'.-‘.;\~'\;-..’H~.IW 5““. .... “U“ I . ... II .‘ I. . I . ‘ u'. I'I‘1’\\§\n‘\'l’uL'I'IL‘I‘J ‘I‘u'n‘nn'f-hi. n... V I. .I . v I. A COMPARISON OF VALUES FOUND IN PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY-AGED CHILDREN’S BOOKS AND VALUES HELD BY ADULTS Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY TERRY LEE WOOD 1976 ' LIBRARY Michigan State j‘ . Uzm'ersicy This is to certify that the thesis entitled A COMPARISON OF VALUES FOUND IN PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY-AGED CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND VALUES HELD BY ADULTS presented by Terry Lee Wood has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Education Ph ' D' degree in 44:44:40,: 6:: Date May 21, 1976 04639 M“’"'7‘7 ,. 0 ""’" 1'" 532:3 I 0 ma 4 r» II I 1. L 9' \-.—/_:. JAR 0 3 1983 ABSTRACT A COMPARISON OF VALUES FOUND IN PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY-AGED CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND VALUES HELD BY ADULTS By Terry Lee Wood The purposes of this study were to identify the value system (hierarchical arrangement of values) expressed in the con- tent of children's picture books; to compare this value system with the value system held by adults; and to evaluate the shifts that occurred within the value system found in a random sample of picture books published during 1960, 1964, and 1968. The need for this study was established from existing research in which the investigators assumed that values expressed in children's literature reflected values held by society. In addition, any shift in the frequency with which a value was expressed in the content of children's literature was interpreted by the investigators to reflect a shift in the degree to which the value was emphasized by society. The Rokeach Value Survey was used to measure the values held by a representative sample of adult Americans. The survey contains eighteen terminal values representing end states of exis- tence, and eighteen instrumental values representing modes of behavior. Nine raters used a modified form of this instrument, Terry Lee Wood which consisted of only the instrumental values, to evaluate the values expressed in the content of a sample of picture books. Three major reference sources, used by librarians and teachers, were the sources for the selection of the sample of forty-five picture books, fifteen from each time period 1960, 1964, and 1968. Each rater read fifteen books, five from each of the three time periods, and recorded whether an instrumental value was explicitly or implicitly expressed in the content of the picture books. The Spearman rho correlation was used to examine the rela- tionship between the rank order of instrumental values found expressed in the content of picture books and the rank order of the instrumental values held by adults.~ A 3 x 3 analysis of vari- ance with a nested variable was used to analyze shifts in the frequency of value expression from T960 to 1968. The result of the analysis of the content of the picture books, for the frequency of value expression, indicated that the instrumental values--loving, imaginative, independent, cheerful, capable, and ambitious--were ranked highest. The lowest ranked instrumental values were: broadminded, honest, intellectual, logical, forgiving, and clean. The correlation between the instru- mental value system found in picture books and the instrumental value system of adults indicated that the two value systems were not related. In addition, the results from the analyses of vari- ance indicated that the majority of the instrumental values found in the picture books remained stable from 1960 to 1968. The two instrumental values for which the analyses indicated significant Terry Lee Wood differences were loving and broadminded. These two values were stable from 1960 to 1964, but decreased in frequency from 1964 to 1968. Previous research has proceeded on the general assumptions that values expressed in the content of children's literature are representative of the values held by society, and that.changes_in frequency of value expression reflect changes in the degree to which these values are emphasized by society. The major conclu- sions of this research indicated that the general assumptions were not upheld by the results of this study. The results, however, do not indicate that a relationship to a specific value system is nonexistent, but rather that further investigation into the source of this value system is necessary. A COMPARISON OF VALUES FOUND IN PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY-AGED CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND VALUES HELD BY ADULTS By Terry Lee Wood A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1976 To the nine raters: Roberta Davis, Mary Ellen Dolan, Linda Englekirk, Nancy Evans, Marjorie Kaplan, Robert Kaplan, Elaine Noffze, Laura Roehler, and William Wood, with gratitude. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Grateful appreciation is extended to Dr. Byron VanRoekel, under whose assistance this study was undertaken. Further appre- ciation is expressed to Dr. Jean LePere, Dr. Ellen Strommen, and Dr. Lee Shulman for reading and criticizing the material. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. William Asher and Dr. Pose Lamb, Purdue University, for their guidance and assistance in preparation of the material. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ........................ vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ..................... 1 Overview of the Problem ............... 1 Purpose ....................... 7 Hypotheses ................... . . 8 The Nature of Human Values ............. 8 Definitions of Terms ................ 12 Overview .......... _ ........ . . . . 14 II. REVIEW or LITERATURE ................. 15 Background of the Problem .............. 15 Values Expressed in Children's Literature ...... 19 Shifts in Values Expressed in Accordance With Changes in Time ..... . . . . ......... 29 Summary ....................... 33 III. METHODS AND PROCEDURE ................. 37 General Design of the Study ............. 37 Sample ....................... 37 Instrument ..................... 39 Raters ...................... 44 National Opinion Research Center's Amalgam Survey. . 48 Design and Procedure ................ 48 Hypotheses ..................... 50 Analyses ...................... 50 Summary ....................... 5l IV. RESULTS ........................ 52 The Instrumental Values of Children's Picture Books and of Adults ................... 52 Value Shifts in the Content of Picture Books . . . . 55 Summary ....................... 66 iv Chapter Page V. DISCUSSION ...................... 67 Conclusions ..................... 74 Implications for Future Research .......... 75 APPENDICES .......................... 78 A. MASTER LIST OF PICTURE BOOKS ............. 79 B. LIST OF THE SAMPLE OF CHILDREN'S PICTURE BOOKS . . . . 84 C. ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY ................. 88 D. RATING SHEET ....... . ............. 93 E. RATERS' EVALUATIONS OF THREE BOOKS .......... 95 REFERENCES .......................... 95 List of References ........ . ............ 100 General References .................... 107 Table wwwwmmm #01th #OJN LIST OF TABLES Behavior Rewarded in Third Grade Readers ........ Most Frequently and Least Frequently Rewarded Behaviors . Relation of Values Coding Scheme to Social Variables Values Expressed in Newbery Award Books ......... Summary of Reviewed Value Studies ............ Test-Retest Reliabilities of the Instrumental Values Test-Retest Reliability of the Instrumental Value Scale . Average Percentage of Agreement Within Rater Group Correlation Coefficient of Rater's Personal Value System and Rating of Picture Books .......... Experimental Design 3 x 3 Factorial Design With Nested Variable ............. , ....... Rank Order of Values Found in Children's Picture Books and the Rank Order of Values Held by Adults for the Year 1968 ..................... Highest and Lowest Ranked Values Expressed in Picture Books and Those Held by 1,409 Adults ..... Correlation Coefficients for Values Found in Picture Books and for Adults Categorized by Age, Income, Race, and Education .................. Means and Standard Deviations for the Instrumental Values for Picture Books Published in 1960, 1964, and 1968 ....................... Analysis of Variance of Two Values ........... Value Systems Found in Children's Picture Books Published in 1960, 1964, and 1968 ........... vi Page 21 22 24 32 35 42 43 46 47 49 53 54 56 57 58 60 Flux- In Table Page 4.7 Composite Value System for Picture Books ........ 62 4.8 Frequency of Each Value and Total for All Values Expressed in the Content of Each Picture Book ..... 63 I" vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Overview of the Problem Rapid economic growth and coinciding technological changes produce constant shifts in the occupational needs of a society and often create occupational obsolescence. Social changes and value shifts occur within a society to accommodate the effects of econ- omical and technological changes. When social changes and coin- ciding value shifts occur in a rapidly changing manner, the essential stability of a society is threatened. For the past sixty years these conditions have character- ized the American scene. Rapid economic growth, enhanced by technological developments and mass industrialization, has generated an increasing rate of change in American society which has been reflected by social changes and shifts in values from one genera- tion to the next.' A "generation," which formerly measured a man's life span, now is viewed as spanning a decade at most. "Rapid changes mean that little can be counted on to endure from generation 'Some social innovations and value shifts that have occurred in connection with economic changes are: the unionization of the worker to gain strong bargaining power in the factories, a shift of employment from occupations which produce goods to occupations which provide services, the increase in amount of leisure time and resulting interest in travel and recreation, the change from authori- tarian child-rearing practices to child-centered approaches, and the increase in importance of gaining peer acceptance and socialized behavior to the individual. to generation, that all technologies, all institutions, all values, and even all types of personality are exposed to early obsoles- cence" (Kenniston, 1964). Accordingly, the wisdom, skills, and experiences of parents can no longer be transmitted to children with any assurance that they will be appropriate for the next generation. As the rate of social innovation increases, the rela- tionship between generations is weakened and, as a consequence, adults and youth feel confused because both lack knowledge and understanding of the value shifts occurring in American society (Kluckhohn, 1958; Kenniston, 1971; Toffler, 1970; Rostow, 1971). However, it has been traditionally contended by psycholo- gists, philosophers, and sociologists that the values deemed essen- tial for the maintenance, stability, and continuation of a society are identified explicitly and implicitly for the succeeding ~generations by the adult members of society. These values are initially foreign to the child, and socialization procedures involve the acquisition and internalization of a set of values which will allow the child to be compatible with society (Getzels, 1957a, 1957b; Hoffman, 1970). Dissemination of values has tradi- tionally been accomplished by the institutions of society: family, church, school, community, and government (Reiss, 1966; Jencks and Reisman, 1968; Rokeach, 1973). These institutions expose indi- viduals to values and provide opportunities for the exploration and internalization of values. However, the rapid pace of industrial- ization and concurrent social change has resulted in a general migration from small agrarian communities to large metropolitan centers which provided large-scale employment for semi-skilled and white-collar workers (Kluckhohn, 1958; Rostow, 1962). This relo- cation to concentrated