0.0-." v nan-0“ 1n~a/ I Z- 7 2 ansmcr WISH]! mm WING ms AND WISH” IN WAR TIME: AMWMEVISIQIWMMIMMWW 3! Dory 'I'rupin The Gulf war presented the Pruerican televisim networks (ABC, CBS, and NBC) with various expected professional challenges. An tin-expected challenge, however, was my of the advertisers reluctance to run then-H ads during war coverage program out of fear of viewer backlash. This reluctance presented the television networks with a serious revenue ‘ prohlun that added up to the additimal costs of the Gulf war coverage. This study researched structural and cmtmt changes the televisim networksn'edeintheirevenimnewsprogmduringtheaulfwarin order to gain hack advertisers smart. It camares evening news progrumfmtheculfwarperiodto eveningnewsprograns frantwo other periods, and defines what changes were nude by each network between the three periods and mag the three networks for each period. The findings of this study show that structural changes were typical for each network, and that cmtent differmces between the networks were of structural nature - they occurred in specific placenents in the news text. Mted by the faculty of the Departrlmt of Telecamunicatim, College of Camamicatim Arts and Sciences, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. ”I L/‘Loé/[é/fl, 4033544 / 41.411” ”(greater of Thesis ’5 Tommtherthatwithoutherswportlwmfldneverhavemdeit. ii TIBLEIUPIIIHENES List of Tables.... .................................... . ........ iv List of Figures. . . ...... .. ...................................... v chapter (be: Introductim. . . ......... . . . ....... . ....... . ..... 1 Chapter Two: Literature. .................. . ......... . ........ 6 alapter'l‘hree: Nethods........ ............................. ...16 Chapter Four: Results. . . . . ................................... 30 Chapter Five: Discussim ........ . ................ . . . ...... . . .56 Bibliography. .................. . ............................... 64 iii Table 4-1 Table 4-2 Table 4-3 Table 4-4 Table 4-5 Table 4-6 Table 4-7 Table 4-8 Table 4-9 Table 4-10 Table 4-11 Table 4-12 Table 4-13 Table 4-14 LISTG'W ABC, Inter-Period Camarism... ....... ...............31 ABC, Irregular Progrem33 (38, Inter-Period Cmparism..... ................. ...34 NBC, Inter-Period Carparism...... ................... 36 Nm-Rar Period, Inter-Network Cm'parism .......... . . .39 Pre-War Period, Inter-Network Cmparismw ...... ...41 War Period, Inter-Network Cmparism. . . . . . ........... 43 MeanAndFregumcyOfItemAndGroupsOf Item,PerProgrenCroup ..... 46 ABC, Category Item Appearance And Premieicy Before Cannercial Breaks ....... . . ........ . ......... . .48 ABC, Category Item Appearance And Frequency “tum‘l arm..0OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00‘8 CBS, Category Item Appearance And Prequel-Icy Before Cannercial Breaks .............. . .............. 49 CBS, Category Item Appearance And Frequmcy AfterCmmercial Breaks ...... 50 NBC, Category Item Appearance And Frequemzy Before Camercial Breaks ............................. 51 NBC, Category Item Appearance And Prewmcy AfterCmrnercial Breaks... ...... .. ...... ...... 51 iv LIST (1' PIQRES Figure 3-1 "Model 1" ............................................ 17 Figure 3-2 "Model 2" ................ . ........................... 17 “M 3-3 .MI 3". O O O. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I .18 Figure 3-4 Cmmrcial Breaks Placermt In The New Text .......... 21 Figure 3-5 Cermercial Breaks Length ....... . ..................... 22 Figure 3-6 A Progm Group Cmtmt Iten Table ................... 23 Figure 3-7 Structural Disturbance Ratio Formtla ................ .25 Figure 3-8 A Network Inter-Period Carparism .................... 26 Figure 3-9 A Period Inter-Network Carparism27 Figure 3-10 Means And Pregnancies Of Item Per Progm Group.....27 Figure 3-11 Category Item Before (or After) A Caumrcial Break. .28 m GE - IRWIGV W This chapter covers problem three Amrican televisim networks faced during the Gulf war whm Imny advertisers refined to place their ads in program dealing with war coverage. The three networks in this stuly are the Marican Broadcasting Corporatim (ABC), the Colurbia Broadcasting Systen (CBS), and the Natimal Broadcasting Corporatim (NBC). Emblem The possibility of a war in the Persian Gulf becane real gradmlly, through a series of events that took place in the secmd half of 1990. The United States and her allies sent military troops to the Saudi desert when diplamtic actims brought no results.In early August of 1990 Iraqi military forces invaded Await. m Noverber 29, 1990,(I) the United Natims set a deadline of January 15,1991 for Iraq to withdraw its military forces fran Await. Diplemtic efforts cmtinued. The world waited. Diplamtic talks between Baker and Asia failed January 9, 1991.0) No respmsihle media organisatim would have been caught unprepared when the war finally broke. Indeed, the three Panerican broficast networks prepared for mmths for war coverage abroad. Nevertheless, m Jamnry 16, 1991 and in the following days and weeks, the broadcast networks found themelves unprepared to face a severe advertising shortage, that occurred when advertisers refused to run their ads with war coverage. The actmlity of the Gulf War created three 1min programing problem: First, my advertisers withdrew their cannercials fren any war-related program. Advertisers feared viewer/cmsuner backlash if their advertisements were associated with the Gulf war. This created a huge loss of advertising revenue. Secmd, extended news editims, special reports, and breaking news, especially in the first three mys of the war, pre-erpted regular program. Because viewers were not able to follow the altered schedule, ratings for re-scheduled program dropped, and so did associated advertising revenues. Finally, . the war coverage itself was costly to the networks. NBC estimtad an expense of $1.5 millim a week.@) W Various reports published during the Gulf War period indicated that a existential umber of advertisers decided not to rm their cannercials inandaromdprogramaddressingthewar. Atthesanetime, other advertisers did not perceive war related program as incmpatible with their advertising. Newspapers and magazine reports detailed the unfolding problen for advertising decisim Imkers: A W Jamary 18, 1991 report cites an advertising agency executive as saying, "He have to look carefully at our clients, the appropriateness of their cannercials and the progress of the cmflict . "(4) This report also cites two corporates advertising departmmt rmnagers: me reported withholding cannercials and the other reported cmsidering withholding cmmercials. An mm January 21, 1991 report describes a more defined sitmtim by listing leading natimal advertisers who would not air their camercials during news coverage of the war: Proctor & Garble Co., Sears Roebuck 8 co.‘ Pepsi-Cola Co., McDmald's Corp., Pizza Hut, Toyota Motor Sales USA, American Isuzu Motors, Miller Brewing Co., Eastman Kodak Co., Ford Motor Co., Hershey Foods Corp. , AT&T Co. and Merican Express 00.6) It gmtes an advertising agency exemtive as saying: "I dm't think [ads are] proper [during war coverage]; there's a backlash potential, aid you have to ask what would you gain fran it."(5) However the report also says, "Host of the rmrketers will cmtinue to rm advertising during regularly scheduled progrardng."(5) A W February 7 , 1991 report indicates increased advertisers' reluctance to run cmmercials during war coverage program: ". . .all 3 network executives said in interviews that my advertiser's skittislmess about war coverage was costing than millims of dollars."(6) The report says advertisers feared juxtaposing cannercials with illegal of death aid violence, and juxtaposing up-beat camercials in war 93W in general etwor According to a W January 21, 1991 report mly five days into the war, 'Tioward Stringer, the president of C88 broadcast group, said that as the war cmtinued [and special reports were aired pre- elpting regular programing]. the networks were trying to be more selective about interrupting regular programing . . . ."o: The report cmtinues tosaythatthisapproachwas influencedbytheneedto reduce the extra costs of covering the war. The report mentions that another factor influencing this approach was the drop in ratings of prime-time regular programing which was created by viewers inability to "keep up with the chaos in progran schedules...."(3) The report also quotes an NBC executive who said that the gross lost of advertising revenue for Wednesday's [1/16] prime-time hours was 83.5-84.0 millim.<3) Neither NBC or (38 ran advertising in the first evening of the war. According to a W February 7, 1991 report. mly two percent of cmmercial time available during war programing specials was sold.(6) Even the offer by (88 of better "lead-ins" to carrnercials failed to cmvince advertisers to run their cmmercials durirng war program.(6) This researcher assured a general diffimlty in running canmrcials in and around any war-related progran and was omcerned with the relatimship between calmercials and editorial cmtent in the text of broadcast network evening news during the war. This researcher was also interested in identifying the characteristics of the whole news progran as a text, defining that text as carposed of editorial and camnercial cmtent. Be addressed the issue: What if anything, did news editors do to accanmdate cannercials and war coverage in the text of evening news program? 53mm: This chapter introduced the networks' advertising problen during the Gulf war and presented an issue that cmcerns possible changes in the networks evening news text, during the Gulf war. 1- WW: 50. 2610. 30 Decelber 1990, 888. 2. MW 51, 2616, 10 Jammy 1991, 9. 3. Carter, Bill, "Gulf War Is Creating Havoc For Networks", W Ting, 21 Jamary, 1991, 0-6 4. Felts, Rim, "War Coverage And Cmmercial Limits", W, 18 January 1991, 13-16 5. An Advertising Age Roundup, "Marketers Slash Ads As War Erupts", W, 21 January, 1991, 1, 54. 