. Dad wants me to be the person he wasn’t.

80

Marvin felt a great deal of love at home but said he pretty much made his own
decisions. He believed he had the support of his teachers. coaches. and his best
friend Mac’s parents. saying "that’s my second home." He was good friends with the
adults in his community and believed they valued youths. The rules and
consequences at home were very clear from his mother. and those at school were
as well. Sometimes his friends did not model responsible behavior. but Marvin did
not yield to their pressure if he thought it was not right. particulariy drinking and
smoking. Marvin said that. playing sports. he would probably collapse trying to run
up and down the ﬁeld if he gave in to those vices. and he did not think he ever
would.

Marvin’s family attended the Pentecostal Church regularly; his mother was
youth director there. He was always ready to help anyone Who needed something.
especially in the area of sports. He was able to make good Choices and to plan
ahead; he also possessed sensitivity and friendship skills. Marvin got along with
people of different races. saying that. if he did not. "i wouldn’t have any friends
around here." He said everyone has a purpose for their lives. but "you probably
don’t know it until you end up with it." He always wondered what he was going to
be and just kept looking ahead.

Doris Cusine was a 39-year-old factory worker. She was a nice-looking.
caring. very concerned parent with high expectations for her Children. She also was
an accomplished seamstress and coordinated weddings on the side. Her interests

included sewing. eating. and Church activities. She and her husband had been

81
separated just two years. but she considered that she had been a single parent for
the past six or seven years because of all of their problems.

Doris had attended Calvin College for four years. majoring in education. but
she was not a teacher. She had maintained nearly a 4.0 average in high school and
had been very active in extracurricular activities; she had been vice-president of her
Class and president of the Afro-American Club. excelled in art. played sports. wrote
poetry. and received an award on a workshop project. Her mother had completed
an eighth-grade education. but she was not sure how far her father had gone in
school because he had died when she was very young. Doris did receive
encouragement and support from her mother to continue her education because she
herself had not been able to ﬁnish high school.

Mr. Cusine had received the equivalent of a high school diploma and had
taken a few college courses. in which he was quite unsuccessful. having received
little support from his family. He had not been active in extracurricular activities and
had not been popular in school. He had given no ﬁnancial support to his family.
Doris perceived that lack of support from his mother. who was a teacher. contributed
much to his failures. He basically had been raised by his grandparents. who loved
him but just did not know how to raise him. They had a pastorate in northwestern
Michigan. Mr. Cusino’s father. Marvin’s patemai grandfather. died while he was

young; therefore. Doris was not sure of his educational level.

82
War

Jane Ferris was born two weeks after her mother and father separated and
had never met her father. In this researcher’s opinion. Mr. Ferris had missed a most
interesting and important part of his life. Jane was 17 years old and would be a
senior in high school in the fall; she had a grade point average of 3.7+. Jane was
a very attractive young woman. with blond hair and blue eyes; she had been elected
Homecoming Queen during herjunior year of high school. She lived with her mother
and two sisters. both older than she was. Helen. 26. was a veterinary technician;
Shiitey. 28. was a teacher who would be moving to another state soon for a teaching
position.

Jane described herself as outgoing. but but very studious. and one to think
about things before making a decision to embrace them. Her friends might say she
was energetic. always willing to stand up for what She believed in. one who took
control. a leader. She had just recently been promoted to manager after two years
of employment at a local fast-food restaurant. When asked about her family. Jane
replied.

My family has been there for me throughout everything. They are the reason

I am here today. Without them. I don’t know what I’d do; they taught me

pretty much everything I know. They taught me how to handle certain

situations. my morals. everything I have accomplished in life i owe to them.

"it was like having three mothers when i grew up." Jane said. due to the wide

age span between her and her two sisters. who were 10 and 12 years older than she

was. Jane was very proud of everything they had taught her. and she would like to

83
raise her own family with the same outlook on life. rules. and morals. When asked
to describe her mother. Jane replied.

Strong. she cares about me so. and sometimes I don’t realize how much she

does. She is always there for me and my sisters. She was like the most

wonderful person. she just never stops giving of anything of her time and
effort. and she’ll do anything. i play sports and she is always there.

Of her family life. Jane said there was a high level of love and support. She
could talk to her mother about anything; she said. "i don’t keep secrets from my
family." She also felt a great deal of support from other adults in her life. namely,
teachers. coaches. and parents of her friends. Jane believed young people were
respected and given responsibility in her community. especially in Churches. She
found time in her busy life to include volunteer work with Habitat for Humanity. as
well as kitchen work for another Charity. Her curfew was midnight. and if she was
one minute late. she was grounded. so she was careful to be punctual. Jane’s
mother also knew where she was at all times. She believed there were deﬁnite rules
and consequences in school as well. so. not wanting the repercussions. she was
careful to follow their regulations as well.

Jane and her family attended Church each week. but because of other
obligations. she had had to cut some of the extra activities there. She enjoyed
reading for pleasure when there was time. She also tutored other students to help
them out. Jane stood strong for her values and would not give in to peer pressure.
volunteering in grade school to encourage the younger children to do the same. She

had no problem with people of other races and thought she had good friendship

skills. Jane did not like violence and therefore sought to resolve any conﬂict through

34

communication. She believed her life had a deﬁnite purpose and was optimistic
about her future.

Marge Ferris. Jane’s 52-year-old mother. suffered from a physical disability
that prevented her from holding a job. The researcher saw her as a loving. devoted
mother who was very proud of her daughters. Mrs. Ferris was a graduate of a one-
year business school beyond high school. She was Catholic and attended Church
regularly. She related that Jane’s father had a master’s degree in special education
and had several hours toward his Ph.D. degree. She said she had been an average
student while in school and thought her daughters had inherited their high level of
academic achievement from their father. Because there had been no contact or
support received in the past several years. she knew nothing of what her ex-
husband was doing. There was a sense of belonging in their family. and they
believed they were a reliable and dependable family who established reasonable
goals for themselves. The Ferris family was one of the few families in this research
in which there had been no alcohol or substance abuse (usually in the father's life).
However. they had experienced abuse. unemployment. and disability. They had
made no traumatic moves and considered themselves to be in a lower income
bracket.

Mrs. Ferris said she was an avid sports fan (almost any kind) and. perhaps
because her daughters had been and still were actively involved in so many sports.

her interest had grown immensely. and she attended all activities in which her

85
children were involved. if at all possible. In high school. she had participated on the

swim team.

Jane’s maternal grandmother had been a registered nurse and her
grandfather a high school graduate. Her patemai grandparents were from Germany.
Mrs. Ferris was not sure of their educational level. However. she did know that both

sets of grandparents encouraged and supported education.

IbeBescEamilx

Very happy and optimistic. with a good outlook on life. is how this 17—year-old
soon-to-be college freshman described herself. Denise Rose was an outgoing.
sincere. attractive young woman with a very dark tan and dark brown hair. When
she was ten years old. her parents divorced. leaving just Denise. her eight-year-old
Sister. and her mother. They lived in that arrangement until two years ago. when the
mother remarried. Currently. Denise lived with her stepfather. mother. and younger
sister, with scheduled visits from her stepfather’s three Children—a 16-year-old boy
and girls 10 and 20 years old.

Denise had graduated from high school with a grade point average of 3.83.
one of the top ten in her class. She said this of her family:

My family means a lotto me. always somebody to back you up. Like if you

have troubles with your friends. you can always count on your family. Even

if you haven’t treated them very nicely. they’re still there for you. They are

someone to lean on. support.

Denise really loved her mother. saying she was a good role model. She agreed her

mother had done a good job raising her; however. she would prefer to raise a family

86
with a father ﬁgure involved. She was proud of her parents. especially her mother
and what she had done. She thought she had been very successful. At present.
she was not too proud of her father. calling him "Mr. Bachelor." who was living a life
like a teenager. using drugs and drinking. just a big party. He also had recently lost
his job.

Denise’s goal was to be on the dean’s list while completing college. Then she
hoped to go onto graduate school. have a family. lots of kids. have a comfortable
income and a good job in order to help other people with what she had.

Despite the divorce. Denise gave her parents credit for the direction she had
before the divorce. in that it kept her on track after the divorce. She always brought
church into the conversation when mentioning success or self-conﬁdence. Her
mother was faithful in taking her regularly to a Lutheran Church. where she learned
morals. beliefs. and values. A solid family background on her mother’s side also
may have contributed to Denise’s success.

Denise believed her mother never had had a chance to achieve what she
wanted to be when she was young because she fell in love and married before she
could complete career training in college. Now that she was remarried. she was so
happy and so proud and was seeking to better herself. taking Classes at a
community college. Denise described her mother as

a very loving person. and I can talk to her about anything in the world. She

puts up with a lot of stuff. i love her a lot. and i look up to her a lot. . . . i really

love my Dad. i do. but he left my mom for another woman when l was tan. a

week before Christmas. when l was in ﬁfth grade. i always looked up to him
before that. but he had an affair with that girl for a long time. Right now. that

87

girl has left him. and he is really partying. and I feel like he’s my age. How
can i look up to him?

Denise felt a high level of love and support from her family and willingly
sought her mother’s advice and counsel. She said that. after moving from her old
neighborhood. she did not know her neighbors as well and consequently felt she
was not close to them in order to receive any level of support from them. in her old
neighborhood. she had felt a lot of support. Her parents were not as actively
involved in helping her succeed in school as she would have liked. especially her
dad. She explained: "Mom was always making me study. do my homework. but i
kind of looked at her to kind of wait ’til the last minute to get involved. But she
always tried to attend all the things I was involved in. i like to depend on myself."

Denise’s mother did have high expectations of her as she thought Denise
should go further than she herself had. Denise was sure her father did also.
because "he wanted to feel like he had contributed to something good." Denise’s
mother did not set rules Clearly. but Denise knew when she had done wrong and
received punishment as deserved. being conscious never to repeat the wrong.
However. she thought her school did provide clear rules and consequences.

In a regular week. Denise spent time practicing music. was involved in sports
and religious activities. had lots of homework. and was again beginning to read for
pleasure. She was self-motivated to do well and cared a great deal about her
school. as well as helping others who had a need. in this area. she thought she
could help younger Children by going to elementary schools to encourage those who

had problems. telling them that it was possible to overcome difficulties. She stood

88
up for what she believed and withstood peer pressure. and she told the truth "99.9%

of the time." Denise planned ahead and made her own choices. believing there was
a deﬁnite plan for her life. With her high self-esteem. Denise was very Optimistic
about her future.

Denise’s mother. Connie Barber. age 40. was a young-looking blonde with
blue eyes; she appeared very ﬁt. While in high school. she had been active in band.
cheerleading. sports. and baton twirling; she had graduated in the top ten of her
class. Just out of high school. she had started nursing school but fell in love and quit
school to get married. Soon after marriage. she was able to get into a surgical
technologist program at a local hospital and had been working in that area for 20
years. Currently. the same program requires a college education. Connie enjoyed
her pets and was beginning to collect a few antiques. To better herself. she was
taking classes at a nearby community college. She attended a Lutheran Church
regularly. Until her marriage two years before. she had been a single parent for
about seven years. Her mother had a high school education. and her father
completed grade school. They did not encourage her to attend college as much as
her brothers as they felt men needed to be better educated than women did.
However. they did tell her they would help her if she wanted to go to college. except
they wanted to pick the ﬁeld of study. Connie believed parents should let their
children know that getting an education is important. but the parents cannot do it for

them.

89
Denise’s father had been about a 3.0 student in high school and had been

involved In football. He had a bachelor's degree in computer science but recently
had lost his job. Both of his parents completed high school educations. and his
father immediately went off to war. His mother. Denise’s patemai grandmother.
encouraged her son to get an education; however. his father had died when he was
young. Denise’s father supported his family ﬁnancially but had not spent quality time
with his children. His involvement with Denise’s school had been almost

nonexistent. but he had attended her graduation.

W301i]!

This 15-year-old with an athletic build. brown eyes. brown hair. a nice smile.
and lots of charisma was extremely creative. David Stone enjoyed his pet dog and
drawing. He described himself as outgoing. one who liked sports and giris. and a
hard worker who worked at a local fried chicken chain. He would be a junior in high
school in the fall. with a grade point average of about 3.5. His family. which included
his mother’s immediate family. had motivated and supported him a lot as positive
models. and he was very proud of them. He said. "That’s what keeps my grades
going; if i didn’t have them. I probably wouldn’t really care." When asked whether
he would raise his family as he had been raised. David replied. "Yeah. she [mom]
was strict. lfl could ﬁnd a different way. l’d try it. but l’d want my son to be raised up
like i was."

David was proud of his mother and looked to her as a good role model. The

only contact he had with his father. who lived in Pennsylvania. was an occasional

90
telephone call on his birthday or at Christmas time. He felt accepted by his peers
and credited his mother for building his self-conﬁdence by always being there.

David expected to become wealthy someday. with a good job that he enjoyed.
He had a solid family background of hard workers. starting with his mother. who held
two jobs. and his uncles (her brothers). who had been very successful running their
own businesses. David described his mother as a very hard-working person who
"puts everyone else in front of herself, gets everything also done before she spoils
herself. I think she needs to go out more often. and I think she appreciates the way
i look at that." David felt a great deal of love in his home and appreciated the
encouragement to make good grades and the positive communication between him
and his mother. However. he rarely asked her for advice unless he and his friends
were unable to come to a decision. He also was pleased with the relationship he
had with the principal of his school. which had developed Since David became
involved with Student Congress.

David was unable to describe his father. who had not been a part of this
youngster’s life since he was three years old. Mr. Stone had no visiting rights and
lived in another state. where he had become involved in drug abuse. He had.
however. achieved a 4.0 grade point average in high school. and had earned a four-
year college degree in business. His mother had been a school teacher. but it was
not known what education his father had received. Mr. Stone’s parents had

encouraged education for their family.

91

David said the adults in his community did not value young people enough
because they thought things had to be the same as when they were young. He
recently had spent 80 hours volunteering in the retirement home where his mother
was employed. saying the elderly patients enjoyed the spark he brought into their
lives. David was clear on the rules and consequences both at home and at school.
His mother always knew where he was. and his responsibilities at home were
numerous. especially because his mother was so busy with two jobs. Along with all
of his extracurricular activities at school. he attended Catholic Church at least every
other week. He rarely had a time out with his friends when he did not have
something to do as they would get a game of basketball or some other sport going.
Reading for pleasure was not in David’s schedule. and he did not have homework
every day. He enjoyed helping others. going out of his way to assist his fellow
employees. David always stood up for his convictions and never failed to tell the
truth. He had used his ability to plan ahead and his empathy. sensitivity. and
friendship skills to an advantage at work. He was positive about having a great
future and knew his life had a purpose.

Forty-year-old Ginger Stone. David’s mother. was Slender. ﬁt. blonde. blue-
eyed. and very busy. She had worked in real estate for the past 15 years and had
been a supervisor at a retirement home for the past two years. as well. She
attended Church weekly with the patients at the retirement home; she had been

raised in the Catholic faith. She had been a single parent approximately 12 years.

92
Her second marriage had ended shortly alter her move to that area from the eastern
side of the state. a move she considered quite traumatic.

Ginger had attended a private parochial school for 12 years and had
maintained a 4.0 grade point average. Her parents had expected her to attend
college as she had received a scholarship. However. she "left the scene." and by
the age of 19 had a high-paying job and was driving a Corvette. which made college
seem very unnecessary to her at that time. Nevertheless. later on she attended
college for almost three years. Both of her parents had doctorate degrees and
obviously valued education.

When asked why she thought her son was good both academically and
behaviorally. Ginger replied. "First of all. if he couldn’t do it. I would accept it. but
because he has the potential. it would be very unacceptable to me if he didn’t do it.

There is no reason why he shouldn’t do it."