p0pulation centers is viewed as having' "severely eroded the influence of the family, church, and commu- nity on individual behavior. As the power of these institutions waned, the school became increasingly important as a primary instru- ment for social control" (Spring, 1973). The state of general confusion and lack of understanding between the generations that exists in contemporary American society has caused many adults to be concerned about the values being expressed to the young, and the relationship of these values to those held by adults themselves. The increasing reliance on the school as a primary institution for the dissemination of values has heightened adult concern for what values are being expressed to children and the internal socialization process of the school.2 These concerns suggest that adult society is seeking a means for understanding the manner by which and the degree to which the values of a society are transmitted to succeeding generations within the school environment. Because educational institutions have tradi- tionally relied heavily on written material as a medium for instruc- tional purposes, analysis of printed matter used for instructional 2During the last decade adults in Mississippi and Virginia made headlines as they opposed the expression of racially inte- grated elements in basal readers (Library Journal, 1965). More extreme manifestations of this concernfhave recently surfaced in widely dispersed geographical areas such as: Kalamazoo, Michigan, and Kanawha County, West Virginia, where protest groups have picketed, staged marches, and even bombed to express opposition to the expression of sexism and anti-religious elements in school textbooks. - purposes in schools can provide a basis for the initial under- standing of such a process. We should be aware that all reading material teaches values of one type or another, and we should attempt to find out what kind of values are being taught by the kinds of read- ing material children are presently using in the schools (Ozmon and Johnson, 1967). The literary writings of a culture have long been regarded as a medium through which the values of society are expressed I1 (Inglis, 1938; Berelson and Salter, 1946; Johns-Heins and Gerth, 1949; Albrecht, 1956; McClelland, 1961; White and Abel, 1963; Nye, 1970). According to Middleton (1960), "literature not only reflects but reinforces and strengthens cultural norms, values, and beliefs." While it is generally accepted that adUlt literature reflects societal values, it has been recognized that the literature written for children is also a means for the expression of societal values (Russell, 1958; Huck and Kuhn, 1968; Zimet, 1972). "In this sense stories are 'projective' and tend to reflect the motives and values of the culture in the way they are told or in their themes or plots" (McClelland, 1961). Furthermore, it is contended that children's literature more directly expresses the "important social- ethical ideas'1 of society (Russell, 1958). McClelland (1961) feels that Children's stories are also less subtle, more direct in their "message" than many other forms of literature. . . . As Margaret Mead (1951) has put it so succinctly, a culture has to get its values across to its children in such simple terms that even behavioral scientists can understand them. However, the effectiveness of children's literature as a medium by which the values of society are transmitted to succeeding generations depends on the verification of the assumption that the most important values held by a society are expressed in children's literature. While several studies have dealt with values expressed in children's literature, a majority of these studies have focused on the identification of values expressed in the content. In a few instances the investigators have also analyzed the changes that have occurred in the frequency of value expression. All of these studies have, however, proceeded on the general assumptions that values expressed in children's books are representative of the values held by society, and that changes in frequency of value expression reflect changes in the degree to which these values are emphasized by society. Verification of the assumption that the values expressed in literature represent societal values had been limited because a means for measuring the values of adult society had not been deve10ped. However, Rokeach (1973) reported a study which des- cribed the use of the Rokeach Value Survey as an instrument by which the values of a large representative sample of adult society were identified. The development of this instrument provides a means for testing this assumption. It has also been assumed that changes in the frequency of values expression reflect changes in the degree to which these values are emphasized by society. This assumption is based on the acceptance of the premise that values expressed in children's literature represent the values held by society. If this premise is valid, then an evaluation of children's literature published during a time of rapid social change provides a means for examin- ing this assumption. The 1960's have been referred to as the "decade of dissent" in which many drastic and dramatic changes and events took place. The decade beings "slumbering in the doldrums of the Eisenhower administration and ending with the murders at Kent State, Jackson State, and the University of Wisconsin" (Kenniston, 1971). The "temper" and "fluctuating mood" were set against the "background of the escalating Viet Nam war, black movement violence, police repression, and the assassination of a series of p0pular figures" (Woodward, 1974). Kenniston (1971) characterized the decade of the sixties when he said, "rarely in history has apparent apathy been replaced so rapidly by publicized activism, silence by strident dissent." The national reaction to the black movement, youth movement, escalation of an unpopular war, and observance of police repression, which occurred in the 1960's, provided impetus for shifts within the American value system (Harman, 1970). During this decade the values of the Puritan ethic--work, money, career, marriage, religion, authority and sexual morality--came under attack . . and in their place were exalted a romantic celebration of the senses and of nature, of the individual and personal relations, of existential experience, the creative, the imag- inative (Woodward, 1974). Therefore, an examination of the shifts in value expression which may occur in the content of children's books written during this period of dramatic social change should provide insight into the degree to which the content of children's books responds to shifts in societal values. Hence, if the values expressed in children's books reflect the values of adult society, and if these values expressed in children's books shift in correspondence with rapid social change, then books written for children should provide a medium by which the values of adult society are transmitted to the succeeding generations. Purpose It was the purpose of this study to: identify the value system (hierarchical arrangement of values) expressed in the content of children's picture books; to compare this value system with the value system held by adult society; and to evaluate the shifts that may have occurred within this value system, expressed in picture books published during the 1960's. As previously mentioned, several events occurred almost simultaneously during this decade to force some major changes in American life. These events were the black movement, the youth movement, an unpopular war, and the assassination of several public figures. Because of these events, certain shifts were anticipated among the components of the Rokeach Value Survey. Specifically, an increase was expected in the fre- quency of expression of the values courageous and independent, which comprise the factor designated as "inner-directed," and in the values logical, imaginative, and intellectual, which comprise the factor designated as "competence" (Rokeach, 1973). It was also expected that the frequency of expression of the value ppljtg, which comprises the factor "other-directed" (Rokeach, 1973), would decrease. Hypotheses l. The hierarchical arrangement of values expressed in the content of children's picture books published in 1968 will be significantly related to the hierarchical arrangement of values held by a representative sample of American society in 1968. 2. A significant change in the hierarchical arrangement of the values expressed in the content of children's picture books will occur during the time period 1960 to 1968. 3. The values: independent, courageous, intellectual, imaginative, andlogical’will increase in frequency of expression in the content of the children's picture books during the time period 1960 to 1968. 4. The value pplitg_will decrease in frequency of expres- sion in the content of children's picture books during the time period 1960 to 1968. The Nature of Human Values Attitudes and values are central concepts discussed in literature dealing with social psychology. 0f the two, empirical investigations of attitude have received considerably more atten- tion than those of values (Pittel and Mendelsohn, 1966; Rokeach, 1973). Preference has been accorded the theory and measurement of attitudes primarily because reliable methods for measuring atti- tudes have developed at a much more rapid pace than techniques for dealing with values. Furthermore, investigators have failed to delineate clearly the concept of values, which has resulted in "a certain vagueness of understanding about the conceptual difference between values and attitudes and about the relation between values and attitudes" (Rokeach, 1972). In the last decade, however, a theoretical construct which clarifies the conceptual differences between values and attitudes and defines the relationship between beliefs, attitudes, values, and behavior has been developed by Milton Rokeach (1968a, 1973). The theoretical construct devised by Rokeach is called a "total belief system" which extends from a central to peripheral dimen- sion and is hierarchical in nature. Rokeach holds that the central beliefs are the beliefs which are the most stable, most resistant to change, and fewest in number and, as a consequence, if a change occurs in the central beliefs it produces a change in the rest of the belief bystem. Rokeach defines three types of central beliefs, 3 He describes a value as a prescrip- of which value is one type. tive or proscriptive belief in which some means or end action is judged to be desirable or undesirable.- A value, then, is defined as "an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end- state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence" (Rokeach, 1973). Accordingly, a value acts as a standard or guide for conduct. Once a value is internalized it becomes, consciously or unconsciously, a standard or criterion or guiding action, for developing and maintaining attitudes toward objects and situations. . . (Rokeach, 1968). Rokeach differentiates among values, labeling those which are concerned with "modes of behavior" as instrumental values, and those which refer to "end-states of existence" as terminal values. The instrumental values suggest ways to behave, which if followed 3The other two beliefs are "descriptive or existential beliefs, those related to being true or false; and evaluative beliefs, where goodness or badness is judged" (Rokeach, 1968b). 