6. Carter, Bill, "Few Spmsors For T.V. War News", W, 7, February 1991, D-1, D-20. (mm m - LITERATURE REVIDI Wig This mapter covers research of public attitudes towards advertising in war time, a theory of viewer positiming vis-a-vis news program, ad theories of influences m nass media cmtent. W Before answering the questim, "What did televisim news editors do to accmnnodate camercials in televisim war coverage news program?", me has to carefully observe the cmtext in which this questim is asked. This author's opinim is that this cmtext omsists of questions involving three inter-related issues: public opinim, news cmtent ad structure, ad media organizatim behavior. mum What were public attitndes toward advertising in televisim news coverage of the Gulf War? Were the public's attitudes different than the advertisers in this matter? MW Were cmtent placenent ad cmtent frequency an issue for the televisim news editors? Did these editors nmke any structural changes in the evening news text? W What organizatimal factors affected news cmtent produced by media organizatims during the gulf war? This chapter covers surveys, theories, essays, and direct evidence cmcerning the three issues. BMW As mentimed in chapter me of this study, many advertisers withheld their cmnercials fren Gulf war coverage program because of two reasms: (1) The appropriateness of advertising during war program in general; advertisers were afraid of being perceived by the public as profiting frmn the war; and (2) The adjacency of camercials to "sensitive" editorial war cmtent, which nay have resulted in an undesired effect of the editorial cmtent m the ceumrcials. This thesis stndy presents two other indepedent stndies (the first published in 1991, the secmd published in 1992), that surveyed the public's attitudes toward advertising during the Gulf war. (In February 21, 1991, the Natimal Televisim Associatim (NT'A), presented a telephme survey conducted an February 11 ad 12, 1991. 'This survey was based m respmses frann 1,020 adults ad is natimally projectable within a mrgin of error of plus or minus 3 percent.”(2) Results for early evening news program were: [85 percent] of the public who expressed an opinim feels advertising in war coverage semants of regularly scheduled evening news is "equally acceptable" or "more acceptable" than advertising in other segnents of these program. Similar results were found toward advertising in urn-scheduled Gulf war coverage news program (specials). Furthermore, if advertising is "sensitive to the war", ninety me percent . . . agree it is equally or more acceptable to advertise in war coverage segments. . . . Seventy-nine percent . . . believe advertisers m network televisim news programing coverirng the Gulf war are rmking a sonxd business decisim by advertising in these program. Eighty two percent of early evenirng network news viewers felt advertisingmtheseprogram cmtainingcoverageofthewarwas cmventimal business practice.(2) angenia Zerbinos ad Alice Kedrick of the University of Mryland, caducted a series of two surveys in the Dallas area. The first survey was conducted on January 17, 1991, the second survey was cmducted m January 24, 1991. Researchers interviewed 370 viewers in the first surveyadabout two-thirdsofthe370againinthesecedsurveyt3). The following is a part of the results: respmdents in the first wave [1/17] generally did not view cannercials during war informatim program as appropriate. (In a scale of 1 to 5, very appropriate to inappropriate, the seen for the appropriateness of televisim cmmercials was 3.72. . . .(3) Respondents in the follow-up survey were asked if they held the sane views about the appropriateness of televisim . . . camercials during war news . . . A nuch greater proportion of people moved fran the inappropriate to the appropriate category than in the other directim. [In the secmd survey results categories were collapsed frmn five to three: appropriate, neutral ad inappropriate.] For exalple, of those who originally regarded televisim camercials as inappropriate, 42% regarded than as appropriate or very appropriate a week later. Only 6% of those who said televisim cannercials were appropriate viewed then as inappropriate or very inappropriate a week later. Those surveyed were asked to give the reasm behird their original respmses for those who regarded then as inappropriate, the reasms focused largely an the intrusive and trivial nature of camnercials when cmpared to the irrportance and seriousness of the war. . . . my of thosewhohadnoproblenwiththeairing of the cannercials, saw then as an opportunity to take a break without rnlssinganydevelopnentinthewar. Samof thosewhosaid camercials were appropriate seennad to recognize the ecmanic realities of broadcasting. This author's opinim is that the varying attitndes reported in the different survey results suggest that public opinim grew more favorable toward advertising during Gulf war coverage program as the war progressed. These surveys gives evidence that the further away frmn the beginning of the Gulf war the survey was conducted, the more favorable public opinim becane toward advertising during war coverage. In relatim to public opinim polls, advertisers attitudes toward canmrcials during war coverage news program was, therefore, justified mly during the early stages (first week) of the Gulf war. Emu-W In additim to providing infomtim about public opinim, me mat look at theories discussing the effects of war coverage can viewer perceptim, in the cmtext of televisim news text cmtent and structure. Like cmtent, structure carries a uessage to the viewer. For instance, placinganewsstory lmgertlnnurnusual atthebeginningofthenews text labels the story as inportant by being irregular, and the delay of other news stories in the sane news text labels then as relatively uniuportant to the first news story. The uessage here is denoted not in the news story cmtent, but rather in its length ad placenent. An additimal message relates to the hierarchy between different stories in the news text. W the way to aderstad the issue of relatimship between different item in the news text is to theoretically address the enotimal and perceptual affects each iten has an the viewer as well as to urderstand how these effects interfere with other effects of adjacent item in the news text. Rudsam addresses this issue by defining levels of "diegesis," wing Nichols'a) definitim of diegesis as the "depicted real world." Budsm categorizes cmtent in televisim evening news can a loosely defined scale frmn "nm-diegetic" to "diegetic."a'.m Budsm agrees that elenents of the news progran that are less diegetic distance the viewers emtimally fran the described actim of the story through various productim means of mediatim (talking-head reporter, electrmic graphics, talking-head anchor, progran them uusic). The nest diegetic elemnts in the news progran ("real" iuagas of characters In their world, natural sound ad dialogue) m the other hand, positim the viewer emtimally "closer" to the described actim where more direct access to real actim is given. Rudsm claim that the editorial parts of the news progran can be described as the less diegetic elemnts of the news text, ad that calmercials tend to be sore diegetic. Accordingly, with a cmmercial break .. .we often receive all sorts of nm-diegetic cues, just before the ad cluster Nichols ad Koskinen tell us that this process cues the spectator that it is okay to participate more enotimally [he enotimally positimed closer] with the nessage in the ads.(8) Nichole?) cites Christian Nets in discussing the process of text item affecting each other: Christian flats in developing his "grad sintagmtique", offers a definitim of the sequence as a syntacn, or a unit of narrative autmany: a sequence is "a coherent syntagn within which the 'shots' react (semntically) to each other (P.:97)<7). In other words, the cmtent of me itenn affects the peroeptim other iten's cmtent by being adjacent to the other iten. [Metz:]The distinctive elenent in such a code (that of the grad syntagmtique) is not the sequence itself .. . but mly the logical principle of ordering which anirmtes it and which assures its cohasim, permitting the images to form a sequence instead of remining isolated views. (P.97) Nemrized inforrmtim of formerly perceived item cmstantly affects the perceptim of following informatim in the text. This author's cmclusim of the above is that certain editorial elemnts such as war scenes, any act too "diegetically," ad positim viewers enotimally closer to the described actim. This positiming will trigger an undesired ennotimal perceptim by the viewer, before or just after a cmnercial break. Therefore, it will influence the viewer's emtimal participatim in cmmercials, which are defined as diegetic elerents of the news text. Such a cmclusim my support advertisers' attitudes toward placing ads in program dealing with war coverage. WW Network officials were indeed listening to advertisers. As Joseph Peyrmnin, Vice President ad Associate to the President of (38 News stated:(4) Invariably we dm't go directly fran those kinds of cmtent (e.g. war scenes) -';-‘into a camercial break. There is often a pad sectim or explanati’un sectim, ad again it is an appropriate mmnt, when we put a cmmercial in a progran. There is a distance frmn the very sensitive material to where a cmmercial would go. A Gannett Foudatim Report, "The Media At War,"(l) citirng the Tyndall Report, presented a table of the "Top [25] News Stories - Decelber 1990 - February 1991" (P.47). The story category ranked first, "Iraq-Kuwait Crisis": 0.8. Desert Storm" received 2,658 broadcast minutes. The story category ranked seced, "Soviet Politics: Shevardnadze Resigns," received mly 56 groadcast minutes. Obviously the increase in frequency of war-related stories rmde it harder m news editors to distance cannercials fran these stories. W This author has not been able to find any previous structural research related to news program . 