MW

Dan Hobbs was a tall soon-to-be 14-year-old eighth grader with brown hair
and glasses. He had an athletic build and would be playing basketball the upcoming
year for his middle school. where he had approximately a 3.0 grade point average.
His friends might say he was weird. funny. and kind of intelligent. Dan said. and he
believed they modeled responsible behavior. He described himself as funny and
fun. He was the youngest of his mother's four Children and the only one still living
at home. His half-brothers. ages 30 and 27. were police ofﬁcers; both were married

and had Children. His half-sister, 28. also was a police ofﬁcer. Each of these three

93
older Children had college degrees in criminal justice from Michigan universities. and
they were great role models for Dan. He said they were very good to him and took
him a lot of places. He was proud to talk about his three nieces and two nephews.
as well.

Dan thought his family had done a good job raising him. He said he might
raise his family similarly. butjust a little bit differently. He did not have a regular job,
but a neighbor hired him to care for her yard.

Dan was very proud of his mother. who was a good role model. When asked
to describe his father. Dan said he could not do that because he had seen him only
about four times in his life. Mr. Hobbs had completed ninth grade. and it was
believed he had undiagnosed attention deﬁcit disorder (ADD). Possibly because of
that and the fact that he had had an abusive father. he had turned to drugs. His
father. Dan’s patemai grandfather, had dropped out of school but was able to
acquire a good job. so he had not felt the need to get his diploma.

Marsha. Dan’s mother. was "loyal. nice. hard working. and takes me
everywhere." Dan said. She attended all of his karate tournaments unless she had
to take pictures at a wedding. She was very supportive and expected her son to
succeed. Dan’s family life provided a high level of love and support. and he believed
they had positive communication. He was willing to ask his mother's advice. Other
than his family. Dan felt support from several adult neighbors. as well as from his
school. His community actively supported all the young people living there. and he

also enjoyed entertaining the younger Children in his neighborhood.

94

Rules and consequences were very clear at home. as well as at school. Dan
often left a message on the answering machine to let his mother know where he was
going. being careful to let her know where he was at all times. Dan did not attend
church with his mother. He felt self-motivated to do well in school. really caring
about the school and helping other people. This youth read for pleasure at least two
or three hours per week and said he always told the truth. He took personal
responsibility for himself. stood up for his beliefs. and acted on his convictions. He
liked to plan ahead and always tried to make good choices. Dan was comfortable
with those of different races and believed he had sensitivity and friendship skills. if
someone insisted on ﬁghting. he tried to take them down with his martial arts moves.
in a way that would not hurt them. He was proud of everything he did and was very
optimistic about his future.

Marsha Hobbs. Dan's mother. was the youngest of 11 Children. Her mother
had been a homemaker with a grade-school education. Her father. who also had
only a grade-school education. worked in a Cleaning business and previously had
been a truck driver. Marsha proudly said of her dad. "He was a very hard worker
and never retired. working until he died at the age of 73." Marsha herself had quit
school when she was a junior in high school. She went to work to support herself
and was married at a young age. Soon she found herself divorced. with three small
children to raise. and it was then she felt the need to work toward her high school
diploma if she was to impress upon her children the importance of an education.

"Because I was so shy. i did not take part in any extracurricular activities while in

95
school." Marsha said. She also confessed to being a mediocre student. knowing

new that she could have done much better. Her parents had not pushed education;
rather. they had emphasized getting a job.

Dan did not have as many chores at home as the older children had. probably
because he was the youngest. his mother said. She did not believe he was spelled.
as the older children intimated. "because he knows just how far he can go." Dan
was fortunate to have his mother’s ﬁrst husband take an interest in him. and he had
promised to help with college when the time came. Marsha believed that some
parents do not take an interest in their children. or they are working too much.
causing the youngsters to misbehave or even drop out of school. She explained that
it is the parents’ basic function to educate their Children. saying. "Ifyou don’t educate
them. how are they going to learn anything? The school picks up on a certain
amount. but education doesn’t start and end at school." Marsha expected her
children to be the best that they could be and to be in jobs they could enjoy.

The communication Dan’s mother had had with the school was best at the
elementary level. She thought this was because so many teachers are involved in ,
middle and high school. and teachers cannot know their students as wall. having
them only one hour a day as opposed to all day long.

Marsha attended all of the activities in which her son was involved and
claimed to have a high level of involvement in his school. She believed Dan was
happy in school but was very selective about whom he chose as friends. saying

some were girl friends. Some students had picked on him because of his karate

96
experience. trying to get him to prove himself; the Hobbses had had to press

charges to get them to stop harassing Dan. The students were made to pay
damages and to send Dan a letter of apology. Marsha had had another conﬂict in
trying to explain to the middle school personnel that someone had to help make sure
Dan took his medication for ADD. After problems arose because Dan had not taken
his medication. they agreed to assist. For the most part. Marsha believed the
teachers were very involved. very caring. Dan’s father had taken no interest in his

son. nor had he made any contact with the school concerning Dan.

IbeBenetEamilv

Russ Benet. 18. was a tall. blue-eyed young man with brown hair; he would
' be entering college in just a few days. His physique matched his interest in sports.
namely. wrestling and football. Russ’s ﬁrst love was wrestling. and he had a high
goal of perhaps becoming a world-champion wrestler by working on it one step at
a time. His white Cutlass Calais Oldsmobile. which sat outside during the interview.
appeared bright. shiny. and Clean. which matched the pride Russ had in his car.
This car was also used as leverage by his mother when she did not think Russ was
performing his best at whatever he was involved in doing. This seemed to have a
major effect on Russ’s behavior pattern because he did not want to lose the privilege
of driving that car.

Russ described himself as a hard-working outdoor person who enjoyed

ﬁshing and hunting. going to movies. orjust hanging out with friends. He thought his

97

friends would consider him outgoing and "pretty cool." even though they had some
squabbles from time to time.

When asked what his family meant to him. Russ quickly replied. "They are my
life; if i didn’t have them lwouldn’t have anybody. really. because my grandparents
live a long way off and an aunt and uncle does too. All my other relatives are out of
state." Russ was quick to give his mother credit for the way she had raised his sister
and him. saying she was always fair and not like other parents who favored one child
over the other.

Russ described his mother as one who worked hard trying to raise two
Children. always being good to them. never cutting them down or hitting them (with
the exception of when they were younger and needed a whipping). Sometimes.
when he observed others not being respectful to women or other adults. he get
upset with them and therefore was thankful his mother had raised him as she had.
Sometimes it was hard with only one income to get by on. but they managed.

Russ felt conﬁdence in his mother and could ask her anything. If she did not
believe she could answer his questions. she would ﬁnd someone who could. It was
obvious that Russ had a high level of love and support in his family at home, and he
agreed that he had the same support from an aunt and his grandmother. His school
also provided a caring and encouraging environment; Russ said that the principal
was always watching out and making sure everything was all right. Russ also
thought that this community valued young people and that there were many

volunteer activities in which young peeple could get involved. He enjoyed helping

98
out at football games by spotting or doing whatever was needed. The rules and

consequences were Clear to Russ. both at home and at school. but he did not think
neighbors would report undesirable behavior to his mother.

Reading had become a pastime for Russ. and currently he was reading about
the life of Colin Powell. He always told the truth and would stand up for his
convictions. although he noted that his best friend did not always model responsible
behavior. Russ thought his life had a deﬁnite purpose in helping people by being a
ﬁreman. He did not believe his self-esteem was very high yet. but he said that it was
improving.

Sue. Russ’s mother, was 44 years old and slightly above average in height
and weight. Her hair was straight and hung midway down her back. Sue’s hobbies
included reading. working with computers. doing things with her children. and
sometimes sewing. knitting. or crocheting. Currently. she was a teller at a credit
union; her ofﬁcial job title was ﬁnancial service representative. Previously. she had
worked in a factory. in a fast-food restaurant. as a truck driver. and had attempted
to start her own business as a seamstress. She had no particular religious
preference. stating she believed in reincarnation and the New Age movement. The
family had lived in their present home for ten years. Sue had been a single parent
for 17 years. except for a second marriage that lasted less than a year and included
many traumatic moves. Her children’s father had given her almost no ﬁnancial

support over the years. nor had he helped with child care.

99

Sue’s mother (Russ’s maternal grandmother) had been able to earn her high
school diploma after her daughter did; she then attended junior college for a short
time. Sue did not know her natural father. Her stepfather. who had helped Sue’s
mother raise her. had graduated from high school with honors and been offered
scholarships to college. but instead he had chosen to go into the armed services.
The children’s father had received a GED at Sue’s urging. Later. he had taken
mechanic training and auto-body classes. He had been employed as a security
guard. taxi driver. and mechanic. and had attempted a business with race-car
memorabilia. Sue had taken a year of schooling to be a dental assistant. but she
had been unable to get a job. so she had gone back to college for two years of
computer training. Her parents had encouraged education. believing it was very
important; they had placed a lot of emphasis on homework. in high school. Sue had
been unable to take part in extracurricular activities because she was the oldest of
ﬁve Children and her mother needed her assistance; also. because they lived so far
out in the country. transportation was a problem. Their father was not involved
either. Sue had a learning disability that was not recognized back then; as a result.
she had a 1.9 grade point average.

Sue had numerous responsibilities for her Children at home. but sometimes
she "had to really get on them." Their duties included doing dishes. taking out the
trash. and often helping with house Cleaning.

Because Sue had always encouraged and supported her Children
academically and in everything they attempted. she believed they had very few

behavior problems and were able to succeed scholasticaily. At one time. Russ had

100
been involved in a Native American project for school. so she took him to an lndian
pow-wow. taped what they were permitted to tape. and actually interviewed an
lndian. She commented to this researcher that single parenting is not as easy as
many people think it is. but that single parents can raise good children. contrary to

what many people believe.

I l . [II E' I'
The ages of the students included in this research ranged from 13 to 19

years; these students ranged from eighth grade (middle school) through the
freshman year of college. Of the 40 grandparents. the educational backgrounds of
12 were unknown. 3 had dropped out of high school before graduation. 7 had
completed eighth grade. 12 had completed high school. and 6 had graduated from
college; of those 6. 2 had earned a Ph.D. degree. Several of the grandparents had
not furthered their education because there was a need for more income or for more
help with the families at home. Although many had been unable to achieve higher
education. they had strongly valued education and supported their families in their
pursuit of education.

Of the 20 parents. one had dropped out of high school before graduating.
three had graduated from high school. ten had started college or career training but
had not ﬁnished. one had completed junior college. and ﬁve had graduated from
college. one with a master’s degree (see Table 2). Of the ten custodial parents. nine
had attempted college; of that number. three had graduated. two with bachelor’s
degrees and one with an associate’s degree. The remaining custodial parent had

graduated from high school. Table 1 indicated the parents’ level of education and

101

Table 2: Educational backgrounds of successful students’ parents and grand-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

parents.

Family Gzz‘zgtﬂer 62:21:71.3 6:32-3:13 Gratlemﬂdrllier Father Mother
Burton G G H H D D
Cruise U G X X D C
Baker H C H H D D
Green U H H H H D
Cusine U U C G D C
Ferris U H U C M D
Rose U G U H C D
Stone U P C P C D
Hobbs X G U G X H
Benet U H U H H J+ :

Key:

X = Dropped out of high school before graduating
G = Completed eighth grade

H = Graduated from high school

D = Started college/career training but did not ﬁnish
J = Graduated from junior college

C = Graduated from college

M = Master's degree plus hours toward Ph.D.

P = Ph.D. degree

U = Unknown

 

102
their current employment. Each of those parents placed a high value on education.
and each of the students who was interviewed expressed a strong desire to obtain
a college degree. These students valued education as a means of obtaining a good
job and thus the avenue for a prosperous life. which also supported their drive for a
high grade point average in order to obtain their educational objectives. A strong

characteristic of all of these students was their conformity to school and home rules.

E Ii Si'll E 'IE i IE 'IIII
The purpose of this section is to bring to light the parenting skills that were

considered a key to these families. the family experiences (vacations. shorter times
spent together) each had had together. and the family-school relationship in order
to determine which characteristics were common to all of the families and the
resulting success of the students. The values each family instilled could also be very
important to success. and those values also are included here for purposes of

comparison.

Ichunonfamilx

Sandra. Amelia’s mother. regarded her listening skills to be one of the best
assets she used for successful parenting. She said she had not given speciﬁc
responsibilities to her children because she was quite a perfectionist and did not
think they did a job well enough to please her. She was trying to overcome that and
had done better lately.

The Burton family’s vacation times often were spent with Sandra’s sister. her

husband. and their Child; they also spent time around the sister's pool on shorter

103
family excursions. Although she used to enjoy sewing and counted cross-stitching.
Sandra stated that her children were now her hobbies. She tried to support them in
any activity in which they participated. if her job allowed. Sandra stated.

Now that they’re older. we go shopping and they enjoy that. Now that they’re

older. too. they want a one-on-one with me. so we go out to dinner or

something of their choosing about once a month. Each child has very
different needs. so it’s real important to be with each one alone as often as

i can.

The family had attended Church regularly until the past few months. Now.
however. Sandra did not feel she was getting anything out of it. although she said
she knew that was not a very good reason for not attending.

Sandra had tried to teach her Children the value of being honest. abstaining

from premarital sex. having high self-esteem. and being able to care for themselves.

She based her expectations for each Child on that child’s unique abilities.

Wallis!

When asked what she thought was the key to being a good or successful
parent. Martha. Jerry’s mother. replied, "Sacriﬁce; their needs need to be ﬁrst before
my needs. especially in education. Many times I put their needs before my
pleasurable needs; the role of a parent is to sacriﬁce." Martha said that when the
family went on vacation they tried to include some form of education along with
pleasure. Their most recent trip included the zoo in Toronto. Ontario. Shopping was
a big pleasure for the females in the family during that trip. but Jerry did not enjoy
that too much. The family also had been able to visit Walt Disney World in Florida.

Martha said she needed to work on the list of responsibilities around the

house for her Children. Currently, their duties included doing dishes. taking out the

104
trash. helping with laundry. and vacuuming. Sometimes they cleaned their rooms.
Martha’s expectations for Jerry’s grades were very high because he had scored so
well on various "achievement" tests. His score on the SAT was "off the board." "l’d
better see all A’s, not because I'm controlling or overpowering. but because of his
high ability and the fact that he doesn’t have homework." Jerry’s mother said. She
thought that other youngsters misbehaved and perhaps even dropped out of school
because of their parents’ low expectations and the lack of follow-up and concern.
The Cruises’ family times together included going to movies. but as Jerry got
older. his interests varied so much from his mother that it had become increasingly
more difficult to ﬁnd entertainment to suit all of them. Attending her Baptist church
as a family was a very important part of their week. The values Martha tried to teach
her Children included:
. . . Be very caring of other people and other people’s needs. 1 have a family
rule in our house that we do not put down and call names. and i expect that
it carries through. We have religious values. we believe in God. Money is not
necessarily the means to the end. I think that it was a good thing that
happened out of the divorce. that we had to tighten up. We learned that we
needed to work for what we had. Before [the divorce]. these kids had

anything and everything they wanted. They were getting spoiled. and now
they know that things don’t necessarily get handed out to you.

IbeBakeLEamiiy

The key to being a good and successful mother. Emily believed. is "always
being there and telling them that no matter what they do you will back them and that

you’ll give them that love and support." She believed that if Children misbehave or

105
even drop out of school. they most likely were neglected. and that caring and sharing

between parent and children were not part of their lives.

The Baker boys lived part of the time with their father. so they were Close to
him; Collette maintained contact with him by telephone. which both of them enjoyed
and desired. Collette and her mother did not travel much for vacation times. but
instead Emily tried to make any time they had together quality time. She would nib
Collette’s back when she came home tired; in turn. Collette often read to her mother
and shared everything with her. Emily was an excellent cook. which made holiday
times special. When the television was on. they often watched documentaries.
which they still enjoyed. Sometimes the television was thrown out for a week or so.
and more time would be spent reading.

Emily had aspired to teach her children to be good people and "to make each
day the test. l’ve made mistakes. but my kids have learned to give me the
unconditional love."

