LEEfiARY Py‘fiomggan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to romovo this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES roturn on or before duo duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE . J 7 gllfl I §MA§29§WI5 @- 7‘ a? "I“ I T—Il I MSU In An Affirmative ActIorVEquol Opportunity Institution owns-m I KOREAN STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD POLICE AND POLICE RELATIONS WITH THE COMMUNITY IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA BY Sung-Tee Yoon A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Criminal Justice 1992 ‘ J) ’1 , , ’ ‘ ' K [91/ - 8 [I a); K/ I ABSTRACT KOREAN STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD THE POLICE AND POLICE RELATIONS WITH THE COMMUNITY IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA BY Sung-Tae Yoon This study employed a self-administered survey questionnaire that examined 650 male high school students' and 500 university students' attitudes toward the police in Seoul, Korea. The study compared the relationship of five categorized factors (community-related, political, crime- related, police-related, and cultural-ideological factors) with cooperative attitudes of the students toward the police. The attitudes of the Korean students were compared with research findings conducted in the United States on the attitudes of American and Japanese students on factors affecting the police-community interactions in their countries, and compared with other independent variables. Chapter 1 details the purpose of this study and the definitions of major variables. Chapter 2 deals with'police- community interactions strategy, the factors affecting police- community interactions, and the description and analyses of Korean society and police. Chapter 3 presents the research methodology and procedure. In chapter 4, the results of analyses will be presented. Chapter 5 includes some findings, implications and recommendations. Copyright by SUNG-TAE YOON 1992 To my mother, Kab-Soon Kim All living things look hopefully to you and you give them food when they need it. You give them enough and satisfy the needs of all. (Psalm 145:15, 16) iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to extend many thanks to the many individuals without whom I could not have completed this study. My gratitude goes to Dr. Hoffman, the chairman for the School of Criminal Justice for his valuable advice and his academic guidance. He contributed a lot of his time and patience to help, direct ' and assist in many phases and situations before, during and in the final process of the study. Also, my thanks to Professor Horvath, Professor Carter, members of the study committee for their helpful comments, valuable corrections, and for putting their long- time professional experiences before me as guidelines. It was encouraging to receive such enthusiastic assistance from my eldest brother’s family; survey assistants Professor Se-Jung Kim and his family, detective Jung-Ho Jeong, and my junior Do-Yeon Kim; the faculty and alumni of Korean National Police College; statistical assistant Sang-Jin Kang; proof reading Gary Affholter; and my church members. Along this line go my thanks to those authors whose material I used for my comparative analysis, especially Dr. Back-Chul Lee, Dr. Mohammad Owayed R. Rejehi, and the many others whose names I did not mention here regarding this matter. Also, I would like to thank the Korean educational authorities and students who participated in this study. Finally, I owe a very special thanks to my mother, all the members of my beloved family, and my loving country, for their help and encouragement throughout my education. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ..... ........ ...... LIST OF FIGURES OOOVOOOOOO ..... 0.... CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ....... ...... ....... PrOblem .00... ...... O. ...... Purpose of the study .................... Definitions of the terms .................... Definitions and measurement of the variables ..... Organization of the study .................... II. LITERATURE REVIEW 00.00.000.00... ..... Police-Community Interactions .................... The concepts of police-community interactions The major issues in police-community interactions .......... The dynamics of the modern police role ..... The characteristics of the police role: Its effects on police-community interactions .. Public, Community and Policing ....... ........ The public ...... .... ..... Police and public cooperation I .......... Traditional reactive policing .......... Studies in police-community relations ...... Community policing .......... The factors affecting police-community interactions Community-related factors .... Political factors ..... Crime-related factors ..... Police-related factors ..... Cultural-ideological factors ..... vii 10 11 15 17 17 17 22 24 26 28 28 28 32 34 4O 46 46 51 53 56 60 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont’d) Page Introduction to Korea ............... 64 Location and area ............... 64 Weather ....... .................. 65 Population ......................... 65 Ethnic composition ...................... 66 Social structure and values ............... 67 Religion ......................... 68 Colonial experience .................... 69 Education .................... 69 The political and legal traits of the government ............... 70 The Historical Survey of Korean National Police 74 Police service in ancient times ..... 75 Police service in the Yi dynasty: 1392-1910 76 Police during Japanese occupation: 1910-45 78 Police during U.S military administration: 1945-48 ......................... 79 Police in the First Republic of Korea: 1948-50 ......................... 81 Police during the Korean War: 1950-53 ..... 83 Police during the post-war restoration and the 2nd Republic: 1954-60 ............ 83 Police in the 3rd Republic and 4th Republic: 1961-79 ......................... 84 Police during the transitional emergency and the 5th Republic: 1980-87 ..... 87 Police in the 6th Republic: 1988-present .. 90 The Analysis of Korean Police , .......... 92 The interaction of three factors .......... 92 The Policemen as individuals ............... 94 The Korean police system as an organization 97 The Police Relationships to the political environment ......................... 99 III. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 104 Sampling procedure ' .................... 104 Justification for selecting sample ......... 104 Respondents .................... 105 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd) Page IV. Measurement scales .................... 109 Research hypotheses .................... 110 Statistical methods .................... 115 Operationalization ..... ......... ...... 121 DATAANALYSIS AND RESULTS OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 124 Explanation of personal characteristics .......... 124 Comparisons of mean scores .................... 126 Test of hypotheses .................... 139 1. Test Of HypotheSis 1: OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 139 1-A. l-B. For’ the Ihigh. school students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact with the police will be associated with cultural-ideological factors more than any other factors. For the high school students, the general attitude toward the police will be associated with crime-related .factors more than any other factors. 2. Test of Hypothesis 2: ..................... 149 2-A. 2-8. For the university students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact with the police will be associated with police-related factors more than any other factors. For the university students, the general attitudes toward the police will be associated with political factors more than any other factors. \é3. Test Of HypothBSis 3: OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 158 v The attitudes toward police of high school students seem to be more favorable than those of university student. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont’d) Page Ix y. 4. Test of Hypothesis 4: ..... ................ ..... 161 There tends to be a significant association between the attitudes of an individual toward the police, and certain identifiable characteristics ofindividuals such “aWflance, the father's occupation,'the family income,_p§erIgrggps ”attitudes, and previous contact with the po ice. Test of Hyothesis 5: ........ . ............... 169 There is a difference in attitudes toward the police between groups of higher and lower socioeconomic status. f 6. Test of Hypothesis 6: . ........................ 173 There is a positive correlation between self-reported delinquency with an increase in negativity of attitudes toward the police. Test of Hypothesis 7: ....... ....... .......... 178 There is a relationship between the extent of actual plans of individuals to enter a police career and certain identifiable characteristics of that individuals (demographic variables, other person’s reactions to the career plans) Comparative analysis ....... .................... 197 Additional analysis ....... . ................... 207 Students' attitudes toward police and perceptions of friend's attitudes toward police .....“.207 Students’ attitudes toward police and knowing National Police College (4 year) .......209 Frequencies of responses to selected questions 211 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont’d) Page V. FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...215 Research findings ........................... 215 DiscuSSions O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 221 Implications of the study ...................... 222 Limitations O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 222 Generalizations .......... ................. 224 Recommendations O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 227 Improvement of police service and the police image ...................... 227 Citizen participation in police-community interactions ...................... 229 Police political neutrality ............230 Reformation of police organization ............232 Positive police recruitment and training programs OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 236 Encouraging professionalism ............236 APPENDICES Appendix A: Survey Format (in English) .......238 Appendix 8: Survey Format (in Korean) .......250 Appendix C: Community-oriented Programs .......259 Appendix D: List of Figures ................. 266 LIST OF REFERENCES OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 276 xi LIST OF TABLES Table i Page 1. Demographic Variables ................. 125 2-1. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables: Dependent Variables ................128 2-2. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables: Major- Independent Factors O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 129 2-3. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables: Community-related Factors .uw............... 131 2-4. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables: Palitical Factors . OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO133 2-5 . Comparisons of Means Scores and frequencies of Major Variables: Crime-related Factors .................. 135 2-6. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables: Police-related Factors .........uu”..... 136 2-7. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables: Cultural-Ideological Factors .......uuu....... 138 3-1 . Spearman' s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated 3-40 Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: High School Students ...................... 142 Pearson's Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Felice: High SCh°°1 StUdents O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 143 Spearman's Correlation Comparisons with Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: High School Students 144 Pearson's Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: High School Students ...................... 144 xii LIST or TABLES (cont’d) Table 3-7. 4.1 o 4-2. 4-50 Page Spearman's Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with General Attitudes toward the police: High School Students ..................... 146 Pearson's correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with General Attitudes toward the police: High School Students ......... ..... ..... . ......... 146 Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: High SCh°°1 students O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 148 Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Willingness to Contact with the police: HighSChOOI StUdentS OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 148 Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for the General Attitudes toward the police: HighSChOOI StUdents OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 149 Spearman's Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: University Students ..........:........... 151 Pearson’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: University Students ...................... 151 Spearman's Correlation Comparisons with Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: University Students ...................... 153 Pearson's Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: University Students ..................... 153 Spearman's Correlation Comparisons of Correlated *Variables with General Attitudes toward the police: University Students ...................... 154 xiii LIST OF TABLES (cont'd) Table Page Pearson's correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with General Attitudes toward the police: University Students 155 Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: University Students ........................... 156 Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Willingness to Contact with the police: University Students 157 Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for the General Attitudes toward the police: University Students 157 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Academic Grade: High School Students ..... 163 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Academic Grade: University Students ..... 164 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father's Job: High School Students ...... 165 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father's Job (combined): High School Students 166 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father’s Job: University Students ... 167 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father's Job (combined): University Students 167 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by State of the Family: High School Students ... 168 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by State of the Family: University Students 169 xiv LIST OF TABLES (cont'd) Table 6-10 8-2 0 Page Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Family Income: High School Students ... 170 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Family Income: High School Students ‘ ... 171_ Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Family Income (combined): High School Students 172 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Family Income: University Students V ... 173 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by'self-Reporting Delinquency: High School Students 175 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by self-Reporting Delinquency: University Students 176 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by self-Reporting Crime: High School Students En Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by self-Reporting Crime: University Students ... 177 Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans Concerning Police Work by Academic Grade: High School Students ..... ..180 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Academic Grade: University Students .. ..... 181 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father’s Job: High School Students ..uu.. 182 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father's Job: University Students ..uu.. 183 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father’s Job: High School Students ..uu.. 184 XV LIST Table 8-6. 8-7. 8-8. 8-10 0 8-11 0 8-12 0 8-13. 8-14. 8-15. 8-16. OF TABLES (cont’d) Page Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Father's Job: University Students .nn... 185 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Family Income: High School Students .“u... 186 Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by the Family Income: University Students ........ 187 Cross-Tabulation of Best Friend's Reaction to 'Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students : High School Students ............ 188 Cross-Tabulation of Best Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students ............ 189 Cross-Tabulation of Other Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students ........... 190 Cross-Tabulation of Other Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students ............ 191 Cross-Tabulation of Parents' Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students ............. 192 Cross-Tabulation of Parents’ Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students ................. 193 Cross-Tabulation of Favorite Teacher’s Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students ........... 194 Cross-Tabulation of Favorite Teacher's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students .......... 195 xvi LIST OF TABLES (cont'd) Table - Page 8-17. Cross-Tabulation of Girl Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students . ................. 196 8-18. Cross-Tabulation of Girl Friend's Reaction to Career - Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students ................. 197 9-1. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and.KOREA: Dependent Variables .... 201 9-2. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and KOREA: Community-related Factors 202 9-3. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and KOREA: Political Factors .... 203 9-4. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and.KOREA: Crime-related Factors ... 204 9-5. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and KOREA: Police-related Factors 205 9-6. Comparisons of Means Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and KOREA: Cultural-Ideological Factors ................ 205 10-1. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Friend's Perception of the Police: High School Students OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 208 10-2. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Friend's Perception of the Police: University Stadents OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 208 10-3. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Knowing the National Police College (4 Year): High School Students ................. 210 xvii LIST or TABLES (cont’d) Table 10-4. 10-5. 10-6. Page Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Knowing the National Police College (4 Year): University Students ‘ ................. 211 Frequencies of responses to some selected questions: Concerning Q.15 - Q.22 ..... . .......... . 212 Frequencies of responses to some selected questions: Concerning 0.38 - Q.42 ... ...... ........ 213 xviii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Korean National Police Organization; the 4th Republic, 1978: National Police Headquarters and Bureaus ... 266 2. Korean National Police Organization; the 6th Republic, 1988: National Police Headquarters and Bureaus ... 267 3. Korean National Police Organization; the 6th Republic, ' 1991: National Police Administration and Bureaus . . . 268 4. Korean National Police Organization; the 6th Republic, 1991: Seoul Police.Administration ............ 269 5. Police Activities for the Police-Community Relations 270 6. The 4th Graduation and Ceremony of National Police COllege (4-Year) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 273 7. SPSS Programming Command ..................... 274 8. Survey Data Sheet ..................... 275 xix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Problem The National Korean police, founded on October 21, 1945, with the restoration of the national independence from the Japanese rule, has gone through many trials and ordeals to maintain public peace and order, to protect the lives and property of people, and democratic life of the people. The police organizations, which belong to the Ministry of Home Affairs, is a government organ operated on a linear command system, comprising 13 nation-wide Police Bureaus in large cities and provinces, 208 Police Stations and 3,313 Police Substations and Detachments based on 1991 figures. 'The Korean police has made great strides in the achievement of duties as a.vanguard for our national integrity through the thorny path, enduring not only Korean War and the chaotic years caused by the ideological conflicts of the early period of the Republic, but also all the hardships and obstacles attributable to the territorial and national division. Nevertheless, due to various reasons -- historical background, political environment, changing social structure and values, and organizational and operational problems -- the Korean police forces have had trouble maintaining a good relationship with the community. In spite of h the many obstacles, there is no doubt that the Korean police have made real efforts to positively develop a good police organization 1 2 and to improve their relationship with the public. However, most people do not seem to agree that police are doing a good job. The Korean police is kept at a respectful distance and distrusted by the citizens in Korea. To fulfill the police objects, the police puts restrictions upon natural freedom of citizens, exercises a command, resorts to excessive measures. On account of this basic character of the police, it is generally recognized that the exercise of police power means reign itself. The exercise of police power has often come into conflict with citizens and caused them to have distrust, complaint and hostility against the police. Tensions and conflict stem from the discrepancy between the community's expectations and perception of the police role and police values and attitudes of their job. Therefore, to obtain full community agreement, it must be emphasized that the police should understand and keep pace with social change so they can adjust to a changing society and meet the varying demands of the community. With the rapid change of circumstances, many tasks to be solved are increasing. There are many problems following the sudden increasing of police administration, the strengthening of peace, the improvement of police organization, and the settlement of the police as a professional and service occupation, and so on. Among them, the most urgent problem is to improve such a negative citizen's attitude and make the Police system of service, justice and truth. 3 To accomplish protecting the society from crime, a good relationship with the public is essential, for without the cooperation of the community, the police can not function effectively. Police can not exist without the community and that the community can not exist without duties performed by the police. The part of the ability of the police to better assess their performance and their role in the community lies in understanding, or at least accurately perceiving, the public’s attitudes toward police behaviors. Police-community interactions (PCI) are one of the most critical social concerns in the United States and elsewhere. It has been often said by scholars that interactions are socioeconomic, political, cultural, and personal elements in a society. The structural pattern of PCI in a country is generally produced through the interplay among the cultural, social, economic, and political factors of a nation. PCI tends to be different according to such factors as the character of national government, the political ideology, or the degree of national development (Radelet, 1986:3). Many studies have been made dealing with various factors associated with close PCI in the United States. IRadelet notes that police officers in their attitudes and values tend to :mirror the socioeconomic, cultural, ethnic, occupational, and educational characteristics of the strata of society in which 'they' are raised (p. 6). Socioeconomic, political, and cultural factors determine the range, content and context of 4 encounters between the police and the citizens and the latter's perceptions of the processes and consequences involved. A broad web of interconnections, therefore, exists between perceptions of the police, support for the police work and attribution of legitimacy to the law enforcement and criminal justice system in a society (Alemika, 1987:15) . The degree of community involvement on policing or the Willingness of the public to cooperate with police, also Varies with such factors as political condition, cultural heritage, and the policing organization. Several scholars in the field of cross-cultural police studies consider cultural and traditional factors critical in explaining police- community interactions (Bayley, 1976; Becker, 1988; Bracey, 1989). In a close-knit society, social cohesion, generated from the tradition and culture can facilitate social control mechanisms. Baylay concludes that cultural and traditional factors may be much more important in explaining police work than structural elements. From a criminal justice perspective, interactions between s<.><.:ietal cohesion and these cultural organizations may result in both a low crime rate and successful police system. Many Q“'iher studies also point out close PCI as one of the most j-Illportant factors in maintaining a low crime rate. They seem to imply that a low crime rate or intimate PCI may not be ./ d1Stinct phenomena in a society, but a reflection of it. Bdler (1983) found that low crime rate nations have strong 5 informal social control mechanisms outside the formal criminal :jtistice system. These informal social control mechanisms are especially effective in maintaining, preserving, and transmitting shared values (Adler, 1983:133fl Therefore, the question of what factors are related to the attitudes or Willingness of the public to cooperate with the police is critical in a cross-cultural perspective. We may learn from other people about the importance of, and the variables associated with, close PCI as it affects the goals of e ffective law enforcement. Police-community relations strategy (PCR) was the first <=c:ial group of size whose members reside in a specific lOcality, share a common government, and have a common 11 cultural or historical heritage.‘ The term police is used here to represent an organized civil force for maintaining order, preventing and detecting crime and enforcing the law.2 High school junior(11th grade) refers to Korean students canrolled in the second year of secondary education required prior to entry to colleges or universities. The High school diploma in Korea is equivalent to a high school diploma in the United States of America; each country requires twelve years of formal education to achieve the diploma -- six elementary years, three junior high, and three years of senior high school. Attitudes are considered to be one's opinion, feelings, or disposition toward an object, person, or entity. Included in this are one's beliefs about the nature of something, his evaluation of it, his views about appropriate policy with respect of it, and his tendencies to behave toward it in a certain way (Selltiz, 1964:146). Qeginitiog ggd Measurement of the variables All variables are assumed to represent perceptions, \ ‘W (2nd ed-) - Houqhton 1“Iifflin Company, Boston, 1985, p. 299. I 2 ' 'ca n e i . Vol. 14, Grolier l"'10:.‘.orporated, Danbury, Connecticut, 1991, p. 145. l IIU4 file- ‘5... a .... '0-.. . .-.- 12 attitudes, or values the participants have derived from the experience in societies. In the present study, the major dependent variables are the attitude of the public to (zooperate with the police as a collaborator or witness and §Jeneral attitude toward police. However, for more valid and comprehensive interpretations of the data, the study also examines variables associated with such factors as willingness ‘C>f’the public to make contact with the police as a victim and «El person in need, and attitudes toward police recruitment as a vocation . Y1 (ACWC)3 = Attitude of the public to cooperate with the police as a witness or collaborator. (See Appendix A, Q76 to Q80, Q88 to Q93) This indicates the public's attitude toward cooperating with the police in situations they face as witness or collaborators. The cooperative attitude includes the public's attitude toward reporting a crime to the police, furnishing information to the police, having the police come to one’s door, and participating in the community activity initiated by the police. Y2 (WTVN) = Willingness of the public to make contact with the police as a victim and a person in need. (Q81 to Q87) This indicates the public’s willingness to turn to the golice in situations they face as a victim or as a person in teed. Y3 (GATP) = General attitudes toward police. (Q14 to Q24) This refers to the public’s perception of the behavior and activities of the police. \ a 3 Y represents a dependent variable, and (ACWC) is an bbreviation of a variable name which is in the parenthesis. ..i, . in. g . .l. n:- ' d 65.2... seq 1 .....9 i l ““b h“ we (.4 13 1. Community-Related factors: (CORP) (Q61 to Q66) X1‘ = Community cohesion (CC) (Q61, Q62) This refers to the familiarity or sense of belonging the public feels toward their community. The questions were measured through a modified 4-likert scale (indicating from none to many, and from never to very much). X2 = Perception of the community-related policing organizations (PCRPO) (Q63, Q66) This indicates the public’s perception of their safety generated by the existence of their neighborhood police stations and neighborhood associations for crime prevention. The questions were rated by the subjects on a 5-point scale indicating from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Unsure Was not included in actual computation. X3 = Awareness of the community-related policing organizations (ACRPO) (Q62, Q65) This refers to whether or not the public knows of the neighborhood police station(or mini-station) and the neighborhood association for the crime prevention in the neighborhood . 2. Political factors: (PF) (Q11 to Q13, Q54 to Q56) X4 = Trust in government (TG) (Q54 to Q56) This indicates the public’s evaluative orientation toward the government. The questions were rated by the subjects on 2 4-point scale indicating from strongly disagree to strongly gree. X5 = Political efficacy (PE) (Q11 to Q13) This indicates the public's self-perception of their Qapacity to understand politics and to have an impact on Overnment. The questions were rated by the subjects on a 4- 0int scale indicating from strongly disagree to strongly agree. 3. Crime-Related Factors: (CRF) (Q35, Q57 to Q59, Q94, Q96, Q98, Q100) XG = Perception of crime (PC) (Q35, Q57, Q96, Q100) Q This refers to the public’s perception of the seriousness t 15 crime in their neighborhood. The questions were rated by <3 - e subjects on a 4-point scale indicating from strongly lsagree to strongly agree. ‘ X represents an independent variable. 14 X7 = Fear of crime (FC) (Q58, Q59) This refers to the degree of fear the public feels toward crime and victimization. X8 = Experience of victimization (EV) (Q94, Q98) This refers to the student's experience of having been a victim of crime and having seen someone else commit a crime. 4. Police-Related Factors: (PRF) (Q14 to Q24, Q36, Q37, Q67, Q68, Q97, Q101, Q104) X9 = Perception of the police (PP) (Q14 TO Q24) This refers to the public's perception of the behavior and activities of the police. X10 = Evaluation of the police performance (EPP) (Q36, Q37, Q97, Q101, Q104) This refers to the public’s evaluation of the understanding the police have of the local situation and their capacity to help them. X11 = Visibility of the police (VP) (Q67, Q68) This refers to how often the public sees the police in ‘the neighborhood. 5. Cultural-Ideological Factors: (CIF) (Q1 to Q10, Q50 to Q53) X12 = Group-oriented values (GOV) (Q5 to Q9) . This was measured through five questions selected on the 1ndividualism-collectivism scale used by the Huiand Triandis ( 1986) study. The respondents were asked to indicate the eRtent to which they strongly disagreed or strongly agreed with 4-likert scale items. X13 = Attitude towards authoritarianism (AAU) (91. Q4: Q10) This refers to the exertion of authority and the willingness to submit to it in relation to society, the state, ail‘id the family. Those who have a positive attitude toward ‘Ellathoritarianism ought to be consistently and regularly <=cepting of those who are similar to them and rejecting of .liose who are different from them. X14 = Patriotism (PAT) (Q50 to Q53) 3 . This indicates the feeling the public has toward their a eelety, and their national symbols such as the national hthem and the national flag. ‘9:- each Ito. . ’;-A e'bb IQ. "y. .I the I." . In 3"- ‘- I'Om 'ae. .4 L "I... . I. ' I"‘ I 'e a ,5 I” ‘1. 15 6. Other variables X15 = Friend’s perception of the police (FPP) (925 to Q27) This refers to the student’s perception of what their friends’ perceptions of the behavior and activities of the police are. X16 - Self-reporting delinquency (8RD) (Q43 to Q49) According to critics (Elliott at al., 1983), official records substantially underestimate the volume of delinquent acts and the number of delinquent persons because they just deal with those delinquents officially labeled by authorities. In addition, since the risk of detection and apprehension is not the same for all, official delinquents and delinquency are not representative of delinquents and delinquency. William and Gold (1972) reported that only less than 3 percent of those who admit delinquency are known to the police. Most others conclude that official measures of delinquency do not accurately reflect delinquency (Erickson, 1972; Schoenberg, 1975) . Instead, some argue that self- reported measures of delinquency are most appropriate (Hirschi et al., 1980; Hindelang et al., 1981). In addition, many researchers have consistently shown that the scale items and self-reported methods are reasonably reliable and valid (Elliott and Ageton, 1980) . Qggggiggtiog of the study In Chapter 1, the purpose of this study and the definitions of major variables will be presented. Chapter 2 deals with police-community interactions s'trategy, the factors affecting police-cOmmunity interactions, arid the description and analyses of Korean society and police. It describes the concepts of police-community interactions and the dynamics of modern police role. It also examines the blItalic cooperation with the police and the evolving strategy Qt policing such as police-community relations, community policing as general outlines. Some of literature review 16 regarding factors -- community-related factors, political factors, police-related factors, crime-related factors, and cultural-ideological factors -- associated with the public’s attitude toward the police will be presented. The historical survey of Korean police will be described chronologically. With regard to the Korean Police, environmental factors, political backgrounds, organizational and operational factors, and personal factors which might affect police-community relations will be also analyzed. Chapter 3 presents the research methodology and procedure. In chapter 4, the results of analyses will be presented. Chapter 5 includes some findings, implications and recommendations will be suggested for the future programs of Police-community interactions in the Republic of Korea. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Police and Community Interactions 1. The concepts of police-community interactions It is believed that the police cannot exist without the community and that the community cannot exist without duties performed by the police. These statements parallel the history of police organization and functions of society. Unlike oriental society, which places an emphasis on general cooperation between individuals and communities in fighting crime and maintaining social order and control (Ames, 1981:1) , the idea of the modern-day municipal police of 19th century England (the origin of policing in the United States) was that the police function depends on a considerable amount of self- Dolicing by every citizen and, therefore, was a system rooted in personal responsibility (Radelet, 1986:3-17) . Sir Robert 1”eel asserted, "the police are the public and the public are the police." The American police system, based on the British lliodel, ’was distinguished at its inception by the idea that local citizens’ organizations, pledged to keep the peace, c=¢=3uld handle the task of maintaining law and order (Fink and Sealy, 1974:42). It would be wise here to review the historical development of the PCR programs in the United States 17 18 classified according to several stages.1 In the 1930s or 19405 (the earliest stage of police training) the first systematic programs ’ dealing with police and community relations (PCR) were initiated. During World War II sociological happenings and police training courses in human relations were initiated. . From 1946 to 1955 (program development) workshops in human relations, along with race relations, prejudice, and the like, were dedicated to reduce tensions between elements of the community. From 1955 to 1967 (community program) the concept of PCR was developed by the National Conference of Christians and Jews (NCCJ) , and the National Institute on Police and Community established in 1955 at Michigan State University (led by NCCJ as a cooperative venture of NCCJ, and Michigan‘ State University, School of Police Administration and Public Safety) . After the riots and violent upheavals that occurred in various cities during the summer of 1967, it become imperative to think about PCR problems in different terms compared to the traditional approaches that were being used. In this respect, Radelet concluded that although PCR have improved generally compared with what they were one or two ‘ decades ago, any realistic hope of further improving PCR qepends largely upon reforming the criminal justice system and 1See for more detail, Radelet, Louis A., The Police and W, (4th ed.), New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing 0- , 1986, pp. 8-17. 