10 will ultimately result in the corresponding desired end-state of existence. His value theory assumes that: (l) the total number of values a person possesses is rela- tively small; (2) all men everywhere possess the same values to different degrees; (3) values are organized into value systems; (4) the antecedents of human values can be traced to culture, society, and its institutions, and personality (Rokeach, 1973). It is generally believed that when a value is taught it is presented by itself without consideration of other values and the possible interactions between them. Eventually, however, all values are internalized by the individual and as such do not remain as independent isolated values. When more than one value is acti- vated in a situation, the behavioral outcome will be a result of the individual weighing the relative importance of all the competing values that the situation has activated. Therefore, when a value is learned it is integrated into a hierarchically arranged value system in which each value is ordered in priority of importance relative to the other values. A value system, then, becomes “an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end-states of existence along a continuum of relative importance" (Rokeach, 1973). Hence, a value system acts as a gen- eral plan for the resolution of conflicts and for decision making. Attitudes, on the other hand, refer to more peripheral beliefs and as such are less stable and more numerous. As previously mentioned, a change in attitude (a peripheral belief) will not produce as great a change in the other elements of the belief system as will a change in a value (a central belief). Accordingly, an attitude is defined as an "organization of several beliefs focused 11 on a specific object or situation" (Rokeach, 1968b) while a value, in contrast, is considered to be a single belief which transcends objects or situations to focus on an ultimate goal. Therefore, an attitude, which fluctuates with situations and objects, cannot serve as a standard for making evaluations. Values, then, hold the more central position within one's personality makeup and cognitive system and, as such, are the determinants of attitudes and behavior. Hence, studies which focus almost exclusively on attitudes or behaviors are limited without the knowledge of the determining values. Even though values are perceived as being universal and basic and value systems are considered relatively stable, shifts among individual values within the value system do occur in rela- tion to changes within the society and its institutions or through personal experience. This reordering of values in the hier- archical structure within the value system results in correspond- ing changes in attitudes and behavior. The previous discussion delineates the constructs which led to the development of the Rokeach Value Survey, designed spe- cifically to be used for identifying human values and arranging them into a hierarchy. The Rokeach Value Survey consists of eighteen terminal and eighteen instrumental values. The task of an individual taking the Rokeach Value Survey is to arrange the values from the most important value (number one) to the least important value (number eighteen). 12 The advent of the Rokeach Value Survey provides a means for adding a dimension to the analysis of children's books which was not previously available to investigators analyzing the values expressed in the content of children's books. Previous studies were limited because investigators could only identify the values expressed in the content of children's books, and conjecture about how those matched with values held by adults. The development of the Rokeach Value Survey provides a means by which the values of large samples of people can be measured with relative ease and in a reliable manner. Definitions of Terms The following terms are defined according to the way in which they have been used in this study. Picture book: The term "picture book" is used to refer to a book which contains a majority of functional illustrations and has less text. This type of book is generally recommended for preschool and primary-aged children. As used in this study, any book which is defined as a picture book, picture storybook, easy- to-read book, or concept book is referred to as a picture book. Tradebook: The term "tradebook" refers to books found in public libraries which are not classified as textbooks. Basal reader: "A sequential series of reading textbooks, developmental in nature and designed for use with specific grade levels" (Duffy and Sherman, 1972). Value: The term "value“ refers to one of the three types of central beliefs which comprise the "total belief system" as 13 defined by Rokeach (1968b). These central beliefs are perceived as being relatively stable. The central belief, value, is defined as a prescriptive or proscriptive belief by which some means or end action is judged to be desirable or undesirable. Specifically, a value is defined as "an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially pref- erable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence" (Rokeach, 1973). Instrumental and terminal values: Value is further differ- entiated into two types: those concerned with "modes of behavior" or instrumental values, and those which refer to "end-states of existence" or terminal values. Value system: A value, when it is learned, is integrated into a hierarchically arranged value system in which each value is ordered in priority of importance. A value system, then, refers to "an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end-states of existence along a continuum of relative importance" (Rokeach, 1973). Attitude: The term "attitude" refers to a peripheral belief. An attitude is an "organization of several beliefs focused on a specific object or situation" (Rokeach, 1968b). As such, an attitude is less stable than a value and fluctuates with particu- lar situations or objects. 14 Overview The present study was undertaken to evaluate the relation- ship of the values expressed in children's picture books to those held by society and to examine the shifts in value expression which occur in the books written during a period which represents a time of rapid social change. In Chapter I, the introduction to the study, the purpose, the hypotheses, and the explanation of Rokeach's value theory have been discussed. In Chapter II, the literature perti- nent to the present study is reviewed. The design of the study is discussed in Chapter III, and in Chapter IV the results of the study are presented. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Background of the Problem Books written expressly for children have been a part of the educational scene in American since early colonial times. Beginning with the period of religious emphasis in the schools (1607-1776), when the hornbook and the New Epgjand Primer were the basic instructional materials used to teach children to read, the publication of reading materials for children has progressively increased in quantity and quality. The advent of basal readers, about 1840, of which the McGuffey Readers were the best known, introduced the concept of the hierarchical structure of subject matter. The basal reading programs currently used in many elementary schools reflect major changes in philosophical and psychological viewpoints about learn- ing which, it is believed, have contributed significantly to making learning to read a more effective and meaningful process to the child. These changes began in 1910 due to a developing interest in the scientific study of reading. The influence of these studies first appeared around 1925 and consisted of innovations in methods of teaching reading, such as a scientific approach to readability and vocabulary control, the introduction of preprimers, and the 15 16 systematic study of reading through the use of basal readers (Zimet, 1969). Changes in the philosophical and psychological viewpoints about childhood also occurred during the twentieth century. The importance of early childhood was emphasized by Freudian psychology, social anthropologists, and students of child development. The emerging concepts of child development emphasized continuous growth, uniqueness of the individual, and the inter-relationship of physical, emotional and social development (Huck and Kuhn, 1961). These changes in the viewpoint of the uniqueness of childhood also contributed to an increase in the publication of tradebooks for children. In 1919, the Macmillan publishing company established a division specifically for the publication of tradebooks for children. Other publishing houses followed Macmillan's initiative, and the publication of tradebooks for children began to increase. In 1920, 477 juvenile books were published, and by 1930 the number had nearly doubled. Tradebook departments of publishing houses con- tinued to publish titles for juveniles in gradually increasing numbers.‘ In the past three decades, dramatic increases have occurred in the number of juvenile titles published. In 1950, the number of juvenile titles published was 1,059, in 1965 the number increased to 2,895, and in 1975 the number was 2,292 (Huck, 1976; Publishers Weekly, 1976). Equally dramatic increases have also occurred in the library circulation and in the sales of children's books. During the three decades following 1925, the social setting was such that educators were primarily concerned about "such issues as methods of learning to read, the relative merits of different 17 methods of beginning reading, the value of phonics . . . and the amount and quality of reading material in various schools and grades" (Gray, 1950). Recently, changes in social relationships have brought about a growing concern about the nature of the con- tent in books written for children, the concepts expressed in these publications, and the effect the reading of these materials may have on mass thinking and social progress. The criticism of basal readers of the 1940's and 1950's was largely directed at the methods of instruction rather than ,u at the subject matter. During the last ten years, atten- 7 tion has been focused on the kinds of messages that are being communicated through the content, and on the adverse effects those messages have on a significant proportion of our pepulation (Zimet, 1969). Although the literature dealing with the sociology of reading has a history of at least four decades, it has dealt pri- marily with the social value of reading. Interest in the ideas expressed in children's books, which began to receive more atten- tion in the early 1960's, added another dimension to the scope of research in reading. Influenced by the dramatic events of that decade, investigators have studied children's books to determine the manner in which minorities, sex roles, stereotyping of family living, death, and violence are portrayed. Gast (1967), Blatt (1968), Fisher (1974), Parker and Campbell (1971), Waite (1972a, 1972b), Cohen (1962), Larrick (1965), Bingham (1970), and Agree (1973) have evaluated the content of children's reading material for the manner in which minority pe0ples are presented and treated. The general conclusion drawn from the studies is that minority people are not frequently or 18 accurately represented. As an example: In an analysis of the content of 5,000 tradebooks published from 1962 to 1965, less than 7 percent of the books included the presentation of one or more blacks (Larrick, 1965). Currently, racial stereotypes are gradually disappearing due to the raised consciousness level of publishing houses (Huck, 1976). Wanderlich (1974) reported an increase in the representation and sensitivity toward minorities in children's tradebooks. Zimet (1970), DeCrow (1972), Graebner (1972), Tate (1973), Siege (1973), and Bernstein (1974) have analyzed the content of books written for children to determine the way in which the male and female roles are portrayed and to identify the presence of sex role stereotyping. The consensus from the studies has been that the content of the material written for children has been favorable to one sex over the other. Zimet (1970) argues the content is feminine in orientation, and not apprOpriate for males. The recent concern, however, is that the content is sexist in orientation. U'Ren (1971), Graebner (1972), Siege (1973), Britten (1975), and Marten and Matlin (1976) argue sexism and sex stereo- typing still exist in the content of children's literature despite the presumedly wide impact feminist criticism has had on the pub- lishers. The extent to which the content of basal readers focuses on the middle-class, white family living a stereotyped life in suburbia and the apprOpriateness of that content to children learn- ing to read has been analyzed by Wargny (1963); Waite, Blom, Zimet, 19 and Edge (1967); Blom, Waite, and Zimet (1968); and Blom, Waite, and Zimet (1970). The results of the studies suggested that the content of primer readers is "inapprOpriate culturally, develop- mentally, and socially" to the child, and therefore "will impede his learning to read" (Zimet, 1972). Currently, investigators are analyzing the literature writ- ten for children to determine the frequency with which death and 'T violence are expressed (Morris, 1974; Blatt, 1972) and the way in which family life is portrayed (Zwack, 1973). While these analyses have provided useful information about the expression of a specific sociological or cultural situation in the content of children's literature, studies which have contributed to an understanding of the role children's literature plays in the on-going socialization process of young children are few in number. Two aspects of the existing research are relevant to this study. One aspect considers studies which have identified values expressed in the content of children's literature, and the other describes shifts that have occurred in the expression of values over time. Reviews of this research literature are summarized in the follow- ing pages. Values Expressed in Children's Literature The research on values expressed in literature written for children originated with a study by Child, Potter, and Levine (1946). They evaluated the content of third-grade basal readers published between 1929 and 1942 to determine what modes of behavior were rewarded or punished. The technique used was content analysis, 20 in which the analysis unit consisted of a "thema." A "thema" was described as a sequence of psychological events which included a confronting situation, the behavior response (internal or exter- nal), and the consequences of the behavior felt by the person himself. The results of the analysis indicated that the most frequently rewarded behaviors were cheerfulness, acquisition of knowledge, and dependency, while the least frequently rewarded behaviors were rejection of affiliative and cooperative behavior. In summarizing the results, Child, Potter, and Levine suggested that the overall content emphasized the Opinion that effort or work was a means of reaching goals and that the learning of isolated skills, rather than intellectual activities, was important. The results of the analysis are presented in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. No further research in the area of values and children's literature was conducted until the 1960's, when an interest in the concepts expressed in the content became the focus of inves- tigators interested in material written for children. At that time, McClelland (1961) evaluated the content of basal readers from twenty-three countries which were published either around 1925 or 1950. McClelland selected a sample of basal readers from each of the countries in order to compare the expressed frequency of the achievement motive with the economic growth of a country, and to compare the nature of the values expressed in the readers with the economic growth of a country. The strength of the moti- vation for achievement was measured by a coding scheme especially developed for the study which enabled the investigator to count 21 Table 2.l.--Behavior rewarded in third grade readers. Value Percentage Construction 96 Sentience 96 Elation 95 Cognizance 86 Succorance 84 Affiliation 82 Nurturance . 82 Achievement 80 Recognition 79 Activity 74 Dominance 74 Blamavoidance , 71 Imaginality 71 Order 70 Acquisition 64 Passivity 54 Deference 52 Harmavoidance 49 Autonomy 48 Retention 42 Aggression 35 Rejection 14 Infavoidance 8 Source: Child, Potter, and Levine, 1946. 22 .memp .m:w>m4 ucm .gmppom .upwgu "mugzom ApcmsmmmggmaEm meuom .mmmczgm .mmmcmzowumcouumpmm sup: umpmwuommm mucmu?o>m use .mcmmmv mucmuwo>mecm Auumpmm: .mucmvwo>m .mucmxoccm .mucmgmmwwucmv cowpumnmm Amcwmmmu .mcw uxPpan .mu:m_umnom_u .Lmnsmuv :o_mmmgmm< Amuumwno op co uFo; Lo m>cwm=ouv cowpcmumm Amucmmecim—mm .mucwucmamucwv xEocouz< Amcmsuo Eogw museumwmmm .acamnszm .cowuoopoca mcwcwmpaov mucmeouuzm O Ammumpzocx mcwcwmmv mocmecmou Asmwewuao .smmmmsgpcm .zowv cowum_u Amumm: appvon so .owumwucm .mesumc cw mcammm—a ovumzummv wocmwucmm “meowuoauoea Fmauum_Pwpcw Lo mecmume mo :owummcuv :cwuozeumcoo meow>mgmm umuemzmm xpucmzcmcu ummm4.m>wm meow>msmm umuemzmm >_ucw:cmcu umoz m>wm .mcom>m;ma umucmzmc Appcmzcmcw ummm_ new xpucmzcmem pmoz--.~.m m_nmh 23 the number of "achievement related ideas" written in the stories. The total count was called the score for "need for Achievement" (p_Achievement). The fourteen values used in the study were derived from major social variables which sociological theorists believed to be associated with economic development. These social variables and their corresponding values are presented in Table 2.3. The economic growth of the countries was measured by an index which was the average of the national income and electric power usage of .'I_"“‘__TT"" a country. The results indicated that those countries in which the readers expressed a high level of p_Achievement also later experi- enced a rapid increase in economic growth. Therefore, the level of p_Achievement expressed in the content of the readers was related to the economic development of a country. The results from the coding of each value expressed in the content of the readers con- firmed that only five of the fourteen values selected were related to economic growth. The three value hypotheses confirmed were: "institutional (traditional) interaction pressure less freguent; ego's relation to others more often 'contractual' (e.g., motivated with an outcome); [and] impersonal co-Operation pressure more often of a material sort" (McClelland, 1961). Two additional hypotheses "indirectly or partly confirmed" were: "peer pressures for inter- action more frequent; [and] deceit and magic as instrumental acts less frequent, hard work and 'intelligence' more frequent" (McClelland, 1961). In summary, McClelland (1961) stated: 24 Table 2.3.--Relation of values coding scheme to social variables. . - Corresponding Items in Reader Soc1al Variables Thought to Value Code Which Should Be Important for Economic Characterize More Rapidly DevelOpment Growing Economies 1. "Modern" vs. "traditional" 1. Institutional (traditional) social structure interaction pressure less a. Universalistic vs. frequenta particularistic norms 2. Peer status of "ego" more b. Specificity vs. freguent (a society of equals) diffuseness of role 3. Ego s relation to others more c. Achieved vs. ascribed often "contractual" (e.g., status motivated with an outcome)a d. Collectivity vs. 4. Achieved status more frequent; self-orientation ascribed status less frequent 5. Peer pressureg forginteraction 2. Affective neutrality more frequent (asceticism, thrift) 6. Self-interest, self-esteem, and nurturance less frequent as 3. Rationality, planning, motives of interaction orderliness 7. Impulse control and/or punish- ment for impulse expression 4. Man over nature, more frequent optimism, belief in 8. Deceit and magic as instru- progress mental acts less frequent; hard work and—“intelligence" 5. Material needs over other more frequentb concerns 9. Fate andlmagic as influences on ego less frequent 10. Man over nature more frequent ll. Ego's actions more often successful 12. Biological needs more frequent as a motive for "ego'1 13. Material reward more frequent as means of exerting interaction pressure 14. Impersonal cooperation pressure more often of a material sort aHypothesis confirmed. bHypothesis indirectly or partly confirmed. Source: McClelland, 1961. 25 The major pr0position supported by these findings is that in societies which subsequently develop rapidly economically, the force which holds society together has shifted from tra- dition, particularly impersonal institutional tradition, to public opinion which helps define changing and functionally specific interpersonal relationships. McClelland suggested the shift in values could be generalized into a single concept of "other-directedness." The results of McClelland's study indicated those countries which expressed a high level of p_Achievement and a high frequency of values representing "other-directedness" in the stories written for their children were also the countries which experienced rapid economic growth. Therefore, the frequency of expression of the achievement motive and values representing "other—directednéss" in the content of children's readers could predict the economic growth of the country. The results from the analysis of the content of American readers, in particular, indicated that in 1925 the content of the readers strongly expressed the achievement motive, and the "other-directed" values could have predicted that the United States would experience economic growth. The prediction was supported as the United States experienced vast economic growth during the period from 1925 to 1950. Walker (1963) identified and analyzed the frequency with which "moral and spiritual" values were expressed in the content of five basal reading series designated for use in the upper elementary grades. He selected the ten moral and spiritual values previously established by the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association as the value criteria upon which the content 26 of the five basal reading series were analyzed.' The ten values used as criteria were: "human personality--the basic value, moral responsibility, institutions as servants of men, commen consent, devotion to truth, respect for excellence, moral equality, brother- hood, the pursuit of happiness, and spiritual enrichment" (Walker, 1963). The results of the study indicated that about half of the selections expressed one or more of the ten values. The most frequently occurring value expressed in the selections was spiritual enrichment, followed by human personality. Two values which were not expressed in the selections were common consent and devotion to truth. Ozmon and Johnson (1967) and Ozmon (1968) also analyzed the content of five basal reading series, four of which were described as being the most widely purchased, to identify the values expressed and the relationship of the identified values to major philosophies of education. The major philosophies were determined by authorities on educational philosophy, and consisted of: Essentialism, Exis- tentialism, Perennialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. First the content of the basal readers was analyzed and fifty-six value themes were identified. Each value theme was assigned to one of the philosophies of education by both a group of graduate students studying educational philOSOphy and a group of authorities 'The Educational Policies Commission was designated as the study group, to consider the role of public schools in the develop- ment of moral and spiritual values, at the annual meeting of the National Education Association in 1948. In their report, Moral and Spiritual Values in the Public Schools, the commission stated that the development of the ten values was basic to all other educational objectives. 27 in the field of educational phi1050phy. Next the value themes, within each category of philosophy, were rank ordered according to their frequency of expression. The results indicated that one-third of the value themes were assigned to the philosophy of Progressivism and one-fourth of the value themes were assigned to the philosophy of Existentialism. The five most frequently expressed values for Progressivism were: problem solving, c00peration, sportsmanship, friendliness, and peer acceptance. The five most frequently expressed Existential values were: concern with self, independence, self-confidence, creativeness, and imagination. Zimet, Wiberg, and Blom (1971) selected a sample of basal readers from thirteen countries and identified the attitudes and the values expressed in the content. The purpose of the study was to analyze attitude and value similarities and differences between the countries. Forty attitude scales were constructed from an exten- sive list of values and attitudes. Each attitude scale represented an attitude behavior that could be defined. The attitude scales were then placed into three categories: Cultural Posture, Other- Directed Posture, and Inner-Directed Posture. The category Cultural Posture was defined as "how people live in terms of what environ- mental settings are presented and what a country is like" (Zimet, Wiberg, and Blom, 1971). Examples of the attitude scales included in this category were caring and helping. The category Inner- Directed Posture referred to behavior that motivated or guided an individual character or groups of characters. Included in these attitude scales were ambition and courage. 