Responsibilities of the Children in the home were speciﬁed. However. they
were not always followed because no father ﬁgure was present. and the mother had
down times trying to cope with the separation. Emily gave total credit to her
daughter for her success. both academically and behaviorally. She stated. "That’s
just the way she is. She knows what she wants; she goes for it. She enjoys
ieaming." Emily ﬁrmly believed that education has to start in the home. When
Collette had not wanted to go to a new school. her mother cheered her on. and she

learned to love it.

106

IbaﬁneenEamilx
"Love them where they're at. whether they are academically good or

academically a little inferior. Just love them where they're at. and i think that gives
them the most success." Katy replied when asked the key to good parenting. She
also said that. because of her children’s ages. they did not do much together
because everyone was so busy and had such varying interests. Shopping and
Sunday dinner after attending the Christian Reformed church each week were their
steady leisure—time activities. The children did not spend quality time with their
father. Katy agreed that it would be better for them if she did require her children to
do more Chores at home.

When asked why her daughter Karen had done so well academically as well
as behaviorally. Katy replied. "Academically she was given the gift of intelligence.
I would like to think that she is a success because we have worked with it and
encouraged her to do good work." She also believed that when youngsters
misbehave or even drop out of school. "they are possibly looking for attention or
don’t have the skills to do the work or are not encouraged to do it."

Katy tried to teach her children to do their very best with the abilities they had
been given—for their own sakes. as well as for their country. and "of course. there’s
a religious angle on that also." She felt a responsibility to educate her Children to the

best of her ability.

107

Wily
Doris Cusine put a high priority on prayer. believing it is the main key to

successful parenting. Being a good role model and giving support also were very
important to her.

Doris sawthat each of her children had responsibilities and chores around the
house. She thought Marvin was a good student because of his natural ability and
his high self-esteem. which she supported. She had high expectations for him.
knowing his ability and because of having to deal with his father. She told him. "I’m
not raising a son. I’m raising a father. a husband. and a good human being. so l’m
hard on him. probably too hard." The values she tried to instill in her children were
to be good people. be dependable. make good plans. be honest. and really love their
brothers and sisters. She thought it was very important for parents to be involved
in their children’s education. and she believed she had been highly involved.

The Cusine family attended the Pentecostal Church together each week and
participated in other Church activities as well. They also attended Marvin’s games
to cheer him on. and they went to movies together. The Children’s father was
beginning to spend quality time with them. which Doris encouraged because she
wanted them to know their father. She trusted him not to do drugs while he was with

his children.

IbeEemsEamilv
Time. love. and patience are the three keys to good parenting. according to

Marge Ferris. Marge said that she and her older daughters were able to enjoy some

108

activities together. such as shepping. movies. and going out to dinner. but Jane often
was too busy to join them. Marge said there was much love in their home. and each
member supported and encouraged the others in all they did to reach their potential.
She believed that each Child should have responsibilities around the house.
Discipline was moderate and consistent. and educational goals were very important
to them. Marge declared that it is important for parents to take an active part in
educating their children. saying.

i would like to see them all go through college. but if they do the best that

they can do. that is ﬁne with me. and if they excel. that’s just gravy over the

potatoes. It’s really great. but ljust want them to be happy and to do the best
they can in whatever they choose.

Jane’s behavior had never been a problem because "she has seen what
happens to those kids that are not socially responsible. and that’s not what she
wants for her life." according to Marge. She expressed that peer pressure and the
fact that some parents just do not care are the reasons why some children

misbehave and get into trouble. The main values Marge had tried to teach her

daughters were to respect other people and to be honest and loving.

IbaBesaEamily

Denise Rose’s mother. Connie. gave religion the number-one priority in her
list of keys to good parenting. With that foundation. she thought she must also roll
with the punches. be ready for change. be ﬂexible. and be open to conversation
whenever her daughters wished to talk (even in the middle of the night). When she

ﬁrst divorced. she had tried too hard to be a friend to her daughters. and as a result

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109

thought she lost a certain amount of control. Therefore. she believed there is more
to parenting than just being their buddy. After getting counseling for herself and her
Children (which they did not want). she had been able to regain some of the control.

For family times. the Roses would go shopping. go out for birthdays. and go
on vacation as often as possible. even though it was hard; they also spent a lot of
time with Connie’s family. who were very supportive during that time. When the
children were younger. Connie said. they were able to be more structured with
deﬁnite chores and responsibilities around the house. but with the girls’ schedules
becoming so ﬁlled. the responsibilities had to change according to their spare time.

Connie gave a great deal of credit to Denise’s self-motivation as being the
main factor in her success. She thought Denise had to work harder for what she
achieved than her younger Sister did. and therefore accomplished a bit more. not
becoming so easily discouraged. Connie believed it is a family thing that Causes
misbehavior and school dropouts. She had always tried to instill in her girls the
importance of education. and even though they had gone through some tough years.
the direction had already been set.

The values that were important to Connie and that she was teaching her girls
were to have good morals. always keep close to their Church. and be a kind and
caring person. She expressed that Denise was sensitive to the point of getting her

heart broken trying to help others when she saw a need.

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110
Ibejtonsjamily

Ginger summed up the key to being a good parent in just one word: Love.
David never saw his father. because his mother had been given total custody. She
kept him pretty busy with several responsibilities around the house when he was not
involved in school activities or work. They also enjoyed shopping. eating out. and
going to movies together. and Ginger tried to plan a family vacation as often as
possible.

David had learned the value of hard work from his mother. who currently was
working as a supervisor at a retirement home as well as dealing in real estate. She
believed. "There is no such thing as a free lunch." She did not take money from
anything or anyone. not David’s father. her family. or the system. Ginger also
believed that education absolutely must begin in the home.

David mentioned another of her parenting skills-that of always being there

for him. He was thankful for her positive support and role model.

Iberlebbsjamilx
Marsha’s key to being a successful parent was to be involved with the
children and to get them involved. She said.

My kids had to spend an hour on homework [each day]. and they had to be
involved in one school sport. and back then they were involved in Young
Marines. where they went to six weeks of boot camp. being responsible for
their own uniforms-pressing them. starching them. polishing boots. They
worked as a unit. and if one person goofed up. the whole unit paid for it. so
they learned to work together as a team.

 

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1 11
The preceding statement support’s Marsha’s belief that involvement is a big key to
being a good parent. She exclaimed.
Kids need to expect discipline so that the fear is there whether or not
discipline is carried out. it will make them more conscious of doing something
wrong because of fear of punishment. Dan has to earn what he gets; It’s not
just given to him. He takes care of things better if he earned it.
Dan and his mother took several weekend trips together as he was involved in 40
karate tournaments a year in Michigan. Leisure time was spent visiting friends in
northern Michigan.

Dan’s mother always impressed the value of work ethics on him; she agreed

she should take more time to attend Church with him. Her faith was Catholicism.

Ibe_B.onet_Eamilv

Russ Bonet’s mother. Sue. thought the key to good parenting was:
. . . a lot of love and a lot of understanding and communication. Without
communication you don’t have any kind of relationship with anybody. i may
not always agree with what the kids have to say. or they might not agree with
what I have to say. but we listen to each other. i may still have to dominate
and rule in the end. but later I might go back and think about it and go to them
and say. "I thought about what you said. and you were right. but you must
understand my point of view." and then we would compromise.

Sue said that the family used to do more together than they did now because.
with everyone’s work schedule. it was almost impossible to ﬁnd each one free to go.
During the summer. they spent a lot of time swimming. They did not always have
much money. so they had to be creative and do things like that. which did not cost
a lot The preceding week. Russ had taken his mother to a movie. which they

enjoyed together.

 

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112

The values Sue tried to teach her children were to give everybody a fair
chance. that family is important. always to respect their elders and all people in

general. and to treat all women like ladies.

I l . I ll Ei I.

The number-one attribute of a good parent was unconditional love and
support. Also frequently mentioned was good communication. prayer. and religious
commitment. Other key attributes mentioned were spending quality time with the
children. being ﬂexible and involved. personal sacriﬁce. patience. and
understanding.

These families placed a high priority on spending quality time together when
it was at all possible. It had. however. become increasingly difﬁcult to ﬁnd time as
the students had become so involved in school activities. as well as holding jobs.
The most commonly shared leisure activities of the families included shopping,
attending movies. going out to dinner, vacationing. and attending church.

Values the parents tried to instill in their children that were mentioned most
often were the importance of education, honesty. a good work ethic. religious values.
doing their very best. love and respect for others. dependability and kindness. and

the recognition that family is important.

IIS IISIII’SII III E .
in the preceding section. the successful students’ family leisure-time

experiences. family values. and the parents’ philosophies regarding the keys to

 

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113

effective parenting skills were reviewed. Attention was given to these family views
and interactions and the signiﬁcance they had for the successful students within the
dynamics of the family as a social unit. it was argued that the successful student’s
family is characterized by family members spending quality time together. positive
communication. religious practice. sacriﬁce. honesty. responsibility. unconditional
love. self-conﬁdence. self-esteem. dependability. and a sense of connectedness.
in this section. the research ﬁndings regarding the successful students’ school
experiences are reviewed. The emphasis changes to the successful student as a
representative of his or her family. The researcher anticipated that the successful
students’ positive relationships and experiences with the school would correlate with
the students’ families for several generations. The researcher expected to ﬁnd the
pattern of behavior that the student displayed at home to be congruent with the
behavior that the student practiced at school. Therefore. student behavior would
parallel the expectations of school personnel. Students would establish positive
relationships with school personnel because that was the expectation and value
learned within their home settings. The researcher expected to ﬁnd a signiﬁcant
relationship between students’ success in school and their family experiences.
Within the school settings. there are two major aspects of student relationship
and performance. The ﬁrst aspect includes Class performance. relationship with
school personnel, academic expectations. adherence to rules and regulations. and
general attitude in Class. The second aspect is related to peer relationships and

informal settings with school personnel. in the following paragraphs. the successful

 

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114
students’ school experiences are reviewed on an individual basis. followed by a

summary of the ﬁndings for all the students included in the study.

AmaIIaBIIIten

Amelia had lived in the same house all of her 16 years and. as a result. had
attended the same school system all of her life. beginning with preschool. Her high
school grade point average for the past three years was 3.326. Although her school
did not offer a Special program for the gifted and talented. Amelia had taken upper-
level curriculum including Mathematics 4 and Senior Composition. She had received
awards for her participation in basketball and Ferns and had been nominated for the
National Honor Society. Other extracurricular activities included Choir. play
productions. and. for a short time. band. Amelia had regular attendance in school
and had a positive view of education, which she believed was necessary to get a
good job. When asked about self-esteem. she replied. "Yes. i’m a self-conﬁdent
person in other people’s eyes. I guess. but probably l’m not really. I want to do
things and I think i can. and usually l end up doing it. so i guess that I am."

Amelia thought she had a fairly good relationship with her teachers and other
school personnel. She stated that sometimes it was easier to talk to some of the
teachers than the counselor. possibly because she did well in their Classes so they
gave her some special attention. Amelia had not set her goals too high. so as not
to be unrealistic and unable to reach them; therefore. she would not be hurt.
Although she did not consider herself a leader in school. she had a good relationship

with her peers. and they respected her for not doing the drug scene and for the fact

 

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115

that her boyfriend was another race. On the other hand. Amelia said she was a
leader at home and at work. anywhere outside of school. She considered herself a
very truthful person and could tell her mother anything. not hesitating to admit if she
had made a mistake.

Amelia had a job at McDonald’s and drove her own car to school and work.
A typical day for her was as follows: Get up at 6:30 am, drive to school. hang out
with friends in the hall until classes begin. go to practice after school if required that
day. drive home and go to work. come home again and do homework (which she
stated was very rare), and then go to bed.

When asked whether she had Clear rules and consequences at home. Amelia
replied that they were clear. but that her mom was willing to compromise if the
situation warranted it. And "Yes. i always tell my mom where i am going." When
there were conﬂicts in her life. Amelia believed in resolving them nonviolently. talking
things out. She enjoyed helping other people ifthere was a need. if she thought they
had tried to help themselves. She also did some reading for pleasure when time

permitted.

Wee

Jerry did not have a job yet. so his day was fairly routine—go to school. attend
classes. eat lunch. more Classes. come home. watch television ("Tasmania' on Fox).
or possibly have one or two friends over to play cards (Star Wars or Star Trek). He
had been active in the gifted and talented program. student council. Students

Against Drunk Driving (SADD). and the varsity debate team at his school. Jerry had

 

 

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116

about four close friends and a few others he "kind of" knew. He thought others
hated him. possibly due to his high grade point average. Like his friends. Jerry had
a great love for science ﬁction. He described his friends as a mixture of successful
and not-so-successfui students.

Jerry had set a high goal of becoming a Supreme Court justice in order to
"oust the military dictators in this country." He had his eye on an Ivy League college.
maybe Georgetown. Jerry’s role model was his Uncle Doug (his father's brother).
who lived in Florida. Jerry believed he might be able to live with him while attending
college. in order to save room and board.

Some teachers at Jerry’s school had treated him differently. he thought.
because he was capable of doing above-average work. They had asked him to help
teach or grade papers. However. he did not like his school because "most of the
classes are useless or irrelevant." He had had a few disagreements with the
teachers in school. and although he agreed it was very hard for anyone to change
his mind. he thought his relationship with the school personnel was good. overall.
He quickly described himself as a leader rather than a follower and regularly
attended school with a high view of education. Good grades came easily for Jerry.

and he had very little homework. However. he did not feel accepted by his peers.

QQIIeIIcBalser
College did not attend preschool. In high school. she had earned a 3.7+
grade point average and ended up ranking third in her class: her best friend had won

the salutatorian honor by just one-quarter of a point. A typical school day might

 

 

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117

include arriving there about 6:30 am. to hang out with her teachers whom she loved.
Sometimes she did homework. read. or just talked. Collette then attended classes.
seeing many of the same peeple over and over again because itwas a small school.
After lunch she had more classes. and after school she attended meetings (SADD
or Yl) or had tennis practice. depending on the season. or maybe she went to work.
After coming home. she talked on the telephone with her friends. did homework.
watched television. and then went to bed. Collette worked very hard her senior year
of high school and received many awards. Elks National Foundation Award. US
Marine Corps Outstanding Athlete Award. US. Reserve Outstanding Award.
Volunteer Service Award. and high school honors awards are just some of the
recognitions Collette received. She continued in that manner in college. having just
received the Most Promising Freshman award.

Before beginning college. Collette declared a political science major. But
after her ﬁrst year. Collette was trying to decide what she could do with what she
liked and. as a result. had sort of an undeclared major. "Being a success is a
person’s Choice." according to Collette. who stated that success cannot be forced
on someone. She thought that someone might be able to help. but it has to be an
effort on each individual’s part.

Collette loved her teachers and said that some of the scariest ones were the
best teachers she ever had. She believed her teachers would take an extra moment
to help if one had a problem; whether it was an academic difﬁculty or a problem at

home. they would always listen. Collette was a very self-conﬁdent person. although

1 18
she sometimes did have her doubts. She had had very little student-teacher conﬂict.

but when it did occur. they were able to talk It out. She had received the Teacher’s
Pet award during her senior year. awarded by her peers. She just laughed as
everybody received something like that. She did believe. though. that she had a
very good relationship with the teachers and staff. crediting the fact that she came
from a small school.

Sometimes Collette set her goals so high that she became frustrated. She
did not consider her social life too exciting. even though she had a dose-knit group
of friends. as they did not go out and party or smoke or get into trouble. She
considered herself a leader and did not want to compromise her values.

During high school, Collette was always on the honor roll. took part in
extracurricular activities. was a member of the Quiz Bowl team. took college-
preparation Classes. served on the student council three years. participated in tennis
and softball. and was a member of the National Honor Society. She missed very few
days of school.