19 society as a whole (p. 17). At the outset, PCR was largely one-sided -- its focus was predominantly on changing the community view of the police and to make citizens more supportive and understanding of the police actions (President’s Commission, 1967). One of the fundamental problems in PCR is consensus on the proper role of the PCR in contemporary society. As the Movement matured, the focus on PCR become somewhat more reciprocal. Particularly in the late of 1970s police department also regularly incorporated crime prevention programs and Neighborhood Watch with the PCR unit. It was felt that this was an additional step to help the police and community communicate as well as to make an effort to reduce crime (Radelet, 1986) . Coffey (1990) explained that the essential components of successful PCR are a combination of the Human Relations (HR) approach and Public Relations (PR), combined within the fJramework of specific crime reduction goals and objectives. The goal of the HR component is to gain and hold the respect of the individuals within the community with whom individual police officers make contact. When achieved, the goal assists in achieving success with public interactions. PR is whatever Dolice through their agencies say and do for the sole purpose Qf creating a positive public image. Planned interviews with the media are the primary methods of public reactions. PR a 180 includes speeches to service clubs and churches, as long as the intent is to create a positive public image. a A‘s- -.I In on. O.- "‘6 .b r -; 20 Earle (1970) indicated that PCR is concerned with the ability of the police within a given jurisdiction to understand and deal appropriately with the community’s problems; PCR involves the idea of community awareness of the role and difficulties faced by the police; and PCR involves the honest effort of both the police and the community to share in the common goal of understanding the problems of both with conscientious effort for harmony and cooperation (pp. 5- 6) . The main characteristic of PCR is the existence of goal and measurable objectives having to do with specific crime reduction. Neither HR nor PR has specific crime-reduction goals. Developing, achieving, measuring and modifying the goals and objectives are a crucial part of PCR. Furthermore the goals must be related to the mission of the police, Preferably the reduction or control of a specific crime Problem recognized by the general community as significant (Coffey, 1990:261-63). PCR was the first comprehensive effort which attempted to resolve the endemic issues inherent in community alliance. The Civil Rights Movement recognized that disequilibrium e)(isted between the police and the community, and it developed programmatic strategies to address this dissonance. The PCR eoncept is by no means dead, but it is being rethought. be8pite the intent, PCR appeared to have become a veneer for b'i-‘Jljse inadequacies -- a predominantly reactive method to deal 21 with problems (Carter, 1988). As police administrators face serious fiscal stress, increasing crime rates, and decreasing public support, they’ve come to realize they must begin to work smarter. Community Policing (CP) views police responsibilities in the aggregate, examining consistent problems, determining underlying causes of the problems, and developing solutions to those problems (Troj anowicz and Carter, 1988) . Comparing and contrasting the differences between PCR and CP, Trojanowicz ( 1990) explains that these two concepts have difference in the theoretical framework, missions and strategy. Community policing requires a department-wide philosophical commitment to involve average citizens as partners in the process of reducing and controlling the contemporary problems of crime, drugs, and in efforts to improve the overall quality of life in the community. It is based on organizational theory and open systems theory. It also requires everyone in the department to explore how they can carry out the mission through their actions on the job. Police-community relations is not a philosophy, but rather a limited approach that was often viewed as public relations aimed at reducing hostility toward the police among minorities. It implies a narrow,bureaucratic response to a specific problem rather than a fundamental change. It is based on conflict theory and communication theory. It is an isolated specialty unit, made up exclusively of staff personnel whose duties are bound by the narrow definition of their goals (FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Oct. 1990:7-8). The police-community interactions are a matter of striving to achieve mutual understanding and trust, as with any human relationship. Some problems can be solved t~-‘<31‘1structively by working together in the community to fir11::icipate and prevent -- that is, proactive policing compared 22 t‘3 Ireactive. The primary purposes in community participation sl'1<>uld be to solve hard problems, to improve the quality of E)C>]Lice services, and to elevate the level of public respect 1501‘ police officers and the system of government by law that t1€3 represents (Radelet, 1986:25). 2. The major issues in police-community interactions The major issues can be viewed from several perspectives: (1) a psychological perspective -- the self-image of the police and. public image of the police, perceptions and prejudice involving the people and the police force (Radelet, 1986:83-84); (2) a sociological perspective -- social processes, population trends, urban environments, the police and minority groups, collective behavior, terrorism, civil disobedience, youth, women, the elderly, and complaints (pp. 173-74); and (3) a systematical perspective -- other forces and systems in society affecting the police-community relationship of the police to the other elements of the criminal justice system (pp. 309-10). Based on an analysis of the above-mentioned perspectives of approaching police- community interactions, some realistic issues can be deduced ‘as follows.2 Mutual trust is one issue. The police seem to be convinced that a large segment of the community is .lh\\_¥ 2 See for more detail, Radelet, Louis A. The Bolige and the_gghmhhihy (4th ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1986. a” mi mu . In ... u 51: I‘- I.‘ . n 0.: a. 9! 23 uncooperative and hostile toward them and have little or no resSpect for the police. The community sees the police as an authoritarian and brutal institution involved in harassment. 1‘ ssecond issue is little cooperation, productive interaction and communication between the police and community. The a‘ttitudes of both reflect cynicism and ridicule. A third issue is that prejudice stems from historical, regional, and Political backgrounds. A fourth issue is an in-depth gap exists among several criminal justice components -- police, prosecutors, courts, and.corrections -- in terms of making PCR efficient. A fifth issue is the uncertainty due to the bureaucratic block conflict within police departments. A sixth is the uncertainty of the role of the police. .A seventh issue concerns the social situation or social problem aspect of police work. The policeman is expected to know about all kinds of things such as human relations, psychology, and sociology to serve social problems. The final issue is the lack of money and resources to support the police-community interactions programs continuously. The responsibility of both the police and community, a genuine police and community partnership, police accountability, community awareness of the role, mutual understanding and trust between the police and the community are ideal for solutions sought through police-community interactions. To transfer this idea into reality, the police have to cultivate and motivate public good will, cooperation, p1 ‘ I I W in I f I D. In 9. . {b’ I I'- h b l D 24 and involvement. Through communication and cooperation between the police and the citizen, the police can be an integral part of the community. Together with the police Officers and the citizens sharing a sense of common purpose, barriers will give way to a participatory partnership in which cIrime suppression and mutual trust can be transformed from an Eibstract idea into viable reality (p. 10). 3. The dynamics of the modern police role As Lindesmith et a1. (1975) point out, offices, statutes and roles can be seen as existing apart from specific~ individuals who might be occupying them at a particular time. Although the acting out of various roles usually consists of a wide variety of acts within a permitted range of variation, an individual’s conception of his/her role has an important impact on behavior in that it determines which behaviors will be emitted (p. 399). How, then, does an individual come to conceive of a particular role? Friday and Sonnad (1978) stated that it is the individual’ s attitude which ultimately predisposes individuals to react in certain ways. These attitudes are shaped by personal experiences, the experiences of others and through impressions (p. 2). Therefore, in order to develop the context within which citizen perceptions of the police are formed, it will be necessary to examine the general police role as portrayed by the police. 25 It will be argued that there are inherent characteristics in the police role which operate to reinforce the general conception of police work as law enforcement and it is this emphasis on the law enforcement role that creates problems for police-community interactions. Police officers and citizens seem to be in little agreement about the role of the Korean police. Conflicting role expectations and perceptions between the police and community is a very serious issue in terms of resolving the tension between them. From a historical perspective, the Korean police have, thus far, focused the role of the police on maintaining the social order. They have neglected the role of social order and social services, which is constantly demanded by the community, on the grounds that social security and order maintenance are of first priority. Namely, Korean policing has emphasized a society-oriented posture rather than an individual-oriented posture. The policing style of a specific country usually reflects the community and the situation of the society. Some police officers in Korea seem to be confused because of role ambiguities, especially what they are expected to do and what the priorities are, even though top ranking police officers emphasize national/social security and social order. Lee (1984) says that this confusion has been accelerated by incidents involving civil rights in the late 19705 an early 1980s and is an evidence that. Korean. policing lacks a 26 philosophical base (p.36). In fact, the road block to proper PCR in Korea has been excessive reliance on force by most police officers. The police force must be made an integral part of the community if they are to be aware of the constantly changing needs and expectations of their community. 4. The characteristics of the police role: Its effects on police-community interactions. Because the modern police department is supposed to deal with a wide range of problems, the role of the police is extremely complex. The individual police officer is expected to deal directly with violations of law as well as the personal problems of citizens. In addition to these functions the police are called on to preserve peace and maintain a sense of good order (McDowell, 1975). There is often conflict between those duties seen as legitimate to the police role, as formally defined and understood through socialization into that role, and those duties the police actually perform. Despite the fact that there is considerable evidence to support the contention that the police officer’s role is one of peace-keeping or community service, the police have often conveyed to the public that law enforcement per se is the highest goal of the police (Misner, 1981:48). Hence, as Parnas (1971) noted, the police tend.to view'themselves as law enforcers, not social workers. This is because the apprehension of the felon is the most prestigious and 27 rewarding task in the minds of the police and the public (Bent and Rossum, 1976). However, as McNamara (1967) noted, much of the conflict facing the police results from citizen demands that the police perform other than law enforcement roles. One way to examine the emphasis placed on law enforcement would be to examine. police training requirements. For instance, of the two hundred and forty-six hours required by the Michigan Law Enforcement Officers Training Council (1978) only nineteen of those hours could conceivably be related to the area of service, and human relations. Aside form heavy stress on law enforcement during police training, the desire for professionalism among the police has led to the belief that the problems of policing lie not in the system itself but within the individual police officers (Niederhoffer, 1967). 'Regardless of how thorough police training is, once he is on the job, the new recruit is subject to the powerful impact of peer-group pressure and the informal socialization patterns of the police subculture. From this point of view, the officer is far more vulnerable to the control of co-workers and first-line supervision, and training may lose its impact. The unique characteristics of the police developed through training and on the job socialization into the police role which stresses conformity, authority, and situation control and necessitates the categorization of individuals as symbolic assailants (Skolnick, 1988), are likely to result in conflict with certain citizens. Therefore, a strict definition of the 28 police role as one of law enforcement increased the probability of police-citizen conflict and acts as a detriment to positive police relations with community. Fortunately, the Korean police have come to realize that they must direct their attention to improving the quality of police-community interactions to promote mutual trust and to obtain general agreement from the community about the appropriate role of the police. The police role dilemma can be resolved by developing the police role concept in accord with consensus requirements of the community the police serve and it should be a consensus in role perception among police officers at varying levels of the police organization (Radelet, 1986:44). Priorities of the police role should be focused on community concerns rather than police concerns. B. Public, Community and Policing 1. The public The public has lost personal contact with the police since the police moved from the beat to the patrol car. This loss of contact has resulted in less communication. to the police from the public. A similar lack in communication and personal relationship between families and next door neighbors or urban communities have also had negative effects upon social problems. Today the home is like a dormitory. People come in, eat, sleep and go their own way. Seldom do 29 neighboring families communicate and socialize with one another. This adds to people’s fear of walking the street since they are unaware who lives next door, who is supposed to be in the area, and which people are neighbor. This fear is reenforced by the news media making it a critical problem for the police to deal with. Other social factors such as illiteracy, drugs and declining manufacturing jobs have increased pressure on the police. This explains how social problems directly relate to the causes of crime and that all social agencies shouldmwork'together'if‘we.are concerned about our future. 2. Police and Public cooperation In a society as diverse as ours, there are bound to be different priorities placed on police by different people who live in different communities. In addition, police officers are not all the same, do :not. have similar opinions or expectations, do not perform at the same level, and do not operate with the same style. These differences influence the policies that allocate resources and determine how police departments and its officers should police the neighborhoods in which they work. A strategic factor in the allocation of these resources is the style of law enforcement.desired by the community. Community leaders can set reasonable boundaries on police actions. These limits usually depend on the social, economic, and political characteristics of the community. 30 As Skolnick and Bayley (1986) mentioned, without community feedback and participation, the police are in no position to tailor developmental resources to local needs in any sort of optimal fashion (p. 213). The Manual of the Los Angeles Police Department (1988) shows that public support is an absolute requisite to successful police work: Peace in a free society depends on voluntary compliance with the law. Particularly in a democratic society that ensures great personal freedom, the willingness of citizens to be controlled is crucial. flesence of police officers is not enough to force acceptance of the rules in a free society. Citizens in a free society must be willing. Unwillingness to accept police control, can become the proverbial two way street; the more unwilling the people are to accept police intervention, $95 that create ublic demand for ’5 needs and by their the more certainly the police may respond further unwillingness (Coffey, 1990:37). police services is shap willingness to turn to the police to handle them (Bayley, 1985:131). Conversely, the way the police handle situations also affects the public’s willingness to contact the police, thus shaping situations through molding demand (p. 144). e nature of the term "public support" or "cooperation" dif ers in many ways depending on a community or a country. The population of a community, the result of differences in population size, composition, culture, and.wealth creates its own unique philosophy and politics. The uniqueness of each 31 community creates differences in the approach needed by the police to gaggrgnd hold the support of the community (Coffey, 1990:125). Korea has had a long tradition of citizen involvement in community-based crime prevention. Today some harmonious and positive citizen participation in police work, including crime prevention does exist. For example, there is the Police Advisory Board, the Traffic-safety Mother’s Association, the _Traffic-safety Exemplary Taxi-driver’s Association, the Juvenile Guidance Association, and the Youth Patrol. The police rely heavily on personal relationships formed with members of these associations. The effectiveness of police work in rural areas rests to a great extent on cooperation from citizens organized into voluntary police-support groups called Resident Patrols. A police Advisory Board, which is installed in each police station and consists of distinguished residents, give financial aid and other assistance to the police station. In 1983, 7,722 auxiliary police were employed to aid police in their work, particularly in crime prevention, though a small monthly fee is collected from the residents of the neighborhood.3 The Traffic-safety Mother’s association not only helps children cross streets near schools, but they also urge pedestrian bridges, and they actively participate in traffic- 3Korean National Police Headquarters, Korean Natiohal Eclise_9fficial_8222rt. Seoul. Korea. 1983. 32 safety campaigns. The police are also aided by uniformed exemplary taxi-drivers who stand at busy street corners to discourage reckless drivers and to aid pedestrians. The most useful way for the police to give out information about crimes and criminals and to get information from the citizens is at the Neighborhood Meeting (Ban Sang Hwea), which meets once a month and is organized according to specific administrative districts throughout the country. It is almost impossible for police to do their job without citizens’ assistance and participation. The more the community is involved in police work, the better the relationship is going to be between the community and the police. Furthermore, the better relationship, the greater the trust (Fink and Sealy, 1974:48). Citizen participation in law enforcement is one way of endowing the police as an organization with the function of protecting the people (p. 50). At the same time, the police must attempt to develop all possible avenues of community involvement which will eventually lead to the creation of better police-community alliances. 3. Traditional reactive policing Along with technological improvements, law enforcement agencies also recognized the need to become more professional. Therefore, most agencies have gone to great lengths to attract and recruit highly motivated and educated individuals. But, 33 once these individuals were hired, they were often discouraged, and even punished for performing tasks outside the parameters of standard police work. In doing so, administrators inadvertently systematically eliminated innovative, creative thinking at the line level. [‘The commancBé/ and control culture of the police department doesn’t treat officers as intelligent, creative and trust-worthy people. In the recent past, many commentators have criticized this form of organization as being inappropriate for the needs of modern police and the educated personnel they are seeking to recruit and retain (Frantz and Jones, 1987:153)‘ This military approach occurred because formal chain of ommand and specific operating procedures mandate that someone is in charge, and that departments can be made to work in acceptable ways (Weisburd et al., 1988:31). The frustration of the police of having little or no input (communication) into the system which created the rules and regulations that cover nearly everything is often reflected by the manner which police officers communicate with the public. Such an organizational model is blamed for discouraging upward communication and risk-taking by patrol officers, while at the same time, encouraging the development of authoritarianism in these officers (Sandler and Mintz, 1974). This supervisory system is essentially negative, relying primary on sanctions for non- compliance with police rules and regulations (Weisburd, 1988:32). 34 [zi/Under this mechanistic type system, supervisors are more secure because of communication procedures, formal rules and enforcement of the authoritative style (Shafritz, 1987) . Frantz and Jones (1987) states that the American Police Department’s use of a military or quasi-military model of organization hindered effective communication among its members, and this poor communication and lack of trust led to morale problems within the organization._‘JL_ [4 A line officer’s priorities are communicated to him/her by middle management and these priorities are : (1) the apprehension of the accused on crimes in progress, (2) the prompt response and settlement of calls for service, and (3) self-initiated activity such as traffic tickets. Emphasis was a— not on how'creatively an officer reached the underlying reason c for the call or the empathy shown, but how fast it could be ‘a‘ _— handled, ‘With.this philosophy the police make little time for communicating with the public and the public think they are getting little or no help from the police. 4. Studies in police-community relations (PCR) One outgrowth of the PCR experience of the 1960’s was the initiation, by both the police and various citizens groups, of numerous attitudinal studies to determine how police and citizens perceive one another. Another outgrowth of the problem experienced in PCR in the 1960’s was the recognition that effective policing and positive PCR depend heavily on how 35 both police and citizens perceive and react to one another. With the force of Civil Rights Movement punctuated by civil disturbances and protest marches, it became evident changes had to be made in police practices. The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, and the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice all cited problems in PCR -- particularly excessive force, deprivation of constitutional rights, rudeness, and discriminatory practices (Carter, 1988). At least two types of information are available regarding citizen attitudes toward the police-public opinion poll data and other survey research (Thomas and Hyman, 1977). Interestingly, public opinion polls conducted by the American Institute of Public Opinion and Louis Harris and Associates display considerable similarity in their findings. In general it has been found that the public is rather favorably disposed toward the police. As a rule, these findings have been true regardless of such factors as ethnicity, residence, age, sex, socioeconomic status, and other factors (Hindelang et al., 1975; Galofalo, 1977; Friday and Sonnad, 1978). However, this is not to say that all groups within the population give their total support to the police or that there are some discrepancies between the findings of various studies. For instance, Bidderman et al.(1967), Galofalo 36 (1977), Friday and Sonnad (1978) report that minority persons are generally less favorably disposed toward the police than the whites. In addition, a number of the studies indicate that many citizens feel that while the police generally do a good job, improvements in police operations are needed (Galofalo, 1977; Friday and Sonnad, 1978). With this in mind, a review of some of the earlier studies in PCR would be a necessary first step in providing a framework within which citizen perception of police behavior become meaningful. In one of the earlier studies of criminal victimization and attitudes toward the police, Biderman et al. (1967) collected information from a sample of more than 500 households in Washington, D.C. in 1966. Although approximately 79% of the respondents in this study were black, the findings are similar to more recent ones. Despite the fact that respondents felt that there was a serious crime problem, 85% of those responding agreed that people who take on the tough job of being a policeman deserve a lot more thanks and respect than they get from the public (Bideramn et al., 1967). However, 29% of those questioned felt that at least half the force would need to be removed in order to have a good police force. In their book, hinorities ahd the Police, Bayley and Mendersohn (1969) used data from a sample of 806 respondents divided into three groups: white (336), blacks (234) and Spanish-surnamed (236). Their findings are similar in some 37 respects to those already discussed. Close to 75% of those sampled felt the job of the police was more important while the police tended to underestimate citizen ratings of police works Respondents who were black and those with Spanish names were more likely to regard the police negatively than were' whites. Another study of citizen perceptions of the police was conducted by Smith and Hawkins (1973) in Seattle, Washington. Although the number of minority respondents was low, the sample was representative of the population as a whole. Race was strongly related to the perceptions of police fairness. Young respondents, also, displayed more unfavorable attitudes toward the police than older respondents. Dissatisfaction with the way the police handled a reported victimization was reflected in ‘more, negative attitudes toward the jpolice. Another finding similar to the Biderman et al. (1967) study was that perceptions of police wrong-doing had significant influence on attitudes toward the police. In the report of findings from the National Survey, Garofalo (1977) analyzed observations from a stratified probability sample of about 22,000 respondents in each of (eight impact cities (Atlanta, Baltimore, Cleveland, Dallas, Denver, Newark, Portland, and St. Louis). Respondents were interviewed concerning criminal victimization, attitudes toward crime and evaluations of local police. Like other studies, Galofalo observed that the majority of respondents (82%) 38 thought that their police were doing either a good (44%) or fair (38%) job (p. 28). However, 68% of the respondents also indicated a need for police improvement. Again, race and age were found to be significantly related to perceptions of the police with blacks being almost twice as likely as whites to rate the police poorly. Younger respondents were found to be critical of the police. Reporting on a general survey of attitudes toward crime and the police in Toronto, Canada, Courtis (1970) explored citizen attitudes toward various police practices as well as more general attitudes toward the police. Generally, attitudes were found to be rather favorable. Two thirds of the Toronto sample felt that the police were well trained with only some 6% feeling that they were badly trained. Courtis stated, though, that those who felt that the police were insufficiently sensitive to individual differences and lacking in flexibility of response (p. 119). Personal qualities such as forbearance, tolerance, patience and all associated with the ability to exercise discretion were thought to be characteristic of the above average policeman (the good cop) while the below average policeman (the bad cop) were thought to be characterized by officiousness, gruffness and aggressiveness. When asked about the state of police- community relations, respondents expressed only moderately favorable opinions. Among the samples, 47% on the sample rated the police as fair and 33% as good. In contrast only 39 12% thought that they were poor (pp. 121-22). Reasons for poor PCR were generally that the police displayed aggressive behavior and that the police received unfavorable publicity on television and in the press. In looking at the perceptions of black Americans toward the police, Crosby and Snyder (1970) provided_some interesting findings. Their results indicated that some 31% of those surveyed who had been the victim of a crime indicated that the police response had been less than they expected. Also, younger respondents, males, and those with college education were more critical of the police response than other groups; Of those respondents who reported having a direct experience with the police, 41% stated that the police response was unsatisfactory. Another study designed to measure victim’s evaluations of police performance was carried out by Poister and McDavid (1978). These authors drew on data collected in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in 1975. What appeared to be the most important variables related to satisfaction with the police were situational and performance variables. Satisfaction with the initial investigation, and satisfaction with response time were found to be important predictors of overall satisfaction with the police. The authors stated that this seems to be an indication that the overall satisfaction of a victim is in part influenced by his or her perception of the effort put forth by the police at the early stages (p. 147). While there engfi: neve- e...:‘ bU.u4 Ughzu ...-n ’I' '9 e A..' "Kh e W“ U“- "‘b. .‘o‘ a... ..N' :-4 en" ... I,\ '5 \ h“! ‘ ‘ 40 existed a growing body of literature in PCR field, this section, for the most part, dealt with general attitudes toward the police in contexts other than how specific police behaviors and situations are related to this issues. During the late 1960’s and 1970’s, however, the reform strategy ran int0.' fi“ . ... ‘~.I ‘O '5‘CV 1“. 50 center for residents, and as a crime prevention center. It also patrols and house visits twice a year (Quah and Quah, 1987) . According to the survey regarding the impact of Singapore’s 8 neighborhood police posts on crime levels and community residents’ attitudes toward the police, as a result of the neighborhood police posts, respondents had a positive attitude toward the police and regarded them as friends rather than merely as law enforcers. Walker and Walker ( 1989) examined the effects of five police mini-stations in Victoria, Canada. The goals of the mini-stations were to enhance police-community interactions and bolster proactive services. Crime prevention programs were decentralized into each of the mini-stations, and each station has begun to develop strategies based on the needs of its neighborhood. They found high awareness about the mini-station, a proactive view of its function, and a decrease in fear of crime. They reported that the management and structure of each station has been well conceived, and involvement of the community is more intensive than in any other program of its kind of Canada. Wycoff (1985) reports the impacts of a storefront police. station with a variety of programs to bridge the distance between police and area residents in Houston. Two surveys found statistically significant reductions in fear of personal victimization, as well as in perceptions of area crime, property crime, and social disorder problems. Less effects of 51 the programs on blacks and renters were reported as a result of their lesser awareness of the program. 2. Political factors It is important to consider the role of politics as a correlate shaping police-community interactions in a society. There is a variation in the degree of political impact in shaping PCI from one society to another. Bayley (1985) describes well the relations among society, politics, government and police in Japan: The relation between police and society is reciprocal society shapes what the police are, the police influence what society may become. The deliberated interactions between the police and society belong to the domain of politics and occur primarily through government (Bayley, 1985:159). The character of the government and police action is virtually indistinguishable. Police affects the character of, the government because what they do is in itself and indicator of the character of the government (p. 210). A government is recognized as being authoritarian if its police is repressive; democratic if its police is restrained. The maintenance of social control is fundamentally a political question (p. 189) . Police service is the most visible part of governmental process, performing a range of activities far broader than law enforcement (Wasserman, 1986:30). Concerning the relationship of Korean police with politics, the current Korean police system has been closely 52 related to the political power since 1948. The police force usually wasted a lot of time on performing political functions such as political intelligence activities and surveillance of political dissenters. Under the Liberal Party in 1960 they had manipulated the presidential election. There was no doubt the government had made the police system its instrument for the purpose of seizing and maintaining political power. W.K. Lee ( 1984) says that leaders of Korean Police Forces have emphasized a political-oriented posture rather than a people- oriented posture (p. 19). Regarding determinants of police intervention in politics, Bayley’s (1985) findings in contemporary cross- national research show that an active police role in politics is less common in countries that are relatively well developed economica l ly , have democratic regimes , and are administratively decentralized. He specifies the conditions in detail regarding police involvement in politics: Police will play a more active role in politics if competition for political power is deliberately restricted by government; if police have been created initially to defend political regimes; if an existing political order is threatened by social violence; and if there is a cultural tradition if insistence on right belief (Bayley, 1985:209). Some police organization are directly affected by the political process, because their hierarchy can be drastically changed by the election results and top ranking police officers are changed at the discretion of the new administration (Hall, 1977:307) . The political situation that ‘f‘l U. 0‘ A"! ‘ d. v.1 let u". “a '3‘. o ... :- ‘ mt.‘ u“ 0“ n; I I it}. 53 brings about the new laws also has its effects on organization. Political changes have accompanied major police changes. The police are keenly aware of the extent to which the city government does or does not intervene in the department depending on particular interests. Thus, police work is carried out under the influences of a political culture though not necessarily under day-to-day political direction. The police are in all cases keenly sensitive to their political environment without in all cases being governed by it (Willson, 1978:230). 