12 WW Both Hndsmtl) ad Nicholso) described news editing routines. Routine however, is mly me of several factors that affect the media organizatim behavior. Shoemker arnd Reese” discuss various organizatimal factors influencing media cmtent. These include influence of media routines ad influence can cmtent frmn both within and fran without the nmdia organizatim. Shoemker ad Reese:(6) . . . routines are inportant because they affect the social reality portrayed by the media (P.88). . . . routines are practical respmses to the needs of nmdia organizatims and workers (P.88). These routines help the media organizatim address the following questims: (1) What is acceptable to the cmsuner? (2) What is the organizatim capable of processing? (3) What raw product is available fren suppliers (sources)? In a newsman, for exarple, an editor must consider all three questims in deciding which stories to publish; What stories are available, which mes would appeal to the audience, ad which satisfy the needs of the organizatim. . .? P.88 When looking into the televisim evening news, me can easily identify sane editing routines: length (26-29 minutes), a fixed mariner of (3 or 4) cannercial breaks in each news progran, and bufferirng cmtent item adjacent to cmmercial breaks. This author's opinim is that keeping those routines helps preserve the viewer's cmsunptim (viewing) habits which Imke caumrcial ad editorial effective and acceptable to the viewer. serrated” carries this view further: Even when dealing with highly unusual, highly unexpected stories, news workers try to find routine ways of dealing with the nm-routine,. . . m-routine newswork . . . depeds m adapting strategies fren everyday work routines. l3 Shoensker ad Reese“) speak about "defensive routines," such as ”journalistic objectivity," which help prevent offeding the audience. As mtiened by Shoemker and Reese,(6) editors trust censider "which cmtent would satisfy the needs of the organization." [Segalzj So lung as revenues are sufficient to ensure organizatienal survival , professienal and social objectives take precedence over profits. . . .(6) (P.122). For several reasens televisim displays the influence of ecenau'nc objectives an content most clearly. Most broadcast organizatiens nuke all their revenue fran advertising The inflexible time within which to progren camercials, translates every programing decisim into an ecananic trade-of“) (P.124). 'nne video "Advertising In Tine of Crisis",(4) produced by the an ad featuring several networks officials , provides direct evidence of the ecunanic trade-off: Joseph Peyrennin, Vice President ad Associate to the President , CBS News: We do not want to put a spensor in a difficult positim. We canth with our sales department, our marketing people, what the issues are that spansors have, ad we are mindful of those situatims,‘ and we respad to those kind of situatiens. .. .(4) Dan Brown, Executive Vice President, NBC News: The executive producer works very closely with the advertising parts tounkesurethey'replacedinareas of thenewswhere they' re appropriate .(4) Jeff Gralnick, Executive Producer, ABC News: We took great care to buffer calmercials fran cmtent that might be guestianable. That was always an our mud, when we did have a camnercial that we could advertise. . . .(4) anoelaker and Reeseo‘cite Jamiesen ad Celpbell: [Advertisers] use their financial nmscle to protest what they perceive unfair treatment by the nets sequent of the ms media (P.164). ' l4 Illney continue: Modern nultinatienal manufacturers ad advertising agencies therefore have cansiderable power to suppress public messages they do not likefi) (P.164). In this literature reviev, three issues have been presented. Public opinim surveys suggest that over time people tended to accept advertising with war-related news. Cantent theories swgest that advertisers have sane basis for their reluctance to advertise during war program. Theories of influence on mass media cmtent suggest that media organisatiens reaped to ecanannical pressures ad ted to unintain work routines . W Overall , how did general factors affecting television network belnvior overall, influence televisim evening news progrens' structure ad cmtent during the Gulf war? 15 mm 1. Inlay, Craig; FitzSimon, Martha; Sahadi, Jeanne; ed. 'nne Media At War: The Press And The Persian Gulf Cenflict, A Gamett Foundatien Report, (New York City: W, Colmbia University), 1991, 47. 2. Advertising In War Coverage, (ceducted by Bruskin Assoc.) (Nev York City: the Wig). 1991- 3. Greenberg, Bradley, Gents, Walter, (eds.), Desert Storm And The Mass Media, (New York City: W), To be published fall 1992). 4. Advertising In Times Of Crisis, (New York City: W W m g, m, 1991. (Video movie) 5. Berkowitz, Dan, ”Nan Routine news And Nevswork: Exploring What-A- Btory," WW, Levy Hark (ed.),(New York City; Oxford University Press 42, 1992), 82-94. 6. Shoemker, Panels 3.; Reese, Stephen D;, W, (New York City; Lenten, (1991) 88, 122, 124, 164. 7. Nichols, Bill, I-_e WM. (Bloandnngten; Indiana university Press, 1981), 170-207. 8. Budsen J. , Televisim News: A Hierarchy Of Mediation Through Viewer Positianing. (Dallas: Presented at the Annual Meeting Of The Broadcast Educatien Association, 1987), microfish. 16 W This chapter includes research models that describe (1) data analysis ad camarisen, (2) tlne universe, (3) the instrunnent and the procedures of analysis, ad (4) a fornula for evaluating structural changes in the news text. The televisim networks studied were ABC, C38, AND NBC. we The researcher used three models to identify changes that occurred in television network evening news texts during the first two weeks of the Gulf War, January 16, 1991 - January 31, 1991 (identified in this work as the "war period"). He identified changes by a using a canpariscxn of three periods of television network evening news: the war-period, an adjacent "pre-war period," January 1, 1991 - Jannnry 15, 1991 (with similar issues ad similar eccxnennic recessien effects to the war period), ad a previous "nan-war" period, January 17, 1990 - January 31, 1990 (a period with similar advertising cycle ceditions to the war- period that establishes a relevant nan-war evening news criteria of regularity). For purposes of analysis, weeked prograna were censidered no different than weekday program. The first model describing a carparisen similar to the canparisen done in this study, appears in Holstia) (figure2-3, P.29). The researcher stretched Holsti's model frann two to three situatiens to watch the three periods of time discussed in this work. This Model includes a canparisen of three network evening news "progren grams." A "progren group" is an 'kn" number of prograna for a specific network in a defined period. This l7 trodel canpares three progran groups of a specific televisim network, for three different periods. Messages Messages Messages produced by produced by produced by source A: source A: source A: Situation s1 Situation s2 Situation s3 content 3X8 < --------------- > AX, < ------------ > AX, variable X 1 : 2 i 3 I Effects of situation on communication content Figure 3.1: Research Model 1 Model 1 shows a change in the message (e.g. centent variable X) of a television.network (e.g. source.A or B or C) over three periods (e.g. three situations). A.message is the structure of television.e~ening news produced by a televisim network in a given period. The researcher structural variables measured such as camnercial-break length ad starting time. hob period affected the message differently. This research also canpared messages of the three different network eveningnewsprograna (e.g., sourcesA, BandC) inthesaneperiod, or in.a similar situation. Each.network.produced a different structure (e.g. message) in the sane period. Structural variables measured were canmnmdallunak.Leaninandanartuxatime. llreseumhlmdblcheccnfingzatumdhn:caunmtmanampums:unflohuda) (figure 2.6, P.30). The following model stretches Holsti's model frann two to three sources to culpare the three network news program. As nanticxned previously, a progran group represents "n" nunber of programs 18 for a specific network, in a defined period. In this model all grows caighumeddhrflm:thelnmexnmmuL Messages Messages Messages produced produced produced by source A: by source B: by source C: Content AX < """""" ’ Bx ‘ """""" > Cx variable x 3 | Differences between communicators Figure 3.2: Research Model 2 Efluseihalreneudhlmdhdslnsuesem:thelNIuchnnnoflumwmd:emefing naenpsqnmms.As«aanent«flangesin1uunUedslumndeuuibeland denudedtfim:thexnmrwarlawlthennurpechdb:amun acaxuentcemmarhmxn between three networks at the sane period is adequately described by reunuehnmdblih Awdfixdludblthesaunacemmem:commudsancflipnqnam nmnmpscfiithelnmelwfiwmdm.buttmmtmltwocfijienenLpedmds.