To Collette. success meant setting a goal and working to reach it. it did not
necessarily mean you had to reach that goal. just that you had done your best to
reach it. She had set high goals for her life and would work hard to achieve them.
After completing college. she would decide whether to go directly into a career or to
seek more education. but she did believe her life had a deﬁnite purpose. Collette
had felt much support from her family; her mother would tell her she needed to keep

going. and her dad told her she could do anything she decided to do. She knew her

119

mom always backed her. but because her mom had not had the beneﬁt of higher
education. Collette could not go to her for help with homework or advice on a project.
"She does possess a lot of common sense. and she is an excellent cook." said a
proud Collette. "I know my family loves me." She also felt a strong acceptance from
her peers. Collette said that. as she looked back. she could think of high school with
fondness. She thought It had been a positive experience. but she felt she was ready

to move 00.

Karenﬁteen

Karen had attended preschool. then a Christian grade school. and ﬁnally a
public high school. where she participated in extracurricular activities such as band.
art. and track. She had many friends. whom she had chosen because they were
nice people. and she got along well with them. They shared many of the same
interests with Karen as they were in the same Classes. were Christians. liked to run.
or enjoyed band together. Karen said her best friend modeled responsible behavior.

Karen’s typical day at school included arriving just a few minutes early so she
could hang out with her friends before Classes started. as she did not take time
between Classes. She went home after school or the extracurricular activities of the
season and drove to work in her own car. She planned to attend a community
college after graduating from high school. and then perhaps on to Grand Valley
State University. Karen had not yet made a decision regarding her ﬁeld of study.
She thought it was her decision to be successful. saying. "I guess it’s whatever i do

with it." She consistently had been on the honor roll and had received awards in

120
Spanish. English. band. and track. She enjoyed school and liked most of her
teachers. believing she could talk with most of them. A few teachers seemed to
favor her because she caught on quickly.

Some of Karen’s friends teased her in fun because of her ability to be a top
student. but she just laughed it off. Most of the time. she felt self-conﬁdent and
thought school had been a positive experience. Karen thought that she was a leader
some of the time when she was in a class that was easy for her. but not so if it was
more difﬁcult. The other students in this study often made the same comment.
Karen was not a discipline problem. saying. "l’m scared to be because if I get into
trouble [at school] i would lose privileges [at home] too. I don’t like it when other kids
mess around and take up time and I can’t be ieaming."

Karen was a member of the National Honor Society and participated in a
gifted and talented program in mathematics; she had had regular school attendance.
Karen had felt support from her mother. being lifted when she was down. through
her positive support and encouragement. She believed it is necessary to go to
college in order to get a good job and therefore be able to live comfortably. without

worrying about mortgages or loans. Karen felt successful and accepted by her

peers.

Maminﬁusine

Marvin had not had the opportunity to attend preschool. In high school. a
typical school day for Marvin started at 6:30 am. when. after getting ready. he rode
his bike. walked. or got a ride to school from a neighbor. if he arrived in time. he

would "grab some breakfast" and possibly go to the art room, one of his passions.

121
After attending morning classes. he had lunch and might play basketball or go to the
art room again. In fact. he said. "My art teacher says l’m going to go to college and
Ieam art [and] then come back and be her trainee. And when she retires. I’m going
to take over." After his afternoon classes. Marvin had practice for the sport of the
season. He took his little sister to his weight training because his mother worked
third shift at a factory.

Being only 15. Marvin had not yet made a deﬁnite decision about a career but
said he deﬁnitely was going to college. "If I want to be a lawyer. i want to go to the
University of Michigan." he said. Marvin had considered being an architect. but that
entailed a different type of drawing. He had enrolled in a short course in animated
drawing while visiting Disney World and really enjoyed that type of art.

When asked whose choice it is to be successful. Marvin replied. "I wanted to
be successful. if I do good in school. then I can play sports. 1 want to do well. I
don’t want to do smokes. Mom gives me extra motivation." Marvin had received
many awards in school. for academics as well as sports. He had been voted the
Most Valuable Player in football as well as basketball. had broken records in track.
and had received English and Presidential Fitness awards and others he could not
recall. When asked about a role model. Marvin replied.

My mom-I’m taking a totally different path than she would be taking. you

know. i love my dad. but i wouldn’t want to be like him or follow the path that

he took. He had the type of life that you could write about and have a best-
selling novel. 80 I don’t really know.

Marvin said. "All my teachers are cool. I never had any hate relationships."

He had had trouble with one teacher. but after his mother investigated the problem.

122

she decided it was a personality clash and that Marvin had to adjust his attitude.
She went to school to talk to the teacher and gave him credit for not letting the
conﬂict affect Marvin’s grade. She said that if Marvin was having a problem in the
class. he would Sit there and draw pictures. which attracted the attention of other
students. He seemed to be able to retain what was being taught. so the teachers
did not object. but his mother did not like him not paying attention. so she asked the
teachers’ help. Even with that Clash. Marvin said. "I don’t think he didn’t care; i just
think that we just didn’t connect." He once had had a problem with the basketball
coach. and after talking it out. Marvin said "he’s like a big brother to me now." He
had also received the Student of the Month award. which also attests to the fact that
he had a good relationship with the school personnel.

Marvin contended that he was a very self-conﬁdent person. saying. "i don’t
want to rely on anybody else because you don’t know ifthey will always be there."
He was teased for being good in sports. so he reasoned that if he did not call
attention to something he thought was outstanding. it would die out. He said ifthey
saw it happen. all right. but if they did not. then. "Oh. well!" The only discipline
problem he admitted was talking too much. In grade school. the older students had
often picked on Marvin. but he had just "toughed it out." He never got into any ﬁst
ﬁghts and tried to stay away from those kinds of youths. stating. "If you hit them
back. you will not solve anything. It will just cause a ﬁght at another time."

That Marvin was a natural leader was evidenced by the fact that he had been

captain of both his football and basketball teams. He admitted that he liked to help

123
people out. and although not every day at school was exciting (like exam time). it
was pretty good. He had always been on the honor roll and had received gold
medals for reading 100 books. the most ever. for the March of Dimes.

Marvin was not old enough for National Honor Society. but he had a positive
view of education and had regular attendance at school. To Marvin. success meant
the following:

There’s a different level of success for everybody. . . . I might be successful

in one thing. and he might be successful in something else. You are

successful if it’s the best that you can do. You can’t really put a lid on
success because what is success for you may not be success for me.

Marvin’s goal was to achieve a 4.0 grade point average every year. in sports
his goal was to be on the varsity team and do his best for the team. "Mom has
taught me to have a positive attitude." he said. and she had also advised him not to
brag. be modest. but be proud. He had very little homework. and getting good

grades just came naturally to him. In this writer’s estimation. that gave Marvin

license to feel successful in school.

Jamaican

Jane had attended preschool before beginning her school career. in which
she was very active. Her responsibilities included being president of her senior
class. president of SADD. a member of the Spanish Club. a member of the student
advisory board for SADD Michigan (1 of 15 Chosen after much screening from all

over the state). a member of National Honor Society and the yearbook staff. and

124

secretary of Student Congress. She managed all of this while still participating in
one sport each season. namely. softball. cheerleading. and basketball.

Jane had many friends who had the same beliefs that she did. They did not
drink or smoke. and they were all Christians. Jane said. "We all stick together. and
peeple really respect us." Jane’s best friend was a lot like her. and they would do
anything for each other. She commented. "I always thought you had to be part of
the group that partied and everything to get elected homecoming queen. but they
apparently respect me. so that taught me something different."

For Jane. a typical school day started by arriving at school about 7:30 am.
or at 6:30 to catch up on labs or other homework she had if she had missed some
classes due to other commitments. After school she attended an average of three
meetings before rushing off to cheerleading. softball. or basketball practice. Then
she arrived home and talked on the telephone with her friends for a short time before
doing any homework (which was rare). then possibly back on the telephone again
until fairly late. as she required very little sleep. Jane called her plan book her best
friend on days like those. She related that. with the busy schedule her senior year.
college should seem easy.

Jane had her eye on the University of Michigan for a while. but said she most
likely would attend Western Michigan University because it would cost less and she
planned to go into aviation. wanting to be a pilot. She had felt that call since seeing
the Challenger blow up when she was in second grade. Jane had considered being

an astronaut; however. without 20-20 vision one cannot get into the Air Force. She

125

had also contemplated a career as an aeronautical engineer. but because
mathematics was not one of her better subjects. she had decided against that. A
goal in college was to be on the dean’s list every semester; however. she was
keeping an open mind as to her major.

Jane had made the Choice to be successful but gave her mother and her
sisters much of the acclaim due to the way she had been raised. She would not
want to disappoint any of them. Among the awards she had received were the
superior honor roll (higher than 3.5 grade point average). National Honor Society.
and awards for creative writing. citizenship. sports. leadership. and attitude.
Although Jane was very proud of each award she had received. one of her favorites
was being named to the all-district softball team. She did not hesitate to name both
of her sisters and her mother as her most important role models. but she gave her
teachers and coaches a great deal of credit in that area. as well.

Jane told of teachers who had given her more responsibility to lead things in
class. run errands. and sometimes. if she spoke out of turn. it was ignored because
this was not normal for her. This was not always easy for her. as other students
noticed it. Jane’s relationship with the school personnel was excellent. She recalled
only one occasion when she did not think a teacher had treated her fairly. In fact.
she had received personal letters of congratulation from two of them. after she had
been chosen for SADD. Michigan. Jane loved her school and felt very self-
confident. and even though she had been teased for being a good student. she just

decided to ignore the taunters as they usually were not good students. and she

126

thought they were just jealous. Education to Jane meant everything because
"without an education you can’t get anywhere in life anymore. I don’t want to be
second Class the rest of my life." Jane thought it was so wasteful to get into trouble
and have to spend time in detention not talking to anyone. She wanted to be a
positive leader because of her family. as well as for herself. She remembered a time
in junior high when she had been quite immature and not so pleasant with her
mother. but she thought she was well past that stage now. Along with her other
commitments. Jane had managed to be a member of an academic team and had
served on the Student Council. She said. "Success is doing the best that l knowl
can do. it may not be up to other people’s standards because I’m not them. but as
long as i’ve tried my hardest and l’m happy with where i am. i feel it’s been
successful."

Jane’s expectations for herseifincluded graduation from college and probably
getting married. She was not too sure about having children as she might be gone
a good amount of time being a pilot. When asked what part her mother had played
in her self-conﬁdence. Jane responded.

i was the youngest. and so i was the center of attention all the time. So I

think that helped a lot. They treated me so well when l was young. and ever

since then. I never doubted as they always told me i could do anything i

wanted to do and l believed it. So l’ve had the conﬁdence to do anything I

ever wanted to do.

Jane believed she was accepted by her peers. She said that good grades

just came naturally to her but expressed concern about college Classes. (She knew

She would have to work harder for good grades in college.) She never missed much

 

127

school and was proud of her family name. even though she had never met her

father.

DenisaBose

Denise was another very active teenager. being involved with SADD. Youth
initiative. National Honor Society. the yearbook staff. band. Spanish Club. Junior
Prom (setting it all up). graduation and baccalaureate ceremonies. as well as
volleyball. cross-country. pom porns. and track. She had also served on the student
council. holding the office of treasurer her senior year. Denise’s closest friends
worked at the same fast-food restaurant. where she had recently been given the
responsibilities of manager. Denise said her friends might say she was happy.
outgoing. and crazy at times; she hoped they would also say she was easy to talk
with and fun to be with. She had chosen those friends because she was comfortable
with them; with them she could be herself. and they shared the same values of not
smoking. drinking, or doing drugs. She also felt free to decline if she did not want
to do what they were doing. without feeling peer pressure. They also played sports.
and. especially in cross-country. she felt a part of a big family. Denise felt accepted
by her other peers as well. as she got along with everyone. although she did not
hang out with many of them because she did not agree with what they did.

For Denise. a typical day at school included arriving about ﬁve minutes ahead
of time. going to three Classes. eating lunch. and then going to three more Classes;
then. most of the time. she went to sports practice. She also worked whenever her

schedule would allow. although a 17-year-old may work only 18 hours per week

128

during the school year. Denise’s day also included meetings of the many
organizations in which she was involved. All of these responsibilities during a typical
school day did not allow her much spare time. so her schedule remained faiiiy
routine. Denise said she had to work hard for her grades; consequently. she had a
lot of homework.

Denise planned to study business in college but had not decided what she
would do with it. At one time. she had thought she might be interested in a career
in accounting. but after taking those classes in high school. she became bored with
them. Now she was considering management of some kind and said she had
always had a dream to own a hotel. it was her choice to be successful. "People
help out. but it’s your own [choice]." she said. At ﬁrst. when she thought it was
expected of her. she resented it. but as she matured. she realized people wanted it
for her because it was the best for her. So now it was her choice.

Among the many honors Denise had achieved were the superior honor roll.
the John Philip Sousa award for leadership. the Save and Volunteer award. the
Outstanding Youth Volunteer award. two scholarships. the Marine Distinguished
Athlete award, the Top Student in Accounting award. a Spanish award. a senior
athletic award. and Honors Majors awards in business. mathematics. science. and
music.

Denise said she considered her mother an example but not actually a role
model because she wanted to be her own. totally different. person. She really liked

the teachers she had had in school. and she liked going to school "a lot."

129

i had a combination of young and older teachers. and so i had a combination
of hard teachers and not-so-hard teachers. They really made me think. and
if I wasn’t thinking enough. they’d let me know. or if it was too easy for me.
they would give me something more. They taught me how to study and what
school is about. l’ve heard from some of my friends who are in college. that
my high school really prepares you well for college.

in her entire school career. Denise had had only one teacher she did not
respect. He had favored the members of the team he was coaching. so if a student
was not on that team or a cheerleader. he was not always fair. she thought. Only
one teacher had sent her to detention-at that. unfairly. as she had not been doing
all of the talking. For the most part. school had been a very positive experience for
Denise. and her relationship with the teachers and staff was very good. She thought
it helped that she was so involved and that her mother had had some of the same
teachers when she was in school.

Denise thought she had lost a best friend once because she was able to
achieve higher grades than her friend was. "We are still friends but not as close."
she commented. She did believe one can be a good person and not get an
education. For some people that would be all right. but not for Denise. as she
believed that. to do better in this wortd. one needs to get an education. "I mean.
Morn didn’t have a college education. and she does have a really good job."

Denise had begun her educational experience in preschool, in the same
district in which she graduated from high school. She had had regular school

attendance except when she had several surgeries on her knee. Denise deﬁned

SUCCBSS as

130

. . . not quitting. going after what you want and not what other people want for

you. not stopping. keep going. My goal is to always go to college. even if it’s

just taking one Class. because you’re always Ieaming. The only people who
will reach success in this world are the ones who look at life with a positive
attitude.

anitLSthc

David had attended a private school from the ages of three to six years.
Since moving to the area ﬁve years ago. he had been active in Student Congress
(being Class representative). Spanish Club. basketball. soccer. baseball. and track.
He had many friends from school as well as work; they all were athletic. and many
of them worked together. His best friend modeled responsible behavior most of the
time; however, most of David’s friends did not have as many home responsibilities
because they had both parents at home.

A typical school day for David might begin early in the morning. when he
studied for tests or ﬁnished any necessary homework. Then he attended all of his
Classes. had lunch with his friends. and than attended afternoon classes. After
school. David did homework. perhaps went to work. or played basketball. baseball.
or track. He believed this year would have many variations in a day because so
many different things were happening; he would be able to drive and had saved his
money to buy a car.

David’s eighth-grade counselor had helped him plan his high school schedule
in order to prepare for a career in law. He had his eyes on the University of

Michigan but said he might consider Grand Valley State University. David’s

grandfather. who retired as judge after practicing law for a time. may have been a

131

positive inﬂuence on this career choice. To date. David had been on the superior
honor roll; had received awards for baseball. basketball. and track; and had been
named Star Employee at work. He respected his teachers. relating that he had
never had an uncaring teacher. He had felt little difference In the way they treated
him as compared to the other students. except maybe toward the end of the year.
"because they appreciate me a little more." He did not recall ever having a conﬂict
with a teacher. but he said that if he did. he would talk it out.