28 The results indicated that the frequency of attitude and value expression varied from country to country. The highest fre- quency of expression was found in books from South Korea, India, and England, while the books from Isreal, France, and Turkey con- tained the lowest frequency of expression. The four attitude scales more frequently expressed for all countries were: caring and nur- turing, playing, presence of food or drink, and working. American primers were found to rank eighth in frequency of value expression and the category Other-Directed Posture had the highest frequency of expression. The content of American primers most frequently expressed the specific values of caring, nurturing, and helping, while traditionalism, cleanliness, and conformity were least fre- quently expressed. The values expressed in the content of tradebooks were also identified during this time. Chambers (1965) investigated the fre- quency with which a set of values was expressed in the content of tradebooks intended for children aged five to nine years and pub- lished during 1963 and 1964. The values devised by Chambers and used as the criteria for the content analysis were "social values," which consisted of the categories: "family living; person as an individual; peer group relations; neighborhood and community living; world and national living; passage of time, social changes" (Chambers, 1965). A seventh general category included "fairness, kindness, honesty, commitment, and co-Operation." The results of the study indicated that none of the seven categories of "social values" were frequently expressed in the content. Although the values were not 29 strongly presented, a hierarchical arrangement of the values was formulated by rank ordering the values. The value, person as an individual, had the highest incidence of expression, followed by peer group relations. The general category, fairness, kindness, honesty, commitment, c00peration, was third in frequency, followed in order by: family living; neighborhood and community living; world and national living; and passage of time, social change. Madison (1972) analyzed the content of thirty-two trade- books for the purpose of identifying the values and the social actions expressed. The tradebooks were selected because they rep- resented realistic fiction and contained both interracial char- acters and intercultural settings and Situations. Five episodes were then taken from each book and analyzed for forty predetermined value categories. The results of the analysis indicated that each of the predetermined value categories was found expressed in one or more of the episodes. The value categories found expressed most often were: aggression, happiness, family love, friendship, emo- tional security, and self-regard. It can be concluded, then, from previous studies that values are expressed in the content of children's literature and that these values can be rank ordered according to the frequency with which each of the values is expressed. Shifts in Values Expressed in Accordance With Changes in Time The studies thus far reviewed have provided information about the identification of values and the incidence of value expression 30 in children's books. Other studies have expanded the realm of these investigations to include analysis of shifts which have occurred in value expression in relation to change in time. Abel (1966) compared the values expressed in the content of McGuffey Readers published in 1899 with the values expressed in commonly used basal readers published in the 1960's. The results 1‘ indicated that although the modern readers contained the same social .1 and moral values as the McGuffey Readers, values had shifted from an emphasis on religious values to affiliative values. The McGuffey Readers stressed God-prayer, while the modern readers stressed cooperation, helpfulness, appreciation, and resourcefulness. Foster (1956) analyzed the content of basal readers for shifts in the expression of values that occurred in the time period from 1900 to 1953. The results indicated that the frequency of expression of the values obedience, thoughtfulness, and honesty declined over the time period, while learning and cleverness increased in frequency of expression. The value self-control was not frequently expressed and did not change in expression over the time period. Another study analyzing long-term changes in value expres- sion in the content 0f children's literature utilized the Newbery Award winning tradebooks from the years 1922 to 1965 (Lowry and Chambers,l968). The instrument devised by the experimenters to evaluate the books contained fifteen values which had been identi- fied from the "writings of ten autorities in the field of sociology and educational sociology" (Lowry and Chambers, 1968). The ten 31 authorities, in their study of society, had previously identified values which they felt were the important values in American society. Lowry and Chambers first identified the frequency and intensity with which each value was expressed in the books and then ranked ' the values for the total time period. The values which were ranked highest were good manners, self-reliance, family, and initiative, while honesty, freedom and liberty, community, and marriage were the lowest ranked. Table 2.4 presents the two composite rank orders of the values for the frequency and intensity of value expression for the time period. The composite hierarchy of the values for the total time period was biased by a failure of the investigators to compen- sate for the degree to which the frequency and intensity of values varied in expression during the time period. Lowry and Chambers then evaluated the degree to which all the values varied in frequency and intensity of expression by divid- ing the time period into five-year intervals (e.g., 1922 to 1927). The degree to which all the values varied in intensity and frequency of expression during the time period indicated the years from 1932- 1936 and from 1957-1961 were the periods in which values were most strongly expressed. The years from 1927-1931 and 1962-1966 were the periods in which values were least strongly expressed. Recently, Carmichael (1971) analyzed the content of chil- dren's tradebooks published between 1949 and 1969 for the presence of the value themes: justice (equality of opportunity for all peOple); work (acceptance of re5ponsibility); obedience (obedience to laws); and knowledge (recognition of the importance of education 32 Table 2.4.--Values expressed in Newbery Award books. Frequency Intensity Rank Vplpp_ Rank Vglpg. 1.5 Good Manners 1.5 Good Manners 1.5 Self-reliance 1.5 Loyalty 3.5 Family 3.0 Family 3.5 Initiative 4.0 Self-reliance 5.0 Cleanliness 5.0 Initiative 6.0 Loyalty 6.0 Thrift and Hard Work 7.0 Thrift and Hard Work 7.0 Cleanliness 8.0 Education ‘ 8.0 Education 9.0 Religion 9.0 Religion 10.0 Justice and Equality 10.0 Justice and Equality 11.0 Honesty 11.0 Community 12.0 Freedom and Liberty 12.0 Freedom and Liberty 13.5 Community 13.0 Honesty 13.5 Marriage 14.0 Marriage 15.0 Sexual Morality 15.0 Sexual Morality Source: Lowry and Chambers, 1968. 33 and knowledge). The value theme most frequently expressed was "acceptance of responsibility," while the value theme "equality of opportunity for all people" was expressed least frequently. An evaluation of the quantity of the value theme expression revealed that 94 percent of the books expressed one or more of the value themes in the content. When the value theme was considered as the major theme of the content, 40 percent of the books expressed one or more of the value themes. Carmichael also analyzed the degree to which each value theme changed in expression over the twenty-year time period. This was accomplished by dividing the time period encompassed in the study into five-year intervals and analyzing the individual value expression for each time interval. After the frequency of each value was calculated for each time interval, the investigator evalu- ated the change in frequency of value expression over the time period and concluded that only the value theme "acceptance of responsibility" shifted in frequency of expression. Summary The first area of research literature reviewed in this study dealt with the identification of values and the frequency with which the values were expressed in the content of children's litera- ture. The second area of research reviewed dealt with shifts in the values expressed in the content of children's literature in accordance with changes in time. It was difficult to organize and compare the studies because of the lack of standardized procedures by which the research was conducted and a lack of a consistent 34 criterion by which the concept of value was defined. The criteria used to define the values created problems similar in nature to those experienced by researchers in social psychology who have dealt with the concept of value. These were: an absence of a clear, concise conceptualization of the notion of value; a failure to relate the concepts of attitude and behavior; and the lack of a reliable instrument for measuring values. As a result, the comparison of the results of one study with the results of another becomes extremely difficult and forces one to resort to broad, general con- clusions. The general conclusions drawn from the review of the research indicate that values are expressed in the content of chil- dren's literature, and values vary in the degree of expression over time. Specifically, the values appear to have shifted from an emphasis on religious values to an emphasis on values representing interactional behavior between people, with an increase in the expression of values reflecting a concern for the individual. Table 2.5 presents a summary of the research components of the value studies which were reviewed. All of the previous investigators, who identified values expressed in the content of children's literature and described shifts that occurred in the expression of values, assumed that children's literature reflected the important values held by adult society. This assumption, however, has not been supported by empirical investigations. Therefore, it is the intent of this study to analyze the nature of the relationship between values expressed 35 ._omp-mmm_ can mmo~-~mm~ oommmcaxm >_mcocum mos—m) pp< .vmmmmcaxm >_ucm:c -ucu unco_ xu_c:seou new moo_c 1cm: .ummmocqxw x_ucm:cmcw umoe mecca gum-;um mocmcu new co_u mom, oucowpuclm—om use memccoe uooo o>_uawgummo momp-mmm_ xoonoumcp -muwcwucmnw m=~m> .mcmnEacu new xczob .:o_mmocaxo :_ mmomcowu xummco: .oucmwumno .co_mmmcaxm c_ mecca ucm unoccucp mmoccm>m_u uco mcwccomd m>_uQLLUmmo mmm_-oom_ genome _mmcm mmcmcu m:_m> mmmp .LmumOd .cowmmmgaxm we Xucmacmcm :_ mcwmomcuon Auw_wa_mcoamom 63.3.33 3233.: p.33 .3 .23 -Loaao co xu_pm:cm .vmmmmcaxm memo __< mucosa new co_a »_ucmaaocw umoe saw—wnwmcoammm m>_uawcummo mom.