(see figure 3.3) n: n Messages Messages produced by produced by source A: source A: Situation 81 Situation 82 Content variable x 3x, , < ---------- > fix, 1 2 Effects of situation on communication content. Pigmnn3.3:luaemnano&fl.3 19 W The universe inclndes evening news program frann three periods that are described below: The nan-war period included all evening news program broadcast between January 17, 1990 and January 31, 1990. ABC did not broadcast eveningnewsonJanuary 21, GSdidnotbroadcast its eveningnewsan January 20 ad January 28. ABC broadcast fourteen evening news program, (38 broadcast thirteen, ad NBC brodcast fifteen. The pre-war period includes all evening news program broadcast between January 1, 1991, and 15, 1991. ABC did not broadcast evening newsenJanuaryladS. (BSdidnotbroadcasteveningnewsenJanmnry6 and12. NBCdidnotbroadcasteveningnewsanJanuaryladn. All networks broadcast thirteen evening news program. Thewarperiodincludedall eveningnewsprogrambroadcastbetween January 16, 1991 and January 31, 1991. ABC did not broadcast evening news January 27. (ES did not broadcast evening news January 20, and NBC did not broadcast evening news January 19, 1991. All irregular news texts (langer or shorter than half hour texts, and/or texts with varying amber of calmercial breaks) were excluded frown a network's progran grow. This rule applies to ABC on January 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, ad 30; to CBS en January 16, 19, 25, ad 26; ad to NBC an January 16. ABC broadcast nine evening news program, CBS broadcast eleven, and NBC broadcast fourteen. Each network broadcast ale hour-lung evening news progran of which the secad half-hour was pre-enpted by sane local affiliates. However, the first half-hour text structure was nornal ad was included in each network's prograln grow. We Since video tapes of the program were not available, the researcher used the Vaderbilt Televisim News Index ad Abstract logsa) as a substitute. Item of the universe's dates were copied fren corresponding pages of the Vanderbilt Televisim News Index ad Abstracts log book of January - March 1990, P.P.: 96-192, and the log book of January - March 1991, P.P.: 1-175. W Study of the Vanderbilt Televisim News Index and Abstract logs, revealed several news routines: First, all evening news texts were censtructed fren mitorial (news item) ad Camarcial Breaks .The author noted a repetitive frequency of camarcial breaks: four breaks for all networks in the nan-war period; fourbreaksforABCadNBC, adthreeforCBS, inthepre-waradwar periods. The fourth (38 break shifted frenn inside the evening-news text ad placed just after it eded.(3) All progran breaks were counted first. Buffer item adjacent to camarcial breaks were noted. Seced, evening news prograln lengths were similar; approxinnately 20 to 29 minutes per program Third, the Vanderbilt Televisim News Index and Abstracts logs represented already coded infomtiel. They provide a written descriptien of audio-visual news program in which describes news item. Item were separated fran each other through the use of space. The logs gave starting times of commercial breaks ad of the item follonwinng the breaks, as well as the starting ad ending times of the entire news 2] text. The researcher used this data assisting that the logs' original coding were reliable and cansistent, as a basis for camarisan. W This study includes measurements and canparisen of camnercial break starting-time frequencies ad length frequencies anang the three networks news texts in each of the periods, and between the three periods for each network. W The researcher identified calmercial breaks according to their order of occurrence in the text #1, #2, #3, #4, ad coded the startinng time of each calmercial break and starting time of each following item (servinng asanedingtimeforthecamnercial break)asnunberofsecadsinto the progrann. Data was placed in separate tables correspading to the separate progrann grows. (see figure 3.4) Figure 3.4: Canuarcial Breaks Placemnt In The News Text. Por coding canmercial break lengths, five columns were used in the following Inannner: Figure 3.5: Cannarcial Breaks Legth W Centent item ofnewstexts ofthepre-waradwarperiodswerecoded according to three categories: war related, nan-war related, ad buffers. 1m Being; The war related category includes five sub-categories: P - Politics ad diplanacy: dannestic ad internnatienal efforts to resolve the (kllf War issues. R - Reactien and opinim of the public to the war; protest and support. I. - Logistics, scenan'dcs, ad general infornnatian regarding military operatians. B - Hanan interest: persanal stories of the war. W - War violence and terror: actual fighting, destructien, terrorist actims. m M The nan-war related category inclndes two sub categories: U - 0.8. ecananw ad other: general 0.8. damstic issues. I - Internatianal: stories frenn aronsd the world Letters; B - Buffers: news text item such as: weanling stories, report introducticxn, ad stock report . Frequency of appearances, for each cmtent category in each news progrann was tabulated for each prograln grow: (see figure 3.6). A total of 1637 news item were coded. Figure 3.6: Aprogran Grow Cuntent Itenn Table W A secud judge radannly sanpled five evening news texts frcm the pre- waradwarperionh. anehudredeneitemwerecoded. Oftheitem coded by the secud coder, enly three were different frann the original judge's coding. Alleluia The analysis in this study has two parts: structure analysis of camarcial ad editorial placenent, and centent analysis of news-item frequency and W- Whale The researcher assunned that news editing tinm routines (e.g. placenent of a canmercial break; legth of a cannmrcial break), would vary between the three periods. We also assured different levels of variatien between the three periods for each network as well as different levels of variatian between the three networks for each period. A mean and a standard deviatien for eacln individual calmercial break category of each progre'n grow was calculated for cannercial break starting times and for cannercial break legths. A tine rarge of the earliest starting time of a given break category and the latest endirg time of that break category (e.g. range of occurrences) for each programs grow was noted in secends. bch camercial break occurrence in televisim news text disturbs the flow of editorial uessages to the viewers. Its placeuent in tlne news text is, as mentiened in chapter two of this stnriy, a trade-off between the network's ecenanical needs ( e.g. advertising revenues) and its journalistic goals. 'nne Structural Disturbance Ratien (sun) fornula defines a standard unaasurenent of camercial breaks variatien of placeuent within a camercial break category of' a program grow. It defines what factors affect variatien within a break category. It also defines the ratio between variatien within ene standard deviatien of a break category, and variatien within the whole range of occurrences in a break category. The sun served as a reliable tool of evaluating cannercial break placenent whicln is structural by nature. emparing a network 5m snag the three periods of this study determined the network's structural differences between those periods. Waring 811! between different networks in the sens period determines the structural differences between networks in that period. These differences show how factors fran within and from without the televisim network influence the news text structure. 'nne sun fomnla expresses the relationship between the legth and time Invenent of any given caIuIercial break category (which is a volune of time) in any given program group, within me standard deviatian, and of that calmercial break category's range of occurrence in any given progran group. (see figure 3.?) . - I . « o I I . D (v9 A J ~.— A ' I .Xf'J'.‘ =S.DR. canlengtln+Schngth+S startinglime (*fl) stads in this fornula for Standard deviatien) Figure 3.7: Structural Disturbance Ratio Pornula fine structural Disturbance Ratio (811:) foruula represents a relatimship within a calmercial break category of a given program grow, between the total time rage of cannercial break occurrence as the numerator, and a sun of figures tlnt represent camercial break occurrence within the realm of one standard deviation fran the mean, as the denanlnator. In this sun of figures, figures of legth mean ad length standard deviatien represent a "charging volune of time," and figure of stadard deviatien of starting time represents the movenent of this "chaging volune of time." we sun of figuris in the denandnator will always be mller than the figure in the nunerator, and therefore, results should always be bigger than ene. According to basic laws of aritlmetic, sun would be snaller whenthesunof figuresinthedenelllnator isbigger, adbiggerwhen the sun of figures in the denardnator is snaller. 'nnis means tlnt when the 8!!! figure is mller, calmercial breaks within the realm of one standard deviatien are more spread relative to the rage, and when an figure is bigger, camercial breaks within the realm of ene standard deviatien are rare clustered relative to the rage. an is a figure relative to a specific rage, which can change dramatically in different break categories. 'Iherefore, it is innportant tousetherageasanindependent figurewhendiscussingeach individual cannercial break category . W A range of 0" (secede) to 180" is defined as very short, 18]." to 270" as short, 27).” to 360" as Indian, 361" to 450" as lung, and 451" and above as very leg. An 8.D.R. figure between 1.00 to 2.00 is defined as low, and between 2.00 and 3.00 as high. This author chose to use tinnne categories of 90 seceds since 90 seceds camercial breaks were the most comm. When camercial breaks within me standard deviatien are said to be clustered (e.g. dispersed over a shorter period of time), 68 percent of cannercial break seceds are clustered within ene standard deviatien. In other words, individnal cannnercial breaks are not measured in this study as nutually exclusive categories. Mien Stadard deviatien ad nnean of calmercial break starting times, standard deviatien and mean of calmercial break length, rage of appearances and sun were canputed ad placed in tables. (see figures 3.8 and 3.9) Figure 3.8: A Network Inter Period Canparison 109.75“ 450' Figure 3.9: A period Inter Network Oenparison W Means ad frequencies of total nunber of item per program ad total itenn category (or categories) per progrann, were calculated for each Progren grow (see figure 3-10) IRE-WAR WAR Figure 3.10: Heans And Frequencies Of Item Per Progren Grow Appearance and frequency of itenn adjacent (before/after) to cannnercial breaks (e.g. appearance and frequencies of item placennent) were coded for each progrann grow of the pre-war ad war periods. In determining itenn adjacency single buffers either before or after cannercial break were ignored. (see figure 3.11) 12 Figure 3.11: Category Item Before (or After) A Gaulnercial Break The left column represents an itenn category or a grow of itenn categories. n represents a war itenn with actual scenes of violence scenes or results of violence. 