3. Crime-related factor The fear of crime is not just a consequence of a direct experience as a victim of crime, and is one of the most vital ‘problems. Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux (1990) describe fear of crime as "crime’s evil and insidious shadow" that victimizes all (p. 130). The economic and social damage to individuals and a society from the fear of crime has becomes an important issue today as crime itself. Pollock made a distinction between two basic types of fear of crime: "Concrete fear is the fear of becoming the victim of a specific violent crime; formless fear is the nonspecific, amorphous, almost subconscious fear about general safety (1983:44) ." The level of fear of crime was examined from several (I. I’l' ll" "‘0'. a.“ u‘. “ ..‘g 1 q 1 :' ~- w.“ . 3:13“ I q IA I‘I- 54 perspectives. The fear of crime is not distributed in the same patterns across the whole population. The variation in the level of fear of crime existed between cities as well as within a city, due mainly to the different physical and social characteristics of cities and neighborhoods or communities. Much research supports the finding the level of fear varies in each neighborhood in a city. For example, central city residents were more likely than rural and suburban residents to feel unsafe (Boggs, 1971). The residents of large cities expressed much more fear than those in medium-sized cities, suburbs, small towns, and rural areas (Clemente and Kleiman, 1977). McPherson’s study (1978) also indicated that neighborhoods with relatively low crime rates had relatively low level of fear of crime while neighborhoods with.high crime rates had a high level of fear. The social structure in Korea has been changing towards advanced industrialization under the influence of intensive economic growth achieved in the past two decades. In addition to that, adult and juvenile offenses have subsequently been increasing due to the change of traditional family structure and hectic pace of society. In 1985, the crime rate in Korea ‘was 1,223 per 100,000 persons, while the ratio in the United State was 2,829, in England 2,803, in West Germany 4,171, and in France 3,227.s But between 1966 and 1980, reported crimes 5Korean National Headquarters, Korean National Police gfifigia; Report, Seoul, Korea, 1985, pp. 25-30. 55 increased 138% in Korea, while its population increased only 28%. During that period, 70% of all crimes occurred in the cities. If we are also to consider crimes which are not reported to the police, the actual increase in crime may have been as much as 200% during this 15-year period.6 Regarding juvenile crimes in Korea, juveniles refer to those youths between 14 and 20 years of ages by the law of Juvenile Act. The numbers of all criminals have on the average been increasing by 6.0% every year for last ten years (1980-1989). This rate is far exceeded that of a yearly population growth of 1.5%. We can readily see that the number of criminals has been increasing despite the overall improvement of living conditions considering the rate of economic growth of 7.2%.7 The juvenile delinquency has substantially increased by 2.5% every year on the average, though the total rate of juvenile delinquents among all criminals has not increased that much, but the quality of juvenile crime is gradually aggravated. For example, newspaper articles about vicious crimes committed by juveniles, especially crimes relating to home destruction, that is, raping a woman in the face of the victim’s family to prevent them from informing to investigative authorities after burglarizing, were deep social concerns nowadays. 6Korean National Headquarters, Korean Narional Poiice Official Reporr, Seoul, Korea, 1985, pp. 31-33. 7Korean National Headquarters, W W. Seoul. Korea. 1990. pp- 20-23- 56 Such aggravated crimes as robbery, rape and arson have been increasing rapidly, but.no big changes.have been observed in crimes against property. Aggravated crimes in the year 1989 increased by 5% (502 persons) compared with the preceding year.8 The writer think that the recent increase of vicious juvenile crimes is a manifestation of destructive propensity of people who have failed to adapt themselves to the sudden changes in social values that were brought about with rapid industrialization. The basic role of the police is to control, prevent, and repress crime, and reduce the degree of fear of crime. Police and crime, in nature, cannot be separated. In order to examine the police relations with community, the association (of crime issues with this relationship must be considered. Prevalent social controls and policing modes are important elements in shaping the public’s reporting behavior or cooperative attitude, and in generating the impact of crime issues on the public’s willingness or attitude towards contacting the police. 4. Police-related Factors. The public perceptions of police have enormous implications for police-citizen encounters, support for police 8Korean National Headquarters, Korean Natiogai Eoiice Official Report, Seoul, Korea, 1990, pp. 31-32. 57 work and the legitimacy of the legal order (Alemika,1988:161). Where police officers are viewed negatively there tends to be hostility towards police work. Policy-makers and police authority also need to appreciate the structure and nature of public perception of police in order to institute measures that maximize public support for police work and minimize police-community discordance (p. 162). Police cynicism and unprofessional conducts usually result from and are promoted by the police alienation from the public (Braithwaite and Sonnad, 1984). On the whole, the Korean public seems to have negative attitudes toward. the police judging from jperiodical and medical content. Lee (1984) says that the public image of the police in Korea is based on the following causes: (1) environmental factors (historical and political background), (2) general prejudice toward the police, (3) police corruption and misconduct, (4) influence of media (p. 31). (a) The current public image toward the police is partly rooted in residuals of the historic past during the colonial period by Japan, when police were seen as regressors. Because of these past unhappy experiences, the present generation in Korea has been psychologically taught in childhood that the ‘police are horrible beings. Public perceptions of the police ‘today'have been affected by the illusion that police are seen as a symbol of Japanese overload. Under the Liberal Party from 1948 to 1960 and the Republican Party from 1961 to 1979, 58 Koreans had a habit of seeing the police as instruments of the ruling'partyu IMost Koreans long believed.that the police were not doing a good job. Korean police have been, consequently, accused of not dealing with police work for citizens, but for the ruling party. (b) Usually' Koreans have ‘thought of the police as uneducated, low paid, and of low status compared to prosecutors and judges. Police officers are even perceived as dirty workers. These circumstances contribute to prejudice that the public has against the police. This prejudice is a barrier in the relations of police and the community (p. 32). As a reaction to public prejudice, the police have a poor self-image and, in some sense, feel hostile toward the public. Both sides have been caught up in an ascending spiral of antagonism (Wilson, 1978:200). (c) Police corruption is obvious, the most harmful sort of corruption in Korea, because people have had a tendency to see police wrong-doing as that of the immorality, since the police are a representative body (Manning, 1979:335). So there seems to be a more pronounced condemnation of police corruption compared to the corruption of the other government branches. In fact, police officers are in a vulnerable position, particularly traffic police officers and detectives. (d) Finally, the recent attack on police misbehavior and poor performance by the media has brought attention to the crimes committed by the police and has caused considerable 59 criticism of their unlawful behavior, particularly that which has violated civil rights. This lack of regard for civil rights is believed to be one of the most important causes of public alienation. Much literature on the image of police.have of the public is generally consistent with the following points: Police frequently perceive their work environment as hostile and uncooperative, and these perceptions encourage the adoption of attitudes and behaviors which can have important consequences for both.police performance and police-community interactions (Thomas and Hyman, 1987:307). Regarding police visibility, although some suggest the increased level of police visibility as one of the general strategies for crime prevention or reducing the fear of crime, it remains controversial even now. The results of the research on the neighborhood foot patrol in Flint, Michigan showed that the citizens felt especially safe when their foot patrol officer was well known and highly visible (Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, 1990:217) . The foot patrol officers most frequently cited their familiarity with both the people and places in their beats to explain their feeling of security (p. 224). Based on the above findings, the present study expects that the public’ s perceptions of the police, the police performance, and police visibility would play an important role in establishing police relations with community. 60 5. Cultural-Ideological factor. This factor in this study includes group-oriented values, patriotism, and attitudes toward authoritarianism. a. Group-oriented values A163;§I;;fito Lee (1991E::§idividualism-collectivism is \ the mafpr dimension of cultural variability, which affects intergroup processes (p. 48). Individualist cultures emphasizes values that serve the self by making the self feel good, be distinguished, and be independent. The core meaning of collectivism is giving' priority to group goals over personal goals. Collectivist cultures emphasize values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals for the sake of preserving group integrity, interdependence of members, and harmonious relationships (Triandis et al., 1985:35). There is empirical evidence that individualism- collectivism is a dominant value system which differentiates * cultural groups and nations (Hofstede, 1984) . Societies showing a high degree of individualism -- e.g., the United States, Australia, Great Britain, and Canada -- were described as. characterized. by features such. as 'their’ emphases on personal autonomy and self-realization, on individual achievement and initiative, and on identity based on an individual’s personal attributes. In societies reflecting a less individualistic 61 orientation -- Hong Kong, and Taiwan, (Korea fits into this group) -- Hofstede (1984) said that there was likely to be greater emotional dependence on organizations and groups, less privacy, and a tendency for an individual’ s identity to be defined by one’s place in the social system. The latter set of characteristics reveal a value orientation in which various groups look after the individual’s interests in return for loyalty to the group. Before the 1900’s, Korea was an agricultural society built on strong family ties. Almost all the people lived in small villages and worked on farms. IPeople owed their loyalty to their families. The family’s interest was most important than that of individual. In :many cases, grandparents, parents, their sons and unmarried daughters, and the sons’ wives and children lived altogether. This arrangement is called an.extended familyu The oldest male served as the head of the family, and all people were expected to obey their elders without question. The Korean way of life began to change after Japan seized control of the country in 1910. 'The.Japanese brought industry to Korean cities and took much farmland away from the farmers. As a result, many young Koreans moved to the cities to work. This movement weakened Korea’s strong family ties. Life in Korea has also changed since World War II. The Korea’s economic and political ties with.Western nations have brought Koreans under the influence of Western customs. 62 Probably the most decisive of Korean social values has been Confucianism which is primarily an ethical system. Confucianism, as an established state idealogy, existed until the early part of the twentieth century. Even today, family relationships, political attitudes, ways of solving problems, and many other aspects of Korean life reveal the imprint of Confucianism tradition (Kim and Rho, 1982:122) . Paternalistic P—v Confucian ethic are encompassing the value/ structure of Korean society and shaping the Korean community. This study expects to show that group-oriented values have an impact on the public’s cooperation to the police. b. Patriotism The most common definition of patriotism is love of country, which is obviously subjective and psychological. Doob (1964) defines patriotism as: The more or less conscious conviction of a person that his own welfare and that of the significant groups to which he belongs are independent upon the preservation or expansion (or both) of the power and culture of his society (Doob, 1964:6). Lee (1991) indicates that there are obviously important differences between societies that give rise to variations in ‘the content of patriotism (p. 23). Certainly, the conviction that there is a significant connection between personal or group welfare and the government or state varies from nation to nation. Although the content of the demands behind the nationalism and the nature of the national actions vary, 63 patriotism from which they spring have certain ingredients that are roughly the same everywhere (p. 24) . Patriotic dispositions are seen as universal, built within each group through repeated reinforcements derived from growing up in a given land, among given people, with a given culture. It is thus simply a psychological correlate of growing up in human groups. The recollection of the flag, a concrete symbol, or something as a national song may on some occasion arouse an internal response. Generally, people’s reactions are likely to reflect feelings to a greater degree than the contents: the name of the nation is heard and they feel happy or proud (p. 33). Under the treat of communist North Korea, the Korean students were usually educated to protect democracy through the anti-communism education from elementary school days. Patriotism in Korea is regarded as one of the most important values of evaluating how good student he/she is. Regarding the relationship of patriotism with nationalism, Doob says that the step from patriotism to nationalism is unavoidable. He defines nationalism as a set of demands, arising from patriotism, for the strengthening and expansion of the society; Nationalism. becomes a prime motivating set of beliefs, and becomes a way of motivating people to work for social change and of harnessing their energies intorcooperative and coordinated activities. Common sense suggests that strongly patriotic people willingly 64 support the policies of their government and are even eager to make sacrifices demanded by their leaders (p. 53). c. Authoritarianism Lee (1991) explains that the study regarding the authoritarian personality has sought to answer the following question: How are the ethnocentric attitudes and authoritarian idealogy of prejudices individuals reflected and manifested in their beliefs, attitudes, and actions? (p. 54) Most research has produced a common conclusion that prejudiced individuals do live their lives in accordance with their ethnocentric attitudes and authoritarian ideologies (Snyder and Ickes, 1972:385). The present study focuses on authoritarianism in relation to the state, the family, and social issues (e.g., crime and sexual immorality) . It attempts to explore how different attitudes of the public toward authoritarianism have an impact on police-community interactions. D. Introduction to Korea 1. Location and area Republic of Korea (South. Korea) is located on the southern part of the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The South Korea is a rugged and mountainous country though only 65 one peak, the Paektu Mountain, in the extreme north exceeds 2,750 meters (9,000 ft) in elevation. Only 15% of the land is classified as plains, and these are mostly along the coast. The dominant topographical feature is a chain of mountains with the Taeback Range at its core running parallel to the east coast (Kurian, 1987:1085-86). 2. Weather South Korea has a continental climate with dry, cold winters and hot, humid summers. Even though the winters are less severe than in.North.Korea, snowfalls are not uncommon in the South in winter. However, there is great climatic range even within the country in the winter. Rainfall is concentrated in the April to September rainy season causing‘ damaging floods. ‘Typhoons occur at least once or twice a year (p. 1086). 3. Population The population of South Korea was estimated at 42,643,000 in 1985 based on the last official census held in 1980. The population is expected to reach 51.7 million in 2000 and 59.4 million in 2020. The annual growth rate has been steadily declining since the 19605 and is now 1.39% based on the annual birthrate of 21 per 1,000. The majority of the people live in the South and southwestern coastal areas. Seoul is the most populous region with 17.6% of the population followed by North 66 Kyongsang Province (14.5%), South Cholla Province (12.7%), Kyonggi Province (10.7%), etc. South Korea is rapidly becoming a predominantly urban nation. In 1984 65.35% of the population lived in towns and cities as against 18.4% in 1950, representing an annual urban growth rate of 4.2%. There are seven cities with over 500,000 inhabitants with 77% of the urban population; there are 28 cities with over 100,000 inhabitants containing 46.8% of the national population and 139 cities with over 20,000 inhabitants containing 58.1% of the national population. The pace of the urbanization was highest in the large metropolitan cities, such as Seoul and Pusan which.averaged 9% annually between 1960 and 1970. Seoul itself contains one out of every six South Koreans. The rural population lives in 35,000 farm villages. Government efforts to stem the flow of the population from these villages to the towns include the New Community Movement, launched in 1971. This Movement was designed to stimulate the rural environment by channeling state development funds to rural areas (pp. 1086-87). 4. Ethnic composition South Korea is the world’s most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous nation. Virtually the entire population is of Korean origin and there is no evidence of non-Mongoloid admixture. There is no national ethnic minority. The total resident, non-Korean population is 67 estimated at no more than 50,000 of whom the majority are Nationalist Chinese. There are no widespread anti-western feelings among the native population (p. 1088). 5. Social structure and values It is hard to describe Korean society without considering its value system which acts to shape Korea and to maintain the Korean community. Contemporary social values of the Republic of Korea reflect the synthesis and development of diverse influences, both indigenous and foreign. Probably the most decisive of these has been Confucianism which is primarily an ethical system. I Confucianism, as an established state ideology, existed (“fl—W '''' _“fl until the early part of the twentieth century. Even today, family relationships, political attitudes, ways of solving problems, and many other aspects of Korean life reveal the imprint of Confucianism tradition (Kim and Rho, 1982:122). Next to Confucianism, Taoism in Korea, with its mystic and naturalistic inclination, provided psychological freedom in a restrictive Confucian society, but was less successful in maintaining itself as a systematic philosophy because of the very formless and negative nature of it (Joe, 1972:90-95). Buddhism as a religion partially influenced the value system of Korean society. After World War II, western religious, social, and Political values such as Christianity, Individualism, 68 Democracy, and so on, along with Confucianism as an old traditional values, have been instrumental in shaping social values and social structure in Korea. Korean traditional thought, even in the most conservative rural areas, has been changed into a form of thought in which a democratic society could take firm root. At any rate, a quasi-egalitarian ethic of communitarianism, friendship, and mutual aid coexisting with the inegalitarian, paternalistic Confucian ethic are encompassing the value/ structure of Korean society and shaping the Korean community. 6. Religion South Korea has no state religion, and freedom of worship and conscience are guaranteed. Buddhism claims the most adherents, but Christianity is the most influential organized religion. Buddhism has 18 denominations of which the Chongye- Jong is the largest order, accounting for half the number of believers. Confucianism, though less a religion than a moral“ and political philosophy, displaced Buddhism as the dominant intellectual force in the middle of the 14th century. Chondogyo is an eclectic faith borrowing heavily from Christianity, Buddhism and Confucianism. Christianity, introduced in the late 16th century, was a persecuted religion until 1882 when, by a treaty of friendship signed with the [baited States, the country’ was open to 'missionary' work (Kurian, 1987:1087) . 69 7. Colonial Experience Korea was under Japanese occupation from 1910 when the Yi Dynasty was abolished to 1945 when the country was liberated by‘U.S and Soviet forces. .Japanese rule was entirely negative and oppressive. Although Japanese rule was accompanied by some economic development, the process represented a systematic national humiliation. The Japanese aimed openly to eradicate the Korean national identity and to this end even the use of the Korean Language was banned. Few Japanese legacies have survived the liberation, though‘ relations between the two countries were normalized in 1965 (p. 1088). 8. Education The national literacy rate is 92.7% (97.5% for males and 87.9% for females). Education is, in principle, compulsory, free and universal for six years from the ages of 6 to 12. The school enrollment ratio is 100% at the primary level and 89% at the secondary level, for a combined enrollment ratio of 95%. Girls make up 49% of primary enrollment, 46% of secondary school enrollment, and 34% of post-secondary enrollment. Schooling consists of 12 years divided into six years of pmimary school, three years of middle school and three years Of high school. The curricula were standardized in 1954 but have undergone many modifications since then, the latest being 511 1973 to reflect the national revitalization movement.' The academic year runs from March through February. The medium of 7O instruction is Korean, but English is taught as a compulsory subject from the secondary grades on. The overall control of education is vested in the Ministry of education, but the public school system is under the administrative direction of the city, county or provincial school boards. Only the higher educational institutions are directly under the Ministry of Education. In 1983 there were 428 colleges and universities in South Korea, including four— year and two-year colleges. Of these, 67 institutions were privately ran. In 1982, 9,760 South Korean students were enrolled in institutions of higher learning aboard. Of these 6,457 were in the United states, 1,743 in the West Germany, 103 in Canada, 984 in Japan and 76 in the United Kingdom (pp. 1102-03). 9. The political and legal traits of the government The political and legal structure of South.Korea is based on the Korean Constitution, which was first adopted on July 17, 1948, and was amended.through.a national referendum.on.0ct 22, 1980. South korea is divided into four special cities, Seoul, Pusan, Inchon and Daegu, and nine provinces, which are under a national government composed of the Administration (executive), the National Assembly (legislative), and Supreme Court (judiciary). The national government is organized by the Government Organization Law and is also characterized by 71 a democratic form in accordance with the Korean Constitution. Articles 1 and 2 of the Korean Constitution state: The Republic of Korea shall be a democratic republic, and the sovereignty of the state shall reside in the people and all state authority shall emanate from the people.9 a. The Administration (Executive) The President functions not only as head of the executive branch in domestic affairs but also as head of the State Council (the Cabinet) as well as the Supreme Commander of the nation’s armed forces. The President’s term is a single seven years, and he has the power to appoint and dismiss public officials, including the Prime Minister, members of the State Council, heads of governmental agencies, ambassadors, provincial governors, judges, prosecutors, and other senior public officials (Oh, 1976:65). Important executive agencies include the Presidential Secretariat and the State Council, which in 1985 were headed by the President and included the prime minister and 22 cabinet ministers defined by function. The prime minister and other ministers are chosen by the president. In addition to the State Council, the President has a number of presidential agencies and councils under his direct control to formulate and carry out national policies. These 9South Korea. orea nua 197 . Seoul, Korea: Hab Dong News Agency, 1975, p. 316. 72 include the National Security Council, the economic and Scientific Council, the Board of Audit and Inspection, the Administrative Improvement Research Committee, and the.Agency for National Security Planning (the KCIA, until its name was changed in Dec., 1980), and the Advisory Council for Peaceful Unification Policy (Oh, 1976:33). b. The National Assembly (Legislative) The Korean National assembly is a unicameral system composed of 276 members elected for 4-year terms. The major functions of the National Assembly include the power to deliberate and propose and approve or reject legislative bills; to finalize and inspect closing' accounts of the national budget; to ratify or reject foreign treaties; and to concur in declaration of war or drafting of treaties of peace (p. 34). The Assembly exercises the right to consent to or reject the appointment of the Prime Minister. The National Assembly may, by means of a vote of non-confidence, call for the dismissal of any individual cabinet member or of the Prime Minister; however, in the latter case, there must be a unanimous vote. Cabinet members are required to submit their resignations along with that of the prime Minster. c. The Supreme Court (Judiciary) The judiciary is composed of judges who carry out their duties independently in accordance with the Korean 73 Constitution and law. The chief Justice is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly upon recommendation of the Judge Recommendation Council. All judges and prosecutors are appointed by the President, but they must pass an examination and train for two years before the appointment. In South Korea, under the continental judiciary system, a judge or panel of judges decides on a legal case without a jury. Judiciary power is vested in various courts, including the Supreme Court, Appellate Courts, District Courts, Family Court, and Courts- martial (p. 35). d. Regional and local government South Korea is divided into nine provinces and four province-level special cities. The four special cities and other large cities are divided into wards and towns and counties. Counties are divided into towns, townships, and villages. The military coup of May 1961 bought the dissolution of elected local councils and ended local self-government. Regional and local government is thus under the control of the national government, with local and regional officials being appointed by the level directly above them. Although there has been talk of restoring provincial and local popularly elected assemblies, the limited financial resources of the Provinces and local jurisdictions hamper progress in this direction. I! f V r , (h (I) V.‘ (a- 5., v-- Q ‘4 ‘- I... ‘U‘ 4v. 74 The mayor of Seoul, the capital, is appointed by the president, while the governors of the provinces and the other special cities are nominated by the ministers of home affairs and approved by the president. Lower-level officials such as the mayors of towns are appointed by the provincial governors (Delury, 1987:647-48). E. Historical Survey of the Korean National Police Korea has long been known as the land of the Morning Calm, deriving this expression from the Chinese character (Cho-Sun;old name of Korea). Both during and previous to the Yi Dynasty in 1392, Korea was distinguished in its cultural attainments and in the high order of economic, political and moral virtues displayed by the people. Both law and order were accepted principles under which the Korean people lived. This law was of an authoritarian or autocratic type. The historical process of the formation of the present police system in South Korea will be chronologically described and explained by dividing it into ten stages; 1. Police service in ancient times, 2. Police service in the Yi dynasty (1392-1910), 3. Japanese rule stage (1910-1945), 4. United State military administrational stage (1945-1948), 5- Korean government establishment stage (1948-50) , 6. Korean war stage (1950-1953), 7. Post-war restoration and the 2nd 75 Republic stage (1954-60), 8. The 3rd and.4th.Republic, Growth stage (1961-1979), 9.‘The transitional emergency of 1980, and the 5th Republic of the 1980’s (1980-1987), 10. The 6th Republic, following the free election of 1987 (1988- present).10 1. Police service in ancient times. The history of Korea stretches back more than 4,200 years. In the year 7 B.C., tribes united themselves south of the Han River and, following the incorporation of tiny but important Karak, established a great kingdom, Koguryo, which embraced the vast territory of present day Manchuria. In 18 B.C., a third kingdom, Paikche, come into being, thus initiating what is known as the era of the three kingdoms. The Silla Dynasty unified Korea in 668 A.D. and passed its sovereignty to the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392) from which Korea was evidently derived. In 1392 the Yi Dynasty began and maintained its sovereignty until the Japanese government exerted its influence on the peninsula. The condition of public safety of Koguryo (37 B.C.-668 A.D.) was considerably stable, as the power of enforcing law loPark, Bum-Rae. The History of Korean Pciice (Hangck Kyongchcica). National Police College, Seoul, Korea: National Police College, 1990, and Suh, Ki-Young. History cf Kcrecn Police Adminisrrction (flangck Kyocgchcl hecngjeongsa), Seoul, Korea: Bup Mun Sa Co., 1976, and Henderson, Gegory. "Constitutional Changes from the First to the Sixth Republics: 1948 to 1987," and Kim, Ilpyong J., and Young-Whan Kihl. MW- The Korean PWPA. Inc.. 1988- 76 and.order was derived from military authority» Generally, the law was enforced strictly, therefore there were few criminals (Park, 1988:57-60). In Silla (57 B.C.-918 A.D), the general police service was undertaken by the Defense Ministry and Judicial police affairs by the Justice Ministry. In Baekche (18 B.C.-600 A.D.) , the government structure differed slightly from the others,however, the maintenance of law and order was the responsibility of military authority (pp. 60-66). The system of the Koryo Dynasty (918-1392) was not yet the independence one. In general, the police function mingled into all fields of administration. Of special note was the police function that undertook the maintenance of the security for the state. This was carried out by the military, and military administration also included the police ~ administration. The Defense Military, one of the six ministries of what was called the national government, assumed the police function as well as military operation. The judicial police affairs also constituted a phase of the jurisdiction of the Justice Military on the national level (pp. 69-93). 2. Police service in the Yi dynasty: 1392-1910 During the first period of the Yi Dynasty, such conditions as existed above still continued. The police were regarded as a branch of the military administration, and garrisons stationed in the provinces exclusively took charge 77 of penal affairs. There was no independent and professional police organization until the 18th century when Podo-chung (Burglar capturing office) was created. This system had been followed by the Korean government for nearly four centuries. The first historical predecessor of the current police organization may be found at the time of King Hunjong in the Yi dynasty in 1839 (pp. 116-17). Even in such a disordered society, all of the royal family and the public peace were well protected and maintained by the Podo-chung who emphasized its duty to the royal familyu The Podo-chung could not retain its political neutrality against this flexible and changeable monarchial policy. A policy was determined by the contradictory and vacillating policy of the king’s law. The reasons for the army rebellion were the king’s law and the ruthless exercise of the power of the Podo-chung; During this period, owing to the abuse of police power, the people enjoyed little security in 'terms of ‘their individual lives and personal properties (Oh, 1976:14-15). Korean’s police system was established on a relatively modern basis after the Kab-Oh reformation in 1894. What was then. the (Justice IMinistry ‘undertook. the task. of police affairs. In March, 1895 -- about 66 years after the time Sir Robert Peel first entertained the idea of and organized civil police service -- the term "police" was introduced in the Imperial Ordinance No. 52, .where the police service was included as the responsibility of the Home Ministry (Park, 78 1988:36-39). Podo-chung, as a repressive force, reacted to the loss of Korea’s isolation through the persecution of foreigners, Catholics, and confucians. During the transition to complete Japanese domination, a series of modern re-organization acts at the very end of the dynasty nationalized this force during the 1890’s and 1900’s. The acts represented the first formal rule-of-law enactments establishing the legitimacy, authority and powers of the national police force. In 1984, the government established in the Home Affairs Ministry the police bureau, Kyoungmu-chung. After fears arose that a too powerful or politicized Police Ministry could execute a coup d’etat, an abbreviated experiment transforming the bureau into an independent police Ministry ended (Lee, 1971:154-55). 3. Police during the Japanese occupation: 1910445 Before entering the Japanese rule stage, it is important to understand the police system of the transitional period (1894-1909). There was once a more advanced police system which was reformed by King Kojong (1894). The reformed system of the Podo-chung was promoted and its status elevated by amalgamating the previous two Podo-cbungs (one was central and the other was regional) and placing them under the control of the Chief of Home Affairs. The Podo-chung name was also eventually changed to the Kyoungmu-chung; its level is Similar to the present National Police Headquarters. After 79 this change, the system of KYoungmu-chung was again promoted strongly by the Ministry of Police affairs in 1900; but its system was abolished in 1901 (Park, 1988:134-51). The ruthless Japanese occupation of 1910-45 was in large measure enforced through a strongly centralized national police bayonet policy, loathed and resisted by the populace. Especially after the failed March 1 (1919) anti—occupation movement, Japan strengthened its central headquarters and divided the country administratively into regional bureaus, stations, sub-stations, and boxes or detachments for the more efficient enforcement of its imperial goals (Nahm, p. 225).“ During this time, a great number of Korean people were killed by the unprovoked gunfire of policemen (Sunsa; this refers to the Japanese policemen who hold the rank of patrolman). Because of the Korean people’s strong resistance to the ruthless bayonet policy, the police system was again changed into two separate organizations; these were (1) the police for public peace and order, and (2) the military police for military matters and national defense (Park, 1988:12). 4. Police during the U.S military administration: 1945-48 On Japan’s unconditional surrender in 1945, the American military government directed the police (along with a national "The gendarmerie and the civil police grew enormously under the Japanese. Nahm, Andrew (L Korea; Tradition and Iransfcrnation. Elizabeth, N.J.: Hollym International Corp., 1988. 