-m¢m_ xooomumch -ou_mwucmuv m:_m> _mmp ..wo;u_eLmu .332, 353:»: 3 333 women 5m 6cm 5.: «nowmwpmc co mwmocaem Eocm umwcm m>_uawcummo coo—10¢mp genome _mmmm mmcoso m:_m> mom_ ._mo< .ummmmcaxm a—ucmaamc» “mom. mmmcw_cwm_u can cowu_uogh .ummmweqxo »_u:m:o mumem um_ won—a) _mm_ .eo_m 1mg» umoe m:_gzuc:: vcm mcwcmu w>_unwcummo .. genome _ammm mo cowuouww_ucmofi use .mcmpwz .uwewN .3333 58 sot m: 2.) ummmwcaxm xpucwaamcw umos w_mm nu“: :cmocoo xgqomo__ga new mc_>Pom-Em_aoca .chOmo _mcowuouaum ou awgm -__zq commmcnxm zpucmacocw umos mango um_ -cowuopmc “mo:_m> Nom_ Emw~a_ucwum_xm new Em_>_mmmcmoea m>_uawcuwma .. genome #mmmm mo cowumuwwwucwo~ .cOmczoq use coe~o .zgzocm cuzocm o_socoom uwsocouo ou omen—me mew m>wuos o» qwzmco_um_mc acmeo>mwso< mzu co _m>m_ cow; mumcm gov new ucm ”mm>wuoe ucm mm:_o> a was mmapm> :umuomcwuucmzuo: mgmwcc>_c: cmm_-mmm_ emumwc _mmmm co corumuww_ucmuH _omp .u:m__m_uoz .mmapm> commmcqxo »_ucm:cmcm “mos m>o_ m_-o_ mmm< mm=_c> >_wsmu.uco .mmm:_nao: .co_mmwcmm< m>wuawcommo _Nm_-oom_ xoonmumch mo cowumuvc_ucmu~ Nm¢_ .c0mvuoz .umucmzmc umomp Low> -ogma o>wuo__wmwmcoz .cow>mgma mumcm ccm Lo_>mcmn ocm_ .mc_>w4 vmueozmc umoe co_uuacumcou w>wuarcummo mqmp-omm_ Lmnmmc _mmmm do cowumu_wwucmv_ new coupon .u__zu .m=_o> commocnxw m_»:m:cmew ummm_ wmcozo meuom .me_u do mocmmma .mapo> ummmmcaxm x_ucm:cmcw m-m mmo< mos—o) umoe poacw>wucw co mo comcma m>wuaweummo com—-mom— xooomooc» co copumuwmwucmufi mom_ .mcmnEmzu mcowm:_ucou mwmxpac< nowcma oFQEom mmoacaa AmVLOummwumm>c~ ...ll"...‘.1"....41h11".".“|n1 IV.“ .1 11.4 11“,” .I|.Al..."III N u ”11 NINTH” 1'qu a h I“ w “1 q d. "I u “I 1“” val." H. "NIH-HI‘MJH “ulngynklflg:urfl a?“ i F “11.1 .1 1.11 41.1114 . 111.1 I 111 ... .mmwvsum m:.m> umzmw>me do xcmesam--.m.m m_DMH 36 in children's books and values held by adult society, and to provide information about changes which occur within a well-defined and conceptualized comprehensive set of values during a time of rapid social change. In Chapter III, the sample, instrument, raters, procedure, design, hypotheses, and analyses used in the present study are discussed. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURE General Design of the Study The purposes of this study were to evaluate values expressed in children's literature; compare the values expressed with those held by adults; and evaluate the degree to which the values expressed in children's books shifted during a time of rapid social change. In order to do this, picture books were selected as the segment of children's literature to be analyzed by a group of raters. The raters read and made judgments about the strength of value expression in the content of picture books written during the 1960's. This decade was selected because it represented a tumultuous, unsettled time and a period of rapid social change. The Rokeach Value Survey (Rokeach, 1968b, 1973) was the instrument used by the raters for evaluating the expression of values in the content of picture books. The results of the raters' evaluations were statis- tically analyzed using the methods of rank correlation and analysis of variance. In this chapter, then, is the explicit information ,about the sample, instrument, raters, design, procedure, and sta- tistical analyses followed in conducting the study. Sample A sample of forty-five picture books written for children was selected from a list of children's books compiled from three 37 38 sources: Children's Catalog (Shor and Fidell, 1966; Shor, 1967; Bradshaw, 1968); Books for Children (American Library Association, 1966, 1967-1968, 1968-1969); and Best Books for Children (Turner, 1960; Allen, 1964; Gerhardt, 1969). The three references used as sources for the sample selection represented major resources from which librarians and teachers selected books during the 1960's. The books used in the study were selected on the basis of several general criteria. The first criterion was that the book was categorized as a picture book according to the definition presented in Chapter I. Next, the books selected were classified as fiction, published in the United States, which were c0pyrighted either in the year 1960, 1964, or 1968. Books were eliminated if they were rewritten or re-edited stories (e.g., folktales). Books were also eliminated if they werecategorized as alphabet, number, or color books. The books selected from Children's Catalog were classified under the subheading "Easy Books," and were inclusive of the grades K-3. The books selected from Books for Children were listed under the subheading "Easy and Picture Books," and were selected if they were categorized in the age range four to nine years or grades K-3. In Best Books for Children, books were selected from the subheading "Preaschool to 3rd Grade," and were listed in the subcategories Home and Family; Daily Life; Bedtime Books; Country and Seasons; Adventure--Real and Imaginary; Dogs, Cats, Pets; Animals of the Woods and Fields; Regions of America; Animals of the Zoo and Circus; and Easy Reading. 39 The books selected from each source were compiled into a master list, one for each time period (1960, 1964, 1968). Appen- dix A contains the master list of the books selected for each time period. Tradebooks, which have the advantage of yearly publication, numerous authors, and extensive distribution, are assumed to con- tain a content which is a current reflection of the values of society. This assumption was derived from authorities who view children's tradebooks as a segment of "papular art" in which the content "acts to confirm the experiences of the majority, and for this reason it has been an unusually sensitive and accurate reflec- tion of the values and concerns of society" (Nye, 1970). Therefore, the decision to evaluate tradebooks, rather than other types of written materials for children (e.g., basal readers), was based on the assumption that the content of tradebooks was more likely to be representative and reflective of the current values of society. Fifteen books were randomly selected from the master list for each of the three time periods using a table of random numbers (Downie and Heath, 1965). The final sample consisted of forty-five picture books, fifteen of which were published in the year 1960, fifteen in the year 1964, and fifteen in the year 1968. Appendix B contains the list of books which were randomly selected for use in the study. Instrument The Rokeach Value Survey (Rokeach, 1968b, 1973) was selected as the instrument to use for the evaluation of values expressed in 40 the content of the picture books. The selection of the instrument was influenced by five considerations: (1) the instrument provides data concerning a comprehensive set of values rather than narrow or limited categories; (2) the instrument has a high reliability; (3) the instrument provides a relatively easy method for gathering data; (4) the instrument has been used to measure the values of a large representative sample of adults; and (5) the instrument has been field tested for use in the analysis of the content of written material. The instrument consists of a list of eighteen alphabetically arranged instrumental and terminal values. Each value is accom- panied by a brief definition which provides an additional explana- tion as to the meaning of the value. Appendix C contains a copy of the Rokeach Value Survey. The selection of the eighteen terminal and instrumental values evolved from two different procedures. The eighteen terminal values were selected from a larger list compiled from the following sources: values found in American society as mentioned in literature reviews, values held by graduate students in psychology, Rokeach's own personal values, and the values held by about 100 adults from metr0politan Lansing. The values obtained were compiled and the list was reduced. Values which were elimi- nated were those judged to be synonymous with one another, empirically known to be synonymous, considered to overlap, considered to be too specific, or not representative of end-states of existence. The procedure for selecting the instrumental values was different from the procedure for selecting the terminal values. Initially, 41 Anderson's (1968) list of 555 personality-trait words was used. This list was derived from a list originally compiled by Allport and Odbert (1936). The Anderson list was first reduced to about 200 values by selecting positive values which would be suitable for self-attribution. The eighteen instrumental values were selected from the list of 200 values using the following criteria: by retaining only one from a group of synonyms or near-synonyms (e.g., helpful, kind, kind hearted, thoughtful, considerate, friendly, unselfish); by retaining those judged to be maxi- mally different from or minimally intercorrelated with one another; by retaining those judged to represent the most impor- tant values in American society; by retaining those deemed to be maximally discriminating across social status, sex, race, age, religion, politics, etc.; by retaining those judged to be meaningful values in all cultures; and by retaining those one could readily admit to having without appearing to be immodest, vain, or boastful (thus eliminating such values as bein brilliant, clever, ingenious and charming) (Rokeach, 1973 . The reliability of each value in the Rokeach Value Survey was established using a test-retest procedure. The procedure was applied over time intervals ranging from three to seven weeks and to a sample p0pulation which included a range from seventh grade to adult. The reliabilities for the terminal values ranged from .51 for a sense of accomplishment to .88 for salvation, and for the instrumental values the reliabilities ranged from .45 for respo -‘ sible to .70 for ambitious (Rokeach, 1972). The average reliability of the individual terminal values was "around .65," and the average reliability of the individual instrumental values was "around .60" (Rokeach, 1972). The reliability (product-moment) for each instru- mental value is presented in Table 3.1. 42 Table 3.l.--Test-retest reliabilities of the instrumental values. Value r Ambitious .70 (hard-working, aspiring) Broadminded) .57 (open-minded) , Capable .51 (competent, effective) Cheerful .65 (lighthearted, joyful) Clean .66 (neat, tidy) Courageous .52 (standing up for your beliefs) Forgiving .62 (willing to pardon others) Helpful .66 (working for the welfare of others) Honest .62 (sincere, truthful) Imaginative .69 (daring, creative) Independent .60 (self-reliant, self-sufficient) Intellectual .67 (intelligent, reflective) Lo ical .57 Tconsistent, rational) Loving .65 (affectionate, tender) Obedient .53 (dutiful, respectful) Polite .53 (courteous, well-mannered) Responsible . .45 (dependable, reliable) Self-controlled .52 (restrained, self-disciplined) Source: Rokeach, 1972. 43 Rokeach also obtained a comprehensive reliability for both the terminal and instrumental scales from the test-retest data. These reliabilities ranged from .62 to .80 for the values contained in the terminal scale and from .53 to .72 for the values contained in the instrumental scale. The test-retest reliability for the instrumental value scale is presented in Table 3.2. Table 3.2.--Test-retest reliability of the instrumental value scale. Time Between Sample Test-Retest r Seventh grade 3 weeks .53 Ninth grade 3 weeks .61 Eleventh grade 3 weeks .71 College 3 weeks .72 College 7 weeks .71 Source: Rokeach, 1972. The instrument was developed from a theoretical construct devised by Rokeach which delineates the concepts: belief, value, attitude, and behavior. The theoretical construct defines the relationship between beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavior and clarifies the conceptual differences between values and atti- tudes which have been missing from previous studies of values expressed in the content of children's literature. Value, as defined in previous studies, has often included the concepts 44 attitude and behavior (e.g., Zimet, Wiberg, Blom, 1971). Other studies have defined value either as a broad and general concept (e.g., "human personality-~the basic value" Walker, 1963), or as a narrow and specific concept (e.g., "Good Manners" Chambers and Lowry, 1968). The use of Rokeach's theoretical construct provides a clear understanding of the nature of the values expressed in the content of children's books, and establishes a conceptual framework for understanding the relationship between the values, attitudes, and behaviors which are expressed in the content. :The instrument was slightly modified for use in the present study. While the general format of the Rokeach Value Survey was retained, only the instrumental value Scale, which represents a set of beliefs about "modes of behavior," was used for the analysis of the content of the picture books. The decision to use only the instrumental value scale in the study was based on the presumption that, in the socialization process of young children, society focuses primarily on teaching children ways of behaving that are acceptable to society. The raters were given additional directions which described the procedure and scoring system to be followed when using the instrument to analyze the picture books. Appendix 0 contains a rating sheet. Bases: Nine raters volunteered to analyze the content of the picture books using the modified form of the Rokeach Value Survey described above. The group of raters consisted of reading specialists, scientists, and housewives, and included both males and females. 