3 represents reactien and public opinim including public protest. Mm 'Ihis chapter presented methods of obtaining, processing, analysing, ad cenparing the structure ad cmtent of televisim evening news program over three periods. A Structural Disturbance Ratio (sun) ad figures showing how canputatiens were organized were discussed. 1. Holsti, Ole R. W, (Reading; Addison Wesley, 1969), 29, 30. 2- 13W. (Nashville: Vanderbilt University, Vaderbilt News Archive, 1990, 1991,), 96-192, 1-175. 3. Dees, Dana, (28 news editor, telephme call June 5, 1992, 5 p.m., cenveyed to this author that Canmrcial Break 4 was placed just after the evening news progrenn. W Mien 'lhis chapter includes two types of results: 1. six m1 analysis categories of "calmercial break categories” lengths and starting times for each "progm grow" 2. 'Ihree m categories of item frequency ad placenent for each "progren group", which inclnde five sub categories W Wu: Results are presented in accordance with "Research Model 1" and described throngh addressing sun levels ad rage of occurrence levels of each individual cenmercial break category. ABEL: Bangle: m Table 4.1 presents structural data of ABC news program fren the three periods discussed in this study: 31 m1; Eventhoughtherageofoccurrenceincreasedinthepre—warand increased drenatically again in thewar period, an level increased in thepre-warperiodadinthewarperiodaswell. Inotlnerwords, the lager the rage becem themre clwtered cennnercial breaks within ene stadard deviatian becene, eventhoughsenecenmercial breaksinthewar period were moved to the extrenne, as indicatedby thenineminutes rage of occurrenceinthewarperiod. Rageof occnnrrenceincreasedfrenanmdiunlegth280"inthemr period toavery high length of 460" inthepre-war period, adthen increasedtoaveryhighlength540"inthewarperiod. “increased frena low of 1.86inthennen-war period toahigh of 2.551nthepre- warperiod,adthentoincreasedtoahighof 2.74inthewarperiod. ma SIR figures balanced the rage of occurrence figures so that in all periods, breaks were evenly spread. Rage of occurrence increased frenn a median level of 280" in the non- war period to a very leg level of 460" in the per-war period, ad then dropped to a median level of 360" in the war period. SIR increased frenn a low level of 1.63 in the non-war period to a high level of 2.13 in the pre-war period, ad then dropped to a low of 1.87. W Cannercial breaks in the nan-war ad pre-war periods were spread in similar proportienin, but relative to a lager range in the pre-war period. However, thedropofSlRadoftherangeof occurrenceinthe war period, snggest that cennnnercial breaks were proportienally more spread out, but relative to a shorter rage of occurrence. lunge of occurrence increased from 360" nmdiunn level in the nan-war period to a high level of 430" in the pre-war period, but dropped to a median level of 310” in the war period. sun levels in the nan-war period and in the pre-wargfperiod were similar: 1.88 ad 1.84 respectively, but 8.D.R. dropped to a low level of 1.66 in the war period. 3:53.53 sun figures were similar in all periods, therefore in all periods, breaks were spread out in similar proportiens, but relative to a leg rather than median rage of occurrence in the pre-war period. Rage increased frenn a median level of 310" in non-war period to a high level of 390" in the pre-war period ad then dropped to a nmdinnn level of 280" in the war period. sun increased slightly fran a low of 1.6Binthenen-warperiodtoalowof 1.88inthepre-warperiod, ad then dropped slightly to a low of 1.75 in the war period. m}. we! 2:29am ABC's war period progrann grow a had amller nn (n=9) than as ad NBC, since it broadcasted five structurally irregular program, for whicln canparisen was not possible: 100m 300m. 5 In all irregular program, routines of progran legth ad nunber of cenmercial breaks per progrann were broken, leaving no basis for. canparisen. Most irregular program were aired during the first week of the war. For all irregular program the average nunber of cannercial breaks per half hour was lower than four. m; m m Table 4-3 presents the structural data of CBS news program of the three periods discussed in this study: Resultsnmyhavebeenaffectedbythefact thatinthepredwaradwar periods (28 placed break four outside the evening news progrann. therefore, enly three CBS breaks are discussed. m Since range of occurrence levels of the hen-war period and the pre-war period were similar, and sun in the pro-war increased, it is fair to say that cannercial breaks were more clustered relative to a similar rage inthepre-warperiod. Inthewarperiod, rageofoccurrencedecreased ad 811: increased, in other words, breaks were proportienally nmre spread out, but relative to a slnorter rage of occurrence than in the pre-war period: Rage of occurrence increased slightly fren a leg level of 420" in thenen-warperiod to «0"inthepre-warperiod, adthendroppedtoa median level of 330" in the war period. 8.D.R. increased frenn a low level of 1.56 in the nan-war period to a high of 2.10 in the pre-war period, and than dropped slightly to a low of 1.99. m2}. Rage of occurrence levels of the non—war period and pre-war period were similar ad so were their sun levels. 'lherefore it is fair to say that the slight increase in rage was balanced by the slight increase un m that clustered the cannercial breaks relative to a lager rage. A similar situatian occurred in the war period in an opposite way: both rage ad sun dropped significantly, balancing each other. Camercial breaks were, therefore, proportianally more spread out, but relative to a lunch analler rage. Range of occurrence increased slightly frann a high level of 370" in the nan-war period, to a lag level of 390" in the pre-war period, ad thendrwpedtoashort level of 230"inthewarperiod. Sinincreased slightly frann a low level of 1.84 in the nan-war period to a high level of 2.09intheinthepre-warperiod, adthendroppedtoalow level of 1.55 in the war period. 5233.}; Rage of ocenrrence in the pre-war period indicates a similarity of proportian in calmercial breaks dispersian between the nan-war ad the pre-war periods, but relative to a lager rage of occurrence in the pre-war period. In the war period, range of occurrence was similar to the'nan-war period, but calmercial breaks were more spread out relative to the range of occurrence since sun was lower. Rage of occurrence increased slightly fran a short level of 220" in the nan-war period to a median level of 300" in the pre-war period, ad then dropped again to a short level of 220" in the war period. sun increased slightly frann a low level of 1.86 in the nan-war period to a low level of 1.97 in the pre-war period, ad then dropped to a low level of 1.66 in the war period. 3.: Irregular m Three times, January 19, 25, ad 26,1991, CBS evening news cantained four canmercial breaks. These dates were ignnored, since they did not provide an adequate base for canparisan. 1129.: Raglan m Table 4.4 presents structural data of NBC news program frann the three periods discussed in this study: m Aamllerrageofoccurrenceinthepre—warperiodwasbalancedbya higherspreadof calmercialbreaksduetoalowerflninthepre-war period, making it look similar to the nan-war period. A similar balance occurredinthewarperiodinareversedway: bothrageof occurrence and ER grew, nmking calmercial breaks proportianally nmre clustered, but relative to a bigger rage of occurrence. Rage of occurrence dropped fran a median level of 320" in the nan-war period to a median level of 280" in the pre-war period, ad then increased dramtically to a lag level of 450" in the war period. am Wed slightly frann a high level of 2.24 in the nan-war period to a high level of 2.06 in the pre-war period, ad then increased to a high level of 2.52. M Overall, differences were imianificant except for the fact that in the pre-war period, calmercial breaks were spread in the sane proportians, but relative to a lager rage of occurrence tlmn the other two periods. mnge dropped frann a high level of 380" in the nan-war period to a median level of 320" in the pre-war period, and then increased back to a high level of 370". 811! dropped slightly fran a high level of 2.17 in the nan-war period to a high level of 2.08 in the pro-war period, ad stayed in a similar high level of 2.06 in the war period. m Winbreak3aresimilarinnature tothechangesinbreak 2. anly proportians vary. Rage of occurrence increased fran a median level of 360" in the nan- war period to a high level of 410" in the pre-war period, and then dropped dramtically to a median level of 310" in the war period. sun increased slightly fran a low level of 1.94 in the nan-war period to a high level of 2.03 in the pre-war period, and then dropped dramtically to a low level of 1.69 in the war period. MILL; Ganges in break 4 are similar in nature to changes in breaks 2 and 3. anly proportions vary. Range increased frann a short level of 270" in the nan-war period to a nmdiunn level of 320" in the pre-war period, ad then dropped dramtically to a short level of 220" in the war period. an increased frann a low level of 1.40 in the nan-war period to a high level of 2.04 in the pre-war period, ad then dropped dramtically to a low level of 1.11. W Results of canparisan between networks in each period are presented in accordance with "Research Model 2," ad will be described through addressing 8.D.R. levels and rage levels of each individnnl camnercial break category. m 2319!! Table 4.5 presents structural data of network news program fran the nan-war period: I70. 10" 77.80" 105.67" 79. 