80 constabulary) . The structure of the force remained centralized. At the beginning of the Korean National Police, even under the U.S military government, there was one central Police Bureau and ten regional police bureaus under the mayor of Seoul Special City and the governors of provinces throughout South Korea; and new police ranks were changed from the old ranks of the Japanese rule stage (Park, 1988:170-75). The government established the women’s police station in the main cities and regional police schools throughout the provinces (July 1, 1946). In addition to its. classical function of maintaining public order, investigating crime, and protecting life and property, the U.S military pressed the police in this era into service in the areas of construction, fire fighting, industry and labor, sanitation, and other welfare activities, following the Japanese occupation model. The classical police functions assumed by this re- invigorated force resolved themselves into five divisions: the Secretariat, concerned with finance, equipment, personnel, education, inspection, legal affairs, and development; public safety , respons ible for prostitution , contraband , construction, gun control, hunting, and traffic control; Criminal Investigation; Fire Fighting and communication, overseeing fire prevention, civilian air defense, flood damage, and wire and wireless communication; and Policewomen, involved with juveniles, homelessness, and alcoholism (pp. 176-87).. 81 During the U.S military administration, the power of summary conviction by'a chief of police of each.police station was abolished and the cop-on-the-beat no longer carried a sword. These changes were made to restore the public’s respect for its police force by dropping all patterns of the Japanese police system (Oh, 1976:20). Thus, with.the goal for realizing the so-called democratic policeman, the Korean National Police System had often been changed or reformed in its beginning days to build an effective, .efficient and domestic police images. Therefore, this period of the Korean police is one of the most important stage in the formation of the present police system in Korea today. The hated Japanese police system was remodeled in order to restore public respect for a new democratized police.l2 Unfortunately many Korean policemen and officers had been in the Japanese police force and learned police tactics from the Japanese. Police brutality and corruption were widely reported and contributed to the people’s alienation from the government (Nahm, 1988:351). 5. Police in the First Republic: 1948-50 In 1948, the re-organized Korean government assumed 12In a memo to the force in 1945, the first Korean director of the re-organized police set out guidelines for the performance of the duties: 1., the force must re-gain the trust and confidence of the populace; 2. , officers must remain rational and composed in the face of their difficulties; 3., police conduct must be guided by a sense of fairness; etc., Ibid. 82 administrative control of the nation from the transitional American military government. It re-integrated the national police into the Home Affairs Ministry, as it had been under the Japanese occupation, and the police have remained under the Ministry’s direction, control and supervision ever since. y fl The police bureaucracy has thus consistently retained a nationalized and centralized identity. During this period, the Korean police had tried hard to build an effective operational police administration through organizational and functional reformation. The new government gave the National Police Director General -- always responsible to the Home Affairs Ministry -- additional divisional responsibility to meet certain post-war domestic circumstances. It also established the Economic Crime Control Division to combat various white collar offenses, Thought Control Division to combat political and ideological offenses against the government, and Communications Division to create effective national exchange of police information by the latest wire and wireless technology. The government also created a special constabulary of combat police to flush out communist guerrillas thought to be in the rural hinterlands. The functional divisions of the ten regional police bureaus and. police stations was applied to ‘the National police Headquarters. The Policewomen’s Division was abolished, and its personnel and function under the Public Security Division (Park, 1988:183-85). 83 6. Police during the War: 1950-53 The Korean War required the police to support the armed forces on the battle-field in addition to maintaining their normal functions. In order to do this, the government expanded the police bureaucracy to create Social Supply, Public Defense, Intelligence, Combat and Maritime Divisions. These units guarded the National Assembly, secures places of public accommodation, opposed the infiltration of espionage forces, and controlled illegal fishing within territorial waters. The police thus took on an expanded, multi-faceted personality as both a military and a civilian force. The important point to be considered in reference to the police role during the Korean War was the effective performance of the dual functions of a military and civilian police, thus making it the critical national organization for national defense. The Korean police’s successful performance of this task.is an honorable example of excellence in the face-’ of the continued threat of Communist encroachment (pp. 209- 25). 7. Police during the Post-war restoration and the Second Republic: 1954-60 After the armistice of 1950 some anti-guerrilla combat police functions continued. Weighing against the favorable reputation, it had earned in the Korean War was the legacy of the increased.power the force had accumulated as a tool of the 84 Japanese during the occupation, and its enlarged responsibilities in the Korean War. The stronger power of the police, which evolved during the Korean war, generated a feeling of suspicion for the police in the minds of the people. This suspicion was a result of the unresolved fears of police repression and violence which occurred during the Japanese rule. The people’s fears and isolation from the police were some degree caused by the abusive use of the police authority and by the lingering image of the Japanese policemen. Furthermore, there was another tendency of isolation from the police, which was made by the political inability of the Democratic Party’s government (pp. 226-41). Police entanglement with the ruling political party tarnished the police image in the post-war recovery years.‘3 It may be said that the police during this time tended to engage in. political matters rather than in their formal duties. On the other hand, the police also contributed to the maintenance of public peace and social order during the unsettled domestic situation after the Korean War. 8. Police in the 3rd Republic and 4th Republic: 1961-79 The police had a new chance to improve and develop their 13See for more detail, Han, Sung-Joo. The Faiiurc of W. University of California Press, 1974, pp. 7-13. 85 system. by the May 16, 1961, military revolution. The following operational mottoes for police administration were under the military government as guidelines for changes. In the aftermath.of the military coup of 1961, the regime promulgated a new code of idealogy in order to clear the air. It attempted to:“ a. eliminate personal favoritism an rationalize performance; b. adopt scientific methods of personnel management; c. maintain the purity of the anti-communist crusade through purges; d. investigate and prosecute public corruption; e. maintain political neutrality The vehicle for these changes was the Law of Police as public officers, proclaiming a domestic and politically neutral force, and instituting administrative re-organization, recruitment by examination, merit promotion, and modern concepts of management and training. These concepts were further expanded in the early 1970’s. In the 1960’s and 1970’s (3rd and 4th Republics), Korean society concentrated very heavily on its economic development and neglected its political liberation (however, this trend somewhat reversed itself in the 1980’s under the 5th and 6th Republics). There has been some relative relaxation in the use of the police force as an arm of political repression and abuse as society has grouped its way toward constitutional reform and freer elections and expression. “South Korea. G e S t s ’ t . Seoul, Korea, National Police Headquarters, 1975, p. 16. 86 During' this stage, there ‘were several notable consolidations or changes, creating a new foundation for the police administration, which. were based, on the. domestic principles. These were: a. establishment of a planning and screening division (Oct. 2, 1961). b. establishment of foreign affairs division as a new police duty (Jul. 11, 1966). c. establishment of the eleven combat police units in the jurisdictions of each regional police bureau (Sep. 1, 1967). d. enactment of the new police law (Jan. 7, 1969). e. changing the National police Technical Academy to the National Police college (Feb. 22, 1972).” 1’This National Police College was upgraded to a regular 4—year college system in Dec, 1979, in which the inauguration Act of 4 year-course National Police College was promulgated. In 1981, the first term students were admitted. The National Police College, located at Unnam—Ri, Yongin—Kun, Kyoungki-Do, had modern educational facilities. Each class of the college has 120 students; 60 in the department of law, and as many in that of public administration. The total number of the students is 480. The class curriculum of the National Police College is almost three times as great that of the general civilian colleges and.runs according to the methods of an.all- around service education for the students in order to cope with any situation for maintain public law and order readying themselves for the role of one of the advanced societies in the upcoming let century. It also plays a vital role in nurturing a sound police morale and culture, by holding a variety of police seminars and symposia music concerts and athletic meetings. Police Consoiiaated Training §chcoi This School, located at Bupyung-Dong, Incheon, provides first class training and education for police advanced studies,basic training for junior police staff, and special and practical training courses for security and investigative officers. It also takes responsibility for the training and education of Maritime Police instructors, key personnel of the Combat Police Force and foreign language staff. Ce t o ' e c e This Academy, located at Sangmo-Myeon, Jungwon-Kun, 87 The most important of the above changes was the enactment of the new Police Law. This was intended to protect the rights and liberties of the police and to maintain public peace and order by keeping the working philosophy of the police as one of political neutrality. This new law is also a democratic law, based on the broad principle of democracy, in accordance with the spirit of the Korean constitution, which guarantees a democratic police operation (Handerson, 1988:33). (for the Police organization, 1978; see Appendix E, Figure 1) 9. Police during the transitional emergency and the 5th Republic: 1980-87 In 1980, a number of the worst features of the Yushin Constitution were removed: forced labor could only be imposed as a consequence of criminal conviction; Habeas Corpus and the exclusion of coerced confession from evidence were guaranteed. Some newly' conferred rights appear, but largely as ornaments. The police organization is a centralized national police system, controlled by the central government.‘6 The Minister Chungchungbuk-Do, was established in September, 1987. It is capable of simultaneously offering the six weeks’ training course for the police recruits, the two weeks’ training course for the grantees of the Combat Police and a variety of basic specialized training courses for junior police. “ The Police Organization is a government organization operated on a lineal command system, comprising 13 nation-wide Police Bureaus in large cities and provinces, 201 Police Stations and 3,220 Police Substations, and Detachments on the bases of 1991 figures. It is responsible for protecting the 88 of Home Affairs directs and controls the police organization. The hierarchy of authority continues from the Minister of Home Affairs to the Provincial Governors or Mayors of Seoul, Pusan, Taeku, Incheon Special cities and down to the police chief at the end. But, the Director General has direct responsibility for the operation of police objectives. The execution the police operation is in the hands of the Director General, followed by the Directors of the Provincial Police bureaus, and by the Police Chiefs (Lee, 1984:21-22) (for the Police organization, 1987; see Appendix E, Figure 2). The Korean National Police Force is organized with a central Headquarter,l7 14 Provincial Police Bureaus,18 and sub lives and property and democratic life of the people and for maintaining public peace and order. At the same time, it is national entity composed of six supporting institutions including the National Police College which supports 130,000 policemen (70,000 professional policemen, 60,000 combat policemen and compulsory-status policemen) 17National Police Headquarters is composed of five departments, twelve bureaus, four offices, 34 divisions, five sections, one center. It exercises the highest authority over all police components for maintain public peace and order; established national policies for public peace and order, disseminates such policies to subordinate commands and police stations in cities and provinces and supervises them. lst Dept.: Services for internal police administration, personnel affairs and communications. 2nd Dept.: Services for traffic, escort, security and guard, counter-espionage operations and civil aviation. 3rd Dept.: Services for security, investigation, detective duty, crime prevention, criminal cases and arrest of criminals. ~ ' 4th Dept.: Services for forecast and.preliminary announcement of precautions and information to maintain public peace 89 police system such as Police Stations19 and Police Boxes.20 The Police Headquarter has 5 divisions and each division has several sections (4-8) which are specialized by function and each section is subdivided into severa1,unitsw ‘The Provincial Police Bureaus are organized with specialized sections such as Administration, Security, Public Safety, Criminal Investigation, Intelligence, Anti-Communist, and Communication. A Police Station is commanded by a senior and order through collecting,producing and.disseminating intelligence and information concerned. 5th Dept.: Services for preventing conspiracy and insurgency activities to overthrow the government and to disrupt the liberal and democratic political system of the nation, and services for international cooperation for the containment of international crimes and criminal organizations. 18Metropolitan Police Bureau and Provincial Police Bureau are operated and supervised 'under the authority' of the National Police Headquarters, and are responsible for maintaining public peace and order over their own jurisdictional district, respectively, by directing and supervising their own police stations. There are 4 municipal police bureaus and 9 provincial police bureaus. 19A police station is operated and supervised by the Metropolitan, Municipal and Provincial Police Bureau as the lowest executive forward organization of the police. It is charged with the responsibility of maintaining public peace and order over its own precinct. The chief of police station is charged with the police duties relative to the keeping of public peace and order within the precinct aided by the staff officers of 7 sections, police substations and boxes. The police station carries out duties through seven functioning section. 20The Police Substations and Boxes take preliminary police actions in all crimianl incidents, civic services, and accidents as it is the foremost forward Police Post to t8kegfirst accident against any crimes and offenses occurring 1th”! its own designated district ward of responsibility. W 90 superintendent (Police Chief), and it has an average of 12 to 14 police boxes. Police substations and boxes are commanded by a lieutenant or sergeant according to the size of the precinct.21 10. Police in the 6th Republic: 19SS-present. The 1987 constitutional amendment, unlike the previous amendment, was genuinely reform-oriented in the sense that it expanded the rights of the citizenry and also restored and strengthened the power of the legislature, thereby reversing the historical trend of augmenting executive power. There have been no major changes as to basic structure of the police organization since the beginnings of the 6th.Republic in 1988. However, in 1990 the government accepted the 1989 National Administrative Reform Commission’s proposal for a new Police Law which would create a "non-partisan" policy board within the Ministry of Home Affairs to review and advise the police system as to its rules and regulations. The proposal was sent to the National Assembly for action in May of 1991, and begun to be effective in August of 1991 (for the new Police organization, 1991; see Appendix E, Figure 3). The reform proposal of the current 6th Republic government seems to be silent on the question of implementation by law of the principle of neutralization, for 21Korean National Police Headquarters. The Law cf Poiice foisers_zxeeutign. 1985. p- 30- 91 example by the constitutional provision which the scholars recommend. The weight of opinion of those scholars who have considered the question of police neutralization is that the de-politicization of the force should be accomplished by the constitutional provision. It would help to protect the police and the people from politicization in a fundamental way. The government proposal supported the independent commission proposal in name because its own proposal would place such a commission within the Ministry of Home Affairs -- and thereby obviously keep it political. The police force can not be independent of the government and politics, because the police commission is placed within the Ministry of Home Affairs. In doing so it continues support of current system of strict centralization. In addition, the major reform for which there was strong consensus is the necessity to establish an independent watchdog commission to review police behavior from the point of view of assuring political neutralization. The government supports the unified police law idea, but on the ground of efficiency rather than democracy. It also supports a police structure independent of Ministry of Home Affairs but makes no mention of the issue of decentralization. Overall, the government’ 5 proposal is political and self-serving. It seemed to be an attempt to comprise with the forces of protest, criticism and reform i.e., the media, the opposition party, general public opinion, and the police themselves by 92 giving as little as possible while claiming to be moving in a progressive direction. However, this reform would be a first step of the police progress in police political neutralization and police organizational development in Korean police history. On the other hand, the traditional police force in Korea was too efficient from the point of view of democracy, whereas a completely decentralized force would become more democratic but might lose too much in the way of efficiency. Thus, the degree of decentralization would depend on the stage of Korean development and social security. In conclusion, a constitutional provision on neutralization, an independent commission, and a balanced decentralization will be necessary and beneficial to police political neutralization. F. The Analysis of Korean Police 1. The interaction of three factors. It is wise here to discuss the interaction between policemen as individuals, the police as an organization, and historical and political backgrounds as environments, in order to facilitate an analysis of each factor’ 8 identity. To derive an identity of the Korean police, who are the chief subject ofxpolice-community interactions (PCI), these three factors must be taken into account: the individual factor-- as 93 a policeman within the organization; the form of organization; the environment of the organization. Individuals make up an organization, but within structural constraints. Organizations change as a result of external and internal forces, but the changes themselves occur within the limits of the preexisting organizational structure and the environment in which the organization operates (Lee, 1984:14). The present Korean police system can be characterized as authoritarian, powerful, and highly centralized as well as democratic. It is based on a continental German and French 'model which places the national police force on a level above the people, and the American small-scale police force model 'which places the police on the same level with the people (p. 15). The major functions of the Korean police force are to prevent crime, protect life and property, preserve peace, safeguard civil rights, and maintain social order. Beyond ythat, they have the responsibility of regarding public health facilities, factories, construction, and business; and to meet these responsibilities, they issue permits, licenses, and orders mandated by law.22 Compared to other countries, another important function. is to maintain the national defense. As shown above in the historical section, Koreans have had negative bias towards police for a long time, most likely 22Korean National Police Headquarters. Tne Law of Police crriccrs Execution. Seoul, Korea, 1985, p. 35. 94 stemming from the colonial period by Japan. Because of this fear, they tend to fear the police and obey police orders and directives. This fear of police officers is inculcated early in children, whose mothers, in an attempt to curb their misbehavior, threaten to call the police to take them away. Seemingly, the Korean police have been, by and large, immune to criticism by the public due to dissatisfaction with various conditions, low social status, and confusion due to the co-existence of the quasi-egalitarian ethic with that of the Confucian ethic. 2. The policemen as individuals In most instances, to be a policemen in Korea means a lifetime commitment to the profession. A survey by Choi (1978) shows the following: more than 60 percent of all policemen surveyed had chosen to be a policeman for the professional reasons -- that is, they think police work is a good job for a man; about 40 percent of the policemen surveyed chose to join the police so they could serve their society and country (policemen often make this choice because they have been oriented toward the official values of the government, influenced by the traditional values of the Korean society, and they have been driven by an ambition to be a higher ranking police officer) (pp. 30-63). The fundamental values of Korean policemen, as indicated by their mottoes, are loyalty to the organization and to the 95 spirit of serving society and country. These values reflect traditional Korean values. A large number of Korean policemen are of rural origin. Their social status usually is that of the middle working class, which favors a conservative stance on the subject of the social phenomenon and tends to legitimize the moral authority of the upper strata. These policemen tend to be decent, obedient, law-abiding people who would like to live in a well-ordered society in which people respect laws and law enforcement officers as well (Lee, 1984:24) . Their conservative background leads them to believe that a challenge to a policemen is a challenge to authority and such a challenge is in itself a form of criminal behavior (Fink and Sealy, 1974:16-17). Basically, Korean policemen are suffering from low pay, low social status, a heavy working load, and serious public prejudice against the police. Traditionally, policemen have been held in lower esteem than other government officials, who have passed higher levels of civil service examinations or those who have passed examinations to become lawyers and prosecutors. Obviously, the relatively low social status of most policemen, excluding high ranking police officers above the senior superintendent level, has resulted in little recognition for the people who do police work. Therefore, they receive low pay for the duty work which affects the quality of their life style, their performance on the job, their morale, and so on. 96 It is commonly accepted that police self-respect and self-confidence, as well as community support, are essential prerequisites to efficient and effective policing in the community interactions (Janeksela and Deming, 1979:74-76). The self-image of the police is basic to PCI because individual policemen deal with PCI and police perceptions of self depending what and how they have been thinking of themselves. In this regard, the self-image of police in.Korea are in danger, since almost all Korean policemen are dissatisfied because they receive little acclaim or respect and are often severely criticized and even scorned. The following are causes of low police morale and poor self-image in Korea: (1) lack of understanding and support by citizens resulting in a bad public image, (2) inadequate pay and, consequently, low social status, (3) lack of professionalism, (4) poor ethics, (5) little chance for advancement, (6) incredibly poor administrative leadership and supervision (unfair practices in terms of assignment and promotion, no recognition of differences in performance by individual officers, aloofness of police chiefs and top officers), and (7) inability to relax at home due to manpower shortage and much paperwork (Lee, 1984:30-31). Such conditions cannot but make police officers frustrated and cynical about their jobs and contribute to a low morale and negative self-image. As a result, the police become weak, passive shallow, dependent, and lacking in self-respect and awareness (Souryal, 1979:77- 97 79). Choi indicated that Korean policemen have to work on the average 18 hours a day, five days a week and pointed out that Korean police, compared to other countries, have the heaviest population burden per police officer (in 1980, 664 people per policeman in Korea compared with 363 people per policeman in the United States, and 552 people in Japan) (p. 61).23 Given these difficult circumstances, it is hard for policemen to see their job as a decent, respectable mission. It is hard for them to fully perform their job as fighters against crime and disorder, since they are expected to be obedient to their seniors as well as be loyal or faithful to the organization, society, and country. Because of these difficulties, it is unlikely that policemen can be expected to be ethical, clean, and elegant. As a matter of fact, Korean society has excessively expected the police to be much more moral, clean, and decent than any other government officials, while the former are paid less than the latter. The real problem can be found in the gap between the values and perception of the policemen about their job and the expectations of the society. It is not unusual to find younger police officers publicly complaining about their low pay, low social status, lack of communication with the top ranking police officers (due to the authoritarian 23In 1990, 535 people per policeman in Korea compared with 354 people per policeman in the United States, and 555 people in Japan. 98 nature of the police organization), and their hard working load compared with experienced old police officers who believe that complaining is not a virtue. In any case, the perception and values of the police and the social status of the police profession are key factors in terms of overall police performance and police-community interactions. 3. Korean police system as an organization Traditional Korean bureaucracy has not been based on the "rule of law" but on the "rule of man," particularly elites called Yang-Ban by the Yi dynasty. The ruling elites exercised Korean bureaucracy by means of their ethic and ascribed status. In historical perspective, the contemporary Korean police force still apparently retains, to some extent, this traditional legacy of police organization of elites rather than that of the rule of law. The value system of Korean police has been influenced by the following factors: a compulsive drive for power, a submissive attitude toward authority and its consequent administrative behavior of "dependence and loyalty" rooted in authoritarianism; a lack of professionalism; a Confucian hierarchical subordination; and the morality of Buddhism and Taoism (Kim and Rho, 1982:117- 38). Subscribing to those values, the central government alone provides leadershipland executes police authorityu .All of the Korean National Police Forces work along with executive ideas. 99 Provincial Police Directors supervise and control the police stations in their jurisdiction, but the Provincial Police Directors cannot move or assign duties to the police chiefs. Subsequently, the police are controlled by the central government.24 Thus, all of the police officials are centralized by a pyramid structure , with rigid super ior-subordinate relationships divided by eleven ranks from the Director General down to the patrolman. It reveals a one-way downward communication in the form of orders, stressing the repressive nature of the work of the organization. Lee (1984) says that the police seem to be more authoritarian and powerful than necessary, because they have played the strong "right hand" of the authoritative government, particularly under the Liberal Party; the people, as a whole, are very obedient to police directives (p. 21). 4. The police relationships to the political environment Some police organization are directly affected by the political process, because their hierarchy can be drastically changed by‘ the election. results and. top ranking' police officers are changed at the discretion of the new administration (Hall, 1977:307) . The political situation that brings about the new laws also has its effects on 7"The department of the Army. Sout a Coun r Stucy. Washington, D.C: American University, 1982, pp. 230-60. 100 organization. Organizations in the private sector are less directly affected than public ones, but they must still be attuned to the political climate. Namely, power-oriented organizations such as schools, social work agencies, and hospitals (p. 318). Theoretically, it would be wise to take a look at the interaction between the police organization and politics. Political changes have accompanied major police changes. The police are keenly aware of the extent to which the -city government does or does not intervene in the department depending on particular interests (Wilson, 1978:223). Thus, police work is carried out under the influences of’a political culture though not necessarily under day-to-day political direction. The police are in all cases keenly sensitive to their political environment without in all cases being governed by it (p. 230). Some democracies have expressed great reservation, even fears, over police participation in politics (Berkeley, 1967:172). Police in the United States cannot run_f9r_office or take an active role in politics on the grounds that the mixing of police power with political power might produce conditions unhealthy for a democratic state (p. 174). Historically, policing tends to be viewed primarily as a political institution, inextricably tied to the executive responsibility’ for enforcement for laws enacted by legislatures and interpreted by courts. It is difficult to 101 evaluate the police system without considering the background of its government (Radelet, 1986:305). How the political environment has shaped the Korean police system and how the Korean Police system has fitted and reacted to the political environment is to be considered in many respects. The current Korean police system has been closely related to political power since 1948. The police force usually wasted a lot of time on performing political functions such as political intelligence activities and surveillance of political dissenters. Under the Liberal Party in 1960 they had manipulated the presidential election. There was no doubt the government had made the police system its instrument for the purpose of seizing and maintaining political power. The majority of police chiefs and high ranking police officers were replaced at once with other government officials by the new political power in 1962. Since then the police system has suffered from uncertainty due to political influences. The Korean police system was characterized in its early years by a low degree of professionalism, factionalism, endemic corruption, and political manipulation (Lee, 1984:19). The application of constitutional protection has fluctuated according to political preference. Leaders of Korean Police Forces have emphasized a political-oriented posture rather than a people-oriented posture. Because they have suffered from uncertainty due to political influences, 102 they cannot help but respond to the pressure of the political environment. The police system of a dictatorship’s state is the chief instrument of political dominating, answerable to no one and to no institution except the will of the leader of oligarchy. One of the most prominent distinctions between law enforcement in a democratic society and that of a totalitarian society is the sharp democratization of the police role. When law enforcement is the servant of the state, rather than of the people, the individuals of the state may live as a free people, or in virtual serfdom, depending on the will of those in power, or of an oligarchy regime (pp. 19-20). Organizations of every kind contain their own internal radicals and reactionaries in terms of their responses to environmental conditions. According to Strabuck, organizations go about constructing or inventing their environments -- organizing to develop a set of strategies for dealing with. The Korean police system, however, has been sensitive to the political party and, therefore, deprived of efforts to control the political environment. In addition, the loyalty of the police chiefs to the government was checked, promotions and assignments of the positions were granted according to their degree of loyalty. until 1980, for police chiefs to continue their careers with security, it was necessary to have a good relationship with influential members of the political party. With political power, police chiefs can be strong and 103 feel comfortable. In fact, most police chiefs had informal relationships with politicians. As discussed above, the Korean Police Forces have been too dependent on the political environment and vulnerable because of it. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE All data in this study is assumed to be derived from the subjects’ experiences in their home countries“ 'The study also attempts to compare similarities and differences of major factors. This chapter includes researCh hypotheses, statistics, methodology and procedure, and Operationalization. . A. Sampling procedures 1. Justification for selecting sample The purpose of the study is to assess public attitudes toward the police in Korea through a field survey; To conduct a field study, some scientific method must be applied. That is, a sample must be selected as a representative of the whole population to be studied. In order to do that, the total number must be known by either having the list of their names or the location and the number of each house; but due to the fact that there was no list available nor numbered.houses, the writer found that the telephone listing was not enough for selection nor was car registration. Not everyone has a telephone nor everyone has a car. Faced with the reality and the importance of the issue to be studied, the study decided to use another alternative, the only logical one of this time,_ mainly studying the public attitudes through its youngsters. The high school students as *well as college or university students have been living in the 104 105 system over sixteen years; therefore, measuring their attitudes reflects not only their own reactions, feelings and experiences, but also reflects, to some extent, their parents’, and society’s attitudes through the socialization process. Another advantage of studying those students is the availability of their total number and their school location, which makes the study easily accomplished.and.readily employed the scientific method of social research. For these reasons, it was decided to conduct a field inquiry to measure the students’ attitudes toward the police in Seoul, Korea, and restrict this study to a city, selecting the largest city, the capital of Korea, Seoul. 