45 The raters were given a training task for the purpose of familiar- izing them with the instrument and the type of literature used in the study. Five picture books were randomly selected from the years 1966 to 1968 from Best Books for Children (Allen, 1966; Gerhardt, 1967, 1968) using the same criteria as were used to select the sample of books for the study. The raters individually read the five books, rated them, and discussed the results with the experi- menter. The average percentage of agreement within each group of raters was established at the completion of the study by using the agreement method (Berelson, 1952). The average percentage of agree- ment was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the total number of agreements and disagreements for each value and each book. The results indicated that the agreements ranged from 40 per- cent to 87 percent for Group one, from 53 percent to 96 percent for Group two, and from 53 percent to 84 percent for Group three. The mean percentage of agreement for each group of raters was 64 percent, 78 percent, and 66 percent, respectively. The information is shown in Table 3.3. The internal consistency among the groups of raters was established using a composite rank order of the eighteen values for each group and the coefficient of concordance. The results (.87 p <.OOl) indicated strong agreement in the rank order of the values for the three groups. The Rokeach Value Survey was also administered to each rater prior to his participation in the experiment. This was done in 46 Table 3.3.--Average percentage of agreement within rater group. Value Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 l. Ambitious 64.1 66.5 66.1 2. Broadminded 79.6 79.6 68.5 3. Capable 81.9 70.8 75.2 4. Cheerful 68.5 52.9 64.0 5. Clean 86.5 90.9 84.1 6. Courageous 39.6 68.5 64.0 7. Forgiving 86.4 86.4 77.5 8. Helpful 64.0 75.3 66.3 9. Honest 48.5 p 84.1 59.6 10. Imaginative 57.5 79.6 57.3 11. Independent 68.5 77.5 64.1 12. Intellectual 55.2 95.5 52.9 13. Logical 50.7 73.1 66.3 14. Loving 66.1 82.0 61.7 15. Obedient 57.3 86.4 66.3 16. Polite 68.5 61.9 72.8 17. Responsible 57.3 81.9 68.5 18. Self-controlled 59.6 84.1 58.7 Total Mean 64.4 77.6 66.3 Total Median 64.0 79.6 66.3 47 order to evaluate the diversity of value systems held by the raters, and to examine the influence that each rater's personal value system might have on his rating of the picture books. The value diversity of the raters was evaluated using the Kendall coefficient of con- cordance (Siegel, 1956). The results indicated the coefficient of concordance was .44 for the value systems of all the raters. The influence of the rater's personal value system on his rating of picture books was analyzed by computing a correlation (rho) between each rater's rank ordering of the values expressed in the picture books and his personal value system. The correlations between the rater's personal value system and his rating of the picture books was not significant for a majority of the raters. The individual rater correlations are shown in Table 3.4. Table 3.4.--Correlation coefficient of rater's personal value system and rating of picture books. Rater r p l. .33 - 2 -.02 - 3 .51 .05 4 -.01 - 5 .46 .05 6 .35 - 7 .24 - 8 -.46 .05 9 .24 - 48 National Opinion Research Center's Amalgam Survey The National Opinion Research Center (NORC) is a nonprofit organization which conducts Surveys for any nonprofit organization or institution. The sample of adult values used in this study to represent the values held by American society were obtained from the NORC Amalgam Survey of 1968. The NORC Amalgam Survey, based on NORC's standard national sample, is a multi-stage area probability sample to the block or segment level. At the block level, quota sampling is used with quotas based on sex, age, race, income, and level of education. Each of the 1,409 people represented in the national sample was personally given the Rokeach Value Survey by a trained interviewer. Design and Procedure One purpose of this study was to evaluate shifts in value expression over a period of rapid social change. The experimental design used is presented in Table 3.5. In this design each rater was randomly assigned to one of three groups of raters. The fifteen picture books published in 1960 were randomly assigned to the three groups of raters. The same procedure was followed for the picture books published in 1964 and 1968. Each group of raters, then, had fifteen picture books, five from each time period, randomly assigned to them. The raters and books were grouped in order to reduce the amount of time spent by each rater on the task of evaluating the books, but still maintaining a reasonable sample size. 49 Table 3.5.--Experimental design 3 x 3 factorial design with nested variable. Value 1, 2, . . . 18 Raters Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Group 1 Books Set la Books Set 1b Books Set 1c N = 3 N = 5 N = 5 N = 5 Group 2 Books Set 2a Books Set 26 Books Set 2c N = 3 N = 5 N = 5 N = 5 Group 3 Books Set 3a Books Set 3b Books Set 3c N = 3 N = 5 N = 5 N = 5 Previous research had shown that it was possible to use the Rokeach Value Survey to describe reliably and quantitatively the values which underlie the writings of various authors (Rokeach, 1968b, 1973; Rokeach, Homant, and Penner, 1970). Using the modified instrument, each rater read and evaluated the content of the picture books for the values expressed. The raters recorded, on the Rating Sheet, whether a value was explicitly or implicitly expressed by the character and/or theme of the picture book. The expression of each value was evaluated using a scale from 0 to 2, in which 0 rep- resented no expression, 1 represented moderate expression, and 2 represented strong expression of a value. Appendix E presents examples of three raters' evaluations of the values expressed in the content of three books, one from each time period. 50 The raters evaluated each book independently of one anothEr. The technique of blind scoring was used to prevent possible bias that might occur if the publication dates of the picture books were known to the raters. The process of blind scoring was accomplished through the coding and random distribution of the picture books. Hypotheses The research hypotheses to be tested were: 1. The correlation between the hierarchical arrangement of instrumental values expressed in the content of picture books and the hierarchical arrangement of instrumental values of a composite sample of adult Americans for the year 1968 will be positive and significant at the a < .05 level. 2. There will be a difference between the means of an instrumental value expressed in the picture books for the years 1960, 1964, and 1968 at the a < .05 level. 3. There will be a difference between the means for the instrumental values: independent, courageous, intellec- tual, imaginative, logical, and polite expressed in the content of picture books for the years 1960, 1964, and 1968 at the a < .05 level. If the differences are sig- nificant, the means for the values: independent, courageous, intellectual, imaginative, and logical will increase and the means for the value polite will decrease. Analyses The correlation (rho) was calculated to determine the rela- 1 tionship between the values expressed in picture books and the adult sample for 1968. 'A hierarchical arrangement of the values expressed in the picture books was determined by ranking the raw scores for the time period 1968. The raw scores were ranked in order with the value receiving the largest raw score ranked 1, the value receiving the next largest raw score ranked 2, and the value receiving the smallest raw score ranked 18. 51 Change in the expression of each value over the three time periods was analyzed using a 3 x 3 analysis of variance with a nested variable. The independent variables were time and raters, and the dependent variable was the value score for each book. The variable books were nested in time and raters. A Scheffé Post Hoc comparison was made of those values which had significantly changed as indicated by the analysis of variance. The Scheffé Post Hoc comparison was calculated in order to evaluate when and in what direction the change occurred. Merl In Chapter III the sample of picture books and the instru- ment used were described. Also in the chapter, the raters, the procedure, the hypotheses, and the analyses were discussed. In Chapter IV the results from the analyses and the findings of the study are presented. CHAPTER IV RESULTS The results obtained from the analyses are organized into two sections. The first section compares and contrasts the instru- mental values expressed in the content of a sample of children's picture books with the instrumental values held by a composite sample of adult Americans. The second section of these results describes the shifts in the instrumental values expressed in the content of the children's picture books analyzed in 1960, 1964, and 1968. The Instrumental Values of Children's Picture Books and of Adults It was hypothesized that the correlation of the hierarchical arrangement of instrumental values expressed in children's picture books published in 1968 and the instrumental values held by a sample of adults in 1968 would be positively related. The eighteen instru- mental values used in the study were: ambitious, broadminded, capable, cheerful, clean, courageous, forgiving, helpful, honest, imaginative, independent, intellectual, logical, loving, obedient, polite, responsible, and self-controlled. The results of the analy- sis indicated that no relationship existed between the two rankings of instrumental values. The rank orders of the values expressed in the picture books and the values held by adults for the year 1968 52 are presented in Table 4.1. based on eighteen pairs, which is not significant. 53 The Spearman rho correlation is -.20, Table 4.1.--Rank order of values found in children's picture books and the rank order of values held by adults for the year 1968. Rank Picture Books Adults 1 Independent Honest 2 Imaginative Ambitious 3 Courageous Responsible 4 Capable Forgiving 5 Ambitious Broadminded 6 Cheerful Courageous 7 Helpfula Helpful 8 Lovinga Clean 9 Self-controlled Capable lO Intellectuala Self-controlled ll Obedienta Loving 12 Responsible Cheerful l3 Honest Independent 14 Logical Polite 15 Polite Intellectual l6 Forgiving Obedient l7 Broadminded Logical 18 Clean Imaginative Source: aIndicates a tie between values. Rokeach, 1972. Table 4.2 shows the comparison between the five highest and lowest ranked instrumental values for both the picture books and the adults. The value, ambitious, was found in the highest 54 position, while logical and polite were found in the lowest ranked position for both of the groups. Table 4.2.