125.71" ABC CBS NBC ABC (38 NBC ABC CBS NBC ABC (38 NBC 8:23.12 Different editorial policies are shownn here. ABC had the shortest rageofoccurrenceadfiRatthehighedofthelow level. ABC's camercial breaks were more clustered than those of CBS but relative to a shorter rage of} occurrence. CBS had a long level of rage of occurrence with a low level of S.D.R. CBS's camnercial breaks were more spread out relative to the lagest rage of occurrence. NBC had a median level rage of occurrence with a high level of SIR. NBC's cannercial breaks were highly clustered relative to its median rage of occurrence. ABC's rage of occurrence was at a short level of 250" ad its S.D.R. was at a low level of 1.86. (38's range of occurrence was at a long level of 420" ad its SIR was at a low level of 1.56. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a median level of 320" ad its sun was at a high level of 2.24. I 83% 1c “ Ire-l M NBChadthe lagest (amediun level) range, but since its ”was the highest, its calmercial breaks were proportianally more clmtered relative to the rage. (38 had a similar rage, but since its an was lower than that of NBC, its cannercial breaks were proportianally more spread out relative to a rage similar to NBC's. ABC had a short level rage with the lowest SIR Its cannercial breaks were proportianally more spread, but relative to a shorter rage. y ABC'srageof occurrencewasatamediunn level of 280"aditssm 4.. was at a low level of 1.63. (88's rage of occurrence was at a lag level of 370" and its sun was at a low level of 1.84. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a lag level of 380" ad its 811! was at a high level of 2.17. m 8.D.R. levels were similar. However, (38's canmercial breaks were spread *out- in similar proportians to the other networks, but relative to a shorter rage of occurrence. ABC'srageof occurrencewasat amediunlevel of 360"ad8u!wasat a low level of 1.88. CBs‘s rage of occurrence was at a median level of 290" ad its sun was at a low level of 1.86. NBC's range of occurrence was at a median level of 360" ad its sun was at a low level of 1.94. m All networks had similar balance mechanism where rage of occurrence and their am balanced each other, but for different time legtlns: ABC wasthe lagest, NBCwas inthemiddle, adCBSwas theshortest. 41 ABC's rage of occurrence was at a median level of 310" ad its sun was at a low level of 1.68. (88's rage of occurrence was at a very short level of 170" ad its mm was at a low level 1.22. mac's range of occurrence was at a short level of 270" and its m was at a low level of 1.40. m: Bela Table 4 . 6 presents structural data of network news program fran the pre-war period: 3.60' ”4.50" 4.61" ABC C38 NBC §2§ gum m1; ABC's calmercial breaks were highly clustered relative to the lagest range of occurrence. Gs's camnercial breaks with a similar rage of occurrence and a lower sun were proportianally less clustered relative to a similar rage. NBC led the snmllest range of occurrence. Its camercial breaks were clustered in similar prwortian to (38's breaks, but relative to a lower rage. ABC'srangeof occurrencewasatalag level of 430"adSlRwasata high level of 2.55. 68's rage of occurrence was similar at 440", but its SIR was at a lower high level of 2.10. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a median level of 280", ad was the shortest for all networks. Its sun was similar to (£8, at 2.06. m Since sun ratios were similar for all networks, cannercial break dispersian clearly land a positive direct correlatian to the legth of the individual rages of occurrence: ABC's rage of occnnrrence was at a very lag level of 460" and its was at a higln level of 2.13. CBS's rage was at a high level of 390" ad its SD! was at a high of 2.08. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a median level of 320" ad its sun was at a high level of 2.08. ma: ABC's canmercial breaks were highly spread, relative to the lagest rage of occurrence. GS's cannnnercial breaks were nmre clnatered relative to the shortest rage of occurrence. NBC's rage of occurrence was similar to ABC's, but since its sun was higher, its cenmercial breaks were more clustered than ABC's: ABC's rage of occurrence was at a lag level of 430" ad its S!!! was at a low level of 1.84. CBS's range of occurrence was at a median level of 300" ad its SIR was at a low level of 1.97. NBC's range of occurrencewasatalag level of 410"aditsfl!lwasatahighof 2.03. ms; Clearly ABC's cannercial breaks were more dispersed than NBC's, ad over a lager range of occurrence. ABC and NBC are discussed here, according to Research Model 3. ABC's rageof occurrencewasatalag level of 390”aditsMwasatalow of 1.88. NBC's range of occurrence was at a median level of 320" and its SIR was at a high of 2.04. Ea: firings! Table 4.7 presents structural data of network news progran frm the war period: v.1}: .' “'1— BaaaLL: ABC's calmercial breaks were highly clnatered relative to the lagest rage of occurrence. (38's cannnnercial breaks were the most dispersed relative to shortest rage of occurrence. NBC, in the middle had camercial breaks that were relatively less clustered tlnn ABC's, but its rage of occurrence was shorter than ABC's. ABC's rage of occurrence was at a very lag level of 450" ad its sun was at a high level of 2.74. CBS's rage of occurrence was at a median level of 330" ad its 811! was at a low level of 1.99. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a lag level of 450" ad its sun was at a high level of 2.52. m NBC had the lagest range of occurrence, but its calmercial breaks were highly clnatered. ABC's calmercial breaks were proportianally less clustered relatively to a similar rage. CBS had the shortest rage of occurrence, but its calmercial breaks were the nest dispersed, since its an was the lowest ABC's rage of occurrence was at a nediun level of 360" ad its 53R was at a low level of 1.87. GS's rage of occurrence was at a short level of 230" ad its SIR was at a low level of 1.55. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a lag level of 370" and its 8!!! was at a high level of 2.06. 5:21:31 Since levels for all networks were similar, canmercial breaks dispersian levels were in direct positive correlatian to the individual rages of occurrence ABC's rage of occurrence was at a median level of 310" ad its S!!! was at a low level of 1.66. (88's rage of occurrence was at a short level of 220" ad its S!!! was at a low of 1.66. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a median level of 310" and its 511! was at a low level of 1.69. BELLE ABC ad NBC are discussed here according to Research Model 3. ABC's caumrcial breaks were more clustered than NBC's camnercial breaks, but relative to a lager rage of occurrence ABC's rage of occurrence was at a short level of 280", ad its sun was at a low level of 1.74. NBC's rage of occurrence was at a short level of 220"; S!!! was at a low level of 1.11. The means of caumrcial break starting times were bigger in the pre-war period than in the nan-war period for all networks, and were bigger againinthewarperiodthaninthepre—warperiod formost canImrcial breaks except NBC. For breaks 3 ad 4, starting time means were smaller inthewarperiodtlnninthepre—warperiod. We” The three cantent analysis categories, inclnding the seven sub categories coded were: P - politics, diplamcy R - reactian, opinian of public I. - logistics, infornmtianof‘the military I! - lnrmn interest N - war, violence W U - U.S., ecalanny, other I - internatianal mm B - buffers Analysis of cantent inclndes first, a descriptian and camarisan of frequencyofappearanceof all iteminthenewsteat. Secadisa descriptian ad canparisan of appearance of item adjacent (before or after) to cannn'ercial breaks. Descriptian ad canparisan include each progran group in the pre-war ad war periods. Only two cantent itenn categories that had adjacent appearances to cannercial breaks are described and canpared: category W (war violence) appearsinaseparate rowinaboldstylewhencantainingscenesofwar violence; ad category R (reactian, opinian of the public) appear in a separate row in a bold style when cantaining protest against the war. Data were analyzed in accordance with Research Model 3. | Table 4.8 presents nmans and frequency of appearance of cantent item, in the pre-war and war periods for the three televisian networks: Oantentchagesbetweenthepre-warandthewarperiodswereaddressed according to Research Model 2, The sale categories of item were canpared between the pre-war period ad the war period. Itenn frequency chages of each individual pre-war ad war progrann grows were nneasured against the changing nunber of total item to of each individual progrann grow, to enable evaluatial of the relative changes between the pre-war and tlne war periods. The (+), (-) ad (=) synbols represent an increase, decrease or no chage in itenn category means between the pre-war ad the war period relative to the neans of the total nunber of item in those periods. Except for the mean of the total nnnber of item, which decreased for ABC and (BS and increased for NBC, chages fran the pre-war period to the war period were similar for all networks in the following manner: - The mean of all five war related item increased. - 'lhe nnnean of the two nan-war related item decreased. - The mean of itenn N (war, violence) increased. - 'lhe nnean of itenn I. (logistics, inforlmtian of the military) decreased. - The nnnean of iten R ( reactian, opinian of public) increased. - The mean of iten P (politics, diplamcy) decreased. - The was no significant change in the mean of itenn B. mourn: e: .. -- r‘v'l-- - ten; ' ole-n o . rc' .. organ This stndy also nneasured appearance ad frequency of appearance for item adjacent (before or after) to camercial breaks. These measures were taken because of existing evidence that during the Gulf war period, televisian network news producers canstructed the news texts in accordance with their advertisers denads.