2. Respondents This study was accomplished through questionnaire surveys and interviews. The sample consisted of Korean high school, college or university students residing in the city of Seoul, Korea. The sample size of these groups would be supposed to be made of about 1,150 students -- 650 high school students and 500 college or university students. The primary data for the study was collected by the self- administered anonymous questionnaires to 650 male students (11th grade) in the selected high schools and 500 university students in Seoul during the summer, 1991. Due to analytic rather than descriptive characteristics of the research the primary concern in the sampling procedure was to obtain an 106 adequate amount of variation in terms of respondents. In this sense, the jpresent study’ employed. a :multi-stage cluster sampling method. Before the actual sampling, the permission for the use of students as the research subjects was obtained from the city of Seoul Board of Education. Seoul is the capital of Korea. All ministries and most large business firms are located in Seoul. The central-decision-making process for the whole nation for major issues and the matters of the importance to all citizens are originated and declared from Seoul. Most government employees work in Seoul for at least some time because of the job opportunities and due to the fact that the administrative headquarters are located there. The City of Seoul is geographically divided into the two parts by the Han River. The northern part of the city is the original territory of the city, while the southern part is the newly developed and expanded urban area. In a variety of ways, the northern part is somewhat more old fashioned and traditional, while the southern part is more westernized and modernized in many respects, for example, in its housing patterns. Seoul, as a whole, is estimated to have about 145 male high schools, 49 in the northern part and 96 in the southern part. At the first stage, two high schools were randomly selected from each part of the city. As a result, four high schools were accordingly selected, one located in Young-Dung-Po District and another from Kang-Nam District, 107 both from the southern.part of the city, two high schools from Seo-Dae-Mun District were chosen from the northern part of the city. Three 11th grade classes were randomly selected from each school. Therefore, there were a total of twelve 11th classes selected. In‘general, the normal estimated size of each class is about 54 students (based on 1991 school year). All of the students in those 12 classes selected were thus eligible to participate in the survey. The reason for using 11th graders as the potential survey participants was based on the assumption they would enter colleges or universities or get various jobs and participate in the decision-making process of their nations as responsible individuals in the near future. Seoul, as a ‘whole, is estimated to have about 34 universities and colleges, 19 in the northern part and 15 in the southern part. At the first stage, one university or college was randomly selected from each part of the city. As a result, one University located in Yong-San.District from the southern part, and another university from Seo-Dae-Mun District from the northern part were selected. First, 5 major departments out of about 30 departments were selected from each university. The students out of the 5 departments were randomly selected by the class time schedules. After having chosen the schools and classes, an appropriate time:and.date for the administration of the survey questionnaire was arranged in cooperation with the Board of 108 the Education, the School District, and each school. The questionnaire was administered in the class rooms. The students participating in the survey were assured of anonymity and encouraged by the survey administrator to request private assistance in understanding or responding to any particular item. As a result, a total of 650 high school students participated in the survey, and, among them, 612 cases were collected. However, since there were 37 incomplete cases, they were automatically excluded from the analysis. After examining the responses, the illogical response cases were also excluded. For example, if a student answered 2 in 0.94, he must skip from 0.95 to 0.97 (see Appendix A, Questionnaire- in English). In the same way, if a student answered 2 in 0.98, he should not answer from 0.99 to 0.101. If it was not, all of them were excluded. There were 77 illogical cases. In addition, the researcher excluded intentionally some of answer cases which were completed with insincerity. For example, if cases were answered more than 15 same number continuously, they were regarded as insincere cases by the researcher. There were 48 insincere cases. Therefore, a total of 450 cases provided the data for analysis in this study. In the same procedure, the questionnaire was administered in the university class rooms. As a result, a total of 500 male university students participated in the survey, and, 109 among them, 490 cases were collected. However, since there were 14 incomplete cases and they were automatically excluded from the analysis. The 14 illogical answer cases were also excluded. In addition, the researcher excluded intentionally some of answer cases which were completed with insincerity. For example, if cases were answered more than 15 same number continuously, they were regarded as insincere cases by the researcher. There were 45 insincere cases. Therefore, a total of 415 cases provided the data for analysis in this study. B. Measurement scales In developing the measurement scales, previous studies provided a general outline. Through a thorough and comprehensive review of the literature on the topic, a broad range of items were collected. From those already published items, those relevant to the present study were screened and selected. A few more specific items for the study were also added. The English version of the questionnaire was then translated into the Korean language by the present investigator, however, with regard to the measurement in any kind of cross-cultural study, it seems that standardization and comparability are the two most important concerns for the researchers (Newman, 1977; Blalock, 1982). To address this concern, the back and forth.translation methods in which items are translated into the Korean language first then translated 110 back into English by a different interpreter was employed (Triandis, 1976). In case any significant differences were found between the original items and the back-translated items, the appropriate changes were made until they reasonably matched each other. After these procedures, the translated Korean questionnaire was pretested. The primary Korean questionnaire was given to 20 male high schools and 10 male university students in Seoul, Korea. They were asked to assess the questionnaire in terms of concept clarity and applicability of each item. Through this assessment procedure, certain changes and modifications were made in order to make the final survey instrument to be clearer, easier, and quicker to complete. Regardless of how well the instruments are developed, organized, and written, it seems necessary to pay special attention in terms of reliability and validity whenever the items are translated. Although there is no way to say that every translated item is reliable and valid, there is an increasing consensus in the field the most translated items are reasonably reliable and valid. Although they may not be better than the original items, they are certainly as reliable and valid as the original ones, when they are well developed, organized and written. C. Research hypotheses 111 As mentioned previously, the general purpose of this study is the beginning of inquiry into the nature of police- community interactions in Korea. This study will be basically inquisitive and explorative in nature. .At the same time, this approach might serve to increase both the precision of our findings by limiting the number of variables and simplify comparison of this study with its prototypes conducted in heterogenous societies. Yet, some generality is desirable to, broaden the scope of observation in a preliminary effort. Also, one should consider that constructing hypotheses in advance runs the risk of missing some real-life problems. In this section, the hypotheses are developed based on the literature review and interviews with the professionals in the field of policing. As mentioned in chapter 2, the definition or nature of the term "public cooperation" differs in many ways from society to society. The uniqueness of each society in its culture, political situation, population size, composition, and wealth generates differences in the approach taken.by the police to obtain the cooperation of the community with the police. Therefore, the factors associated with the public’s cooperative attitude toward the police vary among different societies. This study assumes that there would be variations in the subjects’ perception toward major factors associated with the public’s cooperative attitude toward the police and willingness to make contact with the police. In this study, the cooperative attitude of the public 112 towards the police indicates whether or not the subjects would turn to the police in situations they face as a witness of even a minor crime; whether the subjects would be willing to cooperate with the police when they were asked to be collaborators by the police. Along with this major examination, the study also attempts to explore what factors are related with the subjects’ willingness to contact the police when they were a victim or in need. In addition, the study will also attempt to find out about general attitudes toward police. In this study, the public’s cooperation towards the police and the public’s willingness to contact the police, as perceived by the subjects, is assumed to be a function of the following variables as indicated; Y1 (ACWC) = f (x1- x23) (076, to 080, 088 to 093)‘ 22 (WTVN) = f (x1- x23) (081 to 087) Y3 (GATP) = f (x1- x23) (014 to 024) where, Y1 (ACWC) = Attitude of the public to cooperate with the police as a witness or collaborator Y2 (WTVN) = Willingness of the public to make contact with the police as a victim and a person in need Y3 (GATP) = General attitudes toward police 1. Community-Related factors: (CORP) (060, 061, 063) X1 = Community cohesion (CC) (060, 061) X2 = Perception of the community-related policing organizations (PCRPO) (063) 'Y=dependent ‘variable, f=fuctions, X=independent variable, 0=question 113 X3 = Awareness of the community-related policing organizations (ACRPO) (062, 065) 2. Political factors: (PF) (011, 013, 054 to 056) 4 = Trust in government (TG) (054 to 056) 5 = Political efficacy (PE) (011, 013) XX 3. Crime-Related Factors: (CRF) (035, 057 to 059, 094, 098) X6 = Perception of crime (PC) (035, 057) X7 = Fear of crime (PC) (058, 059) X8 = Experience of victimization (EV) (094, 098) 4. Police-Related Factors: (PRF) (014 to 024, 036, 037, 067, 068) X9 = Perception of the police (PP) (014 to 024) X10 = Evaluation of the police performance (EPP) (Q35. Q37) X11 Visibility of the police (VP) (067, 068) 5. Cultural-Ideaogical Factors: (CIF) (01 to Q4, Q6 to 010, 050 to Q53) X12 = Group-oriented values (GOV) (06 to 09) X13 = Attitude towards authoritarianism (AAU) (01 to Q4. 010) X14 = Patriotism (PAT) (050 to 053) 6. Other variables X15 = Friend’s perception of the police (FPP) (025 to 027) X16 = Vocational preference factor (VPF) (038 to 042) X17 = Self-reporting delinquency (SRD) (043 to 049) 7. Demographic Variables (0105 to 0112) X18 = Age (0105) X19 = Academic grade (0106) X20 = Religious activities (0107) X21 = Father’s job (0108) X22 = States of family (0109, 0110) x23 = Family income(month) (0111, 0112) As mentioned earlier, the unique conjunction of socio- cultural environments of these countries would create the 114 differences in factors affecting the public’ s cooperative attitudes. Ianorean cases, for the high school students, the study anticipated that the crime-related factors and cultural- ideological factors would be more critical than community- related, police-related and political factors in explaining police relations with community. For the university students groups, the study expected.that.the police-related factors and political factors would play a more important role in forming the police relations with community than community-related, crime-related, and cultural-ideological related factors. Since each factor consisted of more than two operational variables, the hypotheses were developed based on both the five factors and the operational variables. 1-A. For the ‘high school students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact with the police will be associated with cultural- ideological factors more than any other factors. 1-B. For the high school students, the general attitudes toward. the jpolice ‘will be associated. with crime-related factors more than any other factors. 2-A. For the university students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact with the police will be associated with police-related factors more than any other factors. 2-B. For the university students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police will be associated with political factors more than any other factors. 3. The attitudes toward police of high school students seem to be more favorable than those of university students. 4. There tends to be a significant association between the attitudes of an individual toward the police, and certain identifiable characteristics of that individual such as academic performance, father’s occupation, family income, peer groups attitudes, and previous contact with the police. 115 5. There is a difference in attitudes toward the police between groups of higher and lower socioeconomic status. 6. Much of the delinquency literature suggested a negative response by youths who have been in contact with the criminal justice system. On this point, Dr. Giordano in her analysis of juvenile reaction to the justice system found out that "youths with greater system contact actually expressed more positive attitudes than did their less experienced counterparts (Giordano, 1976:45)." If her conclusion is valid, then the following hypothesis will not stand in the affirmative. There is a positive correlation between self-reported delinquency and crime with an increase in negativity of attitudes toward the police. 7. There is a relationship between the extent of the actual plan of individuals to enter police career (0.69) and certain identifiable characteristics of that individuals (demographic variables, other person’s reaction to the career plan). D. Statistical Methods The study will utilize descriptive statistics, T-test, chi-square test and multiple regression analysis as major statistical techniques. The initial task is to compare the mean scores of the variables as perceived by the respondents, using all the variables used in this study. As a following step, T-test, chi-square test and regression analysis will be performed in order to examine the factors associated with the attitudes of the students toward cooperation with the police and willingness of the public to contact the police. Initially, in order to check the internal consistency of multi-item summed indices, the values of Cronbach’s alpha was examined through reliability analysis. The range was from .45 to .79. Factor analysis was conducted to identify these 116 factors that are substantially meaningful. Accoring to the aEa§L£c¢_nayancaa_§raricricc, factor analysis is a technique used to identify a relatively small number of factors that can be used to represent relationships among sets of many interrelated variables (Norusis, 1988:B-41) . Even though most items for factor analysis were chosen fromuthe indices already identified as having high validity and reliability in a Lee’s study (1991), the present study expected to find differences in the items represented as a factor in Korea. In the present study the researcher will make use of both descriptive and inferential statistics in reporting the findings of the study. As a first step of the analysis, the mean scores of all variables will be compared in order to examine the differences in them . Descriptive statistics (1) Frequencies of responses to selected questions of special interest. (2) Mean, range, and variances measuring the cooperative attitudes toward the police as a collaborator, the willingness to contact with the police as a victim, general attitudes toward the police, self-reporting delinquency, demographic variables and so on. (3) contingency tables displaying the observed frequencies within each cell. 117 W As a second step, T-test was conducted in order to examine the relationships between the independent and the dependent variables. T-test is a statistical test conducted' to examine whether two means scores differ in a population. The null hypothesis for such a comparison is that of no difference between the group means. If the observed significant level is less than .05, the null hypothesis (Ho) that the population means are equal will be rejected\\ According to the SPSSL£C+ naca nannai, the observed significant level is the probability that a difference at least as large as the one observed would have arisen if the means were really equal" (Norusis, 1988:122). In this study, hypothesis verification was tested at a significant level of P < .05. This relatively high level was set due to the fact we are measuring attitudes, which are imprecise at best. The chi-square test of independence was used to test for significant deviation from independence in contingency tables where no directional alternative hypothesis seemed appropriate. The null hypothesis for such a test is that of independence of the two variables and/or classification considered. This hypothesis is rejected for P < .05 and otherwise accepted. The test for an (row) by (column) table involves calculation of a normalized sum of squared deviations of observed from expected frequencies and comparison of the resulting statistic to the chi-square distribution with (row- 118 1) by (column-1) degrees of freedom. The strength and.nature of the dependence of variables is of central concern. According to the SPSS User’ 3 G 'd , indexes that attempt to quantify the relationship between the variables in a cross-classification are called measures of association (Norusis, 1990:131) . No single measure adequately summarizes all possible types of association. The chi-square statistic itself is not a good measure of the degree of association between two variables. But its widespread usein the tests of independence has encouraged the use of measures of association based on it (p. 132). When directional alternatives seemed appropriate, tests were based on the Spearman ordinal data rank correlation coefficient. The Spearman correlation coefficient is a commonly used masure of coorelation between two ordinal variables (p. 137). This statistic was chosen over the more familiar Pearson continuous data product-moment correlation coefficient due to the ordinal nature of the data. This test differs from.the chi-square test of independence in that it is more powerful against directional alternatives. Again, the null hypothesis was rejected for P < .05 and accepted otherwise. This Spearman correlation analysis between the independent and dependent variables were conducted to validate the results of the T-test. This analysis is done in order to measure association between two ordinal variables that estimate the direction of linear relationship. The Spearman 119 correlation coefficient is symbolized "Rs" in the table. Values of correlation coefficient range from 0;:no relation.to + 1; a perfect positive relationship and -1; a perfect negative relationship. In interpreting a correlation coefficient, the closer to zero the weaker the relationship, while the stronger correlation is closer to 1.0 (Hagan, 1982: 251-52). Through T-test and chi-square test, the study attempted to examine factors that are associated with the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police. To evaluate the hypothses, the study needs to state the null hypothesis, Ho, that can. be tested and. presumably rejected by the data. Since the substantial hypothesis is that the two means are unequal, the null hypothesis must be that the means are equal (Bohrnstedt and Knoke, 1988:188-91). [5 As a third step, multiple regression analysis was employed to evaluate the relative importance of the various variables in their contribution to variation in the criterion variable (Kachigan, 1986:239). It is measure of association showing the amount of increase or decrease in a continuous dependent variable for a one-unit difference in the independent variable, controlling for the other independent variables in the equation (Bohrnstedt, 1988:381).‘J Stepwise regression, although its ultimate results will be the same as the linear regression model, is capable of providing additional information concerning the order of relative importance of the contribution for each of 120 independent variables in regards to the dependent variable. In stepwise regression, the researcher specifies only the dependent variable and a list of possible explanatory variables rather than the exact model to be estimated. The program doing the regression then successively selects variables for inclusion in the equation on the basis of which one will yield the greatest increase in R2 (Hanushek and Jackson, 1977). Through.a multiple regression test, the study attempted to extract influential factors affecting (1) attitude of the student to cooperate with the police, (2) willingness of the student to contact the police, (3) the general attitudes toward the police, out of fourteen independent variables and three demographic variables -- academic grades, father’s gob and socioeconomic status -- as perceived by the respondents themselves. A regression model was established: Y1 = a+ b1X1 + b2X2 + ............ + b19X19 + e Y2 = a+ b1X1 + b2X2 + .. ...... .... + b19X19 + e Y3 = a+ b1X1 + b2X2 + ........ .... + b19X19 + e where Y1 = Attitude of the public to cooperate with the police as a witness or collaborator Y2 = Willingness of the public to make contact with the police as a victim and a person in need Y3 = General attitudes toward police, a = costant X1, X2, X3 = community-related factors X4, X5 = political factors X6, X7, X8 = crime-related factors X9, X10, X11 = police-related factors X12, X13, X14 = cultural-ideological factors X15, X16 = other factors 121 X17, X18, X19 = demographic variables b1, b2,.....b19 = coefficients of X1, X2, ...... X19. e = errors Hypothesis verification was tested at a significant level Of P < .05. E. Operationalization After having collected the data, the next step is to derive an appropriate measurement model based on the sample responses. In developing clusters, a provisional synthesis of the content analysis and exploratory factor analysis of the items provided the input for provisional confirmatory factor analysis. A number of items were grouped as a variable in a way that conceptually and theoretically seemed to measure the same construct based on previous relevant studies. As a result, 93 items formed 16 independent variables and 3 dependent variables. Due to different characteristics, these variables were subjected to the separated multiple group factor analysis. The results of cluster analysis were not statistically satisfactory in terms of internal consistency. At this point, the explanatory factor analysis (a principle axis factor analysis with communalities followed by a varimax rotation) was conducted to see the formation of subclusters. Based on the content of all items within each cluster, the conceptual homogeneity of each cluster was examined and some corrections were made by comparing items within each cluster on their communalities with low communality items 122 removed to other clusters, and.were then subjected to another confirmatory factor analysis where they were shown to be in agreement. In other words, items with low communalities were moved around the clusters until all the clusters were substantively homogenous and internally and externally consistent. The cluster items showed higher correlations with their own cluster true scores as compared to all other scores. In terms of measurement error, all other clusters were evaluated as relatively reliable due to their standard coefficient alpha scores. The actual clusters of the study are presented below, by reporting their standard coefficient alpha. Y1 (ACWC) = Attitude of the public to cooperate with the police as a witness or collaborator (alpha= .7342) Y2 (WTVN) = Willingness of the public to make contact with the police as a victim and a person in need (alpha= .6378) Y3 (GATP) = General attitudes toward police (alpha= .7186) 1. Community-Related factors: (CORF) (alpha= .6188) X1 = Community cohesion (CC) (alpha= .7124) X2 = Perception of the community-related policing organizations (PCRPO) (alpha= .4730) X3 = Awareness of the community-related policing organization (ACRPO) (alpha= .4670) 2. Political factors:(PF) (alpha= .5042) X4 = Trust in government (TG) (alpha= .6656) X5 = Political efficacy (PE) (alpha= .5168) 3. Crime-Related Factors: (CRF) (alpha= .5163) X6 = Perception of crime (PC) (alpha= .3595) X7 = Fear of crime (FC) (alpha= .5810) X8 = Experience of victimization (EV) (alpha= .4555) 123 4. Police-Related Factors: (PRF) (alpha= .7247) X9 = Perception of the police (PP) (alpha= .7186) X10 = Evaluation of the police performance (EPP) (alpha= .5289) Visibility of the police (VP) (alpha= .6672) X11 5. Cultural-Ideological Factors: (CIF) (alpha= .7440) X12 = Group-oriented values (GOV) (alpha= .4993) X13 = Attitude towards authoritarianism (AAU) (alpha= .4508) X14 = Patriotism (PAT) (alpha= .7938) 6. Other variables X15 = Friend’s perception of the police (FPP) (alpha= .4653) X16 = Self-reporting delinquency and crime (SRD) (alpha= .6961) This chapter provided sampling procedure, measurement scales, research hypothesis, statistical methods, and Operationalization. In the next chapter, data analysis and results will be presented. CHAPTER IV’ DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS (fihis study attempted to compare major factors associated with cooperative attitudes of the public towards the police among two» groups of Korean students by examining their perceptions of and experiences with the police) (the subjects consisted of high school and university students‘ In the first section of this chapter, mean scores of all variables will be compared to examine the differences in them. In the second, (he hypotheses of the study will be tested. In the final section, all these findings will be compared with those of the United States and Japan. A. Explanations of personal characteristics {A proper beginning for the analysis of this data is to briefly explain the independent variables, or personal characteristics, against which the dependent variables in the study will be testedS' These items are numbered 0.105 through 0.112 in the questionnaire. Table 1 shows the frequencies of the demographic variables. The sample size is 450 for the 11th grade high school group ranging 'from ages 16 to 18, 415 for the university group ranging from ages 18 to 26. The average age of the high school students is 16.8, and that of university students is 20.9. The median grade point of high school is 70-79 (average), and that of university ones was 80-89 124 125 (average). The percentage of high school and university students who have religious activities more than once is 86.1%, 87.8% respectively. Of the)fmthmr’s-occupation, self- employed businessman is the most frequent job with two groups. Father’s. . job question is intended to determine the Ie'spondentfs socioeconomic status with?‘;0.111 an.r 0.1123 Regarding socioeconomic status, about 86.9% of high school. students and 80.5% of university students indicated that they belonged to the middle class. Interestingly, more 10% of the respondents than the respondents of 0.111 answered that they feel themselves as belonging to the middle class, although they are actually classified as the other class by social indicators. Table 1. Demographic Variables High School University Total’ Sample Size 450 415 865 Means of Age 16.8 20.9 18.8 Average Grade point Over 90 36 (8.4) 43(10.6) 79 (9.5) 80-89 87(20.3) 273(67.4) 360(43.2) 70-79 130(30.3) 75(18.5) 205(24.6) 60-69 112(26.l) 11 (2.7) -123(14.7) Below 60 64(14.9) 3 (0.7) 67 (8.0) Religion Most time 152(34.5) 156(38.4) 308(36.4) Activities Sometimes 227(51.6) 200(49.3) 427(50.5) Participation Never 61(13.9) 50(12.3) 111(13.1) lTotal is the average of both the high school and university students. Total will be useful in comparing Korean students group with foreign countries students as a cross- cultural study. Table l (cont’d) 126 High School University Total Father’s occupation Government officials 39 (9.3) 66(16.7) 105(12.9) Self-employed business 134(31.8) 117(29.6) 251(30.8) Skilled or semi-skilled worker 30 (7.1) 20 (5.1) 50 (6.1) Company-employed business 86(20.4) 81(20.S) 167(20.5) Father unemployed 10 (2.4) 12 (3.0) 22 (2.7) Unskilled worker 79(18.8) 74(18.7) 153(18.8) Other 43(10.2) 25 (6.3) 68 (8.3) The State of Family (Are Both living 394(92.1) 370(92.3) 764(92.2) your parents non-both living 34 (7.9) 31 (7.7) 65 (7.8) living 7) The State of Family (Are your parent No 418(95.4) 39l(96.8) 809(96.l) divorced or separated?) Yes 20 (4.6) 13 (3.2) 33 (3.9) Monthly Family Income (W) 2,500,000 W or more 36 (8.3) 47(ll.6) 83 (9.9) 2,500,000-l.250,000 W 129(29.6) 103(25.5) 232(27.6) 1,250,000-500,000 W 250(57.3) 222(55.0) 472(56.2) Less than 500,000 W 21 (4.8) 32 (7.9) 53 (6.3) The Socio-economic Upper 10 (2.3) 11 (2.7) 21 (2.5) Status of Upper middle 248(56.5) 212(52.3) 460(54.5) Your Family Lower middle 160(36.4) 163(40.2) 323(38.3) As You Low 21 (4.8) 19 (4.7) 40 (4.7) Pa ce ve t Frequency/(Percentage) W refers to Korean currency "Won" is the equivalent of 5.00133 (1$=750 W) United States currency (based on exchange rate of 1992) Korean percentage grade point can be interpreted into American letter grade point as follows: over 90 equals A, 80-89 equals B, 70-79 equals C, 60-69 equals D, and below 60 equals E. The criteria of family income (monthly) was based on the social research done by Korean Development Institute (KDI) (See Cho-Sun :1 Bo, Jan. 9, 1991) e ‘ B. Comparisons of Mean Scores The initial task was to examine the differences among the groups using all the variables in the study. The study a 127 compared the mean scores of the variables. The results are presented in Tables 2-1 and 2-2. Attitude of the public to cooperate with the police as a witness or collaborator (Questions 76, 77, 79, 80, 88 to 93) and willingness of the public to make contact with the police as a victim and a person in need (Questions 81, 83, 86, 87) were scored from 1'to 3,1with 1 indicating doing nothing about it and 3 indicating reporting it to the police. {filament} attitude toward police (Questions 14 to 20, 22, 23, 24) were fetitude toward police and 4 indicating a strongly positive. mgtitude toward pelican Regarding the cooperative attitudes of the public towards, the police (Table 2-1), the mean score of university respondents was higher than high school mean score (2.42 and 2.32). It may suggest that the university respondents have a more cooperative attitude towards the police than the high school ones. ‘University students would usually be regarded as more socialized than high school students, and have a strong consciousness of reporting accidents to the police as a collaborators. The results of T-test shows that the two groups have different means in cooperative attitudes toward the police (d.f=717, p=.000). Regarding the willingness of the public to contact the police (Table 2-1), university students also had.slightly'more willingness to contact the police than high school students ‘,rgkv Feared from 1 to 4, with 1 indicating a strongly negative: I" 128 (2.05 and 1.99), but there was no significant difference (d.f=822, p=.079). I” Concerning general attitudes toward the police (Table 2- 1), high school students had a better attitude toward the police than university students (2.37 and 2.26). The results of the T-test also showed that the two groups have different means in general attitudes toward the police (d.f=822, p=.000).] Both the Confucian philosophy itself and the social mechanism provide for authority -- e.g., government officers, older persons, heads of families or units, and adult males in general -- everywhere in society. Re-enforcement of proper behavior has always been expected of nearly everybody. However, the Korean people have never been treated very well by the government. The Korean government has earned very little trust and respect of the people, despite its ideological legitimization by Confucianism. Table 2-1. Comparisons of Mean Scores of Major Variables: Dependent Variables High School University 2-tailed Sig. Cooperation of the Public Toward the Police as a 2.32 2.42 .000 * .Witness and a Collaborator Willingness of the Public to Contact with the Police 1.99 2.05 .079 as a Victim and a Person in Need General Attitude toward 2.37 2.26 .000 * the Police Number of Cases: High school students= 450, University students= 415 2-tailed Significance: * - P < .05 129 W5._comnarim~e£..-means .scores of” major vagiaplgs, High school students’ mean scores were higher than university students in political factors (1.84 and 1.79) , police-related factors (2.41 and 2.32) and cultural- ideological factors (2.64 and 2.63) . However, university students mean scores were higher than high school students in community-related factors (2.54 and 2.50) and crime-related factors (2.64 and 2.58). Among those five factors, police- related factors was found out to be statistically significant (d.f=787, p=.000). Table 2-2. Comparisons of Mean Scores of Major Variables: Major Independent Factors High School University 2-tailad Sig. Community-related Factors 2.50 2.54 .590 Political Factors 1.84 1.79 .168 Crime-related Factors 2.58 2.64 .087 Police-related Factors 2.41 2.32 .000 * Cultural-Ideological Factors 2.64 2.63 .664 Number of Cases: High school students- 450, University students8 415 2-tailed Significance: * - P < .05 Community-related factors (Questions 60, 61, 63, 66) were scored from 1 to 4, with 1 indicating a less strong attitude toward community and 4 indicating a more strongly attitude toward community. Concerning community cohesion (Table 2-3) , the mean score of the university group was higher than that of 130 the Jhigh school one (2.54 and 2.50), but there 'was no significant difference (d.f=858, p=.352). The Korean society is preeminently a family and group- oriented society. Many scholars pointed out that the Korean moral theory“ relied only on the surrounding' people and circumstances, while the western moral theory was based on absolute or universally applicable moral principles (Backer, 1988:427). Therefore, the notion of community has always been psychologically important to the Korean. Such community activities as publishing neighborhood newspapers, organizing Ban Sang Hwea (monthly neighborhood meeting), or debating societies, responding to depersonalization and lack of community in the metropolises, play and important role in encouraging and reinstating a sense of community belonging (pp. 427-32). Besides, traditional and cultural.heritage also facilitate cohesive community control mechanisms. Concerning perceptions of the community-related policing organizations (Table 2-3), the mean score of the university group was higher than that of the high school one (3.32 and 3.13),rbut there was no significant difference (d.f=518, p=.97 . Community-pol icing organizations like nei borhood police stations or crime prevention associations exist as a part of the community; .Along'with it, a police officer also exists as a member of the community. When asked whether they knew of a police post or station in their neighborhood, 55% of the high school and 69% of the university participants answered yes. 3?“) “*4 A 131 50% and 60% of the high school and university participants believed they felt safe due to the existence of the police post in their neighborhood. As to the awareness of the police officers working in their neighborhood (Table 2-3), 18% of the high school and 3% of the university participants answered that they knew at least more than one police officer. A figure of 14% of high - school and 5% of the university participants believed they felt friendly with the police officer in their neighborhood, while 51% of the high school and 39% of the university ones felt unfriendly, and 35% of high school and 56% of the university students gave no answer. Regarding the crime prevention association in their neighborhood (Table 2-3), 9% of the high school and 12% of the university students knew of their existence. Table 2-3. Comparisons of Mean Scores and Frequencies of Major Variables: Community-related Factors High School University 2-tailed Sig. Community Cohesion 2.20 2 2.25 .352 Perception of the Community-related 3.13 3.32 .974 .Policing Organization Awareness of Neighborhood No 199/441(45.1) 3 127/404(31.4) 326/845(38.6) Police posts Yes 242/441(54.9) 277/404(68.6) 519/845(61.4) 2Mean score of major variables. 