David said that he was not always a peaceful person and had been in a few
ﬁghts when he was younger. Now. he said. "it’s just dumb." The researcher thinks
David’s high self-esteem and maturity had helped bring about that change. David
considered himselfa leader who was well liked and one who had a good relationship
with his teachers and other school personnel. Sometimes he had to work hard for
his grades. but he had always been on the honor roll. participated in extracurricular
activities (sports). been a member of an academic team and student congress. and
appreciated his family name. He had a positive view of education. saying "it will
determine my career." and he had a good attendance record except for a period of
recuperation from surgery. To David. success meant "being able to take care of

myself. not having to worry about being behind."

Damtiebbs
Dan had attended preschool in the same school district he had attended all
his life. His ﬁve or six Close friends attended his school. and he had many more

friends from outside of school. Dan had chosen the friends he had because he

132

thought he could trust them. Dan rode his bike to school to attend "different classes
all day long." but he considered it fun. His activities changed a let each day.
College was in his future. he said. and he would probably major in criminal justice.
following in the footsteps of his older siblings. However. rather than being a police
ofﬁcer. he was considering a jobwith the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). One
brother advised him that "whatever i believe in. I should do." Being successful was
his choice as he was good in school. and he realized that no one else could do it for
him. He had not had conﬂicts with his teachers but said that if he did. he would want
to talk it out as he said they were all nice and none had been uncaring.

Dan’s high self-esteem was a direct result of his training in martial arts. He
declared.

if i didn’t have karate. I’d probably be shy around everybody. I do a lot more

stuff now than I used to do. I go to tournaments just about every weekend

and have to perform in front of ﬁve black-belt judges and possibly thousands

of people in the stands.
When Dan was teased for being a good student. he tried to just back away to avoid
a ﬁght. Before fourth or ﬁfth grade. he did have some behavior problems at school.
but with maturity and his martial arts training. he no longer get into scufﬂes. His
education was important in order to attend college someday. he said. Unlike many
of those interviewed. Dan considered himself a follower rather than a leader.
however. he did not yield to negative peer pressure. Dan had had good school
attendance. He described success as working very hard. and being determined.

committed. and willing to sacriﬁce. He felt accepted by his peers. and he did not

have to work hard to get good grades.

133
81.53.8009!

Russ was involved in three extracurricular activities; these included wrestling.
football. and helping with theatrical productions until his senior year. when he
decided to try out for a part. He earned a part and was able to see how much
enjoyment he would have by actually being in the play rather than in the stage crew.

A typical school day for Russ began at 7:00 am. when his alarm rang and
he started getting ready for school. He arrived about 7:45 and had breakfast before
going on to classes. Between classes. he might take a few minutes to visit with
friends at his locker. During his lunch time. Russ spent time playing basketball in the
gym or whatever else might be going on at the time there. After completing
afternoon classes. he attended his sport-of-the-season practice session or play
practice if he was involved.

Russ was a slower-maturing young man who said of himself that he ﬁnally
woke up when he became a senior in high school and decided he must "get with the
program" because this would affect the rest of his life. As a result. Russ was able
to maintain a little better than a 3.0 average his last year of high school.

Russ was planning on starting college a couple of days following the
interview. He planned to study in the Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) area
in order to become qualiﬁed to be a ﬁreman. He thought the nearby ﬁre department
had had a great impact on his Choice of occupation. He had observed them helping
people when their houses were burning, which included more than just ﬁghting the

ﬁre. This led him to experience a strong urge to help people out by being a ﬁreman.

134

Another role model for Russ was Bruce Baumgardener. a world champion
heavyweight wrestler. He had taken medals at the Olympics in Barcelona and just
recently in Atlanta. Georgia. He was a 37 year old who was competing and winning
against men sometimes ten years younger than he was. even though he was
considered to be old to still be an active wrestler.

Most of the teachers in Russ’s school career had been very effective and
helpful to him. He thought they would help almost any student who asked for help.
Russ did not believe any of them had treated him differently. nor could he think of
any who did not really care about their students. He could relate to the younger
teachers best. but overall he thought his relationship with teachers had been good
and his school experience had been positive. with a good attendance record.

When some of the members of the football team teased Russ for being on the
wrestling team. he decided that they were the ignorant ones. Wrestling was what
he enjoyed. and they were not going to cause him to quit what he liked so much.

"Mom wasn’t like a drill sergeant or nothing." but Russ knew if he got into
trouble at school she would "whip my butt" or take his car. so he wanted to avoid
trouble although he did get into some minor ﬁghts. He was proud of the fact that his
mother had taught him to respect people. especially the elderly and women. He had
received awards for participating in football and wrestling and had been given the
varsity award for participating in and receiving a varsity letter for three years in
wrestling during his high school career.

Russ's deﬁnition of success was "just to succeed in life. Basically. do—

whatever-the best I can and be all i can be and put my best effort toward what i

135
want to do in life. And i should be able to do it if I have the heart to do it." Russ had
fairly high expectations for himself but believed it was like Climbing a ladder-just one
step at a time.
Mom did a lot when i was in junior high. When i didn’t have the best grades.
she never ragged on me or called me stupid. She just said. "I just want you
to do your best." instead of being negative. Some of my friends would say
that their parents would just yell at them. but my mom would just tell me to do
my best and that she’d like me to bring it up at least one grade.
Russ felt accepted by his peers and considered himself successful even
though he had not done as well in his earlier years. saying he just had to work

harder. He did not consider himself totally a leader. saying he was a little of a

follower as well.

I I . [ll Ei l'

The successful students in this study had an evident respect for school
personnel. This was supported by the virtual absence of conﬂict with teachers.
administrators. and student peers. Overall. students were supportive of school
policies and regulations. which were similartothe rules and practices in their homes.
Karen Green explained that she Chose not be a discipline problem. saying that "I’m
scared to be because if I get into trouble there [school]. I would lose privileges here
[home]. idon’t like it when other kids mess around and take up time and i can’t be
ieaming." Most respondents shared this expressed concern about school behavior
and its consequences.

Some students indicated an occasional conﬂict with a teacher or other school

personnel. However. each shared that he or she would resolve a conﬂict by taking

136
the initiative to speak with the school personnel with whom they had the conﬂict and
would desire to reach a positive resolution. These students rated school personnel
very favorably. and many referred to them as positive role models. They thought
that the majority of the teachers were caring and concerned about them as
individuals.

The students rated their schools as positive. All of the students who were
interviewed stated that they had a very positive view of education. They all
expressed a desire and commitment to attend college.

These students had evidence of excellent academic success at school. Nine
of the ten students had been on the honor roll. some had graduated in the top ten
of their class. and most had been invited to be and/or were members of the National
Honor Society. Seven out often of the students had been members of academic
teams. seven out of ten had participated in gifted and talented programs. and eight
out often had elected upper-level-curricuium courses.

Success was also evidenced by the students’ participation in extracurricular
activities. Five out of ten students had been members of the student council. and
most of the students had been involved with sports. band. musicals. and/or plays.

All ten of the students reported regular school attendance. Eight of them had
attended preschool. Most indicated their commitment to community service.
Table 3 contains a compilation of the above-mentioned Characteristics and activities

of the successful students’ school experiences.

137
Table 3: Summary of characteristics of succesle students’ school experiences.

 
    
  

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Characteristic of School pecarian- I

Student I

A B C D E F e H I J K L -

I Amelia Burton Y Y Y 0 Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y I
I Jerry Cruise Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
I Collette Baker Y Y Y D Y Y Y N Y Y Y N

Karen Green Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y Y l

Marvin Cusine Y Y N Y Y N Y N Y Y Y N

IJane Ferris Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y

Denise Rose Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y

David Stone Y Y Y 0 Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y W

Dan Hobbs Y Y N N N N Y N Y Y Y Y

Russ Benet N Y N N N N Y N N Y Y Y T

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Key: A = Honor roll ,

B = Participates in extracurricular activities
Member of an academic team
Special program/gifted and talented program
Basic/upper-level curriculum
Student council
Family has good name
Uncaring teachers/negative teacher examples
Honors/top ten. National Honor Society/athletic awards
Regular school attendance
Positive view of education
Attended preschool

F'XQ—IQ'TII'DU

Evidenced
Not evidenced
Unavailable

cz-<
ll ll II

138

W
W

In the ﬁrst section of this Chapter. the home settings and backgrounds of the
students and their families were described and discussed. The second section
focused on the family data. background information. and educational history of the
successful students’ grandparents and parents. as well as religious preferences.
The third section included an examination of the students’ family experiences. family
values. and parenting skills. whereas the fourth section was concerned with the
students’ school experiences. This section centers on the theme of the families’
interactions with the school. Speciﬁcally. the researcher examined the family
inﬂuence with regard to school experiences. the family-school relationship. and the
individual students’ decisions to be successful. in the following paragraphs. the
investigator shares his ﬁndings related to the interactions between and among the

successful students. their parents. and school personnel.

Willem

Eight of the ten custodial parents in this study reported a high level of
involvement with the school. High level of involvement was deﬁned by the parent’s
setting appointments. conferring with teachers. observing Classes. calling the school
to check on the child’s progress. and attending parent-teacher conferences. open
houses. and other scheduled school events. Two of the ten parents described their

involvement as average. which would include attending parent conferences. open

139

houses. and other scheduled school events. The level of involvement of the parents

in this study is summarized in Table 4.

Table 4: Parents’ involvement with the school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family Level of involvement

I Mother Father

I Burton Average Negative

I Cruise High Non
Baker High Non
Green High Non
Cusine High Non

I Farris High Non
Rose Average Low
Stone High Non
Hobbs High Non

I Benet High Non

 

 

Note: The mothers were asked to indicate the degree of involvement that described
both them and their absent husbands.

Kay:

Sets appointments. confers with teachers. observes
classes. calls school to Check on Child’s progress.

AverageJnvolvement Attends parent-teacher conferences. open houses. and
other scheduled school events.

MW: Occasionally attends parent-teacher conferences. open
houses. and other scheduled school events.

NegatiILeJmIoIIIement Goes to school only when required to deal with
matters of discipline or problems with attendance.

Nanjnmlmmam: No evidence that parent ever went to school.

140
For many of the custodial parents (in this study. all were mothers). their level

of involvement decreased once their children advanced on to middle and high
school. When their children were in elementary school. there were more
opportunities for them to provide leadership and to be involved. Another factor that
affected level of involvement was that. once the separation and/or divorce from the
child’s father had occurred. it most often necessitated these mothers’ entering the
work force. thus limiting their options of involvement at their children’s schools.

The involvement of the students’ fathers was essentially nonexistent. Only
on very rare occasions did a few of the fathers enter their children’s schools. This
was the case even though they were encouraged both by their children and/or the
children’s mothers. The researcher also was interested in the fathers’ attendance
at parent-teacher conferences and whether they attended separately or with the
children’s mothers. There was no indication of any father in this study ever having
attended a parent-teacher conference with the child’s mother. and only a few had
ever attended at all. Of those who attended a parent-teacher conference. no father
attended more than two conferences during his child’s primary and secondary school
career.

How the parents felt when they entered their children’s schools was another
element of family perspective that was examined. The custodial parents in this study
shared that they felt welcomed and comfortable when entering their children’s
schools. The students’ custodial parents were very supportive of the school

activities in which their children were involved. They indicated that they did not miss

141

one of those events unless they had a scheduling conﬂict. The parents’ social lives
often comprised the school activities.

A third component of the family perspective was the overall impression that
the teachers and school personnel were excellent role models. caring. and
interested in student concerns and needs. Parents shared that they stressed the
importance of respecting authority and that school personnel were deserving of their
children's respect. Even when students had a conﬂict and/or disagreement with a
teacher. they still were expected to treat the teacher with respect.

The ﬁnal element of the family perspective that was considered was the
quality of communication. Parents were pleased with the communication they had
with school personnel and would contact the school when it was necessary. On the
rare occasions when their Children were having trouble at school. the parents would
take it upon themselves to contact the school to assist in facilitating a resolution to
the problem. Parents shared that the school would take the initiative to contact them
at times when their Children were struggling and would advise them on a course of
action. These students so seldomiy had problems at school that most parents said
they never were called by the school or needed to take the initiative to contact the
school on their children’s behalf. Furthermore. the information that their children
shared with them about school generally was positive in nature.

The following portion of this section highlights speciﬁc information shared by
the custodial parents pertaining to their relationship with school personnel. and their

level of involvement in and support of school activities and events.

142

WWII. Sandra. Amelia’s mother. thought it was very important
for parents to work with the school to educate their children. She considered her
involvement with the school about average because the restrictions of her jobs
prevented greater participation.

Why. Martha was very familiar with all of her children’s teachers
and the principal. She served on the School improvement Committee at the high
school and attended the parent-teacher group meetings at the elementary level.
Martha considered her participation in school-related activities to be "high
involvement." She did have disagreements with the school personnel concerning
the curriculum. but she backed off to save her energy to get the children into what
she believed was the proper supplementary education. She thought her son was
not challenged enough in school but tried to be positive so that he would enjoy a
constructive experience while there. She had nothing but good to say about the
elementary level in their school district and thought the upper levels were gradually
improving.

IbeBakeLtamjly. Emily. Collette’s mother. attended any activities at school.
if possible. in which Collette was involved (she even accompanied her to a car wash
to cheer them on). Therefore. she considered her level of involvement to be high.
Collatte’s father lived out of state and did not attend activities or conferences. but he
did attend his daughter’s graduation. Emily always felt welcome in the school

Collette attended and said the teachers were great

143

Ihaﬁmniamllx. Katy attended many ofthe activities in which her children
were involved. want to all of the scheduled conferences. and had not been afraid to
call a teacher or the counselor. Therefore. she considered her involvement to be
high. She said the children’s father was not involved in any school activities. Katy
thought her relationship with school personnel was ﬁne. and she felt comfortable at
the school. As the children grew older. Katy gradually became less involved as
"mother isn’t needed there as much."

Inﬂusingjamﬂy. Doris had not had as much communication with the
school as she would like because. until recently. she worked second shift at a
factory. However. she would often go to classes or Check with teachers and
coaches to see whether there was anything she could do (type rosters or anything)
to help them because she could not attend most of the activities. Occasionally. she
could get off of work to participate. but often she would send a friend to take her
place. She believed her son’s school staff was very supportive. very positive. and
very good; she always felt welcome and conﬁdent when she entered the school.
Despite the fact that she worked second shift. Doris found time to be involved in the
carnivals. Marvin’s workshop. and Class trips or to help out in Class; therefore. she
rated her involvement high. Marvin’s father’s involvement was almost nonexistent
with the exception of attending a few games when Marvin was playing.

W- Marge Ferris considered her involvement with the school
to be very high. even more so as the children grew older. She also believed that her

relationship with the school and personnel was very good. She said. "I go to all the

144
conferences. and if i have a problem with a teacher or get any note home. I’ve
always made sure I’ve called to ﬁnd out what the problem is."

Wily. Connie Rose had been more active in her daughter’s
education when the youngster was In elementary school because she had a part-
tima job and therefore had time to work a little at the school. When Connie was
forced to work full time. she was limited in terms of the time She had to take an active
part in school activities. but she still attended as many functions as possible. She
did get involved in preschool. Funfast. band boosters. and senior ail-nighters. She
expected her children to succeed in education and wanted them to be happy and to
be able to get good jobs. She believed her level of involvement in her Children’s
school was average as they were good students. and as a result she did not need
as much contact with teachers and other staff at the school. Connie did feel
welcome and relaxed at the school when attending conferences and other activities.

Warm. Ginger expected nothing but the best for her son and said
it was absolutely necessary for parents to be involved in their children’s education.
She had not been involved in any parent-sponsored activities for the school due to
lack of time. but she had never missed an activity in which David was participating.
Therefore. she considered her school involvement to be high. Ginger felt good.
relaxed. and welcome at David's school and described the teachers and school
personnel as good. overall.

Ibeﬂgbnsjamjly. Marsha strongly believed that parental involvement was

essential. She shared that "if the kids went on campouts. l volunteered as a cook.

145
And i got involved with school. if they had to be disciplined at school. they were also
disciplined at home." Marsha always made sure the children’s homework was done.
attended every conference. acted as room mother. was active in the parent-teacher
organization. was treasurer of the sports boosters. did fund raising. and helped run
the concessions stand. Also. she called community residents to encourage them to
vote.