(l) Definitians: N is the nunber of program in a progran grow. Frequency is presented in parentheses. Frequency was calculated by dividing the nunber of adjacent item, or the nunber of a grow of item by N. Table 4.9 presents the appearance and frequency of ABC's cantent item before camercial breaks . 1213.122 ABC, cam Immammmmmcmm* 7 (.77) 6 (.46) 90.00) 7 .... ...... l — —- l —— 13 (1.00) 4 (.44) mm l(.08) —- (54) -— * N; (nunber of program in a progrann grow) was 13 in the pre-war period, and 9 in the war period. Table 4.10 presents the appearance ad frequency of ABC's cantent item after cannmrcial breaks: 9 (.77) 7 (.77) l(.08) 6 (.66) 5(.39) 2 (22) 12 (.92) 3 (:33) 4 (.30) * N; (nurber of program in a progrann group) was 13 in the pre-war period ad 9 in the war period. The frequency of war ad violence cantent (itenn W) increased in the war period before ad after cannercial breaks. Cantelt with actual violence (itenn n) was low in both periods, both before ad after cannercial breaks. 'lhe frequency of public reactian cantelt (itenn R) was higher after camercial breaks in both periods, but this type of cantent was never placed after break 1 in the war period. The frequency of war protest content (itenn 3) increase during the war period. 'lhe frequency of war related item increased in the war period before ad after cannercial breaks, and the frequency of nan-war related item decreased in the war period. Table 4.11 presents (38's content item appearance ad frequency before cannercial breaks: 12 (1.10) rum 2 (.15) 5 (.45) . s (.81) * N; (amber of program in a progran grow) was 13 for the pre-war period and 11 for the war period. ** (BS nmved its fourth calmercial break outside thenewsprogrann in the pre-war and war periods. Table 4.12 presents the appearance ad frequency of (38's centent item after calmercial breaks. 14 (1.27) 5 (.38) 10 (.91) 11 (.85) 13 (1.18) 8 . 5 4 l .3 6 (.61) 4(36) 2 (.15) 1(.09) *N;(nu1berofprograminaprogrengroup)was13inthepre—war period and 11 in the war period. ** C88 moved its fourth canmrcial break outside the news progren in the premr and war periods. line frequency of war ad violence cmtent (iten W) increased before and after calmercial breaks in the war period. The frequency of actual violence (iten n) was higher after ceumrcial breaks in the ‘pre-war period and higher in the war period before and after cemnercial breaks. line frequency of public reactien content (iten R) was higher in the war period before ad after cemnercial breaks. This type of cmtent was not placed after break 1 in the war period. The frequency of war protest cmtent (iten 3) was higher after cemnercial breaks in both periods. Frequency of war related item increased before ad after cenmrcial breaks in the war period ad frequency of non-war related item decreased before and after camnercial breaks in the war period. 51 Table 4.13 presents the appearance ad frequency of NBC's cmtent before camnercial breaks: 13 (.92) 7 (.78) 11 (.78) 6 (.46) 13 (.92) 4 (.30) 12 5 4 6 (.14) 2 (.14) 7 (.54) . s (.57) N; (number of program in a progran group) was 13 in the pre-war period ad 14 in the war period. Table 4.14 presents the appearance ad frequency of NBC's cmtent item after caumrcial breaks: mle 4.15 NBC, armour Immmmmmcmm* 7 (.54) 12 (.86) 5 (.38) 13 (.92) 9(.69) 7 (.50) 6 (.46) 11 (.79) 4 4 4 3 .21 NJIAR 6(.46) (.61) 1 (.07) 4(.30) 7(.50) 7 (.54) 3 (.21) * N: (nurber of program in a progrenn group) was 13 in the pre-war period ad 14 in the war period. War violence item (iten W) appearance increased in the war period before ad after cemnercial breaks. A significant increase in war violence frequency occurred before break 1 in the war period. Actual war violence cmtent (iten fl) frequency was higher before canmrcial breaks in both periocb. A significant increase of actual war violence content (item 8) occurred before break 1 in the war period. Public reactien content (iten R) frequency was higher after camnercial breaks in both periods. War protest content (iten 3) frequency increased in the war period, ad after cannercial breaks, in both the pre-war ad the war periods. Frequency of war related item increased before ad after camnercial breaks in the war period, ad frequency of nan-war related item decreased before and after calmercial breaks in the war period. WWW Analysis of item adjacent to camnercial breaks shows changes in frequency ofappearancebetweenthenon-warperiodandthewarperiod. Since N (umber of program) for all progren grows was very small, enly treds of frequency of appearance are discussed. For all networks, frequency of war related item increased before ad after cenmrcial breaks 1 ad 2. No particular tred of war related item for break 3 was found. NBC increased its frequency of war related item before ard after break 4. ABC increased its war related item before the break ad decreased it after the break. War violence cmtent (iten 11!) increased in frequency before ad after camnercial breaks for all networks. War violence cmtent was placed mostly near breaks 1 ad 2. Public reaction cmtent (iteln R) increased in frequency after camercial breaks for all networks. Before ccmnercial breaks treds of pntlic reaction centent placenent were mixed. Nan-war related item frequency decreased in the war period for all networks. In both the pre-war ad war periods, nan-war related item were mostly placed near breaks 3 ad 4. ABC had the highest frequency of public reactien content (iten R) including war protest cmtent (iten B) after canmercial breaks in both the pre-war ad war periods. It had only one war protest cmtent iten (B ' iten) placed before cemnercial break 4 in the war period. ABC was also i the only network that decreased its war related iten frequency before break 1 in the war period. Most of ABC's nan-war related item appeared after camnercial breaks . L. (38 had the lowest frequency of public reactien cmtent((itenn R) including war protest cmtent (iten 3). In the pre-war period CBS placed its public reactien centent (iten R) before break 1 and aronnd break 3. In the war period (38 placed its public reactien cmtent (iten R) after break2adaroudbreak3. DuringthewarperiodCBSwastheenly network that placed a war violence content iten (iten W) after break 1. CBS also had the highest frequency of war-related item around break 3 during the pre-waréfperiod. NBC had a high frequency of public reaction cmtent (iten R) including war protest content (iten 3), although lower than ABC, after cemnercial breaks. NBC's war violence cmtent (iten W) frequency was higher before ceumrcial breaks than after calmercial breaks in the war period. This tred was reversed in camnercial break 4 . Bnnuary Results presented in this chapter indicate differences in behavior for each tel evisien network aleng the three periods . Inter-network ccnparisen within ene period was not as conclusive. Frequency of change for content item between the pre-war period ad the war period had a positive correlatian (increase, decrease or no change) for all networks, although each network frequency varied. In spite of increasing frequency of war related item in news program of the war period, war violence cmtent (iten W) ad public reactien cmtent (iten R) that was placed adjacent to camnercial breaks had a low frequency per progran, ad enly part of it carried either scenes of violence (marked as a) or of war protest (unrked as 3). Analysis of cmtent item placed adjacent to cemnercial breaks shows that for all networks, the frequency of war violence content (iten W) increased in the war period unstly around break 1 ad 2. fine frequency of (public reactien content (iten R) increased in the war period after cemnercial breaks. The frequency of non-war related item decreased in the war period for all networks in both the pre-war ad war periods. Networks placed war-related item early in their news program and non-war related item later in their news program. This tred intensified during the war period. r . mm 1. Advertising In Times of Crisis, (New York City: W W). 1991,(Video movie). (mm FIVE - DISGISSIQI W Discussien of this study is derived frann the research questien presented in chapter two: "In what way did general factors affecting television network behavior overall influence the structure ad content of televisien evening news program during the Gulf war?" In this chapter the researcher sumsrize treds fourd in the results presented in chapter four and suggests possible explanatians. Mary of Treds Signature Looking back at the war period, ene can easily see tlnt television networks kept their news work routines. News program were 26 to 29 minutes lung, and camnercial break frequency was generally constant however unusual war-period editorial demrds becalne. Several exceptiom are listed below: an the first day of the war, January 16, 1991, nane of the televisim networks aired a nonml (in terms of length ad camnercial break routines) news text. News texts were 11 to 16 minutes leng ad only NBC aired a ceumrcial break. CBS disrwted its routine of three calmercial breaks per 30 minute news text program by airing four cemnercial breaks January 19, 25, and 26, 1991. ABC disrwted its news work routines the most. 01 five different dates, an 17, 18, 21, 22, ad 30, 1991. ABC aired irregular news 57 program that varied from regular length news program with the average nunber of cannercial breaks per half-hour. an varionm dates, each televisim network aired 60 minute news program, with allowance for local affiliate to pre-enpt the second half of the progran. In the first half of those program all news routines were kept however. Aside fren the above, major news routines were usually kept or adapted to the needs of the war editorial cmtent. For instance, nneans of cannercial break starting times (expressed in mater of seconds into the progran) were bigger for all cannercial breaks of all networks in the pre-war period than in the war period. The breaks were bigger for nest cannercial break categories in the war period than in the pre-war period. Camercial break placemnts were