3Response Num. / Response population Num. (Percentage) 132 Table 2-3 (cont’d) High School University 2-tailed Sig. Feeling Safer Due to the No 97/194(50.0) 91/230(39.6) 188/424(44.3) Existence of Yes 97/194(50.0) 139/230(60.4) 236/424(55.7) Neighborhood Police Posts Knowing the Police Officer in the No 217/265(81.9) 285/296(96.3) 501/560(89.5) Neighborhood Yes 48/265(l8.1) 11/296 (3.7) 59/560(10.5) Feeling the Police Officer in the No 136/265(51.3) llS/296(38.8) 251/560(44.8) Neighborhood Yes 37/265(14.0) 15/296 (5.1) 51/560(9.1) Friendly No Answer 92/265(34.7) l66/296(56.1) 258/560(46.l) Awareness of the Neighborhood No 376/416(90.4) 346/393(88.0) 722/809(89.2) Crime Prevention Yes 40/416 (9.6) 47/393(12.0) 87/809(10.8) Association Feeling Safer Due to the Existence of the Neighborhood No 32/189(38.1) 29/104(27.9) 61/189(32.3) Crime Prevention Yes 54/84 (61.9) 75/104(72.1) 127/189(67.7) Association Number of Cases: High school students= 450, University students= 415 2-tailed Significance: * - P < .05 Political factors (Questions 11, 13, 54, 55, 56) were scored from 1 to 4 , with 1 indicating a strongly negative attitude toward political situations and 4 a strongly positive attitude toward political situations. Table 2-4 shows comparisons of mean scores of political factors among two groups. Regarding the trust in government, the mean score of the high school group was higher than that of the university group (1.80 and 1.78), but there was no significant difference (d.f=862, p=.587). High school students seem to have a more 133 positive valuative orientation towards their government and government officers than the university ones. In relation with the political efficiency, the mean score of high school group was higher than that of the university group (2.03 and 1.79), and there was a significant difference (d.f=862, p=.000). High school students seem to have a more positive attitudes of political efficiency. The two groups of participants have a very different degree of confidence in their ability to understand politics and their impact on government. Table 2-4. Comparisons of Mean Scores of Major Variables: Political Factors High School University 2-tailed Sig. Trust in Government 1.80 1.78 .587 Political Efficiency 2.03 1.79 .000 * Number of Cases: High school students= 450, University students: 415 2-tailed Significance: * - P < .05 Crime-related factors (Questions 35, 57, 58, 59) were scored from 1 to 4, with 1 indicating a less serious attitude toward crime situations and 4 a more serious attitude toward crime situations. Concerning crime-related factors (Table 2-5), the two groups showed almost the same mean score in their perception of crime (3.11 and 3.11), and there was no significant difference (d.f=860, p=.918). Concerning fear of crime, the 134 university students had a higher mean than high school ones (2.17 and 2.06), and these was significantly different (d.f=860, p=.011). Therefore, the university groups seem to be more fearful of victimization than high school groups. However, high school students had more experience of victimization. Table 2-5 showed that, concerning the experience of being victim of crime (0.94), 188 out of 448 high school respondents (42%) had.experience:of'victimization, while 103 out of 415 university respondents (24.8%) had a similar experience within the previous three years. Especially, 127 out of 448 high school respondents (28.4%) had experienced victimization more than twice, while 65 out of 415 university ones (15.6%) had. Concerning the experience of seeing someone else committing' a crime (0.98), 161 out of 450 high school respondents (35.8%) had.experience:of'victimization. while 131 out of 415 university respondents (31.6%) had a similar experience within the previous three years. Especially, 109 out of 450 high school respondents (24.2%) had experienced more than twice, while 80 out of 415 university ones (19.3%) had. As shown in the Table 1-5, the high school respondents experienced victimization of crime more than the university respondents (42% and 24.8%), but had a more positive attitude towards the police and the police performance than the university groups (2.370 and 2.263) (see Table 2-1, p. 128). This is why the high school students don’t feel it more 135 seriously than university ones. The university groups perceived crime much.more seriously, and were much.more afraid of being victimized than the high school respondents. This seems that university students think.crime:as a serious social problem. Table 2-5. Comparisons of Mean Scores and frequencies of Major ' Variables: Crime-related Factors High School University 2-tailed Sig. Perception of Crime 3.11‘ 3.11 .918 Fear of Crime 2.057 2.169 .011 * Experience of Having been a Victim of No 260/450(58.0)’ 312/415(75.2) 572/865(69.4) Crime During Yes 188/450(42.0) 103/415(24.8) 252/865(30.6) last three More than years Twice 127/450(28.4) 65/415(15.7) 153/865(18.6) ‘Experience of Having _ Seen someone else No 289/450(64.2) 284/415(68.4) S73/865(70.1) Commit a Crime Yes 161/450(35.8) 131/415(31.6) 244/865(29.9) During last More than three years Twice 109/450(24.2) 80/415(19.3) 141/865(17.3) Number of Cases: High school students: 450, University students8 415 2-tailed Significance: * - P < .05 (Police-related factors (Questions 14 to 24, 36, 37, 67, 68) were scored from 1 to 4, with 1 indicating a strongly negative attitude toward police and 4 indicating a strongly positive attitude toward policefit Regarding the perception of ‘Mean Score of major variables. ’Response Num. / Response population Num. (Percentage) 136 the police (Table 2-6), the mean score of the high school group was higher than the university group (2.37 and 2.24), and. the: two :means are significantly different (d.f=822, p=.000). This seems that the high school students have a more positive attitude than the university ones. Concerning evaluation of the police performance (Table 2- 6), the mean score of the high school group was slightly higher than the mean scores of the university group (2.13 and 2.11), but there was no significant difference (d.f=845, p=.685). The mean score of high school students for the visibility of the police was higher than that of university ones (2.93 and 2.80), and there was significantly different Table 2-6. Comparisons of Mean Scores of Major Variables: Police-related Factors High School University 2-tailed Sig. Perception of the Police 2.37 2.26 .000 * Evaluation of the Police Performance 2.13 2.11 .685 Visibility of the Police 2.93 2.80 .006 * Number of Cases: High school students8 450, University students8 415 2-tailed Significance: * - P < .05 Cultural-ideological factors (Questions 1, 9, 50 to 53) were scored from 1 to 4, with 1 indicating a less strong attitude toward cultural-ideological spirit and 4 indicating 137 a more strong attitude. With respect to the cultural- ideological factors (Table 2-7), the high school group showed higher mean scores in the two variables of authoritarianism (3.19 and 3.02) and group-oriented values (3.06 and 2.93). While the university group showed a higher score in the variable of patriotism (2.45 and 2.41). There was a significant difference in group-oriented values (d.f=855, p=.011) and attitudes toward authoritarianism (d.f=862, p=.000). This means that the high school students seems to be more authoritarian and more group-oriented than the university group. Regarding the attitude toward authoritarianism (Table 2- 7), the results were somewhat consistent with the finding of Leader’s research (1982) on the attitudes of adolescents towards authoritarianism in West Germany and in the United States. In the late 1970’s American adolescents were far more authoritarian than those in West Germany. There seems to be a new trend in Korea -- unwillingness of Korean youngsters to obey authority and authority’s relative unwillingness to exert authority. Increasing teenage crime rate including violence in schools and against parents, joyriding, the use of narcotics and alcoholism in Korea can be seen as a reflection of youth’s unwillingness to obey the authority. 138 Table 2-7. Comparisons of Mean Scores of Major Variables: Cultural-Ideological Factors High School University 2-tai1ed Sig. Group-oriented Values 3.06 2.93 .011 * Patriotism 2.41 2.45 .263 Attitude toward Authoritarianism 3.19 3.02 .000 Number of Cases: High school students: 450, University students: 415 2-tailed Significance: * - P < .05 ,. Consequently, the mean score of all variables were compared to examine the differences of high school and university students groups. The findings of the study are: 1) The university respondents had more cooperative attitudes towards the police than the high school students. 2) Regarding the‘willingness of the public to contact the police, university students had almost the same willingness to contact as high school students. However, concerning general attitudes toward the police, high school students had better attitudes toward the police than university students. 3) University students had higher means in community- related factors and crime-related factors than high school students, while high school students had higher means in political, police-related, and cultural-ideological factors. Among those factors, police-related factors had a statistically significant difference. _ .4” 139 In the next section, the study will attempt to find the most influential factors that are associated with the cooperative attitudes of the students toward the police in the test of hypothesis 1 and 2. In addition, some other related factors with attitudes toward the police will be tested to find some meaningful implications of the police-community interactions. C. Test of Hypotheses 1. Test of Hypothesis 1 Hypotheses 1-A. For’ the. high school students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact with police will be associated with cultural- ideological factors more than any other factors. 1-B. For the high school students, the general attitudes toward the police will be associated with crime-related factors more than any other factors. BQEQLEQ The results of testing hypothesis 1 are following; For the high school students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact the police were more related to cultural-ideological factors than with any other factors. That is, group-oriented values and patriotism 'were found to be more slightly related. with cooperative attitudes and willingness to contact the police than any other factors. (For the high school students, the general attitudes toward the police was more related with police-related factors than any other factors. This may mean that evaluation of the police performance and visibility of the police were more related with general attitudes toward the police than any 140 other factors 5 (As a first step, T-test.was conducted in order to examine whether the two means scores differ in a populatior). (In the present study, hypothesis verification was tested at a significant level of P < .05)' This relatively high level was set due to the fact we are measuring attitudes, which are imprecise at best. @here was no significant difference in the mean of community-related factors, political factors) crime-related factors, cultural-ideological factors between two groups (p=.590, .168, .087, .664), but difference in police-related factors (p=.000) (see Table 2-2, p. 129). Concerning crime- related factors, there ‘was no significant difference in perception of crime (p=.918), but there was a significant difference in fear of crime (p= .011) between two groups (see Table 2-5, p. 135). Concerning police-related factors, high school students had a more positive perception of the police (2.37 and 2.26) and visibility of police (2.93 and 2.80) (see Table 2-6, p. 136). As a second step, Spearman’s correlation analysis was conducted to examine the direction of the association between the variables. When directional alternatives seemed appropriate, tests were based on the Spearman ordinal data rank correlation coefficient. This statistic was chosen over the more familiar Pearson continuous data product-moment correlation coefficient due to the ordinal nature of the data. 141 «Yhe null hypothesis was rejected for ;>‘< .05 and accepted otherwise) Table 3-1 shows a summary of the results of Spearman’s correlation analysis of the two groups for cooperative attitude toward the police, while Table 3-3 shows willingness to contact the police, and Table 3-5 shows the general attitudes toward the police. In the case of high school students, Table 3-1 shows that community-related factors (p=.019), police-related factors (p=.007) and cultural-ideological factors (p=.001) were statistically significant to the cooperative attitudes toward the police, but community-related factors (r=.18) and police- related factors (r=.15) had a small relationship, and cultural-ideological factors (r=.28) had a slight relationship with cooperative attitudes toward the police. They included community cohesion (r=.16, p=.002), political efficiency (r=.15, p=.032), evaluation of the police performance (r=.15, p=.005), visibility of police (r=.11, p=.031), group-oriented value (r=.24, p=.001), patriotism (r=.27, p=.001), attitude toward authoritarianism (r=.17, p=.001). Among these, group- oriented values (r=.27) and.patriotism (r=.24) which.belong to cultural-ideological factors were more slightly related with the cooperative attitudes toward the police than the other variables. Table 3-1 a Spearman’s 142 correlation Comparisons Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: High School Students of Correlated Community-related Factors .18(161)p=.019 * Political Factors p=.950 Crime-related Factors p=.515 Police-related Factors .15(335)p=.007 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .28(364)p=.001 * Community Cohesion .16(370)p=.002 * Perception of the Community-related Policing Organizations p=.215 Trust in Government p=.685 Political Efficiency p=.066 Perception of Crime p=.240 Fear of Crime p=.319 Perception of the Police .15(410)p=.005 * Evaluation of the Police Performance .15(370)p=.005 * Visibility of the Police .11(360)p=.03l * Group-oriented Values .24(367)p=.001 * Patriotism .27(370)p=.001 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .l7(371)p=.001 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases) / 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 The results of Spearman’s correlation test were the same as those of IPearson’s correlation. analysis '(Table 3-2). Interestingly, for high school respondents, fear of crime (r= -011, attitudes toward the police. p=.035) was negatively related with ‘the cooperative This means those who perceive fear of crime more seriously are more inclined to avoid the police than those who perceive it less seriously. 143 Table 3-2. Pearson’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: High School Students Community-related Factors .24(16l)p=.003 * Political Factors p=.106 Crime-related Factors p=.154 Police-related Factors .30(335)p=.001 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .39(364)p=.001 * Community Cohesion .20(370)p=.001 * Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations p=.107 Trust in Government p=.129 Political Efficiency p=.455 Perception of Crime p=.917 Fear of Crime -.1l(371)p=.035 * Perception of the Police .24(349)p=.001 * Evaluation of the Police Performance .20(370)p=.001 * Visibility of the Police .18(360)p=.001 * Group-oriented Values .32(367)p=.001 * Patriotism .34(370)p=.001 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .18(371)p=.001 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 Table 3-3 shows that community-related factors (p=.039), crime-related factors (p=.019) and ‘cultural-ideological factors (p=.008) were statistically significant to the willingness to contact with the policefxbut community-related factors (r=.11), crime-related factors (r=.11) and cultural- ideological factors (r=.11) had a only small relations with the willingness to contact the police. They included community’ cohesion (r=.13, p=.001), visibility' of police (r=.16, p=.001), group-oriented value (r=.11, p=.024), patriotism (r=.10, p=.032). .Among' these, group-oriented values and patriotism which belong to cultural-ideological factors were more related with the willingness to contact the police than the other variables. 144 Table 3-3. Spearman's Correlation Comparisons with Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: High School Students Community-related Factors .11(189)p=.039 * Political Factors p=.981 Crime-related Factors .11(255)p=.019 * Police-related Factors p=.781 Cultural-Ideological Factors .13(433)p=.008 * Community Cohesion .13(439)p=.001 * Perception of the Community-related Policing Organizations p=.106 Trust in Government p=.710 Political Efficiency p=.317 Perception of Crime p=.384 Fear of Crime p=.501 Perception of the Police p=.126 Evaluation of the Police Performance p=.635 Visibility of the Police Group-oriented Values .11(433)p=.024 Patriotism .10(440)p=.032 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism p=.267 .16(426)p=.001 . & Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 The results of Spearman’s correlation test were also the same as those of Pearson’s correlation analysis (Table 3-4). Table 3-4. Pearson’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: High School Students Community-related Factors .22(189)p=.003 * Political Factors p=.971 Crime-related Factors p=.366 Police-related Factors .26(398)p=.042 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .17(433)p=.001 * Community Cohesion Perception of the Community-related .17(439)p=.001 * zciicing Organizations p-.155 Trust in Government p=.723 Political Efficiency p=.4l4 Perception of Crime p=.358 Fear of Crime p=.663 145 Table 3-4 (cont’d) Perception of the Police p=.577 Evaluation of the Police Performance .11(439)p=.020 Visibility of the Police .21(426)p=.001 Group-oriented Values p=.104 Patriotism .16(440)p=.001 Attitude toward Authoritarianism p=.074 Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 Table 3-5 shows that community-related factors (r=.18, p=.013), political factors (r=.15, p=.001), police-related factors (r=.19, p=.001) and cultural-ideological factors (r=.15, p=.003) were statistically significant to the general attitudes toward the police, but all those factors had a small relationship with the general attitudes toward the police. They included trust in government (r=.19, p=.001), political efficiency (r=.11, p=.026) , perception of crime (r= -.10, p=.050) , evaluation of the police performance (r=.33, p=.001) , group-oriented value (r=.14, p=.005), patriotism (r=.12, p=.018), attitude toward authoritarianism (r=.15, p=.002). Among these, evaluation of the police performance which belongs to(police-related factors was more slightly related with the cooperative attitudes toward the police than the other variables.\ 146 Table 3-5. Spearman’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with General Attitudes toward the Police: High School Students Community-related Factors .18(190)p=.013 * Political Factors .15(423)p=.003 * Crime-related Factors p=.402 Police-related Factors .19(407)p=.001 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .15(433)p=.003 * Community Cohesion p=.096 Perception of the Community-related Policing Organizations p=.509 Trust in Government .19(423)p=.001 * Political Efficiency .11(430)p=.026 * Perception of Crime -.10(422)p=.050 * Fear of Crime p=.322 Evaluation of the Police Performance .33(421)p=.001 * Visibility of the Police p=.404 Group-oriented Values .14(419)p=.005 * Patriotism .12(421)p=.018 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .15(422)p=.002 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 The results of Spearman’s correlation test were the same as those of Pearson’s correlation analysis (see Table 3-6). Table 3-6. Pearson’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with General Attitudes toward the police: High School Students Community-related Factors .21(190)p=.005 * Political Factors .22(423)p=.001 * Crime-related Factors p=.620 Police-related Factors .28(407)p=.001 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .l7(433)p-.001 * Community Cohesion p=.537 Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations .15(19l)p=.038 * Trust in Government .22(423)p=.001 * Political Efficiency p=.076 Perception of Crime p=.680 Fear of Crime p=.745 147 Table 3-6 (cont’d) Evaluation of the Police Performance .43(421)p=.001 * Visibility of the Police p=.260 Group-oriented Values .l7(419)p=.001 * Patriotism .18(421)p=.001 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .22(422)p=.001 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 As a third step, the regression analyses were done to obtain more valid interpretations by comparing the results of correlation and regression tests, because the results of Spearman’s correlation test was the same as those of Pearson’s correlation analysis. The regression analysis was conducted to examine the strength. of the association between ‘the variables. Concerning cooperative attitudes toward police, Table 3-7 shows that cultural-ideological factors (R2=.238) were more strongly related with cooperative attitudes toward the police than the other factors. The two factors were included in the final regression equation with .299 of R2 value -- cultural- ideological factors and police-related factors. The R2 value (.299) indicates that nearly 29.9% of the variability of the cooperative attitudes toward police can be explained by the two factors. The :result. of *the. correlation 'test for cooperative attitudes were identical with those of the regression test. They were consistent in a certain degree. 148 Therefore, the cooperative attitudes toward police were most influenced by the cultural-ideological factors among factors. Table 3-7. Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Cooperative Attitudes t oward the Police: High School Students Variable Step MultR qu Adesq SigF BetaIn Cultural -Ideological l .488 .238 .238 .000 .488 Factors Police -related 2 .547 .299 .289 .000 .271 Factors - Table 3-8 also shows that cultural-ideological factors (R2=.063)' were more strongly related with willingness to contact than the other factors. Table 3-8. Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Willingness to Contact with the Police: High School Students Variable Step MultR qu Adesq SigF sauna Cultural -Ideological 1 .250 .063 .056 .000 .250 Factors Community -related 2 .303 .092 .081 .000 .183 FlCtOl‘B 149 Concerning the general attitude toward the police, Table 3-9 shows that police-related factors (R2=. 118) were more strongly related with general attitudes toward the police than the other factors. .All these results of regression tests were in consistent with those of correlation analysis. Table 3-9. Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for the General Attitudes toward the police: High School Students Variable Step MultR qu Adesq SigF BetaIn Police -related 1 .344 .118 .123 .000 .344 FOCtOIB Political 2 .407 .166 .156 .000 .232 Factors Cultural -Ideological 3 .452 .205 .191 .000 .208 Factors 2. Test of Hypothesis 2 EIEOEQBSOS 2-A. For the university students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact with police will be associated with police-related factors more than any other factors. 2-B. For the university students, the general attitudes toward the police will be associated with political factors more than any other factors. 150 Results The results of testing of hypothesis 2 are following; For the university students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward the police and willingness to contact with the police were more related with cultural-ideological factors than any other factors. Patriotism and attitudes toward authoritarianism were more related with cooperative attitudes and willingness to contact with the police than any other factors. For the university students, the cooperative attitude of the public toward.the police will be associated with political factors more than any other factors. That is, trust in government and political efficiency were more related with general attitudes toward the police than any other factors. In the case of university students, Table 4-1 shows that police-related. factors (r=.13, p=.012) and. cultural- ideological factors (r=.15, p=.012) were statistically significant to the cooperative attitudes toward the police, but these factors had a small relationship with cooperative attitudes toward the police. They included evaluation of the police performance (r=.16, p=.002), patriotism (r=.17, p=.001), and attitudes toward authoritarianism (r=.12, p=.016). Among these, patriotism (r=.17) which belongs to cultural-ideological factors was more slightly related with the cooperative attitudes toward the police than the other variables. 151 Table 4-1. Spearman’s correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: University Students Community-related Factors p=.875 Political Factors p=.109 Crime-related Factors p=.835 Police-related Factors .13(363)p-.012 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .13(376)p=.012 * Community Cohesion p=.497 Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations p=.572 Trust in Government p=.065 Political Efficiency p=.147 Perception of Crime p=.797 Fear of Crime p=.664 Perception of the Police p=.066 Evaluation of the Police Performance .16(373)p=.002 * Visibility of the Police p=.339 Group-oriented Values p=.144 Patriotism .17(370)p=.001 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .12(379)p=.016 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases) / 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 These results of the Spearman’s correlation test were the same as those of Pearson’s correlation analysis (Table 4-2). Table 4-2. Pearson's Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Cooperative Attitudes toward the Police: University Students Community-related Factors p8.l9l Political Factors .14(379)p-.005 Crime-related Factors p=.550 Police-related Factors .20(363)p=.001 Cultural-Ideological Factors .3l(376)p-.001 Community Cohesion .12(377)p=.020 * Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations p-.370 Trust in Government .14(379)p=.005 * Political Efficiency p=.316 Perception of Crime p=.207 Fear of Crime p=.860 152 Table 4-2 (cont’d) Perception of the Police .16(375)p=.002 * Evaluation of the Police Performance .16(373)p=.003 * Visibility of the Police .11(372)p=.029 * Group-oriented Values .15(377)p=.003 * Patriotism .28(378)p=.001 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .19(379)p=.001 * .15(750)p=.001 Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 Table 4-3 shows that political factors (r=.13, p=.006) and cultural-ideological factors (r=.15, p=.002) were statistically significant to the willingness to contact with the police, but these factors had only a small relationship with the willingness to contact with the police. They included perception of police (r= -.13, p=.007) , evaluation of police performance (r=.11,p=.033), visibility of police (r=.11, p=.032), group-oriented value (r=.10, p=.042), (patriotism (r=.18, p=.001), and attitudes toward authoritarianism (r=.13, p=.010). Among these, patriotism (r=.18) which belongs to cultural-ideological factors was more related with the willingness to contact with the police than the other variables. Table 4-3. Spearman’s Correlation Comparisons with Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: University Students Community-related Factors Political Factors Crime-related Factors Police-related Factors Cultural-Ideological Factors ps.757 .13(412)p8.006 * p=.238 p=.457 .15(410)p-.002 * Community Cohesion Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations Trust in Government Political Efficiency Perception of Crime p=.084 p=.764 p=.108 p=.099 -.13(355)p=.007 * Fear of Crime p=.232 Perception of the Police p=.741 Evaluation of the Police Performance .11(355)p=.033 Visibility of the Police .11(405)p=.032 * Group-oriented Values .10(355)p=.042 * Patriotism .18(412)p=.001 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .13(413)p=.010 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 This results of Spearman’s correlation test were also the same as those of Pearson’s correlation analysis (Table 4-4). Table 4-4. Pearson’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with Willingness to Contact with the Police: University Students Community-related Factors .13(418)p=.007 Political Factors p=.243 Crime-related Factors p=.622 Police-related Factors .14(394)p=.005 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .19(410)ps.001 * Community Cohesion .12(411)pc.012 * Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations p-.716 Trust in Government p=.232 Political Efficiency ‘ p=.305 154 Table 4-4 (cont’d) Perception of Crime p=.140 Fear of Crime p=.531 Perception of the Police .11(407)p=.028 * Evaluation of the Police Performance p=.059 Visibility of the Police .09(405)p=.048 * Group-oriented Values p=.052 Patriotism .17(412)p=.001 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .10(413)p=.036 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 Table 4-5 shows that political factors (r=.17, p=.001), and police-related factors (r=.12, p=.001) were statistically significant to the general attitudes toward the police, but all these factors had a small relationship with the general attitudes toward the police. They included trust in government (r=.15, p=.001), political efficiency (r=.19, p=.026) , evaluation of the police performance (r=.28, p=.001) , and attitudes toward authoritarianism (r=.24, p=.001). Table 4-5. Spearman’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with General Attitudes toward the Police: Community-related Factors p=.824 Political Factors .17(407)p=.001 * Crime-related Factors p=.571 Police-related Factors .12(395)p=.001 * Cultural-Ideological Factors p=.086 Community Cohesion p=.019 Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations p=.201 Trust in Government .15(408)p=.002 * Political Efficiency . .19(407)p=.001 I- 155 Table 4-5 (cont’d) Perception of Crime p=.496 Fear of Crime p=.230 Evaluation of the Police Performance .28(402)p=.001 * Visibility of the Police p=.674 Group-oriented Values p=.558 Patriotism p=.418 Attitude toward Authoritarianism .24(408)p=.001 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 These results of the Spearman’s correlation test were also the same as those of the Pearson’s correlation analysis (Table 4-6). Table 4-6. Pearson’s Correlation Comparisons of Correlated Variables with General Attitudes toward the police: Community-related Factors p=.097 Political Factors .35(407)p=.001 * Crime-related Factors p=.229 Police-related Factors .27(395)p=.001 * Cultural-Ideological Factors .19(410)p=.001 * Community Cohesion p=.591 Perception of the Community-related Policing Organisations .14(226)p=.037 * Trust in Government .30(408)p=.001 * Political Efficiency .23(407)p=.001 * Perception of Crime -.12(406)p=.013 * Fear of Crime p=.665 Evaluation of the Police Performance .40(402)p=.001 * Visibility of the Police p=.150 Group-oriented Values p=.621 Patriotism .12(407)p=.012 * Attitude toward Authoritarianism .3l(408)p=.001 * Contingency Coefficient /(Cases)/ 2-tailed Sig. * - P < .05 156 As a second, the regression analyses were also done to obtain more valid interpretations by comparing the results of the correlation and regression tests. Concerning cooperative attitudes toward. police, Table 4-7 shows that cultural- ideological factors u¥=.101) were more strongly related with cooperative attitudes toward the police than the other factors. The results of the correlation test for cooperative attitudes were identical with those of the regression test. They were consistent in a certain degree. Therefore, the cooperative attitudes toward police were most influenced by the cultural-ideological factors among factors. These results were found to be the same as that of high school students. Table 4-1. Results of “ultiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Cooperative Attitudes t oward the Police: University Students Variable Step flultR qu Adesq SigF Betaln Cultural -Ideological 1 .318 .101 .099 .000 .318 Factors Police -re1ated 2 .346 .120 .115 .000 .141 Factors Table 4-8 also shows that cultural-ideological factors (R2=.031) were more strongly related with willingness to contact than the other factors. These results were found to be the same as that of high school students. 157 Table 4-8. Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for Willingness to Contact with the Police: University Students Variable Step uultR qu Adj qu SigF BetaIn Cultural -Ideologica1 1 .176 .031 .028 .000 .176 Factors Police -related 2 .208 .043 .038 .000 .114 Factors Concerning the general attitude toward the police, Table 4-9 shows that political factors (REn137) were more strongly related with general attitudes toward the police than the other factors. These results were found to be different from that of high school. Table 4-9. Results of Multiple Stepwise Regression by Independent Factors for the General Attitudes toward the police: University Students Variable Step RultR qu Adesq SigF BetaIn Political 1 .370 .137 .135 .000 .370 Factors Police -re1ated 2 .425 .181 .177 .000 .213 Factors Cultural -Ideological 3 .436 .190 .183 .000 .096 FlCtOI’B 158 Consequently, concerning' cooperative attitude toward police and. willingness tor contact 'with ‘the police, the responses of both high school and university students were consistent, and more related with cultural-ideological factors than the other factors. The cooperative attitudes seemed to be more based on cultural and ideological heritage than the social and political issues of Korea. (However, concerning general attitudes toward the police, the results of two groups were different. High school students responded that police- related factors were more related with general attitudes toward the police than the other factors, while university students responded to political factors.) This may seem that university students perceive the police as a representative of the government more than high school students do. People usually perceive that University students think themselves as a critical part of in making society better through sound criticism. If the government does something wrong, it would affect the general attitudes of the university students toward the police, and vice versa. 3. Test of Hypothesis 3 (magi: The attitudes toward police of high school students are more favorable than those of university students. 159 Results The result of testing hypothesis 3 is following; The attitudes toward police of high school students were found to be more favorable than those of university students. 9 ‘The results of T-test shows that the means of these two groups are different from each other (d.f= 822. p=.000). The mean of high school students (M=2.37) is higher than that of university (M=2.26) as seen in Table 2-1 (p. 128). This seems that high school students have more favorable attitudes toward the police than university.;} Another findings which supports this hypothesis are as follows: Of high school students, 34.3% think being a policeman is a good job for a capable and intelligent person as compared to 26.5% of university students (see below results). nigh School University Total Valid Valid Valid Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent 9.28. Do you think that being a policeman is good job for capable and intelligent person? S. Disagree 109 24.3 83 20.1 192 22.3 Disagree 186 41.4 220 53.4 406 47.2 Agree 118 26.3 95 23.1 213 24.7 8. Agree 36 8.0 14 3.4 50 5.8 0f high school students, 51.2% think they are qualified to become policemen as compared to 52% of university students (see below results). 160 9.29. Do you think that you are qualified to become a policeman if you wanted to? S. Disagree 45 10.0 46 11.1 91 10.5 Disagree 174 38.8 150 36.1 324 37.5 Agree 151 33.6 170 41.0 321 37.2 S.Agree 79 17.6 49 11.8 128 14.8 More high school students have less regard for police work-68% disagreed that entering police work is wasting one’s talents and abilities as compared to 32% who agreed, while 50.5% disagreed compared to 49.5% who agreed (see below results). 9.30. Do you think that you would be wasting your talents and abilities by entering police work as a career? 8. Disagree 33 7.3 38 9.2 71 8.2 Disagree 111 24.7 167 40.3 278 32.2 Agree 218 48.6 170 41.1 388 45.0 S. Agree '87 19.4 39 9.4 126 14.6 0f high school students, 65% think police work as a challenging profession as compared to 48.1% of university students (see below results). 9.31. Do you think that police work as a challenging profession? S. Disagree 41 9.1 44 10.6 85 9.8 Disagree 116 25.8 171 41.3 287 33.3 Agree 215 47.9 187 45.2 402 46.6 S. Agree 77 17.1 12 2.9 89 10.3 High school students view police work important as a chance for helping others (79.5% agreed) as compared to the university students percentage of 74.2% (see results below). 161 9.32. Do you think that police career offers a good chance to help people? 3. Disagree 16 3.6 18 4.3 34 3.9 Disagree 76 16.9 89 21.4 165 19.1 Agree 263 58.6 267 64.3 530 61.3 5. Agree 94 20.9 41 9.9 135 15.6 The percent of high school students who agreed on 9.33 (65.2%) is higher than that of university students (60.5%). (see below results) 9.33. Do you think that a career in police work is a good way to personally attack some of our country's social problems? S. Disagree 30 6.7 22 5.3 52 6.0 Disagree 125 26.0 143 34.5 268 31.1 Agree 220 49.3 210 50.6 430 49.9 S. Agree 71 15.9 40 9.6 111 12.9 University students think much less of police work as offering good opportunities for advancement (89% disagreed) as compared to 10.9% who agreed, while 86.2% of the high school students disagreed compared to 13.8% who agreed (see results below). 