W. Russ’s mother had attended all the activities in which her
Children had been involved. if at all possible. She believed her level of school
involvement might be average because she did not actually call teachers just to see
how her Children were doing. if there was a problem. however. she worked with the
school to resolve it. Their father was not involved with the school. She had.
however. been involved with the senior parents. band boosters. bingo for wrestling.
concessions. and a talent Show. it is possible that she rated her level of involvement
too low-it sounded like a high level as other parents stated. She appreciated the
school and staff overall. with a new principal and vice—principal. The school was

"pretty good as far as education." she stated.

I|||"||’D"|BS 'Sll

The students in this study believed that success was a personal Choice and
that it came from within the individual. They shared that family support was
important in enhancing students’ success. but it was not the basis for success.
These students unanimously stated that it is the individual’s choice to capitalize on

his or her gifts and abilities to be successful; they believed that an individual might

146

have the ability to be a great success and yet lack the motivation to obtain success.
Jane explained that success is

. . . my choice. i can do whatever i want with my life. but the way my mom

raised me. she had a lotto do with it. My mom wants me to be successful.

and i want to do what my mom wants me to do. I also do what I want to do.

And my sisters-i love to follow in their footsteps. and they were both

successful in school. so they were really good role models.

All of the successful students in this study had high expectations for
themselves. as did their parents and teachers. The students shared that they were
self-conﬁdant and that their parents had contributed to their feelings of self-worth.
Success breads success; the more the students succeeded. the more their self-
conﬁdence grew. When asked whether they thought they had been successful. all
ten students responded positively. They attributed part of their success to the loving
and caring foundation they had received at home.

When the students discussed the meaning of success. they made it clear that
doing one’s best is what counts. not being the best. Collette Baker commented. "To
me. success means setting a goal and working to reach it. It doesn’t necessarily
mean you have to reach that goal. just that you have done your best to reach It."
Marvin Cusine said.

There’s a different level of success for everybody because I might be

successful in one thing and he might be successful in something else. You

are successful if it's the best that you can do; you can’t really put a lid on
success because what is success for you may not be success for me.
And Jana Farris shared that "Success is doing the best that i know i can do. It may

not be up to other people’s standards because l’m not them. but as long as l’ve tried

my hardest and I’m happy with where i am. i feel it’s been successful." All of the

147
students had a personal perspective on what it takes to be successful. whom they
considered to be responsible for their success. and how they were going to continue
to be successful.

For the most part. the successful students were accepted by their peers and
thought they had a group of friends with whom they could relate. They all had
common interests and values.

Some of the students had to really apply themselves in order to be successful
academically. Others achieved academic success without much of an effort. This
might be explained by a variance in aptitude and/or intelligence quotient among the
students who were interviewed.

Success also was apparent in the students’ immediate families. The custodial
parents (mothers) were considered to be successful by their children. The parents
described themselves as successful in the endeavors they had Chosen. The
siblings. as described by the successful students and their parents. were also
considered to be successful. Most of the siblings had had similar school
experiences. including academic success.

Students’ success is. in part. a byproduct of their determination. will. and
motivation to be successful. Another contributing factor is the family experiences
and culture that have been a part of the students’ lives since childhood. The family
value of education and the positive view of education going back two generations
instilled a healthy respect for the importance of a good education and served as a

model and motivator for student success. no matter what obstacle the students had

148
and would overcome to achieve their personal goals. Finally. the individual’s
attainment of success begins with his or her personal aspiration to succeed and is

enhanced and cultivated within the social unit of family life.

AnalysisﬁtbeEindings

This section contained the ﬁndings regarding the interactions between and
among successful students. family members. and school personnel. The analysis
of data relating to the family perspective on students’ success demonstrated a high
level of involvement on the part of custodial parents in school-sponsored activities
and parent programs. as well as an active interest in their Children’s schooling and
in attending school activities and events (see Table 4).

All families had a positive outlook and reported a healthy exchange of
communication with most teachers and other school personnel. They felt very
comfortable entering the school or contacting school personnel concerning their
children. if necessary. to resolve any problems or to discuss the students’ progress.
This indicated an excellent school-family. family-school relationship.

Within many of the families who were interviewed. certain risk factors were
prevalent. including alcohol and substance abuse. low SES. divorce. emotional
abuse. and lack of a positive male role model. Despite these risk factors. the
students were successful and optimistic about their futures. This led the researcher
to believe that the unconditional love. support. and faith of one parent. as well as the
individual’s daterrnination to succeed in the face of adversity. can transcend all of the

deﬁcits. Finally. the care-giving parents were proud of their children’s success and

149
expected them to do their best at all times. They did not tolerate self-pity. saw the

very best in their children. and cultivated a loving home environment in which the

successful student could communicate openly and reach his or her full potential.

III 'II'E I’D' iii Sill

The students and sometimes the prominent parents expressed how they
thought the students and other siblings had been affected by their parents’ divorce.

The responses are presented in this section.

IbeBIIrtcrLEamily

Amelia Burton thought she had a lot of control over what happened to her in
her life and said that her parents’ divorce affected her very little. If anything. "it was
for the better because they fought too much." She thought it affected her brother in
school as it was his senior year, but she also said the fact that her grandmother had
been dying at the same time might have had some inﬂuence. The divorce had little
effect on school for Amelia because. as she stated.

We Choose to do what we do. and you can’t blame your activities on what

happened to your parents. . . . I cried when my dad ﬁrst left that night

because most of my friends still had their father there. and now my father was

leaving. But I accepted it fast. l was probably the ﬁrst to accept it better of

us children. . . . I think single parents kind of make it better because of a

Closer relationship with their kids.

Sandra. Amalia’s mother. believed Amelia just removed herself from a bad

situation when her father was there and retreated into her books; therefore. she did

well no matter what was going on around her.

150
IbeﬁmlscEamlly

Jerry thought his parents’ divorce had little impact on him as he was only nine
years old at the time. He said it was not really his problem. and he laamad to be
more independent as a result. He also felt no disadvantage educationally by coming

from a single-parent family.

IbaBakaLEamilx
Colletta’s parents divorced when she was 12 years old. When asked what

impact the divorce had made on her. she replied.

it was horrid. Really. it was one of the worst times. i don’t know how to
explain it to people who really haven't. i mean. how do you explain that your
parents are being split? And Mom and I moved around a lot. I mean a lot.
I couldn’t make friends. i got beat up quite a bit. I mean we just moved from
school to school. place to place. building to building. i didn’t see my brother;
he was with my father. I didn’t see my father all that much. Bad words [were]
said around the table. so it was really a horrid time. i really hated it. It took
a long time to get over it; it took a long time to get back. I didn’t start with
leaving my house. seeing people again. making real friends. doing things
outside of school until about tenth grade. It was two years until i want to
college. It was at that point I knew we were going to move again. so what’s
the use of getting up off the couch. why bother to leave the house. why
bother. . . . Schooling was always there. it was a constant. and I always knew
it was going to be there. and I always tried hard. lthink. because i needed the
approval and teachers were there. they were always there. They had to show
up for work. they got paid. i guess it was kind of like they took over when
your parents weren’t there. i mean role models.

Collette thought that coming from a single-parent family might have helped
her in school. knowing she had to make it for herself. She thought others with two
parents might not know what a value education can be because they might be
spoiled or have it too "cushy." However. some students who come from single-

parent families might feel a responsibility to earn money. especially if there are

151

younger siblings and. consequently. might drop out of school to help with the family
income. Anothartheory she had about students from single-parent families dropping
out of school was that they might be looking for a substitute family; thus. they might

get into the wrong group or gang and not have the best inﬂuence from those peers.

Ibeﬁreenﬁamilv

Karen seemed wail adjusted to her parents’ divorce and was Close to her
mother. The strength and support her mother provided appeared to have stabilized
Karen during that time. She said that many students in the public school she
attended were from Single-parent families. very different from the Christian school
she had attended. Her mother stated. "Her grades stayed okay; it’s almost like the
grades proved that everything was okay." In Karen’s words. "I just deal with it as
things come up." She did not feel at a disadvantage educationally. coming from a
single-parent family.

Karen's older sister was an above-average student. and her younger brother
was slightly average but would rather work on his car than study. Karen speculated
that other students who come from single-parent homes sometimes struggle more
or even drop out of school. perhaps because their parents had to work more and

thus were not there for them. Or they may have had bad parents. she theorized.

II C . E 'l
Marvin’s parents had separated two years ago. when he was 13 years old.

He was not one to show his feelings. so most people could not tell he was going

152

through anything unusual. He thought that possibly the separation had been easier
for him because he had been older when it happened. He believed that coming from
a single-parent family had not affected his educationally. as evidenced by his high
grade point average. and he continued to do his best. Doris. his mother. said it was
almost as if her husband had not been around for six or seven years as he had been

very unsupportive during all that time.

IbiEﬁLﬂSiamiix
Jane was not yet born when her parents separated; therefore. she knew no
other way of life. However, because her mother had left her father. Jana blamed her
for a while "because i didn't understand."
in my ninth-grade year, I wanted to meet him [her father]. but my mom didn’t
want me to talk to him. So we went looking for him through a post ofﬁce box
number. but we never did ﬁnd him. it was hard on my mom; it was hard on
me. too.
Jane felt no disadvantage educationally by coming from a single-parent family. She
said that maybe it might have helped. saying her dad "may have been ajerk." Other
Children in her situation may put a lot of blame on their parents and have a hard time

accepting such a drastic Change in their lives and therefore might take it out on

school; as a result. they might not be very successful. Jane speculated.

IbeBoscEamilv

Denise Rose was ten years old and in ﬁfth grade when her parents got a
divorce. Until that point in her life. she felt like she had everything she wanted in life

and was very. very happy; her life was perfect. She expressed that the divorce

153

made her try harder. but she was not able to explain why. She thought that it
possibly had to do with her attitude about life; she had school going for her. so "Why
let one thing depress your whole life?" Her mother stated that Denise became very
hard to deal with at that time and that she seemed to pour herself into school. When
asked how she came to terms with the divorce. Denise replied.
For a while I didn’t. and I still haven’t really. When I have my family. how do
I explain that [the divorce] to my Children? I guess I came to terms with it
because i was the strong one. My mom was very weak. She wasn’t expecting
it. My Sister was only in the third grade. so she didn’t know what was going
on. I had to do a lot of growing up: making sure the house was picked up.
watch my sister. and try to help Mom when she came home in a bad mood.
it appears that Denise did not let the divorce defeat her because of her attitude that
she could accomplish anything that she wanted to achieve. She seemed to become
a stronger person. "Others would think it was the and of the world." said Denise.
They may not have had a church background and maybe never felt the love she had

in her home. she expressed. and therefore they might just give up. However. she

had already been taught right from wrong.

Ibeﬁtoneﬁamilx

David Stone did not remember when his father lived in their home; he was
only three years old at the time of the divorce. Therefore. he thought the divorce had
no impact on his life. He did not feel any disadvantage educationally by being from
a single-parent family as his mother was always willing to help. Being a success
was his Choice and was not affected by the divorce. he theorized. because he was

too young to miss what he did not remember. if he had been older. the divorce

154

might have affected him as it does other students who remember both parents living

in the home. he thought.

IbcﬂebbsEamllsi

Dan Hobbs’s mother and father were never married. and Dan did not
remember his father‘s ever being in the home. As Dan was the youngest of four
children and was 12 years younger than his next older brother. he had the
advantage of three older siblings and a mother to be his role models and to guide
or "spoil" him. The researcher believes this could have taken the place of a father
who was never there for him. Obviously. Dan’s mother was a very strong person to
raise the three older siblings after a divorce when they were young. Each of them
achieved the highest honors academically. and each had a college degree and a
respectable job. Mrs. Hobbs must be given much credit for this. and the writer
believes Dan will mature with the same work ethics. moral values. and discipline as
his older siblings. Dan had never felt at a disadvantage academically because he

was from a single-parent family.

IbeBenaLEamilx

Russ was only 20 months old when his father left home and had had almost
no contact with him since then; therefore. he was unaware of any effect the divorce
had on him. However. he said there were times when he did miss having a father

ﬁgure around the house. Russ thought that "everybody has the same opportunities

155

and that you just have to go for it." His sister. who was almost 17. was even more

successful in high school than he was.

I l i [II E' I.

Not one of the students felt at a disadvantage academically because he or
she was from a single-parent family. They all agreed that being a success was their
own decision; others might encourage them. but it was up to them to work toward
success. All but one of them were honor roll students; the other student had
maintained a low B average until his senior year. when he decided to apply himself
and achieved higher than a B average that year.

Eight of the ten students indicated that they felt little or no impact from their
parents’ divorce. One of the two who indicated that it was horrid stated that it might
have helped her academically knowing that she had to make itfor herself. The other
poured herself into school and did not let the divorce defeat her because she chose
to have a positive attitude. She believed her Church background supported her. as
did the love she still had at home. Five of the ten students were relatively young at
the time of the divorce and therefore did not remember their father’s presence in the
home; this might explain their feeling little or no impact from the divorce.

Based on the students’ perceptions of the impact of the divorce. the
researcher was led to conclude that the risk factors of their parents’ divorce that
these students experienced did not affect their attitudes. commitment. or

responsibility for their own success (see Table 5).

Table 5: Summary of family facts/risk factors.

156

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

successful

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B C B G C F R S H
Risk Factor R U K E S R S O B

T l E E l R E N B

O S R N N I E S

N E O S
Regularly attend church N Y N Y Y Y Y N N
with child
Age when parents 13 9 12 11 8 0 12 3 0
separated/divorced
Feel disadvantaged N N N N N N N N N
educationally?
Remember father in Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
home?
Mother supportive/role Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
model
Father supportive/role N N N N Y N N N N
model
Made a traumatic move Y N Y N Y N N Y Y Y
Father helped financially Y N N Y N N N N N N
most of time
Father alcoholic/substance Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y N
abuser
Unemployment of primary Y Y Y Y N Y N N Y Y
caregiver/welfare
Years as single parent 4 5 7 6 7 17 5+ 12 25 17
Student’s decision to be Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

    

 

157
Qhapterﬁummanr

In this chapter. the researcher presented and analyzed various aspects of the
families in this study—the relationship among family members. peers. and school
personnel; activities. values. and family history and education; and the impact of the
divorce on the childrenuand how these factors affected the students’ ability and/or
determination to be a success.

The ﬁrst section contained a discussion of the families’ home settings and the
students’ feelings of safety in their neighborhoods. homes. and school. The second
section concerned the family compositions. history of family education. and religious
preferences. Section three included family values. family leisure experiences. and
custodial parents’ views on parenting skills. The successful students’ school
experiences were examined in the fourth section. Section ﬁve concerned the
interactions between and among the students. family members. and school
personnel. The level of parent involvement in the school was discussed. as was the
individual students’ decisions to be a success in school. The impact of the divorce
on the students’ success. as viewed by the students and their custodial parents. was
addressed in the sixth section.

The family and school cultures in this study had certain commonalities. High
expectations. responsibility. and rules and consequences were shared by both of the
cultures within which the students interacted. The custodial parents of the
successful students valued education and stressed the importance oftheir children’s

obtaining the best education possible by setting goals. doing their best, and not

158

settling for less than a college education. The family culture and the individual's
personal determination to succeed were two of the most crucial factors contributing

to the success of the students in this study.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. RECOMMENDATIONS.

AND REFLECTIONS

lntmduﬂinn

The researcher’s purpose in this study was to describe and explain the family
perspectives of students from single-parent families and their success in school.
The interactions between and among the successful student. the family. and the
school were examined. The study was structured to determine the family’s
experience with school. the successful students’ experience with family. and the
successful students’ experience with school. Finally. the successful students. the
families. and the school were investigated wholly. and the results of these
relationships and interactions were disclosed.