delayed in the pre-war period ad delayed again (for the nest part) in the war period. This might suggest that tlne networks gave editorial neterial was priority over cannercial breaks. In nest cases, when range of. occurrence of a cannercial break category increased for a given program grow, it was balanced by an increase of Structural Disturbance Ratio (SIR). In other words, when range of occurrence increased, the associated time period, which included breaks dispersed within one stadard deviation fren the mean of that range of occurrence, decreased. Range of occurrence tended to vary in each period for each cemercial break category. The range of occurrence associated with cenmrcial break category 1 tended to vary the nest, which allows a better appreciation of different network behavior. ABC increased its break 1 range fran 250' inthenan-warperiodto430' inthepre-warperiodandthantos40' in the war period. as increased its range slightly in the pre-war period to 440', fren 420' in the non-war period, ad then decreased its range to330' inthewarperiod. NBCdecreaseditsrangeof occurrenceinthe pre-war period to 280', fran 320 in the nan-war period, ad then increased it to 450' in the war period. We might suggest that each of the networks alphasized its editorial cmtent in a different period. However, a canplete uderstading of routine changes requires a censideratian of Structural Disturbance Ratio (an) as well . CBS, for instance, had similar long level ranges for break 1 in the nan-war ad pre-war periods, but increased its 8112 dramtically in the pre-war period. This might suggest a mean of re-prioritizing cannercial breaks in program that are within the cannercial break 1 category realm of one stadard deviatien. CBS cantinued re-prioritising cennnercial break 1 in the war period, by decreasing its range ad creating a stricter placemnt routine. Both ABC ad NBC had their highest break 1 range in the war period. However, those ranges were balanced by high levels of 8.13.12. . Judging network behavior by degree of irregularities shows that ABC disrwted its news progran structural routines the nest, (38 followed with fewer disrwtians, and NBC had none. However, cenparisan of regular programing shows a different degree of variance between networks for each cannercial break category for any given period. maxim the three periods showed that the greatest degree of structural irregularity in eacln network generally occurred in the pre-war period for breaks 2, 3, ad 4. Structural irregularity for break 1 was greater in the war period for NBC ad ABC. Differences in network behavior nay be a result of different pressures put on each network by different advertisers. Evidence for working closely with advertisers during the Gulf war can be found in an interview with Dan Brown, Executive Vice President at NBC news divisien: The executive producer ' adv pa_rt_§ to nuke sure they're placed in areas of the news where they' re appropriated) Additianal evidence can be found in an interview with Joseph Peyrennin, Vice President ad Associate to the President at GS news divisien: We do not want to put a spensor in a difficult positim. We censult with the sales department, our narketing people, M adwe reaped to those kind of situatians. (I) Since each network works with a different group of advertisers than other networks at any given period, ane could reasenably assune that different advertiser demnds lad different effects an different network evenirngnewstextsduringtheGulfwar. 'l‘heevidencebroughtherefl) denanstrates how influences fren within ad without the nedia organizatian affected the news text. It also suggests that networks had several ways of adapting news text structural routines during the Gulf war. This may explain the fact that it is hard to find an overall clear ad repetitive pattern of behavior for each network, ad for each period in the data. was Except for the mean of total nunber of item, centent iten frequency changes between the pre-war ad war period were similar for all networks (see table 4.8). However, frequency changes of item adjacent to cannercial break were different for each network, with a general tedency of nen~war related item frequency to Mease ad war related item frequency to increase. However, each network varied: frequency of ABC's war related item decreased in the war period before break 1, frequency of GS's war-related item decreased before break 3, ad frequency of NBC's war-related item decreased after break 3. NBC changed frequency of item before connnercial breaks 3 ad 4 only. Since cmtent differences occurred in specific placements in the text before or after cannercial breaks, ene can fairly say that frequency of centent placemnt varied nere than frequency of total cmtent. This points out structural changes between networks , since content changes of each network's routine varied in specific placenents (before or after cannercial break) in the news text. A different nean of total cantent item for each network shows that each network had a different news editing routine. Also inportant to note is that the lower the nean of total number of content item became in the war period, the higher becane structural variability. ABC had the highest level of structural variability in the war period ad the lowest nnean of total nurber of cmtent item; fran 25.85 in the pre-war period, to 15.77 in the war period. GS had a middle level of structural variability in the war period, ad a middle nnean of total nmber of centent item, fren 21.54 in the pre-war period to 20.79 in the war period. NBC had the lowest level of structural variability in the war period, ad the highest mean of total nunber of content item, frenn 22.68 in the pre-war period to 25.43 in the war period. This nay suggest that a higher mneer of item in the news text allowsfor-aere- structural flexibility - nere placenent optims of shorter content item - that nederates routine changes. 61 mm This study anlysed news progran clnanges in different periods. However, the researcher did not address for possible correlatians between routine changes in news program and specific product ads or specific advertisers. Since evidence of news producers working closely with advertisers exists, a sufficient factual basis exist a for further investigate this issue. means: Tred similarities were greater for centent changes than for structural changes. However, in spite of cross-period dissimilar routines in structure, all networks changed their structural routines signnificantly. Berkowitaa) claim that . . .even when dealing with highly unwual, highly unexpected stories, news workers try to find routine ways of dealing with the nan-routine. . . . Nan-routine. . . depeds an adapting strategies fran everyday work routines . Negotiatian ad inprovisation are present in nan-routine nets work, but these aspects are used mainly to guide the applicatian of various routine practices. This autlnor's opinian is that the results of this stndy swport Berkowitz's hypothesis. Indeed news routines such as progran length, nurber of cannercial breaks , ad inportant centent iten placemnt were kept nest of the tinne. However, adaptatien of routines to the needs of the Gulf war are seen in such text changes as delaying cannercial breaks, changes in 81!! ad range of occurrence and placenent of specific content adjacent to cennercial breaks. Berkowits's research!) is also swported by direct evidence of televisim networks' news producers adnitting giving great cansideratien to the relatimship between canmrcials ad editorial .0) The findings in this study also swport Shoemker ad Reese's (3) descriptien of influences an nedia cantent fran within ad without the media organizatian. Specific evidence shows advertisers affected network news text during the Gulf warm This study's findings of structure and cmtent changes in the news text can be attributed to those effects. Effects include denads of advertisers (which are outside the media organizatian) fran the network news producers (which are within the nnedia organizatien) that result in network news text routine channges. WFIVE 1. Advertising In Tinnes Of Crisis, (New York City: produced by the =~ ), 1991, (Video nevie). 2. Berkowits, Dan, "Nan Routine News And Newswork: Exploring What-A- Story." W. 42 (Winter 1992). 82-94. 3. Maker Pamela 3., Reese Stephen D., W (New York City: Lenten, 1991), 88, 122, 124, 164. BIBLIWIY BIBLIW 1. Greenberg, Bradley; Gents, Walter, eds. Desert Storm And The Mass Media, (New York City; Hmptm Press Inc., To be published fall 1992). 2- Holeti. Ole R. W W, (Reading: Addism Wesley, 1969) 29, 30. 3. Nicholas, Bill. WM, (Bloaningtm Indiana University Press, 1981), 170-207. 4. Shoemker, Purela J; Reese, Stephen D; W, (New York City: Lauren, 1991), 88, 122, 124, 164. 5. Lanny, Craig; PitzSinm, Martha; Sahadi, Jeanne; eds... The 'a At , (New York City; The W, A Gamett Pmmdatim Report, Colulbia University, 1991), 47 6. Berkavitz, Den, Na: Routine New And Wk: mloring Mist-A- Story, Wig, 42, (Winter 1992): 82-94. 7- WW. (Nashville: Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt News Archive, 1990, 1991) 96-192, 1-175. mmzwnggpwm, 50, 2610: 888; 51, 2616: 9. 9. Advertising In Times Of Crisis, (New York City: the M W. 1991). (Video movie)- 10. W, (cmdmted by Bruskin Assoc.) (New York city; the Natiaial Television Associatim, 1991). 11. Dees, Dona, CBS news editor, telephme call Jme 5, 1991, Span. conveyed to this author that CBS placed ccmnercial break 4 just after the evening news program. 12. m: Tinnthy Jr W. (Dallas: Annual Meeting of The Broadcast Education Associatim, 1987).Micro£ish. 13. an Advertising Age mm. W. W, 21 January~1991, 1, 54. 14. Carter, Bill, "on: War Creating Bavoc For Networks", m m, 21 January 1991, 0-6. 15.Carter, Bill, ”Pew more For T.V. War News", W, 7 February 1991, 0-1, 0-20. 16. Bolt, Kim, "War Coverage and Camercial Limit," mm, 18 January 1991, 0-16. "Ili'fllllflljlllflllfllWis