34. Do you think that police work offers good opportunities for advancement? S. Disagree 138 30.7 - 99 23.9 237 27.5 Disagree 249 55.5 270 65.2 519 60.1 Agree 50 11.1 40 9.7 90 10.4 S. Agree 12 2.7 5 1.2 17 2.0 4. Test of Hypothesis 4 Hypothesis There tends to be a significant difference between the 162 attitudes of an individual toward the police, and certain identifiable characteristics of that individual such as academic performance, father’s occupation, family income, and peer groups attitudes, previous contact with the police. 3252125 The results of testing hypothesis 4 are following; For high school students, the attitudes of an individual toward the police were found not to be significantly different with such variables as academic performance, the father's occupation, the state of the family, and family income. However, the attitudes toward the police had a significant difference only with peer groups attitudes. This may seem that. the 'more positive students perceive their friends’ attitudes to be, the more positive their own tend to be. For university students, the attitudes of an individual toward the police were found not to be significantly different from such variables as academic performance, the state of the family, and family income. However, the attitudes toward the police had significant differences in regards to the father’s occupation and peer group's attitudes. The means of university students' attitudes were different according to their father's occupations. Their attitudes were also almost the same as those of their peer group's attitudes. 2; Questions 15 through 25 were scored from 1 to 4, with 1 4 indicating a strongly positive attitudes toward the police and 4 indicating a strongly negative attitude. GATP will be used in this study as an abbreviation for the term. General Attitudes Toward the Police. Q.15 through 9.25 were designed to measure the students' personal attitudes toward the police directly. T-test was used to compare the mean GATP for each demographic variable“ 7 Table 5-1 shows that both student groups' GATP scores were classified as high or low above the mean and below the 163 mean (based on the mean scoresl‘and compared with Chi-square analysis. r:I'able 5-1 displays the joint distribution of general attitudes toward the police (GATP) and academic grade for high school; in this table GATP was collapsed to the two categories.“ and Academic grade was not collapsed in order that all data could be observed. As can be seen, there was no significant difference (CC=.0730, p=.4269). Of the 169 low GATP, 31.4% belonged to the 70-79 grade range, 25.4% to the 60-69. Concerning grade over 90, the percent of high GATP (58%) is twice as much as that of low GATP (30.3%), but on below 60, the percent of high GATP (50.8%) is as much as the low GATP (49.2%). This seems that the higher the grade are, the better GATP} Table 5-1. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Academic Grade: High School Students Count Academic Grade Row % Below Over Row Col 8 60 60-69 70-79 80-89 90 Total Low GATP 30 43 . 53 33 10 169 17.8 25.4 31.4 19.5 5.9 41.9 49.2 41.3 43.8 39.3 30.3 High GATP 31 61 68 51 23 234 13.2 26.1 29.1 21.8 9.8 58.1 50.8 58.7 56.2 60.7 69.7 Column 61 104 121 843 33 403 Total 15.1 25.8 30.0 20.8 8.2 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Hin E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 3.5788 4 .4659 13.84 : .0730 .0730 D.F.= Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F8 Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi: 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.: Spearman correlation. 164 £1. “Table 5-2 shows that the difference was not statistically significant (CC=.0461, p=.9316). Of the 181 low GATP, 68.5% belonged to the 80-89 grade range, 17.7% to the 70-79. Concerning grade below 60, the percent of high GATP (66.7%) is twice as much as that of low GATP (33.3%), but on below 60, the percent of high GATP (50.8%) is as much as low GATP (49.2%) 2.. Table 5-2. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Academic Grade: University Students Count Academic Grade Row % Row Col % Below 60 60-69 70-79 80-89 Over 90 Total Low GATP 1 6 32 124 18 181 0.6 3.3 17.7 68.5 9.9 45.4 33.3 54.5 43.2 46.1 42.9 High GATP 2 5 42 145 24 218 0.9 2.3 19.3 66.5 11.0 54.6 66.7 45.5 56.8 53.9 57.1 Column 3 11 74 , 269 42 399 Total 0.8 2.8 18.5 67.4 10.5 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 0.8484 4 .9316 1.361 : .0461 .0016 D.F.= Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Hin E. F: Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi- 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.8 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.: Spearman correlation. Table 5-3 displays the joint distribution of general attitudes toward the police (GATP) and the father’s job for high school;rin this table GATP was collapsed to the two categories, and the father's job was not collapsed in order that all data could be observed. The results of GATP are ar' 165 shown in Table 5-3. This combination of GATP scores are independent of this grouping of fathers' occupations (CC=.0809, p=.8561). Of 169 low GATP, 31.4% belonged to the self-employed, 21.3% unskilled. Of 227 high GATP, 31.3% also self-employed and 22% company-employed. 0f the government officers, 63% belongs to high GATP, 55.6% of the government officers belonged to the low GATP. Table 5-3. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Father's Job: High School Students Father's Job Count Row % Government Self- Skilled Company- Unem- Unski- Row Col % Officer employed Worker employed ployed lled Other Total Low 14 53 12 32 5 36 17 169 GATP 8.3 31.4 7.1 18.9 3.0 21.3 10.1 42.7 36.8 42.7 40.0 39.0 55.6 48.0 44.7 High 24 71 18 50 4 39 21 227 GATP 10.6 31.3 7.9 22.0 1.8 17.2 9.3 57.3 63.2 57.3 60.0 61.0 44.4 52.0 55.3 Column 38 124 30 82 9 75 38 396 Total 9.6 31.3 7.6 20.7 2.3 18.9 9.6 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 2.6088 6 .8561 3.84 : .0809 -.0468 D.F.= Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimumlof expected frequencies, Phi8 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.8 Spearman correlation. Table 5-4 displays data similar to those shown in table 5-3 except that the father's job was dichotomized. This was initiated by grouping the occupations into two occupational groups: mainly pro-government tendency occupations vs. anti- 166 government tendency occupations. GATP scores are independent of this occupational grouping (Phi=.0300, p=.5501). Table 5-4. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Father’s Job: High School Students Father's Job Count Gvnt Officer, Company-employed, Row % Self-employed, Unemployed, Unski- Row Col 3 Skilled Worker lled Worker, Other Total Low GATP 79 90 169 46.7 53.3 42.7 41.1 44.1 High GATP 113 114 227 49.8 50.2 57.3 58.9 55.9 Column 192 204 396 Total 48.5 51.5 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : Phi Rs C.C. 0.3571 1 .5501 81.94 : .0300 -.0300 D.F.- Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F3 Minimum‘of expected frequencies, Phi: 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.- 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 5-5 shows data relevant to the GATP for university students by father's occupations. There was significant difference with GATP (p=.0152) , but only a slight relationship (CC=.2026). Of 180 low GATP, 22.2% belongs to the self- employed, 21.7% unskilled. Concerning the unemployed, the percent of low GATP (66.7%) is twice as much as high GATP (33.3%) . 167 Table 5-5. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Father’s Job: University Students Father's Job Count Row % Government Self- Skilled Company- Unem— Unski- Row Col % Officer employed Worker employed ployed lled Other Total Low 32 40 8 35 8 39 18 180 GATP 17.8 22.2 4.4 19.4 4.4 21.7 10.0 46.3 49.2 35.1 40.0 48.8 66.7 53.4 72.0 High 33 74 12 45 4 34 7 209 GATP 15.8 35.4 5.7 21.5 1.9 16.3 3.3 53.7 50.8 64.9 60.0 56.3 33.3 46.6 28.0 Column 65 114 20 80 12 73 25 389 Total 16.7 29.3 5.1 20.6 3.1 18.8 6.4 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 16.6521 6 .0106 5.53 : .2026 -.1230 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F: Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 5-6 displays data similar to those shown in table 5-5 except that the father's job was dichotomized. This 'nitiated grouping the occupations into two occupational groups. There was significant difference with GATP (p=.0140) , but a small relationship (CC=.1237). Table 5-6. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Father’s Job: university Students Father's Job Count Gvnt Officer, Company-employed, Row % Self-employed, Unemployed, Unski- Row Col % Skilled Worker lled Worker, Other Total Low GATP 80 100 180 44.4 55.6 46.3 40.2 52.6 168 Table 5-6 (cont'd) Father's Job Count Gvnt Officer, Company-employed, Row % Self-employed, Unemployed, Unski- Row Col % Skilled Worker lled Worker, Other Total High GATP 119 90 209 56.9 43.1 53.7 59.8 47.4 Column 199 190 389 Total 51.2 48.8 100.0 Chi-square D.Fe 8190 Min EeF : CeCe RB CeCe 6.0412 1 00140 87092 : e1237 -e1246 D.F.- Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimum‘of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 5-7 shows the comparisons of GATP scores for students whose parents are both living versus all other students. . rGATP scores are statistically independent of whether or not both parents are living (Phi=.0635, p=.2034). 03": 9 Table 5-7. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by State of Family: High School Students Count State of Family Row % Both Parents Row Col % Living Other Total Low GATP 158 10 168 94.0 6.0 41.9 42.8 31.3 High GATP 211 22 233 90.6 9.4 58.1 57.2 68.8 Column 369 32 401 Total 92.0 8.0 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F Phi Rs C.C. 1.6189 1 .2034 13.41 § .0635 -.0635 169 Table 5-8 shows that the university students’ results are the same as that of high school (Phi=.0250, p=.6204). Table 5-8. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by State of Family: University Students Count State of Family Row % Both Parents Row Col % Living Other Total Low GATP 169 13 182 92.9 7.1 46.2 41.9 46.6 High GATP 194 18 212 91.5 8.5 53.8 53.4 58.1 Column 363 31 394 Total 92.1 7.9 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : Phi Rs C.C. 0.2454 1 .6204 14.32 : .0250 .0250 D.F.= Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. 5. Test of Hypothesis 5 Hypothesis There is a difference in attitudes toward the police between. groups. of Zhigher and lower socioeconomic status (9.111). BQQELEE The result of hypothesis 5 is following; There was no significant difference in attitudes toward the police between groups of higher and lower socioeconomic status for both high school and university students. 170 guean scores for GATP were computed for various family income groups. GATP scores were classified as high or low and compared to family income with chi-square analysis. The results are shown in Table 6-1 through 6-4.$ (Table 6-1 displays the joint distribution of general attitudes toward the police and family income (monthly) for high school; in“ thismtableflflGATR__Wa.s.._1:ollapeed to-theatma Refineries, and family income was not collapsed in order that all data could be observed) The results of GATP are shown in Table 6-1. This combination of GATP scores are independent of this grouping of fathers' occupations (CC=.1098, p=.1714) . Of 173 low GATP, 52% belonged to the 500,000-1,125,000 W, and 44.3% 1,125,000-2,500,000 w. Of 237 high GATP, 60.8% belongs to 500,000-1,250,000 W, and 28.7% 1,125,000-2,500,000 W. Table 6-1. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Family Income: High School Students Count Family Income (Ionthly) Row 8 Less Than 500,000- 1,250,000- More Than Row Col % 500.000W 1,250,000W 2,500,000W 2,500,000W Total Low GATP 10 90 54 19 173 5.8 52.0 31.2 11.0 42.2 47.6 38.5 44.3 57.6 High GATP 11 144 68 14 237 4.6 60.8 28.7 5.9 57.8 52.4 61.5 55.7 42.4 Column 21 234 122 33 410 Total 5.1 57.1 29.8 8.0 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. W refers to Korean currency”Won” which is the equivalent of S .00133 (158750 Won) United States currency (based on exchange rate of 1992). 171 Table 6-2 shows that the results of university students are the same as those of high school. The difference was not statistically significant (CC=.1326, p=.0680). Of 183 low GATP, 59.6% was belonged.to the 500,000-1,125,000 W, and 21.9% 1,125,000-2,500,000 W. Of 215 high GATP, 50.7% belongs to 500,000-1,250,000 W, and 23.4% 1,125,000-2,500,000 W. Concerning more than the 2,500,000 W group, the percent of high GATP (60%) is twice as much as that of the low (34%). Table 6-2. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Family Income: University Students Count Family Income (Monthly) Row % Less Than 500,000- 1,250,000- More Than Row Col % 500.000W 1,250,000W 2,500,000W 2,500,000W Total Low GATP 18 109 40 16 183 9.8 59.6 21.9 8.7 46.0 56.3 50.0 39.6 34.0 High GATP 14 109 61 31 215 6.5 50.7 28.4 14.4 54.0 43.8 50.0 60.4 60.0 Column 32 218 101 47 398 Total 8.0 54.8 25.4 11.8 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 7.1268 3 .0680 14.71 : .1326 .1334 W refers to Korean currency"Won" which is the equivalent of $ .00133 (ls-750 Won) United States currency (based on exchange rate of 1992). (mum—3. and 6-4. four income amps were combined intowthrmemgreups (high, middle and low income). ( Table 6-3 shows that GATP scores are independent of this 172 income grouping (CC=.0970, p=.1424). Concerning the 500,000; 2,500,000 W (middle class), 40.4% belongs to low GATP, 59.6% high GATP. This seems that the middle class has a more favorable attitudes toward the police. However, on more than 2,500,000 W (high class) 57.6% belongs to low'GATP, 42.4% high GATP.) Table 6-3. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Family Income: High School Students Count Family Income (Monthly) Row % Less Than 500,000- More Than Row Col % 500,000W 2,500,000W 2,500,000W Total Low GATP 10 144 19 173 5.8 83.2 11.0 42.2 47.6 40.4 57.6 High GATP 11 212 14 237 4.6 89.5 5.9 57.8 52.4 59.6 42.4 Column 21 356 33 410 Total 5.1 86.8 8.0 100.0 Chi-square DeFe Sig. “in E0? : CeCe R8 CeCe 3.8987 2 .1424 8.861 : .0970 —.0549 W refers to Korean currency”Won" which is the equivalent of $ .00133 (1$=750 Won) United States currency (based on exchange rate of 1992). Table 6-4 shows that the results of university students are almost the same as those of high school (CC=.1013, p=.1272). 173 Table 6-4. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Family Income: University Students Count Family Income (Monthly) Row % Less Than 500,000- More Than Row Col % 500,000W 2,500,000W 2,500,000W Total Low GATP 18 149 16 183 9.8 81.4 8.7 46.0 56.3 46.7 34.0 High GATP 14 170 31 215 6.5 79.1 14.4 54.0 43.8 53.3 66.0 Column 32 319 47 398 Total 8.0 80.2 11.8 100.0 Chi-square D.Fe Sig. Min Esp : CeCe RB CeCe 4.1235 2 .1272 14.71 : .1013 .1025 W refers to Korean currency"Won" which is the equivalent of $ .00133 (1$=750 Won) United States currency (based on exchange rate of 1992). 6. Test of Hypothesis 6 Hypothesis Much of the literature on delinquency suggested a negative response by youths who have been in contact with the criminal justice system. Regarding this point, Giordano (1976) in her analysis of juvenile reaction to the justice system, found out that "youths with greater system contact actually expressed more positive attitudes than did their less experienced counterparts." If her conclusion is valid, then the following hypothesis will not stand in the affirmative. There is a positive correlation between self-reported 174 delinquency and crime with an increase in negativity of attitudes toward the police. 398111118 The result of testing hypothesis 6 is following; For high school students, self-reported delinquency was significantly' related ‘with an increase in negativity of attitudes toward the police. However, concerning university students, there was no significant difference between self- reporting delinquency and the attitudes toward the police. This may' mean that. high school students reporting less delinquency tend to have more positive attitudes toward the police. Questions 43 through 49 were scored from 1 to 4, with 1 indicating none of self-reporting delinquency and 4 indicating very often. The total score for self-reported delinquency is the sum of these score. The Summary statistics are as follows; Table 7-1 displays data relevant to the general attitudes toward the police by self-reporting delinquencies. As can be seen, the difference was statistically significant (p=.0344), but there was a small relationship (CC=.1415). Of 180 low GATP, 71% falls into the never responses, and 24.2% once or twice responses. Concerning response on never, the percentage of high GATP (61.1%) is twice as much as that of the low (38.9%). This seems that high school students reporting less delinquency tend to have more positive attitudes toward the police than those with more reported delinquency. 175 Table 7-1. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by self-Reporting Delinquency: High School Students Count Self-reporting Delinquency Row 8 Once or Several Very Row Col % Never Twice Times Often Total Low GATP 128 44 7 1 180 71.1 24.4 3.9 0.6 42.6 38.9 57.1 46.7 50.0 High GATP 201 33 8 1 243 82.7 13.6 3.3 0.4 57.4 61.1 42.9 53.3 50.0 Column 329 77 15 2 423 Total 77.8 18.2 3.5 0.5 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F: C.C. Rs C.C. 8.6444 3 .0344 .851 : .1415 -.1338 D.F.- Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F: Hinimum.of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 7-2 shows that the results of university students were not statistically significant (CC=.1129, p=.0722). Of 185 low GATP, 58.4% belongs to the never responses, and 36.8% belongs to the once or twice responses. Concerning response on several times, the percent of low GATP (75%) was much. higher than 'that. of’ high (25%). This seems that university students reporting very much delinquency tend to have more negative attitudes toward the police than those with less reported delinquency. 176 Table 7-2. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by self-Reporting Delinquency: University Students Count Self-reporting Delinquency Row 8 Once or Several Very Row Col % Never Twice Times Often Total Low GATP 108 68 9 . 185 58.4 36.8 4.9 . 45.5 46.6 41.7 75.0 . High GATP 124 95 3 . 222 55.9 42.8 1.4 . 54.5 53.4 58.3 25.0 . Column 232 163 12 . 407 Total 57.0 40.0 2.9 . 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F: c.c. Rs c.c.’ 5.2557 2 .0722 5.455 : .1129 .0093 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F8 Minimumlof expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 7-3 shows that there is no significant relationship between general attitudes toward the police and self-reporting crime (Phi=.0791, p=.0136). Of 180 low GATP, 93.9% belongs to the never responses, and 6.1% more than once. Concerning response on more than once, the percentage of low GATP (61%) was higher than that of high (38.9%). This seems that high school students reporting much crime tend to have more negative attitudes toward the police than those with less reported crime. 177 Table 7-3. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Self-reporting Crime: High School students Count Self-reporting Crime Row 8 More than Col % Never Once Row Total Low GATP 169 11 180 93.9 6.1 42.6 41.7 61.1 High GATP 236 7 243 97.1 2.9 57.4 58.3 38.9 Column Total 405 18 423 95.7 4.3 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F: Phi Rs C.C. 2.6486 1 .1036 7.660 : .0791 -.0791 Table 7-4 shows that the results of university students was the s ame as that of high school students (Phi=.0310, p=.5325). Of 185 low GATP, 95.7% belongs to the never responses, and 4.3% to the more than once. Table 7-4. Cross-Tabulation of General Attitudes Toward the Police by Self-reporting Crime: University students Count Self-reporting Crime Row % More than Col % Never Once Row Total Low GATP 177 8 185 95.7 4.3 45.5 45.2 53.3 High GATP 215 7 222 96.8 3.2 54.5 54.8 46.7 Column Total 392 15 407 96.3 3.7 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F: Phi Rs C.C. 0.3899 1 .5323 6.818 : .0310 -.0310 178 7. Test of Hypothesis 7 Hypothesis There is a relationship between the extent of the actual plan of individuals to enter a police career (9.69) and certain identifiable characteristics of those individuals (demographic variables, other person’s reaction to the career plans). BQEELEQ The results of testing hypothesis 7 are following; For high school students, the extent of the actual plan of individuals to enter police career was found to not be significantly different with all demographic variables. However, high school student's career plans had significant relations with the perception of parents’ reaction and girl friend's reaction to career plans concerning police work. This seems that students who perceive their parents and girl friend’s reaction to be expressed interest in police work more negatively tend to exhibit less interest in police work as a career. For university students, the extent of‘thelactual plan of individuals to enter police career was found to be significantly different only in regards to the father's occupation among all demographic variables. University student's career plans a had significant relationship with perceptions of such person's reactions as a best friend's, other friend's, parents’, favorite teacher’s, and girl friend's reactions to career plans concerning police work. Those related person’s opinions were very important factors in making the decision of being a police officers as a career. Students' Career Plans Regarding Police Work Question 69 on the questionnaire asked: Which of the following best describes your career plans at this time concerning police work? The possible responses and their corresponding frequencies are listed below: Korean students tend to look less favorably on entering police work as a 179 career. The percentage of high school and university students was 67.9%, 88.2% respectively. High school students tend to 'look more favorably on entering police work as a career. The percentage for high school students was 17.5% as compared to 5.5% for the university ones. High School University Total Valid Valid Valid Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent 9.69. Which of the following best describes your career plans at this time concerning police work? I definitely plan to become a policeman 11 2.4 3 0.7 14 1.6 I might someday consider a possible career in police work ‘ 68 15.1 20 4.8 88 10.2 I probably will never enter a police career 141 31.4 117 28.3 258 29.9 I am certain I will definitely never enter a police career 164 36.5 248 59.9 412 47.7 No idea whatsoever 65 14.5 26 6.3 91 10.5 9.70. What do we consider the most attractive aspect of a police career? Prevention of crime 186 42.3 111 27.0 ‘ 297 34.9 Authority and power 23 5.2 32 7.8 55 6.5 Chance to help others 176 40.0 219 53.3 395 46.4 Strict enforcement of law 38 8.6 40 9.7 78 9.2 Good pay and benefits 17 3.9 9 2.2 26 3.1 9.71. Which of the following would be most important in discouraging you from entering a police career? Low pay 48 10.8 51 12.5 99 11.6 Low prestige 132 29.7 114 27.9 246 28.8 Poor advancement opportunities 19 4.3 18 4.4 37 4.3 Dangerous work 159 35.8 117 28.6 276 32.4 Poor working conditions 86 19.4 109 26.7 195 22.9 180 The Results of test are listed below: Table 8-1 displays the joint distribution of career plans concerning police work (9.69) and academic grade for high academic grade was not school; in the table career plans, collapsed in order that all data could be observed. As can be seen, there was no significant difference (CC=.2157, p=.1814) . Of the 74 who answered yes, 31.1% belonged to the 70-79 grade range, 28.4% to the 60469. No matter what the grades are, the percent who answered yes is extremely lower than that of those who answered no. Table 8-1. Cross-Tabulation. of Career' Plans Concerning' Police Work by Academic Grade: High School Students Count Academic Grade Row 8 Row Col % Below 60 60-69 70-79 80-89 Over 90 Total Defini- 22 35 42 42 16 157 tely No 14.0 22.3 26.8 26.8 10.2 36.6 34.4 31.3 32.3 48.3 44.4 Probab- 19 31 51 25 11 137 ly No 13.9 22.5 37.2 18.2 8.0 31.9 29.7 27.7 39.2 28.7 30.6 Probab- 11 20 20 9 4 64 1y Yes 17.2 31.3 31.3 14.1 6.3 14.9 17.2 17.9 15.4 10.3 11.1 Defini- 2 1 3 3 1 10 tely Yes 20.0 10.0 30.0 30.0 10.0 2.3 3.1 0.9 2.3 3.4 2.8 Unsure 10 25 14 8 4 61 16.4 41.0 23.0 13.1 6.6 14.2 15.6 22.3 10.8 9.2 11.1 Column 64 112 130 87 36 429 Total 14.9 26.1 30.3 20.3 8.4 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F: C.C. Rs 0.0 20.9253 16 .1814 0.839 : .2157 -.1356 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F: Minimum‘of expected frequencies, Phi- 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. 181 Table 8—2 shows that the difference was not statistically significant (CC=.2029, p=.3529). The results of university students was the same as those of high school students. 0f the 355 who answered no, 68.7% fell into the 80-89 grade range, and 18.3% into the 70-79. No matter what the grades are, the percentage of yes answers is extremely lower than that of no answers. No matter what the grades are, the percentage of yes answers is extremely lower than that of no answers. Table 8-2. Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans Concerning Police Work by Academic Grade: University Students Count Academic Grade Row % Row Col 8 Below 60 60-69 70-79 80-89 Over 90 Total Defini- 2 3 45 164 27 241 tely No 0.8 1.2 18.7 68.0 11.2 59.7 66.7 27.3 60.0 60.3 62.8 Probab- . 5 20 80 9 114 1y No 4.4 17.5 70.2 7.9 28.2 45.5 26.7 29.4 20.9 Probab- . 1 4 14 1 20 1y Yes 5.0 20.0 70.0 5.0 5.0 9.1 5.3 5.1 2.3 Defini . . 1 1 1 3 tely No 33.3 33.3 33.3 0.7 1.3 0.4 2.3 Unsure 1 2 5 13 5 26 3.8 7.7 19.2 50.0 19.6 5.4 33.3 18.2 6.7 4.8 11.6 Column 3 11 75 272 43 404 Total 0.7 2.7 18.6 67.3 10.6 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C Rs C.C. 17.356 16 .3529 .022 : .2029 -.0468 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F8 Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. 182 Table 8-3 displays the joint distribution of career plans concerning police work (9.69) and father’s occupation for high school; in this table career plans, father’s occupation was not combined in order that all data could be observed. As can be seen, there was no significant difference (CC=.1934, p=.8762). Of the 291 who answered no, 30.2% belonged to the category of self-employed, 22% to the company-employed. No matter what the father's occupations are, the percent of yes answers is extremely lower than that of no answers. Table 8-3. Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans Concerning Police Werk by Father’s Job: High School Students Father’s Job Count Row % Government Self- Skilled Company- Unem- Unski- Row Col % Officer employed Worker employed ployed lled Other Total Defini- 14 49 12 34 5 28 16 158 tely No 8.9 31.0 7.6 21.5 3.2 17.7 10.1 37.6 35.9 36.8 40.0 39.5 50.0 35.4 37.2 Probab- 15 39 8 30 2 25 13 133 1y No 11.3 29.3 6.8 22.6 1.5 18.8 9.8 31.7 38.5 29.3 30.0 34.9 20.0 31.6 30.2 Probab- 4 23 4 10 3 9 8 61 1y Yes 6.6 37.7 6.6 16.4 4.9 14.9 13.1 14.5 Defini- . 3 1 1 . 5 . 10 tely Yes 30.0 10.0 10.0 50.0 2.4 2.3 3.3 1.2 6.3 Unsure 6 19 4 11 . 12 6 58 10.3 32.8 6.9 19.0 20.7 10.3 13.8 15.4 14.3 13.3 12.8 15.2 14.0 Column 39 133 30 86 10 79 43 420 Total 9.3 31.7 7.1 20.5 2.4 18.8 10.2 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 16.3208 24 .8762 0.238 : .1934 -.0006 D.F.= Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. 183 Table 8-4 shows that the results of university students are different from those of high school students. As can be seen, there is statistically significant difference (CC=.3206, p=.0056), but a slight relationship. Of 348 who answered no, 29% belonged to the self-employed category, 19.8% respectively to the company-employed and unskilled. Of 22 who answered yes, 40.9% fall into the company-employed. Table 8-4. Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans for Concerning Police Work by Father's Job: university Students Father's Job Count Row % Government Self- Skilled Company- Unem- Unski- Row Col % Officer employed Worker employed ployed lled Other Total Defini- 42 66 8 52 12 43 17 240 tely No 17.5 27.5 3.3 21.7 5.0 17.9 7.1 60.9 63.6 56.9 40.0 64.2 100.0 58.1 68.0 Probab- 18 35 7 17 . 26 5 108 1y No 16.7 32.4 6.5 15.7 24.1 4.6 27.4 27.3 30.2 35.0 21.0 35.1 20.0 Probab- 4 4 . 9 . 1 1 19 ly No 21.1 21.1 47.4 5.3 5.3 4.8 6.1 3.4 11.1 1.4 4.0 Defini- . 3 . . . . . 3 ly Yes 100.0 2.6 Unsure 2 8 5 3 . 4 2 24 8.3 33.3 20.8 12.5 16.7 8.3 6.1 3.0 6.9 25.0 3.7 5.4 8.0 Column 66 116 20 81 12 74 25 394 Total 16.8 29.4 5.1 20.6 3.0 18.8 6.3 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 45.139 24 .0056 .091 : .3206 -.0316 D.F.= Degree of freedom, Sig.=- Significance, Min E. F8 Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.=I 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. 184 Table 8-5 displays data similar to those shown in table 8-3 except that the father's job was dichotomized. This initiated by grouping the occupations into two occupational groups“ There was no significant. difference with. GATP (CC=.0367, p=.1762). The table shows that career plans for concerning the jpolice work ‘was also independent of the father's job grouping. Table 8-5. Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans for Concerning Police Work by Father's Job: High School Students Father's Job Count Gvnt Officer, Company-employed, Row % Self-employed, Unemployed, Unski- Row Col % Skilled Worker lled Worker, Other Total Defini- 75 83 158 tely No 47.5 52.5 37.6 37.1 38.1 Probab- 63 70 133 1y No 47.4 52.6 31.7 31.2 32.1 Probab- 31 30 61 1y Yes 50.8 . 49.2 14.5 1 15.3 13.8 Defini- 4 6 10 tely Yes 40.0 60.0 2.4 2.2 2.8 Unsure 29 29 58 50.0 50.0 13.8 14.4 13.3 Column 202 192 394 Total 48.1 51.9 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. . Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 6.3240 4 .1762 1.462 : .0372 -.0752 D.F.8 Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F8 Minimumxof expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. 185 Table 8-6 shows that the results of university students are the same as those of high school (CC=.1257, p=.1762). Table 8-6. Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans for Concerning Police Werk by Father's Job: University Students . Father's Job Count Gvnt Officer, Company-employed, Row % Self-employed, Unemployed, Unski- Row Col % Skilled Worker lled Worker, Other Total Defini- 116 124 240 tely No 48.3 51.7 60.8 57.4 64.6 Probab- 60 48 108 1y No 55.6 44.4 27.4 29.7 25.0 Probab- 8 11 19 1y Yes 42.1 57.9 4.8 4.0 5.7 Defini- 3 . 3 tely Yes 100.0 1.5 Unsure 15 9 24 62.5 37.5 6.1 7.4 4.7 Column 202 192 394 Total 51.3 48.7 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 6.3240 4 .1762 1.462 : .1257 -.0752 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 8-7 displays the joint distribution of career plans concerning police work (9.69) and family income for high school; in this table career plans, family income was not consolidated in order that all data could be observed separately. I As can be seen, there was no significant difference (CC=.1884, p=.1911). Of the 299 who answered no, 57.2% belongs to the 500,000-1,250,000 W, and 30% to the 186 1,250,000-2,500,000 W. Of 75 who answered yes, 35% belongs to the less than 500,000 W. Table 8-7. Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans for Concerning Police Work by Family Income: High School Students Count Family Income (Monthly) Row % Less Than 500,000- 1,250,000- More Than Row Col % 500.000W 1,250,000W 2,500,000W 2,500,000W Total Defini- 3 85 54 17 159 tely No 1.9 53.5 34.0 10.7 36.6 15.0 34.0 41.8 47.2 Probab- 9 86 36 9 140 1y No 6.4 61.4 25.7 6.4 32.2 45.0 34.4 27.9 25.0 Probab- 6 36 18 5 65 ly Yes 9.2 55.4 27.7 7.7 14.9 30.0 14.4 14.0 13.9 Defini- 1 5 2 2 10 tely Yes 10.0 50.0 20.0 20.0 100.0 5.0 2.0 1.6 5.6 Unsure 1 38 18 3 61 1.6 62.3 31.1 4.9 14.0 5.0 15.2 14.7 8.3 Column 20 250 129 36 435 Total 4.6 57.5 29.7 8.3 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 16.0028 12 .1911 .460 : .1884 -.0915 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimumxof expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.s 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 8-8 shows that the results of university students are the same as those of high school (CC=.1542, p=.6327). Of the 355 who answered no, 54% belongs to the 500,000- l,250,000 W, and 25.9% to the 1,250,000-2,500,000 W. Of 22 who answered yes, 55% belongs to the 500,000-1,250,000 W, and 31.8% 1,250,000-2,500,000 W. 187 Table 8-8. Cross-Tabulation of Career Plans for Concerning Police Work by Family Income: university Students Count Family Income (Monthly) Row % Less Than 500,000- 1,250,000- More Than Row Col % 500.000W 1,250,000W 2,500,000W 2,500,000W Total Defini- 19 139 58 29 245 tely No 7.8 56.7 23.7 11.8 60.8 59.4 62.6 56.3 63.0 Probab- 8 56 34 12 110 1y No 7.3 50.9 30.9 10.9 27.3 25.0 25.2 33.0 26.1 Probab- 2 11 5 1 19 1y Yes 10.5 57.9 26.3 5.3 4.7 6.3 5.0 4.9 2.2 Defini- . . 2 1 3 tely Yes 66.7 33.3 0.7 1.9 2.2 Unsure 3 16 4 3 26 11.5 61.5 15.4 11.5 6.5 9.4 7.2 3.9 6.5 Column 32 222 103 46 403 Total 7.9 55.1 25.6 11.4 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F C.C. Rs C.C. 9.8094 12 .6327 .238 .1542 .0093 D.F.B Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F- Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 8-9 through 8-18 shows a comparison of career plans regarding police work and other influentially related persons reaction to expressed interest in police work. Table 8-9 displays the joint distribution of career plans concerning police work (9.69) and best friend’s reaction to career plans concerning police work for high school; in this table career plans, reaction responses were not combined in order that all data could be observed separately._ As can be 188 seen, there was no significant difference (CC=.1876, p=.1824) . Of 303 who answered no, 42.6% students thought that their best friend's reactions would disagree. Of 78 who answered yes, 70.5% students expected their best friend’s reaction to agree. Table 8-9. Cross-Tabulation of Best Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students Count Best Friend's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 21 52 67 22 162 tely No 13.0 32.1 41.4 13.6 36.5 52.5 37.1 32.2 39.3 Probab- 12 44 68 17 141 1y No 8.5 31.2 48.2 12.1 31.8 30.0 31.4 32.7 30.4 Probab- 4 14 38 11 67 ly Yes 6.0 20.9 56.7 16.4 15.1 10.0 10.0 18.3 19.6 Defini- . 5 4 2 11 tely Yes 45.5 36.4 18.2 2.5 3.6 1.8 3.6 Unsure 3 25 31 4 63 4.8 39.7 49.2 6.3 14.2 7.5 17.9 14.9 7.1 Column 40 140 208 56 444 Total 9.0 31.5 46.8 12.6 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F: C.C. Rs C.C. 16.1973 12 .1824 .991 : .1876 .0544 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F: Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 8-10 shows that the results of university students were different from those of high school. There was a statistically significant difference (CC=.3248, p=.0000). Of 361 who answered no, 74% students thought that their best 189 friend’s reactions would disagree. 0f 23 who answered yes, 47.8% students expected their best friend’s reaction to agree. This means that students who perceive their best friend’s reaction to expressed interest in police work more negatively tend to exhibit less interest in police work as a career. Table 8-10. Cross-Tabulation of Best Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students Count Best Friend's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly . Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 76 127 40 4 247 tely No 30.8 51.4 16.2 1.6 60.4 76.8 66.1 38.8 26.7 Probab- 18 46 43 7 114 ly No 15.8 40.4 37.7 6.1 27.9 18.2 24.0 41.7 46.7 Probab- 2 9 8 1 20 1y Yes 10.0 45.0 40.0 5.0 4.9 2.0 4.7 7.8 6.7 Defini- . 1 l 1 3 tely Yes 33.3 33.3 33.3 0.7 0.5 1.0 6.7 Unsure 3 9 11 2 25 12.0 36.0 44.0 8.0 6.1 3.0 4.7 10.7 13.3 Column 99 192 103 15 409 Total 24.2 46.9 25.2 3.7 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F: C.C. Rs C.C. 48.2225 12 .0000 .110 : .3248 .3069 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. As can be seen in Table 8-11, there was no significant difference (CC=.1333, p=.7826). Of 302 who answered no, 38.7% students thought that their other friend's reactions would 190 disagree. Of 78 who answered yes, 73% students expected their other friend's reaction to agree. Table 8-11. Cross-Tabulation of Other Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Werk as perceived by the Students: High School Students Count Other Friend's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 9 55 88 9 161 tely No 5.6 34.2 54.7 5.6 36.3 40.9 39.9 34.0 36.0 Probab- 8 45 79 9 141 1y No 5.7 31.9 56.0 6.4 31.8 36.4 32.6 30.5 36.0 Probab- 2 14 48 3 67 1y Yes 3.0 20.9 71.6 4.5 15.1 9.1 10.1 18.5 12.0 Defini- 1 4 5 1 11 tely Yes 9.1 36.4 45.5 9.1 2.5 . 4.5 2.9 1.9 4.0 Unsure 2 20 39 3 64 3.1 31.3 60.9 4.7 14.4 9.1 14.5 15.1 12.0 Column 22 138 259 25 444 Total 5.0 31.1 58.3 5.6 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : c.c. Rs c.c. 8.0320 12 .7826 .545 : .1333 .0610 The results of university students were different from those of high school. There was a statistically significant difference (CC=.3365, p=.0000) . Of 360 who answered no, 63.9% students thought that their other friend’s reactions would disagree. Of 23 who answered yes, 52.1% students expected their best friend’ s reaction to agree. This seems that student who perceive their other~ friend’s reaction to expressed interest in police work more negatively tend to 191 exhibit less interest in police work as a career. Table 8-12. Cross-Tabulation of Other Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students Count Other Friend's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 31 143 70 2 240 tely No 12.6 58.1 28.5 0.8 60.3 75.6 68.8 45.8 33.3 Probab- 8 48 55 3 114 ly No 7.0 42.1 48.2 2.6 27.9 19.5 23.1 35.8 50.0 Probab- . 