The preceding chapters presented an introduction to the study. a review of
the related literature and research. an explanation of the methodology, and an
analysis of the data collected in this study. In this chapter. the general ﬁndings are
presented ﬁrst. followed by the ﬁndings pertaining to each research question. The
presuppositions and tentative conclusions are reviewed and either supported or
revised. based on those ﬁndings. Next. conclusions pertaining to the ﬁndings are

given. The ﬁndings are then compared to those from previous research. Finally. the

159

160

ﬁndings and limitations of the study are used to derive and determine ideas and

suggestions for further research. The researcher’s reﬂections conclude the chapter.

5 [II II' E' l'

The family backgrounds related to the level of education of the successful
students’ grandparents were varied. Twelve of the 40 grandparents did graduate
from high school. However. only 6 of the 40 grandparents obtained any schooling
beyond high school. Many of the students’ grandparents found it necessary to
terminate their schooling early because of the needs of their families. They were
required to enter the work force to support their families economically. The students'
parents explained that their own parents placed a high value on education in spite
of their own predicament and encouraged their children to complete their high school
education. The grandparent generation valued education and. when possible.
offered ﬁnancial support to their children to have the opportunity to attend college.
This was supported by the fact that 16 of the students' 20 parents started and/or
completed a college education (see Table 2).

It was typical for the parents to have been active while they were in school;
some of them had achieved academic honors. The emphasis and value placed on
education increased with the students’ parents' generation. Nine of the ten mothers
had attended college. and all ten of the mothers. with whom the students lived.
valued education greatly and had the expectation that their children would attend

college. The mothers were very in tune with their children’s present progress and

161
ability levels. All believed their children would reach their full potential by attending

college and obtaining an education to facilitate an excellent career.

It was evident that the family culture from generation to generation promoted
the importance and value of education. The grandparents were strong proponents
oftheir children’s receiving a quality education. and this carried through with stronger
emphasis on their children’s education. The students’ custodial parents took a very
active interest in their children’s academic and extracurricular activities. Eight of the
ten single-parent mothers reported that they had a high level of involvement with
their children’s schools. These mothers set appointments with school personnel.
conferred with their children's teachers. observed their children’s classes. and called
school to check on their children’s progress when they thought it was necessary.
They also attended parent-teacher conferences. cpen houses. and other scheduled
school events (see Table 4).

Among those who were interviewed for this study. many similarities were
apparent in the successful students’ family experiences. The similarities included
a strong family stmcture. high expectations for their children. clear family rules.
chores and responsibilities at home. emphasis on the importance of school. positive
relationships with school personnel, a high level of involvement in school activities.
an expectation that their children would attend college. an active interest in their
children’s amdemic progress. close monitoring of their children's whereabouts.
respect for authority. an effort toward positive communication and listening, and a

genuine attempt to support each other. Although the students did not always agree

162
with their parents' counsel and advice. they communicated respect and appreciation

for their parents’ commitment to their success and the sacriﬁce their mothers had
made to make their needs a top priority.

The students themselves were extremely active in all facets of school life.
These successful students’ school experiences included: Nine of the ten students
were on the honor roll, all of them participated in extracurricular activities. seven
were members of academic teams. eight had upper-level academic programs. ﬁve
were members of the student council. all ten reported that their families had a good
name, they all had regular school attendance. and eight had attended preschool
(see Table 3).

These students' successes had been recognized through awards for
academic achievement. community service recognition. school awards. college
scholarships. leadership in clubs, and participation on athletic and academic teams.
All of the students shared a positive view of education and. overall. thought that their
school experiences had been positive.

The interactions between and among successful students. their custodial
parents (mothers of the students in this study). and school personnel were extremely
positive and conducive to the students' success. The students’ mothers were
supportive of and active in their children’s education. The high level of involvement
and communication with school personnel was instrumental in shaping the family

perspective on education.

163

The cultures of both the family and the schools were mutually supportive of
each other. The school personnel and parents alike reported having high
expectations forthe successful students. Responsibility and structure were common
components of both settings. The school served as the hub for the family's social
life. The students were involved in many aspects of school life. and their mothers
centered their lives around their children’s activities.

The custodial parents all believed that education began in the home. Each
felt a personal responsibility for enriching and enhancing her child’s Ieaming. They
sought out extra classes that provided instruction in areas not offered at their
children’s schools. involved them in community events. and planned their family
vacations around educational opportunities for Ieaming. The parents saw their role
in educating their children as a partnership with the school. They stressed the
importance of their children's respecting school and emphasized that the children
were responsible for their personal learning and needed to embrace and make the
most of the opportunity to learn that the school provided. The students’ parents
modeled a healthy respect for their children's schools and teachers and expected

the same from their children.

E'I'E|"|IIB IDI'

The researcher proposed tentative expectations regarding the ﬁndings for
each research question before the interviews with the custodial parents and

succesle students took place. In the following pages. the researcher reviews the

164

anticipated expectations and either supports or revises the presuppositions based
on the study ﬁndings.

1. ..... 0.: l on I'll I0:0-:| .u": o: m..-
deﬂmjhelﬂamﬂlaﬂ As the researcher expected. the students reported that they
came from homes in which the single parent was loving, supportive. and high
expectations for them to succeed. Overall. the students had great respect and
appreciation fortheir custodial mothers. They were connected with their families and
described a close relationship with both their mothers and their siblings. They saw
themselves as important within their families and believed they were contributing
members of the family. The value of education. strong self-esteem. and high
expectations were a result of the family life.

Strong structures were a common component of these students’ home lives.
These similar home structures included strong communication between parent and
child. encouragement and support of educational ieaming and advancement.
accountability and clear consequences for inappropriate behavior. supervision of
students’ whereabouts. trust. caring and concerned environment. and a basic
underlying faith and belief in the children's abilities to succeed. The parents were
in tune with their children’s gifts and abilities and expected them to do their best in
all their endeavors. None of the parents allowed their children to feel sorry for
themselves or to use life’s setbacks as an excuse for being less than they were

capable of being. There was no room for the students to operate as if they were

165
victims of their circumstances. The expected signiﬁcant relationship between
students’ success and how students deﬁned their families was found.

2. WWW
Winds-201mm The researcher expected to ﬁnd a correlation
across the generations of success in the successful students’ family background with
school and Ieaming. The researcher found a pattem of emphasis on the value and
importance of education all through the generations. The parents strove to pass on
the same support and the expectation that education is the key to success in life.
The successful students’ parents reported the sacriﬁces and priorities they had
made on behalf of their children’s education. These parents reported that their own
parents had sacriﬁced and made available the best educational opportunities they
could provide. Even if the financial resources were not available from their own
parents, an effort was made to instill the importance and value of obtaining the
highest level of education possible. The parents in this study were fully aware of
what their educational opportunities had meant for their own personal success.
Whether they had a college education or not. all of the parents of successful
students encouraged and expected their children to achieve a college education in

order to be prepared for the best possible career opportunities.

 

mmmmnmmmmmmmm The researcher anticipated that

the successful students’ custodial parents would have had a positive relationship

with school personnel. both when they themselves had been students and presently

166

as a parent. The ﬁndings supported the notion that the parents strove for positive
relationships with school personnel. The successful students’ parents reported that
they felt welcomed and relaxed when they entered their children's schools. They
explained that if they had a problem or concern with school personnel. they would
either call or make an appointment to arrive at a resolution to the problem. None of
the parents reported any unresolved conﬂict or ongoing animosity with the schools.
They strove for excellent working relationships with school personnel. In general.
when the parents had been students themselves. they strove for a positive
relationship with their teachers and other school personnel. The descriptions of their
experiences with school personnel were not marked by ongoing conﬂicts or
problems. Most had enjoyed their experiences and wished that they could have
been as involved as their own children were able to be. However. they currently
were enjoying the involvement they were able to have by attending their children’s
school activities and events.

Forthe most part. the successful students presented positive attitudes to their
parents about their school life. They saw school as a place where they could grow
educationally and be involved in any activity that interested them. They also had a
strong appreciation for the relationships that they themselves had developed with
school personnel. especiallyteachers. and the relationships they had built with peers
who shared similar values and interests.

4. AI. .:: I: In ‘.0=I‘I : o .n "mo: 0 o.‘ 1

W The researcher expected to see a connection

167

between the students’ success and that of previous generations within their families.
This connection was proven to be true; however. previous generations had not had
as many opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities because fewer
activities had been available at that time. Furthermore. economic considerations.
i.e.. help needed at home or transportation. had hindered participation in school-
sponsored events. speciﬁcally in the grandparents’ generation. Although school
involvement varied between generations. there was a pattem of positive responses
to school experiences by family members.

5. n-:. on:.'oio:i.::n .n :.0:I:I.= -to a: o..: l
W The researcher anticipated that the
families’ values, structure. stability. emphasis on education. beliefs, faith. and morals
would be factors contributing to the success of the successful students. It was
interesting to the writer that. in many ways, each of the families was unique. Values.
beliefs. faith, and morals varied from family to family. Some of the families stressed
that their strong faith in God was the foundation for their success. and others had
terminated their religious practices altogether. However. each of the families placed
an emphasison values and morals that they imparted to their children. The parents
had deﬁnite ideas about what they believed was appropriate and inappropriate
behavior.

The most common characteristic among all of the families wastheir emphasis
on and value of the need for education. Eight of the ten students had attended

preschool. Priority was given to the students’ homework and its completion. These

168
single-parent homes provided stability in spite of the social. economic. and
psychological adjustments required as a result of the separation and the trauma of
divorce.

The keys to successful parenting, as reported by these single parents.
included good listening skills. sacriﬁce. being supportive. unconditional love.
acceptance of their individuality. prayer. quality time. patience and understanding.
encouraging involvement and being involved with the children’s lives. and promoting
healthy communication. Many of these parenting skills were foundational within

each of these families. which inﬂuenced their children’s academic success.

 

:0 .. .. .i :|e.: .; o. - . .;. to“ n ; .. -r -n = 7 ltwas
anticipated that the home would provide a high level of support. furnish a climate
parallel to that of the school. have high expectations for the student. and place a
strong emphasis and value on education. The custodial parents of each of these
students took an active interest in their children’s education. They worked hand in
hand with the schools in establishing a consistent structure. expectations. and
respect. The cultures of both the home and the school were complementary.
providing consistency and stability, which promoted the students’ personal and
academic success.

In each of these families. education was stressed as an important avenue to
obtain economic success. Some of these families actively pursued educational

experiences such as classes during the summer months to expand their children’s

169

Ieaming. and family vacations were planned to include experiences to enhance the
children’s knowledge. Extended-family gatherings allowed the students to observe
adult conversation. which modeled problem-solving techniques. planning. respect.
and commitment.

7. At. ll3-IIOOO.‘ o:|o o..: r n. : 0 o:. r... ’..;
pamnuamjﬂgsz It was expected that these students would have an understanding
of what it takes to be successful and the will and determination to succeed. This
expectation was validated by all of these students’ recognition of the importance and
value of an education as a means to reach their goals and therefore be a success
in life. All of the students had set personal goals to pursue a college education. The
students shared that acquiring an education would result in a better life. As
expected, the students saw themselves as the key players in accomplishing their
personal success.

Currently. these students viewed their success in light of their academic and
extracurricular achievement. This was evidenced by the many awards. honors. and
leadership opportunities afforded them.

8. W The researcher
expected to ﬁnd that the successful students were leaders and not followers and
surrounded themselves with others who had similar values, morals. and convictions.
It was further expected that successful students would be able to resist negative
peer pressure and stand up for what they believed was right. and to set and achieve

goals. The information the students provided supported those assumptions. The

170
students in this study described themselves as leaders. and all of them surrounded

themselves with friends who shared common values. interests. and goals. All of the
students who were interviewed responded in the afﬂrrnative when asked about their
ability to stand up to negative peer pressure. These students had high morals. and
most of them commented on their resistance to dmgs and alcohol. They all set high
goals for themselves and believed they were responsible for their own success.
They stated that nobody else could make it happen for them. These students
expressed appreciation for the support of their families. They believed that the love.
encouragement. and guidance of their custodial parents were catalysts for their
success. Yet they still believed that each individual is responsible for and the key
player in making his or her success a reality.

These students shared that their custodial parents modeled success through
their ability to overcome adversity. They believed their mothers had successfully
provided a positive upbringing for them, and they appreciated the sacriﬁces their
mothers had made to provide a decent life for their families.

The most common trait about success that the students shared was the belief
that success does not mean being the best, but doing the best with the potential one
has. The students in this study were living examples of their convictions. Their
many individual accomplishments serve as evidence of the personal successes of

each of them.

’ ' a .
9. . O 3b ...‘: l O z | k : : I a .1. I I .1 : O IL: .‘.'.: '

dealinulttheiLnaLenthenaratlouLdimLcel The researcher expected to ﬁnd

171

that successful students from single-parent families were resilient to the setbacks
they had encountered in life. including their parents’ separation and divorce. For all
of these students. their parents’ divorce had had a profound impact on their lives.
The students were able to describe how they viewed and processed their parents’
divorce. All of them were determined not to allow the divorce to detract from their
academic success. Most of them saw the divorce as an issue between their parents
over which they had no control. For some students. their parents’ divorce was a
relief. removing tension and stress from the home environment. The divorce. for
some. served as a strong impetus to succeed. Some of the students shared that
their lives actually had improved with the one parent moving out of the home. Seven
of the ten families reported that the father was a substance abuser. which might
account for the relief that some of the students reported since this factor had been
removed from the home. Most of these students still had care and concern for their
fathers. regardless of their personal problems. As a result of having one parent in
the home. some of the students shared that they received more individual attention
from the custodial parent.

For some of the students. the reality of their parents’ divorce continued to be
something that they grieved. However. none believed that it presently hindered or
in the future would impede their personal success.

These successful students’ coping skills and their resiliency concerning their
parents’ separation and divorce served as character builders and provided them with

the strength and tools to process and handle any adversities they might encounter.

172

These students are an example of the fact that. even if you are dealt blows and
defeats. you can pick yourself up off the ground and continue to move forward and
achieve whatever you put your mind to. Success for these students was not a by-
product of all the right opportunities and a perfect family. but rather an inner resolve
and determination to succeed in spite of whatever circumstances they happened to

encounter.

Conclusions

In this study. consideration was given to students’ family background. The
cultures of both family and school life were analyzed for their inﬂuence on the
students’ choice to be successful. The families’ school experiences were examined
to determine their signiﬁcance and inﬂuence on the students’ decision to be a
success.

The custodial parents in this study had great belief in their children’s abilities.
They had high expectations for their children and insisted that they always did their
best. The students realized that their mothers sacriﬁced for their good and provided
them a stable home in which to ﬂourish so that they would have no excuse for not
reaching their full potential.

The families’ experiences and expectations transferred to the school setting
for these students. The parents in this study believed they were in partnership with
the schools to provide an education and leadership experiences for their children to
grow and develop their personal potential. The students had a healthy respect for

education and school personnel. All shared a positive view of education and saw

 

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173

the opportunity to attend school as a springboard for them to be a success in life.
Each of the students had set goals. which included the aspiration to attend college.
and they anticipated exciting and rewarding careers. The students in this study had
already experienced success ﬁrst-hand as a result of having achieved previous
goals and expectations. Success breeds success! In the case of this study. these
students had obtained a level of conﬁdence from previous success they had
experienced. which facilitated their expectation of success in the future.

The custodial parents cultivated their relationships with their children. They
strove to provide a caring and nurturing home environment. They desired to have
positive communication with their children and put forth an effort to be there for their
children and to listen to them. They believed these parenting skills were essential
for their children to thrive and be successful in school and in life. This researcher
concluded that single-parent families can provide a stable and cohesive structure.

as well as produce academically successful students.

”“4. H . r ”H“ .. H : m _ : :- 3 u

Having presented the general ﬁndings and conclusions from this study. the
researcher now examines his ﬁndings in comparison with those from the study by
Jeltes (1992). who inspired this study as a result of his recommendation of research
on ”family life and culture in single-parent families with successful students." In
Jeltes’s study. academically successful students from intact families were examined
in relation to family life. In comparing Jeltes’s ﬁndings with those from this study. the
potential exists to report and highlight both similarities and differences concerning

the impact of family life in these differing familial conﬁgurations on students’ success.