--Highest and lowest ranked values expressed in picture books and those held by 1,409 adults. Highest Ranked Values Lowest Ranked Values Picture Books Adults Picture Books Adults Independent Honest Logical Polite Imaginative Ambitious Polite Intellectual Courageous Broadminded Forgiving Obedient Capable Forgiving Broadminded Logical Ambitious Responsible Clean Imaginative In contrast, inspection of the values held by the adults and those expressed in the content of picture books revealed major differences in the values stressed by each group. The adults ranked high the values: honest, responsible, forgiving, and broad- minded, while the picture books stressed the values: independent, imaginative, capable, and courageous. As a result of the lack of a relationship between the value system held by adults during 1968 and that of the picture books published in the same year, additional comparisons were made between the values found in picture books and those held by various segments of the adult sample, categorized by age, sex, income, race, and education (Rokeach, 1973). The purpose of these analyses was to examine the possibility that values expressed in the picture books 55 might be related to one or more of these variables. However, the results of the analyses indicated that none of the comparisons between the picture books and the categories of age, sex, income, race, or education were significant. Table 4.3 presents the cor- relation coefficients for each category. Value Shifts in the Content of Picture Books It was hypothesized that there would be a difference among the means of a value found in the content of picture books for the years 1960, 1964, and 1968. It was anticipated that the values would shift in frequency of expression in accordance with the rapid social changes that were occurring during the 1960's. The hypothesis of no differences among means was tested by an analysis of variance for each of the eighteen values. The analyses of variances indicated no significant differences among the three means, for the years 1960, 1964, and 1968, for sixteen of the eighteen values found in the content of the picture books. Table 4.4 presents the means and standard deviations for each value for each year. The two instrumental values for which the analyses indicated significant differences were lpyjpg, F (2, 36) = 5.22, p_< .05, and broadminded, F (2, 36) = 4.33, p_< .05. Table 4.5 presents the analyses of variance tables for both values. Scheffé Post Hoc analysis was used to identify where, specifically, the significant differences occur for each of the two values. The purpose of the analysis was to determine at which time periods the shifts in frequency of expression occurred. The results 56 No. Poogum mpmzumcw wF. +ooo.mp mo. mmm_Pou umpm_aeoo mp.- mmm.¢_-ooo.o_ NN.- OK eo.- wmmppoo meow o~.1 mmm.m loco.m mm.- on mm.u Poosum cow; umHmFQEou m~.- mam.u -ooo.m o~.- om m~.- Foosom saw; meow m—.- mmm.m -ooo.¢ om.- ow ~m.u mlm mo.1 wows: nm.u mmm.m -ooo.~ » no.1 on mo.u euo mN.- Jun—m m~.- ooo.~w Luvs: mm.- cm s Amcmmzvscomuooaum. L mama L msoocH c wm< .cowpmusvm can .mume .msoucw .mmm x5 umNPLommumu mppzum so; ucm mxooa mgzpuwa cw uczoe mus—m> Low mgcwwupwmmoo cowpmpmgeoolu.m.e mFQm» 57 Table 4.4.--Means and standard deviations for the instrumental values for picture books published in 1960, 1964, and 1968. Value 1960 1964 1968 Mean 5.0. Mean S.D; Mean S.D. Ambitious 1.00 .69 .78 .66 .91 .73 Broadminded* .56 .48 .76 .62 .27 .36 Capable .87 .72 .93 .68 .93 .73 Cheerful 1.07 .51 1.09 .45 .84 .52 Clean .ll .27 .22 .37 .15 .21 Courageous .69 .60 .93 .54 1.00 .61 Forgiving .40 .54 .49 .68 .38 .55 Helpful .73 .66 1.11 .78 .80 .60 Honest .38 .38 .76 .50 .60 .42 Imaginative .98 .67 1.13 .63 1.07 .66 Independent .87 .69 1.07 .58 1.24 .68 Intellectual .42 .50 .51 .52 .64 .50 Logical .49 .40 .51 .40 .56 .45 Loving* 1.24 .64 1.36 .41 .80 .52 Obedient .53 .59 .55 .47 .64 .64 Polite .64 .62 .71 .45 .47 .40 Responsible .76 .60 .84 .71 .62 .64 Self-controlled .58 .62 .69 .39 .73 .61 *Significance as indicated by analysis. 58 Table 4.5.--Analysis of variance of two values. Source of Sum of Variation Squares d'f' Mean Square F Loving Time 2.61 2 1.31 5.22* Group 1.65 2 .83 3.30** Group x Time 1.20 4 .30 1.20 Within conditions 8.90 36 .25 - Total 14.36 44 Broadminded Time 1.82 2 .91 4.33** Group 1.89 2 .95 4.52** Group x Time 1.16 4 .29 1.38 Within conditions 7.50 36 .21 - Total 12.37 44 *Significant at **Significant at the 0.01 alpha level. the 0.05 alpha level. of the post hoc analysis indicated a significant difference in the means for both the values between the years 1964 and 1968. results indicated the values, loving and broadminded, remained The stable for the years 1960 to 1964, but then decreased sharply in 1968. 59 It was also hypothesized that an increase would occur in the frequency of value expression for: independent, courageous, intellectual, imaginative, and logical; and that a decrease would occur in the frequency of value expression for pplitg, However, as indicated in Table 4.4, the results of the analyses of variance showed no significant differences in frequency of expression across the time period for these specific values. Therefore, the results indicate that a majority of the values found in the picture books published in 1960, 1964, and 1968 remained relatively stable throughout the period. A rank order of the instrumental values for each of the years was established by ranking the raw scores of the values for each of the three time periods. Table 4.6 presents the rank order of the eighteen values for 1960, 1964, and 1968. A coefficient of concordance was cal- culated to establish the relationship between the rank orders of the values for the three time periods. The results indicated the rank orders of the values for the three time periods were signifi- cantly correlated, .85 p.< .001. In addition, the intercorrelations between the years 1960 and 1964, 1960 and 1968, and 1964 and 1968 were calculated using the Spearman rho correlation. The results of the calculations were the correlations: .86 p_< .01 for 1960 and 1964; .75 p.< .01 for 1960 and 1968, and .75 p_< .01 for 1964 and 1968. The results of the analyses of variance, the Spearman rho correlations, and the coefficient of concordance indicate that, except for the values loving and broadminded, the rank order of the 6O N. N cmSNN NP o. cem_u NP. m =w6_u N, N_ umu=_eumocm NP NN m=w>_mcoa N_ N, cameo: m_ N_ N=N>LNLON m.mp MN .muNNON m_ NP N=N>wmeoc mp .N mpe_oa m.m_ NN NmaaumF_ach m, m_ Neapom_zmp=N 4F mN .muNNOS e. mN Ncmwumno 4P NN _mu_mos NN NN amaze: m_ Pm um_Foeucoo-e_mm m_ 4N N=m_umno N_ NN mpnpmeoammm N. Nm mNNFoN NP mN umucwaueocm m.o_ NN Scmwumno m.o_ em “mace: _P oN um_.oep=ou-cpmm m.op NN pngumppmucN m.o_ . em umu=_2umoem o_ NN 68N_6N m mm umN_oeu=ou-c_mm m mm maowueas< m _m mzommmcsou m.N mm _=ea_a= N Nm 6_6Nm=oammN N mm P=LQPNI m.u mm mcw>o4 m.m Ne mzommmezou m cm mpnwmcoammm e Nm _=eemm;o m.o Ne SNQmaou m.m mm “conceamucc m ,4 maowuwne< m we Scmuemamucc m.m mm m_nmqeo N Ne mpnmamu 4 Ne Facemmgu e 44 m>epm=_mmsN m we mzommmeaoo m cm .zeq_m= N we maowu_ns< N we 6>NNN=NNmEN N Nm m>wpm=NNmsN N we _=eemm;o F mm NemecmaaucN _ _o m=w>ou _ mm mcw>os gouge meoum emcee meoom gouge wgoum scam 3mm mzpm> xcmm 3mm mzpw> xcmm 3mm mzpw> Nmm_ comp oom_ .Nom. ecu .4mm. .ommp cw ememwpaag mNooa wcauuma m.=meu_eco cc ucaoc msapmsm mapm>--.m.e Spank 61 eighteen values has remained consistent from 1960 to 1968. The decrease in the frequency of expression of the values, loving and broadminded, may have been due to chance alone, since the change occurred in only two of the eighteen values. Therefore, a composite rank order of the values for the time period, 1960 to 1968, was established using a mean rank score. The mean rank was calculated by averaging the rankings of each value for the three time periods. The composite value system was then established by ordering the mean ranks of these eighteen values. The composite rank order for the eighteen values is presented in Table 4.7. The data obtained in this analysis provided information on the frequency with which each value was expressed in the content of children's picture books. The data also reflect the frequency with which all of the values were expressed in the content of each of the picture books, or the value ladenness of each book. Table 4.8 presents the frequency with which each value was expressed in the content and the total value ladenness for each of the picture books. Inspection of the table suggested that those picture books which were high in value ladenness tended to express all values more fre- quently (in the range of 3-6), while those which were low in value ladenness tended to express the values less frequently or not at all (in the range of 0-2). The picture books in which the content was most value laden expressed an average of six values strongly (with a total frequency of 6). These values were: ambitious, capable, independent, and responsible. The picture books in which the content was least value laden expressed an average of only one 62 value strongly. These values were: independent, imaginative, and ambitious. The data suggest, then, that while the content of some picture books was more value laden than others, the content of all the picture books, in general, strongly expressed only a few values in each book. Table 4.7.--Composite value system for picture books. Value Rank Loving 1 (1.0)a Imaginative 2 (2.7) Independent 3 (3.8) Cheerful 4 (4.0) Capable 5 (5.0) Ambitious 6 (5.7) Helpful 7. (6.0) Courageous 7. (6.0) Responsible 9 (9.0) Self-controlled 10 (11.0) Polite 11 (12.0) Obedient 12 (12 5) Broadminded 13 (13 2) Honest 14 (13 5) Intellectual 15 (13 6) Logical 16 (14 5) Forgiving 17 (16 3) Clean l8 (l8 0) aFigures in parentheses are mean rankings. Table 4.8.-Frequency of each value and total for all values expressed in the content of each picture book. Values 19101 PallOJIUOD-JLBS alqtsuodsau 614l0d 1U3IP990 Buino1 [931601 lennoellaaul auapuadapul antqeutfiewl ssauoH andlaH fiuintfiaog snoafieunoa uealg 10443343 alqedeg paputwpeoug snolliqu Title 1960 63 CMOMQ’LDI—OONNF-OOLO v—MOMOLDMONOQ'NNOQ‘ NPCOQ’MOFOMPQQ‘OQ’ OMOPLDQ'OOONOMMOM SDNQ'CVQ’MOQ'LOMQLDOSD Ou—I—MNMOr-NI—I—I—Q'ON OMONNMOONOOOQ'OM CLDOLDMVNNLDNLOMOON OI—QQMVNLOMF-F-QKOOO NOOF-MNr-OOF-OMNON Q'LDOmNr-NI—c—OLOI—MON NNOOo—NOP—OONONOO OMCWFMOOVF—NmMF-m OOOI—COF-OMOOOOOO VMI—MNOMVQ‘VMOLONV O‘Domu—LDF-MNMLOFQ‘ON NNPQ’ONNONONONr—m COFQ’Q‘QU’MMPQ’WNOF a) 0" U) 'U C “I- u- S- l-— 44 Q) S- C) (U LI. Q. '4— S— U) 0 Q) S- 'I- 4-3 (D F->s >3 m 44 PD. w 0'- U) =°PDD 3 W O) O 03: x O C O. F- OJ U) (U D: 2"- M r— O 0:: ox 0!- +-’ D COM» 01 U U 41-) UllUOr—C - CM QH-lxc IO MOI—MO'FM mm OPQJCE-OJ )4 EU)“ US->S-3-v-U5._l$—>5LIJ._I a) ’l-x l—'l- r-Q LL!— >@3'FOJfU_IQJI—D.OJ 'PQQJ 0.: L25 £0°FS>35££ .Jf-(F‘F'WHF-LLMl—EUJI—I— v—NMQ'WKDNwO‘CF-NMQ'LD t—l-‘F-l—l-‘l— Table 4.8.-Continued. Values 19101 P911041U03-Jl38 alqtsuodsaa alllod quatpaqo 6u1Ao1 [eat601 [enaoallaaul auapuedepul antqeutfieml asauoH [DJdlaH BULALEJOJ snoafieanog uealg 10449343 alqedeg paputwpeoag snoiliqu Title 1964 64 Q'CNNr—NI—MMMI—Nr-Q'N G'LDMNNKDOF-I—OOI—t—LOF- NP-u—u—LDONNMMOMMMM Mr—v—NNOI—ONv—v—LOQ'I-I— mmmmmme-Mr—d-mmmm NOMr-F-NNF-r-Q'F'COMN NONFOONNNNNOOQN \DLDLONNMMNNQ’LOOMLOI— #NMQ’LOQ’Q’MSOVOOOMN NVMNMONr-mmomr—Q'r- N‘DNOFtomOmtDNr—DSDQ' OOOOI—OmONNOd’OON GOM'F-V'NNLDNNMOII—Q'd’m r—r—OI—F-OOOOONOQ'OO NmemmmemmMNr-mmm QmMFFmNOP‘ONOMQ'm r-Ou—va—MOLDMv—MI—toN NLOMQ'OMF-NNSDOOOLDN S. '5 Q) (U U) m > m G) U) ‘5 E C U 44 Q) (U .... 0"“ C 5 >3 3 C .213 +3 l— 0‘5 ‘0 U: D C 'I-S- 0P0) 13 Q) Q): '00) $—’l" c: 0).: 0'1 '03 CLWQS—QJCU w-H C PD H030) LL!— '— 'I'" Dr- U'PQ— 'l'CsHL: >5 (DU @CCOMEO'PMOOL £6: m'l-QS 0"- mm HZGJF-Ul .JQU-H 5.: 0.3:01 f6 00>, +944 '00) H—-:---- >5¢¥UO+JF CSw-HS-CUD. C!— m 'UU wu>mmunnm 53$- C: 'I-x °PfUC'I-QJ:OGJ¢UIU “LU—UHCIMLr—w—m'l- NC) 0 O “LL-04.: 'HOO 464-3010..»me 444405044 I—QJS cums-.- AOPOSm'I-vl— MQPHAEAZHQFA tDNwOSOr—NMQ'LOCONQO‘O PF-F-I—NNNNNNNNNNM Table 4.8.-Continued. Values [9101 PBIIOJIUOD-JLBS alqtsuodsau 34110d iuaipaqo BUIAO1 [eot601 [enaoallaaul auapuadapul antneutfiewl asauoH andlaH Butntfiaog snoafieanog ueala anJBPHO aiqedeg paputwpeoag snotliqu Title 1968 65 MNtOONfiDOMMI—o—I—v-NN tOOQ'I-Q'Q'OI—MNv—OOON MOFOONFNMMNr—NON VOCOFMONQ’NQ’ONOP MF-d'F-v—d'r-mmI—Q’OQ'NN mmomomommemoowm MNOQ'OQ'Ot—MMMONv—m IOQ'Q'SOLONOOOLOMMF-MLOLO mmomQ-tou—r—Nmea—mmm NMNPPMOQNPMOMON QPOEDMNMNMMI—ONI—m Oc—ONI—OOMLOo—OOQ'OO tome-meei—v—mu—momei— c—Nv—OOOOI—u—OOOt—OO MPNPMLDQ'NMI—MFLDOQ' \OI—I—IONOOI—MMMI—OLDQ' r—OOOONOOI-MOOOl—Ou— LOOOOM‘OMI—MNQ'OMIOU} S. 0r- (6 LL OJ ..C 0 +4 0 (D S- l- 0 F- 03 '— 44m "- Q, m 0 0 a m N 44 440 H 01 3 CD 5- 2: >30) : I— O (5 w- 0.10 LO (U G) S D 3& 05015- S- 44 C LL 440:0 +3 5443 ‘l-H'U >50) 0 m 0P0 OQJIUS-E >5'0 01: : 'I-OS- CLOJO ZO)“-< "- _l>m 05:9- 010 z 0 u—Zr— 00.030 G 010 ’F'S—QIXHOQ’UVCU 0 .C t- CLI—‘OI‘U 44.4%“ S HUI-OJ GUS-‘0— lv—w-C-OJ - 44:05>50.:000FQL OQJ°P°P'FOZ+J~HO:'I-