10 10 . 20 ly Yes 50.0 50.0 4.9 4.8 6.5 Defini- . 1 1 1 3 tely Yes 33.3 33.3 33.3 0.7 0.5 0.7 16.7 Unsure 2 6 17 . 25 8.0 24.0 68.0 6.1 4.9 2.9 11.1 Column 41 208 153 6 408 Total 10.0 51.0 37.5 1.5 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min H.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 52.1045 12 .0000 .044 : .3365 .2533 D.F.8 Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F8 Minimumiof expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 8-13 displays the joint distribution of career plans concerning police work (9.69) and parent's reaction to career plans concerning police work for high school. As can be seen, there was a significant difference (CC=.2314, p=.0143). Of 302 who answered no, 68.9% students thought that their other friend’ s reactions would disagree. Of 78 who answered yes, 56.4% students expected their best friend's 192 reaction to agree. This seems that students who perceived their parent's reaction to be expressed interest in police work. more negatively tend to exhibit less interest in police work as a career. Table 8-13. Cross-Tabulation of Parents' Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students Count Parents' Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 58 54 37 12 161 tely No 36.0 33.5 23.0 7.5 36.3 45.0 35.5 30.3 29.3 Probab- 39 57 34 12 141 1y No 27.7 40.4 27.9 26.8 31.8 30.2 37.5 27.9 26.8 Probab- 14 17 25 11 67 ly Yes 20.9 25.4 37.3 16.4 15.1 10.9 11.2 20.5 25.8 Defini- 1 2 5 ' 3 11 tely Yes 9.1 18.2 45.4 27.3 2.5 0.8 1.3 4.1 7.3 Unsure 17 22 21 4 64 26.6 34.4 32.8 6.3 14.4 13.2 14.5 17.2 9.8 Column 129 152 122 41 444 Total 29.1 34.2 27.5 9.2 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 25.1189 12 .0143 1.016 : .2314 .1440 Table 8-14 shows that the results of university students are the same as those of high school (CC=.2913, p=.0000). Of 360 who answered .no, 78.1% students thought that their parent's reactions would disagree. Of 23 who answered yes, 26.1% students expected their best friend's reaction to agree. 193 Table 8-14. Cross-Tabulation of Parents’ Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students Count Parents' Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 124 87 30 5 246 tely No 50.4 35.4 12.2 2.0 60.3 72.5 56.5 41.7 45.5 Probab- 34 46 30 4 114 1y No 29.8 40.4 26.3 3.5 27.9 19.9 29.9 41.7 36.4 Probab- 7 8 4 1 20 ly Yes 35.0 40.0 20.0 5.0 4.9 4.1 5.2 5.6 9.1 Defini- . 2 . 1 3 tely Yes 66.7 33.3 0.7 1.3 9.1 Unsure 6 11 8 . 25 24.0 44.0 32.0 6.1 3.5 7.1 11.1 Column 171 154 72 11 408 Total 41.9 37.7 17.6 2.7 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 37.8352 12 .0000 .081 : .2913 .2332 D.F.B Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. As can be seen in table 8-15, there was no significant difference (CC=.1554, p=.5444). Of 296 who answered no, 34.8% students thought that.their favorite teacher's reactionswwould 76.6% students expected disagree. Of 77 who answered yes, their favorite teacher’s reaction to agree. 194 Cross-Tabulation of Favorite Teacher's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students Table 8-15. Count Favorite Teacher's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 15 43 77 21 156 tely No 9.6 27.6 49.4 13.5 35.7 53.6 38.1 31.4 41.2 Probab- 7 38 80 15 140 1y No 5.0 27.1 57.1 10.7 32.0 25.0 33.6 32.7 29.4 Probab- 2 12 45 7 66 1y Yes 3.0 18.2 68.2 10.6 15.1 7.1 10.6 18.4 13.7 Defini- . 4 6 1 11 tely Yes 36.4 54.5 9.1 2.5 3.5 .4 2.0 Unsure 4 16 37 7 64 6.3 25.0 57.6 10.9 14.6 14.3 14.2 15.1 13.7 Column 28 113 245 51 437 Total 6.4 25.9 56.1 11.7 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 10.8199 12 .5444 .705 : .1554 .0559 Table 8-16 shows that the results of university students was different from those of high school. There was a significant difference (CC=.3246, p=.0000). Of 359 who answered .no, 71.3% students thought that. their favorite teacher's reactions would disagree. Of 23 who answered yes, 60.8% students expected their favorite teacher’s reaction to be agreed. Table 8-16 shows that university student who perceive their favorite teacher’s reaction to expressed interest in police work more negatively tend to exhibit less interest in police work as a career. 195 Table 8-16. Cross-Tabulation of Favorite Teacher's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students - Count Favorite Teacher's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 64 121 57 3 245 tely No 26.1 49.4 23.3 1.2 60.2 79.0 62.4 46.3 33.3 Probab- 14 57 39 4 114 1y No 12.3 50.0 34.2 3.5 28.0 17.3 29.4 31.7 44.4 Probab- . 8 12 . 20 ly Yes 40.0 60.0 4.9 4.1 9.8 Defini- . 1 1 1 3 tely Yes 33.3 33.3 33.3 0.7 0.5 0.8 11.1 Unsure 3 7 14 1 25 12.0 28.0 56.0 4.0 6.1 3.7 3.6 11.4 11.1 Column 81 194 123 9 407 Total 19.9 47.7 30.2 2.2 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 47.9290 12 .0000 .066 : .3246 .2659 Table 8-17 displays the joint distribution of career plans concerning police work (9.69) and girl friend's reaction to career plans concerning police work for high school. As can be seen, there was a significant difference (CC=.2257, p=.0284). Of 291 who answered no, 72.2% students thought that their girl friend's reactions would disagree. Of 77 who answered yes, 42.9% students expected their girl friend's reaction to agree. This means that students who perceived their girl friend's reaction to expressed interest in police work more negatively tend to exhibit less interest in police work as a career. 196 Table 8-17. Cross-Tabulation of Girl Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: High School Students Count Girl Friend's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 63 58 26 9 156 tely No 40.4 37.2 16.7 5.8 36.5 43.4 38.2 26.3 29.0 Probab~ 49 40 39 7 135 1y No 36.3 29.6 28.9 5.2 31.6 33.8 26.3 39.4 22.6 Probab- 13 24 22 7 66 1y Yes 19.7 36.4 33.3 10.6 15.5 9.0 15.8 22.2 22.6 Defini- 3 4 2 2 11 tely No 27.3 36.4 18.2 18.2 2.6 2.1 2.6 2.0 6.5 Unsure 17 26 10 6 59 28.8 44.1 16.9 10.2 13.8 11.7 17.1 10.1 10.2 Column 145 152 99 31 427 Total 34.0 35.6 23.2 7.3 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 22.9188 12 .0284 .799 : .2257 .1403 D.F.8 Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min H. F3 Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. Table 8-18 shows that the results of university student are the same as those if high school (CC=.3483, p=.0000). Of 355 who answered no, 86.5% students thought that their girl friend's reactions would disagree. Of 23 who answered yes, 21.7% students expected their girl friend's reaction to be agreed. This means that student who perceive their girl friend’s reaction to expressed interest in police work more negatively tend to exhibit less interest in police work as a career . 197 Table 8-18. Cross-Tabulation of Girl Friend's Reaction to Career Plans Concerning Police Work as perceived by the Students: University Students Count Girl Friend's Reaction to Career Row % Strongly Strongly Row Col % Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Total Defini- 111 108 20 3 242 tely No 45.9 44.6 8.3 1.2 60.3 73.5 57.8 37.0 33.3 Probab- 27 61 20 5 113 ly No 23.9 54.0 17.7 4.4 28.2 17.9 32.6 37.0 55.6 Probab- 5 11 4 . 20 ly Yes 25.0 55.0 20.0 5.0 3.3 5.9 7.4 Defini- 1 1 . 1 3 tely No 33.3 33.3 33.3 0.7 0.7 0.5 11.1 Unsure 7 6 10 . 23 30.4 26.1 43.5 5.7 4.6 3.2 18.5 Column 151 187 54 9 401 Total 37.7 46.6 13.5 2.2 100.0 Chi-Square D.F. Sig. Min E.F : C.C. Rs C.C. 55.3692 12 .0000 .067 : .3483 .2489 D.F.: Degree of freedom, Sig.= Significance, Min E. F= Minimum of expected frequencies, Phi= 2 by 2 table contingency coefficient, C.C.= 3 by 3 table contingency coefficient, Rs C.C.= Spearman correlation. D. Comparative Analysis Although such researchers as Friday (1973), and Clifford (1976) have«discussed.the necessity of expanding the scope and inclusiveness of theoretical models, most current criminological studies are limited in that they pertain to only criminal behavior of a particular population in particular culture. 198 Traditionally, cross-cultural methods have been used to determine the generosity and applicability of theories originally developed for use in a particular culture (Clinard and Abbott, 1973). Since this sections of the present study is meant to test the cross-cultural generosity of police- community interactions, it employs an evaluative approach to cross-cultural testing. It is interesting to compare police-community interactions in Korea with foreign countries' police-community interactions that have already been studied by the researchers, because a cross-cultural comparative analysis has never been done in Korea. Lee (1991) researched the factors affecting the police-community interactions in three countries, such as the United States, Japan, and China.‘5 The present study will try to compare Korea.with the United States and Japan on police-community interactions by adopting questionnaires which were used in previous studies. While crime and delinquency rates in the United States and Europe have been soaring, crime rates in Japan seem to have stabilized or declined during the last forty years. The stabilization or decline of crime in Japan occurred in the 6Lee's study (1991) was done mainly through mailed questionnaire surveys and partially interviews conducted from August through December, 1990. The sample consisted of American, Japanese and Chinese nationals residing temporarily, in.a:midwestern university town in the United States. .All the respondents were in the progress of college education or graduate education. The sample size of the three groups was made of 121 Americans, 119 Japanese, and 91 Chinese. 199 midst of a rapid industrial growth and urbanization-events that are usually associated with increase in rates of crime and delinquency (Martin and Conger, 1986). The social structure in Korea has been changing towards advanced industrialization under the influence of intensive economic growth achieved in the past two decades. In addition to that, adult and juvenile offenses have subsequently been increasing due to the change of the traditional family structure and hectic pace of society. The numbers of all criminals have on the average been increasing by 6.0% every year for last ten years (1980-1989). This rate far exceeded that of a yearly population growth of 1.5%. We can readily see that the number of criminals has been increasing despite the overall improvement of living conditions considering the rate of economic growth of 7.2%.7 The juvenile delinquency has substantially increased.by 2.5% every year on the average, though the total rate of juvenile delinquents among all criminals has not increased that much, but the quality of juvenile crime is gradually aggravated. Newspaper articles about vicious crimes committed by juveniles, especially crimes relating to home destruction, for example, rape of a woman in the presence of the victim's family in order to prevent them from informing investigative authorities after being burglarized, are deep social concerns nowadays. 7Korean National Police Headquarters. Annual Crime Spgpistics. Seoul, Korea, 1990. 200 Such aggravated crimes as robbery, rape and murder and etc. have been increasing rapidly, but no big changes have been observed in crimes against property. Aggravated crimes in the year 1989 increased by 5% (502 persons) compared with the preceding year.8 I think that the recent increase of vicious juvenile crimes is a manifestation of the destructive propensity of people who have failed to adapt themselves to the sudden changes in social values that were brought about with rapid industrialization. As seen in table 9-1, the American group may be said to have more cooperative attitudes toward the police as a collaborator (2.66) , and more willing to contact with the police when victimized (2.54) than the Japanese and Korean groups. When factors associate with the student’s cooperative attitudes were examined for the American groups, Lee (1991) indicated that crime-related, police-related, and ideological- related elements were represented as factors with the student's cooperative attitudes (p. 160). This may seem that those who perceive crime seriously and have seen the police frequently tend to have cooperative attitudes toward the police. The Korean group has the lowest mean in the two dependent variables (2.37 and 2.02) among the three countries (for the reasons; see Chapter 2, The analysis of Korean police). sIbid. 201 Table 9-1. Comparisons of Mean Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and KOREA: Dependent Variables USA JAPAN KOREA Cooperation of the Public Toward the Police as a 2.66 2.47 2.37 Witness and a Collaborator Willingness of the Public to Contact with the Police 2.54 2.51 2.02 as a Victim and a Person in Need Range (1-4) The unique feature for the Japanese group lies in co- existence of the police with the citizens in the network of informal social control mechanisms (Lee, 1991:161). Table 10- 2 shows that the Japanese student's mean and frequencies of community-related factors -- having a greater sense of belonging toward the neighborhood (2.86), awareness of neighborhood police posts and crime prevention association (48%), and.knowing police working in the neighborhood (74%) -- are the highest among the three countries. These community-related factors are major reasons for the Japanese group's willingness to contact the police regardless of the situations they face as a witness, as a victim, or in an emergency; The Japanese police may act as members of their community rather than as law enforcers. Therefore, the average Japanese student would have greater opportunity to know police officers than the American students, whose contact 202 is limited to stressful circumstances like receiving a traffic ticket or in situations of victimizations (p. 162). Interestingly, the Korean group has a high degree of feeling safer due to the existence of crime prevention associations (67.7%) , while the degree of knowing of crime prevention association (10.5%) is comparatively low. This may seem that if the police will try to make it known and to build it more in the neighborhood, the students may feel safer. Table 9-2. Comparisons of Means Score of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and KOREA: Community-related Factors USA JAPAN KOREA Community Cohesion 2.65 9 2.86 2.22 Awareness of Neighborhood 9611c. Posts Yes 37/121(30) w 91/119(76) 519/845(61.4) Feeling Safer Due to the Existence Yes 22/121(18) 51/119(74) 236/424(55.7) of Neighborhood Police Posts Knowing the Police Officer in the Yes 33/121(27) 88/119(74) 59/560(10.5) Neighborhood Awareness of the Neighborhood Crime Yes 44/121 (36) 57/119(48) 87/809(10.8) Prevention Associations Feeling Safer Due to the Existence of the Neighborhood Yes 26/121 (21) 36/119(31) 127/189(67.7) Crime Prevention Associations Range (1-4) 9Mean score of major variables ”Response Num. / Response population Num. (Percentage) 203 Table 9-3 shows that.the mean scores of political factors of the Korean group (1.79 and 1.90) was found to be the lowest among the three countries. Particularly political factors -- trust in government and political efficiency -- were found to be significantly related.with the Korean university student’s willingness to contact with the police (see the result of hypothesis 2). This result may reflect a strong political impact in Korean police policing. Police may be regarded to be tools of the much feared political system in the midst of political turmoil (see Chapter II, F. The Analyses of Korean police). This political impact makes existing police organizations less effective in raising the public cooperative attitudes toward the police. Table 9-3. Comparisons of Mean Scores of Major Variables among the USA, JAPAN, and KOREA: Political Factors USA JAPAN KOREA Trust in Government 2.47 2.61 1.79 Political Efficiency 2.72 2.57 1.90 Range (1-4) In the Table 9-4, if the level of fear of crime (1.78) or perception of the seriousness of the crime (2.63) can be seen as indicators of successful policing, then policing in Japan appears to be more successful than in the United States and Korea. For the Japanese group, Lee indicated that crime- 204 related problems such as fear of crime are not serious concerns in their daily life (p. 161). 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I:- II II 01: A: .3. zIavIzI In": 42% 4 “£in -3-II2I Mcueq cm I=IAI LII: Max. 7M; 2.an daitf-I IIanI ImoI 7I-‘1-II7III 7|!2'IIIIII4. {IAWIIICI- fi APPENDIX C COMMUNITY-ORIENTED POLICING PROGRAMS 259 Community-Oriented Policing Programs 1. Community/Police liaison (Winston-Salem, NOrth Carolina)l Goals: To provide a 24-hour a day liaison between police and community to prevent crime. To change the image of police, so they would be viewed as people who can help those in trouble nd as people who can be trusted. Strategies: The Concept involved setting up a single sector of the police department, Community Service Unit, to investigate parental neglect, attack the causes and conditions that lead to crime and delinquency, find truant.kids, and work in the recreational facilities kids use. 2. "I would like to help you" Approach (Wauwatosa, Wisconsin)2 Goals: Crime prevention and citizen education Strategies: The Police/Community Relations program used a slide program for community education. A special program was initiated to teach retailers how to spot shoplifters. They also provided a speaker's bureau and provided crime prevention information and materials they developed for use in other communities. 3. One crime-Free Day (Memphis, Tennessee)3 Goals: To involve citizens in the control of crime, by showing the benefit of concerted action. Strategies: A group of realtors funded the program to enicourage companies and civic-minded individuals to work with the police to stamp out all crime for one day. The Tactics employed were bumper stickers and pamphlets announcing the upcoming crime-free day, reinforced by publicity in local 1"ANewApproach to Crime Prevention." The Poliee Chief. April, 1967, pp. 33-41. . 2"A Plan of Action in Police-Community Relations." The Bolece Chief, September, 1967, pp. 50-51. 3"One Crime-Free Day." 0 ' e 'e . May. 1972, p. 220 ' 260 media. The publicity blitz culminated in a march. Statistics for the day were gathered, as well as for the day after, showing a decrease in certain kinds of crimes. 4. Community Sector Team Policing-Personalized Patrol (Cincinnati, Ohio)‘ Goals: To improve effectiveness by strengthening the relationships between individual officials and the public, one—on-one and in groups. Strategies: Community Sector Team Policing began as an experimental program, later expanded by a grant from the Police Foundation. A team was headed by a lieutenant and three sergeants on a 24-hour-a-day basis, with an average of 32 other members involved. Teams were assigned according to neighborhood need, with mandatory specific training designed to promote citizen-police contact. 5. Police Social Workers Act as Community Brokers (Multnomah County Sheriff's Department, 0regon)‘ Goals: To promoting counseling services through the police after regular business hours without overburdening police. Strategies: The department recruited three students of social work from Portland State University and assigned one student and one volunteer uniformed officer each night to act as a counselling team. The team was dispatched on calls that seemed appropriate: family fights, attempted suicides, neighborhood disputes, etc. Initial success allowed the program to expand, adding a psychiatric social worker. He ,patrolled.at night and followed.upIon contacts during the day. However, this stretched the service too thin, so the program was transferred and limited to one unit dealing only with juveniles. ' "'Effective Personalized Patrol." We; November, 1972, pp. 18-19, 66. 5"Police Social Worker-A Community Blocker." Ihe_Belige . June, 1974, pp. 28-32. 261 6. Neighborhood Police Teams in the Big City. (New York City, New York)6 Goals: To provide neighborhood team policing services to various neighborhoods in New York City to improve police- community relations. Strategies: Seventy teams operated out of various precincts in the initial experiment, with each team headed by a sergeant in command who was responsible for conditions in his team area. High priority was given to visiting civic, religious, and social groups to explain the program to the community. 7. Team Policing of a Melting Pot/ Transient Student Area (New Brunswick, New Jersey)7 Goals: To affix responsibility for a small area, furnish a visible presence, combine foot and motor patrol, combine patrol and investigative duties, overcome police boredom, and bring police closer to the community. Strategies: The team (one captain, two sergeants, four officers, and a secretary) was in charge of a l4-block area, ethnically mixed and populated with students from Rutgers. All team members wore uniforms, with one officer on foot and the rest motorized. Patrols made a special effort to visit businesses. Program resulted in an increase in reported crime, a drop in index crime figures, and also attendance at nighttime activities increased during the initial six months of the programs. 8. Volunteers Aid Police (Maricopa County, Phoenix, Arizona)8 Goals: To involve interested, qualified citizens volunteers in the some of the crucial functions of law enforcement. Strategies: Recruited volunteers who file applications 6"Response to the Community: A Neighborhood Police Team Profile." The Poiice Chief. March, 1975, pp. 32, 74-77. 7"The Neighborhood Task Force in New Brunswick, NJ." .3: Police Chief. June, 1975, pp. 48-49. 8"Maricopa County Sheriff’s Dept. Volunteer Program." 3! geii9e_ghie1. February, 1976, pp. 34-36. 262 and have a background check done. Volunteer must be able to do the work he volunteers for, have no felony convictions, and be of good moral character. About 3,000 have volunteered, to assist in crime watches, posses, public speaking, writing, building and carpentry, organizing, phone answering, prisoner transportation, staffing switchboards, assisting in records and identification bureau, and serving as chaplains. 'Praining in a wide number of areas is made available by the Sheriff’s Department. 9. Project Neighborhood Watch (Scarsdale, New York)9 Goals: To increase public awareness and vigilance in fight. against. crime (specifically' residence: and. business burglaries and robberies) Strategies: Initially directed toward retail business. Police department selected and recruited community groups, then produced a presentation and film, literature, and a newspaper ad (Ten Point Burglary Prevention Measures). Information was disseminated through meetings. Also approached post office and local cab company so that 50 mail vehicles and 15 private cabs became part of the effort. All vehicles bore a special logo, and a later local CB group joined this effort. Operation Identifax encouraged citizens to mark valuables with a number stored on file with police. A tactical Squad of police officers volunteered to patrol in plain clothes and in unmarked vehicles. 10. "Territorial Imperative" Motivates Community (Los Angeles, California)10 Goals: To make citizens feel responsible for their "turf" in effort to deter crime. Strategies: Police Department used the Basic Car Plan to foster this feeling of geographic responsibility, stabilizing uniform patrol officer assignments in 83 different a Basic Car districts throughout the city. The neighborhood Watch Program evolved out of Basic Car Plan, to take crime prevention into the home,combining the efforts of police, media and neighborhood groups. Later, police changed to a line decentralization philosophy, instituting team policing, with 65 9"Project Neighborhood Watch." The Belice th fi- March, 1978, pp. 28-29. 10"Community Mobilizations-A Strategy For Crime Prevention." The Pelice ghief. March, 1978, pp. 30-32. 263 tams, consisting of uniform and investigative personnel headed by a lieutenant. Other programs initiated and included Police-Community Councils, Police-Clergy Councils, Deputy Auxiliary Police, Explorer Program, Law Enforcement Officials Groups,and Reserve Police. 11. Mobile Eye Patrol (Morton Grove, Illinois)’1 Goals: To involve citizens in crime prevention Strategies: Volunteers received eight hours of training through lectures, movies, and a test. ID and rules were issued, then they were made members of Mobile Eye Patrol. Patrol is essentially an individual patrol, where volunteers are on the lookout for suspicious incidents. Volunteers complete activity sheets and notify police, if necessary,through CB channel 9 to a volunteer base station that relays information to the department. All activity sheets and logs kept by the base are turned into the police department. A weekly bulletin tells members the location of special watches. Patterns are predetermined by the Crime Prevention Bureau, based on area crime rates. For instance, the bureau would target extra patrols around schools at Halloween. The Mobile Eye Patrol also issues Crime Opportunity Warning Tickets, to notify residents of specific problem, such as open garage doors. 12. Civilian Crime Prevention Unit (Scott County, Minnesota)'2 Goals: To form a citizen crime prevention unit Strategies: Six police chiefs from six communities in the county formed the Scott County Law Enforcement Council to administer the civilian crime prevention unit, through a state grant. All crime prevention unit officers were initially outfitted in grey slacks and blue blazers and drove specially marked cars to promote visibility. Duties included visiting businesses and promoting operation ID. Also gave presentations on shoplifting, controlling vandalism, preventing check and credit cards fraud, preventing burglaries, controlling employee theft, and reducing personal assaults such as rape. The program extended into schools. ""The Morton Grove 'Mobile Eye Patrol'." T ice Thief. March, 1978, pp. 36-37. ”"A Progressive Approach to Crime Prevention." The Poliee Thief. March, 1978, pp. 40-41. 264 13. Operation Crime Alert (Stafford Township, Manahawkin County, New Jersey)13 Goals: To broaden the efforts of the police-staffed Crime Prevention Unit, the police department established Operation Crime Alert to combine efforts by the police and public. Strategies: The first step asked concerned citizens to complete an application form and pledge assistance in crime prevention. Each who responded received an ID card, with the identifying number they could use to report a crime, suspicious activity, or complaint. Citizens could remain anonymous, to avoid fear of retaliation, with the goal of increasing crime reporting. Medical information could be recorded on the back of the card, targeted to aid senior citizens. An evaluation showed crime reporting increased and citizen-police relations improved. 14. Stop and Talk Program (Coral Gables, Florida)14 Goals: Because 0 the geographic area to be covered, foot patrol was not feasible, so the police chief instituted a "stop and talk" program to encourage police-citizen communication. Strategies: Each officer is required to spend ten minutes of each hour on patrol talking with residents, businessmen, and students, concerning their views on the city’s crime problems. 15. Police-community Comprehensive Crime Prevention Program (Evanston, Illinois)” Goals: To provide a table partnership between citizens and police to reduce frequency of target crimes, reduce fear of crime, and enhance public safety. Strategies: For residents,the police conducted security surveys, operation identification, and provided a residential crime prevention information packet featuring 911 information. Collective strategies included a neighborhood watch, citizen 1979, 13"Operation Crime Alert." '1‘ e ' e C - March, pp. 47-48. l‘IIStop and Talk." The Eeiiee thef. March, 1981, p. 10. 15"Community Crime Prevention: Fulfilling Its Promise." The Boliee Chief. February, 1983, pp. 29-31. 265 senior program, newsletter ALERT, and a resident crime prevention committee. For business, a directed retail foot patrol program provided regular beat officers. Beats were determined through crime analysis. Officers provided security surveys and distributed crime prevention packets. Police also provided crime prevention lessons for Evanston schools. APPENDIX D LIST OF FIGURES 266 Figure 1 Korean National Police Organization; the 4th Republic, 1970: National Police Headquarters and Bureaus | President I ' J—Epunter 1.1.111": ‘] . Agency I Minister of Home Affairs] (161A) V1“ Minister Marine Police Force [—Firectorfcenerm Police College L‘ Net. Police Investigation LAB I Police Hospital Police Administration FPublic Safety If lnvaatigatioa #:] Planning 8 Inspection Traffic I Intelligence 1 I 11*] ' Personnel 5 Education Security L foreign Affairs J Equipment I Comication Operation ' HuntUn [Police Bureau Directogl Security Guam! ' (Praeident. Capital. etc.) Combat Police I PdflcelUDChennmmu #- L , , I , Deputy Director 1 lruey Director 2 (onlv Seoul) . (onlLSeoul) f l Police Station (PROVINCIAL & CITIES) L Police Administration Public Safety Security Investigation Intelligence untereanionage In telligence -" —— [Co . 1 Sub! tation or Police Box Direct Authority Source: Publication from National Police Headquarters, Seoul, Korea (1978) 267 Pi e 2 . Korean 1::tional Police Organisation; the 6th Republic, 1’3.- National Police Headquarters and Bureau: Source: Publication from National Police Headquarters (1988) : Direct Authority 2b8 Figure 3 Korean National Police Organization; the 6th Republic, 1991: National Police Administration and Bureaus National Police Commission Commisswner General Public Information Deputy Commissioner General Chief ol Planniflo & flies Inspection Counsellor] Management Bureau I Communication 5 Management ‘ I Counsellor V l l L ‘ Police Administration| Crime Prevention lamina Affairs Traffic Security lntellige -: Public Security Bureau ‘ , Bureau Bureau Burea Bureau Bureau Bureau L i l E Administration Crime Prevention i Accounting Planning tl intelligence : 1stlnvesti on T mom . l Personnel Crime Prevention 2 d l ga . ra annlng Counsellor i Ed ti & Guidance n nvestlgatlon Traffic Safety Intelligence 1 1 “2:"? Detective Traffic Management Intelligence 2 i V‘°'°"°° 9"“ intelligence 3 1 Equipment . , 1 lnterogation Secunty Intelligence 4 I identification Specml Security 1 Tactical Operations '. ‘ National Maritime Police Administration Aviation A National Police College Combat Police Management — ‘ Police Consolidated Training School 1 r—‘——[:-‘] rfCentral Police Academy 5 Public Secunty Forelgn Affairs L-—-’—-——‘—‘ Counsellor I Counsellor National Police Hospital Public Security 1 Foreign allairs 1 Public Security 2 Foreign Affairs 2 Public Security 3 Public Security 4 Public Security 5 r 1 Regional Police Administarion l _ Police station Police Substation & Box I Source: Publication from National Police Adminisdtration. Seoul. Korea (1991) : Direct Authority 269 Figure 4 . Korean National Police Organization; the 6th Republic, 1991: Seoul Police Administration and Bureaus Security Administration —-"" 05'9“” LGO'WI' J ‘ Council L DeeputyOlrector General 4 Public Information Olficer ’1 [Police Administration {Crime Prevention Criminal Altair: Tralflc Security lntelligencd Public Security rlLDepart ’3! Depart Depart Depart Depart Depart | Depart I l l l L Communication Pm.” ““9“” 0"“ Traffic Safety Intelligence 1 Personnel Crime Prevention ‘ intelligence 2 . Guidance $32.93;” a. WW ‘ W550" Public Security 1 Security 2 Division Public Security 2 Foreign Atlairs -..-c —‘-_;c _— —-t7)1 st Security Group i l ~33)th Police Group } " -1 22nd Special Security Group j I ‘F National Assembly Security Group 1 _J f Capital Building Security GroupJ Pom cm, --{—Airport Security Group J L—i Mobile Task Forces GroupJ r .. F L 3 Police Administration Crime Prevention i ;Criminal AllairsiITrallic Security intelligench Public security? f Division i}? Division 2 ? Division 3 Division Divisio Division E: Division ! a i r 4' l #1 'L ’1 J 1 Police Substation 8: Box Source: Publication from National Police Adminisdtration. Seoul. Korea (1991) : Direct Authority 270 Figure 5 Police Activities for the Police-Community Alliance . . . . . . Servrce Acuvmcs for Citizens The police adminisrrativc service for citizens is performed as follows: the Room for Citizens deals with difficult and unfair civic problems in a warm. affectionate manner and the Service and Information Center is responsible for citi- zens' lcgal grievances and adminisrrativc peti- tions in compliance with the “Management Regulations of Citizens' Petitions." The Service and Information Center has operated by inte- grating thc Room for Citizens since November. 1988. for the purpose of manpower-efficiency management. The Service and Information Centers are operated at the 277 places of National Policy Headquarters. metropolitan police. municipal and provincial police bureau. police stations. maritime police headquarters and the detach- ments throughout the nation. Those police officers who give guidance to citizens in the Service and Information Center are chosen from the elite police officers who specialize in ' rcspccdvc police professionalism and cxpcmsc. The police have handled 2.561.786 civic cases of solicitation. petition. and accusation and have solved 50.332 (95%) of the total 52.982 casts rccicvcd for arranging employment. find- ing separated family-members. giving legal ad- vicc etc. In 1984. the 182 Police Report center was established to deal promptly with citizens' complaints. ranging from missing persons and cars to personal belongings. h, l =... {61‘ Policeman on field duty 27i Service Policeman helping elderly woman 272 A police officer introducing police activities to elementary school children as a teacher for a day The National Police College holds an annual convention for national defense training exerCise during summer vacation A policeman properly guiding a juvenile with kind words at a park 273 Figure 6 The Graduation and Ceremony of National Police College (4 y..,) \ i: : . k ‘ '. . '.r ‘ .. ‘ "‘g f a: . . ' " , , ‘ wrvw»c.-m~.M-~.u\- {imuw ‘. ~ _-_ «I-~'um~w,.t_. .nI-Aum ’ ' I e. l‘ . T war-"e. ';e‘\.i-‘.‘ l The fourth graduation and commission ceremony was held in the honorable presence of the his excellency the President and Mrs. Roh, Tae-Woo 274 Figure 7 SPSS Programming Commend TITLE 'HASTHI THESIS ANALYSIS" 1 l. SJB'TITLE ”THE W ANALYSIS OF MW AND LNIVHBITY STUDDJT'S' ATTITUDE'V FILE HANDLE WINNIE-'- 'HH'IIEIS DATA A1' DATA LIST FILE=m FIXED m1 /1 V1 1-3 V2 TO V64 4-66 V65 67-68 V66 TO V94 69-97 V95 T0 V96 98-101 V97 TO V98 102-103 V99 TO V10) 104-107 V101 TO V102 108-109 VIM 110-111 V104 TO V105 112-113 VIW 114-115 V107 TO V113 116-122 VARIABLE [ABE-15 V1 'ID HINDI}? V2 'AUI'IUII'TARIANISH 1' V3 'AUTIIRI‘TARIANISH 2' V4 'AU'ITIRI‘TARIANISH 3' V5 'AUITK'RITARIANISI 4' V6 'GIKlIP VALUE 1' V7 'GflllP VALUE 2' V8 '01”? VALUE 3' V9 '0th my; 4' V10 'GIIJP VALUE 5' VII 'AUIHRITARIANISI 5' V12 'POLITICAL EFFICIENCY 1' V13 'POLI'TICAL EFFICIDICY 2' V14 'PGJTICAL EFFICIENCY 3" V15 'PERCEPTIOI OF POLICE 1' V16 'PI-JTCEPTIOI OF POLICE 2' V1? 'PERCEPTIGV OF POLICE 3' V18 'GFNERAL ATTITUDE TWARD POLICE 1' V19 'GDlI-IIAL ATTITUDE WARD POLICE 2' V20 'GBJERAL ATTITUDE TWARD POLICE 3' V21 'GENBRAL ATTITUDE WARD POLICE 4' V22 'GENERAL ATTITUDE TWARD POLICE S' V23 'GENERAL ATTITUDE TWARD POLICE 6' V24 TGENERAI. ATTITUDE WARD POLICE 7' V25 'GENI-RAL ATTITUDE TWARD POLICE 8' V26 'FRIEND PERCEPTIGI 1' V27 'I-‘RIBJD WIN 2' V28 'FRIDlD PWEPTIOJ 3' V29 'ATTITUDE RECMJITHDIT 1' V30 ’ATTITUDE WIWT 2' V31 'ATTITUDE REIRUITND'T 3' V32 'ATTITUDE RECRUITED" 4' V3 'ATTITUDE WITH-NT 5' V34 'ATTITUDE RECRUITTIDIT 6' V35 'ATTITUDE RECIHJITHDIT 7' V36 ’PERCI-J’Tlm OF CRIME 1' V3? 'EVALUATIOI POLICE 1' V38 'EVALUATILN POLICE 2' V39 'VmATIGlAL PREFERENCE I' V40 'VIIIATIGIAL ME 2' V4] 'VCIATIGJAL PREFERENCE 3' V42 'VIIATIGIAL WCE 4' V43 'VIIATIINAL PREFERENCE 5' V 'SELF REPCRTING DELINQ'EVCY 1' V45 'SEIJ" REPUITING DRINIDFNCY 2' 2175 Figure 0 survey Data Sheet 00121314223122231424342222134343212241441231443434432321314132431310291133422212211232112 00222311133112121122423111433423233434122233444433433221323233331410254232321222112223212 00323233122223333223233222233333322232333222333433442333424I33231510292153422222212323332 00411211223134131314243433233342432243243242342I22442311314134441514292121422213211222112 00523222223223232333329322233332322232333233443424443332323233232999I52252222211221122222 0062332232233222222413222233331412232232222224444443434432323433299929224I412233233221112 0072432223312322222322312223322332224223333221232442223232313429121012213121llI1211221111 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05234412232124I31223233321243322423242332322322222224342414233231224292131211213222222112 0532223314332322222323333223332333323233234224343443333232422423l210292223222232211222122 LIST OF REFERENCES 276 REFERENCES Academic American Encyclopedia. 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