 

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174

This study was inspired by Jeltes (1992). who studied the relationship of
family life to the academic success of students in intact. two-parent families. Jeltes
recommended that further research be done on the relationship of family life to
academic success of students from single-parent families.

Because the present researcher and Jeltes were dealing with similar
components in their research. many of the ﬁndings from both studies regarding
successful students were comparable. The similarities of the ﬁndings from both
studies are examined in the following paragraphs.

In both studies. it was found that. out of necessity. the students’ grandparents
had had to enter the work force at an early age. but they hoped for a different
experience for their children. They hoped that their children would graduate from
high school and supported the idea of their going on to college.

The parents of the students in the two studies had graduated from high
school; many had gone on to college. and a few had completed graduate school.
As students. these parents had enjoyed their school experiences. but they had had
fewer opportunities for extracurricular involvement than their children did. The
parents of the successful students in both studies placed a very high value on
postsecondary education. Each succeeding generation passed on a stronger
emphasis on education and its importance for a successful career. The students’
parents wanted them to have greater career opportunities than they themselves had
experienced. They all believed education was the foundation for their children to

reach their full potential and happiness in life.

 

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175

Jeltes look at the successful students’ family experiences and found that the
family culture that was supportive of the school culture continued into the successful
students’ generation. Aspects of these family life experiences that were similar to
what this researcher found included the following: family rules. norms. and
expectations were clearly set forth; family members expressed strong positive
feelings about the necessity of school; school personnel and parents worked
together in a partnership for the betterment of the students; parents and students
were involved in school activities; parents stressed the importance of a
postsecondary education; there was continuity of supervision and close monitoring
of the children’s performance; parents taught their children values and morals and
a strong sense of right and wrong; parents emphasized the importance of
communicating with and listening to their children; family members supported.
trusted. and respected one another and demonstrated respect for others; the parents
involved in the students’ lives were good role models; and parents helped their
children develop positive self-concepts.

In both studies. the successful students’ school experiences included active
participation in school-sponsored activities. The students described themselves as
leaders, not followers. These students were well liked and rarely had discipline
problems or negative peer relationships. All of the students had a positive view of
education and had set goals and personal expectations to attend college and. for
some, graduate school. They all believed it was important for them to strive to do

their best and that they were personally responsible for their own success. They

 

 

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176

believed education would prepare them for productive and rewarding careers. They
desired satisfying careers with choices and anticipated ﬁnancial security.

The ﬁndings from these two studies also indicated that these successful
students had received rewards for their achievements. were leaders in clubs and
organizations. participated in academic and athletic teams. received college
scholarships. and overall were pleased with their personal accomplishments. Almost
all of the students reported good experiences in school and expressed positive
attitudes toward education.

The interactions between and among successful students. their parents. and
school personnel were found to be generally positive. The parents were actively
involved in their children’s education. This high level of involvement inﬂuenced the
family perspective on education in a positive way. The communication between the
students and parents and school personnel was constructive and healthy.

Jeltes and this researcher found that the cultures of both the families and the
schools were mutually supportive. The students and parents reported that both the
parents and school personnel had high expectations for the successful students.
Responsibility and structure were common components in both settings. The school
was the center of activity for these families’ social lives. All of these students were
extremely active in school. and the parents centered their lives on the children’s
activities and involvement.

The parents in both of these studies had the philosophy that parents are the

key players in their children’s education and that education begins in the home.

 

 

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177
These parents took personal responsibility for enriching and enhancing their
children's learning. To these parents. education of one’s child involved a partnership
with the school. These parents respected the school and put forth an effort to
establish excellent rapport with their children’s teachers and with school personnel
in general.

Although many of the ﬁndings from these two studies were similar. the most
pronounced difference was in the area of family risk factors. Jeltes reported minimal
or no existence of risk factors in the two—parent families he interviewed. The families
in the present study reported a variety of risk factors within their families. The most
prevalent risk factor was that the students in this study were from homes in which
there had been a separation and divorce. Although many family risk factors were
reported by most of the families of successful students in this study. none was
dwelled on or perceived as a barrier to the students’ ability to continue to succeed.
Students had processed and were processing family problems. but each of them
conveyed a resiliency to withstand the adversity and a drive to continue to succeed
in spite of it. Forthese students. their personal responsibility to do their best and be
successful transcended the family risk factors and/or family problems.

The comparison of the data from these two studies revealed many mutually
supportive ﬁndings related to the academic success of students. It is evident that
the family relationship and structure, relationships and communication with school
personnel. student determination and personal responsibility for success. and value

on education of previous generations were the most common attributes of the

 

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178
families in these two studies that contributed to these students’ academic success.
The students in the present study deﬁed the volumes of research reporting the
negative impact of risk factors on students’ academic success. The most important
indicators of student success are related to the family life and relationships. as

evidenced in this study.

BecommendationsioLEunheLBeseamh

This researcher focused on the family’s inﬂuence on students’ success in
school. The study was conducted with students from single-parent families in which
the mother was the custodial parent. All of the students in the study attended public
schools and had grade point averages of 3.0 or higher. The study took place in
communities within a 20-mile radius of a large metropolitan city in the Midwest.
Additional research needs to be considered and carried out related to other aspects
of how and why students from different single-parent family conﬁgurations succeed
in school. The following are topics to consider for further study:

1. A comparison of family life and culture in families of succesle
students whose single parents never married.

2. A study of family life and culture in single-parent families of successful
students in which the parent is a homosexual.

3. A random study of students from single-parent families to compare
their family lives and cultures regardless of the students’ achievements.

4. A study of the impact that having a parent who is a substance abuser

has on students’ academic success.

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179
5. A replication of the present study with only male students from single-

parent families.

6. A replication of the present study with only female students from
single—parent families.

7. A replication of the present study with families in another part of the
United States.

8. A replication of the present study with all participants from a minority
racial or ethnic background.

9. A study that is focused speciﬁcally on the impact of divorce on
students’ success.

10. A replication of the present study with students from single-parent
families who live with their fathers as the custodial parents.

11. A replication of the present study with students who live with their

grandparents.

Reﬂections
Jeltes’s (1992) study of successful students from intact families revealed
patterns of the family and school cultures. Jeltes’s ﬁndings were consistent with
those from the present study. The families in this study viewed education as the
most important means for their children to succeed in life. The parents with whom
the successful students lived expected their children to succeed and were committed
to working closely in a cooperative partnership with their children’s schools. The

family experience was an important element in the students’ accepting and

 

 

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180

embracing the role of the school. The parents’ self-sacriﬁce. ability to deal with
adversity. views on parenting. and support created an environment that was
conducive to the children’s success.

in this study. all of the successful students’ custodial parents were their
mothers. These mothers could serve as an inspiration to other struggling single
parents: that they can provide the support necessary for their children to succeed
in overcoming the adversity they have encountered. The risk factors shared by the
families in this study did not prevent the students’ success. The parents did not
allow their problems and difﬁculties to get in the way of their parental functioning.
They provided solid supervision. strong emphasis on academics. and high
expectations. it was evident to this researcher that these positive parental skills and
attributes were stabilizing forces for the child to succeed that overcame any of the
risk factors that were part of these families.

Many successful students in the educational system come from homes
headed by single parents. The opportunity to study a few of these students was
enjoyable and rewarding. Despite some difﬁcult circumstances. these successful
students were committed and determined to make something of their lives. All of the
students held high expectations for themselves personally and had the drive and
dedication to achieve their goals. It is likely that these students will do very well in
college and will pass on a heritage and culture of success to their own children some

day.

 

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181

Educational researchers can promote the success of students from singlc
parent families by focusing on the common traits of families of students who are
successful. By investigating the characteristics of single-parent families with
successful students. they will discover the similarities that cultivate an environment
that is conducive to students’ success. These commonalities can serve as a model
for struggling families who are searching for proven techniques and parenting skills
to implement within their families.

The successful students in this study came from various living arrangements
and opportunities. The families were diverse in terms of their life styles and/or
interests. including their religious preferences or practices. how they spent their
leisure time. and their views on life in general. Although each of these families had
unique characteristics. all had a common focus on the importance and beneﬁts of
a good education. The philosophy and value that these students had acquired about
the importance of an education were directly related to what was modeled and
taught in their homes. This common philosophy and value of education were the key
factors contributing to students’ academic success. Finally. the students in this
study accepted personal responsibility for their Ieaming and were committed to
achieving their goals. Each believed that the individual is primarily accountable for

his or her own success.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

THE FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS INVENTORY

TI

nL

1 82
FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS INVENTORY'

Family Name

Date

The following statements ﬁt some families better than others. Please circle the
number that best describes how well each statement ﬁts your family.

Does not ﬁt Fits our Fits our
our family family family
at all some verywell
1. We live in a good neighborhood. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Our family talks things out. 1 2 3 4 5
3. There is an opportunity for each member
to express himself in his own way. 1 2 3 4 5
4. We have a sense of humor. 1 2 3 4 5
5. There are activities which we all enjoy
doing together. 1 2 3 4 5
6. We respect each other’s feelings. 1 2 3 4 5
7. In our home. we feel loved. 1 2 3 4 5
8. We have the right kinds of friends. 1 2 3 4 5
9. Discipline is moderate and consistent. 1 2 3 4 5
10. Educational goals are important to us. 1 2 3 4 5
11. There is a sense of belonging in our
family. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Our family is a reliable. dependable
family. 1 2 3 4 5

13. We establish reasonable goals for
ourselves. 1 2 3 4 5

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

183

Does not ﬁt
our family
at all
We encourage development of potential
in all members of our family. 1
We express appreciation of what we
do for one another. 1
We plan ahead. 1
We share experiences. 1
We live in a good school district. 1
Father is a good provider. 1
There is enough money for special
things. 1

’Please ﬁll out this questionnaire as a family.

Fits our
family
some

Fits our
family

APPENDIX B

THE FAMILY HISTORY SURVEY

8.

10.
12.
13.

14.

15.

16.
17.

18.

1 9.
20.

21.

184

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FAMILY HISTORY SURVEY
. Name 2. Telephone
Address
Mother’s occupation 5. Company
Title 7. Years employed
Father’s occupation 9. Company
Title 11. Years employed
Number of marriages: Mother Father

 

Number of years as a single parent

Children

>

ge Gender

 

 

 

 

 

Any deaths in the immediate family?

 

 

 

Do you own or rent your home?

 

How many rooms?

 

Does anyone outside the immediate family live in the home?

 

Mother’s birthplace

 

Mother’s educational level

 

Mother’s religious afﬁliation

 

22.

23

22. Father's birthplace

185

 

23. Father's educational level

 

24. Father’s religious afﬁliation

 

APPENDIX C

THE FAMILY RISK FACTORS QUESTIONNAIRE

10.
11.

12.

186
FAMILY RISK FACTORS QUESTIONNAIRE

Has there ever been any alcoholism/substance abuse in your family?

Yes No
Have you ever had a problem with alcoholism/substance abuse?

Yes No
Has there ever been any physical. mental. or sexual abuse?

Yes No
Has there ever been any unemployment in the family? Yes No

Have you ever collected on welfare/ADCISociaI Security disability?

Yes No
Have there ever been any traumatic moves that had to be made?
Yes No
Because of factors. have you terminated religious practices?
Yes No
Do you or any family member smoke?
Dad Yes No
Mom Yes No
Student Yes No

Are you in the lower. middle. or upper income bracket? Please circle one.
is there a poor male role model in the family? Yes No
Does anyone have a criminal record? Yes No

Has anyone ever failed or been retained? Yes No

APPENDIX D

LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM THE UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE
ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS

187

1996
Reviewer #13
.rom: ROD Skilling

QB. met 96-291

Title: A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF FAMILY LIFE TO THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF
STUDENTS FROM SMLE PARENT FAMILIES

Before subjects sign the consent form the risk involved by their
participating in the study will be explained orally. The following is a
written script of the information about risk that will be explained to each
potential participant.

Limited confidentiality will be provided to all subjects.
Only I (principal investigator) will have access to the written notes.
The written noteS‘will be stored in my home.

Names of those interviewed will be changed in the written report of the
findings.

The risk of possible identification by those familiar with the setting
is remote, yet exists. This is a risk common to this type of study.

The list of those selected for interview will be known only to the
principal investigator.

A neutral site will be selected for the actual conducting of the
interviews. This may include the private residence of the respondents.
The possibility exists that someone may see us talking and be aware of
the fact that I am interviewing people for my study. however this seems
highly unlikely.

Given these safeguards. the risk of identification must be viewed as

minimal. The chance that the interviewee may reveal details of the
study is beyond the control of the principal investigator.

UCRIHS APPROVAL FOR
THIS project EXPIRES: -

MAY 2 0 1997

SUBMIT RENEWAL APPLICATION
ONE MONTH PRIOR TO
ABOVE DATE TO CONTINUE

05-08-96 092llAM P002 2350

 

OFRCEOF
RESEARCH
AND
GRADUATE
STUDIES

University Committaa on
Research Involving
Human Subjects

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HommSmummmm
ZﬂAmmmwmmn&mmm
demmeﬂmwm
«shame

517/355-2180
FAX.517/432-1171

 

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DauMWMowawmw
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amounnnunnm

188

MICHIGAN STATE

 

UNIV

ERSITY

May 22. 1996

TO: Robert Skillin

8478

Woodruff Drive SW

Byron Center. Mi. 49315

RE: IRB#:

96-291

TITLE: A STUDY OF TRE RELATIONSHIP OF FAMILY LIFE TO

P
REVISION REQUESTED: N/A

THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF STUDENTS FROM SINGLE
ARENT FAMILIES

CATEGORY: l-C
APPROVAL DATE: 05/20/96

The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects'(UCRIHSl
review of this project is complete. I am pleased to adv1se that the

rights and

welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately

protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate.

herefore,
above.

REVISIONS:

PROBLEKS/
CHANGES:

the UCRIHS approved this project and any reVisions listed

UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with
the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to
continue a prOJect beyond one year must use the green renewal
form (enclosed with t e original a proval letter or when a.
project is renewed) to seek u date certification. There is a
maXimum of four such expedite renewals possible. Investigators
wishing to continue a prOJect beyond that time need to submit it
again or complete rev1ew.

UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human
subjects. rior to initiation of t e change. If this is done at
the_time o renewal. please use the green renewal form. To
reVise an approved protocol at any 0 her time during the year,
send your written request to the CRIBS Chair, requesting rev1sed
approval and referenCing the project's IRB h and title. Include
in our request a description of the change and any revised

ins ruments. consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

Should either of the following arise during the course of the
work. investigators must noti y UCRIHS promptly: (1) roblems
(unexpected Slde effects. comp aints, etc.) involving uman
subjects or (2) changes in the research environment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human sub'ects than
existed when the protocol was previously reviewed an approved.

If we can be of any future help. lease do not hesitate to contact us
at (517)355-2180 or FAX (517)4 2- 171.

Sincerel

DEW:bed

    
 
   
 
  

avid E. wright. Ph.D.
UCRIHS Chair

cc: Louis Romano

APPENDIX E

CONSENT FORM

1 89
CONSENT FORM

To whom it may concern:

The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of why some students
from single-parent families are successful in the regular school system. I will be
asking you some questions about your family background, your family experiences,
and how other members of your family experienced school. In addition, I will be
asking you about your family's involvement with your schooling. Finally, I will be
seeking permission to talk with other members of your family.

This interview will take approximately one hour. if we do not complete all of the
questions, I’d like to talk to you again. The total time involved in our interviews will
not exceed three hours.

All the results will be treated with strict confidentiality, and your name will not be
used in any research report.

Participation is voluntary; you may choose not to participate at all. refuse to answer
some questions, or discontinue the interview at any time. There is absolutely no
penalty for taking any of these actions.

If you wish to have a copy of the general findings of this report, one will be furnished
upon request.

By signing this form, you indicate that you understand the purposes of the study.

Guardian (if under 18 years of age)

 

Respondent’s name

 

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